0% GO | 1S Public Ir } RY out A - Environmental Health Series ” J VT 37 ha ARCTIC HEALTH 4 Dietary Survey 1956-1961 Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AH-2 1956-1961 CHRISTINE A. HELLER, Ph. D. Nutritionist, Nutrition and Metabolic Disease Sec- tion, Arctic Health Research Center, U.S. Public Health Service, Department of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare, Anchorage, Alaska. EDWARD M. SCOTT, Ph. D. Chief, Nutrition and Metabolic Disease, Arctic Health Research Center, U.S. Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Anchorage, Alaska. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service Nutrition and Metabolic Disease Section Arctic Health Research Center Anchorage, Alaska ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to express appreciation to the following individuals for valuable assistance in the study and in the preparation of the manuscript. Interpreter-helpers in the villages: Huslia: Miss Eliza Olin, Mrs. Marie Yaska, Miss Alda Henry Allakaket: Mrs. Marie Henzie, Miss Lillian Koyukuk Akiak: Mr. Lott Egoak Newtok: Mrs. Pauline Tom Kasigluk: Miss Lucy Albrite, Miss Xenia Guest Hooper Bay: Mr. Reuben Hill, Mr. Fred Savok, Mr. and Mrs, Rudy Smith, Miss Joan Bill z Napaskiak: Mrs. Marie Clark Maxie, Mrs. Mary Macdougall (Bureau of Indian Affairs Teacher) Point Hope: Mr. Herbert Kinneaveauk, Mr. Joseph Towksjhea, Mrs. Lydia Tuzroyluk Nashookpuk Noatak: Mrs. Juanita Norton, Mrs. Daisy Walton Shungnak: Miss Ruth Lee Shishmaref: Mrs. Lucy Tocktoo Special acknowledgment is also made of the financial assistance provided by the following: Division of Indian Health, Bureau of Medical Services © National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases ® National Heart Institute ® National Institute of Dental Research e Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for Na- tional Defense Invaluable assistance in programming and computing the data involved in the Study was furnished by the University of Alaska and, specifically, by Douglas K. Smith formerly of the Department of Mathematics, Physical Sciences and Engineering, under a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF-G19984). PHOTOGRAPHS: 1-8, 10-16, 20 and 21 by Christine Heller. 9, 18 and 19 by Nick Tom of Newtok, Alaska. 22-25 by Peter Stone, Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price $1 CONTENTS nn PUBLIC HEALTH LIBRARY Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS oot ei 2 I. INTRODUCTION AND METHODS .............. .. 13 II. VILLAGE DESCRIPTIONS .......on. 16 North Central Athapascan Indian Allakaket ........ 16 Huslia ......oi 17 Northern Eskimo POHL HOPE novus aimimiis rember ss twmsing ses ge ss 18 Noatak .....oii 20 Shishmaref .........................u.. .. 21 SIURGNBIE ovo vs svmm ests hu mbss a sont a sewn ain 22 Southwestern Eskimo AKiak 23 Napaskiak ......couvuviscncainsssmvmorimnsnn in 24 Baglglih co: iionmmnimanoais soasmas vs smmbuny oi 25 Hooper Bay ............ iii... 26 Newtok ......coiiiii ee 29 III. ADEQUACY OF THE DIET AND NUTRIENT SOURCE cunneivitannts is Bamms stn immnt snmmnnss bb 31 BAIOLIER cin i thie oi 0 cb ichaion, wes vo sw ity os oh oh plein 2 va Mg i 8 24 31 Protein ........c i 36 Pal .ccventunisoneuus sino miunisisnmhs ts FEShhiss #0 a. Carbohydrate ............... iii. 43 Calcium .....oi i ee 46 Iron «oe eee 51 VIBES A ii iin coi bin coin ie se own oh stim rm # wisn win x dow 55 ThIGINING . ven nmre cum mms cmon mmse «a0 mwas snenss on 59 Riboflavin .......coi iii eee 63 INVBCUIN. +i c coh 3900 0k 530 006 40k om cto vm 6 8 ch co 41 4 28 ot ne 66 Ascorbic Acid ........ ee 66 3 Tv IV. TRE DIET OP THE INFANT ....ovviiisannnvuns on Introduction ........coiiiiiii ieee Past Infant Feeding Practices ...................... Findings of Present Study Source of Milk in Infant Diets ............... .. Current Infant Feeding Practices .............. The Diet of Lactating Women ................ .. Adequacy of the Infant Diet and Nutrient Source In Comparison to NRC Recommendations .... .. Use of Supplemental Foods—Kinds and Seogonallly .....cssessinasunienmvmvnrts os Adequacy of Specific Nutrients Calories «vv eee CorbohYArates uv snmnns ssmpurprs smmamme +s Proloin . ..cooniidasa ins iN annuus t tasers « CAlCIUI vvvvrvresnsinnsiaammsosssnenumus +3 TION .. iumnmnes sannmvot ssnmmne saa @HBHY 3 » Vitamin A o.oo ee as B-Vitamins .. o.oo iii Ascorbic Acid .....oonsiiasmnabiss sanEnes »» V. FOOD USE AND PREPARATION ................. TNtrOdUCLION. 2 5uiconmumiis INSRSHIIERE EES SAS BERY ~ Cooking Bquipment ......: sussssicnsnnissaupuns u: Meals, General Cooking and Food Storage Procedures Ung Cooked, Raw-Dried and Raw-Frozen Meat and IS ote a Use of Vegetablesand Fruits ....................... Imported Foods and Factors Determining Their Use and Preparation .............. iii Eating Habit «ous i snvnmsss snpumnsss smmme ns cmmwn ui Food Quantities Eaten ......coveissesnsvnssnnmor oo Cooking and Other Equipment ..................... VI. SEASONAL FOOD QUEST ACTIVITIES ........... Factors Affecting Quest Activities and the Food Supply: Topographic Features, Variable Food Supply and Weather .....coii i ieee ACCALUratiON i vnusnss tnunns sapments sexu mm =o Population Trends ....::csvsssonnavanssansnn we Present Day Seasonal Food Quest Activities ........ .. SUMMARY vv vvnnmmremmmmsnsissbbimbsshabanms shins va BIBLIOGRAPHY ..oviiiivssnirisaniinss soumunpesass 5s GLOSSARY ivisnasraiisnsrans i ARneuessgafnss ssemy wo 4 APPENDIX I. List of Animals, Birds, Fishes and Plants Used as Food by Alaskan Eskimos and Athapascan Indians . . .. II. Composition of Alaskan Foods III. Source of Eleven Specific Nutrients in Alaskan Eskimo and Indian Diets, By Age and Sex IV. Some Particular Methods of Food Preparation V. Present Day Food Quest Activities, By Area and —Table “Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Village VI. Three Food Quest Patterns of the Past 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. TABLES . Caloric intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and In- dians, by ageandsex .................... Caloric intakes: Alaskan Eskimo and Indian Children 2 to 6 years of age, by area, by age level .......... cc. Proportion of calories from selected food groups, by village ...................... Proportion of calories from local and im- ported foods, by village .................. Protein intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and In- dians, by age and sex ................... Proportion of protein from selected food groups, by village ....................... Proportion of protein from local and im- ported foods, by village .................. Proportion of fat from selected food groups, by village ........................ ..... Proportion of fat from local and imported foods, by village ........................ Proportion of carbohydrate from local and imported foods, by village ............... Proportion of carbohydrates from selected food groups, by village .................. Calcium intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and In- dians, by age and sex ................... Proportion of calcium from selected food groups, by village ....................... Proportion of calcium from local and im- ported foods, by village .................. Iron intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and Indians, by age and sex ......................... Page 177 182 186 226 243 277 32 33 34 35 37 38 49 48 49 51 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Iron intakes of Alaskan Eskimo and Indian children, 2 to 5 years of age, by area ........ Proportion of iron from selected food groups, by village ...........c.ooihiienn, Proportion of iron from local and imported foods, by village ............ iit Vitamin A intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and Indians, by age OnNA 88X uevwes snssunmr sunny Proportion of Vitamin A from selected food groups, by village ................ LL Proportion of Vitamin A from local and imported foods, by village ................. Thiamine intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and Indians, by age and sex .................... Proportion of thiamine from selected food groups, by village ....ssissimsvmuns summers Proportion of thiamine from local and im- ported foods, by village .................... Riboflavin intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and Indians, by age and sex ................... Proportion of riboflavin from selected food groups, by village ......................... Proportion of riboflavin from local and im- ported foods, by village .................... Niacin intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and In- dians, by ageandsex ...................... Proportion of niacin from selected food groups, by village ......................... Proportion of niacin from local and im- ported foods, by village .................... Ascorbic acid intakes: Alaskan Eskimos and Indians, by ageand sex .................... Ascorbic acid intakes of Alaskan Eskimo and Indian children 2 to 5 years of age, by area, by age level ...................... Proportion of ascorbic acid from selected food groups, by village .................... Proportion of ascorbic acid from local and imported foods, by village .................. Source of milk, 555 diets: breast and for- mula-fed infants under 2 years ............. Average daily intake of iron and vitamins, 193 diets of lactating women, all areas and villages, by season Sse ee es es teste eee Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52, 53. Average daily intake of protein, 193 diets: lactating women, by geographical area ....... Average daily intake of calcium, 193 diets: lactating women, by geographical area ....... Average daily intake of iron, 193 diets: lactating women, by geographical area ....... Average daily intake of vitamin A, 193 diets: lactating women, by geographical BYCL + s Gumi ne REEF RR 08 Cw ie 0 ch ds #0 ee Average daily intake of ascorbic acid, 193 diets: lactating women, by geographical BYCY wuwwms si som Eas ERMA Ens a ® dah m ws vem Percentage of diets with average daily in- takes below the recommended allowance: nine nutrients, 282 diets: formula-fed infants under 2 years, by age level .......... Nutrient distribution and intake ranges, 282 diets: formula-fed infants under 2 years, by season ................iiuin... . Percentage of nutrient intakes below NRC recommended allowances, 282 diets: for- mula-fed infants under 2 years, by season .... . Average daily intake of nutrients from se- lected food groups, 282 diets: formula- fed infants under 2 years .................. Percent nutrient from food source, 282 diets: formula-fed infants under 2 years Percent nutrient from food source, 282 diets: formula-fed infants under 2 years, DY SEABOM wow mis v5 iim aims o vmimmms oem umeis sss Protein supplements used in infant diets, 555 diets: breast and formula-fed infants under 2 years, by age level ............ Fat supplements used in infant diets, 555 diets: breast and formula-fed infants un- der 2 years, by age level ............... Fruits and vegetables as supplements in in- fant diets, 555 diets: breast and formula- fed infants under 2 years, by age level . .. Use of supplemental foods, infant diets, Hooper Bay .......................... Seasonal supplementation of infant diets with local foods, Hooper Bay .......... Vitamin supplementation, 555 diets: breast and formula-fed infants under 2 years, by area, by age level .................. Page 78 78 79 80 80 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 88 89 90 92 92 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. Percent total vitamin intake from pharma- ceutical supplements, 282 diets: formula- fed infants under 2 years, by season ........ 93 Caloric intakes, 282 diets: formula-fed in- fants under 2 years, by age level ........... 94 Source of calories, 282 diets: formula-fed infants under 2 years, by season ............ 95 Carbohydrate supplements, 555 diets : breast and formula-fed infants under 2 years, byagelevel ...oavvsisinnessiennsvnisinuns 95 Protein intakes: 282 diets, formula-fed in- fants under 2 years, by age level ........... 96 Source of protein: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by season ........... 97 Calcium intakes: 282 diets, formula-fed in- fants under 2 years, by age level ........... 98 Source of calcium: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by season ........... 98 Iron intakes: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by age level ................. 99 Source of iron: 282 diets, formula-fed in- fants under 2 years, by season ............. 99 Vitamin A intakes: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by age level ........... 100 Source of vitamin A: 282 diets, formula- fed infants under 2 years, by season ......... i101 Thiamine intakes: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by age level ........... 102 Source of thiamine: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by season ........... 103 Riboflavin intakes: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by age level ........... 103 Source of riboflavin: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by season ........... 104 Niacin intakes: 282 diets, formula-fed in- fants under 2 years, by age level ............ 104 Source of niacin: 282 diets, formula-fed infants under 2 years, by season ............ 105 Ascorbic acid intakes: 282 diets, formula- fed infants under 2 years, by age level ....... 106 Source of ascorbic acid: 282 diets, formula- fed infants under 2 years, by area ........... 107 Source of ascorbic acid: 282 diets, formula- fed infants under 2 years, by season ......... 107 Table 75. Table 76. Table 77. Table 78. Table 79. Table 80. Table 81. Table 82. Table 83. Table 84. Table 85. Table 86. Table 87. Table A-1. Table A-2. Table A-3. Table B-1. Table B-2. Percent total protein from meat and fish, Eskimo and Indian diets, by area and village ...... Percent meat and fish protein from the raw frozen, raw dried and cooked product, adult male and female diets, by geo- graphic area and village .............. Per capita source of eleven nutrients from selected food groups, Alaskan Eskimo and Indian diets ......................... Per capita source of eleven nutrients from local and imported food, Alaskan Eskimo and Indian diets .......................... Comparison: consumption of selected food groups, U.S.D.A. and Alaskan Eskimos and Indiong, In POUNAS u..iovvviissenmanss 125 Comparison: estimated daily consumption of selected nutrients, U.S.D.A. and Alas- kan Eskimos and Indians per person, Per day .....i 129 Comparison: total population census report years 1920-60 and percent population change 1940-60, 11 Alaskan study vil- lage ii 158 Comparison: total population, three Upper Kobuk River villages, 1940-60 ........ Comparison: population change, three Alas- kan communities, 1920-60 ............ Population characteristics: eleven study vil- lages, 1956-61 ....................... Total and percent population change: Hooper Bay, Chevak and Scammon Bay, 1930-60... Nutrient contribution from food source: 848 adult male diets, all areas and vil- lages, all seasons .......................... Composition of Alaskan Foods—100 grams Source of calories: adult male and female HELE. cine ccminkpr pss mints 1% @ BRE Source of calories: males and females 13-19 yearsofage ................ i... Source of calories: children 7-12 and 2-6 vears of age ........................ Percent calories from protein: males and females 17-70 years of age ............ Source of protein: adult males and females Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 10 B-3. D-2. D-3. D4. E-1. E-2. E-3. E-4. E-5. F-1. F-2. G-5. Source of protein: males and females 13-19 years of age ...........ciiiiiiiiiiiin 191 . Source of protein: children 7-12 and 2-6 Years Of Ae ..icunvanssisvsmnns sspanns ss to 192 . Percent calories from fat: males and fe- males 17-70 years of age ................... 193 . Source of fat: adult males and females diets .... 194 . Source of fat: male and female 13-19 years of ge ...vsiiesanssiicnnmnsrsivRmnns 195 . Source of fat: children 7-12 and 2-6 years Of Age «ot 196 . Percent calories from carbohydrates: males and females 17-70 years of age ............. 197 Source of carbohydrates: adult male and female diets . ...c cove vmunrs mmm saa 198 Source of carbohydrates: males and females 13-10 years of age ...: cvvuvercrnnrrennns 199 Source of carbohydrates: children 7-12 and 2-6 years of age .........cvuvrnriinierienn 200 Calcium intakes of Eskimo and Indian chil- dren 2-5 years of age ..................... 201 Source of calcium: 368 adult female diets ..... 202 Source of calcium: adult male and female diets ooo 202 Source of calcium: males and females 13-19 years of age ....uvvvvsiiammaris rR nLE ES 203 Source of calcium: children 7-12 and 2-6 years of age . ric sannrsinnans seca nnn By 204 Source of iron: adult male and female diets . . ... 205 Source of iron: males and females 13-19 VeUB OL ATC vrs innvsnsinnsuamir rannens nny 206 . Source of iron: children 7-12 and 2-6 years Of Age «iii ee 207 . Seasonal fluctuations in mean daily vitamin Aidntakes .....o iii 208 . Vitamin A intakes: Alaskan Eskimo and Indian children 2-6 years of age ............ 209 . Source of vitamin A : adult male and female diets © 210 . Source of vitamin A: males and females 13-19 years of age ...........coiiiiiii. 11 Source of vitamin A: children 7-12 and 2-6yearsof age ......... iii 212 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table H-1. H-2. H-3. H-4. I-1. I-2. I-3. J-1. J-2. J-3. K-2. K-3. K-4. Thiamine intakes: children 2-6 years of age, by area, by age level ...................... 213 Source of thiamine: adult male and female diets... 214 Source of thiamine: males and females 13— 19 yearsof age ........... cui... 215 Source of thiamine: children 7-12 and 2-6 years of age ............ 216 Source of riboflavin: adult male and female diets «o.oo 217 Source of riboflavin: males and females 13— 19 years of age ..........couuiiiininn... 218 Source of riboflavin: children 7-12 and 2-6 years of age .......... iii, 219 Source of niacin: adult male and female diets . ... 220 Source of niacin: males and females 13-19 years of age ............. 221 Source of niacin: children 7-12 and 2-6 Years Of age . vou veritas 222 . Seasonal variations in mean daily ascorbic acid intakes, by age and sex ................ 223 Source of ascorbic acid: adult males and fe- INAIEE . ..vviinenninenr en rsras smn mass snes 223 Source of ascorbic acid: males and females 13-19 years of age .............cccvun..... 224 Source of ascorbic acid: children 7-12 and 2-6 yearsofage ............. i... 225 FIGURES Figure 1. Map of Alaska showing areas inhabited by Eskimos and Indians and the location of the dietary study villages .................. 17 Figure 2. Source of milk in infant diets ................ 75 PHOTOGRAPHS 1. Eskimo woman acting as interpreter-helper recording food intakes, Shungnak. 2. Family gardens at Unalakleet, Eskimo village located on Nor- ton Sound, Bering Sea. 3. Athapascan Indian man and wife in front of log cabin home at Tetlin. Note “Yukon stove” used outdoors in summer. 4. Ugruk catch, split and lying on shore ice ready for final butch- ering by women, Sealing camp, Shishmaref. 11 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 12 Eskimo woman (past 70 years of age) using the woman's knife or ulu, Sealing camp, Shishmaref. Blowing up a seal poke to be used as a storage container for seal oil and other foods, Tununak, Nelson Island. Eskimo woman scraping excess blubber from poke being pre- pared for storing food, spring sealing camp, Shishmaref. Smearing seal blood on poke to make it impervious, Shish- maref. Stuffing blubber into seal poke, Tununak, Nelson Island. Walrus meat drying on racks, Gambell, St. Lawrence Island. Butchering beluga whale on beach at Kotzebue. Typical storage cache on stilts and sod houses still in use, Akiak. Preparing salmon for drying racks at summer fish camp on the Kobuk River. Eskimo woman using ulu to prepare salmon for drying, Noatak. Fish wheel used by Indians to catch salmon, Nenana River. Young Eskimo women braiding strings of herring for drying, Tununak, Nelson Island. Drawing of fish trap made of spruce root used under river ice for catching ling cod and other fish. (Drawing by Sam Ivan, Akiak Eskimo) Dipping for needlefish through hole in the ice. Note pile of fish at right, Newtok. Removing ling cod from fish trap. Funnel is made of willow root, trap of chicken wire, Newtok. Woman fishing through river ice for whitefish and arctic trout, Noatak. Eskimo woman gigging for tom cod through ice, Norton Sound, Bering Sea. Ulu, Eskimo woman’s knife. At top and right, old type ulus with bone handles and slate blades; bottom, modern type with tempered steel blade, usually made from used saw blade. Spoons, masher (for berries and greens) Shishmaref; and gal tray carved from driftwood, Savoonga, St. Lawrence sland. Wooden serving or storage bowls made by both Eskimo and Athapascan Indian men. Very few in existence now. Lower Yukon and Kuskokwim River area. Birchbark berry basket and wooden scoop carved from willow or spruce root, Shungnak. CHAPTER | INTRODUCTION A. The diet of Eskimos has always been of interest because these people have managed to survive under adverse circumstances by utilization of unusual natural resources. Previous studies of Alaskan diets were limited to a series of weighed studies at Gambell and Anaktuvuk Pass by Rodahl®; to a limited diet record study at Nikolski by Moorrees® and a study based on one-day diet records from four Eskimo villages by Heller®. B. The present study was begun in 1956 with the following ob- jectives: (1) To determine the present food habits of Alaskan Eskimos and Indians; (2) To estimate the degree of their dependence on local food; (8) To estimate the adequacy of the diet; (4) To predict medical or public health problems which might arise from inadequate diet. METHODS Eleven villages—nine Eskimo and two Athapascan Indian —representing several geographic and ecologic areas of Alaska were included in this study (see map facing page 4). The com- bined total population of these villages was 2252. A total of 4840 diet records, most of them of 7 days dura- tion were collected on a seasonal basis for both sexes and for all age levels. From these records the data of 4567 were converted by machine calculation into mean daily intakes of the eleven major nutrients,* and the mean intakes were then compared to the National Research Council (NRC) recommendations® in order to assess the adequacy of the diet. The source of nutrients and seasonal fluctuations in these sources were determined as well. The remaining 273 diet records were of infants who obtained either part or all of their milk from the breast. * Calories, protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamin, ribo- . flavin, niacin and ascorbic acid. 13 bd Eskimo woman acting as interpreter-helper recording food intakes, Shungnak. During the initial visit to each of the selected villages, the nutritionist met first with the local village council to acquaint them with the purpose of the study, to explain the procedure to be used in obtaining diet records, and to secure their recommenda- tions for the services of an interpreter-helper. During this, as well as subsequent visits, every occupied home in the village was visited and diet records obtained from all who would cooperate. 14 The majority of families were cooperative and much of the credit for the success of the project belongs to the participants. In each family, one member, who could speak, read and write English, was given instructions on how to observe, measure (using typical household measures) and record the size of servings for each family member. The nutritionist with the interpreter’s assistance checked daily to be sure that intake measurements were being made as accurately as possible. Size of dishes and utensils regularly used by a particular family member were noted and recorded. The interpreter assisted the nutritionist in recording food intakes for those whose knowledge of English was limited. (see illustration no. 1) Most of the diet records were collected during the nutrition- ist’s two or three week visits to the village. A limited number of records, however, were kept by either a family member or the interpreter-helper in the interim between the nutritionist’s visits and a small number of them consisted of weighed amounts. Food values from Handbook 8 (1950) ® Bowes and Church (1951) ® as well as the results of the analysis of local foods by the Arctic Health Research Center and the U.S. Army Medical, Research and Nutrition Laboratory, Denver, Colorado, were used to convert food intakes into nutrient values. Recipes for common mixed food preparations were collected. The final nutritive values assigned them were average values of a series of recipes. Individ- ual family recipes of uncommon food mixtures were also collected and converted to nutrient values. Samples of the raw, edible portions of local foods as com- monly prepared and consumed by Eskimos and Indians were col- lected for analysis. Moisture, protein, fat, fiber, ash, calcium, phosphorus and iron were determined by methods of the Associa- tion of Official Agricultural Chemists.” Vitamin A (Carr-Price), carotene (chromatography and spectrophotometry), thiamine (microbiological), riboflavin (microbiological), niacin (micro- biological) and ascorbic acid (Roe and Kuether) were determined by methods of the Association of Vitamin Chemists.®® The re- sults are shown in Table 87, Appendix. 15 CHAPTER II VILLAGE DESCRIPTIONS NORTHCENTRAL ATHAPASCAN INDIAN ALLAKAKET Allakaket, an Athapascan Indian village, is located in north- central Alaska just a few miles north of the Arctic Circle. It is situated on the banks of the Koyukuk River near its confluence with the Alatna River. Allakaket actually means “mouth of the Alatna”. The village site was selected because of the good fishing for salmon, whitefish and ling cod. While most of the inhabitants of Allakaket are Athapas- can Indians, a few Eskimos, originally from the Kobuk and upper Alatna River areas, have also settled here. In the past the two groups remained distinct, but in recent years some intermarriages have occurred. The Kobuk Eskimos and Koyukuk Indians have had trade relations since long before the advent of the white man to the Arctic. The Indians sold various kinds of furs to the Kobuk Eskimos who traded them in turn to the coastal Eskimos at the annual summer rendezvous at Kotzebue Sound. In return Kobuk Eskimos traded to the Indians seal oil, ugruk rawhide and many other items obtained during their coastal sojourn. The Koyukuk River Indians formerly ranged over a con- siderable area, moving their camps as dictated by seasonal hunt- ing, fishing and trapping requirements, meeting only occasionally for “potlatch” celebrations. The first permanent settlement for the upriver group was at Arctic City, a fairly large village, seven or eight miles down river from the present village of Allakaket. Around 1907, one small group left Arctic City and established themselves at Allakaket, and later another group settled at Hughes and a third at Cutoff. Allakaket is situated in a wooded area (spruce and birch), and the homes are, for the most part, one-room log structures. The village economy is still essentially one of hunting, fishing and trapping with the sale of beaver, mink and marten pelts the most important source of cash income. In the past year or two a few of the men have found summer employment outside the village. Seven men were thus employed during the summer of 1958. One man had four months and two men two months employment each at nearby gold mines; two men worked for two months each for 16 Map of Alaska showing areas inhabited by Eskimos and Indians and the location of the dietary study villages. wages at Hughes and two men worked for one month each, fishing for a white man who has established himself in the Arctic. Wel- fare, mostly old age assistance, is available to a few individuals. HUSLIA The village of Huslia is situated on the banks of the Koyu- kuk River in northcentral Alaska. The village site is of recent origin, the people having moved to it from Cutoff less than 10 years ago. While Cutoff was located in an excellent trapping area (beaver, etc.), it was so frequently subjected to spring flooding that it was not considered a desirable place for the construction of schools and other permanent buildings. The present village site has its drawbacks, too. The men have had to extend the length of their trapping lines, sometimes up to 60 miles or more; also the Koyukuk River is constantly changing because of erosion along the bank, especially from the ice as it breaks up and goes out of the river in the spring and from the runoff from melting snow and ice. The village has already had to be moved back from the river several times. In fact, the original Huslia site is now under water in approximately the middle of the river. 17 Since Huslia is in an area wooded with spruce and birch, the homes are of log construction and fuel is plentiful; Most of the homes have two or three rooms. Income is derived from two main sources (1) from the sale of pelts, mainly beaver and muskrat with some lynx, mink and marten, and (2) from summer wage work in nearby mines and on river boats. The yearly food cycle for Huslia, except for minor differ- ences, is the same as that for Allakaket and other Athapascan villages in the same general area. Moose is by far the most im- portant source of meat, but considerable amounts of beaver, musk- rat, and ptarmigan are also seasonally important. Salmon is also an important food; and lesser amounts of whitefish are available. Most of the dried product is used for dog feed. Gardening is possible at Huslia but only for those staying at the village during the summer. Most of the able-bodied men leave for wage work and the women go to nearby camps where they devote much of their time to fishing and drying the catch. NORTHERN ESKIMO POINT HOPE Point Hope is located on a gravel spit that projects about fifteen miles out from the northwest coast of Alaska into the Chukchi Sea. It is approximately 190 miles northwest of Kotzebue, and approximately 103 miles north of the Arctic Circle. The spit on which the village is located has been continuously occupied for at least 1000 years. The village, its people and environs have been thoroughly studied by Rainey®, Larsen and Rainey” and Van Stone(1112), About half of the houses are of frame construction and the rest are constructed of sod and whalebone; the latter are mostly one room affairs while several of the frame dwellings have two or three rooms. Since it is necessary to protect the houses against the cold winds and gales that often blow across the spit many of the frame houses are banked along the sides with sod blocks. During the winter added protection is secured by building long entrance ways made either with sod blocks or discarded oil barrels with a top covering of heavy canvas or other material. These are necessary expedients since fuel is at a premium, there being no driftwood in the immediate vicinity. Seal blubber, the traditional fuel of the past, is occasionally used by some to obtain a quick, hot fire for 18 cooking. Commercial fuel oil is used when families can afford it. Considerable heat is given off by the gasoline lanterns, the chief source of light in most homes during the long winters. There are two stores in the village, a cooperative store with a manager appointed by the village council and one privately owned by a local Eskimo family. Yearly cash income is variable for most families since it is derived primarily from summer wage work (construction jobs, mines, etc.). Only a few residents—a school janitor, the post- master, the store manager—have year-round wage incomes. The total estimated village income for 1958 according to the Bureau of Indian Affairs economic report? was as follows: Sales of furs and hides $ 622.10 Arts and crafts 7,295.40* Wages, including private business 30,770.00 Direct welfare (OASI, ADC, ete.) 11,451.00 Unearned Income (Social Security, Unemployment insurance, etc.) 10,495.00 $60,633.50 This amounts to an average income of $1318.00 per family per year. At one time furs, especially those of the polar bear and arctic fox, provided a good source of cash income. But the current price for arctic fox fur does not now warrant the effort to secure it, and the number of polar bear taken by resident Eskimos has dwindled steadily since the influx of winter sport hunters seeking bear trophies and skins for rugs began. However, several new local Eskimo-owned businesses which provide food and lodging and dog team transportation for the hunters and other visitors, have developed and may eventually equal the income usually real- ized by the sale of skins. Ivory and whale bone carving, the making of baleen baskets and skin sewing (parkas and mukluks) continue to be a modest but fairly constant source of village income. In 1958 the sale of artifacts was an important source of income for many families; in 1963 such income was at a minimum, for many of the igloos at old Tigara, where most of the artifacts have been found in recent years, are now used as meat storage caches, and to protect these from being undermined the village council has curtailed artifact digging in the general area. There is a National Guard unit at Point Hope which also provides a source of income. * This item includes arbitrary values placed on boats, sleds and skin garments used locally. 19 NOATAK Noatak lies 70 miles north of the Arctic Circle on the banks of the Noatak River, approximately 50 miles due north of Kot- zebue. Noatak people have not been studied to the same degree as have the residents of Point Hope. For this reason it seemed desir- able to inquire into the seasonal food quest patterns of past times as remembered by the village elders. This information is included in the appendix. Present day Noatak people follow essentially the same pat- tern of hunting and fishing as in the past except that now most families live almost continuously in the village from the time school opens in September until it closes in May. Most fall and winter fishing is done at the village location or at most only relatively short distances away from it. The women also do considerable berry picking in this general area and may obtain sizeable quantities of mashu, the edible root of Hedy- sarum alpinum, from rodent caches. From late fall and thoughout the winter the men, usually in small groups of 4 to 6, establish caribou hunting camps in the rolling hill country upriver from the village. They may be away from home for a few days or up to two weeks at a time depending on the movement of the caribou in the area. Occasionally an entire family may establish a hunting camp and carry on much as they did in the past but this is now un- common. Noatak residents still make traditional summer trips to the coast (Kotzebue Sound) where they stay from late May or early June to early September. Some families still go to Sealing Point; but most go directly to Sheshaulik. They still hunt for seal, ugruk, beluga whale, rabbits, and wildfowl; do some fishing and gather berries, but according to their own statements, not as assiduously as in the past. When the bulk of these activities is over, most families move to Kotzebue to trade, to visit friends and relatives and to engage in whatever wage work is available to them. Some families spend the entire summer at Kotzebue—usually those who are able to obtain summer wage employment in construction work as carpenters, day laborers or as deck hands on supply barges. Wage employment is unpredictable from year to year. The Bureau of Indian Affairs@® estimate of income for the entire village for 1960 was $36,000. Regular wages are obtained by very few families. They in- clude a family engaged in year-round reindeer herding (they care for a small herd of their own as well as the government herd lo- 20 cated in the general area) ; the school janitor; the postmaster; the manager of the local cooperative store; and the Eskimo pastor of the local church. No outstanding arts and crafts are practiced at this village. Occasionally some ivory carving is done but the materials are not readily available although occasionally a mastodon tusk is ex- tracted from the river banks. Total village income from this source for 1960 was estimated at $1995.00. The total income from welfare, mostly aid to dependent children and old age assistance, amounted to $23,000. An addi- tional $23,000 came from unearned sources, chiefly social security and unemployment insurance. The combined total income from these sources amounted to $83,995.00, or an average of approximately $1714.00 per family per year. There is one store, a village cooperative in the village. How- ever, since most Noatak families average about three months in the Kotzebue Sound area, purchases are made at the Kotzebue stores. In addition to the items needed daily throughout their residence in the area they also purchase considerable supplies of flour, sugar, canned milk and other food items to take back to the village. Most of these items are slightly cheaper at Kotzebue. SHISHMAREF Shishmaref, an Eskimo village, is situated on a narrow sandy island just off the coast of Seward Peninsula, about 120 miles northwest of Nome. It is approximately 25 miles south of the Arctic Circle. According to Shishmaref people, the original village site was inland on the banks of the Arctic River. They say there are mounds of whale bones there marking the site. The village has been located at or near its present site since before the arrival of Caucasians. The village faces the Chukchi Sea and immediately behind it is an eighteen-mile-wide lagoon or inlet into which flow two mainland rivers, the Arctic and the Serpentine. The population of Shishmaref in 1957-58, was approxi- mately 175. There is, however, considerable population movement back and forth between Shishmaref and Nome. Many families go to Nome for the summer only, primarily for wage employment with the mining company. An increasing number of families stay on in Nome permanently, although it is not unusual for some of them to stay a year or two and then move back to the village again. Fluctuation in available wage work probably accounts for 21 most of the shifting. A few Shishmaref families—those who are exceptionally good ivory etchers or who have become professional artists—have moved as far away as Anchorage and Seattle. Besides wage work, which amounted to $38,000 in 1958 according to Bureau of Indian Affairs estimates®, cash income is derived from the sale of furs and hides, ivory carving, skin sew- ing and the sale of archeological artifacts. The net total from this source was estimated at $7,000, but this figure included the as- sessed valuation of new boats, sleds, parkas and mukluks made for family and local use. Welfare assistance, such as aid to dependent children, old age assistance and general relief, totalled $20,000. An additional $7,000 came from unemployment insurance, social security and other unearned sources. On the basis of these figures the 1958 av- erage income per family unit was approximately $2181. At the time of the study there was one trading post in the village, owned and operated by the village. Significant food pur- chases were made in Nome during the summer and intermittently at Teller throughout the year. At one time reindeer herds were locally owned and oper- ated, serving not only as an important source of meat but also furnishing skins for clothing and sleeping bags. These herds no longer exist locally, but variable quantities of reindeer meat are shipped in from Teller. During the study year (1957) the total shipped in amounted to no more than 1000 pounds. According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs village report(®, the amount had in- creased to 5600 pounds during 1961. SHUNGNAK Shungnak, an Eskimo village, is located inland on the banks of the Kobuk River, about 150 miles due east of Kotzebue and ap- proximately 25 miles north of the Arctic Circle. The area is forested predominantly with willow, alder, birch and spruce. Shungnak is a comparatively young village having been estab- lished about 1920. Most of the families now residing at Shungnak originally came from nearby Kobuk or from Ambler, two of the ancient seasonal campsites for these people. Because of blood re- lationships there is still considerable population movement among the three places. A resume of the yearly hunting-fishing-trading cycle of ab- original times as remembered by the village elders is given in the Appendix. Essentially the same seasonal food quest pattern is followed today except that the people are in residence at Shungnak 22 village from September to the end of the school year in May. Consequently, hunters no longer roam over such large areas in search of caribou but confine most of their hunting and fishing to areas near the village. Many families still establish spring camps, usually on high ground near the village but very few go to Kotze- bue for the summer. The few men that do go do so primarily to set up a jade shop where they make jewelry for the tourist trade. A few of the men also work in mines located near Shungnak. The women stay in the village or spend the summer at traditional campsites along the Kobuk River where they fish for salmon and dry it for winter use. According to the 1959 Bureau of Indian Affairs economics report, approximately 58 percent of the estimated total cash in- come (about $35,700) for this village came from wage work.(3 This was mostly from summer work in the nearby mines. The only village residents receiving a year-round salary were the local postmaster, the cooperative store manager and the school janitor. A number of the young men belong to the National Guard for which they receive a nominal stipend. Additional income—Iless than $1,000—came from the sale of jade, locally made jade jewelry, birch bark basketry and the sale of furs. Included in this total was the assessed valuation of new boats, sleds, snowshoes and fur clothing, most of which was made for local consumption only. Just under $6,000 came from welfare sources, and an addi- tional $10,000 from social security and unemployment insurance. On the basis of these figures the average cash income per family was estimated at $2014. SOUTHWESTERN ESKIMO AKIAK The Eskimo village of Akiak is located on the banks of the Kuskokwim River approximately 20 miles above Bethel, in a semi-forested (spruce, alder, birch) area bordering the foothills of the Alaska Range. At one time Akiak was a much more vigor- ous village than it is today. A Bureau of Indian Affairs hospital and the headquarters for a reindeer project were formerly located here, but these services were transferred to Bethel because of transportation difficulties (ocean going vessels can ascend the Kuskokwim only as far as Bethel). Most of the homes in Akiak are of frame or log construc- tion. A few are fairly large with several rooms, but most are 23 small with one to two rooms and an attached shed. There are also several sod houses still in use. There are two stores in Akiak, one a village cooperative, and the other owned by a local Eskimo family. However, there is much traffic by dog team and plane in winter and by boat and plane in summer between Akiak and the trading center of Bethel and most families do some purchasing while there. In aboriginal times Akiak was a winter headquarters—the place where river, tundra and mountain Eskimo met to trade and for winter fishing. A description of the old seasonal migratory pattern of the mountain Eskimo as remembered by one of the elders of the village is given in the Appendix. Most of the descend- ents of these people now spend almost the entire year in the village environs. The men, and only occasionally entire family groups, make short hunting forays into the foothills. The only extensive trips made are by the men who regularly trap beaver. During the summer, the able-bodied men now seek wage employment in nearby mines, at Bethel or wherever available, often leaving the family in the village. Many of the descendents of the tundra people follow more closely the aboriginal living pattern. Many of these families, for example, still establish spring and fall camps out on the tundra. Persistent encouragement of continuous school attendance by the children has curtailed many of these activities, and each year fewer families go to the camps. In 1959, the study year for this village, the Bureau of In- dian Affairs estimated the total cash income from the sale of furs and hides at $5300 and from wages at about $34,832, or an aver- age of approximately $1206 per family unit. Welfare assistance, totalling $15,650, increased this to $1712 per family. The manager of the village cooperative and the school jani- tor were the only residents receiving a yearly salary. Several individuals in the village had small local businesses from which they received a nominal recompense. These were the owners of a small retail store, a light plant, a tractor for logging and one family with mining interests. NAPASKIAK Napaskiak is a small tundra village—population 137—Ilo- cated on the banks of the Kuskokwim River near Bethel. Most of the houses are of log or frame construction, sometimes with only one room, but usually with two and occasionally three rooms. The larger dwellings are sometimes occupied by two related family 24 groups. The majority of the village people are communicants of the Russian Orthodox Church; a few belong to the Moravian Church. There is no store or postoffice in the village. Imported food and a limited number of other items are purchased at Oscarville directly across the river or at nearby Bethel. Most clothing items and equipment such as outboard motors are purchased from mail order houses. Mail is obtained directly from Bethel about 5 miles distant. Salmon is the most important of the locally available foods and is included in the daily menu throughout the year. The fresh product is used in season, but for the greater part of the year dried fish are used. Other foods listed in the food quest sequence are used for limited times and in limited amounts seasonally. Many of these seasonal foods are not used to the extent they were formerly; this is illustrated by the fact that during 1958, the year food rec- ords were collected at the village, only three family groups went to spring camp. The usual diet of the villagers at this time con- sisted of dried salmon or fresh whitefish, bread or hotcakes, coffee or tea. The typical diet of those at spring camp included fresh wildfowl, fresh fish, bird eggs, bread or hot cakes, coffee or tea, edible greens and such berries as remained on bushes throughout winter. Cash income at Napaskiak as in all Eskimo and Indian villages, is extremely variable from year to year. The Bureau of Indian Affairs estimate@® of cash income from the sale of furs, mostly mink, in 1958 was $10,000, and that from wages, chiefly summer employment, $10,500, for an average of approximately $630 per family. Welfare assistance, which totalled $29,945, raised this average to approximately $1565 per family. KASIGLUK Kasigluk, a tundra village in Southwest Alaska, is located about thirty miles northwest of Bethel on the Willidulli Slough near the Johnson River. This village is of recent origin, most of the residents having come from the nearby tundra village of Nunachuk. In 1957-58 the total population was about 140. The entire area around Kasigluk is characterized by lakes, ponds, sloughs, rivers, and spaghnum bogs which makes it a good winter fishing area. Able and energetic families can obtain suffi- cient fresh whitefish and blackfish which, along with their dried salmon stores, furnish the bulk of the nutrients in their winter diet. Salmon is not available in the immediate area, but in May 25 or early June, just after the ice goes out of the rivers, most of the families go to traditional fish camp sites near Bethel where they stay until late summer or early fall. Only a few families remain at the village during the summer. They depend on whatever white- fish they can obtain from the surrounding sloughs and lakes. Fuel shortage is a constant problem at Kasigluk. The sup- ply near the village has long since been exhausted. The men and older boys must go almost daily to the Johnson River, several miles from the village for meager supplies of river driftwood, or they gather willow wherever they can find it on the tundra. In Kasigluk it is not unusual even in winter, for fires to be limited to the cooking period only. A few families with young able-bodied men who work for wages during the summer, may use limited amounts of fuel oil. Seal oil, available only by purchase from coastal Eskimos, is never used for this purpose. There is no trading post at Kasigluk. All store purchases are made at either the nearby village of Nunapitchuk or at Bethel. Most dry goods and other items are obtained from mail order houses. Cash income varies widely from family to family and with- in the family from year to year. In recent years a few men have succeeded in obtaining summer employment, mostly in the Bethel area or at the canneries. There is a National Guard contingent at Kasigluk and this contributes materially to the village income. Trapping for mink and muskrat is limited in the area and is an important source of income to only a few families. Little atten- tion is given to arts and crafts because of the unavailability of suitable materials. Welfare payments, including Bureau of Indian Affairs general welfare, aid to dependent children, and old age assistance, are a major source of village income. No total income figures are available for this village, but they would be approxi- mately the same as those for Napaskiak. These villages have similar local resources except that income from mink and muskrat is considerably greater at Napaskiak. Wage earning opportunities are also similar. HOOPER BAY Hooper Bay is located on the Bering Sea Coast about half- way between the mouths of the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers. It is one of the larger Eskimo villages with a population of 46004), The village is built on a series of three hillocks formed by a combination of sand, old vegetation and the refuse from past dwellings. The immediate surrounding terrain, extending many 26 miles inland, is a low-lying area interlaced with tidal sloughs and rivers and dotted with lakes, ponds, bogs, and swamps. This whole coastal delta area is sometimes flooded by in- coming tides. Petroff '% describes the severe storms of this area as follows: “long continued and heavy gales from the south raise the water on Norton Sound at least 10 feet above ordinary tide- mark—while whole villages with much loss of life, have been destroyed in the past by these storms, those occurring in spring and early summer are responsible for depositing the huge supplies of driftwood on shore, which until recent times was the only fuel and building material available.” Some years, however, the storms carry the driftwood well past the village causing real hardship for the people, for today, as in the past, driftwood is still the major source of their fuel supply. Occasionally the high water makes a virtual island of the village. Nelson® describes the weather along this portion of the Bering Sea as “the most disagreeable in the world.” The winters are long and severe and while the snow fall is not excessive, the winds cause it to drift heavily. Getting around the village at such times is difficult. Sudden changes in the weather off the coast during the seal- ing season are always of grave concern to the villagers until all seal hunters have been accounted for. Hooper Bay has many stories of men lost because of the drifting of the ice pack during these storms. It is probably because of these hazardous conditions that the young men at Hooper Bay do not begin seal hunting until they are 18 or 19 years old. In Shishmaref and some of the other more northern coastal villages they may accompany their elders as early as 12 to 14 years of age. Hooper Bay as described by Brandt? is located “in the center of a vast waterfowl breeding ground—in one of the largest deltoid regions of the world”. In the flats adjacent to the village and on the upland areas beyond—20 to 100 feet higher—are the breeding grounds of ducks, geese, loons, cranes, swans, ptarmigan, curlews and a host of smaller birds. In addition, in later winter and early spring (April and May), hordes of transient birds fly to the north over the area, returning in late summer and early fall on their southbound trip. Many of these birds, especially ducks, geese and ptarmigan combined may have equalled fish and seal as important items in the food economy of these people. Fur animals are relatively scarce in the area and are limited chiefly to a few mink, muskrat and seal. Waterfowl were and still are a major source of protein in 27 the diets; in former times the skins were regularly used to make winter parkas. In the early years most families moved from campsite to campsite, usually four or five times a year, in order to secure suffi- cient family food resources. In spite of the frequent moves they experienced occasional periods of starvation which are recalled by some of the people living today. One informant mentioned such an occasion in her youth, and told how the people who ate from a stranded whale became ill and died. In recent years several men also became ill and two died from eating meat from a stranded whale. The cause of death was found to be botulism, type E18 (9), Food shortages are most likely to occur during late winter and early spring. The majority of the present day inhabitants of the village remain in residence the year ’round. The hunters make relatively short trips, usually of a few days duration, but occasionally lasting as long as two weeks or more, out into the neighboring tundra areas. Formerly, many of these people lived together the greater part of the year in much smaller groups of 3 or 4 related families at more scattered locations. When Nelson visited this area in the 1870’s he reported finding many such small settlements®®. At appropriate seasons it was customary for related family groups to establish fishing, hunting and berry camps sometimes at con- siderable distances from the village, returning to the village for ceremonials and other group activities such as wildfowl round-ups. There are now very few families who still follow the old camping sequence. The most important camping period now is in the fall for berries and even then it may be for a period of a few days only, with a maximum of two weeks. For the majority of the able-bodied men of Hooper Bay, the opportunity for wage earning is limited to summer work at the Bristol Bay canneries. Some years, the spring storms previously described prevent the men from leaving the villages in time for the start of the canning activities. In 1958, the dietary study year, the weather was favorable, and those who did obtain work earned take-home pay in amounts from $200 to $700 dollars for the sea- son. Total income from wages in the village this same year was estimated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to be $28,000.*® In- cluded in this was $13,000 for local school employees. The remain- ing $15,000 included payments to the local representatives of the Alaska Department of Health and Welfare Sanitation Aide Pro- gram; the manager of the local cooperative store, a village owned business; the earnings of the owners of two local retail stores; 28 boat rentals and wages for lightering the annual supplies, as well as the cannery work already mentioned. The sale of mink and muskrat skins is a moderate and variable source of income for some of the village men. The Bu- reau of Indian Affairs estimate of income from this source for 1958 was $2,000 and for 1960, $2,800. Welfare assistance was also a significant source of village monies, amounting to $27,000 in 1958, a year when a significant number of individuals were hos- pitalized for tuberculosis. This figure was reduced to $11,000 by 1960013), The average yearly family income from all sources in 1958 was $948. NEWTOK Newtok is a small village in southwestern Alaska located on the tundra mainland in the vicinity of Hazen Bay near Nelson Island. The present village site was established in the early 1950's on a former seasonal campsite. The site was chosen because mink and muskrat trapping and black and needlefish fishing were known to be fairly good in the general area; and the location was con- sidered far enough inland to afford protection from destructive coastal storms and yet not too far from the traditional coastal sealing and fishing grounds. Most of the inhabitants came from the old village of Key- aluvik which was nearer the coast and to the source of fish, seal and wildfowl. The old area, however, was occasionally devastated by floods with considerable loss of life and property. Petroff 5) describes the Bering Sea Coastline thusly: “The ordinary tides are small and give a rise and fall of only about 2 to 3 feet, but the winds from either north or south produce a striking variation. A long continued and heavy gale from the south raises the water of Norton Sound at least ten feet above ordinary tide- mark and overflows large stretches of the coast. Some of the heaviest of these gales occur during winter—and whole villages have been destroyed along with many of the inhabitants.” This was the situation at Keyaluvik and the major reason for moving the village farther inland. In 1958-59, transportation in and out of Newtok was mostly by small boat from late spring after the ice moved out of the sloughs and bay until it began to form again in the fall. In winter dog teams were used. There was no regular plane or mail service nor were radio facilities available. Since then these serv- ices have been established and a new school built. In 1958-59 most Newtok families lived in sod igloos, all of 29 them quite small because of the sparsity of locally available build- ing and heating materials. Driftwood, found near the channel that flows between Baird Inlet and Etolin Straits, was the major source of building material and fuel. Trees in the general area were limited to a few scraggly willow patches. Transporting the drift logs to the village is both exceedingly difficult and time consuming, for they have to be dragged by boat through winding sloughs that rise and fall with the tides. Sod igloos were used only from about mid-October, when the fall wind storms begin, until April. For the remainder of the year most families lived in tents, either at their sealing and fish camps on the shores of Hazen Bay or at the village site. The advantage of sod igloos is that they can be kept warm and snug during cold freezing weather with a minimum of fuel. Their main disadvantage is that since they are dug several inches into the tundra, they are exceedingly damp the rest of the year. The ground on which Newtok is built is especially wet and boggy. Walking about the village was very difficult and one was forever retrieving ones’ boots from the waterlogged spaghnum. Since 1958, because of the increased number of men ob- taining summer cannery work, more and more families are having building materials shipped in for building frame houses with floors raised well above the tundra level. These dwellings require con- siderable more fuel than do the sod structures but they are rela- tively free of drip and dampness during the non-freezing portion of the year. In April almost the entire village goes to the sealing camp at Nlulugak, six miles from Tununak on Nelson Island. Here they do their spring sealing and later, herring and flounder fishing. Many families stay on at this camp until late summer. There are three stores in the village, one a native coopera- tive and two owned and operated by local families. In 1958-59 they all had similar yearly inventories totalling about $2500 each. A considerable proportion of both summer and winter purchases are still made at Tununak on Nelson Island as in the past. Cash income is chiefly from the sale of muskrat, mink and seal skins; from locally owned retail businesses (2 in number), summer wage work (mostly in canneries) and from National Guard salaries. Revenue from the sale of grass basketry and ivory carving provides a minor contribution. The Bureau of Indian Affairs(® estimated total income from all these sources for 1959 at $18,673, or an average of approximately $889 per family unit. Welfare assistance mostly to families with tuberculosis or other health problems increased this to approximately $1294 per family. 30 CHAPTER III ADEQUACY OF THE DIET AND NUTRIENT SOURCE CALORIES The caloric requirement for all Eskimos and Indians re- ported in this study was estimated to be the same as that for other United States residents of similar age and sex®. However, the requirement may be significantly greater for the majority of these people for they live where arctic weather conditions prevail the greater part of the year. Caloric intake data by age and sex are presented in Table 1. At no age level is the mean daily caloric intake equal to that recommended by the National Research Council and the percentage of caloric intakes deficient by these standards is high at all age levels. One of the most striking features of the Alaskan Indian and Eskimo diet is the extreme range in the individual’s mean daily nutrient intake. This might be expected in an economy essentially dependent on hunting and fishing, for in spite of efforts to plan ahead, adverse weather, lack of game and other factors often upset the best laid plans. (Table 1) Since the preschool years constitute an especially critical growth period more detailed information was sought concerning dietary patterns in this age group, particularly with reference to geographical differences in the nutrient adequacy of the diet. The lowest mean caloric intakes at the 2-5 year age level were found among southwestern Eskimo children. About two-thirds of their dietary records showed intakes less than the NRC recommended levels. The highest mean caloric intakes at these same age levels were found among Athapascan Indian children; however, even in this group only slightly more than half of their diets were ade- quate according to NRC standards. At six years of age the mean caloric intake was comparable for all geographic areas with a high percent showing caloric deficiency (Table 2). 31 SOURCE OF CALORIES IN THE DIET: Per capita calorie source by village is presented in Tables 3 and 4. Over one-third of the mean per capita caloric intake in all villages came from cereal and bread products, with approxi- mately another third provided by meat and fish combined. Meat was a greater source of calories in northern diets and fish in those from the southwest, except at the village of Akiak. This village is located in a forested area where moose, ground squirrel and beaver are available. At the other southwest villages meat sources were rather meager, consisting primarily of limited seasonal supplies of mink, wildfowl, rabbit and muskrat. Seal was available at Hooper Bay and Newtok, but their yearly take of this animal is considerably less than at the northern coastal villages. Calories from the fats ‘as such’ category include only those obtained from fats served as a spread for bread, crackers and hotcakes, and oil used as a dip for dried or frozen meat or fish. Newtok had the highest number of calories per capita from this food group, Kasigluk the lowest. Both are southwest tundra vil- lages, but Newtok is located near the coast and the people spend part of the year at coastal camps hunting seal. Consequently they have excellent supplies of seal oil, much of which is used as a dip for dried fish, the most important food in their winter dietary. TABLE 1.—CALORIC INTAKES OF ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS: ALL AREAS AND VILLAGES, ALL SEASONS, BY AGE AND SEX Caloric Intakes Number of Mean Percent Age Sex Category Records Daily Intake Under Intake Range N.R.C.(%) Adult male 20-60 yrs............. 746 2649 1006-5740 73.2 Adult male 60 + yrs............. 112 2258 893-3820 71.4 Adult female 20-60 yrs........... 633 2185 930-4503 60.4 Adult female 60 + yrs........... 120 1681 739-3381 65.3 Adult female Pregnant........... 121 2196 1093-4300 73.6 Adult female Lactating. ......... 193 2443 1197-5263 83.8 Male 13-19 Jr8i..coiviinnirimens 303 2386 1174-4161 87.0 Female 13-19 yrs................ 298 1992 893-3820 81.1 School child 7-12 yrs............. 916 1966 737-4174 72.7 Preschool 2-6 yrs................ 843 1543 529-3262 53.0 32 TABLE 2.—CALORIC INTAKES OF ESKIMO AND INDIAN CHILDREN 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE® By Area, By Age Level 2 to 3 Years 4 To 5 Years 6 Years Mean Percent Mean Percent Mean Percent Area No. Daily Under No. Daily Under No. Daily Under Records Intake NRC Records Intake NRC Records Intake NRC Northcentral Athapascan........ 41 1519 32 61 1720 46 31 1772 45 Northern Eskimo............... 86 1393 42 111 1641 63 48 1742 52 Southwestern Eskimo. .......... 187 1261 61 160 1560 67 118 1747 51 TABLE 3.—PROPORTION OF CALORIES FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok Dairy....coovviiiiiiiins 155 203 196 187 183 104 174 93 110 121 97 ERE. eon eens 12 16 7 19 26 7 9 5 16 15 Ment, .:ouismmnisumsssunee swore 301 427 444 507 442 536 435 43 32 143 78 FIshie ovine mms is amis ommgsnmnes 198 109 303 53 113 271 506 599 778 532 585 Fatsassuch.................... 110 121 230 195 270 195 131 135 32 96 348 Fruits. .....oovviiiennenenn, 147 70 98 32 157 57 97 86 80 86 15 Vegetables. ..................... 39 97 22 36 63 45 54 13 11 25 17 Breads & Cereals................ 764 709 721 929 407 528 692 715 767 841 597 Sugar Products... ous sseessnmess 210 238 194 153 161 144 156 135 88 92 140 Miscellaneous. .................. 27 23 16 11 26 7 7 5 5 4 Mean Per Capita Intake. ........ 1963 2013 2231 2122 1848 1894 2261 1829 1903 1956 1892 Percent Under NRC (4).......... 77 67 57 64 70 79 59 82 71 69 80 Number of Records.............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 TABLE 4.—PROPORTION OF CALORIES FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS By Village Calorie Source No. Per Mixed Village Records | Capita Food Intake | Local | Imported | School | Prepa- rations N. Central Athapascan Allakaket.......... 257 1963 491 1375 22 75 Huslia............ 369 2013 408 1530 owuc 5 wm » 75 Northern Eskimo Point Hope. ....... 362 2122 641 1349 81 51 Noatak........... 462 2231 848 1212 66 105 Shishmaref. ....... 372 1848 759 899 132 58 Shungnak......... 285 1894 873 849 92 80 Southwestern Eskimo Akiak... i050 0004 228 2261 841 1148 82 190 Napaskiak......... 422 1829 653 1021 66 89 Kasigluk. ......... 351 1903 782 949 68 104 Hooper Bay. ...... 1212 1956 717 1100 58 81 Newtok........... 247 1892 855 972 57 8 Kasigluk is located far inland and their seal oil supplies, obtained by cash purchases, are quite limited. Their preferred use of this product is in the preparation of various agutuk or dessert mix- tures. Calorie sources in adult male and female diets were quite similar on the whole. Females obtained slightly more calories from dairy products, fruits and vegetables, and the males slightly more from other food categories (Tables 3 and 4). Calorie sources in the young person’s diet varied from adult sources in several significant respects. Milk, for example, sup- lied less than 3 percent of the total calories in adult diets, but fur- nished 14 percent in the diet of children 2 to 6 years of age. The schoolchild’s diet contained fewer milk calories than did that of the preschool child, in spite of the fact that most of them received milk at the school lunch. However, a significant number of young preschool children continued to be bottle-fed well beyond two years of age. Calories from meat and fish were highest in adult diets. These foods were much less important as a calorie source in the adolescent child’s diet and even less so in the 2 to 6 year-old’s diet. 35 The same pattern holds true for calories from fats ‘as such’, and from sugar products. On the other hand, the diet of the adolescent and school child contained more calories from fruits, vegetables and bread and cereal products, generally through the school lunch which is served in the Eskimo villages only. Imported foods provided more calories than local foods in all the study villages. Their use was somewhat higher in the Athapascan Indian villages, probably because these villages are located in good mining and trapping areas where the people have had closer and more continuous daily association with Caucasians over a longer period of time than have most Eskimos. Their diets were similar to those of the average American family except that moose and beaver were their primary meat sources, and their use of fruits and vegetables was more limited, primarily because of cost. The two Indian villages had fewer total calories from local food sources and more sugar calories per capita. In general, approximately equal amounts of calories came from local and imported foods on adult diets, while on the adoles- cent and preschool child’s diet local foods provided about one-third of the calories and slightly less than one-third on the school child’s diet (Tables A—1 through A-3, Appendix). PROTEIN Mean daily protein intakes were high at all age and sex levels and the percents with a deficiency in this nutrient were quite low (Table 5). Slightly less than one-third of the total cal- ories in the overall adult diet came from protein. There was very little difference due to sex, except that from 17 to 19 years of age, females obtained fewer protein calories than did the males (Table A-1 Appendix). Adult males under 60 years of age in the northern village of Shungnak had the highest percentage of calories from protein. This village is admirably situated for the hunting of caribou as well as for obtaining good supplies of fish. In the southwest, the interior tundra village of Kasigluk had a consistently higher percentage of calories from protein than did the other area study villages with one exception: the 17 to 19 year old males obtained less than one-fifth of their total calories from protein. Food intakes at this age level were very erratic in all the villages, especially during those periods when they were not actively engaged in hunting, fishing and hauling wood. 36 TABLE 5.—PROTEIN INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages All Seasons, By Age and Sex Protein Intakes Number Mean Age and Sex Category of Daily Intake Percent Records Intake Range Under (gm) (gm) NRC(4) Male 20-60. .................... 746 202.6 | 28.2-759.3 2.9 Male 60 +..................... 112 179.9 | 46.9-438.0 4.9 Mole 13-19, . csv emmssenizsmasrs 303 161.9 | 23.7-482.7 15.6 Female 20-60................... 633 171.9 | 27.5-618.3 2.6 Female 60 +. .................. 120 133.8 | 36.0-365.4 3.2 Female Pregnant................ 121 172.1 | 39.4-454.1 8.0 Female Lactating. .............. 193 182.8 | 29.8-495.5 14.7 Female 13-19................... 208 136.0 | 46.9-438.0 14.0 Child 7-12. .................... 916 120.2 | 13.2-361.3 10.2 Child2-6...................... 843 94.5 | 20.2-324.8 7.5 The per capita intake of protein by village was high; most of it was of local origin, primarily meat and fish. Meat was a more important source in the northern areas and fish in the south- west. The only other significant sources of protein in these diets were milk, bread and cereal products. Together they provided from as little as 8 percent of the total protein in Shungnak diets to about 28 percent at Point Hope (Tables 6 and 7). The school child’s diet contained about twice as much milk protein as the adult diet. Most of it was from milk served at school. But even in the children’s diets, meat and fish were the major sources of this nutrient (Tables B-2 through B-4 Appen- dix). FAT Approximately one-third of the total calories in adult diets came from fat. The proportion was slightly less for adolescent males than for females (Table C-1, Appendix). A comparison of per capita fat intakes in Eskimo and Indian diets shows that, in ‘ 37 TABLE 6.—PROPORTION OF PROTEIN FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Grams N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask | Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok Dairy... .ocsonmsisensi mes rumes 8.9 9.4 10.2 10.0 9.9 5.0 8.2 4.6 7.0 6.2 4.9 BEES. «eens 0.6 0.9 0.3 1.4 1.4 0.3 0.4 0.3]........ 1.1 1.2 MEBE «cv: 0 5 bins oa hii 0 & masnn n Snir n 58.7 60.7 79.2 77.4 95.3 90.2 53.0 7.9 6.3 27.0 16.1 FREI. «2 comin giaos #3 wom 0 5 wows 0 4 eww» 4 40.4 18.0 61.5 10.3 19.8 52.3 66.6 102.4 153.4 84.1 97.1 Fabs, iiniissooisovarsmmsssmmess 0.3 0.8 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.5 OL [ooneonwe 0.1 0.1 PRUs. cose nmiss time ssnmsvmnsosn 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.2 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.4 1.7 0.7 0.1 Vegetables. ..................... 1.3 3.1 1.2 1.7 2.7 1.9 2.5 0.6 0.7 1.3 1.0 Breadsetal.................... 15.1 15.1 15.4 18.3 9.3 9.0 13.9 12.7 15.5 14.1 9.2 Sugaretal....sisesrsnnssrnvies 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 OX Jes 2 mme os Jaonra ne wm als sve nes whom so amnion n Miscellaneous. ...cconsisnmasss 1.3 0.9 0.7 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.2 O. 1 J. vonemen Per Capita Intake............... 127.6 | 109.5 | 170.7 | 120.6 | 141.4 | 159.9 | 146.2 | 129.3 | 184.8 | 134.7 129.7 Number of Records. ............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 Percent under NRC(%)........... 12.3 6.7 4.2 14.5 6.8 4.3 3.5 9.2 2.1 13.6 8.6 TABLE 7.—PROPORTION OF PROTEIN FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS By Village In Grams Total No. Per Protein Source Village Records | Capita Intake | Local | Import | School | Mixed N. Central Athapascan Alakeakeb. coun » mms nn 257 127.6 70.2 48.5 2.2 6.7 Busha. ; ocis aims mmiess 369 109.5 66.8 34.9 [imme 7.8 Northern Eskimo Noatak............... 462 170.7 127.5 27.7 2.0 13.5 Poit Hope. : vues sini ss 362 120.6 81.4 20.8 3.6 5.8 Shishmaref............ 372 141.4 109.8 20.9 5.5 5.2 Shungnak............. 285 159.9 129.6 15.4 4.1 10.8 Southwestern Eskimo ARink. ..ovvnv smn simone 228 146.2 110.8 25.3 3.2 6.9 Hooper Bay. ....us: 000. 1212 134.7 109.6 20.4 2.3 2.4 Napaskiak............. 422 129.3 107.9 16.4 2.3 2.7 Newtok............... 247 129.7 113.7 13.6 pA “A — Kasigluk.............. 351 184.8 152.9 21.1 2.3 8.5 general, fat intakes are higher among the Eskimos. Imported fats appear to be equally important for both racial groups; however, Eskimos obtain and use larger amounts of local varieties of fat (Tables 8 and 9). The kinds and amounts of local fats used are determined by a number of factors, chiefly: village location, season, village population in relation to total local supplies, sex, and accultura- tion experiences. Napaskiak and Newtok, for example, are both located in southwest Alaska and they are of comparable size. Napaskiak is located on the banks of the Kuskokwim River ap- proximately 40 miles from the coast, while Newtok is located on the banks of a tidal slough near Hazen Bay. The people at the latter village spend about five and one-half months out of every year at various coastal hunting and fishing sites where they ob- tain, successively, seal, herring, wildfowl and their eggs, and flounder. Although the sealing season is relatively short—about 4 to 6 weeks—the seal oil supplies obtained are usually sufficient to meet their yearly needs. It is used almost daily in their diets. By comparison, in Napaskiak the seal oil supply is quite limited since most of it is purchased from coastal Eskimos. Ac- cording to village informants, only a few Napaskiak families now 39 ov TABLE 8.—PROPORTION OF FAT FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper Food Group ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref | nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok DoirYosm ss wm s mares mms vamne oe 7.0 10.2 10.7 10.9 31:1 5.8 9.8 5.4 5.5 7.0 5.6 BEE. eevee] 1.2 {| eecns 1.6 24 1.3 1.1 Ment. ......oo-omisswmes sums ws 12.9 19.4 13.3 20.5 7.8 15.4 30.8 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 Fish... 2.9 2.8 6.2 1.1 4.9 4.2 20.9 17.9 24.9 18.8 19.8 Pads™. ccovnmrsannsennmns suns nme 12.1 12.3 24.8 21.9 35.1 22.0 13.7 15.3 3.6 10.9 39.2 Fruits... ..oncisncnssommssvmnrarsfassomerefmverames 2.2 |..oomen- 8.8 [c:omren 6.5 6.7 5.6 6.8 |:r0vsenn Vegetables. . ................... 1B bow oss mwas woes anos smennn 1.8 [..ommrsnfsiisscaifsnmssenaferssnmiilomeeranils vows sue Bread and cereal. ............... 31.2 31.0 29.6 37.8 19.6 25.4 25.6 31.4 34.2 38.5 35.6 BORAT... .cviiiiiiinininvnnesnaerrene eee eee ee ere fe ee VIESCEllamBOUT. « «cvs » wire s+ 35 £ + sew)ie « sco ww adincn s 2 wince whe wovin oo wsn}o » 0 wove «+ joie 2 ama]e s wns ss nfuv sams ofs mos sa oage ssn wmpafomws se wae vaviw s 2 0s Per Capita Intake. .............. 67.6 76.9 86.8 93.8 86.4 72.8 | 107.3 78.7 74.8 85.8 103.3 Number of Records.............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 * Served as a separate food item. TABLE 9.—PROPORTION OF FAT FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS By Village In Grams Fat Source Number of All Food | Local | Import | Mixed Village Records Sources Foods | Foods | Foods N. Central Athapascan Allakaket.................. 257 67.6 15.1 50.4 2.1 Huslia..................... 369 76.9 16.6 57.1 3.2 Northern Eskimo Point Hope... wa iinmiswamise 362 93.8 34.0 57.7 2.1 Noatak.................... 462 86.8 34.6 50.7 1.5 Shungnak.................. 285 72.8 32.3 39.2 1.3 Shishmaref................. 372 86.4 40.2 42.6 3.6 Southwestern Eskimo Akdak, ..iumisionmiinmisimme 228 107.3 43.7 49.8 13.8 Napaskiak................. 422 78.7 21.6 50.2 6.9 Kasigluk................... 351 74.8 25.9 42.6 6.3 Hooper Bay................ 1212 85.8 26.2 53.1 6.5 Newtok...oucvivvisvweranns 247 103.3 42.1 60.4 0.8 migrate to the coast to do their own sealing as in former years. Much of their seal oil supply is used preferentially in the prepara- tion of agutuk (dessert) mixtures which are not daily food items but are served as occasional treats throughout the year. At one time salmon oil was an important item in the Napaskiak diet, but the extraction of oil from salmon is another of the old-time customs that is rapidly disappearing. As a result of differences in location, the per capita intake of fat from local foods at Newtok is about twice that at Napaskiak. Furthermore, almost 40 percent of the fat in Newtok diets is served as a separate food item while at Napaskiak less than one- fifth of the total is used in this way. (Tables 8 and 9). Hooper Bay is perhaps the best example of a village that has reached a size which puts a strain on local food supply. It is a coastal village located on Norton Sound about halfway between the Yukon and Kuskokwim river deltas. The locally available foods are similar to those of Newtok to the south. The most im- portant food resources common to these two villages are seal, wildfowl, needlefish, blackfish, herring, tom cods and muskrats. The villages differ in that Newtok people also obtain flounder and a larger number of muskrat and mink per capita, while at Hooper 41 Bay there is a limited salmon run most years, and clams, white- fish, wild berries and greens are available. Both villages were probably using their local food resources to the maximum at the time food records were collected (1957-58). However, Newtok was the smallest of all the study villages (population 117) and Hooper Bay the largest (population 431). The per capita fat in- take at Hooper Bay was not only less than that at Newtok but Newtok diets contained almost half again as much fat from local sources. The high percentage of fat from local sources at Akiak may be somewhat misleading as the records for this village were rep- resentative of two seasons only—fall and winter. A data collection trip was made at the time when beaver, a very fat animal, was a prominent food in their diets. This food is only available for about a month to six weeks. Akiak is located about 30 miles upriver from Napaskiak in a wooded area with easy access to both the foothills of the Alaska Range and tundra areas. Moose and beaver were important ani- mal foods and occasionally bear and caribou meat and fat appeared on the village dietary. Also, several families still seriously hunt ground squirrels, rabbits and other small rodents. In general, the intake of fat from local sources was higher in the northern Eskimo villages all of which have access to good local supplies. In three of these villages—Point Hope, Noatak, and Shishmaref—the people hunt sea mammals (bowhead whale, ugruk and seal at Point Hope; beluga whale and ugruk at Noatak *; and seal and ugruk at Shishmaref). In addition at Point Hope, Noatak and Shungnak they hunt caribou. All of these animals are good sources of fat. Shungnak people no longer journey to the coast (Kotzebue Sound) to hunt ugruk and obtain additional supplies of oil by barter as in the past; instead, seal oil supplies are now shipped in. Porcupine, marmot and bear were once important seasonal sources of fat in the diet of these people, but both the hunting area and activities have been greatly restricted, and are now confined for the most part to a limited area near the village. Consequently, these animals now serve only as a very occasional fat source. The two Athapascan Indian villages—Huslia and Allakaket —are both located on the banks of the Koyukuk River in north- central Alaska in a predominantly spruce-birch forest area. Moose and beaver are their primary local sources of fat, although caribou * Noatak village is about 40 miles inland on the banks of the Noatak River but the people still migrate to the coast in late May and remain there through- out the summer. 42 are available at Allakaket about once every three years. They were not available the year diet records were collected. Because of current hunting and trapping regulations, moose and beaver fat are probably included in the Indian diet less often than in the past. The use of other animals such as bear, porcupine and rabbits has also been curtailed, primarily because most of the families stay in the village the year round and the supply in the village environs is dwindling. Muskrats which are available near the village, are still a prominent food in the late winter or early spring diets. They are hunted by men, women, and children, in fact, by anyone who can handle a .22 rifle. The total amount of fat from all local sources in the present day Indian diet is considerably less than in the Eskimo diet. Like the Kuskok- wim Eskimo, interior Indians used to extract salmon fat from fish heads but this is no longer a common practice. A comparison of mean daily fat intakes in the diets of adult males, adult females and school children reveals that males have somewhat higher fat intakes, including more from both local and imported sources. The child from 7-12 years of age obtains only about one-fourth of his total fat intake from local sources (Tables C-2 through C4, Appendix). Another very important change that has taken place in the diets of these people, especially that of the majority of the Eski- mos, is the increase in the use of the more saturated varieties of fats. These are primarily imported butter, margarine, hydro- genated fat and edible beef tallow. CARBOHYDRATE Another of the major changes in the Indian and Eskimo diet brought about by closer association with Caucasians is the increased content of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate sources were negligible in aboriginal times and consisted primarily of that ob- tainable from such meat and fish products as the livers, fish roe, whale muktuk, the stomach contents of moose and caribou and limited supplies of plant products such as wild edible greens, roots and berries. At best these were meagre sources of this nutrient in the overall dietary. CALORIES FROM CARBOHYDRATE Carbohydrate supplied approximately one-third of the cal- ories in adult diets and slightly more in the adolescent diet. In the overall dietary of all areas and villages combined, there was very 43 TABLE 10.—PROPORTION OF CARBOHYDRATE FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS By Village In Grams Carbohydrate Source Number | Mean Village of Per Local | Import | School | Mixed Records | Capita Intake N. Central Athapascan Allakaket........coccunn 257 217.0 4.8 202.5 3.2 6.5 Huslia. :.::vvsommusaes 369 224.6 6.1 207.0 ls swnss am 1.5 Northern Eskimo Point Hope............ 362 | 212.7 1.1 | 200.7 8.9 2.0 Noatak............... 462 | 182.8 6.2 | 161.7 9.7 5.2 Shishmaref. ........... 372 182.1 2.1 153.7 22.7 3.6 Shungnalt. so 500 wows 285 141.5 3.2 121.9 11.5 4.9 Southwestern Eskimo Ala, ... cos amensamne 228 176.0 8.2 156.2 9.1 7.5 Hooper Bay. .......... 1212 | 157.5 2.4 | 144.4 7.0 3.8 Napaskiak............. 422 143.8 0.6 130.5 8.5 4.2 Newtok............... 247 111.7 1.4 102.8 7.1 0.4 Kasigluk, o.con0, snmees 351 151.0 0.4 135.9 9.2 5.5 little variation in percentage of calories obtained from carbohy- drate by males and females at different ages (Table D-1, Appen- dix). There were, however, significant variations among the vil- lages in per capita carbohydrate intake, with the Athapascan Indians having the highest intake. In general, the northern Es- kimo had a higher intake than those living in the southwest (Tables 10 and 11). SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATE Breads and cereals were the primary source of carbohy- drate in the diets studied, accounting for one-half or more of the total per capita intake in all villages except Shishmaref where they furnished only one-third. Sugar products—refined sugar, candy, syrup and soft drinks—were a significant but variable source of carbohydrate in all villages. They provided a somewhat higher percentage in the northern study villages, especially in the Indian villages. The percentage of carbohydrate provided by milk and fruit products was also higher in the north. 44 14 TABLE 11.—PROPORTION OF CARBOHYDRATE FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Grams N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia Hope | maref nak iak luk Bay DIBIrY i. «tins womin no omons w # rvmin v2 mn 13.5 15.9 13.4 16.4 7.9 6.3 9.1 8.3 Egg... 0:2 fe con rsaafenmmmevnforsnsensbon esses a Meat. ................c.o.o.... 2.0 2.2 4.4 4.9 1.7 4.2 4.8 0.9 0.8 1. Bhthe sine sm 0 2 0 TRE 500 mer ww 0.4 0.4 0.2 ........ 0.7 0.4 0.9 0.3 1.9 0. 1.2 Fatsassuch.................... 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 [owvovw)sssamens 0.2 Fruits.......................... 35.8 18.6 19.6 8.5 38.9 14.4 9.9 6.8 6.9 8. 2.0 Vegetables...................... 5.2 15.7 3.9 6.4 9.3 7.4 8.1 20 1.9 3. 29 Grain Products. ................. 103.5 106.5 94.3 137.6 64.3 69.3 101.4 93.2 105.9 111. 62.6 Sugar Produects*................. 52.1 60.6 43.9 40.0 45.7 36.5 38.4 33.2 23.4 23. 35.7 Miscellaneous... ................ 4.3 4.5 2.6 1.7 4.7 1:3 0.7 1.0 1.1 1, 0.1 Per Capita Intake. .............. 217.0 224.6 182.8 | 212.7 182.1 141.5 176.0 143.8 151.0 157. 111.7 Number of Records.............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 121 247 * Candy, soft drinks. These four major food groups accounted for 90 percent or more of the carbohydrate in all villages, most of it from imported food products. Local berries were used when available in all vil- lages except the most northerly village, Point Hope. The few Point Hope families who still make summer and fall camps along the Kukpuk and other mainland rivers, may collect limited quanti- ties. The use of canned and dried fruits was limited by cost. They appeared more frequently in northern diets than in those from the southwestern area where the per capita monetary in- come is considerably lower. According to the 1960 census report, the average yearly family income in the Wade Hampton election district in which Hooper Bay is located was approximately $900, while in the northern district it was estimated to be about $2,40003), A comparison of the per capita carbohydrate intakes from fruit by age categories showed that the school and teen-age child’s intake was highest, with about one-third of the intake provided by the school lunch. However, this applied only to the diets of children from the Eskimo villages who participated in a school lunch program. Canned and stewed dried fruit were quite fre- quently served at school. The percentage of carbohydrate provided by the various food sources at different age levels and by sex is presented in Tables D-2 through D—4, Appendix. CALCIUM Mean daily calcium intake levels among Alaskan Eskimos and Indians were considerably below those recommended by the National Research Council for all age, sex, and metabolic status groups. Three-fourths or more of the diets for each of the above categories were deficient by these standards. The ranges in mean intake level of this nutrient were extremely wide. Adult males and females over 60 years of age had lower mean daily intake levels than did younger adults. This may have been due either to a smaller intake of food or to stricter adherence to old and well established dietary patterns in which milk was lacking. The addition of evaporated milk to coffee is now a fairly common practice especially for younger adults (Table 12). 46 TABLE 12.—CALCIUM INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages, All Seasons, By Age and Sex Calcium Intakes Number Mean Age-Sex Category of Daily Intake Percent Records Intake Range Under (mg) (mg) NRC(%) Adult male 20-60 yrs............ 746 576 399-3813 75 Adult male 60 + yrs............. 112 461 381-2010 87 Adult female 20-60 yrs. ......... 633 481 254-2197 87 Adult female 60 + yrs........... 120 322 87-886 95 Adult female Pregnant........... 121 561 279-3115 97 Adult female Lactating. ......... 193 531 197-2027 99 Male 13-19 yrs. . ............... 303 660 372-1880 96 Female 13-19 yrs. ............. .. 208 580 381-2010 97 School Child 7-12 yrs............ 916 684 250-1936 80 Preschool Child 2-6 yrs. ......... 843 641 33-2319 85 There appeared to be only a moderate increase in mean daily calcium intake during pregnancy and lactation. About 18 percent of the records for women in these two groups showed mean daily calcium intake levels of less than 500 mg.; over half had mean intake levels under 600 mg. daily ; and only 3 percent of those for pregnant women and 1 percent for lactating women showed a mean intake level equal to or exceeding the National Research Council recommendations. A comparison of calcium intake levels for the preschool child, 2 to 5 years of age, by geographic area, showed that three- fourths of the diet records for the two-year olds had mean daily intake levels less than that recommended by the NRC and that intake levels were highest for the North Central Athapascan In- dian child. At 3 to 5 years of age, in all areas, mean daily intake levels had not only decreased but the percentage of children with intakes under NRC recommended levels had increased signif- icantly. Continued formula feeding of some children well into the second year of life probably accounts for the higher intake level at two years of age. The extreme variance between low and high calcium intakes in all villages might be interpreted, at least in part, as evidence of the variable importance given to milk as an item in the young child’s diet. Family economics may also be a factor (Table E-1 Appendix). 47 TABLE 13.—PROPORTION OF CALCIUM FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok Daity...ooviiiiiii ies 315 349 342 334 379 191 306 169 232 226 172 Bag. ooinnmas mmm s wwe www sun 3 5 2 7 10 2 2 2 oremmanen 5 5 Meat... .i.oosivparsnomrssmessry 29 34 30 34 37 42 31 4 3 11 7 PIER. vi vs win vw mtn na REE FER 33S 28 21 53 8 30 43 55 104 136 95 356 Fatsassuch.................... 3 4 2 2 3 1 3 3 1 1 2 Profle coco is pans som es mone w wn 18 11 17 5 23 10 8 8 6 7 2 Vegetablos.....ov.vnniisnnrrnnes 7 20 7 10 18 11 14 5 5 5 7 Grain Products. ....avssswecmnns 214 193 194 246 118 163 158 217 265 253 212 Sugar Products. ................. 4 13 10 4 8 3 B feeernmma]ssninine 3 HEPES Miscellaneous... ................. 8 7 4 2 8 2 1 2 1 B eens vu Per Capita Intake............... 629 657 661 652 634 468 582 514 649 607 763 Number of Records.............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 Percent Under NRC(4).......... 99 100 99 100 100 99 100 100 99 100 100 TABLE 14.—PROPORTION OF CALCIUM FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS By Village In Milligrams Number| Mean Village ot Daily | Local | Import | School | Vita- [Mixed Records | Intake |Foods| Foods | Lunch | mins | Foods N. Central Athapascan Huslia.............. 369 657 39 609 |........]...... 9 Allakokeb. oo. owe ins 257 629 52 481 79 9 8 Northern Eskimo Noatak............. 462 661 81 533 40 i. ..... 7 Point Hope. . ....... 362 652 41 532 76 |...... 3 Shishmaref.......... 372 634 68 448 112 |...... 6 Shungnak........... 285 468 75 342 42 2 7 Southwestern Eskimo Akiak. ............. 228 582 7 416 79 ovo was 10 Napaskiak.......... 422 514 108 332 69 [...... 5 Kasigluk............ 351 649 | 132 463 43 [...... 11 Hooper Bay......... 1212 607 | 105 453 44 |... .. 5 Newtok............. 247 763 | 368 341 BL lowes 0 SOURCE OF CALCIUM IN THE DIET On a per capita basis, dairy products, chiefly canned evap- orated milk, and grain products, both imported, accounted for three-fourths or more of the total dietary calcium at eight of the Eskimo and both Athapascan Indian villages. At the remaining Eskimo village of Newtok, fish was almost equally important as a source of this nutrient (Table 13). As a matter of fact, fish was the only outstanding calcium source of local origin in these diets. It appeared to be a significant source on southwestern Eskimo diets particularly, supplying from about one-tenth of the total per capita intake at Akiak to almost one-half at Newtok. One or both of two small fishes, blackfish and needlefish, the latter sometimes mixed with fingerling of smelts, are available in varying amounts throughout the winter and early spring in this area. These fish, eaten whole, are more important in the diet of adults than that of children. The only other significant source of fish calcium in most of the study villages was fish heads, chiefly salmon and whitefish. The cooked fresh product is popular during the summer and fall fish runs. Dried fish heads are used mostly as dog feed. 49 Small spicules of bone adhering to the flesh of dried fish may also be a source of some calcium in the diet, particularly in the southwest where dried fish is eaten almost daily during the greater part of the year. Unfortunately, there was no accurate way of measuring and recording this source. Animal blood was a minor source of calcium on the diets. Some of the records in which it appeared were collected at Hooper Bay at a time when fresh seal blood was being used in the prep- aration of special soups. It did not appear in any of the other vil- lage records. Blood soups and gravies are apparently not used as often today in the Eskimo and Indian diet as they were in the past. Al- though they may still be used in time honored ways at the hunting camps, it was not possible to collect dietary records there. Milk was, of course, the primary imported source of cal- cium. It accounted for about one-fourth of the calcium in adult female diets; one-fifth in those of the adult male; about one-half in adolescent diets; and for more than one-half in diets of the 2 to 6 year old child (Tables E-2 through E-5, Appendix). Bread and cereal products were also good sources of cal- cium. Pilot Bread and Jersey Creams, two types of ship’s crackers, provided some calcium; the former appeared in the diets fre- quently. In addition, baking powder containing calcium was used in the preparation of some of the homemade breads, particularly in the southwest Eskimo villages. The question which most often came to mind when review- ing calcium intakes was: what was the probable intake level in aboriginal times? Comparison of the calcium content of adult fe- male diets at Hooper Bay (southwestern Eskimo) and Point Hope (northern Eskimo) showed fairly comparable mean daily intake levels, but Hooper Bay women obtained more than three times as much from local foods, chiefly from whole blackfish and needlefish. If we assume that Hooper Bay women are still using these foods to the maximum of their availability then the calcium intake must have been still lower in the Point Hope diet where these particular fish are not available and other calcium sources are limited. It should be pointed out that even ‘at Hooper Bay the above men- tioned fish sources are not continuously available throughout the year, nor are they so abundant that significant supplies can be dried or otherwise preserved for off-season use (Table E-2, Ap- pendix). According to older Eskimos in all the study villages greater use was made in the past of foods such as animal blood (mainly seal and caribou), crushed animal bones, fish heads, wildfowl eggs 50 including the developing embryo, immature wildfowl, putrified fish products, stomach contents of moose and caribou and wild edible greens. These would have provided larger intakes of cal- cium for some Eskimos and Indians than they do in current diets. None of these foods, however, were constant or daily sources of dietary calcium but appeared on diets at specific seasons of the year, usually for relatively short periods. Even when available in storable quantities, they were used mostly as occasional food items. Further, the calcium present in some of the wild edible greens, such as sourdock, which contains oxalic acid, would not be com- pletely available, IRON Mean daily iron intakes for all age groups and both sexes were well above the recommended levels. There was, however, a wide range in mean individual intakes—from less than 2 mg. to over 300 mg. daily. Adolescents of both sexes, and adult females had the highest percentage with intakes below the NRC standards (Table 15). Data on iron intakes among children 2 to 5 years of age are presented separately in Table 16, in order to illustrate area dif- TABLE 15.—IRON INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages, All Seasons, By Age and Sex Iron Intakes Number Mean of Daily Intake Percent Age-Sex Category Records Intakes Range Under (mg) (mg) NRC(%) Adult male 20-60 yrs............ 746 36.8 1.7-288.8 11.2 Adult Male 60 + yrs. ........... 112 26.2 3.8-197.5 15.1 Male 13-19 yrs... .............. 303 29.4 1.4-282.5 31.8 Adult Female 20-60 yrs.......... 633 31.5 1.7-194.9 18.2 Adult Female 60 + yrs. ......... 120 24.1 2.0-119.5 39.5 Adult Female Pregnant. ......... 121 32.7 | 4.0-175.2 36.8 Adult Female Lactating. ......... 193 31.3 | 2.6-340.4 37.1 Female 13-19 yrs................ 298 24.4 | 3.8-197.5 43.6 School child 7-12 yrs. ........... 916 21.7 1.6-197 .4 20.0 Preschool 2-6 yrs................ 843 15.5 1.5-189.0 17.8 1 pt ferences in adequacy of intake. About one-third of the diets for the southwestern Eskimo child were iron deficient by NRC stand- ards, while diets of the northern preschool child showed less de- ficiency. The highest percentage of diet records showing a deficiency in iron was found in the southwestern tundra villages of Napaskiak and Kasigluk “vhere fish was the primary source of protein (Tables 17 and 18). Scott et al?) and Porter and Scott?2 found that the hemo- globin levels in both southwestern and northern Eskimo men and women were generally below accepted standards. The ICNND survey team@® also found this to be true. In general, Scott and Heller" found iron therapy ineffective in raising hemoglobin levels except for a few cases in southwestern Alaska. The consequences of the high iron intakes found in some of these diets are not known. SOURCE OF IRON IN THE DIET Meat was the major source of this nutrient at all the north- ern villages. It was a good but more limited source at Akiak, Hooper Bay, and Newtok in the Southwest. At the two remaining villages—Napaskiak and Kasigluk—the use of meat was limited to short seasonal periods when mink and wildfowl were available. For the major portion of the year the chief protein food was fish, much of it quite low in iron content. There are, however, two small fishes—Dblackfish and needle- fish—which are good sources of iron since they are eaten whole. TABLE 16.—IRON INTAKES OF THE ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN CHILD 2-5 YEARS OF AGE By Area In Milligrams Iron Intake Number of Mean Percent Area Records Daily Intake Under Intake Range NRC(4) Southwestern Eskimo............ 347 11.9 1.5-98.3 34 Northern Eskimo. ............... 197 23.7 3.8-88.1 5 Northcentral Athapascan......... 102 13.9 2.6-44.9 9 Totals. . .cisnsiiommers mmassmass 646 14.7 1.5-98.3 2 TABLE 17.—PROPORTION OF IRON FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok Dalry. cnzisnmainmens vanes amess 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 TREE. cvsutirn: ovis 0 tin 1 4 Brit § fon £4 0.2 0.2 |........ 0.3 0.3]. ....... Bd Lien ot Jorn wl rin + 0.2 0.3 Meat. . ... SAR hires ted ok Hore 10.7 8.2 17.6 29.4 48.7 20.9 7.9 1.5 1.8 14.7 7.4 Fish... ovionvissmesssnpsrmnine 0.7 0.4 2.6 0.3 0.6 0.8 2.5 2.5 3.7 3.2 8.5 Pats as such. cc::cuiosnmissnensafpessmens 0.1 0.1 0.2 |..oiennsfssmurson]es vmnronfe:scmssafpossmessfomssnmesfoomusasns PHUHS.....c vom ow minir es in mdi $n 1.3 0.4 0.7 0.3 1.2 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 [........ Vegetables...................... 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 Breads & Cereals... .............. 7.3 4.1 4.1 6.0 2.6 2.9 3.1 5.3 6.8 6.0 3.4 Sugar Produets. ....ccovviinireens 0.2 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.2 0:8 [ussnmessforssme es Ou fe vmnsnne Miscellaneous. .................. 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0:1 |. inie00s Per Capita Intake. .............. 21.4 15.8 26.6 37.8 55.6 26.2 15.3 9.9 13.1 25. 20.2 Number of Records.............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 Percent Under NRC (4).......... 21 15 11 9 6 12 35 63 47 26 41 TABLE 18.—PROPORTION OF IRON FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams Iron Supply Number | Per Village of Capita | Local | Import | School | Vita- [Mixed Records | Intake |Foods| Foods | Lunch | mins | Foods N. Central Athapascan Allakaket........... 257 21.4 ( 7.3 73 Tin ne nms 6.1 0.7 Huslia.............. 369 15.8 7.1 TO boss wx nmne s mms s 0.8 Northern Eskimo Point Hope... «cvs. 362 37.8] 27.9 7.5 0.5]...... 1.9 Noatak............. 462 26.6 | 18.2 5.6 0.4 |...... 2.4 Shishmaref.......... 372 55.6 | 48.7 5.2 1.2 |...... 0.5 Shungnak........... 285 26.2 | 19.5 4.1 0.6 0.1 1.9 Southwestern Eskimo AKIak. coisnminsenas 228 15.3 8.7 4.6 0.5 ¥: snes 1.5 Napaskiak.......... 422 9.9 3.8 5.4 0.5]...... 0.2 Kasigluk............ 351 13.1 5.1 6.9 0.5}...... 0.6 Hooper Bay......... 1212 | 25.2 17.4 6.7 0.4|...... 0.7 Newtok............. 247 20.21 18.1 3.6 0.9 lis wmssfoweson One or both are available during part of the winter at all south- western villages. The richest source of iron in these diets was the flesh of the various sea mammals: seal, ugruk, beluga whale, bowhead whale and walrus. The muscular tissue of these diving animals has a very high myoglobin content and therefore a high iron con- tent. The use of these animals accounts for most of the extraordi- narily high iron intake levels found in some of these diets. In general, these animals were an important food source only in coastal villages—Point Hope, Shishmaref and Hooper Bay—or vil- lages whose inhabitants spend a significant part of the year on the coast (Noatak and Newtok). They were the most important meat source in the year round diet at Point Hope and Shishmaref. Bread and cereal products were the only other significant sources of iron in these diets. The homemade breads were made with enriched flour; oatmeal was the most popular of the breakfast cereals; and macaroni, also made with enriched flour, was com- monly used as a soup ingredient. Local foods are still the major source of iron in the diets of all age groups and both sexes (Tables F-1 through F-3, Appen- dix). 54 VITAMIN A Mean daily intakes of vitamin A were more than adequate in all age and sex categories, except for pregnant and lactating women (Table 19). Individual mean daily intakes of this vitamin, however, were extremely variable—from a low of 40 to a high of 124,308 I.U. indicating that although there were excellent sources of vita- min A they were not consistently available throughout the year. A comparison of seasonal intake levels reveals that mean daily intakes during summer were significantly lower than at other sea- sons and that they were often below the National Research Coun- cil recommended intake levels. Mean daily intakes for adolescent boys and girls and for children 7 to 12 years of age were highest during the winter months. The greater share of their increased intakes at this season came from a multiple vitamin preparation given to those attending school in the Eskimo villages. Although the mean intake levels for the groups as a whole were found ade- quate, about 33 percent of the diets for the 7 to 12 year old chil- dren and 85 percent of those for lactating women were deficient in vitamin A content when compared with NRC recommendations (Table 19 and G-1, Appendix). TABLE 19.—VITAMIN A INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages, All Seasons, By Age and Sex Level Vitamin A Intake Number Mean Age-Sex Category of Daily Intake Percent Records Intake Range Under a€.4.) LU.) NRC(+4) Adult male 20-60 yrs............ 746 6800 83-106758 50.4 Adult male 60 + yrs............ 112 6459 | 583-31109 48.7 Male 13-19 918. : « s www» sums s sms o 303 7203 605-84882 47 .4 Adult female 20-60 yrs........... 633 6445 | 241-124308 57.3 Adult female 60 + yrs........... 120 5279 | 605-27852 65.3 Adult female Pregnant........... 121 6292 | 355-31166 66.4 Adult female Lactating. ......... 193 4904 151-28919 85.3 Female 13-19 yrs................ 208 6587 | 583-31109 42.3 School child 7-12 yrs. ........... 916 6463 17-37383 36.7 Preschool 2-6 yrs................ 843 3771 40-33064 43.0 an a TABLE 20.—PROPORTION OF VITAMIN A FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In International Units N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok DAILY. . «coi 1 wren obi 5 Sin ren #4 482 563 588 508 533 295 494 344 342 352 292 BEE. nin + wigtcnnitnnsn sw eres anne, 45 95 113 33 143 155 50 55 BY. [an cue 119 115 Mak, ones vom spurns sume s pwr a» 1031 1659 1116 3458 3262 2012 851 183 112 1003 626 Fish: cnnisonmesmmsssnvassmnes 1088 325 2112 304 877 1135 988 1542 2826 1798 1764 Pots ns suwoh. cos: somsssmnssameis 515 477 1062 644 1409 959 536 862 132 317 1157 Fruits. ..........ccovviiienann. 1111 233 340 186 1276 395 330 246 406 281 29 Vegetables...................... 236 430 741 81 2142 508 298 14 122 1344 |........ Breads and Cereal......o.u: vos 5s 123 137 51 74 33 25 37 8 10 30 |... Sugar Produets coun o sues » smn os 8 Lois nnsm wife wove 5 9 50) ® « Some & 8 baw 2 nares mie & 5 wnonhs & seen 2 59 dwe s ween v)s wo gs mes nme se oye 5 5 EE Miscellaneous*. ................. 43 4 641 799 1409 890 988 998 939 729 798 Per Capita Intake. .............. 4729 3941 6684 6197 | 11096 6269 4577 4248 4889 5973 4781 No. 6f Reoolds... on» 55 + » vue 3 59 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 Percent Under NRC“........... 59 65 31 44 10 37 58 76 46 48 59 * Includes vitamin preparations. Since prolonged dietary deficiencies in the early years of life may have a profound effect on the growth rate and well being of the child, it was considered important to determine the vitamin A adequacy of the young child’s diet at various age levels (2 to 3, 4 to 5 and 6 years). Southwest Eskimo children were found to have the highest rate of deficiency. More than half of the diet records of Southwest Eskimo children 2 to 5 years of age were deficient in vitamin A. Although deficiency decreased at the 6 year age level, it was still higher in this area than in the North (Table G-2, Appendix). SOURCE OF VITAMIN A At the village level meat, fish, fats ‘as such’, fruits, vege- tables, and dairy products provided most of the vitamin A. Meat was an important source in the North; fish in the Southwest. These two foods combined contributed from 40 to 60 percent of the total vitamin A intake with 90 percent or more from local foods. In addition, a portion of the vitamin A from fats ‘as such’ also came from these two food products. In adult male and female diets, almost three-fourths of the vitamin A from fats ‘as such’ was of local origin, most of it being derived from sea mammal oils. When handled carefully to prevent rancidity, these oils are a good source of vitamin A. Sea mammal oils were in greater supply at the coastal vil- lages. Some of the vitamin A attributed to fish and most of it from the fruit category actually came from this source as seal oil is often used in special preparations of these foods. Seal and fish livers are other excellent local sources of vita- min A and salmon is the best fish source of this nutrient. In the southwest village of Napaskiak salmon appeared almost daily on the diet throughout the greater part of the year. It was an im- portant vitamin A source, although to a lesser extent, in the other southwest villages except Newtok. The most popular fish liver sources of this nutrient were whitefish (Kasigluk), pike (Akiak), blackfish (all 5 southwest villages), ling cod (often called mudshark at Shungnak), and tom cod liver (Hooper Bay and Newtok). Milk was a moderate source of vitamin A at most villages but vegetables were important at only two villages—Shishmaref and Hooper Bay. Sourdock was an important green vegetable in both villages, and willow leaves provided an additional source in Shishmaref. The use of canned vegetables was limited in all vil- 57 lages but they appeared more frequently in Indian than in Eskimo diets. The preferred canned vegetable was corn. A multiple vitamin preparation, given school children as part of the school lunch in Eskimo villages, was an important source of vitamin A for them. Occasionally vitamin preparations were used by other family members but only on an erratic basis. Most of the vitamin A in home diets in Allakaket was obtained from such preparations, due to the efforts of the resident mission- ary nurse who dispensed them and encouraged their use. The percentage of diets deficient in vitamin A was fairly high in all villages except Shishmaref. In addition to the greens already mentioned this village had excellent supplies of ugruk oil which they used generously throughout the year. This village ob- tained twice as much or more vitamin A from local food resources than the other villages (Tables 20 and 21). Local foods were the major source of vitamin A in adult diets. They accounted for about one-third of the vitamin A in the adolescent’s and the school child’s diets—and for about one-half of it in the 2 to 6 year old child’s diet (Tables G-3 through G-5, Ap- pendix). TABLE 21.—PROPORTION OF VITAMIN A FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In International Units Vitamin A Source Number Per Village of Capita | Local | Import | School | Vita- [Mixed Records | Intake |Foods| Foods | Lunch* |mins**| Foods Northcentral Athapascan Allakaket........... 257 4729 | 1393 1732 4 | 1460 140 Huslia.............. 369 3941 | 1628 1889 1. .00vs wi 243 181 Northern Eskimo Point Hope. «i554: 362 6197 | 3928 1055 900 110 204 Noatak............. 462 6684 | 3963 1020 1012 | 560 129 Shishmaref.......... 372 11096 | 7085 1960 1872 30 149 Shungnak........... 285 6269 | 3437 i111 939 611 171 Southwestern Eskimo Allok. . oovionines uns 228 4577 | 1734 1011 1507 64 261 Napaskiak.......... 422 4248 | 1730 988 1322 |...... 208 Kasigluk............ 351 4889 | 2868 439 1180 46 356 Hooper Bay......... 1212 5973 | 3941 541 1092 103 296 Newtok............. 247 4781 | 3464 322 917 63 15 * Includes pharmaceutical source given at school. ** Pharmaceutical source given at home. 58 The ICNND nutrition survey team®® found very few of those tested with deficient or low serum vitamin A and carotene values. THE B-VITAMINS The results of the thiamine, riboflavin and niacin excretion tests performed by the ICNND survey team? indicate that most had values within the “acceptable” or “high” range. Newtok peo- ple, who were subsisting almost entirely on stored dried fish prod- ucts at the time of the ICNND visit, had the lowest recorded values for thiamine. Our study shows that the mean per capita intake of thiamine was also lowest at this village (Table 23). I. Thiamine The mean daily thiamine intake for all age and sex groups was equal to or exceeded that recommended by the National Re- search Council. However, about one-third of the diets of children 7 to 12 years of age, and almost three-fourths of those for lac- tating women were deficient by these standards. As in the case of some of the other nutrients, although some excellent sources of thiamine were available their availability was not consistent (Table 22). TABLE 22.—THIAMINE INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages, All Seasons by Age and Sex Thiamine Intake Number Mean Age-Sex Category of Daily Intake Percent Records Intake Range Under (mg.) (mg.) NRC(%) Adult male 20-60 yrs. ........... 746 1.625 [.035-13.906 55.1 Adult male 60 4+ yrs. ........... 112 1.308 | .048-6.700 58.8 Male 13-1098. . co svnss muss sows 303 2.160 | .245-5.847 45.8 Adult Female 20-60 yrs.......... 633 1.399 |.073-10.603 44 4 Adult Female 60 + yrs. ......... 120 1.188 |.208-11.088 54.8 Adult Female Pregnant. ......... 121 1.573 [.274-10.124 56.0 Adult Female Lactating.......... 193 1.462 | .032-4.977 70.1 Female 13-19 ra. cui » ov wi 5 wie 4 9 298 2.088 | .048-6.700 37.1 School Child 7-12 yrs............ 916 2.140 | .035-5.609 32.5 Preschool 2-6 yrs................ 843 1.210 | .033-5.075 37.5 au © 09 TABLE 23.—PROPORTION OF THIAMINE FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref | nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok DAILY. . oi vr enn do 2m § 7 ii 5 Bit B 3 L131 .072 .069 .065 .073 .040 .053 .030 .050 .039 .034 Egg. ooo .008 .007 .002 .012 .012 .004 .003 L001 |........ .010 .010 Meat. .....ccovvvviineennnnnn. .384 .289 .482 .435 .392 .631 .228 .052 .034 .156 .108 Bish. vues snemssamessomss puss .265 .082 115 .017 11 .234 .342 .452 .545 .352 .134 Pots am ouch cz. smn sssvmss onmsss .004 .017 .015 .007 .010 .004 O07 fon ss camifrnnees se .002 .001 BUMS. oi inne i nest 8 an Ee Bes 30 .060 .023 .043 .010 .048 .022 .036 .016 .027 .046 .005 Vegetable. ..................... .045 .069 .023 .031 .051 .038 .043 .006 .011 .021 .009 Breads & Cereals................ .952 .549 .593 22 .351 .411 .541 .547 .685 .668 .426 Sugar Productive ansssmursss .004 .002 .003 .005 .001 .002 003 |e Miscellaneous................... .024 .009 .301 .394 .656 .442 .462 .340 .418 .334 .370 Per Capita Intake. .............. 1.877 | 1.119 | 1.646 | 1.698 | 1.705 | 1.828 | 1.718 | 1.444 | 1.770 | 1.628 1.097 Percent Under NRC (4).......... 52 63 35 38 44 38 43 54 33 43 78 No. of Reeords, ous vvsss amiss 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 SOURCE OF THIAMINE Analysis of per capita village sources revealed that im- ported foods were a major source of this nutrient in most Eskimo and Indian diets, primarily from bread and cereal products. They provided from about one-fourth of the total per capita intake in Shungnak to about one-half of it in Allakaket (Tables 23 and 24). Meat and fish were the chief local sources of this nutrient. Meats were the important source in the north, and fish in the southwestern villages. Vitamin preparations were a major source of thiamine in the Eskimo villages (coded under miscellaneous on Table 23), but only for the child who received a multiple vitamin preparation in the school lunch program. From our records, it appeared that neither meat nor fish was an outstanding thiamine source in Newtok. However, very few records were collected at the time of the year when meat was available in this area. Yet, muskrat, seal and wildfowl were sea- sonally important foods in this village. Most of the Newtok diet records were collected in late fall and winter when dried or “poke” fish (herring) were the most common protein foods, accounting TABLE 24.—PROPORTION OF THIAMINE FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village Thiamine Source Number | Per Village of Capita | Local | Import | School | Vita- [Mixed Records | Intake |Foods| Foods | Foods |mins*| Foods N. Central Athapascan Allakaket........... 257 | 1.877 [0.327 | 0.653 | 0.021 0.844 | 0.032 Huslis. 5 mes sams ss 369 1.119 [0.288 0.694 |........ 0.105 | 0.032 Northern Eskimo Point Hope. ........ 362 1.698 (0.409 0.808 0.418 (0.032 | 0.031 Noatak............. 462 1.646 (0.495 0.644 0.317 [0.104 | 0.086 Shishmaref.......... 372 1.705 [0.489 0.468 0.705 (0.009 | 0.034 Shungnak........... 285 1.828 (0.691 0.420 0.452 (0.195 | 0.070 Southwestern Eskimo Akiak. ............. 228 1.718 [0.521 0.630 0.509 |...... 0.058 Napaskiak.......... 422 1.444 (0.494 0.569 0.362 |...... 0.019 Kasigluk............ 351 1.770 10.563 0.716 0.422 [0.018 | 0.051 Hooper Bay......... 1212 1.628 (0.492 0.689 0.347 [0.055 | 0.045 Newtok............. 247 1.097 (0.238 0.444 0.403 (0.011 | 0.001 * From vitamin preparations taken at home. Those given at school are included under school. 61 for three-fourths of the total protein intake on adult diets (Tables 23 and 24). Unequal distribution and use of local food resources throughout the year probably accounts for some of the variable thiamine intakes in all villages. High intakes were recorded more frequently when supplies of fresh meat were abundant. Fresh foods are especially relished after prolonged periods of dried prod- ucts on the menu, or when rations have been limited for some time. When first plentiful, the fresh foods are often eaten in larger than normal quantities. Extremely low thiamine intakes occurred chiefly in the southwest tundra villages, usually during periods when dried fish was the major protein food. In this area fish provided from about 46 percent of the total protein at Akiak to about 83 percent at Kasigluk. In contrast, at the northern vil- lages fish protein provided as little as 9 percent of the total at Point Hope to about 36 percent at Noatak. Several of the food fishes used in significant amounts on southwestern Eskimo diets, namely blackfish, herring and smelts, were found to be low in thiamine. The most common specie of herring used in Alaskan Eskimo diets, Clupea harrengus, has been found to contain thiaminase, the enzyme which destroys thiamine. Certain species of whitefish, smelt and ling cod, belonging to the same genus as those found in Alaska have also been found to con- tain the enzyme®®. This is of particular interest since some of these fish are usually eaten raw frozen or raw dried. In southwest Eskimo diets, for example, one-half or more of the fish protein came from the raw, dried product (Napaskiak-salmon, Kasigluk- salmon and whitefish, Newtok-herring), mostly the fillet portion although the skin was also eaten. At Hooper Bay and Akiak one- fourth or more of the fish protein came from the raw, frozen product, the greater share of it from a combination of whitefish, blackfish, or needlefish. At the northern villages of Allakaket, Noatak and Shungnak, approximately one-third of the protein came from fish and at Allakaket and Shungnak one-half or more of it came from the raw product (Table 76, Chapter V). According to the ICNND Study®®, urinary thiamine ex- cretion values were found to be within the acceptable to high range except for women at the tundra village of Newtok who had ex- treme low values. Generally, the values for children were higher than for adults in all study villages except at the two Indian vil- lages of Huslia and Allakaket. The multiple vitamin preparation given the Eskimo children as part of their school lunch undoubt- edly accounted for this. The only significant regional differences in thiamine intake 62 noted in the 2 to 6 year age group were (1) occasional extremely low thiamine intakes in the southwestern area, especially in New- tok as has been pointed out and (2) much lower mean daily intakes and higher percentages of deficiency among Athapascan Indian children at the six year age level. The school lunch served at the Eskimo schools and the multiple vitamin preparation given them probably accounts for their higher mean daily intake (Table H-1, Appendix). Imported foods accounted for over half of the mean daily thiamine intake at all age and sex levels. Breads and cereal prod- ucts were the most important source for all groups except children attending school. For them pharmaceutical vitamin preparations contributed the greatest amount. The only other significant thi- amine sources were meat and fish which served as important sources for all age and sex groups, but especially for the adult male (Tables H-2 and H-3, Appendix). il. Riboflavin Mean daily intakes of riboflavin at the various age levels and for both sexes were also more than adequate when compared with the National Research Council recommended allowances. TABLE 25.—RIBOFLAVIN INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages, All Seasons, By Age and Sex In Milligrams Riboflavin Intake Number Mean - Age-Sex Category of Daily Intake Percent Records Intake Range Under (mg) (mg) NRC(*) Adult male 20-60 yrs. ........... 746 2.990 [.357-17.372 28.9 Adult male 60 + yrs. ........... 112 2.541 | .488-9.329 36.1 Male 13-19 yrs. ................ 303 3.122 [.201-10.312 40.6 Adult Female 20-60 yrs... ....... 633 2.625 (.309-11.231 25.7 Adult Female 60 + yrs. ......... 120 2.093 |.388-11.365 44.4 Female Pregnant................ 121 2.727 |.528-11.688 41.6 Female Lactating. ........... ... 193 2.481 |.447-10.124 61.4 Female 13-19 yrs................ 298 2.922 | .488-9.329 37.5 School Child 7-12 yrs. ........... 916 2.981 | .250-7.975 25.6 Preschool 2-6 yrs................ 843 1.914 | .306-7.483 25.6 & TABLE 26.—PROPORTION OF RIBOFLAVIN FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope | maref | nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok IOBEEY ci 5 5 miss 5 5 wwe 4 wim so with 8 $5 .697 .494 .370 .470 .529 .267 .423 .242 .358 .312 .261 BE. ovum sneer gu » wuswns vu .020 .021 .006 .030 .038 .008 .011 O08 1... comes .028 .025 MoE. «cu vvirs es nbisie amon ssimin ss sive .667 .603 | 1.333 | 1.518 | 1.441 | 2.449 .540 .102 .091 .415 .276 Fish. ....cooiiinvriinivnnsnnnss .354 .108 .671 .161 .158 .353 .870 572 | 1.124 .730 1.302 Fats... ..oooiiiiiinnninnns .002 .009 .006 .006 .006 .004 O05 |. vwuramafassmesaefmnrvmmus]omeenios Prults.covesss sors vmmarmnmeemnis .074 .017 .026 .012 .057 .023 .019 .016 .024 .027 .005 Vegetables...................... .028 .047 .020 .018 .095 .026 .033 .006 .007 .058 .008 Breadsetal.................... .428 .288 .243 .430 .192 .214 .352 .352 . 426 .403 .279 Sugarsetal.................o.t. .004 .005 .006 .006 .003 .004 JOB ley s svnnls www s cade ve meena fmossames Miscellaneous. .................. .025 .016 .211 .379 .649 .410 .469 .347 .419 .330 .378 Per Capita Intake. .............. 2.299 | 1.608 | 2.892 | 3.030 | 3.168 | 3.758 | 2.727 | 1.643 | 2.449 | 2.303 2.534 No.of Records..........covnvnne 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 Percent Under NRC (%).......... 44 57 2 16 13 11 20 64 28 31 34 However, one-fourth or more of the riboflavin intakes for all age groups and both sexes were below the National Research Council recommendations, with lactating women having the highest per- cent deficiency by these standards (Table 25). Source of Riboflavin in the Diet Meat was the major source of this nutrient in the northern villages and fish in the Southwest. Milk and bread products were also significant sources of this nutrient in most villages although their use varied from village to village. Judicious use of four food groups—milk, meat, fish and bread products—should assure an adequate intake for all age and sex groups. The use of dried milk powder in the preparation of the varieties of homemade bread, including hotcakes, would be particularly desirable in villages like Napaskiak, where the supply of fresh meat and fish products is limited during the greater part of the year (Tables 26 and 27). Pharmaceutical vitamin preparations were an important source of this vitamin for the Eskimo school child (Tables I-1 through I-3, Appendix). TABLE 27.—PROPORTION OF RIBOFLAVIN FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams Riboflavin Source Number | Per Village of Capita | Local | Import | School | Vita- |Mixed Records | Intake |Foods| Foods | Lunch | mins | Foods Northcentral Athapascan Allakaket........... 257 | 2.299 (0.634 | 0.735 | 0.120 [0.757 | 0.053 Huslia.............. 369 | 1.608 0.575 | 0.889 |........ 0.088 | 0.056 Northern Eskimo Noatak...o.onvusen. 462 2.892 |1.808 0.620 0.179 (0.059 | 0.226 Point Hope. ........ 362 | 3.030 (1.559 | 0.862 | 0.458 {0.032 | 0.119 Shishmaref.......... 372 | 3.168 [1.606 | 0.686 | 0.792 [0.008 | 0.076 Shungnak........... 285 | 3.758 12.359 | 0.452 | 0.486 [0.219 | 0.242 Southwestern Eskimo Akisk, ooovneivnmisn 228 2.727 [1.288 0.756" 0.580 |...... 0.103 Napaskiak.......... 422 | 1.643 [0.657 | 0.521 | 0.437 |...... 0.028 Kasigluk............ 351 | 2.449 [1.174 | 0.732 | 0.462 (0.015 | 0.066 Hooper Bay......... 1212 | 2.303 (1.150 | 0.669 | 0.383 [0.052 | 0.049 Newtok............. 247 2.534 11.585 0.477 0.460 (0.011 | 0.001 65 Mean daily niacin intakes were high for all age groups and both sexes, and relatively few diets showed deficiencies of this nutrient (Table 28). Meat was the major source of niacin in northern diets and fish in those of the Southwest. Bread products contributed signif- icantly to the total intake in all villages since enriched flour was used in the preparation of the homemade varieties (Tables 29 and 30). Pharmaceutical vitamin preparations were an important source but their use was largely confined to the Eskimo child of school age (Tables J-1 through J-3, Appendix). ASCORBIC ACID Mean ascorbic acid intakes below National Research Coun- cil recommendations were high at all age and sex levels. Three- fourths or more of all diets were deficient by these standards (Table 81). A review of the ascorbic acid intake level in the diet of the child aged 2 to 5 years, revealed that deficiencies were high in all three geographical areas but that the percent with “no” ascorbic acid was highest among southwest Eskimos (36 percent) (Table 32). TABLE 28.—NIACIN INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages, All Seasons, By Age and Sex Niacin Intake Mean Age-Sex Category Number Daily Intake Percent of Intakes Range Under Records (mg) (mg) NRC(4) Adult male 20-60 yrs. ........... 746 41.1 8.6-136.8 10.3 Adult male 60 + yrs. ........... 112 35.3 4.7-96.2 13.4 Male 13-19 yrs... sui: ovweemnvas 303 37.4 | 6.2-102.7 15.9 Adult Female 20-60 yrs.......... 633 34.6 | 6.8-131.7 10.7 Adult Female 60 + yrs. ......... 120 29.2 8.8-119.0 15.3 Adult Female Pregnant. ......... 121 37.9 | 10.1-112.1 15.2 Adult Female Lactating.......... 193 37.4 | 28.4-158.8 11.7 Female 13-19 978... 0 ieermvenns 298 32.6 4.7-96.2 10.4 School Child 7-12 yrs............ 916 30.2 3.9-77.3 10.9 Preschool 2-6 yrs................ 843 19.9 1.6-85.5 13.0 66 L9 TABLE 29.—PROPORTION OF NIACIN FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams N. Central Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket, Huslia | Noatak | Hope maref nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok Datry..:cvoirannssnsessmnnrames 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 Egg.......co viii eee eee ee Meat........ooovvivivinin... 13.3 12.1 13.7 16.0 20.8 18.2 10.4 2.2 1.5 7.9 4.7 Fish vos vunm sommes omnes ronson 8.0 3.8 10.9 1.3 2.5 9.5 16.5 24.9] 28.7 12.7 15.4 Pats. .conessnisivvnisonsisnmns 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 | .iiioviiiiioiiiii ee Prudbs. coins vont tortie s msn ssw 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.5 0:3 [oiinwess Vegetables. ..................... 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.1 g.1 0.3 0.1 Breads......................... 5.4 3.4 4.6 5.9 2.6 3.4 3.4 5.1 6.9 6.3 4.7 SUBAE. cov smnrrramar oni ws shee eo 0.1 0.3 |........eeeiii]onnn.. Od [5005 0 mons o mini vm fim v0 ww wi frome 7 sar 0 Miscellaneous................... 0.4 0.2 1.9 2.6 4.4 2.5 3.0 2.3 2.8 2.2 2.5 Per Capita Intake. .............. 28.8 21.2 32.8 26.8 32.4 34.7 34.8 34.9 40.8 29.9 27.6 Number of Records.............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 Percent Under NRC(4).......... 23 22 11 25 13 8 10 7 * 3 21 22 TABLE 30.—PROPORTION OF NIACIN FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams Niacin Intake Number Per Village of Capita | Local | Import | School | Vita- |Mixed Records | Intake |Foods| Foods | Lunch | mins | Foods N. Central Athapascan Allakaket........... 257 28.8 | 16.5 6.1 0.1 5.4 0.7 Huslia.............. 369 21.2 | 13.9 8.9 funni: 0.7 0.7 Northern Eskimo Point Hope... vv» vv 362 26.8 | 15.6 6.9 2.9 0.3 1.1 Noatak....oinmess es 462 32.8 | 21.8 5.9 2.1 0.7 2.3 Shishmaref.......... 372 32.4 | 22.5 4.2 4.8] 0.1 0.8 Shungnak........... 285 34.7 | 24.1 3.9 3.4 1.3 2.0 Southwestern Eskimo Akiak. ............. 228 34.8 | 25.6 4.7 3.6 (...... 0.9 Napaskiak.......... 422 34.9 | 26.8 5.2 2.51}...... 0.4 Kasigluk.....oc0 0000 351 40.8 | 29.5 6.9 3.0] 0.1 1.3 Hooper Bay......... 1212 29.9 | 19.5 6.2 2.5 0.3 1.4 Newtok............. 247 27.6 | 19.8 4.9 2.8 0.1 fissure It should be pointed out that our figures are based on ‘measurable’ ascorbic acid only. The flesh and vital organs of both sea and land mammals, in many of these diets, may be a source of this nutrient. They should have ascorbic acid values at least equivalent to that normally present in the blood of the particular species used. There is at present no satisfactory method for deter- mining the ascorbic acid content of these products. Fall and summer diets had the highest ascorbic acid con- tent. During these seasons the mean daily intake for children 2 to 6 years of age was equal to that recommended by the National Research Council. This was not true of other age groups whose diets showed a high rate of deficiency at all seasons (Table K-1, Appendix). Boys and girls age 7 to 19 had the highest mean daily in- takes during the winter season, equal to twice that for adults. The majority of children in this age group were attending village schools. In the Eskimo villages, a multiple vitamin preparation was included as part of the school lunch program. Most of the ascorbic acid credited specifically to the school lunch was from this source. Except in the Indian village of Allakaket such vitamin preparations were not an important ascorbic acid source in the 68 TABLE 31.—ASCORBIC ACID INTAKES ON ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS All Areas and Villages, All Seasons, By Age and Sex In Milligrams Ascorbic Acid Intake Number Mean Age-Sex Category of Daily Intake Percent Records Intake Range Under (mg) (mg) NRC(*) Adult male 20-60 yrs............ 746 30 0-388 86.6 Adult male 60 + yrs. ........... 112 24 0-392 86.6 Male 13-19 ¥18. . . novi ssn snvsnn 303 47 0-387 86.4 Adult Female 20-60 yrs.......... 633 31 0-301 84.9 Adult Female 60 + yrs.......... 120 23 0-294 94.4 Adult Female Pregnant. ......... 121 32 0-456 90.4 Adult Female Lactating... ....... 193 28 0-441 97.0 Female 13-19 yrs................ 298 49 0-392 85.0 School Child 7-12 yrs............ 916 44 0-442 75.1 Preschool 2-6 yrs................ 843 30 0-441 75.8 home. At Allakaket they provided almost half of the per capita viliage intake of this vitamin. Mean per capita intakes of ascorbic acid by village were extremely variable. The highest values, and they were fairly comparable, were at three widely separated villages—Allakaket, Shishmaref and Hooper Bay. At the latter village more than three-fourths of the ascorbic acid came from local food sources; these sources provided about one-half of the total intake in Shish- maref. In both villages wild edible greens and berries are avail- able in good quantities most years. At Shishmaref many families still store good supplies of greens, chiefly willow leaves and sour- dock. At Hooper Bay only small amounts of greens are stored for winter use, but most families manage to store considerable quanti- ties of cloudberries. These foods provided four-fifths of the per capita ascorbic acid in Hooper Bay diets and about one-half at Shishmaref. These two villages had the highest per capita ascorbic acid intake—about 50 mg. (Table 34). Local foods appeared to be a negligible source of ascorbic acid at Point Hope. Wild edible greens, mostly from Parrya nudicaulis at the village site, and sourdock at inland camp sites, and berries are used nowadays in minimal amounts only. Point 69 TABLE 32.—ASCORBIC ACID INTAKES OF ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN CHILDREN 2-5 YEARS OF AGE By Area, By Age Level Number and Intake Level Number No Geographical Area of Measurable | Under | Total | Percent Records | Ascorbic 15 mg. | Under | Under Acid NRC(*)| NRC(4) Northcentral Athapascar. ..... 102 2 56 76 75 Northern Eskimo. ............ 197 42 127 159 81 Southwestern Eskimo. ........ 347 126 211 274 78 177s EE = Pr 646 170 394 509 79 Hope, however, has about the best year-round supply of fresh meat products of any of the 11 study villages. Seal, ugruk, bow- head whale, polar bear, caribou, wild fowl and in some years, beluga whale and walrus are available. At any given time through- out the year, one or more of these foods is usually available fresh (Table 34). In spite of the dietary changes that have taken place, scurvy is rarely seen. The very few cases reported in the past two dec- ades have been in neglected infants. From a comparison of ascorbic acid sources among the vari- ous age groups and for both sexes, we find that local foods pro- vided most of the adult intake of this vitamin. Local foods provided about one-half of the intake of adolescent females and children 2 to 6 years of age. About one-third of the total ascorbic acid in- take of youngsters 7 to 12 years and of males 13 to 19 years of age came from these foods. Multiple vitamin preparations given at school (in Eskimo villages only) provided almost half of the ascorbic acid in the diets of children 7-19 years of age (Tables K-1 through K—4, Appendix). The ICNND survey team@® found that about one-third of those tested in southwest Alaska and about one-tenth of those tested in northern Alaska had low serum ascorbic acid values. Over half of the individuals tested at Kasigluk, and about one- third each at Newtok and Hooper Bay and approximately one- fourth each at Akiak, Point Hope and Huslia, had serum ascorbic acid values of less than 0.2 mg/100 ml. 70 TL TABLE 33.—PROPORTION OF ASCORBIC ACID FROM SELECTED FOOD GROUPS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams Northcentral Athapascan Northern Eskimo Southwestern Eskimo Food Group Allaka- Point | Shish- | Shung- Napask-| Kasig- | Hooper ket Huslia | Noatak | Hope maref nak Akiak iak luk Bay | Newtok Dairy... cs omrssmnnss sms sommcsnms 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 FE uw 1 sites 6400 4 merits sro wmnfo a wmein oc eli 0m 0 [705 5.250 20 £500 4 Bae 8. 0 0 4 ft. rc slr 6 trod 22 5 5 wtb 5 5.070 0 0 ThE 5 En oben ee MEE. ...... . ccs. esis 8 sine» owns ses re 0.3 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 0:3 fo iipmn nope wim onus s worn FRY. coon npn ns mwas some sms s 55efs 55.00 0 0 0]ion 0 wun een we mennlbe svg 0+ oh 5 more 5 Boni #3 me abs 2s 5 2 oeodi een ons 1.5 0.1 ........ Fatsassueh........cooovvvnnnnliinnnionnndeenniino vine deeen cee bo cL TE Pal: 255 500 00 eee wmon 5 minim n 8 00 36.8 6.2 31.0 2.5 21.4 10.2 17.5 7.3 15.4 43.0 3.4 Vegetable. ..................... 5.0 6.9 5.8 2.2 17.8 4.3 6.5 0.5 1.2 5.9 ........ Breads and Cereals......................[..... coco Sugar Products................o feces Miscellaneous... ................. 6.0 3.3 6.0 6.9 12.3 9.1 9.1 6.7 7.6 5.9 6.6 Per Capita Intake. .............. 49 17 43 13 52 24 34 15 26 55 10 Number of Records.............. 257 369 462 362 372 285 228 422 351 1212 247 Percent Under NRC(4).......... 72 96 77 98, 72 90 80 97 90 70 96 TABLE 34.—PROPORTION OF ASCORBIC ACID FROM LOCAL AND IMPORTED FOODS All Age and Sex Groups, All Seasons, By Village In Milligrams Mean Ascorbic Acid Source Number | Per Village ~ of Capita | Local | Import | School | Vita- Records | Intake | Foods# | Foods | Lunch* | mins** Northcentral Athapascan Allakaket....c::mmee om 257 49 5 Ma Nevownsns 20 Huslia................ 369 17 3 1L Jicvavess 3 Northern Eskimo Point Hope............ 362 13 1 4 7 1 Nootak. «on avsmmss vm 462 43 22 9 10 2 Shishmaref. ........... 372 52 27 8 16 1 Shungnak............. 285 24 4 4 11 5 Southwestern Eskimo Akiak................. 228 34 16 5 13 ems aams Napaskiok. cous svonss 422 15 6 2 Z| aves Kasigluk.............. 351 26 15 2 8 1 Hooper Bay........... 1212 55 44 2 8 1 Newtok.g.oooovvvnnnn 247 10 3 <1 7 <1 * Includes vitamin preparations given at school. ** Vitamins given at home, only. # Includes that from mixed food preparations since it is from local 72 food sources. CHAPTER 1V THE DIET OF THE INFANT INTRODUCTION Of all age groups infants are probably the most vulnerable to inadequate nutrition. Moyer et al?® states that the “growth and development of an organism as a whole implies the contin- uous, active participation of all the necessary food nutrients and the surrounding environment; that it is essential that dietaries be scientifically planned considering season, environment, the vari- ability of the foods and differences in age, size, activity, sex, race, nutritive state and physiological activity, in order that chemical requirements be met at all times.” For the normal infant, adequate nutrition is achieved by feeding a combination of foods—increas- ing in amount and in complexity as the child grows and develops —that contains an adequate supply of all essential nutrients in a form that is easily digestible and assimilable. A question of major concern to medical and health person- nel charged with the health supervision of Alaska’s Eskimo, In- dian and Aleut peoples is: How have the cultural changes, which have increased in tempo since World War II, affected the feeding practices of the infants? With this question in mind, the 555 food intake records, covering 3 to 7 days each, collected for infants under 2 years of age, were analyzed to delineate present day feed- ing practices and to assess the nutritional adequacy of the diets. PAST INFANT FEEDING PRACTICES Only casual references to infant feeding practices are in- cluded in early accounts of the Alaskan Eskimo and Indian people. The older women in our study villages were, therefore, questioned about early day practices. A resume of the information obtained through these interviews is presented in the following paragraphs. Most of this information was obtained in the villages of Napaskiak and Akiak which had a larger percentage of older women than the other study villages. After delivery, infants were fed neither colostrum nor the “first milk” from the mother’s breast; the latter was considered too watery. Infants were generally breast-fed until the next child was born, or until the child was two years of age or older. If an infant was being breast-fed at the time the next sibling was born, 73 the first flow of milk from the mother’s breast after delivery— yellowish in color—was discarded since it was considered to be “old milk” and not suitable. Thereafter, one or both children were fed the regular breast flow. There were very few food taboos for the mother during pregnancy or lactation, and the few in force apparently varied from one locality to another. One of the informants mentioned that during lactation mothers were advised to eat only cooked foods, never raw meat or fish. Cloudberries were not recom- mended for the first week or two following delivery, for if eaten at this time, they were believed to cause the breasts to dry up. Once lactation was well established, they could be eaten safely. It was apparently a universal practice for lactating mothers to drink fish and meat broth liberally, but otherwise they ate as usual. If the breast milk was insufficient, the mothers frequently chewed fish livers to a watery pulp and fed this to the baby. This method of infant feeding together with liberal feedings of fish and meat broth, was also used if the mother died. One informant believed that infants did very well on this regime. Supplemental foods were added to the diets as soon as the infant could hold its head up. The regular family foods were pre- chewed and passed directly from the mother’s mouth into that of the child. Again, premasticated fish liver, especially that from the tom cod, ling cod, or whitefish, was one of the first supplemental foods used. At Unalakleet an early practice was to simmer the tom cod livers in a small amount of water. As the oil escaped and rose to the surface it was carefully scooped off and fed to infants. Frequently, a piece of blubber, carefully secured so the child could not swallow it or choke on it, was given to the child, usually as a pacifier. One infant in this study received a mixture of fats called ‘baby agutuk’ at about one month of age. This agutuk consisted of a mixture of hydrogenated fat and moose tallow. In former times it would have been moose or caribou tallow and seal oil. Use of such special mixtures was apparently a common practice among the tundra Eskimo of southwestern Alaska. Brandt” reported that at Hooper Bay, the white fatty kernel present in the yellow knob above the bill of the male king eider duck was fed to the youngest babies. As soon as teeth developed, the child was given other family foods. Because premastication of infant foods was considered a possible means of transmitting disease from mother to child, this method of infant feeding was discouraged by health workers. While the practice may persist in some remote villages, it is not widespread today. 74 FINDINGS OF PRESENT STUDY Source of Milk in Infant Diets: According to the 555 diet records collected for infants under two years, cow’s milk (canned, evaporated) was the only source of milk in 63 percent, breast milk the sole source in 21 percent, and a combination of breast and cow’s milk in the remaining 16 percent. At 1 month of age, the records show that 69 percent of these infants were wholly breast fed and 7 percent partially so. At 2 months of age the percentages were 62 and 24 respectively. By three months of age the number wholly formula fed (38 percent) exceeded those wholly breast fed (25 percent). The proportion fed entirely by formula gradually increased and by 13-18 months, 80 percent were receiving form- ulas; this increased to 91 percent by 19-23 months. (See Fig. 1 and Table 35). The formula usually consisted of a mixture of half evap- orated milk and half boiled water. Occasionally an infant was given a much more dilute formula. When questioned some of the mothers stated that they were following instructions given them by hospital personnel or the public health nurse. These instruc- tions were followed long after a more concentrated mixture should have been used. Another less frequent explanation was that the family or village supply of evaporated milk was inadequate. Milk is generally scarce in late winter and spring when family cash is usually low or exhausted. The village supply of milk is often de- rrr rrr rT rT TT TIT IT TT TT TTT T1771 —40 SOURCE OF MILK IN INFANT DIETS _}o 1 A 555 diet records— Infants <2 years of age All villages and areas, all seasons —}0 PERCENT T <2 AGE IN MONTHS TABLE 35.—SOURCE OF MILK 555 Diets: Breast and Formula-Fed Infants <2 Years By Age Age in Months Food Category 1-3 4-7 8-12 13-18 19-23 Total Breastonly.............. 36 18 10 J 67 Breast & Bottle. ......... 20 28 25 12 5 90 Breast & Other Supple- ments. ...............- 8 10 15 11 4 48 Bottle only. :.cu:s wuss 10 13 9 B er ovmnss 36 Bottle & Other Supple- ICIS... v 450ws 5 5 miw 5 * + Wi 12 25 73 107 94 311 Not on Breast or Bottle (UP). wv evvereeneenae]oeene foe 4 4 Total No. Records. ....... 86 94 132 136 107 555 pleted at this time as well, pending the arrival of the annual sup- ply boat. Most villages, however, now have weekly plane service, and small supplies of milk can be flown in if the weather is good, although at considerable cost. The infant’s need for milk is usually given priority during these emergencies, and available supplies are reserved for them. Local storekeepers will usually allow credit for purchase of milk for infants, where they may not extend credit for other items. Current Infant Feeding Practices: Demand feeding is the universal practice whether the infant is fed by breast or by formula. As with most well-fed infants, Eskimo and Indian babies eventually put themselves on a 31% to 4 hour feeding schedule. Night feedings, particularly those given in the late evening and early morning hours, sometimes continue until the child is two years of age or even older. Eskimo mothers, in particular, tend to give the breast or formula whenever the child whimpers or cries. This is an old custom, for by tradition Eskimo children have always been indulged in their demands. Certain observed practices in the bottle feeding of Eskimo and Indian infants lead one to believe that instruction in the proper handling of the bottle and nipple and other utensils used in feeding infants has not kept pace with the increased use of this method. 76 Generally, the water was boiled, but it was not unusual to see partially filled formula bottles picked up from dirty beds and floors and given to the small infant, sometimes after a toddler had been sucking on it. Opportunities for contamination of bottle and nipple in Eskimo and Indian homes are numerous. Dirt is in- evitably brought in from outdoors on the footgear of those re- sponsible for feeding dogs as well as by others. In some villages the dog population exceeds the human population. Although the dogs are tethered in a designated area, pregnant female dogs are usually given shelter in the long entrances or on the porches through which flows most of the traffic into and out of the house. Main- taining proper sanitation practices in the home is difficult at best because of the lack of a safe water supply, running water and ade- quate refrigeration. Breast feeding up to three or even five years of age has been reported as a common practice among early Eskimos. This practice, in modified form, has been carried over to the formula fed infant. While only three records of children in this study showed breast feeding beyond 24 months of age, there were 105 records of children over two years of age still receiving part of their milk from the bottle. Most of these records were for children receiving family diets, and the formula, usually given in the late evening or early morning, may have served only as a pacifier. Prolonged breast or formula feeding has no adverse nutri- tional consequences if adequate supplementary foods are given. According to our records, however, some infants up to 13 months TABLE 36.—AVERAGE DAILY INTAKE OF IRON AND VITAMINS 193 Diets: Lactating Women All Areas and Villages, By Season NRC Average | Recom- Nutrient Fall | Winter | Spring |Summer| All mended Seasons | Intakes* Iron (mg.)............... 28.0 33.4 41.5 15.9 29.7 15 Vitamin A (I. U.)........ 4527 5421 4851 3029 4457 8000 Thiamine (mg.).......... 1.325 1.485 1.751 1.371 1.483 1.700 Riboflavin (mg.).......... 2.444 2.655 2.351 1.719 2.292 2.500 Niacin (mg.)............. 36.0 36.4 43.0 40.8 39.1 19.0 Ascorbic Acid (mg.)...... 41 20 19 55 34 150 Total Number Subjects. . . 52 102 22 17 193 77 of age were not receiving supplements of any kind. In general, daily supplementation of the infant’s diet with cereals, vitamin TABLE 37—AVERAGE DAILY INTAKE OF PROTEIN 193 Diets: Lactating Women By Geographical Area, All Seasons (NRC Recommended Daily Level—98 gms.) Geographical Area & No. of Records Protein Intakes N. SW. N. Central Eskimo Eskimo | Athapascan | Totals 25 « KPO GMB. 005 5104 5 swims » wwe vo J 6 cin t 5 5000 lini wero monn 1 LIB GOS 30i0 0 smvimsasnins 3 4 1 8 LA LLLE EE 5 11 3 19 <150 GMS... o.oo... 9 47 6 62 150 gms. &over................. 23 74 6 103 Total Number of Records........ 41 136 16 193 TABLE 38.—AVERAGE DAILY INTAKE OF CALCIUM 193 Diets: Lactating Women By Geographical Area, All Seasons Geographical Area & No. of Records Calcium Intakes N. SW. N. Central Eskimo | Eskimo | Athapascan Totals <100 - <300 mg... .oeenennn.... 3 24 4 31 <400 - <500 mg................ 13 55 5 73 (BE |2|2 |: Bear, Black Ursus americanus Flesh 71.2 120.1 | 19.8 | 8.3 0 0] 0.7 162 | 7.2 260 | 0.16 | 0.68 | 3.2 (Pallas) Bear, Polar Thalarctos maritimus | Flesh |. 5.9 [|e ee (Phipps) Beaver Castor canadensis Flesh 1 26.8 | 4.8 0 0| 1.0. (Fuhl) 2(72.5]......]...... 4.8 |... feel B[eeiieeeii] iio 1.0 | 15 Beluga Delphinapterus leucas | Flesh 25.6 | 0.5 0 0, 1.41 7 (Pallas) Flesh, air-dried 71.0 | 2.3 0 0| 3.428 Eye, incl. adhering | 55.1 | 19.6 |...... 23.3 0.7 0] 1.3. muscles, tendons and fat Flipper, excl. skin 57.5 | 19.0 | 20.0 | 21.7 0 0] 0811 153] 2.8 [.oisveen O80 lonevsa]es conifs vomnr]enes and bones Liver 74.6 18.4 |...... 3.9 2.0 OF! YX 230 |sunsi]cnmmonen 22,100 |... feennii]oeennn]nnn Muktuk: skin and 52.0 21.8 {...... 29.1 0.1 0 1.0| 7] 143 1.0]........ 2,160 [0.22 | 0.08 | 2.9 |... sub-cutaneous fat Ol Lanois fomemmgresmmehresesm]nmeses fener enw arresaolosesnn]sos ries 2.810 loans forvwnninmanedens Blackfish + | Dallia pectoralis Whole fish 181.3 ......]...... 1.8 [conavefornves 1.8 1286 | 287 |.cvuoeesnvnnns 420 [conan Jorsvnn)svenss)snis (Bean) 2 (78.9155 ...... 2.0] 1.0 0] 2:6 {sfesmnes 4:6 |.e055:5. 985 | 0.01 | 0.37 | 1.9 Caribou Rangifer tarandus Flesh 70:3 [+ eves 23.9 | 4.7 0 01 TA lovcolomm am afevesmn) omnes gommmmn to |rmsmmnfummmn yoo sors froscrs (L.) Bone Marrow 7.4 6.7| 7.8|84.4 0 0) 0.4 (....] 107 | 4.5{........ 240 1 0.04 |...... 0.2 Eye, incl. adhering 57.1 | 10.8 i.i00se 31.4) 0.1 0 0.619 58 | 4.7|........ 400 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.2 muscle, tendon and fat Liver 5.9 | 6.8 0; 0.9] 4] 28215.7|........ 28.800 lvsvasec snafisnsandiies Stomach contents 2.2112.3 lseoien 1.6 (47 | 209 5.8(........ 3,400 ( 0.01 (0.29 | 1.9 |. (lichens, moss, etc.) 881 Devilfish (sculpin) Eiderduck Fireweed Flounder Goose, Canada Herring Ling cod (lush) Lingenberry ‘““Mashu” Mink Moose ‘Mouse nuts” ‘““Mouse nuts’ Muskrat Needlefish Oogruk (bearded seal) Mpyozocephalus ssp. Somateria spectabilis L. Epilobium latifolium L. Platichthys stellatus (Pallas) Branta canadensis (Ridgway) Clupea harengus pallasi Valenciennes Lota lota leptura (Hubbs & Schultz) Vaccinium vitis idaea L. Hedysarum alpinum Ls Moustella vison Schreber Alces alces L. Polygonum sp. Eriophorum sp. Ondatra zibethicus L. Pungitius pungitius L. Erignathus barbatus (Erxleben) Tongue Flesh Flesh Young leaves Flesh, air-dried Flesh Flesh, air-dried Flesh, air-dried, pre- served in seal oil Roe Roe, air-dried Flesh 1 2 3 4 Liver 1 Berries Roots Flesh, air-dried Flesh Liver Roots Seedlings Flesh Wholefish 1 Flesh Flesh, air-dried 87.2 0.6 14 0.9 1.6 12 10 13 12 93 150 274 220 11 P81 TABLE 87.—COMPOSITION OF ALASKAN FOODS, 100 GRAMS—Continued 2 g © Z . " = ] z E |3|at £33 wig Z = gE | E 3 a 2 o 2 sg 83 &S $e ££ : g 0 - g : S £ g < 2: £E £ §|E%(E5 | Es L|El| 8 |B 5 |E (25 E55 22 |¢8 § 7 27 Z ZS |E5|E2| 5 |2E|8E| 4 |3| 2 | £28 25228 |§ Oo @ A 2&7 |A mm |O |O < |O|~ | & | 8 5 BR |Z |< Oogruk OH. 000 Less sale enn eens os eornnne sn beeen bape % Pomme Lin sme] cremcesrn 5020 |......|.... fee] ““Oopah” Tunicata Whole animal 80.2 | 11.7 |...... 2:20 BX Jivenen 2.853] 109 (20.7 |........ Pies 0.10 | 0.9 (‘““Obak’’) Owl, Horned Bubo virginianus Flesh 71.3 |22.7|22.3| 5.0 0 0 1.416 | 218 | 4.8. ....... BBO Lvs viele inn vin eonceinrn = eons (Gmelin) Pike Esoz lucius L. Flesh 1 178.8 |vvnnsf. vores Xa 0 265 || 10.4 Loi ou corfu smmefons neon son fasuns » 2 Bowes 201s immmeo. coma oh asn mmcncfininn acon 204 | 0.7 (........|....... |) Flesh, air-dried ~~ [......|......|......|......|[...... 623 | 09........ 140 | 0.11 | 0.33 | 12.0 Liver Lee B00; [5 Neowin se ummm showin Ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus Breast Muscle TB [ans + 248] 2.5 0 268 | 6.2 |........ 4201 0.25 | 1.00 {......|.... Willow &) Buttercup Ranuculus pallasii Young leaves 89.3| 2.5]...... 06| 63 09] 1.3|11 67 | 2.9 | 4,80 |........ 0.04 | 0.69 | 1.2 | 36 (Schlecht) Rhubarb, wild Polygenum alaskanum | Leaves 85.5 | 4.2 ...... 0.5 9.9|...... 0.9 87 [sununs 4,480 |. ....... 0.10 {0.13 | 0.1 | 33 (Small) Wight Salmon, king Oncorhynchus tscha- Flesh, air-dried Xi 18.8 es sia cromian BLE son vonlovenanlompens 28 ( 645 | 2.0 ........ B40. [oom \ssmean evans wytsch (Walbaum) 2 Lovwsma)oeninils sowmallesen sufiens 25 me snnes 3.0 Lo BE J 0.15 (0.82 | 17.5 Liver = Heeveesfesnvnele voronton go codes ni od on mmm 1.6 B12 1 20 [evonas Qormnin m)osmme shomonnelamn sade nm Roe 54.2.20.2)...... 12.4 2.9 0 Lb [eee 390 Lovsnunfossoindl...... 0.14 [0.36 | 0.4 Salmon, chum Oncorhynchus keta Flesh 84.3 112.0|12.0| 1.5 0 0 |. cnn AL 1 283 fais sini nmnninn o]ervcscrnce von 0.08 (0.18 |...... (Walbaum) Salmon, silver Oncorhynchus kisutch Flesh, air-dried 10.7 |... feet 36.5 0 0 [on woe 0600) 1.5 |... (coho) (Walbaum) Flesh, air-dried, pre- 28.1 | 51.4 | 49.6 | 19.4 0 0] 2.9 L670 [LLL 1,220 | 0.19 | 0.35 | 4.2 served in seal oil Salmon, “tipnuk” | Oncorhynchus sp. Whole fish or various | 68.8 | 15.9 |...... 10.6 | 2.7 0 2.0 467 Non vilfrninaii 780 | 0.13 | 0.15 | 1.9 parts putrified in the ground Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus Berries 86.7 2.4|...... 0.8) 86| 3.2 0.5(18 35 | 0.7 210 |........ 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.9 | 138 (Salmonberry) L. Scoter, white- Melanitta deglandi Flesh 78.6 |...... 20.2 | 0.4 0 0| 0.8) 8| 164 |......|........ 280 lows oo loes i saees on famns winged (Bonaparte) Seal, ringed Pusa hispida Flesh 674 |... 28.4 | 3.2 0 01 1.0; 30 238] 19.6 [....c0. 1,050 | 0.14 | 0.53 |......[|.... (Schreber) Liver 74.2 | 18.6 |...... 3.3 2.9 0| 1.013 279 | 13.5 36,600 Oil X forsmenfomunn s Joewiome fo snmangs somos fspnsnfommns o 11,300 2 vas n)smsms frosveafemmanls venoms meee 8,230 ve 3 2 nin GR1 Stonecrop Seduum rosea(L.)Scop.| Young leaves sl 2 GLa 1.0] 6.0] 0.7] 03] 1 20] 0.61 6,250 {.cvvs en 0.03|0.3¢| 08] 79 Smelt Osmerus dentex Flesh and small bones | 77.5 | 16.7 | 16.3 | 5.1 0 o| 1.174] 205 0.6}........ 460 1.....5 0.13 1.5 (Steindachner) Smelt, rainbow Hypomesus olidus Flesh, air-dried 18.4 lovuuns 50.3 | 11.9 0 0: Loos ov olsvmsese Bmmmamie sca sums Jinione wsmince F 40.01 Liss von YO)... (Pallas) Squirrel, ground Citellus undulatus Flesh 75.4 119.3 120.2 | 3.8 0 0] 0.6 1750 4.7 .0vme 220 |... fe I. (Pallas) Flesh, air-dried 24.7 | 34.2 | 36.7 | 33.1 0 0 5.5]. 408 1..oocnlen wenn Fil...........]......}. Sourdock Rumex articus Young leaves 89.71 ZB fons 0.7] 6.5] 1.1| 0.8] 2 55 0.8111,900}........ 0.09) 0.54 | 1.1 | 68 (Trautv.) Tom cod Eleginus gracilis Flesh 11792) 14.7 ovine] OLB [osrenas jrnnma]oummmn]os salren wos 0.4 rene Jonmmen momen sJocus sa fronne (Tilesius) Dos snaleimr fo cn wafoms names snfoines fosmnmnleas oss cos 0.9 lesanmmngoonmns aon 0.14 | 0.13 2.2 Fesh,aindricd | 22.2 1043 |. .oced 28 Joon cofunmnn framnen]en vifsine suinfunns nfumens iufonnn wo on fume vu vlomne wafawn ve ules Liver 1.9 0] 0.7] 6} 208] 3.8 fcesiswss 11,000 | 0.09 | 0.48 | 6.2 Trout, Dolly Salvelinus malma Flesh 0 0 Beem con hmmm fr mosmonseyois 22 me odsn 50 000% 1,160 | 0.02 | 0.42 |...... Varden (Walbaum) Grayling Thymallus arcticus Flesh 76.8 | 20.7 | 20.2 | 2.0 0 0| 1.0 260 |... feennnn 600 | 0.01 |...... 1.3 (Richardson) Walrus Odobenus rosmarus Flesh = Jeeeridoeaiiioeineeeendeeneereneeen a deere eee fee meee fee eee 170 |...... 0.24 | 4.8 divergens Illiger Flesh & subcutaneous | 58.9 | 16.3 | 16.3 | 24.1 0 0| 0.7 oo 1250 9:4 Lu svawnns 550 | 0.08 | 0.32 |...... fat Flesh, air-dried 38.8 (57.0 57.0 2.6 0 0 1.6]. 4151430 |........ 410 | 0.21 | 0.79 | 10.1 Liver 71.5 | 21.0 |...... 3.0 3.5 0] 1.0}. 288 | 14.4 |........ 81,200 10.08 | 1.01 |...... of 0 Leer rire heenennees dil snn ramen eens ferme en furecs Jens 2.800 Loos sulowrve Jonerenlees Whale, Baleen Balaena mysticetus Flesh 70.9 26.2 | 25.8 | 2.6 0 07 0.7} 3] 14.1 jeer rens 330(0.19|0.79 | 7.4 Bowhead, Right L. “Blubber”, sub- 29) 04 04(9%.5}......]...... 0.1 0 51 10.5 Juvnwen roy sane conefuinns vinfume ar sfoctioin re cutaneous fat “Muktuk’’, skinand | 32.9 | 12.6 |...... 53.0 1.2 0 03] 5 87 lies ames one 750 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.8 subcutaneous fat Oil feeder ree eee fren fee fee fee Whitefish Coregonus nasus Flesh noj12.2j12.3|153......0----.- 14 jeune (Pallas) Flesh, air-dried [oooosofovecos]ovimnadononane come fre vnmafe sions 65 “Head”, eyes, cheeks | 76.3 [18.6 | 19.1 | 3.6 [......|...... 1.0 and soft bones Liver FO. Livssontin on is Voanins femmes |acanes 1.3 207 | 8.8 |. coven 1,510 | 0.18 | 0.54 | 2.7 Roe = leveiiiferneeefernnnifernnni]enaiaifennens 1.3 312 | 0.9 ........ 4901 0.15 §...... 1.4 |. Whitefish Coregonus lavaretus Flesh 69.1157 159 |14.2......]...... 1.4 B02 |..oconfrrrcnnni]rrnineas 0.15 § 0.12 leven | nelsoni Bean Willow Salix pulchra Young leaves 68.73 Bd {ose 1.6 [20.7] 1.1 }|...... 130) 126) 2.6 {18,700 [....covifrurerofereres 2.3 | 190 Cham. Young leaves pre- WEL 2.8 1isesn S101 Bol foes on 0.6 58( 1.3 TS iii reeves seared sev ponents srajmsented v served in seal oil Footnotes: (@) Vitamin A—Samples marked ‘F’ gave distinctly abnormal colors with the Carr-Price reagent. @ Ascorbic Acid—All meat samples, including dried meats, gave a value for “ascorbic acid” by the Roe and Kuether method. thus prepared showed no indication of maximum absorption at 5204. The dinitrophenylhydrazone SOURCE OF ELEVEN SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS IN ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN DIETS By Age and Sex TABLE A-1.—SOURCE OF CALORIES: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons Imported - All Foods | Local Foods Food Mixed Food Food Groups M F M F M F M F Dalry. coum ssnvrssnmosos 60 61 |......|...... 60 61 |......|...... Bag. ...oonvinmissnmnnns 13 10 6 6 7 4) owas wees Meat. ................. 428 | 358 | 363 | 300 17 16 48 42 Fish... ............... 628 511 618 500 1 2 9 9 Fats................... 239 191 153 | 121 86 70 |... Fruits.................. 96 91 8 7 34 34 54 50 Vegetables. o.oo: ves ve 28 28 12 11 16 17 [os ns)r omega Oralng. . voicing 868 | 739 |......[...... 868 | 739 |......|...... Sugar.................. 228 | 169 [......|...... 228 | 169 \....oifi000es Miscellaneous. .......... 10 9 |... 10 0 1.5550 fs bean ne Mean Daily Intake... . .. 2598 | 2167 | 1160 945 | 1327 | 1121 111 101 * 858 records for males, 1067 for females, 186 L8T TABLE A-2.—SOURCE OF CALORIES: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Food Food Groups ' M F M F M F M F M F Dalry. :aziamssssvv a smecommenmi soaToes 170 143 |... 128 107 42 BOB: V..omon ew) id RBH EE BEE. coocvvcesvrsssnranrcsiornrnnnnns 20 17 9 8 6 5 5 Halll. + cw o 0 seco wrist 22 Meat. ..c..corvrissivssssnmrssamessnmess 285 239 229 191 13 13 3 2 40 33 Fish. .....o iii 430 361 420 351 1 D leven femrrsmms 9 8 Fats... .....ocoiuivevareesnvnseaaseerarnnss 167 139 76 63 81 68 10 Blussisnwyssnnrens Fruits... ova amusanns «ome es mms vmnnsan 117 95 8 6 41 34 17 14 51 41 Vegetables. ..........oooieiiiiiin 55 46 14 12 20 16 21 IR A eis mai} rin Grains........converenansnsnsrasesansnss 972 B12 lioawmusoomns ewes 951 794 21 5. 1) UY | Sugar. .socsasner enna neremrrsreniien 152 125 |. ove oo Sa dB EEE 152 U2E Heo eormsiw froin o owt 2y 00m 2 8 wins pgm £2 0s Miscellaneous. . cu iivoissvressmnnssnssan 18 1: 70 FATTY IE 11 9 7 Ol orsmnifssonasnn Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 2386 1992 756 631 1404 1173 126 106 100 82 * 303 records for males, 298 for females. 881 TABLE A-3.—SOURCE OF CALORIES: CHILDREN 7-12 YEARS AND 2-6 YEARS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons Mixed Food All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Preparation Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 Dairy... 167 219 |........ ........ 102 218 65 A eT. TY Egg... oo. 16 8 5 3 4 5 T lerrsnmas roses aioe emme eum Mab. onc imnss sme 5058585 0mm enmins tom 222 203 175 158 12 13 4 loviinn ei. 31 32 Ey 330 249 321 243 2 X Jocsomanodomennmmnn 7 5 Fats.......ooovii 138 83 58 33 65 50 5. Fruits. ................................. 101 63 8 6 30 30 25 ¥ 38 26 Vegetables. ............................. 60 19 11 7 16 12 33 isms onsisweesapis sass. GIRINS. «von vimmins ome vs cnn nmmunennnne 793 1 TT 761 651 32 D255 ce noi nn nion na SUA. LL 121 1 FARR 121 BO fons snails sneer safe nmesenden sommes Miscellaneous... .............. ....... ... 18 8 8 8 10 |... Mean Daily Intake... ................... 1966 1596 578 450 1121 1078 191 5 76 63 * 916 records for children 7-12 and 843 for children 2-6 years old. 631 TABLE B-1.—PERCENT CALORIES FROM PROTEIN: MALES AND FEMALES 17-70 YEARS OF AGE All Seasons, By Village Percent Calories From Protein Village 17 Yrs. 20 Yrs. 30 Yrs. 40 Yrs. 50 Yrs. 60 Yrs. 70 Yrs. M F M F M F M F M F M F M F N. Central Athapascan Allakaket. ...................... 29 22 21 28 31 28 35 31 30 25 25 33 38 29 Huslia.......................... 22 17 24 24 27 23 25 25 21 19 20 27 21 23 Northern Eskimo Noatak. .ivuscsvinmes amiss smasss 36 29 28 33 35 36 32 38 32 28 31 37 37 |...... Point Hope. . . . wvamvvmwvisvmsrmaes sams 24 21 24 29 22 25 26 23 20 23 23 25 15 Shishmaref. ..................... 38 1]...... 28 32 29 28 32 33 29 39 38 31 97 29 Shungnak....................... 46 22 42 39 38 37 44 46 45 32 28 35 41 30 Southwestern Eskimo AKIBE. . ..vinsasn si samiia nang 28 23 27 26 24 27 26 33 28 30 39 [...... 25 38 Hooper Bay. .................... 34 24 31 29 32 32 31 27 28 34 32 |isauws 35 30 Napaskiak...................... 41 26 26 28 28 29 30 35 35 31 26 34 35 26 Newtok......oovvieieeeaninni|onnnn. 30 28 29 28 30 32 28 31 29 |... eee Kagigluk:..ou.on00issmnisnnssnns 18 51 40 38 39 42 39 40 50 43 65 B37 lev All Areas, Villages Combined... ..... 32 26 29 30 31 30 32 32 32 29 31 31 32 33 TABLE B-2.—SOURCE OF PROTEIN: ADULT MALES AND FEMALES * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams Imported Mixed Food All Foods | Local Foods Food Preparations Food Group one M F M F M F M F Dairy.................. 30 | 3.1 [covmiofsnmns. 3.0 BA iieisilnnnnn Egg... 08| 07] 03] 04| 05] 03]. .....| Meat. ................. 72.1 | 62.6 | 65.9 | 56.5 0.7 0.9 5.5 5.2 iT ON 104.7 | 86.7 (103.3 { 85.3 |......|...... 1.4 1.4 Pall snow is sme bamme nnn 0.4 1 TR. — 0.4 0.5. .....0]...... Pruils. civ vom ns estos we 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Vegetables. ............. 1.2 1.0] 0.3] 03 0.9] 0.7 |......|...... Grains. ................ 15.7 | 14.0 |......|...... 15.7 | 34.0 {.:5 ifs nnnn Miscellaneous... ........ 0.4] 0.3 ]......]...... 0.4] 0.3(......[...... Mean Daily Intake. . . . .. 199.1 (169.6 [170.0 (142.6 | 21.9 | 20.1 7.2 6.9 * 858 records for males, 1067 for females. 190 161 TABLE B-3.—SOURCE OF PROTEIN: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparation Food Group M F M F M F M F M F THAITY, 1 cine ono 9 mms 4 0 hs + 3 mars = ho #0 vt 93 4 11.5 O71: ic nlian maaan 7.0 5.9 4.5 BiB Lon scone allison BRE. ooo eee 1.5 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.5 04 |........|........ Mend. oossnmes omens mes 3s ¢ 2000 50 50 95 51.0 43.0 44.3 37.4 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.4 5.2 4.4 Plsh.ciiosasis amiss Tees amass smsss mass ng 71.9 60.4 70.4 59.1 0.1 0.8 J. ooonnsadmsntommss 1.4 1.2 Fats... o.oo 0.6 0.5 [.....feeinnn. 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 |v ooo w]e min 8 3 0 Prat, «ooo vos vomits vim ns sins anim samo ons 1.1 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 Vegetables, ..:conussppursnnsssmessamnssn 3.7 3.1 0.4 0.4 0.9 0.7 2.4 2.0 i vin menysr ames rn Orang. .;:sovirinmussonesssmesamarinniiss 19.4 16.3 -:s50:infavvinns., 18.6 15.6 0.8 0.7 |.s0ass mfr onmesng SEE w: © ice 1 omnes 4 9 vce’ deh al sense 2 cs: of nn fn 8 0.2 0. U1. coi 5 ffm 3 er 3 0.2 OLY Lvs ies collins cnstonlie font oe omtstls o. iitiie nis Miscellaneous. . .........cooiiiiii.. 1.0 0.8 |... oii]onnnnnn. 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 |.......|eeennnn. Mean Dally Intake. . oc: 0mn ss mn essemsss 161.9 | 136.1 | 116.0 97.7 29.3 24.4 9.6 8.1 7.0 5.9 * 303 records for males, 298 for females. c61 TABLE B-4.—SOURCE OF PROTEIN: CHILDREN 7-12 AND 2-6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams Mixed All Foods Local Foods Imported Foods School Lunch Preparations Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 DALY... coro mnnramrsssmessnmensuimas snes 8.5 YO8 |i oo aries fi eros = 8 mite 5.0 10.8 3.5 x A Tir nT BE eens n sn nn te mon 8 4 nn 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 04| BO [ooo]. MeRt.. eee 37.9 30.5| 32.8 25.8 0.8 0.8 04| 28 3.9 3.9 Piah, ccoovisnnvisnmissmmes sump s wns sans 53.4 39.0 52.1 38.0 0.2 0-2 | omzeses oo 1.1 0.9 Pals... .cocos nats umazr Bmass sss suns smes 0.5 0.2 [svsesvamalranvszms 0.4 0.2 0.1 8 = SE 4 § 8 BE ELS wen 8 Fruits. .......... 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 2 2 0.2 0.1 Vegetables. ...........oouiiiiiianaiii.. 2.8 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.5 1.9( 5 ® [ooeoonfroneness Grains. .........coiiiiii ii 14.4 11.8 |........ |e. 13.7 11.8 0.7 | BE [vrrvuifronmmnnn BOgarS conn: anme ns mms pms ome pain g vins 0.1 0.2 [ccooii]iiinn.n. 0.1 0.2. ....... B= [ cocinifroanmins Miscellaneous. . ......................... 0.7 0.8 |issvsanafesamarns 0.4 0.3 0.3] Jeewesern]ressonss Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 120.2 94.5 85.9 64.4 21.6 25.2 7.5 5.2 4.9 * 916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. €61 TABLE C-1.—PERCENT CALORIES FROM FAT: MALES AND FEMALES 17-70 Years of Age, All Seasons By Village Percent Calories From Fat Village and Area 17 Yrs. 20 Yrs. 30 Yrs. 40 Yrs. 50 Yrs. 60 Yrs. 70 Yrs. M F M F M F M F M F M F M F N. Central Athapascan Alakaketb. conv nnmesemmas mmr sus 26 30 31 32 27 28 24 24 24 37 33 26 26 29 TUUBUEA. occ. «+ inc vo 5 mm is ied = 8 2000 2 3 Wi 34 34 30 32 29 30 32 30 31 29 52 25 32 29 Northern Eskimo Noatak.........coviieeiinaan. 28 35 37 35 34 33 36 32 38 37 35 32 Bd ..v0se Point Hope. .o:sinesrenerinmrsanfrrses 34 40 41 43 35 41 36 42 38 37 40 30 34 Shishmaref. .c.:csmiisnmesamessns 1 f(A 37 38 39 39 39 33 33 38 43 40 47 37 Shungnak....................... 31 42 29 32 33 36 31 32 32 39 40 35 35 43 Southwestern Eskimo AKlak. . .cissmeiamessmvasg mans amn 39 44 45 41 40 47 45 41 44 42 44 [oon 41 30 Boopor Bay: oc .:nvsrenmrrammeres 38 42 39 39 37 37 36 37 45 39 47 |... 32 39 Napaskiak...................... 29 39 38 37 37 42 36 35 35 34 43 37 35 46 Newtok.............coivvii]innn.. 48 49 47 48 49 47 50 47 44 vow ihn wv 2 0 w]e ow win 5 x fore 4 v wis Kasigluk ....................... 48 27 31 33 31 29 31 34 30 [::suns 28 [visas 35 20 All Villages Combined. ............. 34 38 37 38 36 37 36 35 36 38 39 34 35 34 -r TABLE C-2.—SOURCE OF FAT: ADULT MALES AND FEMALES * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams Imported Mixed Food All Foods | Local Foods Food Preparations Food Group M F M F M F M F 1 SB BT fon wonder ssw 3.4 3.3 |............ BEE. .oooooe 1.0] 09] 0.4] 05| 0.6] 0.4......[... Mend uo ums so umssmmesss 12.8 | 10.4 | 10.0 8.0 1.2 1.1 1.6 1.3 Fish. .:iouisnmesemmiiss 19.4 | 15.7 | 19.2 | 15.4 |...... 0.1 0.2 0.2 Fats................... 26.8 121.2 17.2 | 13.6 9.6 28 {oinennfusomme Fruits.................. 4.9 4.7 0.1 0.1 ]...00,: 0.2 4.8 4.4 Vegetables. ............. 0.9] 0.9 0.4] 0.3] 0.5] 04 {ov:evrlennnn. Cralns. . oivsnnssrniise 38.6 | 82.8 |iunvesferonns 38.6 | 32.3 |......]...... Sugar... sivas imme rswnins 0:1] 0B bewsosofonssm 0.1] 0.2 ......0...... Miscellaneous. .......... 0.2 0.1 |......|...... 0.2] 0.1 |......|...... Mean Daily Intake. . .... 108.1 | 89.7 | 47.3 | 38.1 | 54.2 | 45.7 6.6 5.9 * 858 records for males, 1067 for females. 194 G61 TABLE C-3.—SOURCE OF FAT: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams All Foods Local Foods Imported Foods | School Lunch Mixed Foods Food Group — - M F M F M F M F M F DAIrY. cunnssnmesnmussmmass parses wuss smwes 10.2 5: J I 6.4 5.7 3.8 B.2 {eis co somos wnnsa Big... ini sas itsmis imme 28 5011 HEIs RIDE 1.6 1.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.3 f::smmsrmfursvevas Meat. .....oviiii 8.1 7.2 5.8 5.2 1.0 0.9 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.9 PPIBIG «5 cone vim 4 5 vows 3 sn 3 ots 0 shonin ee 12.3 11.0 12.0 10.8 DLL Loc ot co aly moons 2 cells 0 ite #4 0.2 0.2 Fats... 17.5 15.6 7.4 6.7 8.3 7.4 1.8 1.5 (........] cn. Prulls. svvirsmssinerssnsss sues yuna s aes 4.2 3.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 3.9 3.5 Vegetables. .....................c.oooun. 1.2 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.8 lovsvnusslensanors Grains. ......oouiii 39.2 34.9 |... 38.2 34.1 1.0 0.8 |oseoniisfrorsnmes SUA. ov vv svn vs vim v5 wns» vm ov was v3 we 0.4 0.4: «wer vinaifcess svn 5 0.4 LTE 00 coi smc Bi Fs in Font R eset rs ie Lis tints 3 Miscellaneous. « :.sum ss wuss sie s sama 25 oi 0.6 I TT 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 |. .oviii]enennnnn Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 95.3 84.8 26.4 23.8 55.7 49.5 8.1 6.9 5.1 4.6 * 303 records for males, 298 for females. 961 TABLE C—4.—SOURCE OF FAT: CHILDREN 7 TO 12 AND 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 Dalry. ovens smn mwwe vs wnir sv wim enie 8.8 11.5 ........}....utt. 5.5 11.5 3.3 0.03 |........]........ BEE. eee 1.4 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.6... denvneridomnsnins Meat.......o oii iii 6.9 7-2 4.9 5.4 0.9 0.8 0.3 |........ 0.8 1.0 Dish. coucsssomarsnwe suns some sss owe ¢ 559 10.6 7.7 10.3 7.6 0.1 [covonss]omvrsmmifesssmess 0.2 0.1 TPES. 58 Bini 4 3 0 4 4 5504 moms 0. eset mm in 15.0 8.7 6.4 3.5 7:1 5.2 1.5 0.0L |oionmm als aiin one TET coe 5 etn 0 die » 0 or wa ti ws brs ih 3.5 2.4 0.1 G.1 fisnwiuse 0.1 0.1 Jorsinens- 3.3 2.2 Vegetables. ............................. 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 [a +o ie si aims + 05 nile «imi nn Grains... o.oo iii 33.3 27:2 Yiisnainnlponswmns 32.5 27.1 0.8 0.06 |........[........ 1 A ITT TIT II 0.4 BB |: 5 cohen formic was 0.4 0.5 [ss0nssanfomsssnnils snes snafssssmess Miscellaneous. . ......................... 0.4 0.3 [...cviii]iennnnnn 0.2 0.3 0.2 Loviinmnafssscssss]issnsiie Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 81.4 66.5 22.6 17.0 47 .4 46.1 7.1 0.1 4.3 3.3 * 916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. L6T TABLE D-1.—PERCENT CALORIES FROM CARBONTDRATE: MALES AND FEMALES 17-70 YEARS F AGE All Seasons, By Village Percent Calories From Carbohydrate Village and Area 17 Yrs. 20 Yrs. 30 Yrs. 40 Yrs. 50 Yrs. 60 Yrs. 70 Yrs. M F M F M F M F M F M F M F N. Central Athapascan Allakalet. . ..sesssovuismnzs roma 45 48 48 40 42 44 41 45 46 38 42 41 36 42 Busi. ,oviiinmarinansammoss ones 44 49 46 44 44 47 43 45 48 52 30 48 47 48 Northern Eskimo Noatak......oovviineenenennen.n 36 36 35 32 31 31 32 30 30 35 34 31 209 N....:: Point Hope. sve ss smars pumzesmusslomsres 42 39 35 28 43 34 38 35 42 40 37 45 51 Shishmaref. i. .ocisnisiamassnniss 82 liiiun 35 30 32 33 29 34 38 23 19 29 26 34 Shungnak....................... 23 36 29 29 29 27 25 22 23 29 32 30 24 27 Southwestern Eskimo Akiak... ......... iii 33 33 28 33 36 26 29 26 28 28 17 |... 34 32 Hooper Bay. .«:::uusisnmusnnnrn 28 34 30 32 31 31 33 36 27 27 2h [ini 33 31 Napaskiak. . .co cries oiiesssusias 30 35 36 35 35 29 34 30 30 35 31 29 30 28 Newtok....................cifioo... 22 23 24 24 21 21 22 22 MW evwssolnessaalonmmns ross ve Kasigluk........................ 34 22 29 29 30 29 30 26 00 n 29 losssmn 28 15 All Villages Combined. ............. 34 36 34 32 33 33 32 33 32 33 30 35 33 33 TABLE D-2.—SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATE: ADULT MALES AND FEMALES * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams Imported Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Food Preparations Food Group M F M F M F M F Dairy.................. 4.5 J TO. A. 4.5 Gd lonnio]ommnne BE oss anmnssmurionssswbor smn ifs mansions souls som he 250550 52s ut cums ox la wens w Mead. .omcennnismmeson 2.8 2.7 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.6 2.0 1.9 Plghicuiowsismsssnuisne 1.0 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.5 POSr v5 csi 5 5 vam v8 mm v0 0d 0.2 0.2......{...... 0.2 0.2]......0...... Fruits.................. 13.9 | 13.0 2.1 1.5 9.1 9.0 2.7 2.5 Vegetables. ............. 4.31 3.79] 1.3] 1.2] 3.0 2.8 .c.nwef vrui- Grains. ................ 17.4 109.7 [owessufnesse: 117.4 199.7 |......|...... Bugwr. . «swe scsmssmmase 58.9 | 48.8 |susssateisen. 58.9 | 43.3 [......|...... Miscellaneous. .......... 1.6 | 1.4 |......]...... 1.6 | 1.4 |......0...... Mean Daily Intake. ..... 204.6 (169.2 | 3.9 | 3.1 [195.4 [161.2 | 5.3 4.9 * 858 records for males and 1067 for females. 198 661 TABLE D-3.—SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATES: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group M F M F M F M F M F DAILY. ovine mirinm mmm de mk Sam EE STR 15.2 11.7 | oo 9.5 7.5 5.9 BF ueneranfissamsen BRE. ooo 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1]........ 0.1 0.1 |oeerviidiveneinnnnnn Meat... con ssnumismmsss mess mnevemmnes 2.0 1.6 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 laos sunss)rams sons 1.6 1.2 Fash... .convisamadssmmis mess gussssunsss 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 Q.L oi.ovursfamnismss 0.4 0.3 Pats. ...ccomv immer smn scm ns aaa FARBER 0.2 0:2 {x0 vmsvsfrvn en mns 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 livssssan]vesmmsss PRUE - « rucvn vs sro» amon s sinters 4% wrist #0 ke 0 2 Bm 22.3 17.2 1.4 1.0 10.6 8.0 7.8 5.7 2.5 2.5 Vegetables. . sume va om i + sw #2 wvs samme can 11.6 9.0 1.6 1.2 3.2 2.8 6.8 = 1 1 IE NEE Orang. ..oscssamsis sivas HvERs DEI a FR pase 130.831 101.0 )........0vciv0mun 123.6 96.2 6.7 4.8 iso namafescmnnes BUGAL. vs vs sommm nnd GRE IRR EE BIT 2 EH 36.5 28.1 ..... fees. 36.5 28.1 |visssvwslimmissaifismessanfras snus Miscellaneous. . . ........ovvuuiiininnn... 3.8 11 I ie 1.7 1.3 2.1 1.8 |ssscrsnalrssomens Mean Dally Intake. .....cunsssmesrevveess 222.8 172.4 3.3 2.5 185.7 144.5 29.3 21.4 4.5 4.0 * 303 records for males and 298 for females. 002 TABLE D-4.—SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATES: CHILDREN 7-12 AND 2-6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Grams All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Foods Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 R Dairy... o.oo 13.2 16:2 1. vo mors whe om v2 0 tus 8.1 16.2 5.1 5 ule 1 Bi)? of ee 3: 2 an Egg. 0.2 |... ee 0.1 = z FR PR, MOAR. cies sont 0 8 mnt «2 fe ebm mm mm 1.7 2.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.6|........ Ba 1.4 1.5 Fish........ 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 [siuviese > R 0.4 0.3 2 8.2] 04 loi inonofrencinne 01] orl o1|laf [fn Fruits. ...........ooooiiiiiiii i... 19.4 | 11.0 ia 1.4 9.4 8.2 6.9 B9 2.0 1.4 Vegetables. occ comviimis 00m is tmussmmmns 10.1 2.8 1.3 0.8 2.8 2.0 6.0 BE |e OTHE, : 05 1 vu vo coivnr & 5 mame 9 sw ct 3.50000 0 113.6 90.1 |........[........ 107.7 90.1 5.9 oO TE. sons dfn shims vn Sugar... .......... 31.7 22:4 |osvivnwrfssoncsnn 31.7 22.4 [cevvives Z SEWER Tees omar y Miscellaneous. . ......................... 3.2 Lil [esavsonalisnnions 1.4 1.1 1.9] livswsssslssswvass Mean Daily Intake... ................... 193.9 146.4 2.6 2.4 161.5 140.8 26.0 3.8 3.2 * 916 records for children 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. 102 CHILDREN 2-5 YEARS OF AGE By Area and Age Level 2 Years of Age 3-5 Years of Age Geographic Area No. of | Mean Daily Intake Percent No. of Mean Daily Intake Percent Records | Intake (mg) | Range (mg) | Under NRC Records Intake (mg) | Range (mg) | Under NRC TABLE E-1.—CALCIUM INTAKES OF ESKIMO AND INDIAN | Southwestern Eskimo. ...... 89 694 146-1478 81 258 577 82-2247 89 Northern Eskimo. .......... 42 739 183-1482 76 155 637 171-1616 89 Northcentral Athapascan. . .. 18 853 558-1471 61 84 643 204-1407 78 All Areas Combined......... 149 726 146-1482 75 497 603 82-2247 87 TABLE E-2.—COMPARISON: SOURCE OF CALCIUM: 368 ADULT FEMALE DIETS At Hooper Bay and Point Hope, All Seasons In Milligrams Mean Calcium Intakes by Source Number Village of All Food Local Import Mixed Records Sources Foods Food Foods Hooper Bay (Southwest Eskimo). ............ 265 500 142 353 5 Point Hope (Northern Eskimo) ............. 103 481 49 428 4 TABLE E-3.—SOURCE OF CALCIUM: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Imported Mixed All Foods | Local Foods Food Foods Food Group M F M ¥ M F M F Dairy.................. 108! X07 |eosswulesnmes 108 | 107 |......|...... Egg... 3 3 2 2 1 Xeon finns mn Meat... ................ 31 27 27 23 1...... 1 4 3 Tih. oovssiinismmarsnms 140 105 135 100 3 3 2 2 Perks. comiio nme bitin nie 2 21... 2 J I TT Fruits. ................. 10 9 2 5 5 2 2 Vegetables. ............. 7 8 1 1 6 Ts ai ve Jin ioe Grain Products. ......... 252 ] 215 |...uvilsnmiss 252 215 }......]...... Sugar Products. ......... 3 3 li mmr olfe momnns 3 3|......0...... Miscellaneous. .......... 0 20...) 0 Sls ms soy some Mean Daily Intake. ..... 556 | 481 168 | 128 | 380 | 346 8 7 * 858 records for males and 1067 for females. 202 803 TABLE E-4.—SOURCE OF CALCIUM: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams All Foods Local Foods Imported Foods | School Lunch Mixed Foods Food Group M F M F M F M F M F Dadry...ousiovreimersvmmen imme sme ss wu 310 D3. «ons ors 0 rnin eo 187 166 123 OZ [urn oso ol] goon 2 3 9% OF SU 6 5 2 2 1 1 3 BL nsssniferonsens Ment. ..onvi muisna iss METI IFREEESm ES BER 18 14 14 12 Y ivumrennfucsnmursfmmesomas 3 2 HERE, oc « thee sh ties 1 0 ss ol thee 4 it. 4 stn: ne 59 54 55 51 2 DL vc nts flim i ie 2 1 Fats... oo 2 See 2 20... 1 if cioee v0 mse © meme Prulls.. con: vu@s ss mess vues 2 yma ss poms» vw 12 10 2 1 5 5 4 3 1 1 Vegetables. ......:avcirnnsssvnssannsssns 7 15 1 3 5 4 11 0 lesoarennfussnmens Grains... 226 198 leconmessfporenna. 221 193 5 Bl]: 550m 2 2 mth vt ems ww 0 SUGAL. «ssn irs cnn csr nny arr swe 5 SL IEIEERNN SERIE 5 Al ites 0 vc stn Yds 0 ots ll coeds orn pre: snc win Miscellaneous. . «penis rer smn saawnes pi 5 4. 2 2 3 looms vals namess Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 660 580 74 67 431 379 149 130 6 4 * 803 records for males and 298 for females. ¥02 TABLE E-5.—SOURCE OF CALCIUM: CHILDREN 7-12 AND 2-6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Mixed Food All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 Dalry. «oi 321 384 |. 192 384 129 i Z 1 2 8 9% YE PR 7 pn BRE. eee 7 3 3 1 1 2 3) BB |viiiivifinerirns Meh. ocinnisnunss nest inms is amass bmses 18 15 14 14 L foes nmass fume ns ime ZO 3 1 Fish... ooo 61 37 57 33 Bln. £3 f= 1 4 FabS. ooo tee eee 2 loooiiii]onnennn. 2 UU fom? go BE [owner wmfer senna SS 12 7 2 1 5 6 4| 82 foe... Vogelables. «i vom: seisnmessmuasssweis 18 4 1 1 5 3 12| RP 8 smi 86 wile s emus ae Grains. .....oonvieieeiieeieaninn, 235 V85 Jes 22 000 4 fries 52 50s 229 185 6) BE leern]ivnernns SUZAT. + + eee eee 8 af 5 4 3| Z Bol] Miscellaneous. . ..............cooi. 2 Le fro no svn lf mn wm 2 Lif-osncean] Hommes safes woman Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 684 641 77 50 445 586 157 5 5 * 916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. TABLE F-1.—SOURCE OF IRON: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Imported Mixed All Foods | Local Foods Food Foods Food Group M F M F M F M F DAILY: css sams sv smw enw 0.1 O.l Joucsvogssnmes 0.10.10 }......0 000s BEg.....comv00musnmas sme 0.1 0.2 0.1 Ql [onvsn BL Jevrcocofumecon Meat. ....oonmessmesss 16.8 | 20.9 | 15.6 | 19.8 0.3]0.1 0.9 1.0 Fish. .................. 2.5 3.0 2.4 3.0 |..::00fe3smwe 0.11]...... Fats. ......oovvveiai]ienn 0: Luvs wm fs wom wns Yow wn ne 0.1 Lesssslmezeon Fruits. ..copmuerswusnmes 0.3 0.4 0:1 0.1 0.2 (0.3 [.omerolurzims Vegetables.............. 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 10.2 {.oconfrenmms Grains. .............0.- 3.7 491|......]...... 3 4 (fF TK J WORE, [FR Sugar... 0.2] 0.2 ]......0...... 0.27 0.2 Josssoslfssenne Miscellaneous... ........ 0.0] 0.80 000:favvem 0.1 | 06%. smear nme Mean Daily Intake. ..... 24.1 | 30.7 | 18.3 | 23.1 4.86.6 1.0 1.0 # 858 records for males and 1067 for females. #* Includes 0.5 mg. iron from multiple vitamin preparations. 205 902 TABLE F-2.—SOURCE OF IRON: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Foods Food Groups M F M F M F M F M F Dairy... 0.4 0.3 |... |........ 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 |uirneusslmivenis. Bg. oo 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 [........ 0.1 0.1 [eevee i, MMBBE, os mie 5 5 57005 1 3 205 £ 5 oarmn « vere #0 move ot 16.1 13.4 14.9 12.4 0.5 0.2 0:0 [:inwven 0.6 0.8 TIER fics 55 a 0 hmmm nt tim # nmin mw 5 wg 8 3 2.5 2.0 2.3 1.9 0.2 Oud [5mm 2. 10 foro oom 5 0 Jon 0 5 ve elo wp 03 5550 PAS. oes sesinr as mncssmmnnsmmrsnmers fone snus fr enn nmufnrvnmne foaesnsmubcsnmets olos ss emetiomeen sender one hone ee foo Fruits. ................................. 0.8 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 [.on:vs5. 0.1 Vegetables. ........................... .. 1.3 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.9 0:8 [xvi o omen monies es TAIT css: 5915.4 2% 50 5 49 um 3 om = at 3 6.9 Bo? owas swan] ounce «na 6.7 5.5 0.2 0.2 |........]ceenn... Sa veiw ve mins min es es BE EE Ee 0.4 0.4 |........[........ 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 [........ o.oo. Miscellaneous. . ......................... 0.7 0.6 [........]........ 0.1 0.1 0.6% 0.5%|........[........ Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 29.4 24.4 17.6 14.6 8.7 7-0 2.5 1.9 0.6 0.9 * 803 records for males and 298 for females. ** Includes 0.5 mg. from multiple vitamin preparations. L0G TABLE F—3.—SOURCE OF IRON: CHILDREN 7-12 AND 2-6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Food Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 | 2-6*** | 7-12 2-6 Dairy... oii 0.3 0.4 [1 owmsemobissamrss 0.2 0.4 0.1.1] Joae.smmelamenane BE tcc n enn smn nso rs aa Ria 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 |oeeeii]oienn.n. 0) | 0 frend minsinn Meat. .....o iii ities 11.9 8.6 10.9 7.7 0.2 0.1 |.:owiese 0.8 0.8 TIS. irr 50 0 00 6 6 B00 6 PR EB REG ES Ey ae 1.8 1.2 1.7 0.9 0.1 0.3 l..osviva] frazzsesfsemesves Bale ose emini ening s us sayy smn afew oem] emma na furmisnmafr mes cealerermar afar cs weirs cena] Emirs paerese, TUE, vo oonorn = oron ow iit v0 tod 38 NRE 2 600% 2 0.6 0.3 0.4. cansesa 0.2 0.2 083 | fens sien 0.1 Wegabablon, cuss vues wmv vs mms wominn on Wit 4 3 1.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8 | |eeeeiiiifieiin CIPONNE, oo 5 mvt vo 00 wo 3 Wig 8 8 5000 4 0 www w 3 iin 8 5.1 WJ A ————— 4.9 4.2 0:2 5 . Dees em as ]eeme semen BUGAE. norms shi F 2 REE RE Rp 0B 3s win » 0.3 0.3 livsisomifs somes rn 0.3 0.3 H.onecineny = levrissmeesjemurswe. Miscellaneous. . .....vvvinereiiaenn 0.5 0.2 Ju 1 0 var nfs» 0oii 23 50 0.1 0.2% 0.4% | L.iinsssleascemes Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 21.7 15.5 12.9 8.8 6.1 5.8 1.9 0.8 0.9 #916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. ##% Includes iron from multiple vitamin preparations. #*# Included under imported foods. TABLE G-1..—SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN MEAN DAILY VITAMIN A INTAKES All Areas and Villages, By Age and Sex In International Units Number Mean Daily Vitamin A Intake Age-Sex Category of Records Fall Winter Spring Summer Males 20+ Yrs......... 858 7590 6599 7346 4981 Females 20+ Yrs. ...... 1067 5439 6219 7527 3999 Males 13-19 Yrs. ....... 303 5631 8620 6445 3679 Females 13-19 Yrs... ... 208 5450 8453 4879 2967 School Child 7-12 Yrs. . . 916 5323 7821 4934 2950 Preschool Child 2-6 Yrs. . 843 4006 3882 4147 2799 Total Number Records. . 4285 933 2330 624 398 Percent Under NRC(4).. 47.7 50.4 40.9 52.5 73.7 208 603 TABLE G—2.—VITAMIN A INTAKES: ALASKAN ESKIMO AND INDIAN CHILDREN 2-6 YEARS OF AGE All Seasons, By Area and Age Level 2-3 Years 4-5 Years 6 Years Area No. of | Mean Daily Percent No. of | Mean Daily Percent No. of | Mean Daily Percent Records | Intake I.U. | Under NRC | Records | Intake I.U. | Under NRC | Records | Intake I.U. Under NRC Northcentral Athapascan. . 44 3331 25 58 3075 45 31 3408 28 Northern Eskimo. ........ 86 3859 29 111 3475 39 48 7266 21 Southwestern Eskimo. . . .. 187 1941 58 160 3636 57 118 4790 37 TABLE G-3.—SOURCE OF VITAMIN A: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In International Units Imported Mixed All Foods Local Foods Food Foods Food Group M F M F M F M F Dairy... ooo00mes sum sson 162 163 |. .....0...... 162 163 [::onesfomicsn Egg... 88 | 78 | 43| 46 | 45 | 32 |... ... Meat. ................. 2074 | 1734 | 1939 | 1615 30 36 |105 83 Fish... ............... 2196 | 1770 | 2156 | 1725 1 5 39 40 Fats................... 966 760 716 578 | 250 182 (......|...... Fruits. ................. 385 380 27 28 | 239 240 | 119 112 Vegetables. ............. 649 758 506 618 | 143 HO J.conmile ones Grains. ................ 40 36 [......]...... 40 36 [......0...... Sugar..................|...... CE RY ® HE ONE ETH EE|R Bn 0 Pow on ih emide wo Miscellaneous... ........ 196 | 838 lvmisafiisnme 106**) 338*+......]...... Mean Daily Intake. ..... 6756 | 6017 | 5387 | 4610 [1106 [1172 |263***| 235%** 2 * 858 records for males and 1067 for females. ** More than 2/3 from pharmaceutical preparations. *** Mostly from local foods. 112 TABLE G-4.—SOURCE OF VITAMIN A: MALES AND FEMALES 13 TO 19 YEARS OF AGE* All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In International Units All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Foods Food Group - M F M F M F M F M ¥F Dalry is isncsmusssmmassmmrsamenssmmnsen 469 433 ..ocmavifmmaznnn: 329 283 140 UBD fo we sx oo mf mon 9 one BEE. cevnsiiimmisinnss enmer yng snes 115 106 53 53 29 23 33 30 |e MEat.... coon vo mmnsoudies had 47550 £20502 540 1067 984 931 941 25 21 l....oiisfrrenmmns 111 22 Fish... o.oo 1125 1037 1077 1027 13 Bi on ovo fos 8 rote 2 4 47 9 Pol. sous vous snmp armen ss mums sommes sms» we 555 512 276 276 222 184 57 B22 fewer omm apron sn misie FrUIS. «ovr v0 ome 56 05 55 G07 5 3 Bw + 8 Bien 3 3 90 505 465 21 21 278 307 78 112 128 25 Vegetables. ............................. 1002 922 379 379 142 116 481 QF lensssmva)eees sees Grains. ......ooviiiiiiiii iia 58 B3 leesmmusefroesmuns 52 48 6 B feesvamar)isnisne Miscellaneous. . co vasss mma smmns somes ev 2307 2075 |: cienriafoernmans 185%* 120% 2122%¢% 1O55%*®.... cvs Jocn samme Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 7203 6587 2737 2697 1263 1103 2917 2731 286 56 * 303 records for males and 298 for females. ** Mostly from Vitamin preparations given at home. #++ Mostly from Vitamin preparations given at the school lunch. cle TABLE G-5.—SOURCE OF VITAMIN A: CHILDREN 7 TO 12 AND 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In International Units Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 71 ES 423 B30 [.onissmifinnnmens 273 627 150 8 frsvmensafresomass BEE. ooo 106 53 51 28 25 25 30 |e Meat...........ooooiiii i 960 757 862 645 21 38 |reissmma]s sims on 77 74 Fish... 1015 814 981 789 3 Le fei i 5 wands wba 33 24 SU 500 332 264 175 183 156 53 1 Jor rommss omnis ome Brule: «comic 5 win nv morn ss eins msere sw wim ss x 451 282 20 22 231 189 111 7 89 64 Vegetables. ............................. 905 452 364 308 118 137 423 Tom s5enminfs ome eh mm Grain. ............. 48 34 |... ee. 43 34 S |i BUBIT. ovum sams sms heim rv mam ofr mre nee en men s gran mm fe sume realest anes hensseohiinniil oo Miscellaneous. . ......................... 2055 MAT [ov rrnnafi imine ee 116**| 374** 1939** A3*M. vo sunafiivamess Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 6463 3771 2542 1967 | 1011 1581 2711 61 199 162 *916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. ** Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. 813 TABLE H-1.—THIAMINE INTAKES: CHILDREN 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE By Area, By Age Level 2-5 Years of Age 6 Years of Age Area No. of | Mean Daily Intake Percent No. of Mean Daily Intake Percent Records | Intake (mg) | Range (mg) | Under NRC Records Intake (mg) | Range (mg) | Under NRC Northcentral Athapascan. ... 102 1.077 | .347-5.075 34 31 1.096 | .476-4.888 35 Northern Eskimo. .......... 197 1.071 | .314-4.931 43 48 2.005 | .586-3.603 15 Southwestern Eskimo. ...... 347 0.954 | .058-3.986 43 118 1.903 | .033-4.254 26 Totals. ..... 50 646 1.009 | .058-5.075 42 197 1.801 | .033-4.888 25 TABLE H-2.—SOURCE OF THIAMINE: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Imported All Foods Local Food Food Mixed Food Food Group M F M F M F M F Dairy... ............. 0.019 (0.020 |......|...... 0.019 10.020 |......|...... Egg. ................. 0.006 [0.006 [0.004 (0.004 (0.002 [0.002 |......| Meat................ 0.364 0.311 [0.322 {0.271 0.011 [0.010 0.031 | 0.030 Fish. ................ 0.383 10.307 10.377 10.300 |....... 0.002 10.006 | 0.005 Fats................. 0.006 (0.007 |......|...... 0.006 [0.007 |......|...... Fruits. ............... 0.032 {0.030 [0.005 0.005 {0.010 [0.010 0.017 | 0.015 Vegetables. ........... 0.021 10.018 (0.008 (0.008 |0.013 [0.010 |......|.... Grains. ..ocivvmnvnnns 0.643 (0.543 |......|...... 0.643 [0.543 |......|...... Sugar................|...... 0.001 [......|......[..... 0.001 |......|.... Miscellaneous. . . . . . . .. 0.109 (0.163 |......[...... 0.109%*0.163**......|...... Mean Daily Intake... [1.583 [1.406 [0.716 |0.588 0.813 [0.768 [0.054 | 0.050 * 858 records for males and 1067 for females. ** About 2/3 from pharmaceutical preparations. 214 are TABLE H-3.—SOURCE OF THIAMINE: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group M F M F M F M F M F Dalry... co rinscesavisommrspmeinsmanns 0.059 0.060 {........0cesonss 0.038 0.038 0.021 0.022 |........00evnnnenn Bg. ones crsnmr rman i sneis i HEE 03 0.009 0.008 | 0.005 0.004 | 0.001 001 0.003 0.003 J..concrfesnnrans Meat... 0.211 0.193 | 0.177 0.161 | 0.008 0.008 0.002 0.002 |0.024 0.022 Pil. cc onnmesnnmenamues cow esis mms san 0.214 | 0.200 0.210 | 0.196 |........| ccooii]ierinn]oeeen 0.004 0.004 Pata. ....convsvncussmussamessmmassvnronn 0.004 | 0.004 |........0........ 0.004 | 0.004 |........]cccivii iii PRUE. «vow vs rnin or mvs + 4 ll EBA RRR T 2 00 0.038 0.036 0.004 | 0.004 | 0.011 0.010 | 0.009 0.009 |0.014 0.013 Vegetables. ...................ooiiiii. 0.046 | 0.046 | 0.008 0.008 | 0.011 0.010 | 0.027 0.028 [iwi we offs on owns Orodng. .ovcu savy samme smn vee vives wm ss 0.635 0.508 |..om::0nfesrrwuss 0.616 0.579 0.019 0.000 foros num sgn en rm SUGHY. osc ssamoss ows £3 HEE 2 HBT Es Tom vv a0 0.002 0.002 1........06c055013 0.002 0.002 |...onvouferemsmasfonissmaafesinrenes Miscellaneous. . ... «coc nica ssnwn is wanes oi 0.942 0.941 |........|........ 0.045**| 0.045**| 0.897** 0.896**........[........ Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 2.160 | 2.088 | 0.404 | 0.373 | 0.736 | 0.697 | 0.978 | 0.979 |0.042*** 0.039*** * 303 records for males and 298 for females. ##* Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. #** Mostly from local foods. 912 TABLE H-4.—SOURCE OF THIAMINE: CHILDREN 7 TO 12 AND 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 Dairy... 0.059 | 0.086 [........|........ 0.036 | 0.086 [0.023 |........|........ ccc... Egg... 0.008 0.004 0.004 0.002 | 0.001 0.002 0.003 |........ 0 ....... cc.coun. MIGHE. i 500 4 4 SE 8 Babin #0 nw 3 4 for 1 wo 0.193 0.185 0.159 0.150 | 0.008 0.009 0.003 |........ 0.023 0.026 BR ccs imine cnr mn nnn en vg 0.199 0.168 0.194 0.163 | 0.001 0.001 |........|........ 0.004 0.004 Fats... 0.004 0.002 |........|........ 0.003 0.002 Q.00F f.cumisiafirnmmees ummssmme Fruits.................................. 0.036 0.026 0.004 0.004 | 0.010 0.012 0.009 | ...... 0.013 0.010 VOZRUADIOS. . vip wim i v3 0m 5 2 2.600 57 aifion v0 mower: » 0.047 0.014 0.008 0.006 | 0.010 0.008 0.020 1... coe vous vw amnio frome won BIBI, siois 555555 2 8200 4 4 x om 19 5 0m o 0 sem oo wei n 0.595 0.866 [vsnnw:slssmeiinns 0.575 0.565 0.020 0.001 |........|........ SUBAT. cos rn vv monn vs mnie ae wmv 8 ie 0.002 | 0.001 |........[........ 0.002 [0.001 |........0 ooo] Miscellaneous. . ......................... 0.997 | 0.158 |........|........ 0.045**( 0.138% 0.952** 0.020*™*........[........ Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 2.140 1.210 0.369 0.325 0.691 | 0.824 1.040 0.021 0.040 0.040 * 916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. ** Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. TABLE I-1.—SOURCE OF RIBOFLAVIN: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Imported Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Food Preparations Food Group M F M F M F M F Dalry. .oorevmmernmnns 0.149 10.247 |... isa fovve wn 0.149 (0.147 |......|...... Bg. conuaisowrsnmmies 0.018 [0.017 0.008 [0.010 [0.010 (0.007 |......[...... Ment. ....oneesvmeuse 1.242 [1.057 [1.133 [0.945 [0.008 [0.012 [0.101 | 0.100 FRR. «cus vinin vo mom i 208 0.952 10.752 [0.944 (0.741 |....... 0.002 [0.008 | 0.009 Fats................. 0.003 10.005 |... ..ofs canes 0.008 [0.005 jhe essm)esemmws Fruihs ooo pwn on nm es ame 0.023 [0.022 [0.006 [0.006 [0.010 [0.009 [0.007 | 0.007 Vegetables............[0.035 0.038 [0.025 [0.029 {0.010 (0.009 |......|...... Graing.. . , css nara mes 0.395 10.333 |......|...... 0.305 [0.333 [..:coeliunven Bagar.......coomeenmss 0.003 (0.002 |......[...... 0.003 [0.002 [-::onafewnsss Miscellaneous... ...... 0.708 [0168 ous ofiweren 0. 1020. 168. .: oo shone on Mean Daily Intake. ...|2.928 |2.541 (2.116 1.731 0.696 [0.694 (0.116 | 0.116 * 858 records for males and 1067 for females. ** Approximately 3/4 from pharmaceutical preparations. 217 812 TABLE I-2.—SOURCE OF RIBOFLAVIN: MALES AND FEMALES 13-19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group M F M F M F M F M F Dairy. .........oooi 0.453 0.428 |. covvnelernunnnn 0.292 | 0.266 0.161 0.157 |........|........ Bg. cc 9m 53 R sn rine nme + re om 0.027 0.025 0.012 0.011 | 0.006 | 0.005 0.009 0.009 J.::siwsoiinmessmn Meat...........oooviiiiiinnnnnnn. 0.670 | 0.612 0.576 0.528 | 0.009 | 0.009 0.003 0.003 0.082 0.072 Fish................................... 0.526 0.481 0.514 0.471 | 0.003 | 0.003 |........[........ 0.009 0.007 Fats... 0.004 | 0.004 |........]........ 0.003 | 0.003 0.001 0.001 |........|........ BPUIES oom 72 09904 5 5nd mm mmo vrs o mers 0 0.033 0.031 0.007 0.006 | 0.012 | 0.010 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.007 Vegetables. ............................ 0.052 0.050 | 0.021 0.020 | 0.009 | 0.009 0.022 0.021. [:wussanafssmmenss Grain. ..................... 0.391 0.355 |........|........ 0.378 | 0.343 0.013 0:012 l:vecivinfssnmenan Sugar. .............. 0.004 [ 0.008 {....000:fc00rnnn 0.002 | 0.008 [conosco lomessamalenmmoemmlesoemnsss Miscellaneous. . ..................... ... 0.962 | 0.938 |........[........ 0.040** 0.036**| 0.922**| 0.902**........[........ Mean Daily Intake. ................. .. . 3.122 | 2.922 | 1.130 | 1.036 | 0.756 | 0.687 | 1.139 | 1.113 0.097 0.086 * 803 records for males and 298 for females. ** Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. 612 TABLE I-3.—SOURCE OF RIBOFLAVIN: CHILDREN 7 TO 12 AND 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Mixed Food All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 Dairy... cies 0.429 | 0.56) [...c.cnmfuvsamnonn 0.264 0.558 0.165 0.008 .:vnuiasfarsomnsns TERE i «sim 2 5 min 1 8 ww ww wtate nn mie #8 once: 8 0 00 0.026 0.011 0.012 0.006 | 0.005 0.005 0.009 lis-isssalisomernn]ursmumens Meth. ii omiiam@ssamme sews ss mun ss vwns 0.614 | 0.528 | 0.528 0.461 | 0.009 [........ 0.004 |........ 0.073 0.067 PAN. cer evn neh RHEE 8 Hw RE WE RS Ae 0.482 0.333 0.472 0.827 | 0.003 |..:nc:sofeseswersfrovssnn, 0.007 0.006 Pods. conv vvemmrrmnmer simmer anin d8amEEI IT 0.004 | 0.002 |........0........ 0.003 |10.002 | 0.001 foww:suwe)ss mses esomnnss Profle: cocvenmuismmssammesn womens womna imme 0.030 | 0.019 0.006 0.006 | 0.010 0.009 | 0.008 |........ 0.006 0.004 Vegetables. ....:ccvis mess renssanmosenas 0.052 0.021 0.021 0.015 | 0.009 0.006 { 0.022 J.vvreowfissusnnmtazimaess Orang. ...c..vovvsmmns ani 230s TFRs 3B 2 0.357 0.289 |......ofeevnnnnn 0.344 0.288 | 0.013 BLO0L [-ovrumnfoisomsens Sugar... 0.003 0004 Loves anon]nswminninn 0.003 G.008 leciwesss|mersrvma]e mes esmmbssmmmnne Miscellanoous. . « sus ss sree sume commen omnes 0.985 0.146 |:0cc00efcrevmans 0.040%] 0.120% 0.945" 0.017%. oes svn]rrvwvess Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 2.982 1.914 1.039 0.815 | 0.690 1.001 1.167 0.021 0.086 0.077 * 916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. #* Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. TABLE J-1.—SOURCE OF NIACIN: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Imported Mixed All Foods Local Food Food Foods Food Group M F M F M F M F Dairy.................. 0.1 0.1 Lvsowales vines 0.1 0.1 |............ Egg. ooo Meat. ................. 14.9 112.8 (13.9 | 11.7 | 0.1 0.2 0.9 0.9 Fish. .................. 18.0 [15.0 [17.8 | 14.8 |......|.. .... 0.2 0.2 Pats. ..vnvismvisnmessn 0.1 | 0.1 |......[...... 0.1 G1 f..omnnfennns Proll. ons inie mens me 0.4 03 0.1 0.1]0.2 [0.1 0.1 0.1 Vegetables.............. 0.3| 0.3] 0.1 0.10.2 |0.2 |......]...... Grains. ................ 5.7 4.9 limiinils cs nm: 5.7 49 [.iaswifsnwnes Sugar..................|...... 0.1 |......].....|...... 0.1 ficssmalione en. Miscellaneous. .......... 0.8 1.2... |... 0.8% 1.2% ......00conm. Mean Daily Intake. ..... 40.3 | 34.8 [31.9 | 26.7] 7.2 | 6.9 1.2 1.2 * 858 records for males and 1067 for females. ** Males, more than half and females 2/3 from pharmaceutical preparations. 220 122 TABLE J-2.—SOURCE OF NIACIN: MALES AND FEMALES 13 TO 19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams All Foods Local Food Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Foods Food Group M F M F M F M F M F DAITY co vvainnn moms smn ns mon ve 0mm n £8 8000 3 0.3 0.3 |:inismeife: monvan 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 |........ cee. Bag... ivinniimnmrnmns cme rnmnr samme fem rgonfr inom nas]ime rami rnaiisafiiianieafoniiime rami sama mrr sa nfr onsen cafes ssn MEBE vin 5 5 mimo = sos 3 3 wom 5 2 5 ssi stan x 9 seams wo 9.7 8.4 9.5 8.2 0.2 0.1 |iamsssms 0.1 leissvwisfrosssmes Pigh. oo .svmisssmirsnmsssnssssmussevuns 12.2 10.4 12.2 10.3 |... 0.1 |.c:onersfomesnans PE. nn cmmnssmmils isin fy BAA FAT ESR SIS 0.2 0.2 foonssomalss smn sn 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 ...omurefonnsamms PHUME. ov vo wi vs womie oo mimi mm sim 8 0 misan 0 5 0008 6 4 0.3 0:8 iovzsnes 0.1 0:1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 Vegetables. ........................ 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0:8 {eocswnsslnoesnmes Grains. . coowmis samen somss sums sma sgemmes 6.4 5.4 |... ee 6.1 5.2 0.3 0:2 Joiissssalumessens QUBHE. vias emma saeassnmessnmens Cues 0.1 O51 fone osm a]s nme en 0.1 0.0 [evo wmode win n non 5 wine £0 fron 5 sna Miscellaneous. . ..........c.covieienn.... 7.5 6.7 [vesssmarls snmarme Qu4** 0.3 7.1% GAH. . «oie ne Jone nin» Mean Daily Intake... ................... 37.4 32.6 21.8 18.7 7.4 6.3 8.1 7.4 0.1 0.2 * 308 records for males and 298 for females. ** Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. 23% TABLE J-3.—SOURCE OF NIACIN: CHILDREN 7 TO 12 AND 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Mixed Food All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Preparations Food Group 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 Dairy. ooo 0.3 0.4 [veveren]eeenn.. 0.2 0.4 0.1 [........ [oe eee Egg. oie ee cc eee ee Meat... ..oooviii 7.7 6.5 6.8 5.6 0.2 0.2 0.3 Heevnvesn 0.6 0.7 Fish........... 9.5 7.1 9.4 6.9 QO fevsssnasfsoscrssanfissanais bivieasmes 0.2 | 0.2 [ovine 0.1 |........ 0.1 |........ free + te af ns 2.0 tom FS, 5500.05 5 6500 6 0m ech 3 9 im 5 wane # ens 9 0.4 0.2 0.1 ........ 0.2 0.2 0.1 ........0 ovina. Vegetables. ............................. 0.6 0.2 0.2 ifs eon wa 0.1 0.2 0:3 foosnmmes G1 |-vor sos Grains. . o.oo 5.0 £8 [ioc vonils puvison 4.8 4.5 0:2 fuiinswss [rooenn]eeeeeenn Sugar... 0.1 0.1 los isamifenmmie non 0.1 0.1 V..00ics0funssames eves wai) mveaig Miscellaneous. . ......................... 6.3 1. herve dds minnie e nme 0.1 6.3% 1.0... cnn] tno 5 ie Mean Daily Intake... ................... 30.1 20.1 16.4 12.5 5.8 5.7 7:2 1.0 0.7 0.9 * 916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. ** Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations given at school. TABLE K-1.——SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN MEAN DAILY ASCORBIC ACID INTAKES Ali Areas and Villages, By Age and Sex, By Season In Milligrams Number Mean Daily Ascorbic Acid Intakes Age-Sex Category of men Records Fall Winter Spring Summer Male 20-60 Yrs... ....... 746 47 22 24 58 Male 60 + Yrs......... 112 38 17 15 50 Male 13-19 Yrs......... 303 60 48 25 45 Female 20-60 Yrs....... 633 49 23 33 48 Pregnant Female. . . ... 121 65 15 34 45 Lactating Female. . . .. ; 193 41 20 19 55 Female 60 + Yrs... .... 120 20 | 20 11 43 Female 13-19 Yrs... .... 298 61 |! 48 25 64 School Child 7-12 Yrs. .. 916 57 | 50 25 42 Preschool Child 4-6 Yrs.. 526 52 29 20 55 Preschool Child 2-3 Yrs.. 317 40 11 16 54 Total Records... ...... 4285 933 2330 624 398 Percent Under NRC(4).. 82 71 86 89 79 TABLE K-2.—SOURCE OF ASCORBIC ACID: ADULT MALE AND FEMALE DIETS * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Tmported Mixed All Foods Local Foods Food Foods Food Group M F M F M F M F Dairy....ooovvvvninnniiovneeebonni ooo pre EE... ooo ee Meat........oovveeeneveeeedeeneideee cde fee eee SIREN... ont wok iin i 2 8 WE Too Lemme: Toh. «oes vnim nnn mimes sored ihe mszmnfs sons] oavumfeasmwntes vse boon conus names Fruits.................. 21 22 12 10 3 5 6 7 Vegetables. ............. 5 5 4 5 Lo bicossstossaon]es mms Grains. .....ocovnviverafevenieeindee nn een een eerie fer een SURI. ves vv nrmnisnmusfpmiseatosssmaleresvslmersnmaferwme fomnsoaforrsmafaanass Miscellaneous. .......... 2 Bilivosialowsonmm bf BH. vin fn isin is Mean Daily Intake. ..... 29 30 16 15 6 8 7 7 * 858 records for males, 1067 for females. #** From pharmaceutical preparations. vee TABLE K-3.—SOURCE OF ASCORBIC ACID: MALES AND FEMALES 13 TO 19 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams All Foods Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Foods Food Group M F M F M F M F M F Dairy....ooooviiiiiiiin eee ee Egg. ooo ec ec ILO cc ows ev ow 1 Bin 3 S00 E BF 8 8 HS 4 545 £20058 fore som mot» wept mm crime worn: 0 mow wipe 5 2 he 65 5 mers tb won 03 woods 63 mie 5 8 boos #3 wie Phono omin re 3 0m 05 A EEE RAH T BBE 0 § mm 4 wren wn fase no Brn wera x anki pms he mpgs weeds 2 sawn whe ston seamed a 4 Fats... Fruits... 22 25 9 1 4 3 3 6 7 Vegetables. ............................. 6 6 3 3 1 1 2 2 [= 2s 000s lowes swe OTOIRE. coc vmrmvn m0 9 99000 18500 £4 9000 535 5% # fren 2 oe nf momen ons a 0 rom «oso erro] 0 mere 3 5 9m 9 9 6 Kw v 3h wo wwe v2 hia 53 mn os in 3 mae SUBIE. «co roommersnessnms etme ss omer wmumnfonomsnvmfssmnmenssfosenwnestsmnessnmles ons ss0leisenmnelensescamtescmmesnlosssmesadont seem Miscellaneous. . ......................... 19*+ IB** is awn alls 550 0500 ore IH 17% 16%... con foi vn nas Mean Daily Intake. ..................... 47 49 12 14 7 7 29 21 6 7 * 303 records for males and 298 for females. ** Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. G43 TABLE K-4.—SOURCE OF ASCORBIC ACID: CHILDREN 7 TO 12 AND 2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE * All Areas and Villages, All Seasons In Milligrams Food Group Local Foods Imported Food School Lunch Mixed Foods 7-12 2-6 7-12 2-6 All Foods 7-12 2-6 Cee or Ce 6 4 — = jean 44 30 7-12 2-6 4 2 1 1 IRR 1 5 4 * 916 records for 7-12 and 843 for 2-6 year olds. ** Mostly from pharmaceutical preparations given at school. *** Mostly for 6 year olds attending school. SOME PARTICULAR METHODS OF FOOD PREPARATION CARIBOU PREPARATION TECHNIQUES Caribou is an important food in the diet of many of Alaska’s Northern Eskimos. Practically all parts of the animal are eaten. Some of the typical food preparation techniques are as follows: A. CARIBOU STOMACH AND CONTENTS (partially digested vegetation including lichens such as reindeer moss). 1. The stomach and its contents may be frozen immediately after butchering and stored for future use. It is eaten frozen with seal oil. 2. Sometimes at butchering a small amount of the stomach contents are removed, just enough so that the stomach and its re- maining contents can be easily handled. The stomach is then set in the snow and covered with caribou skins to prevent freezing. In about two to three days the stomach contents become sweet. 3. Two of the stomach parts, the rumen (knee-oo-kuk) and the omasum (muk-pee-rawk) are removed, cleaned thoroughly and boiled a short time. They are eaten with or without seal oil, as desired. B. INTESTINES 1. The cleaned small intestines of the caribou are stuffed with strips of visceral fat obtained from around the stomach and intestines. The ends are tied and this “sausage” is then boiled a long time. The cooked fat may then be used as a spread or in any other way much as we do butter. 2. At the hunting camp the visceral fat strips may be placed in the cleaned small intestine but left uncooked. On return- ing home the strips are removed and hung up to dry, either in- doors or outdoors. This fat is used in making agutuk. 3. The small intestines with the visceral fat left attached are cleaned, thoroughly washed and then cooked in water. The rendered fat is removed, the cooked intestines chopped into 34” to 1” lengths and the two are thoroughly mixed together. 4. The cleaned small intestines with attached visceral fat are ground, chopped and pounded thoroughly, and then heated in water. The fat is removed as it is rendered. This fat is then 226 whipped, gradually mixed with seal oil, stirred until it becomes light and fluffy, and one or more of the following added: blue- berries, crowberries, chopped cooked ‘“mashu”, raisins, pilot bread crumbs, cooked dried apples, cooked, chopped or ground caribou meat or cooked whitefish—squeezed dry and thoroughly flaked. Sugar may be added if fruits are used. C. LIVER 1. Liver may be fried or it may be prepared as Nay-ru-kuk as follows: Short strips of liver and muscle tendon, particularly those found close to the sinews along the back and in the hind and forelegs, are mixed with the stomach contents, put into a cleaned caribou stomach, and then set aside in a warm, but not too hot, place for about a week. The mixture becomes sweet. If kept too long it gets too sweet. D. EYES The eyes, including the muscle and fat around them, are cooked until soft. Only the muscle and the fat are eaten. E. BONE MARROW (Pa-tik) 1. Bone marrow may be eaten raw or cooked. Marrow dif- fers in consistency depending on the location of the bone. The most solid part is found in the hip and upper thigh bone and is called ki-nik-nik. Less solid marrow is found in the lower thigh and upper part of the shank bones. This marrow is called ah-noa- tuk-suk. The marrow found in the lower part of the leg is oil-like in consistency and is called peg-nick; this is the most preferred. 2. In times past, but less frequently now, it was a common practice to break up the caribou bones, cover them with water and simmer to render out the fat. Both fat and marrow were then re- moved from the cooking pot and mixed thoroughly. This mixture was stored in a thoroughly cleaned and dried caribou stomach and then frozen. It was used as a spread or as a condiment with fish and meat. At Shungnak this mixture is called poing-nik. F. KIDNEYS The kidneys are not often eaten and when they are, they are preferred raw right after the animal is killed and the kidneys still “hot and steaming,” at which time they are said to have a very spicy taste. 227 G. BLOOD 1. Blood is sometimes drunk raw from the freshly killed ani- mal, but its most common use in aboriginal times was as a soup thickener. It had to be stirred carefully into the hot, but not boil- ing, liquid to prevent coagulation. Then thin slivers of caribou fat were added and stirred to make a creamy mixture or gravy. 2. Fresh caribou blood is sometimes stored in the thor- oughly cleaned stomach part, the reticulum, and then frozen. This blood is used in soups or in the preparation of azeesuk. Azeesuk is made by chopping low-bush cranberries, adding caribou blood and stirring and whipping the mixture to a fluff, 3. Sometimes caribou back fat is dipped into blood and air dried. According to my informant, the fat inside never gets spoiled or yellow. 4. Caribou back fat is sometimes ground, and to it is added blood, flour, pepper, onion, and salt. This sausage mixture is stuffed into cleaned caribou intestines, the ends tied, and the whole cooked by boiling. This was learned from the Lapps who were brought over in the early days to help with the reindeer industry. H. BRAINS Brains are sometimes eaten raw, especially by the men at hunting camps; sometimes fried, sometimes cooked with tongue to make a stew or used to make kah-kay-suk. The latter is made by boiling the caribou brain along with the meat and fat from the jaws and around the eyes, and other parts of the head. The meat is separated out, mixed with the melted caribou fat and salted to taste. I. CARIBOU AGUTUK Caribou meat, preferably that along the sinews from the back and the hindquarters, is boiled and either chopped into very fine pieces or ground and added to a mixture of fats. Here is a typical Point Hope recipe: 1 cup caribou or edible beef 4 pounds caribou meat, cooked tallow and ground 1 cup seal or whale oil 1 cup caribou cooking broth First, the tallow is thoroughly chopped or hammered; then soft- ened by squeezing in the hands or by warming it slightly on the stove. It is then beaten or whipped to a fluff—using a circular mo- 228 tion of the hand. Seal or whale oil is then added gradually and after each small addition the mixture is whipped until it is light and fluffy. The lukewarm cooking broth is next added, again whipping and stirring thoroughly after each small addition. Lastly, the ground meat is stirred in thoroughly and the mixture set aside to cool. Caribou agutuk has a very pleasant delicate cheesy taste. SEA MAMMALS: bn ) SEAL, UGRUK, BELUGA WHALE, BALEEN. WHALE Most of the meat from these common sea ny is eaten either fresh, cooked or raw, frozen or dried. The greater share of the summer catch is air-dried. Dried meat is usually eaten uncooked with seal oil, the rib meal especially being enjoyed in this way. Half-dried meat is usually cooked ; thoroughly dried meat, only occasionally. Specialty products include the following: 1. The liver from the smaller varieties of seal is especially relished. It is eaten either raw-frozen with seal oil or cooked, usually fried, or it may be “soured”. This latter process involves placing the liver in a dish and then setting it aside in a cool place for about a month. When sufficiently soured, it is eaten raw with seal oil. 2. Well cleaned seal stomachs are sometimes eaten. On Diomede they are sometimes filled with walrus blubber and boiled (€6), 3. Seal kidneys may be eaten either fresh, raw-frozen or diced and cooked with liver in seal oil. 4. Seal heads are boiled and all parts eaten. 5. The seal intestines, well cleaned, are often eaten as kwak (raw frozen). They may also be boiled in water or cooked in oil. They are sometimes dried and eaten either raw or cooked by boil- ing or frying. The cleaned, chopped ugruk intestines are some- times mixed with berries. Seal oil may be added or not as desired. 6. Infant seals, and occasionally embryo seals, are a well- liked food. They are usually boiled, and then set aside to cool, before eating. 7. On Diomede, seal lungs are first inflated and then all the air is expressed out. They are then cut into strips and hung over the lamps or in other suitable places to dry. When dry, they may be eaten raw or cooked but always with seal oil. 229 8. Seal oil is considered by many Eskimos the best of the sea mammal blubber oils for eating purposes. The careful Eskimo housewife stores it in clean barrels or seal pokes in a cold place so that it stays light colored, free from dirt and other extraneous matter. Seal oil is used to make “poke” fish or meat; it is used in making agutuk and other mixtures; it is used mostly as a condi- ment or dip for frozen and dried meats and fishes; it is occasionally used medicinally, sometimes taken by the tablespoon for colds or by the cupful as a cathartic. 9. Seal and beluga flippers are considered great delicacies by most of the coastal Eskimos. They are enjoyed fresh, raw. They may also be buried in grass-lined ground pits and allowed to sour or putrefy. The usual method is to line the sides and bot- tom of a 1145 to 2% foot deep pit with grass sufficient to prevent the meat from making contact with the ground. The flippers are thoroughly rubbed with oil and laid in the pit. They are first well covered with plain blubber and then with a strip of blubber and meat from where the two meet on the carcass. This is then covered with grass, next with seal skin and then wood or dirt and left until the skin and hair from the flippers peels off easily. Sometimes the clean flippers are laid in a clean ugruk skin (hair side on the outside), with plenty of blubber added and then the skin is folded over all. It is then placed in a grass-lined pit and covered to protect from the sun. Eskimos emphasize that great care must be taken to pro- tect the flippers from sun and heat both when butchering and dur- ing storage in the ground pit. Such care is especially important during a warm dry arctic summer. The pit site must be selected carefully, preferably where there is some shade. Eskimos report that buried flippers can cause fatal illness unless these precautions are taken. Rabeau®” has reported 13 cases of botulism with five fa- talities in the Kotzebue area from the ingestion of improperly handled and stored flippers. Kotzebue Eskimos say flippers should be stored only in wooden containers, and even though stored in oil, must never be kept longer than a month. Some of the present day Kotzebue Eskimos have freezers and find this a satisfactory method of preservation. The favorite Diomede way of preparing the flippers, flukes, and head skin of the beluga whale, which are considered the choice parts, is to place them in a dish in the upper part of the room, preferably above the oil lamp. In about a week they will be somewhat soured and a little more tender. They are then 230 eaten raw with leaves of kaghat (Polygonum bistorta) if they are available. Meat is treated similarly. It is first cut into strips and sometimes meat juice added, preferably that drained from the fresh meat. When the product begins to bubble it is ready for eating. It is eaten raw more often than cooked (9. Seal flippers are soured in the same manner. When the hair will slip off, the product is ready to eat raw. 10. Beluga muktuk consists of the outside skin of the beluga whale which is about 14” to 34” thick with about 14” of attached blubber. It is considered a delicacy by the Eskimos who hunt this animal in the Kotzebue Sound. Long, three-to-four inch wide strips, deeply knife scored, are hung on racks and left to dry a day or two. They are then boiled a long time until the skin is soft. After removal from the cooking water, they are allowed to drain with the blubber side down, and again air-dried on racks for another day or two. In the meantime, the bulk of the blubber is heated in large containers to render the oil. The cooled oil is poured over the properly dried muktuk, completely covering it. The muktuk is then ready for either immediate eating or storage. BALEEN WHALE The baleen whale is caught more or less regularly at Bar- row and Point Hope. Point Hope usually gets one to five animals each year. At Barrow the yearly catch varies from none to twenty or more. Whale meat is never dried. That not immediately consumed is stored in special underground pits (at Barrow) or abandoned sod igloos (Point Hope) which remain cold the year round and therefore provide effective storage. Whale meat is eaten mostly as kwak (raw-frozen), but it may also be cooked on occasion. Other parts of the animal cooked and used for human food include part of the small intestine, the kidneys, the heart, and the muktuk (outside skin with attached blubber). Whale muktuk, when fresh, is usually eaten boiled. When a little older, it is generally eaten raw, as the older skin is considered too tough to cook. Part of the blubber may also be used to obtain a clear oil. This is done by cutting the whale blubber into pieces, scoring it with a knife, and packing the blubber in a barrel and letting it stand. The oil, rendered by autolysis, is stored in a cold place. Whale meat is sometimes made into a special dish called mikiyuk, a soured product. This product is made especially for “Nullikituk”, the annual whale feast, held every June at both Bar- 231 row and Point Hope. Thinly cut slices of whale meat and pieces of whale muktuk are placed in clean barrels, pokes or other suit- able containers and left in a slightly warm place for about a week. The mixture is stirred daily and the temperature of the surround- ings watched carefully. If the meat is tender, it sours fairly fast; if tough, it is a slow process. The control of temperatures in the making of mikiyuk, without benefit of thermometer or automatic controls, requires considerable experience to prevent spoilage. When the meat reaches the desired stage, and experience is the only guide, mikiyuk can be eaten or frozen for future use. WALRUS At Point Hope and other arctic coastal villages where only a limited number of walrus are caught or where they are only available in certain years, the meat is generally eaten either raw, frozen (kwak) or boiled. The blubber is usually cooked and eaten with the cooked meat or skin. But on Diomede, St. Lawrence and King Islands and at Wales, where walrus is a much more im- portant food, there are naturally many more methods of prepara- tion. On St. Lawrence Island the meat of animals caught throughout the winter is eaten fresh cooked by boiling and is especially relished in combination with stored greens and fresh blubber oil. On Diomede Island (®® fresh walrus meat is generally well boiled, but that which has been “soured” during storage, is usually only half cooked. On all of these islands, and in the main- land villages, too, meat not immediately used is buried in ground pits where the temperature during such storage is variable de- pending on the time of year. During such storage, the meat often becomes “soured” or putrefied and may even become covered with mold. This is apparently no deterrent to its use as human food. On both St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands the meat from walrus caught in May and June is cut into strips and air-dried. This dried meat is used throughout the summer, fall and early winter until walrus and seal hunting is again possible, usually in November. Old dried walrus meat is then stored in seal oil. Other parts of the walrus used by residents of Diomede, St. Lawrence Island, and probably by other Eskimos too, include the following : On St. Lawrence Island walrus skins not needed or desirable for boat covers are rolled into huge balls, sometimes weighing up to 100 pounds, and stored in caches as an emergency food in case the walrus catch during the winter is not sufficient to meet their food needs. If the skins are not needed as an emergency human food, they are eventually fed to the dogs. 232 Heinrich ®® reports that the Eskimos of Diomede Island commonly eat walrus skin fresh boiled throughout the season, but skin soured during storage is also relished and is eaten either raw, frozen or cooked. On both Diomede and St. Lawrence Islands walrus flippers are sometimes eaten fresh, raw, unfrozen, but preferably after they have become somewhat soured during storage in the under- ground meat pits. Walrus flippers eaten with frozen stored greens are a winter favorite on Diomede Island. According to Heinrich walrus heads, buried under a pile of rocks on the beach and left there until late summer to “ripen”, are another Diomede delicacy. He says, “They are eaten with relish, brain and all.” Also on Diomede the intestines of the walrus are cleaned, filled with blubber and boiled to make a sausage. On St. Law- rence Island fresh tom cod roe is sometimes stored in cleaned walrus gut, frozen and later mixed with berries and eaten. The kidneys of the walrus are soured and eaten raw. Walrus heart is sometimes eaten fresh raw at butchering time, but it is usually boiled. On Diomede the thick heart arteries and veins are considered a special delicacy and eaten fresh raw. Fresh walrus liver is often eaten raw-frozen with seal oil; sometimes fried or boiled; sometimes diced and cooked in seal oil; and sometimes soured, using either the same method as for seal liver, or as on Diomede Island, by first boiling medium sized pieces of liver and walrus flippers in two different pots, then packing them together in a barrel or poke, covering the mixture with the liver cooking water and then storing in the cold. This mixture is usually eaten the following fall or winter. The stomachs of many freshly killed walrus are full of re- cently ingested clams in various stages of digestion. Such clams are highly relished by the Eskimo, and are eaten either raw, or put in a pan and hot water poured over them although they are not really cooked. Such clams are eaten plain and only occasionally with a small amount of oil. Walrus milk, sour but not curdled, obtained from baby walrus stomachs was formerly used and highly prized. BEARS Polar bear are caught by Eskimos from St. Lawrence, King and Diomede Islands, and by those living along the coast north through the Bering Straits to the Arctic. Polar bear meat is never eaten as kwak (raw-frozen) but is always boiled. It is usually eaten with polar bear fat. 233 Occasionally black and grizzly bear are caught and used as food. Most experienced Eskimos cook the meat thoroughly before eating it. The liver of the polar bear is never eaten by Eskimos. When asked why, they invariably reply, “It makes your hair fall out.” Rodahl(®®6% reported that its toxicity is due to its extremely high vitamin A content. WILDFOWL Birds of various kinds are used by almost all native Alaska groups: —FEskimo, Aleut and Indian—for many areas in Alaska are either major breeding grounds, or else are located strategically on the migration flyways. Some of the most important food birds are ducks, geese, snowy owls, ptarmigan, spruce hens, cormorants, murres, puffins and auklets. The usual method of cooking birds is by boiling. The cook- ing broth, usually with onion, salt, rice and/or macaroni added, is served as a soup. On St. Lawrence Island seaweed is added. Many birds are stored for winter use. On St. Lawrence Island ducks, sea gulls, cormorants and auklets are dried before storage. An old method of preservation was to skin the birds and place them in a barrel or poke with seal oil, setting them aside for several months until they become “high” or soured. Heinrich (68) reports that on Diomede the breasts of birds, especially those from crested auklets, puffins and murres, are first dried, then cooked in oil or water, and stored in seal oil. Another Diomede practice he reports is that of tying the birds in burlap bags and storing them under the other meat in the underground meat pits. In winter they are dug out, plucked and boiled. They are generally eaten with seal oil. Occasionally birds are preserved by salting. Bird Eggs: During June and July bird eggs are often har- vested by the hundreds. Most are served fresh, boiled or scrambled. Occasionally, they are used in making cakes. Duck, goose, murre, cormorant and sea gull eggs are used in greatest abundance, but the people of the tundra villages may also eat the smaller bird eggs too. Bird eggs are used in all stages of incuba- tion. The old method of preservation was to either cook first, or preferably leave uncooked, and store in seal oil, Another old method of egg preservation practiced at North- east Cape, St. Lawrence Island, was to dry the egg yolks on rocks in the sun, then put them in walrus stomachs and store in the cold. Giddings ®® reports that in the Kobuk area bird eggs were preserved by burying them in a mixture of fine sand and gravel, 234 and that they were cooked by placing them in a willow bark tube (peeled from a large willow), plugging the ends and laying it in a bed of coals. CLAMS, CRABS, TUNICATES At scattered points along the Alaska coast from the Arctic southward, a variety of other sea foods which are used by Alas- kan native groups are available in variable amounts. Chief among these are clams, crabs, shrimp and tunicates. While these foods are rarely obtained in significant amounts, they are enjoyed sea- sonally. 1. Crab. At Point Hope a small hermit erab is caught and eaten, usually raw-frozen. They are left in the shell, set out on the ice to freeze, then the meat is cut out and squeezed to get rid of the salt. Only a few of the people cook crab, a method of preparation learned from Caucasians. At Diomede, Nome and other Bering Sea points, the King Crab is hooked through the ice. It is a staple in the diet in late winter and early spring. 2. Clams. Partially digested clams obtained from the stomach of freshly caught walrus are considered a delicacy by the Eskimo who hunt this animal. Fay has found several kinds of mollusks in walrus stomachs, the most abundant being Clino- cardium ciliatum, Hitella arctica and Mya ssp. On St. Lawrence Island clams, mussels and tunicates, washed up on the beach after fall storms are collected and used as food. They are only occasionally available in amounts sufficient to freeze for winter use. These are eaten raw or partially cooked. Clams are also obtainable in limited quantities at Hooper Bay and other Bering Sea coastal villages. FISH Fish is the most important year-round food in the Yukon- Kuskokwim Eskimo diet. It is used seasonally, often in consid- erable quantities by all other Alaskan Eskimos, as well as by Indians and Aleuts. The fishes used in greatest abundance are blackfish, flounder, grayling, herring, ling cod, needlefish, pike, salmon (king, silver, dog and red), sculpin, smelts, tom cod, trout and whitefish. The individual importance of these fish in the Eskimo and Indian diet depends on the geographic location of the village. Fish are prepared in a variety of ways. In season they are 235 preferably eaten either boiled or raw-frozen, the latter often dipped in seal or other oil. The bulk of the salmon (king, dog and silver), whitefish, tom cod, herring and smelt caught during seasonal migration runs is air-dried. Dried fish is preferably eaten after dipping in seal or whitefish oil, but when these oils are not available, they are eaten plain. At Hooper Bay and other Norton Sound villages cer- tain of these fish—silver salmon at Hooper Bay and tom cod and herring at Hooper Bay and other coastal tundra villages—are preferably prepared and eaten as ‘poke’ fish, i.e. partially air-dried and stored in seal oil. Smoked fish, especially king salmon, is relished as a trail food since it is not only very tasty, but easy to carry. A practice of both the Eskimo and the Yukon-Koyukuk Indians, done less often today than in the past, is the extraction of oil from salmon heads. As described by Sullivan(™ this consists of stringing several fish heads on a stick and keeping them sub- merged in the river for about two weeks or until they are partially decomposed. On removal they are boiled and as the oil is rendered it is removed. When the rendering process slows down, the heads are first allowed to cool and then squeezed to express more oil. The fish heads are then boiled again and the oil squeezed out again. The cheesy-textured material remaining is eaten. It is in all prob- ability a good source of calcium. Boiled fresh fish heads, especially those of the salmon and whitefish, are highly prized. The cheeks and fat behind the eyes and the soft chewy cartilage are particularly well liked for their very delicate flavor. Occasionally when cooking fresh salmon heads, some of the fresh salmon roe may be added. Blackfish and needlefish, two of the smaller fish species found in shallow tundra waters, are eaten whole, either boiled or raw-frozen. Occasionally blackfish are dried. Blackfish are caught in winter in willow traps placed under the ice and needlefish by both trap and dip netting (see illustration #17). Eskimos living in the Kuskokwim-Yukon delta hold the blackfish in high regard both because of its flavor and its avail- ability when other foods tend to be scarce. Petroff(® wrote that this fish “furnishes subsistence to whole settlements (in the Kus- kokwim district) where nothing else could be found to sustain life at certain seasons of the year” .. .. that the people who eat black- fish “are in better condition physically when spring approaches than any of their neighbors in regions where it does not exist . . . they being almost exempt from the annual period of starvation preceeding the beginning of the salmon run in the rivers.” 236 Eskimos in the Bethel area, however, claim that dogs fed an exclusive blackfish diet for any length of time will not survive. The reasons are not known. Blackfish are highly infested with tapeworm, but these are easily destroyed either by boiling or by freezing. Hilliard™ found that the fish tapeworm was completely destroyed when the fish were held at temperatures not exceeding 18° C. for 48 hours. Nordinskiold™ found a similar blackfish, Dallia delicatis- sima, on the Chukchi Peninsula, Siberia, and describes it as a “veritable delicacy, in taste somewhat resembling eel, but finer and more fleshy.” During the early summer salmon run along the Kuskokwim River, the heads of King Salmon sometimes with the liver and pancreas added, are putrefied by burying them in grass-lined ground pits, carefully covered first with grass and then with turf or mud to exclude all air and to protect from the heat of the sun. According to present-day informants, that used for human con- sumption is putrefied only until the flesh is soft and falls away from the bones easily. This takes 3 to 4 weeks. Only a small amount, that which can be used immediately, is taken out at a time. It is eaten with dried fish. When the material putrefies beyond this point, it is used almost exclusively for dog feed. How- ever, Nelson? states that fish heads were kept buried until autumn and that at the time of removal from the pit, the bones had taken on the same consistency as the general mass. This ma- terial was kneaded in a wooden tray to form a pasty compound and eaten as a favorite delicacy. He states, however, that the odor is sometimes “too strong, even for many Eskimos.” Along the Kuskokwim River this material is called tip-nuk, at Hooper Bay uk-suk. It does not appear to be used as much as it was in the past. At Shungnak either dog salmon or sheefish heads are al- lowed to putrefy only mildly, from one to one and a half weeks only. It is eaten plain and is called or-ruk. When the salmon runs are particularly heavy, the whole fish, usually dog salmon, may be buried for putrefaction. It takes a month or more for the fish to reach the desired stage. At Shungnak such fish are called caw-suk, and are either eaten raw or cooked, the latter no more than a momentary plunge into boiling water. Along the Kuskokwim River during the winter the pits are opened and pieces of the frozen mass are cut off as needed. These may be eaten either frozen or after they have been thawed. Many Eskimos, particularly those from the Kuskokwim tundra, make an agutuk mixture using cooked whitefish or ling cod, as follows: 237 The fresh whitefish or ling cod is boiled. The flesh is then squeezed to force out the liquid. When it is dry enough to flake, it is added to a whipped fat mixture made of hydrogenated fat, edible beef or caribou tallow whipped with seal or whitefish oil. To this mixture is also added sugar to taste and either a mixture of crushed cloudberries and low-bush cranberries, a mixture of berries and sourdock, or “mashu” cooked and chopped very fine. Here is a “typical” recipe: Whitefish (9-107 long) —boil, Seal oil or whitefish 0il—114 cups squeeze the flesh dry and Sugar—14 cup flake Cloudberries—6 cups Hydrogenated fat—6 Thsp. Fish Roe: Roe from various fish are used in a variety of ways. Herring, salmon, ling cod, tom cod, pike and whitefish roe are considered the most desirable by the Eskimo. It may be eaten fresh raw or cooked in season, or air dried or otherwise prepared for off-season use. An old practice of the Kuskokwim River Es- kimos, who used to have their spring and summer camps in the Alaska Range foothills in the vicinity of the Kisaralik River, was as follows: Birch bark baskets, filled with salmon roe, were placed in cold ground pits, covered first with a layer of grass and then turf and mud to provide a tight seal. They were left undisturbed until the following spring when the people returned to camp. Apparently only small amounts could be eaten at a time for the taste and odor were very strong. At Napaskiak, salmon roe, preferably that from the King Salmon, is laid out on logs and turned occasionally to facilitate partial drying. This usually takes about three days if the weather is good. The dried product is then put into a barrel or flour sack (formerly the sacks were made of salmon skins), and stored in a cool place, usually the family food cache. The roe, which starts to ferment within five days, is poked down with a stick two or three times. When needed, the hard, crusty surface is scraped off, and the softer material underneath is used. This material is called m’look and is used in the following ways: 1) To make “muk-muk”. This is prepared by mashing and whipping m’look thoroughly and then adding sugar to taste and about four quarts or more of cloudberries, The stronger the m’look, the more berries required. Seal oil may be added in small amounts if desired. “Mouse-nutg,” thoroughly washed, cooked and finely chopped, may be substituted for the berries. 2) As a soup thickener, in which case a small amount of m’look is mashed and added to the cooking broth, usually that in which rabbit or duck has been cooked and stirred until it thick- 238 ens. Wither chopped “mouse nuts” or tayahuk are added and the whole salted to taste. 8) To make Kay-u-suk, a soup, a small piece of fish or blackfish heads are boiled in a large amount of water and after removing the bones a piece of hard, crusty m’look mixed with a small amount of the broth is stirred into the pot. Then one or more of the following is added: chopped “mouse nuts”, tayahuk, chopped tundra lichens (a large black fungus, almost plate sized, or small white hollow lichens about 2 to 214% inches long). If lichens are used, some oil must also be added. 4) Sometimes dry fish is dipped into a small amount of the m’look. Some of the Kuskokwim River Eskimos say m’look is a good food to have on hand in times of food shortage, for the taste is so strong that it gives one of sense of satiety. Fish roe is also used in making soups. At Napaskiak a spring soup is made using fresh smelt roe and chopped willow catkins; a summer soup is made using fresh salmon roe and chopped, young, tender willow leaves. Along the Kuskokwim River fresh or dry King Salmon roe is often used in making agutuk. The following is a typical recipe: 1 cup mashed fresh salmon roe 1 cup sugar Z thsp water 4 cups cloudberries 2 cups seal oil 2 cups crowberries At Shungnak fish roe, especially that from whitefish and sheefish, is often eaten as kwak. In the spring season it is thawed and eaten raw. Fresh pike, whitefish or sheefish roe, is often used with low- bush cranberries. Here is a typical recipe: 3 sacs roe, mashed 3 tbsp seal or whitefish oil 2 cups very ripe low bush 3 tbsp sugar cranberries These ingredients are stirred or whipped to make a fluffy mixture, which must be eaten immediately after preparation, since the mix- ture does not hold its shape or consistency. On the tundra this niouve is called “cranberry creme” or kapuktuk. Along the Kobuk River a small amount of baking soda is usually added, and the mixture is called e-tu-polik. Koyukuk River Indians call the mixture u#njah. Along the Neatak and Kobuk Rivers, dog salmon and white- fish roe are prepared by cutting the fish so that the body cavity 239 containing the liver, entrails and roe is left intact. The fish are hung to air-dry for about a month. This is done fairly late during the fish run when the weather is cool. Roe prepared this way is used for human food until it gets too “tipoxsee”, i.e. smelly or stinky; in which case it is used exclusively for dog feed. Dog salmon roe prepared in this way is called ah-nah-lik; whitefish roe ah-mah-jak. In this same area intact sacs of dog salmon roe are also hung on racks to air dry, usually for a month if the weather is not too hot. These can be eaten as long as they last, again pro- vided they do not get too “tipoxsee”. The roe from salmon just about ready to lay their eggs is considered a delicacy by some of the northern Eskimos. It has a chewy texture and is called mupcooleetuk. In contrast, the roe from early caught salmon, i.e. that from fish which has just entered the river from the ocean, is Juicy or watery. This roe is called cupseeruk, and is rated only second best. Salmon, tom cod, herring and whitefish roe are often com- pletely air-dried in the sac and later used in soups or soaked in a small amount of water and used in berry mixtures or eaten un- cooked with seal oil. However, most dried roe is used in the prep- aration of dog feed. At Hooper Bay and other Bering Sea coastal villages and summer camps, fresh-laid herring roe, where obtainable, is col- lected on seaweed or braided grass and air-dried. When needed for use, it is soaked in water. If collected on seaweed, the seaweed is eaten too. It is usually added to soup, but sometimes it is eaten alone with seal oil. Fish Livers: The tundra Eskimos of the Kuskokwim River basin make a fish liver creme called tingugtiuk, using most com- monly the livers of whitefish, tom cod or ling cod. A typical recipe is: 10-20 whitefish livers, cooked and mashed 3-4 cups berries (cloudberries, cranberries, or crowberries or a combination of these) 146-1 cup sugar 2 tbsp-14 cup whitefish oil Sometimes the sugar and oil are added separately at serving time according to individual tastes. At Hooper Bay tom cod livers are cooked and mashed and mixed with an equal amount of crowberries. This is called tung- nuchak. In the Kotzebue area trout livers are used in a mixture called tingulik. The trout livers are gently simmered in water to 240 cover; the oil is scooped off carefully and reserved, the livers re- moved, mashed thoroughly, and mixed with the oil and berries. At Unalakleet in times past, and probably in other areas where tom cods were available, the Eskimos used to simmer tom cod livers in a small amount of water. The oil was carefully re- moved and used in infant feeding. Many of the older women from several of the tundra villages report that in times past fresh fish liver, prechewed by the mother, was one of the first solid foods added to the infant’s diet. #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 AGUTUK RECIPES (Eskimo Ice Cream) 1 cup 14-1 cup 14 cup, more or less 10-12 cups 0-2 cups 2 cups 1 cup Ya cup 5 cups 1 pe. 77x5"x1” 1 cup 12 cups 1 cup 1 pe. x11” 5 cup V4 cup 1 cup 4 cups 2 cups 1 cup 4 cup 1 cup 4 cups 4 cups 1 cup 114, cups 1 cup 1 cup 5 cup 5 cups 6 cups 1 cup 14 pound Beef or caribou tallow or moose fat Seal oil (sometimes ugruk oil) Water or snow Cloudberries Sugar Beef tallow Seal oil Sugar Cooked and chopped “mouse nuts” Caribou fat Seal oil Crowberries Sugar Moose fat Hydrogenated fat Seal oil Sugar Low bush cranberries Crowberries Beef tallow Hydrogenated fat Seal oil Sourdock, cooked Low-bush cranberries Sugar Beef or caribou tallow Seal oil Sugar Water Sourdock, cooked Crowberries Raisins, softened Apples, dry, cooked 211 2 cups Reindeer fat 14 cup Ugruk oil #7 14 cup Water 14 cup Milk, evaporated 5 cups Sourdock, cooked 5 thsp. Sugar Makuk (Hooper Bay) and pah-wun-a-kuk-kuk (St. Law- rence Island) are mixtures of berries, mashed salmon roe, and seal oil with flour sometimes used as a thickening agent. At Hooper Bay, sphagnum moss formerly was used as a food in a dish called poo-ee-yah. Seal oil was poured over the moss, which was then set aside in a cold place for about one month or until the mixture became very sticky. Then crowberries and water were added. This mixture had to be eaten right away. BLOOD SOUPS (Hooper Bay) (Approximate recipe proportions) Oknuk #1 4-12 cups tayahuk 1-2 cups seal blood L4~1 cup seal oil 15-1 gal. water or cooking broth Oknuk #2 115 sacs ling cod roe, fresh 16 cups “mouse nuts” 1 cup seal oil 4 cups seal blood 4 qts. water or cooking broth Oknuk #3 3 cups tom cod roe, dry 15 cups “mouse nuts” 2 cups seal blood 1% cup seal oil 114 gal ~~ water or cooking broth 242 PRESENT DAY FOOD QUEST ACTIVITY CHARTS By Village CHART I: ALLAKAKET AND HUSLIA (Northcentral Athapascan Indian) Season Foods Available Remarks FALL (September- October) WINTER (November thru April) Moose Sheefish Whitefish Grayling Ptarmigan Snowshoe Hare The first official hunting season for moose opens in September and every hunter in the village tries to get his quota of one at this time, since the meat is us- ually in prime condition. Sheefish are available only for a few days at most in September during the up- river migration. One or two families may get about 100 fish, but most average about 30. The average weight is about 10 pounds per fish. Whitefish are usually plentiful in October. They are caught by netting through the ice. A good catch for the month at Al- lakaket is about 100 fish per family av- eraging eight pounds each. In 1958 the average was only 40 fish per family. There is about a two week run of grayling in October at Allakaket and the average catch is about 150 pounds of fish per family. Ptarmigan are hunted from about the mid- dle of November through March, with most families snaring 1 to 2 every other day, although some years there are very few. March is the best month. About every third year ptarmigan are abundant; 1957 was a good year. Rabbits are caught by snaring. These ani- mals used to be abundantly available in the area but they have been scarce for the past six years. The Indians say they were killed off by an epidemic of some kind characterized by diseased livers. At this same time there was a rabies epidemic among foxes and wolves. 243 Season Foods Available Remarks 244 Moose Caribou Mink Marten Otter Lynx Fox Ling Cod Moose is the most important meat source in the Koyukuk Indian diet. The second official hunting season opens in Novem- ber but the people do not consider No- vember a good time for moose hunting, because the meat is not at its best for eating. Moose appear to be more plen- tiful at Huslia than at Allakaket. The skins are used for making winter boots and gloves. Caribou do not penetrate as far south as Huslia but at one time it was the most important winter food in the Allakaket Indian diet and the fur was especially prized for the making of winter boots, sleeping robes, etc. Caribou came every November into the Alatna River drain- age area, usually staying for about a month only, but occasionally all winter. Caribou come into the area now only about once every three years. In 1957 they were plentiful; none came into the area in 1958; only a few in 1962; but they appeared in good numbers again in the winter of 1963-64. The trapping season for these animals opens about mid-November. Mink and marten are the most readily available and the sale of their furs is an important source of income. In the early days the meat of mink and otter was used as human food but this is no longer a common practice. In 1957 the highest amount—and for one family only— obtained from the sale of mink and marten at Allakaket was $500; three or four families realized $300 to $400 but several made only $30 to $40 for the season. Trapping returns are usu- ally higher at Huslia. At Allakaket ling cod are caught from late November through January using traps made of spruce set under the ice after it is sufficiently set, usually by the end of November. When the first run of fish begins, about 300 fish are taken every two days for about one week, then Season Foods Available Remarks SPRING (May and June) Ling Cod, continued Beaver Muskrats Porcupine Ducks Geese only about 50 every other day for awhile, and then the catch further declines. Beaver are trapped from about February Ist through March 31st. Beaver pelts are the most important income source for these people. The maximum allow- ance of 25 per individual trapper is caught most years. When the price is good, 25 skins may average $500 gross income. The meat is a very important food item. Muskrats are available in the area and the trapping season opens about Jan- uary lst. However, at this time it is usually too cold for trapping—the ther- mometer sometimes drops to —68° F.—— and the price for muskrat skins is now so low that it doesn’t warrant the effort required to trap them unless there is a food shortage. Later in the season, when the temperature moderates they are caught and used to enhance the meat supply. April and May are not good months for travelling in this area. It is usually too soft under foot and the rivers are not yet open for boat travel. Porcupine used to be abundantly avail- able and were used the year round. They were at their fattest and best from about April to August. Twenty-five or more years ago they were very plentiful in the Allakaket area, but apparently at that time some disaster wiped them out. Nowadays only about four or five ani- mals a year are taken for the entire vil- lage. There is some indication that during the last year or two they have begun to increase. Huslia is on the wildfowl route and ducks and geese in limited amounts usually appear on the spring dietary. This vil- lage is not located near a major wild- fowl nesting area as is Allakaket, so 245 Foods Season Available Remarks Ducks, neither the birds nor their eggs are major continued foods. Pike During the latter part of May there is Sucker some fishing for pike, sucker and white- Whitefish fish, but usually just enough are caught at a time for a meal or two. Rhubarb Wild rhubarb is available in prime edible (Polygonum stage only for about one week during alaskanum) the first part of June. There is not enough available to put up for winter use. SUMMER During June and early July very few na- (July and tive foods are available. This is the August) traditional “hungry time” of the past. Salmon The salmon run begins approximately King July 20th. First a few kings and then a Silver few silver salmon are taken, followed Dog by a more prolific run of dog salmon, but the run varies widely from year to year. In a good year at Allakaket the average family expects to catch 500 to 700 salmon, but only during three sum- mers in the past fifteen years has the catch been this good. Most of the sal- mon is used for human food. Black Black bear are usually hunted during the Bear last part of August. About 20 are taken Berries per year for the entire village at Alla- kaket. Blueberries and low-bush cran- Rose Hips berries are available in moderate amounts in the area. Only small amounts are stored for winter use. Wildfowl Summer has always been the best as well as the traditional time for getting wild- fowl and their eggs at Allakaket. A fam- ily would average at least 100 or more birds per season. The present take is considerably less than this because wage employment extends well into the fall season. 246 CHART II: PT. HOPE (Northern Coastal Eskimo) Season Foods Available Remarks FALL (September and October) WINTER (November through April) Wildfowl Caribou Grayling Caribou Seal Ugruk Ducks, geese and snowy owls which pass over the village during their southward migration, and to a lesser extent ptarmi- gan (near Jabbertown), are obtained in moderate numbers at this time. From September through February the men, usually in parties of 2 to 5, hunt caribou in the hills east of the village. The number taken varies considerably from year to year. For several years prior to 1958 caribou were relatively scarce in the immediate area but since then their numbers have increased. Since aboriginal times many Point Hope families established fall camps along the Kukpuk River in the Cape Thomp- son area. Here they fished for grayling, first by pole and net fishing and later by hooking through the ice. Even though the men who obtain summer wage work may not be back in time, and although many families stay in the village because of the beginning of the school year (September), sufficient gray- ling are still obtained and they con- stitute a very important fresh food item in the fall diet. Caribou hunting continues, sporadically, from November through February. From about late October or early Novem- ber—as soon as the shore ice becomes solid enough for safe travel—and con- tinuing throughout the winter, seal and ugruk are hunted in open leads. These animals are one of the most important food animals on present day Point Hope diets. A good hunter may secure 120 or more animals during the season. They serve as food for both dogs and man. 247 Season Foods Available Remarks 248 Polar Bear Whale Baleen Beluga Crab Grayling Tom Cod This animal is hunted sporadically during this season and has always been an im- portant item in the Point Hope econ- omy. Its meat is used for both human and dog food; its fur as a source of cash income. In 1948 about 70 bear were caught; in 1958 about 35; in 1962 only 15. The drastic reduction in the take in recent years is primarily due to the sport hunting of this animal by “out- side” hunters—from other parts of Alaska and from the south 48 states. Income from housing and feeding and, to a much lesser extent, from guiding hunters (most guides are from outside the village and use planes) is grad- ually replacing cash formerly obtained from the sale of the skins. Throughout March and April priority is given to the assembling and repairing of skin boats (oomiaks), guns and other gear used in hunting the baleen whale. The actual hunt for this animal usually begins in April. The beluga whale, whose appearance in the area may just precede or occur simul- taneously with that of the baleen whale, are hunted whenever there is an enforced curtailment in the pursuit of the larger animal. Only a few beluga are taken each year, and 1 to 5 baleen whale are usually caught. From late February through March a very small species of crab is obtained by jig- ging through holes in the ice on the south side of the village. Crab is not a major item in the diet. Fishing for grayling in the Kukpuk River may continue until about mid-Novem- ber. During January and February, the women and older men gig for tom cods through holes in the ice on the north shore. Season Foods Available Remarks SPRING (May and June) SUMMER (July- August) Ducks Murres Whale Baleen Beluga Seal Ugruk Walrus Wildfowl and Eggs From early May through June, ducks and murres fly over and around the area (the murres nest at nearby Capes Thompson and Lisbourne). Usually enough are taken to satisfy day to day needs, although some families still store limited supplies for future use. Whale hunting continues into the spring season. Almost everyone in the village is occupied in some capacity in relation to it, either as an active hunter or as- sisting in supplying the needs of the hunter or in transporting and storing the catch. Rainey (7) states that prior to the whaling days of the 1800's the yearly whale catch at Point Hope was 15 to 18. Now as indicated above 1 to 5 is the usual number. After whale hunting ceases, the hunting of seal and ugruk is resumed and carried on as long as the shore ice is safe. There is usually excellent hunting of this ani- mal first along the south shore near the village and later near Jabbertown, but occasionally as in 1958 and 1963, the shore ice breaks away early and moves out so fast that very few are taken. A few walrus may be taken at this time of the year but not in significant numbers nor every year. It appears that this animal no longer hauls up on the beach near Cape Thompson in the sizeable numbers that it did in the past. In July, wildfowl, especially ducks and murres, are hunted and significant amounts may be stored for future use. They are not hunted as assiduously as in the past due to the fact that many of the able-bodied men have already left the village for summer wage work. The men remaining in the village make sev- eral trips to Cape Thompson and Cape Lisbourne to gather murre eggs. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (11) estimated the yearly take at about 830 dozen eggs 249 Season Foods Available Remarks Wildfowl and Eggs, continued Caribou Ground Squirrel Whitefish Salmon Trout or approximately 214 dozen per fam- ily. In former times, but rarely today, significant quantities of eggs and young birds were stored for winter use. They were first boiled and then stored in seal oil. This animal may be hunted at this season especially if, as is often the case, they come down from the hills to the lagoons at the time families happen to be camped nearby. Families that still camp for the summer in the Jabbertown area (only one fam- ily did so in 1958) easily obtain signif- icant quantities of ground squirrel. There is sporadic fishing for whitefish, salmon and trout as the runs-—compara- tively small ones—pass close along the south coast near the village. 250 Season Te | | WINTER SPRING CHART lll: NOATAK (Northern Interior-Coastal Eskimo) Foods Available Caribou Berries Eskimo Potato Trout Grayling Whitefish Caribou Fish Trout Whitefish Grayling Suckers Bowhead Whale Rabbits Remarks By September most families are in the vil- lage because of the opening of school. However, the men in small groups es- tablish camps upriver to hunt caribou and the women make all day trips out from the village for berries, and “mashu”’, the Eskimo potato. Most families who camp upriver as well as those at the village may net trout, grayling and whitefish from the river. Later, as soon as the ice is solid enough to walk on (late October) the older women and occasionally the men go short distances from the village to hook these fish through the ice. An unusual lure used was a small piece of colored, preferably orange, gum drop. Hunting for caribou continues as long as they are available within a reasonable distance from the village. As soon as the ice along the river has fro- zen sufficiently, the women and the men, too, if they are home, hook fish through the ice. Trout is the most abundant fish and a good fisherman during the run will get as much as two gunnysacks full at a time. Other fish available in lesser amounts are the whitefish, gray- ling and suckers. A few men may go to Point Hope to par- ticipate in the whale hunt. Only lim- ited supplies of whale muktuk are brought back to the village. It is a seasonal treat rather than a regular item on the dietary. From the last of April through May, de- pending on snow and ice conditions, 251 Season Foods Available Remarks SUMMER Rabbits, continued Seal Wildfowl and Eggs Ugruk Beluga Trout Whitefish Bluberries Caribou Salmon families leave Noatak—usually by dog- teams—for the coast near Cape Kru- senstern, settling mostly at Sealing Point and at Kuluksuk (meaning a place of many rabbits). Seal are hunted in open leads and on ice floes, using either dog team or boat as ice conditions demand. Wildfowl, especially ducks and geese, are hunted and later their eggs are gathered from the surrounding nesting area. By July most of the Noatak families have moved their camps to Sheshaulik and late comers from the village join them there. The men hunt ugruk and the be- luga whale; the women prepare the meat and blubber for storage. At the end of the seal and beluga hunt a few families may remain at the camp site to fish for trout and whitefish and to gather blueberries, but by mid-July most families have moved to Kotzebue to trade and to pick up available wage work. By early August many families are already returning to Noatak. The men usually go up river to hunt cari- bou. Eventually most families scatter to their camps along the Noatak River below and above the village. Here they net salmon and dry it on racks or otherwise prepare it for later use. Most of the salmon is used for dog feed although if the weather is good for drying fish, they will be used for human food too. 252 CHART IV: SHUNGNAK (Northern Interior Eskimo) Season Foods Available Remarks FALL Moose Porcupine Ptarmigan Spruce hens “Mashu”’ Crowberries Low-bush cranberries Currants Rose Hips Raspberries Whitefish Most families have returned to the vil- lage by this time—the women from their fish camps, the men from their summer wage work. According to the Shungnak Eskimos moose have always been present in the upper Kobuk area but never in large numbers—4 to 5 is generally the largest number taken in a year. The area was closed to the hunt- ing of this animal at the time the vil- lages participated in the dietary study (1959-60). Porcupine, once plentiful in the area, are now scarce. Only an occasional one is now caught. This animal was at one time an important source of fat. Ptarmigan and spruce hens are usually available in moderate numbers near the village at this time. They are snared or shot with a .22 rifle. “Mashu”, the edible root of Hedysarum alpinum, is usually collected in good quantity from along the river banks and from the innumerable gravel bars in the river. Some years as many as three large gunny sacks full per family are stored for winter use. Most years from 50 to 100 pounds—some- times more—of crowberries and low- bush cranberries are collected and stored per family. The fruit of the wild currant, rose and raspberry are available in limited amounts. They are usually collected cas- ually during the summer—i.e. they are eaten off the bush. During October, whitefish, the last of the migrant fish to descend the Kobuk 253 Season Foods Available Remarks WINTER 254 Whitefish, continued Caribou Caribou Ling Cod Ptarmigan Spruce hen Snowshoe hare Beaver Muskrat River, are obtained by trapping or net- ting them under the ice. They are avail- able for a limited time only and used fresh. Caribou strays sometimes drift into the area in September and sizeable herds are usually in residence in the general area by October. Caribou is the most important winter food in the diet of the Eskimos living in the upper Kobuk River area. Serious hunt- ing of this animal begins in October and continues through April. In the most common migration pattern followed by the caribou they drift south from the Noatak drainage area through passes in the Brooks Range to the headwaters of the Selawik River. Here they stay throughout the winter, leaving just be- fore the ice breakup is imminent. They usually fawn in the Colville River drain- age area. Intermittently, from November through about February, ling cod are obtained in moderate quantities by trapping under the river ice. They are used mostly as dog feed although the liver and roe are relished by the people. In December, ptarmigan and spruce hen, usually abundant in the area, are either snared by the women or shot with a .22 rifle by the men. The snowshoe hare, formerly plentiful in the area, has not been seen since 1956. Beaver can be trapped in some areas but at a considerable distance from the vil- lage. Muskrats are obtained by trap- ping or shooting with a .22 rifle. Both of these animals were important late winter foods in aboriginal times, espe- cially for those families who had winter camps favorably located for their ac- Foods Season Available Remarks Beaver Muskrat, quisition. They are scarce, however, in continued the immediate Shungnak area and to obtain significant numbers requires much travel; hence, they are little used now. SPRING ‘Parka’ Throughout May and into early June most squirrel Shungnak families establish temporary camps on high ground near or at best only short distances from the village. During this time ground squirrel may be obtained by trapping, snaring or shooting with a .22 rifle. Pike Pike and sucker may be obtained from Sucker valley lakes and sloughs; ducks and Ducks geese are hunted during migration and Geese later in the season their eggs are ob- tained from local nesting areas. None of these foods is available in large quan- tities. Sheefish In June, after the ice has gone from the Whitefish river, sheefish and whitefish—now on Grayling their upriver migration—and grayling Pickerel and pickerel are obtained in variable quantities using seines and gill nets. Wild Late in the season wild edible rhubarb and Edible sourdock are sometimes obtained in Greens quantity and often moderate amounts are stored for winter use. SUMMER Dog While the dog salmon run starts in June, Salmon the greater share of the catch is har- vested in July and early August. This fish is one of the most important of the food resources of these people. It is ob- tained in quantity by seining and gill- netting. The women have the complete responsibility for both the fishing and the subsequent preparation of the catch for storage. Their traditional family camp sites are scattered along the river both above and below the village, occa- sionally at considerable distance from it. Salmon is used fresh in season but most 255 Season Foods Available Remarks Dog Salmon, continued Blueberries Bear Hoary Marmot Cloudberries of the sizeable catch is dried and stored to be used in winter for dog feed. Limited amounts of dog salmon—most often the heads—are buried in ground pits and allowed to putrefy. The re- sulting cheesy-textured mass is a fav- orite on early fall diets. Blueberries are usually plentiful in the area and most families try to store from 100 to 150 pounds each for winter use. At this season of the year an occasional brown or black bear or a hoary marmot may be taken. Fat from the latter ani- mal used to be a prized food but since most of the men now work in the sum- mer for wages (in the mines, etc.) they rarely make the extended hunting trips to the mountains for these animals as they did in the past. Cloudberries, the years when they are available, are eaten fresh in season. They are rarely available in sufficient quantities for storage. 256 CHART V: SHISHMAREF (Northern-Coastal Eskimo) Season Foods Available Remarks FALL WINTER Berries “Mouse- nuts” Wildfowl Squirrels Seal Polar bear Crowberries, blueberries, low-bush cran- berries and cloudberries are often avail- able in significant quantities from the tundra in the vicinity of the village and from the mainland tundra area also. Crowberries and cloudberries are the favorites and most families store from 50 to 100 pounds or more for winter use. In times past the Shishmaref people made special trips in the fall of the year to the mainland for ‘““mousenuts” (piknik) but this is rarely done today. Early health workers discouraged the practice thinking it was a possible source of dis- ease and illness. This food, however, is thoroughly cooked before eating and is probably safe. Ducks and geese are still hunted on the mainland. Relatively small numbers are stored for winter use. The total take is probably much less than in former years since many of the active hunters are away on summer jobs and do not re- turn to the village until after the birds have left on their southern migration. Moderate numbers of both the ground squirrel and flying squirrel are obtained. The furs are used to make parkas and the meat used as food. Sealing is sporadic, depending always on the weather. It begins in November after the shore ice is solid enough for walking and dog-team travel, and con- tinues until the ice goes out sometime in late May or early June. Some years one or two polar bear may be caught, sometimes none at all. 257 Season Foods Available Remarks SPRING Tom cod Flounder Sculpin Rabbits Ptarmigan Willow (inner bark) Rabbits Ptarmigan Ugruk Seal \ Throughout the winter tom cods, flounders or bullheads (sculpins) are caught by the women and older people of both sexes by jigging through ice holes in the inlet and the lagoon in back of the vil- lage. Whenever weather permits, the men make mainland trips to hunt rabbits and ptarmigan. They are not found in abun- dance. The inner bark of the willow, Salix alax- ensis, is sometimes collected in late April and early May—at about the time the sap begins to run. The outer bark is carefully cut and removed and the thin inner layer is scraped off with a knife. The Eskimo name for this food is “keel- eeyuk’” meaning the ‘‘scrape’”. This is a very incidental food collected by the men while hunting on the mainland for rabbits and ptarmigan, but they often bring back limited amounts of all of these foods for the family. Ugruk is hunted and captured, usually in good quantities, on the pack ice in late May and June or as long as the pack ice persists and is safe. A good hunter at this time may obtain 12 to 14 ugruk as well as many smaller seal. The meat is either completely air-dried or small quantities may be only partially air- dried and then stored in seal oil. The blubber is cut into small pieces, stuffed into clean seal pokes and stored in the cold. During a good year enough seal and ugruk are caught within a two to three week period to furnish a good share of the entire year’s supply of meat and oil. By tradition, young boys 13 to 14 years of age accompany the older hunters at this time. The boy’s first catch goes to the oldest man in the camp. Prize young seal skins are care- fully cleaned and pegged out on the ground to dry. They are later tanned Season Foods Available Remarks SUMMER Ugruk Seal, continued Geese Ducks Wildfowl eges Wild edible greens Herring Smelts Salmon and used to make sealskin parkas and pants. In May wildfowl, now on their northern migration, are hunted but usually the amount taken is enough for immediate daily use only. Later, in June, small quantities of duck and geese eggs, and larger supplies of gull eggs, are collected and used in the daily diet. Sourdock is the most important of the locally available wild edible greens and it is usually collected in sufficient quan- tity by most families to store for winter use. These greens are cooked before storage. Willow buds and leaves, from the smooth- leaved ground varieties, chiefly Salix arctica, are also collected in quantity and stored for winter use. They may be pre- cooked but most often they are left raw and are lightly marinated with seal oil just prior to storage in the cold. This product is called “surrah”. Other greens and plant parts used in lesser amounts are Sedum roseum, both the leaves (Eveeakluk) and the root (Eku- tuk); the leaves of the marsh marigold (Caltha palustris); and the flower of the wooly lousewort (Pedicularis lanata) ; the latter, to which a small amount of water is added, and then allowed to sour is called Nahzakmetak. A moderate but significant herring run oc- curs along the coast near Shishmaref. Smelts may also be available but in lesser amounts. Excess fish beyond im- mediate needs are dried for winter use. There is a relatively small salmon run in July and limited amounts are also dried for future use. 259 CHART VI: AKIAK (Southwest Interior-River Eskimo) Season Foods Available Remarks FALL (September and October) WINTER (November thru April) 260 Moose Bear Mink Ducks Geese Plant Food Fish Ling cod Whitefish Sheefish Pike Blackfish Moose are the most important meat source at this time of the year. Most of the active hunters in the village get one each during the regular hunting season and another when special hunts are allowed. Only a few bear, mostly black but occa- sionally a grizzly, are caught each year in the Alaska Range foothills. Usually only 2, occasionally as many as 5, are obtained for the entire village. Mink trapping is only fair in the area but the meat is relished. Ducks and geese are generally available, but usually only enough for immediate needs. They are not stored for winter use to any great extent. ““Mousenuts” are gathered in moderate amounts. These bits of root and Erioph- orum (ssp). seedlings are found in under- ground caches around tundra lakes and ponds. In the past the Eskimo stored them in tightly sealed unlined ground pits but nowadays they are put in gunny sacks and stored in the shed or other cool place. They are not collected and used in the quantities they form- erly were. Intermittently throughout the winter lim- ited supplies of fresh ling cod, whitefish, sheefish and pike are caught in willow root traps placed under the river ice. Blackfish are caught in similar but smaller traps placed under the ice in tundra streams and sloughs. These fish provide only occasional meals of the fresh product throughout the long win- ter season for those remaining in residence at the village. Individuals who still go to spring camp in April obtain considerable quantities of black- fish, most of which is dried for future use. Season Foods Available Remarks SPRING (May and June) Meat Beaver Rabbit Ptarmigan Muskrats Geese Ducks Spruce Hens Smelts Salmon Sourdock Squirrels Bear (black or brown) Beaver are available in February. In 1958, the year diets were collected at this vil- lage, only five Akiak men trapped bea- ver seriously. These men obtained the maximum catch allowed which varied from 10 to 25 animals, depending on the drainage area trapped. The fur is sold; the meat eaten. Rabbits and ptarmigan are snared and used to a very limited extent. Muskrat meat is an important late winter or early spring food for Es- kimo families who still establish spring camps out on the tundra. They may also obtain limited numbers of geese and ducks, and spruce hens—but only enough to meet daily family food needs. Immediately after the ice goes out of the river in May, smelts are obtained in good quantity by dip-netting. Most of the catch is dried and stored for dog feed. King salmon, which feed on the smelts, are the next on the list of fish obtained in quantity from the river. They are used fresh in season, but the major portion of the catch is dried for future human consumption. Smaller amounts of this fish may be salted, smoked or canned. Most families pre- serve 25-50 pounds of king salmon roe for human consumption, but the bulk of it is stored in barrels or kegs and used for dog feed. Sourdock is no longer stored in quan- tity as it was formerly. Only a few fam- ilies gather it to any extent. Ground squirrels, the meat of which is relished as human food and the skins for making parkas, are still used in mod- erate amounts. Only an occasional bear is caught. 261 Foods Season Available Remarks SUMMER Salmon The netting and preparation of dog sal- (July- (Dog, mon for future use continues through- August) Silver) out most of July. A smaller run of sil- Whitefish ver salmon follows, most of which is Sheefish either salted or dried for winter use. Whitefish and sheefish are obtained in limited amounts, usually by netting or with fish traps. Berries Most years moderate supplies of eloud- berries are available from the sur- rounding tundra —usually from mid to late July. Later in the season low-bush cranberries and crowberries are also ob- tained. Each family stores from 50 to 200 pounds or more of berries for winter use. Seal Most families obtain limited amounts of (meat seal meat and from 1 to 2 pokes of seal and oil) oil, averaging about 65 pounds each, by cash purchase from Kipnuk and Nunivak Island Eskimos visiting the Bethel area, 262 CHARY Vii: NAPASKIAK (Southwest Interior River-Tundra Eskimo) Foods | Season Available | Remarks FALL Ducks Ducks and geese continue to be available Geese at least during the early part of the season. Very limited supplies of geese are salted for winter use. Moose Moose are not available near the village but in recent years a few of the young hunters have gone upriver to hunt them during the open season. Only 3 moose were brought back to the village in 1958. Most hunters are unable to finance trips of this kind. Whitefish Early in the season whitefish are obtained Ling Cod from tundra lakes and ponds; pike and Pike ling cod are obtained first from neigh- Blackfish boring sloughs and after freeze-up from Seal and Seal Oil Berries the river. Families which still establish fall camps on the tundra usually get large quantities. Blackfish are available in October. A few men from the village go sealing at the mouth of the Kuskokwim River, but most Napaskiak families obtain seal meat and oil by purchase from the coast- al Eskimos. The usual cost in 1958 was $5 to $10 per carcass and $20 to $30 per seal poke (50 to 100 pounds) of oil. An estimated 2000 pounds of meat and oil are purchased yearly (Bureau of In- dian Affairs Economie Report) (11). Lowbush cranberries and crowberries are usually available in quantity from this area. They are eaten almost daily in season and moderate amounts, much less than in the past, are stored for win- ter use. Only about 4 to 14 of the fam- ilies establish fall berry and fish camps; the rest depend on what is available in the local area. 263 Season Foods Available Remarks WINTER SPRING 264 Fish Ling Cod Pike Sheefish Blackfish Small Game Mink Rabbit Ptarmigan Muskrats Blackfish Whitefish Pike Smelts King Salmon Sheefish Muskrats Through November and December there is sporadic fishing for ling cod and pike and from November through March for sheefish through the river ice. They are not available in large quantities. From mid-March on blackfish are caught in willow root traps in nearby sloughs and other suitable waterways often in goodly amounts. Mink are trapped and rabbits snared from mid-December on. The yearly estimate of rabbit meat consumed is about 200 pounds for the entire village. Some years there are very few available. The meat of the mink is eaten, the skins sold. The year (1956) Oswalt (75) was in residence the average catch per trapper was 10-15 mink. Ptarmigan and rabbits are us- ually available and obtained by means of snares from about December through April or May. Muskrats are trapped in early April. Early in the season blackfish are still ob- tained from tundra sloughs and ponds, using willow root traps. Relatively small amounts of pike are obtained from sloughs in the neighborhood of the vil- lage, and whitefish from tundra lakes and ponds; the latter fish are more im- portant in the diet of those families es- tablishing spring camps on the tundra. In late May, after the ice has gone from the river, smelts ascend the river and considerable quantities are obtained using dip nets. Any excess to immediate needs is dried for winter use, mostly as dog feed. The smelt run is closely fol- lowed by the king salmon run (early June). They are usually available in good amounts and obtained with both set and drift nets. Most of the catch is dried although some families do salt moderate amounts. A few sheefish may also be caught in the nets. This animal is obtained usually in good quantity in early May by trapping in Season Foods Available Remarks SUMMER Muskrats, continued Birds and Eggs Greens Seal Salmon Dog Red King Silver Pike Whitefish Greens in tundra lakes and sloughs. The meat is eaten fresh and any excess beyond immediate needs is dried; the skins are sold. Ptarmigan and wildfowl and wildfowl eggs are obtained out on the tundra but are used in considerably lesser quantities than formerly since very few families now establish traditional spring camps (May), although some muskrats and wildfowl are obtained near the village environs. Sourdock (Rumex artica) is the most com- mon wild edible green in this area. While many families still gather this green they do so less assiduously than in the past. Only minimal amounts are stored for winter use. A few men still go down river near Eek to hunt seal but the number obtained is small—about 5 to 6. Early in the season, both red and dog sal- mon, but especially the latter, are us- ually obtained in abundance. Only an occasional king salmon is caught at this time. Later in the season (August) silver salmon are also available in good quantity. All of these fish are used fresh in season but most of them are dried for winter use. A significant portion may also be salted or putrified by burying them in ground pits. Only an occasional pike is taken from the river throughout this season. Significant quantities of whitefish are ob- tained from the Johnson River which enters the Kuskokwim River about 20 miles below the village. Sourdock, willow leaves and other greens are collected in moderate amounts throughout the early part of the season, 265 Foods Season Available Remarks Greens, mostly from wet places on the nearby continued tundra. Wildfowl Ducks and geese are obtainable late in the season, usually in limited quantities and for immediate use only. Berries A number of families still collect moderate quantities of cloudberries, mostly from their spring trapping and camping areas. 266 CHART VIII: KASIGLUK (Southwest Tundra Eskimo) Season Foods Available Remarks FALL WINTER Berries Ducks Geese Pike Whitefish Pike Whitefish Ling cod Blackfish Mink Rabbits Willow Ptarmigan The harvesting of cloudberries and other berries is continuous throughout the fall. Most of the wildfowl obtained during the fall of the year are used fresh in season and only moderate amounts are pre- served by salting. Pike, but primarily whitefish, are avail- able in good quantity at this season of the year, the latter being obtained by dip netting. In the fall the men construct a willow fence across the Willidulli Slough. During the fish run they dip from their boats moored at this fence day and night as long as the run lasts. Most of the fish catch is air-dried. The liver, stomach, intestines, roe and vis- ceral fat are highly prized as human food and used in a variety of mixtures. Sporadic fishing is continous throughout the winter season. Pike, whitefish, ling cod and blackfish are obtained in mod- erate amounts usually in quantities suf- ficient to satisfy day to day needs only. Mink are trapped, mostly in November, in limited numbers. The meat is used for both human and dog food; the furs are sold. Rabbits are caught with snares, mostly in November and December. They are rarely available in significant numbers. Ptarmigan are caught with snares in win- ter and early spring, but are not usually available in large numbers, except in an occasional year. 267 Season Foods Available Remarks SPRING SUMMER 268 Whitefish Pike Salmon Muskrats Salmon Dog Red Silver Wildfowl Pike and whitefish, especially the latter, are obtained in good numbers from the Willidulli Slough that flows through the village; and from neighboring lakes and sloughs, after the ice has gone out in May. Fresh fish are used in season, but the bulk of the catch is dried for the next winter's use. A few families us- ually stay at the village year round and fish almost continuously for whitefish. Salmon is not available at the village site, but almost the entire population moves to traditional fish camp sites on the banks of the Kuskokwim River near Bethel. The people leave Kasigluk in May, soon after the ice disappears from the rivers, and do not return to their village until late August or early Sep- tember. The first salmon to appear are the kings. Considerable quantities are dried and stored for use on winter diets. To obtain even limited numbers of this small animal requires much travel in the local tundra area. The meat is eaten fresh and when plentiful moderate sup- plies are dried for future use. The biggest salmon run in the Kuskokwim River is that of the dog salmon in July. Large amounts are dried for winter use. They are the most important dietary item for both humans and dogs in the Kuskokwim River basin. Later in the season more limited runs of red and silver salmon occur. Wildfowl are much less important in the late spring and summer diet of these people than they were in the past. Un- til recent times large numbers were se- cured by ‘rounding up” the immature and molting birds. This practice has now been discontinued. Season Foods Available Remarks Berries Cloud- berries Low-bush cran- berries Crow- berries Blue- berries Cloudberries are available in late July. They are not collected in the amounts they formerly were, due chiefly to the fact that few families now establish sum- mer camps for this purpose. The able- bodied men from most families now obtain summer employment at the can- neries, at Bethel or wherever they can find it. Their families stay either at the village, or at their fish camps near Bethel or at Bethel itself. Late in the season other berries, particularly crowberries, blueberries and low-bush cranberries are harvested in variable amounts from the tundra in both the Kasigluk and Bethel areas. From 100 to 200 pounds or more are stored for winter use by many fam- ilies; considerably less by others. 269 CHART IX: HOOPER BAY (Southwest-Coastal Eskimo) Season Foods Available FALL WINTER 270 Berries Fish Vegetable Blackfish Needlefish Ling cod Smelts Crowberry and low-bush cranberry are col- lected in considerable quantity by most families. The annual tom cod run occurs in Sep- tember and they are usually available in sufficient quantities so that sizeable supplies are either dried or prepared as ‘pokefish’. Occasionally, as in 1956, there is no tom cod run. Significant amounts of blackfish (from 1000 to 4000 pounds depending on the year) are caught in traps set in the surrounding sloughs or they may be obtained in the Kashunuk area. Mouse food or “mousenuts” as they are locally called consisting of the young tender seedlings of native grasses and bits of root from several tundra, plants— which the field rodents have stored in underground caches for their own win- ter use, are often gathered by the women in the late fall. One to two large gunny sacks full per family may be collected and stored. Some years, as in 1957, 1960 and 1961, none were available. ““ Mouse- nuts” are most often used as a soup in- gredient. A few families still collect moderate amounts of the plant called Tayahuk (Hippuris vulgaris) which grows in shallow tundra ponds. The portion gathered is that which protrudes above the ice after freeze-up. They are fairly plentiful in the immediate village environs. They are most commonly used along with dried fish roe as a soup in- gredient. From November through December the men continue to trap the sloughs for blackfish but usually only enough are taken for a few meals at a time. Also at Season Foods Available Remarks Blackfish continued Seal Walrus Mink this time a few of the men may go to the Cottock River, about 20 miles away, for whitefish. These fish obtained by netting under the ice are not always available in significant quantities. From November through March needlefish (sticklebacks and dace) are trapped in certain sloughs in the Hooper Bay— Scammon Bay—Kashunuk area. To ob- tain them usually necessitates travel- ing from slough to slough, sometimes considerable distances from the village. One hundred to five hundred pounds per family per year is the usual catch. They are used both as dog and human food. In January and February there is sporadic fishing for ling cod. They are caught with traps under the ice in rivers and lakes, usually at about 20 miles distance from the village. They are not plentiful. Sometimes in April, if shore ice conditions are suitable, there is a tom cod run, sometimes accompanied by smelts. The supply of both varies from year to year. Hunting for seal and ugruk continues in- termittently throughout most of the winter. This activity is most productive when it is possible to hunt in open leads between ice floes, from about mid-March until the ice goes out in late May or early June. During the winter of 1956-57, seal hunting was poor due to extremely dangerous shore conditions followed by an unusually early ice “break-up”. In 1957-58, however, sealing was considered especially good. The Bureau of Indian Affairs Economic Report (11) listed that year’s take for the entire village at 680 seals and 53 ugruk. A few walrus—only 7 in 1958—are taken each year. Mink are trapped from ‘freeze-up’ on. The furs are sold and the meat is used mostly for dog food. 271 Season Foods Available Remarks SPRING 272 Rabbits Seal Muskrat Mink Herring Salmon King Dog Silver Clams Beluga Wildfowl and their eggs Arctic hare are found in limited numbers in the area, probably furnishing at most a total of 100 to 200 pounds of meat per year. Seal and ugruk hunting continues in the open lanes among the ice floes until the ice goes out of the bay. It may be fairly productive but is totally de- pendent on shore ice conditions. After the ice in the neighboring sloughs and ponds begins to melt muskrat are hunted but they are not always plentiful in the area. A kayak is still needed to get around successfully in this area at this time of the year. The 1958 catch of mink and muskrat was estimated at 2500 animals, or approximately 33 per family. Most years there is a significant herring run in late May or early June; but occasionally there is a year when the run completely bypasses Hooper Bay. Next to wildfowl, salmon is the most im- portant food in this area. The kings ar- rive first, followed by dog salmon and, later in the season by a substantial sil- ver salmon run. Most of the latter are prepared as ‘poke fish’ and are impor- tant on winter diets. Clams are available in June in quantities, up to 20 quarts per family per year, usually sufficient for immediate con- sumption only. This animal, called cheetak at Hooper Bay and beluga elsewhere, is available either in late May or early June. Only a few are taken each year. The 1958 es. timate was 6. From late April until about the first of June, various wildfowl, particularly ducks, geese, cranes and swans, arrive in tremendous numbers. Many are just Season Foods Available Remarks SUMMER Wildfowl, continued Ptarmigan Edible greens Whitefish Salmon Silver Dog Wildfowl passing over on their migration north but large numbers of certain species re- main to nest and breed in the area. Brandt (15) lists 54 species of birds nesting in this area with waterfowl the dominant group. Several of these birds and their eggs are important foods in the dietary of the Hooper Bay Eskimo and many families may store moderate amounts for future use—either by salt- ing or drying. The Bureau of Indian Affairs 1958 estimate of the Hooper Bay take was 500 dozen wildfowl eggs and 2310 waterfowl, mostly ducks and geese (11). This amounts to approxi- mately one dozen eggs and 54 birds per person for the entire village. Ptarmigan also nest in the area and sig- nificant numbers are caught. Wild edible greens, mostly sourdock but also significant amounts of marsh mari- gold, are obtained from late May through June. This food is enjoyed fresh in season but a few families still store moderate amounts for winter use. Silver and dog salmon are sometimes avail- able in good quantity the first part of July but only if there are favorable north winds. During August there is sporadic fishing for whitefish. They are not available in significant quan- tities. In past times, the latter part of July was the best time for “rounding up” im- mature and moulting ducks and geese but this method of obtaining them is no longer practiced. However, there is con- tinued hunting for wildfowl by indi- vidual hunters throughout the summer. According to Petroff (13), “the autumn migration of birds passing south begins the latter part of July and only a few of the hardier waterfowl remain by the end of September.” 273 Season Foods Available Remarks Berries 274 During late July and continuing on into September a variety of berries are gathered in quantity; sometimes as much as 100 to 300 pounds per family are stored for winter use. The most imi- portant berries are the cloudberry, the crowberry and the low-bush cranberry. CHART X: NEWTOK (Southwest Tundra-Coastal Eskimo) Season Foods Available Remarks FALL WINTER Muskrat Seal Tom cod Blackfish Berries Blackfish Needlefish Seals | | b Considerable numbers of muskrat are caught by most families. Any meat ex- cess to immediate needs is dried; the skins are either sold or used to make parkas. The large bearded seal, called ¢‘mukluk” locally, and the spotted seal are occa- sionally caught at this time of the year, usually in the bay waters near old Key- aluvik. In some years they are obtain- able in goodly numbers. Moderate amounts of tom cod are avail- able. Most of the catch is dried for win- ter use except for the livers which are used fresh. Throughout September, mod- erate quantities of blackfish are caught in willowroot baskets in tundra ponds and small streams. Cloudberries, erowberries, blueberries and especially low-bush cranberries are col- lected and used, but generally not in sufficient quantities for storage as the numerous quaking bogs in the general area make gathering them difficult. Blackfish and needlefish, especially the latter, are usually obtained intermit- tently throughout the winter season but in especially good quantities in Novem- ber and December. The serious hunting of seals starts after Christmas when the men make over- night trips to the coast to obtain them. Seals are most plentiful, however, in April and May at which time the entire family may move to traditional camp sites near old Keyaluvik on the main- land and/or on Nelson Island. 275 Season Foods Available Remarks SPRING SUMMER Seal Herring Smelt Flounder Sculpins Wildfowl Sourdock Herring Flounder Seal Wildfowl Greens Muskrats If shore ice conditions are satisfactory, sealing at the traditional camp sites may continue well into May. Only an occasional seal is caught after the ice goes out of the Bay. Herring are usually available in good quan- tity. The dried or ‘poke’ herring is one of the most important foods found on the winter dietary. Occasionally, as in 1960, excessively wet weather pre- vents proper drying of the fish and as much as 509, of the catch may be lost through spoilage. A smelt run some- times follows the herring run but not every year; there was none in 1957. A relatively small species of flounder is caught with nets at sea and in what is called locally the ‘big river’, a narrow waterway flowing between Baird In- let and the sea which separates Nelson Island from the mainland. Some of this fish is eaten fresh but most of it is dried for dog feed. Sculpins, locally called devilfish, are also available in limited supply. Wildfowl, mostly ducks and geese, which nest in the fish camp area, and their eggs are available in significant quantities and are important on the spring dietary. They are not stored to any great extent for winter use. Sourdock is available in the general area, and is eaten fresh and cooked; usually only enough is available to satisfy im- mediate needs. The summer fishing season is much like that of late spring with continued sup- plies of herring and flounder caught and dried. Large quantities of herring eggs are also dried and used primarily for dog feed. Only an occasional seal, a few ducks and geese, sourdock in limited amounts and a few muskrat (August) are available at this season. 276 THREE FOOD QUEST PATTERNS OF THE PAST AKIAK The mountain Eskimo left the village sometime in April or early May for their campsites at the headwaters of the Kisaralik River. Among the animals hunted in this area were beaver, cari- bou, brown and black bear, ground squirrel and the hoary marmot. The latter two animals were caught in snares, the noose being made of the soft part of the large vein of bird feathers and the cord from the pliable inner bark of the willow. Trout, mostly Dolly Varden, were hooked through the ice in the several large lakes in the area. In early June, after the ice had disappeared from rivers and lakes, fish camps were established and here the people fished throughout the summer and early fall, obtaining good quantities of dog and red salmon mostly by trapping. The trap used was similar in structure to that used for blackfish, but much larger. It was made from the inner bark of the spruce. In addition, a few king salmon were speared, and a few Dolly Varden and other trout were caught. All of these fish were used fresh-cooked in season, but the bulk of the salmon catch was dried for winter use. The dried fish roe were put in birch baskets and buried in 2 foot deep ground pits which were covered securely, first with grass and then with dirt. They were not opened until the following April when the people returned to the mountain at which time the roe were gen- erally used as a soup ingredient. Sourdock (kwakchuck) was collected and used fresh in sea- son, usually with fish broth to make a soup. Moderate amounts were stored for winter use. On the way back to the village in the fall of the year, “mouse nuts” and berries were usually collected in quantity; the latter were stored in birch bark-lined ground pits, covered securely and left there until freeze-up when sled travel was practical. They were then dug up and taken to the winter headquarters. At the village site, from late fall and intermittently throughout the winter, limited supplies of whitefish, sheefish or ling cod were taken in traps set under the river ice; pike by hook- ing through holes in the ice and blackfish in willow root traps set under ice in nearby tundra sloughs and ponds. Hunting and fishing during fall and winter were much the same as they are today, but, according to my informant, they were pursued much more industriously in the past. 277 NOATAK According to our information the present day population is made up of two distinet groups of Eskimo—the N apatamiut or timber people and the Noatakmiut, or people of the Noatak River. While they now live together in the same village, in the past these two groups lived and hunted somewhat differently. In winter the Napatamiut lived in temporary dwellings made of logs covered with a thick layer of spaghnum moss and dirt. A center opening in the roof or a skylight window allowed for the escape of smoke from cooking and heating fires. New houses were built every year. These winter homes were built in areas where it was possible for the family to fish through the ice for trout, grayling and whitefish all winter. In late winter, about April, the men repaired their sleds or built new ones, using locally available spruce. When repairs were completed, the entire family with most of their worldly possessions travelled to the spring camp site at Sealing Point on Kotzebue Sound. Since the dog teams were small—usually one to five dogs at the most—the women often had to pull the sled with the men pushing from behind. From their base camp at the Point, the men hunted seals, although occasionally the entire family would camp out on the ice. Their method of preparing a cooking place while at these ‘“‘ice camps” was to first, lay down a heavy layer of dried spaghnum moss directly on the ice which was then topped with a heavy layer of sand followed by a layer of pebble rock. Sufficient insulation was thus provided to prevent the ice underneath from melting during the cooking period. After the “ice break-up” in Kotzebue Sound, the families would go by oomaypak (large skin boat) to Sheshaulik—the place for beluga hunting near present day Kotzebue. From this camp the men hunted both ugruk and beluga whale and the women spent long hours drying the meat and preparing the blubber oil and other products for storage. Wildfowl, rabbits, bird eggs (ducks, geese, gull and murre) and fish were obtained in quantities sufficient for daily use only. Late in the season the women gathered good quantities of berries, mostly cloudberries and blueberries, which they took back to their winter homes. Near the end of summer or in early fall the people returned to their winter home sites, stored their dried meat, oil and other food supplies in deep, cold ground pits, and then proceeded farther upriver, camping here and there wherever the women could fish for trout, grayling, whitefish and salmon, do some berry picking 278 and hunt for mice caches from which they often secured good quantities of edible roots. Meanwhile, the men, usually in small groups, proceeded toward the mountains to hunt caribou, bear and mountain sheep. Before “freeze-up’ the entire family returned to their winter home. The people who called themselves the Noatakmiut, on the other hand, lived upriver from the Napatamiut. They did not form a village but lived in scattered campsites along the river or in the surrounding hills where they stayed from before “freeze-up” in the fall until the “ice break-up” the following June. The men hunted in small groups for caribou, bear and mountain sheep or fished through the ice in the numerous lakes and ponds for trout, grayling and whitefish with nets made of caribou or beluga sinew. After “ice break-up” in June, family groups travelled by skin boats down the Noatak River to Sheshaulik on Kotzebue Sound. Here the men in their kayaks in groups of two or more, hunted the beluga whale. While at their Sheshaulik camp these people also hunted wildfowl and rabbits, gathered the eggs of nesting ducks, geese, gulls and murrees and picked large quantities of berries. They also carried on considerable trade with the Eski- mos of Wales, Shishmaref, Diomede and Kobuk who gathered at Kotzebue annually for that purpose. The Noatakmiut usually remained in the Kotzebue Sound area until just before “freeze-up” was imminent. Since the river was low at this time of the year the return trip upriver was often very arduous. They sometimes had to harness their dogs, let them run along the shore and help pull the boats over the shallows. SHUNGNAK In late May or early June, as soon as the ice began to move out of the Kobuk River, the people loaded their skin boats with members of the family, supplies of jade and the skins of caribou, lynx, land otter, fox and beaver (obtained during the winter hunt- ing and trapping or by trade with the Koyukuk Indians) and travelled down river to Kotzebue, often right behind the moving river ice. Here they spent part of the summer trading their goods in exchange for seal oil, ugruk hides and rawhide rope, ivory, hunting gear and such other trade goods as were available. Some of the men 2lso hunted ugruk in Kotzebue Sound. Most of the people returned to the upper Kobuk area by mid-summer, scattering to their family fish eamp sites all along the river. Then as now the women had the major responsibility for securing and preparing the dog salmon catch for winter use. 279 The men, either singly or, preferably, in small groups, hunted the neighboring hills and mountains for a variety of animals, partic- ularly ground squirrels, bears, mountain sheep and marmots. They also hunted in the upper Noatak River drainage area for caribou and marmots (asiksikpuk) but on occasion they roamed much farther north to Anaktuvuk Pass and even farther to the east into Canada. Late in the fall the men returned to the Kobuk area, usually in time to obtain whitefish and sheefish. Netting and spearing were the usual techniques used, the latter method facilitated by damming shallow portions of the river with cottonwood trees. Ptarmigan, spruce hens, ducks, geese and, in some years, snowy owls were also obtained at this time of the year. Earlier as well as now these people depended primarily on caribou for their food supply during the winter months. In an open winter with little snow, the caribou herds would wander over large areas in their search for food. The hunter and his family would follow the migration routes changing camp when neces- sary. When the snowfall was heavy, small herds became stranded or otherwise separated from the main herd and confined to a rather circumscribed feeding area, making it possible for families to establish more permanent camps where they often remained until spring. Sometimes hunting parties, and family groups too, would range over an area of 50 miles or more; frequently they travelled much farther in search of moose and other game. Cari- bou, however, provided not only their main winter food supply but also the source of material for making tents, sleeping bags and winter clothing. Present day Kobuk—about five miles upriver from Shung- nak—was the traditional winter campsite for many of these peo- ple. The population fluctuated considerably during the season; at times it might be as high as 200 or more. Most of the trading with the Koyukuk Indians took place here, although it was by no means unusual for the Kobuk Eskimos to travel north to Anak- tuvuk, east to the Yukon Territory, Canada, and southeast to the Koyukuk Indian camps. One of the present day village elders spent several years of his young adulthood among the Koyukuk Indians. The Kobuk Eskimo was the middleman between the coastal Eskimo and the Indians. The older people of present day Alla- kaket, an Athapascan Indian village on the Koyukuk River, still remember that seal oil, obtained in these trades, was a regular part of their diet. Since much of the Kobuk campsite flooded in the spring when the ice went out of the river (May), small groups of related 280 families established temporary camps on higher ground in the same general area. At this time they subsisted on the remains of their winter food stores supplemented by fresh wildfowl—now on their way north—and muskrat which was plentiful in some lo- cations. In early June, sheefish and whitefish were available in quantity provided there was enough melt-off from the winter snows to cause the river to rise significantly. If the rise was not sufficient the fish were slow to migrate upriver and by then many families had already left for their summer sojourn at Kotzebue. Yr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1967—O0 219-309 281 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AH-2 RKELEY LIBRARIES | im c02926301k Tn TH