START OF TITLE UC BERKELEY MASTER NEGATIVE STORAGE NUMBER 03-101.10 (National version of master negative storage number: CU SN03101.10) MICROFILMED 2003 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY LIBRARY PHOTOGRAPHIC SERVICE REPRODUCTION AVAILABLE THROUGH INTERLIBRARY LOAN OFFICE MAIN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY, CA 94720-6000 COPYRIGHT The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials including foreign works under certain conditions. In addition, the United States extends protection to foreign works by means of various international conventions, bilateral agreements, and proclamations. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be "used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research.” If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. University of California at Berkeley reserves the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgment, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of copyright law. ' AUTHOR: Hudgings, William Franklyn TITLE: Dr. Abrams and the electron theory IMPRINT: New York : New Century, 1923 BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD TARGET University of California at Berkeley Library Master negative storage number: 03-101.10 (national version of the master negative storage number: CU SN03101.10) CGLADIS NUMBER: 151214353H FORMAT : BK AD:940423 /0CL LEVEL:r BLT:am DCF:a C(CSC:d MOD: BL:I Ub:030821/M0 CP:nyu L:eng INT: GPC: BIO: F1C:0 CON: ARCV: PC:s PD:1923/ REP: CbP1:0 PF8I:0 1I1C:a I%:0 005 19940412 TAPE OCLC5720: 2712 035 ocml11022584 040 CHSScCHSSdm/cSdCUY 090 $dt$b984s.A161.H88 096 WB 495 H884d 1923 100 1 Hudgings, William Franklyn, $d1889-19377 245 10 Dr. Abrams and the electron theory /$ScWilliam F. Hudgings. 250 4th ed. 260 New York :SbNew Century, $Scl923. 300 96 p. :Sbill. ;Scl3 cm. 700 10 Abrams, Albert, sdl863-1924. Microfilmed by University of California Library Photographic Service, Berkeley, CA FILMED AND PROCESSED BY LIBRARY PHOTOGRAPHIC SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, 94720 DATE: 9/03 | REDUCTION: 8 X Y TARGET ANSI/ISO #2 EQUIVALENT a Oo oO Oo oc oO = o be o < oc oO Oo om XE oo - - «TW x0 Zz ™ 5 = a 25 20 I 122 = 28 I 125 SC. A 16 I —— i ——— a — ———— I 14 A= I — I I er » 0 3 39% 3 >aw = «va > a 8 gram a 8 . * ey * le svi ® ®ve . % ) * am + Lh { hed - © sane 98 3 w Jew * a” * AT ds a ELECTRON" THEORY WILLIAM EF. HUDGINGS author of “Introduction to Einstein”, “Genesis and the Geologic Ages”, ete. ‘NEW CENTURY COMPANY 65 Liberty Street New York 1923 GIFT OF yi ( . Well am F J wd qnqs COPYRIGHTED 1923 By the Author (All Rights Reserved) Fourth Edition INTRODUCTORY THIS treatise on the electronic structure of matter and the effects of electronic vibra- tions within the atom has been undertaken in the belief that the general reader is deeply interested in the work of scientific men if informed about it in comprehensible phrase. It is regrettable that so few scientific works have been written In language that the popular mind can understand. The average person habitually yearns for knowledge con- cerning the mysteries of the universe, and every scientific discovery is hailed with pop- ular enthusiasm when the story is told in language simple and lucid. But too often our scientific writers, being brilliantly endowed and accustomed to thinking in abstruse and technical terms, find it quite impossible to come down to the layman’s level and express themselves in popular phraseology. It is the purpose of this booklet to acquaint the ordinary reader with the most recent findings of scienee in the field of physics, par- ticularly in relation to living organism and the pathology of disease. Dr. Albert Abrams of San Francisco, being a pioneer in this field of physical research, has made certain discoveries of such consequence that much space is devoted to a detailed consideration 3 530544 *2e0 ® ° of his findinjh. :Affed fils experiments have hess described, . the .redder will find in 5 art 31. of this :esay &'.full; popular treatise or the médern Electron theory of matter upon which the Abrams research work is based This part of the essay is really a simplified condensation of all the technical works on - physical science of the past twenty years insofar as they relate to the electronic strue- ture of atoms and to chemistry, recording every important discovery on the ‘subject down to fe present time, cknowledgment is gratef Francis A. Cave, M. D.. D. SY ads ao Physico-Clinical Institute of Boston, Mass for his valuable criticism of the text throu h- gut before the material was put in final i ag author is also especially indebted to D . John B. Buehler, Dean of the Connecticut ranch of the Electronic College, for assist- ance rendered at his New the investigations, ere ols Jule New York ; W. F. H, June, 1928 PART I RELATION OF THE ELECTRON THEORY TO DISEASE AND DIAGNOSIS MODERN knowledge of the electronic structure of matter has revolutionized many ancient concepts in nearly every field of human endeavor. The great and important field of therapeutics is by no means an excep- tion. The public press has had considerable to say of late about Dr. Albert Abrams of San Francisco and his application of the electron theory to the diagnosis, treatment and pathology of disease. Some have acclaimed him as a scientist of the first order while others have pictured him as a wicked impostor who has discovered nothing more than the pecuniary fact that Barnum was right. Every revolutionary discovery has met with opposition from some quarter. Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton, each in his turn contended with the forces of reaction, prejudice, superstition and ignor- ance so rampant in their day, until the truths of their discoveries eventually emerged triumphant. The one thing worse than being talked about is not to be talked about at all. But the newspaper publicity, favorable and o 2 - 3 ¢ Ld . 3 - a * * unfavorable, which Dr. Abrams has received, “1s 07 little importance as a means of determin- - ing ‘the value of ‘Lis findings. The one thing needed is a dispassionate consideration of his claims in the light of known scientific facts concerning atomie structures; and this is in fact the aim of the present treatise. Inasmuch as health is of first importance to everybody it seems appropriate that the Abrams theory shall first be outlined, then consideration will be given to the electron theory in general upon which it is based. Our treatment of this subject is wholly in the interest of science. It.is not for the pur- pose of propagandizing any person, school or cult, although it is obviously essential to a fair presentation of the facts to mention the name of the investigator; and if he has made any discovery worth while he is entitled to just credit therefor. If no ’discovery of importance has been made then the public is entitled to that knowledge. We shall refrain from presenting any partisan argument for or against any practical endeavor to bring needed relief to suffering humanity. We are concerned with making an unbiased examina- tion into the experimental efforts of an investigator who claims to have a valuable contribution for the accumulating fund of knowledge concerning electrons and the struc- ture of matter. If Dr. Abrams has made, or thinks he has made, any actual discovery in this field of physical research he is unques- tionably entitled to 28 honest hearing. To begin with, Albert Abrams, M. D., LLD., F.R.M. 8S, is a Jew who was born in San Franeisco about sixty years ago. At nineteen he graduated from Heidelburg University and later took post graduate courses in London, Berlin, Paris and Vienna, and on his return to America became a rather prominent figure in west-coast medical circles, according to his biographical sketch in “Who's Who in America.” At twenty six he was elected Vice President of the California State Medical Society, accepted a professorship in Cooper Medical College (Leland Stanford Univer- sity) at thirty, and later became president of Emanuel Polyclinic. During this time he made certain medical discoveries and was author of several textbooks on disease and - diagnosis. But his more recent findings, re- ferred to above, were considered to be 80 revolutionary and startling that he claims not to have mentioned them to his fellow physicians for a long time, fearing he would not be believed. This interim was industri- ously spent in private verification of the sys- tem he had formulated, thousands of cases being used to check and recheck his basic theory until he had gathered what he believed was sufficient proof to convince the whole medical fraternity; then he announced his experiments to the world. It appears that his previous fears were well founded. The medical profession with characteristic conservatism tabooed the dis- coveries and condemned the discoverer with- 1 out much regard for his accumulated proofs, and the Journal of the American Medical Association heaped him with satire and vir- tually proclaimed him ga prince of quacks. On the other hand a minority of “regular” physicians, laying professional prejudice aside, have dared to investigate the Abrams theories; and these now declare that he hag made one of the greatest “finds” of the cen- tury. They furthermore assert that his “persecution” from the old school conserva- tives simply proves him to be several years ahead of his time. Regardless of the merits of either side of the controversy, it is obvious that should Dr. Abrams’ methods meet with Popular approval, as they are already doing in many quarters, many great medical insti- tutions, drug factories and drug stores would have to find other lines of business or close their doors. The Abrams method of diagnosis and treatment is called the “ERA System,” the letters BE. R. A. having been chosen by the founder to represent “Electronic Reactions of Abrams.” In view of the electronic strue- ture of matter and its general property of radioactivity, Dr. Abrams conceived the idea that in order to uproot a disease in the organ- ism it is essential to £0 beyond the cellular tissues and really get at the electronic strue- tures of the atoms. It seemed reasonable to his mind that disease is capable of produc- * ing certain changes in the rate or manner of rotation of the electrons in the affected atoms, 8 and that so long as the electrons are not vibrating normally the entire organism will be out of balance, All thig sounds logical, but how to correct the abnormality of the elee-- tronic vibrations is the great problem. It'is manifest that the planetary electrons of atomic systems are capable of many different motions at once, even as Planets of a solar system undergo several simultaneous motions in their orbital Journeys. It appeared to Abrams, therefore, that each disease may have its characteristic vibratory rate, or rather the power to affect the motion of the electrons in a characteristic way, without destroying the vibratory motions which the : - electrons previously possessed. If this beso, an electronic analysis of the blood or tis- sues should reveal the existence of what- ever diseases may be present therein, pro- vided a means could be devised to do this. - Being of an inventive turn of mind, Dr. Abrams set upon the task of developing an. apparatus that would sort out these hypo- thetical vibratory rates and record them Separately. After several unsuccessful efforts to produce a mechanical device of sufficient sensitiveness, he finally turned to the human nervous system as the most sensitive electrical machine on earth. He now claims that by using the nervous system of a normally healthy person in conjunction with a set of rheostats and an amplifier it is possible to cause each disease vibration in the specimen under examination » manifest itself by TE definite reactions which are produced upon ~ certain nerve terminals. As a result of thou- gands of experiments he has now charted and classified the reactions thus elicited, and therefore maintains that by analyzing a drop of your blood (which of course really con- tains billions of atomic systems with their diversified electronic movements) it is pos- gible to tell you what diseases are in your body, the stages of development of each, exactly what organs are- affected, and whether a particular disease has been inherited or acquired by exposure. Sex and pationality may also be determined from these blood tests, it is declared. To those who doubt that so much information may be elicited from a single blood-drop, Dr. Abrams retorts, “The mineralogist finds it unneces- sary to examine a whole mine to determine the nature of its products. One drop of blood, with its countless billions of electrons, is a condensation of the multitudinous vibrations of the entire body.” If a drop of blood can really reveal so much then there is a hitherto unsuspected depth of meaning to the Leviti- cal proverb, “The life of the flesh is in the blood.” It is apparent that by such a method of diagnosis the patient would not need to be personally present. He may be a thousand miles or more from the diagnostician. All he would be required to do would be to mail a drop or so of his blood to the elinic. The fact that the blood would be dry by the time 10 it reached the physician should not affect the accuracy of the diagnosis, since the atoms are there whether the blood is in the liquid or dried state; and the diseases which had af- fected the electronic motions of the atomic systems would continue to affect them regard- less of the molecular condition of the blood specimen. Hence it should be just as feasi- ble to make a diagnosis from a specimen a year old as it would be to make it from a drop of blood taken from your body only a few moments before; the only difference being that the year-old specimen ‘will only disclose what your condition was up to the time it left your veins. Nor would the patient need to mention any symptoms to the examin- ing physician, although the diagnosis might be facilitated if he should. - Admitting that Dr. Abrams and his disci- ples may be somewhat over-enthusiastic about thein system, nevertheless I am not of those who see nothing but self-deception and hum- buggery in the proposition. It is natural for most people to receive any unusual claim with pronounced skepticism, and character- istic for adherents of any well established school to disdain the views of a rival. But there can be no question about the fact that the Abrams instruments, in conjunction with the human nervous system, do elicit abdom- inal reactions. I have repeatedly witnessed them, have taken part in the experiments, and have cross-questioned at length several physicians whom I familiarly know, who 11 have studied and are practicing the Abrams system regularly. To simply declare that all the thousand or more physicians from the medical and osteopathic professions who have adopted the “ERA” are wicked deceivers or hypuot- ized dupes is a weak way to meet an import- ant issue, and is as preposterous as it is un- fair. Even if these physicians were hypnot- jzed by Abrams while studying at his clinic, why should the spell continue with them after they return to their home cities and take up the practice? And why should they continue to enthuse, and their patients continue to come, if no results are accomplished? I do know instances where remarkable cures have certainly been effected by this system of treatment; but even if we account for the cures in some other way it nevertheless must be admitted by any honest investigator that the diagnostic process employed by Abrams is not a hoax. yWhether he correctly inter- prets or misinterprets the reactions which he elicits does not nullify the fact that reactions are produced; and where there is an effect there must be a competent cause. Before attempting an explanation of the scientific principle involved, the following details of the author's initial investigation (which was followed by several months of study and experimental research into the matter) will acquaint the reader with the apparatus and process of electronic diagno- sis which Dr. Abrams Spay Upon arrival at the clinic I stated my purpose in few words, explaining that I am “from Mis- souri,” decidedly averse to anything psychic or spiritistic, and that nothing but the most tangible evidence of scientific fact would be acceptable to my state of mind. “Most peo- ple bring their skepticism along with them when calling for the first time,” I was told, “put unless wireless telegraphy and radio communication are psychic neither should the Abrams’ instruments be so considered.” Expecting to find a “mystic shrine” I was immediately disillusioned by finding the place about the same as any ordinary physicians’ office, with the much-talked-of Abrams apparatus in full view. For hours I sat watching the procedure as the doctor went about his usual routine. Patience was required on his part as I repeatedly stopped him to check up on some- thing I had witnessed, and as I plied him with numerous questions and made notes of the things I heard and saw. A patient entered, a man of about fifty, accompanied by his niece. Plainly he was a sufferer from some ailment of long standing. The doctor did not question the man about his symptoms; he simply pricked the end of the patient’s finger with a needle and squeezed out two or three drops of blood onto a tiny piece of white blotting paper. It was then placed alongside the Hameglobin Scale to determine by its color its corpuscular percentage. : At hand was a table upon which were four . 13 How Dr. Abrams Locates Reactions by Percussion upon the Abdomen of a Re- agent, thus Deter- mining the Disease Vibrations of any Blood Specimen placed in the Dynamizer DYNAMIZER REFLEXOPHONE 1 AMPLIFIER REFLEXOPHONE & pieces of electrical apparatus which I was permitted to examine in detail. The first piece is called a Dynamizer, a small hollow fibre box about five inches in diameter, Upon being opened it was seen to contain simply two electrodes which were connected to a ground wire. The top of the Dynamizer is an ordinary condenser consisting of two aluminum discs, an intervening piece of card- board and a top made of bakelite. An alumi- num wire ran from the top of the Dynamizer to an Amplifier, which is constructed on the principle of the Magnavox used on radio receiving sets. From the Amplifier the wire passes through two rheostats, called Reflexo- phones, both of which are equipped with num- bered dials and indicators. One of the rheo- stats is used for measuring the rate and the other the potentiality of the electronic vibra- tion from the blood specimen in the Dynami- zer. From the rheostats the energy is carried through a wire to an electrode which is fastened to the forehead of a reagent, some- times called the subject. This reagent or subject is not the patient, although the patient is sometimes used in that capacity. The reagent may be anybody, either male or female, the healthier the bet- ter, whose nervous system completes the elec- tric circuit. In other words, the reagent is merely part of the apparatus, and a most important part at that. By noting the reac- tions on the nerves of the reagent as the rheostat is shifted from number to number, 15 the physician is able to detect what disease vibrations are’'in the blood specimen in the Dynamizer. : I am well acquainted” with some of the reagents who were used in several of the cases which later came under my observation. One is a young man about 20, strong and healthy, whom I know as well as I know my own brother. I have questioned him at length to ascertain if the reactions might be accounted for by any mental attitude, either on his part or on the part of the diagnosti- cian, He assures me that neither he nor the physician ordinarily knows anything about the history of a case until after the diagnosis Is complete. Sometimes several dozen speci- mens may be diagnosed at one sitting ; and the following is the usual procedure as he explains it (and I have every confidence in his word, knowing him as familiarly as I do) : The specimens are first marked and placed in individual white envelopes by an assistant, the diagnosing Physician (by pref- erence) not ordinarily knowing to whom the specimens belong; nor does the reagent. One by one, the blood specimens are placed in the Dynamizer, the rheostats are shifted from number to number, and the reactions are observed. This reagent informs me that he can usually feel the reaction on his abdomen Sooner than the physician can locate it by Percussion. His nerves automatically react to the various vibratory rates from the speci- nen, as fhey are made to pass one by pne 16 through the rheostat, a dilatation of certain blood vessels occurs, and the abdominal reac- tion results. Dr. Abrams has recently announced that he has at last succeeded in inventing an instrument that promises to do away with using a human reagent. He claims it to be sufficiently sensitive to record these reac- ‘tions mechanically. He is now perfecting this instrument, which he has named The Os- cillophone. The device contains differently tuned wires about four feet in length which are connected with the rheostats and Dyna- mizer, and also with the ground. The various vibratory.rates from a blood specimen pro- duce changes in tones at certain marked positions along the wires as they are tapped with a small mallet. A trained ear is then able to detect the presence of disease vibra- tions produced upon the tuned wires. Dr. - Abrams has also experimented with an electrie buzzer and Magnavox for detecting vibratory rates, with some success. But returning to the particular case we started out to describe: Our demonstrator not being equipped with the Oscillophone was obliged to use a human reagent, who was stripped to the waist and asked to stand, with face to the west, upon two zine plates attached to the floor and connected by a wire to the ground. The ground connection, it may be mentioned, was obtained by simply soldering the wire to a nearby steam pipe. This steam pipe system was in contact with 17 : Cray ‘the earth in the basement es ; of the ding, hence it afforded a perfect ground 2 Tuilding: : In electrical parlance both the Dynamizer and the reagent were now | grounded,” f were connected with the earth. The am of this may be understood wh tioned that no batteries an 11s pric with the Abrams apparatus. How, then is the energy conveyed through the mechanism? . It is the magnetic currents of the earth that do the trick. These are the currents which cause a compass to point in a northerly and southerly direction. They flow econtinuall between the north and south magnetic oo our planet being in reality a great magnet. Now these electro-magnetic currents as they pass back and forth between the poles flow o through the ground connection into the ynamizer, there picking up the radioactive energy of the blood specimen, passing it into the amplifier where it is intensified many times, then into the nervous system of the reagent and down through his limbs and feet into the zinc plate upon which he stands then down again into the ground. The body of the reagent thus completes the circuit. If the reagent should face north or south then his body would be fully en rapport with the earth currents, thereby becoming charged like a magnetized compass sufficiently to drown the fine electronic vibrations coming from the Dynamizer. Likewise if he should face eastward, then the “drag” of these cur- rents, due to the earth’s rotation from west 18 el to east and certain other causes involving the magnetic lines of force from the sun, at once render the electronic vibrations quite indistinct. Hence the reagent must always face squarely in the direction of the geogra- phical west. It is not the radioactivity that actually passes over the wire from the Dyna- mizer; radioactive particles, of course, are not conductible by wire. Nevertheless an energy which is produced by the radioactiv- ity from the vibrating electrons does pass over the wire. In the same sense we observe that the human voice is not actually carried over a telephone wire. What is carried is an energy from the vibrating disk of the trans- mitter which is excited by the vibration of our vocal cords. This vibratory energy, trav- eling to the other end reproduces*a similar effect in the receiver disk. We are therefore accustomed to saying that the human voice is carried over the wire, but technically the statement is incorrect. It is the effect of the voice that is carried. In the same way we may say it is the effect of the electronic vibra- tions that is carried, through the Abrams rheostats and down through the nervous Sys- tem of the reagent, thereby producing the tell-tale reactions. As soon as the reagent had taken his place upon the grounded zinc plates and the other connections were made, a horseshoe magnet was then held near the Dynamizer to destroy the radioactive effects of the preceding speci- men, and then the new specimen was inserted. 19 This done we were now ready to witness our first diagnosis. The doctor explained that the vibratory impulses of the nervous sys- tem are more easily detected in the abdomin- al region than in any other part of the body ; although by moving the electrode from the reagent’s forehead to the crown of his head the same reactions may be produced upon the nerves of his back. Abrams claims, in fact, that there are about twenty-five dif- ferent ways of eliciting reactions, thus enabl- ing the diagnostician to painstakingly verify the correctness of a diagnosis if he will take the time to do so. Both rheostats were first set at 49. Abrams claims that reactions will appear upon the stomach when the rheostats are set at this number, provided the specimen in the Dynamizer is that of human blood, and that no reactions will occur if any other kind of blood is used. Furthermore, it can be deter- mined whether the blood is that of a human male or of a female by noting the location of the reaction. As the doctor placed the speci- men into the Dynamizer he marked out upon the abdomen of the reagent a small area a trifle below and about an inch to the left of the navel, and a corresponding spot on the right of the navel. He then explained that if the specimen is male blood the reaction will appear at the left, and if female it will appear on the right, in the areas indicated. Immediately the reaction was plainly visible at the left, indicating “Human blood, male.” 20 In the present instance I of course knew this fact beforehand ; for I had witnessed the blood taken from the patient’s forefinger only a few moments before. But it is obvious that the diagnostician cannot always know in advance what kind of blood he is asked to analyze. Specimens are continually received by mail. Frequently a skeptic undertakes to trick the physician by sending him a speci- men of blood from the butcher shop. Hence all specimens are first tested at 49, and if no reaction appears he knows the specimen is not human blood. Then he shifts the rheo- stat to one figure after another until he does obtain the reaction. He then turns to the Abrams chart or table which, it is claimed, has been worked out as a result of thousands of experiments, and ascertains the particular kind of blood that is known to produce re- actions at the number at which the rheostat then stands —cow’s blood, sheep's blood, dog’s blood, or whatever it may be. When- ever a trick like this is tried it is usually detected, and the specimen mailed back to the sender with the name of the animal from which the blood was obtained, much to the astonishment and chagrin of the would-be joker. After this formal test at 49 the dials of ‘both rheostats were immediately shifted one point, to 50, which has been found to be the vibratory cate of cancer. Nothing but this particular rate of vibration can pass through the rheostats when he} are set at this num- 2 ber. If the cancer vibration is in the atoms being tested, the radiant energy therefrom will send its pulsations through the rheostats when set at 50, and down through one parti- cular branch of the nervous system and will manifest itself at a certain spot on the abdo- men by causing a dilatation of the blood ves- gels in that region. Thus the head of the spinal column is actually a switchboard for the nervous system which sends the various vibratory rates down only certain nerve branches attuned to them and none others. The dilatation, or “reaction” as it is called, may be detected either by percussion or by the attraction of a pith ball or glass tube held near it. Percussion consists of laying the fore and middle fingers of one hand on the spot and then tapping them with the fore- finger of the other hand. This always elicits a clear, ringing sound if the region is uncon- gested ; but if the blood vessels at that spot are at all dilatated the sound will be a dull thud. With a little practice this difference in sound may be quickly detected. In the case in question, as soon as the rheostats were set at 50 the dull sound appeared when the indicated area was per- cussed. Then the glass tube test was applied, the diagnostician running it lightly over the abdomen with the result that it would invariably stick at the spot where the Abrams chart indicates cancer reactions are due to appear. This reaction revealed the presence of cancer in the blood specimen. When the is D0 ~ rheostats were moved from the 50 mark, how- ever, the reaction would disappear within a few seconds, the glass tube no longer stick- ing and the dull sound no longer being heard when percussed. It was easy to demonstrate that the disappearance of the reaction was due entirely to the shifting of the rheostats to a point of resistance which made it impos- gible for the cancer rate to pass through. As a practical test of the matter I requested the privilege of holding the glass tube in my own hand. The request was granted, but with precisely the same results as when the physician held it—the tube always sticking to the cancer area when the rheostats were set at 50 and refusing to be attracted when the rheostats were changed from that number. As another test I had the blood specimen removed from the Dynamizer altogether. Within ten seconds after this was done the reaction had entirely disappeared, the tube no longer sticking to any part of the reagent’s abdomen, whether the rheostats were set at 50 or any other number. When 1 placed the specimen back into the Dynami- zer, the reaction reappeared at the same identical spot as before and remained there as long as the rheostats stood at the 50 mark. This experiment was later repeated without my knowing that the specimen had been re- moved. The results were the same as before, thus showing that the reaction and disap- pearance of reaction could not have been the products of Imagination or of any mental state whatsoever, I then r uested t agent to turn so as to Hy in a Ee other than due west. Immediately this was done I could get no reaction anywhere, even though the specimen was in the Dynamizer and the rheostats both stood at 50. As soon 2s Je turned back and stood squarely to the e reaction rea of shout ten seconds. Treated Alera bus aving been determined by th ¢ that a cancer strain was in the ny ons men, the next operation was to determine the Strength of that strain. This was done by leaving the first rheostat at 50 and setting the second one at zenith, and then gradually moving it down from point to point until the reaction reappeared. When the point was reached at which the dull thud disappeared the physician called “stop” to his assistant, and the number at which the second rheostat stood was marked down. It was a high num- ber, ghdicating tint a cancerous condition of agnitude i ithi pimch ei 2h was lurking within the pa- The next thing to be ascertain whether the cancer strain had yet od Das trated its virus in any particular part of the system, and if so where. The electronic energy for cancer, while always passing through the rheostats when set at 50, never- theless differs slightly in intensity depend- ent upon where the virus is concentrated, If one person has cancer of the stomach and another has cancer of the breast, the blood 24 of each person when placed in the Dynami- zer will send impulses through the rheostats at 50 and produce the same general abdomi- nal reaction for cancer; but in addition { thereto they will affect two different “organ” '{ nerves. It is known that every organ of the body is connected by nerves to well defined areas in the abdominal region. Our demon- strator, therefore, set both rheostats back to 50 and proceeded to percuss all the organ areas of the reagent’s abdomen. Eventually he detected a dull area (aside from the one already alluded to which revealed the pres- ence of cancer at the beginning). To this second dull area the glass tube was then ap- plied. It was attracted to the spot, thereby verifying the matter. The doctor marked the spot and then turned to the Abrams chart to ascertain what organ or part of the anatomy that nerve area represented. This enabled him to tell the patient that he had a well developed cancer in the upper intes- tines, right hand side. The patient turned deathly pale, admitted he had been suffering intense pain in that locality for several weeks and had entertained fears that it might be a cancer or a tumor, but had hoped the diagno- sis would prove his fears to be unfounded. An X-ray examination next day corroborated the diagnosis. After trailing down the cancer strain the diagnostician proceeded in similar manner to test the patient’s blood specimen for other . diseases, He set both rheostats at 42 (which 25 Is the rate for tuberculosis) but obtained no reactions at that number. Then he shifted them to 57, the rate for congenital syphilis, & | This produced a definite reaction, thereby | § revealing the presence of that disease in the ' | blood. Dr. Abrams contends that syphilis and | gonorrhea are common foundations for all disease, and that nearly everybody has one or the other or both, either by exposure or by heredity. : One common means of acquiring syphilis is by vaccination. This form Abrams calls “Bovine Syphilis.” Syphilitic reactions may be obtained from a vaccination scar. The same reactions are usually obtained from ‘pure” vaccine when placed in the Dynami- zer. Dr. Abrams, however, is not an anti- vaccinationist. He believes in vaccination: but says the vaccine must be purified. This he claims may be done by exposing it for five minutes to the rays of a blue light, then to the rays of a yellow light, the vibratory power of these rays having the effect of destroying the syphilitic and tubercular pro- clivities so prevalent in this bovine virus. While having no reason to suspect collusion between physician and patient, I nevertheless resolved to put the matter to a still more certain test: I would have him diagnose a drop of my own blood, also the blood of some- body whom I intimately knew. This was done, and without the mention of a single symptom on our part both diagnoses proved accurate in every important particular, although the two cases were decidedly dis- 26 ; | 3 [intimate friends. ‘are almost as diversified as nature Itself, similar, Since then I have come into personal contact with over one hundred men and women who have been : diagnosed by the Abrams method, many of whom are my most Although their ailments nevertheless I find that with few exceptions their diagnoses are remarkably correct. I will not burden the reader with details; one fnstance will serve as an illustration. One of my closest friends, a young man, whose father and brother are M. D’s, submitted to an Abrams diagnosis. He was told that he had a small tumor of the intestines, its pre- cige location being pointed out to him. He was skeptical and came away convinced that the diagnosis was a failure; for he was then in apparently the best of health and had never had the slightest evidence of a tumor anywhere. A night or so later, out of mere curiosity, he began manipulating his lower abdominal region with his hands to see if he could detect any soreness whatever in the vicinity where the tumor was supposed to be. After pressing deeply with the fingers of his right hand he was astonished to discover a hard, lumpy growth, about the size of a small chestnut, exactly where the Abrams blood test had revealed the tumor’s presence. The work of diagnosing by the electronic process is necessarily tedious and requires much skill and carefulness. If, for instance, the diagnostician should overlook any of the several abdominal areas while endeavoring ea, Ps Boe fro So) to locate the focl of a disease, that area which i * he neglected to percuss might have been the | very one that would have revealed ore\ diseased organ. His neglect would therefore result in the rendering of an ‘inadequate ' diagnosis of the patient’s condition. It is to avoid such oversights that physicians using this method prefer to be furnished with some history of the case and an outline of the more pronounced symptoms, although this is not essential where the diagnostician takes the necessary time and precaution to thoroughly trace out all reactions. Furthermore, if the physician neglects to demagnetize the Dyna- mizer, by touching it with a horseshoe mag- net to destroy the radioactive effects of the preceding specimen, he will not obtain cor- rect reactions for the next specimen inserted. Then again, any remedy the patient may have taken within 48 hours of the time the blood was extracted from him, may influence the results; or a spinal concussion may interfere. Then, there is the handicap of obtain- ing suitable reagents. Many physicians are obliged to pick up newsboys or men about town who are out of steady employment; and many of these are so physically run down or diseased that it is impossible to utilize their nervous systems for detecting reactions. Very often an overloaded stomach will com- pletely prevent the observance of reactions, either by percussion or by other methods. There are so many things that might alter the reactions of a specimen that it is often 28 diagnoses _ Decessary to check up with several tests. It ometimes iappens, therefore, that two Same patient ma Sintlar Bort respects, as is oy oy ostic method. But wh the conditions gare equal th oe no difference in the results Saou be any number of electronic gains a Same pdmen, oven Jongh they be made at by different aren uments 2d . Man f th handicaps are peri. be is by Abrams’ Oscillophone, which Rg by ne Use of a human reagent, ole S not to be expected tha Jpnan_ berg could always any in De y any system; for nothin Winch the human element enters is % nto Pt It is steadfastly maintained, however ” errors in diagnosis by the Abrams Ie od are few in comparison to those of ” er systems, with the possible exception of diagnosis, which is claimed to be reliable os far as it extends; And to minds outside the medical and surgical professions it does not appear unreasonable that a mechanism for determining the reflexes of the patient would be more scientific and accurate than $ e haphazard “question and answer” method oy generally employed. The average D Asjclan relies mainly upon what the patient ells him about his condition, together with whatever Simple laboratory tests may be convenient or possible in the cas . Then 29 based upon the information thus gleaned, is obliged to venture a plain guess both as to e nature and the location of the diseased Die on He then attempts to reach the pro- bably affected parts via the stomach. Some- times a cure results and sometimes not, depending upon the accuracy of the guess and the efficacy of the serum administered. If a drug does produce some bene- ficial reaction the underlying reason for it is admittedly unknown. On this point we guote from Dr. Paul H. DeKruif of the Rocke- feller Foundation who, while writing in earst’s International in defense of the Con profession and against the Abrams electronic method, makes this interesting admission : “Despite the great advances that have been made in knowledge of the cause and prevention of various diseases the actual cure of most of them remains a mys- tery.” According to Dr. Abrams the “mys- tery” consists in changing the electronic motions of the diseased atoms back to nor- mal. Certain drugs are able to do this measurably, and to that extent they are bene- ficial; but too often they counteract what benefit they may have accomplished, by fill- ing the system with other poisons fully as injurious as the particular disease vibrations which they have overcome, ELECTRONIC THEORY OF TREATMENT The Abrams theory of treatment consists in throwing into the patient’s body an elec- 30 tric impulse having the same vibratory rate as that of the disease. The object of this /. Mis to sympathetically increase and intensify «| the vibration so that it will be eventually broken, just as the trot of a dog across a shaky bridge has been known to set up such an intense sympathetic vibration as to cause the bridge to collapse. The recent appalling disaster in Washington, D. C., when the roof of the American Theatre collapsed and fell upon the audience, killing and maiming a multitude, has been attributed largely to the sympathetic vibrations in the rafters, pro- duced by the music from the giant organ used during the performance. It is due to the same cause that reinforced concrete has been unable to stand up alongside solid con- crete in certain prolonged tests; the metal used for the reinforcing often taking up sym- pathetically the vibrations from outside sources, thereby causing the concrete to become eventually weakened. Abrams accord- ingly contends that if a vibration Sympathe- tic to that of the disease is set up throughout all the tissues, cells, molecules and atoms of the patient’s body, it will ultimately cause that particular electronic movement to col- lapse. When this is done the disease has been mastered, he declares, and it then remains for nature to use its untrammeled powers of carrying off the accumulated poisons and restoring the patient to normal. The Abrams method of treatment is therefore essentially destructive, not constructive, RR AE iia CSTE Sigia The instrument which Dr. Abra invented for purpose of treatment is called an Oscilloclast. The word means “vibration j breaker.” After being attached to an elec- tric light socket the machine is then - nected up with the patient's Lody. By a of its rheostat various vibratory rates may be produced. If a patient is suffering from tuberculosis the Oscilloclast is set So as to throw into his body a vibratory rate corres- ponding to that which the disease has already created in his system. The patient feels no sensation, because these vibrations are [pres ham what our senses may detect ; yet ay be recogniz ; ey may De gnized by the effects which The organism of a single tubercul contains millions of atoms with oe a tudinous retinue of rotating and vibrating electrons. The tuberculosis rate of vibration is characteristic of these infectious parasites. When a person becomes infected with them they communicate their rate of vibration to the electrons of his blood and tissues, mean- while breeding and thriving in the favorable environment which they have there created The Oscilloclast treatments are expected to Increase and intensify these vibrations until the electrons of the germ-bodies, as well as the electrons of the disease cells of the patient’s body, are overcome and broken up. This should kill the tubercular germs; for their lives depend upon the vibratery ‘rate peculiar to their nature. It is impossible for 32 them to live in any other state or condition. The breaking up of the tuberculosis rate bf vibration in no wise affects the other vibra- tory motions of the atomic systems involved. Each motion must be dealt with separately. If the patient is suffering from both tuber- culosis and cancer, the Oscilloclast is set first ‘at the one rate and then at the other, alter- nating the treatments as the conditions may . require. The treatments usually last about an hour, but the time may be varied to longer i or shorter periods as the case may demand. | Intermittent treatments are somtimes more | effective than prolonged, continuous treat- ments. About once a week during treatments | the physician is expected to take a new blood test to determine if the potentiality of the disease has been reduced, and how much. . As soon as reactions disappear upon the re- agent when the potential rheostat has reached the zero point the Oscilloclast treatments are discontinued. Much harm, it is said, may result from over-treatment. Some kinds of germs have greater power to communicate their vibrations to the elec- trons of our bodies than do others. Hence some diseases are very contagious, others are less contagious, and still others are not contagious at all. Whatever part of the body becomes exposed to'contagious disease germs, sympathetic vibrations of the electrons in that part of the body are immediately set up. This new and added electronic motion is soon: communicated not only to the blood but to 33 every atom within the entire body, and to things outside our body which we might] handle or touch. The electronic movements in living organism are so pronounced. that they may be easily communicated to inani- mate matter. Hence if we pick up a pen or pencil to write, the various vibratory rates of the electrons of our body are communi- | _ cated at once to the pen or pencil in our hand, and through its atoms to those of the paper upon which we write, and are lastingly deposited thereon by the ink from the pen or by the graphite of the pencil. It is because of this that Dr. Abrams is able to diagnose diseases from the patient's handwriting, obtaining therefrom the same tell-tale reactions as he obtains from a drop of the person’s blood. Blood, therefore, is not the only portion of the anatomy from which diagnosis may be made. A portion of flesh will do just as well, although blood Specimens are more convenient to obtain. Dr. Abrams claims to have diagnosed the dust from Egyptian mummies 3000 years old, obtaining familiar disease reactions. He has also diagnosed from handwriting of Long- fellow, Emerson, Poe and others and elicited the disease reactions. Time does not easily destroy electronic motions in atoms. Only powerful sympathetic vibrations can do that. An eye witness informs me that he has ‘Seen Dr. Abrams put to the test on this mat- ter of handwriting diagnosis. Fifty persons each gave a specimen of their blood and then / i { {ik { { { 3 3 their signatures on fifty Separate slips of paper. The specimens and signatures were then shuffled together in a hat, and Dr. ‘Abrams drew them out one by one and put them into the Dynamizer. From the reactions elicited he was able to identify each blood specimen and also to designate the signatures to which each specimen belonged, without making a single mistake. His apparatus should therefore prove a boon to bank cash iers and courts of law in identifying hand- writing. If a man denies having done a cer- tain piece of handwriting, simply take a test of his blood and of the writing in question. If the reactions are identical he is lying; if dissimilar he speaks the truth. Dr. Abrams’ exhaustive experiments have demonstrated to him that the reactions of no two human beings are exactly alike. Although the vibratory rate of human blood as well as the vibratory rates of the various diseases are the same wherever found, never- theless there is a distinctive vibratory motion in the electrons of each individual which dif- ferentiates him from all other human beings. When this distinctive rate is once ascertained, then, says Abrams, neither age nor environ- ment nor any physical changes will prevent the Dynamizer from identifying that person wherever found. This would seem to be an improvement over the old fingerprint system of identification hitherto so indispensible in police records. The claim is also made that the Dynamizer will Soh the sex of an oo. unborn infant and will ‘definitely establish whether a man under suspicion is the fath or not the father of a questionable child. Another remarkable accomplishment ac- credited to the Abrams instruments is the ability to approximate the location of an individual. First the “distinctive” vibratory rate of the person is ascertained by testing a sample either of his handwriting or of his | | ~ #lood. Then the corresponding radiant energy which the individual is continually “broad- casting” from his person is picked up by the Dynamizer and auxiliary attachments, act- ing as an ordinary radio receiving set, the effect being manifested by reactions on the nervous system of the reagent. Radio experts, of course, tell us that the radio waves, or energy quanta, when once generated, continue to travel indefinitely in all directions, far beyond the limit of our at present most sen- sitive receiving instruments. They expect to eventually perfect a receiving set sufficiently sensitive to pick up those waves at any ter- restrial distance. Communication with other planets is not considered beyond the bounds of ultimate possibility. If, therefore, all matter is radioactive, it is not in the least fantastic to sup- pose that energy thus radiated, of definite frequency, may be picked up at a considera- ble distance, with a sufficiently sensitive Jdnstrument. Dr. Abrams maintains that the human nervous system, augmented by his apparatus, constitutes such an instrument, 36 and that he has repeatedly demonstrated its efficacy. After eliciting the reactions caused, as he contends, by the radiant energy from the distant human “broadcaster” it is then sdid that he can roughly determine the direc- tion of the radiations and the distance to their source, by noting the strength of the reactions as the electrode is horizontally revolved. Dr. Abrams admits that this phase of his researches has not yet been extensively pursued. He has, however, successfully diag- nosed blood by radio, with the Dynamizer placed at the “sending” end many miles away. The many remarkable achievements claim- ed for the Abrams apparatus seem, of course, incredible; and for this reason they have been generally dismissed by physicians and others as either psychic or the fantastic imaginings of a diseased or overwrought brain. But the thousand or more professional men who have to date made unbiased investigation into the matter generally declare otherwise. I have not personally investigated all of the Abrams phenomena, and cannot therefore vouch for any of the aforementioned accomplishments except that of diagnosis and treatment of disease. But what I have witnessed along these lines appears quite practicable, The diagnosing process Seems to rest upon a scientific principle well known to physicists but never before applied in the field of the- rapeutics. As for the method of treatment, I have found many who declare they have been completely cured, others who say they have 37 been greatly benefited; and the practitioners tell of many wonderful results. Still Dr. Abrams says he is learning more about the matter of treatment every day, and he has recently invented a “Depolarizer” and other equipment to be used in conjunction with the Oscilloclast. These, he declares, make the machine more effective, When Abrams’ work has passed the tests of time and professional prejudice it will then be regarded as no more psychic than the radio or wireless telegraph. In the words of Sir James Barr, Past President of the Brit- ish Medical Association, who wrote recently to the British Medical Journal: “When every important member of the community has a wireless telephone in his house and on his person, then medical editors and medical men will begin to perceive that there was more in Abrams’ vibrations than was dreamed of in their philosophy. Abrams’ discoveries have come to stay, whether we like them or not.” Those who withhold rash criticism of any scientific discovery are spared the pain of humiliating acknowlegments later on. If Dr. Abrams has uncovered a basic law of nature intended for human benefit certainly no amount of skepticism and prejudice can thwart its ultimate purpose. In that event not only would his system meet eventually with a manifestation of popular interest but continued scientific research into its princi- | ples should result in such strides and im- | bProvements of mechanism as will relegate the | 1 instrument on earth. ec € a : ; present instruments of Abrams to the ash heap, even as modern ocean greyhounds have outstripped Fulton’s first steamboat. ‘It cannot be denied that this is an age of progress along all lines of human endeavor. 0 generation has witnessed such: advance- Bment in knowledge of the laws which govern niverse and all things within it as has Be Strange indeed would it be if with the marvelous achievements in electricity as evidenced by wireless telegraphy, telephony, ete, no particular advancement should De made in the treatment of the imam boon won which is the most Noe tt the rage length of human life has stat stically at from 33 to 36 years within the present generation, and medical fraternities have pointed to this encouraging evidence with just pride. But the fact is that Tois increase does not represent any remarkable | prolongation of adult life, but rather of that | of infants. J birth, maternity hospitals, etc, have aided Improved conditions for child- abies alive for a few years who ad have died at birth or shortly thereafter. This, of course, boosts the per capita average for the entire race, yet we cannot say that medical science has Sue: ceeded in materially lengthening pe life o n and women in gen : a Er Richard C. Cabot, professor of medicine in Harvard Medical School and chief of staff of the Massachusetts General ; 89 | Hospital & declares before the American Medical Association that 47 per| cent of diagnoses and treatment in his own hospital have been proven by autopsies to be/ wrong (not to mention the percentage of} errors committed on those who managed tof. escape an autopsy), the rest of us certainly} cannot look with enthusiasm upon present medical procedure. Considering, then, that the various drug and drugless methods of the past (with due credit to their accom- plishments) have signally failed to produce || any startling improvement in the health of | the world, the public cannot be blamed for its present tendency to turn away from the old school methods of treating disease and to | look with favor upon any new cult that may arise. Indeed, the rapid growth of cults today is an argument against the efficiency of modern medical practice, Science of an un- || questionable basis leaves no room for cults. It is not unreasonable to anticipate new i discoveries in therapeutics which may coms- | pletely revolutionize scientific thought in that { field. Considering the recent strides along | other lines why should we not now expect the dawn of a new era in which man shall not only be conqueror of the forces of nature about him but master of himself as well, and of diseases to which the race has long been heir? The day should come when the diagno- sis of human ills shall no longer be largely guesswork as it has been in the past, but| shall be as easy and as unerring as the read-| 40 { { | 4 | ! | | J accomplished, are well Ing of hours and Iinutes by a watch dial. that time shall come it should then be most as simp le as the turning of on ordinary electric switch, Such results u St of necessity involv e not merely the cells jDut the molecules and atoms from which they gv are formed. Whether a Abramg’ Oscilloclast, after the machine is the vibrations of will be found to do a upon which he ig h the results already worthy of scientifie nterest and not ridicule. Guglielmo Marconi, |pondent: “We are Just entering what may be called the field of vibrations, a field in which we may find more wonders than the mind {ean now conceive, Most of the great inven- tions of the last fifty years have been in this ifield. The telephone, the electric light, the dynamo, the electric motor, the phonograph, | the moving picture and the radio are all | based upon vibrations. Science is turning from what primitive man considered to be the great forces of nature to explore the infinitely little. Scientists are now beginning to realize that the really great forces with which we 1may deal are locked up (tle that we cannot feel t 41 in vibrations so gen- hem, though we may Le 22 er AT SR feel a summer zephyr as it blows upon cheeks. Nobody has enough imagination e el to suggest all that we may yet find in i) | great field.” no Answering a question as to what progrer | may be expected along this line in the nei j future, Marconi replied, “The age of scitnf | od tific miracles is not in danger of ecomisy | to a pause; it has only just begun. The || speed that will be attained during the next fifty years will vastly excell that of the | past half century. Since 1872 we havei| . witnessed the invention of the electric © light, dynamo, motor, telephone, phonograph, | moving picture, automobile, X-ray, wireless communication, the discovery of radioactivity, and the invention of the airplane. These are great achievements for so short a period, unexampled in the history of the world. But they will seem almost if not quite insignifi- cant in comparison with what will be brought about during the coming half-century. It is inevitable that this should be so; we have more knowledge of natural laws than ever before and are therefore searching more intelligently in all directions throughout thé civilized world. The field of vibrations seems 7 PART 1I THE ELECTRON THEORY WHEN mention is made of “The Electron “Theory” some people imagine the phrase implies that the very existence of electrons ' i8 theoretical; that nobody really knows for ‘a certainty whether such elemental particles of electricity constitute the structure of « material atoms, but that the propositi i id ) position is a scientific hypothesis, The following pages ’ should dissipate that popular misconception. The theory does not concern the existence of electrons, for that has been experimen established beyond question, re ly arrangement and activity within the atom in an _endeavor to account for hitherto unex- plained phenomena. It is the purpose of this essay to depict in an orderly way the pro- gress which modern scientists have made in their exploration of the intricacies of atomic ~ structures by naming the discoveries that almost exhaustless in its possibilities.” It is to this great field of vibration, referred to by I. M. Marconi, that Dr. Albert Abrams has | turned in his study of the diagnosis, treat- § ment and pathology of disease, while the : world awaits with interest the outcome of | his researches. 42 have been made and describing the experi- ments and apparatus employed. A line of demarcation will accordingly be drawn be- . tween fact and theory at every point. Modern knowledge of the constitution of matter properly dates from the discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in 1895. Like many other Important discoveries this one was an acei- dent. While experimenting in a darkenec i room with an electric current and a Crookes ] tube, with no definite object in mind (so the] story goes), Prof. Roentgen was amazed discover the outline of his hand recorded® upon a photographic plate which had been! lying beneath a book on the working table The impinging of the current upon the sides of the tube had generated certain peculia light rays, invisible to the eye, but of strange, | 3 Penetrating power before which the human hand and the book had appeared as porous. He called them X (that is, Unknown) rays. Roentgen’s discovery stimulated scientists everywhere to undertake experiments along similar lines, and these investigations led almost immediately to the discovery by Eo Becquerel of radioactive eminations from the mineral uranium. Both discoveries owe their inception to the development of photo- graphy, because each of them was revealed by their radiochemical actions on photogra- phic plates, When in 1896 Prof. Becquerel found ura- nium possessed of this peculiar power to emit radiant energy continuously, Pierre and Mme. Curie and others began a series of Investigations to account for the strange phe- nomenon. It did not at first occur to them that this emanation of energy, which seemed to controvert the law of the conservation of energy, really originated within the strue- ture of the atom itself. They attempted to 44 a n it on the theory that uranium is so onstructed as to be able to store up within its molecules a quantity of energy which it receives from some outside source like the sun and that it in turn radiates this energy exactly as the earth radiates solar heat. | Experiments were then made to ascertain if the radiation from uranium would be less at midnight than at high noon, due to the interposition of the earth’s thickness between the radioactive substance and its supposed source of energy. No difference was detected. The negative result of the last mentioned experiment led inevitably to the conclusion that these energy emanations must originate within the structure of the substance and | are independent of any outside source. But | the idea that radioactivity is a purely atomic phenomenon was a revolutionary one for | chemists and physicists who had long re- garded the atom as having no mechanical | Structure whatsoever. To them it was the ultimate division of the known elements and incapable of further structural analysis. The discovery of radioactivity, therefore, marked the beginning of a new era in the progress of physical science. Other substances were then examined to ascertain if radioactivity is a property com- mon to all matter or if uranium is unique | |In this respect. Thus it was that the Curies | 1in 1897, while experimenting with mineral pitchblend, discovered therein an element which when isolated was found to give out 45 -r Re AER radiant energy 4,000,000 times more inte: gram for gram, than that which emanates from uranium. This element they appropri- ately named radium. Other substances pos-§i sessing radioactivity in varying degrees were shortly thereafter discovered, such as polo- nium, actinium and thorium, but none that displays it so abundantly as does radium. Curies’ discovery, therefore, opened wide the door to the investigation of radioactive phe- nomena and of the constitution of matter in i general. Evidence now points to the fact | that all matter possesses the quality of radie- activity to some extent, although only cer- | tain elements of high atomic weight display it sufficiently to produce effects on photo- graphic plates. No particular progress could be made in ; the field of physics so long as the atom was is regarded as an indivisible elementary parti- | cle, incapable of further analysis, Chemists | were, of course, familiar with the innumer- | able combinations of the various elementary | atoms which constitute the endless variety | of substances that go to make up a world |= Or a universe. But why there are eighty or | ninety different kinds of atoms, and just| what constitutes the difference between them | regarded as |’ unanswerable. Scientists had contented them- | selves with quantitative rather than quali- |¢ tative research into the basis of things, They |& were devoted to the problem of how much [| could be Sovuplisied with the material in § 4 : were questions which were ) J hand rather than with the intricacies of the {mechanism itself, > But with the discovery of the strange pro- fperty of radioactivity it became manifest that something more than the mere chemical com- bination of atoms into molecules was in- volved. Chemists knew these chemical com- binations from A to Z, but that knowledge | was incompetent to explain the source of these remarkable emanations of radiant | energy, They realized that these chemical combinations have nothing to do with the . { problem ; that the phenomenon is wholly ele- mentary and must emanate from within the | atoms. This was demonstrated when it was found that radioactivity continues unabated - even after the molecules or atomic combina- tions of the radioactive substance are dis- integrated. This being so, there could be no other conclusion than that the atom is a . complex structure possessing internal activity and energy instead of being a lifeless ele- mentary particle of matter incapable of divi- sibility or dissection. If the atom is thus an active, composite structure, how is it made and from what kind of matter is it formed? May it not be that all types of atoms are made from the same original stuff, but simply put together | according to different patterns? May not the i i | | hitherto “unsolvable” problem of the basic difference between elements really be solved after all? These and many similar questions now filled the minds of earnest investigators 47 experiments were undertaken and mu h} scientific data was amassed during the yearsi} immediately following the discovery off radium. Thus by 1903 Prof. Ernest Ruther- ford, in collaboration with Prof. F. Soddy and [ others, was able to propose a concrete theory # of atomic structure which fully accounted for the phenomena exhibited by radioactive | substances and plausibly explained the fun- damental differences between the various known elements. So carefully was their % theory constructed that twenty years of most | critical research since that time has not shaken but has strengthened their hypothe- | sis by adding thereto certain interesting details which make this now accepted Elec- i tron Theory of Matter unique in its com- pleteness. The following pages will set forth in simple language the details of the theory and the discovered facts upon which it rests, giving also a brief explanation of the appara- tus and methods of experimentation. WHAT ARE ELECTRONS? The modern confirmed hypothesis of the constitution of matter declares that all atoms | consist entirely of elemental charges of elee- tricity. These charges are called electrons, a name suggested by Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney as “the natural unit of electricity” several years before anybody knew anything about the structural nature of atoms. Both posi- 48 tive and negative electrons reside together within the atom, and are complementary to one another. Recently the name proton has pen suggested for the positive electron, sO as to distinguish it from the negative elec- tron. We will so refer to it in this essay, and will apply the word electron only to the tive particle. oi is not a fluid-like ethereal nothing as many people indefinitely imagine. It is tangible matter in its basic form, and is granular in nature. But these grains (elec- 0 { trons and protons) are so infinitesimal that untold billions of them would be required to make a mass large enough to be observed fthrough a powerful microscope. Yet they have been measured and analyzed, not ' directly but indirectly, by means of the ffects which they produce. Their diameter or frig hundred-thousandths that of an atom of hydrogen (the smallest atom known) ; and the hydrogen atom’s diameter is known to be one fiftieth of a millionth of a centimeter. A centimeter is less than two-fifths of a Brit- jsh inch. In our school days we were cor- rectly told that if an orange were magnified until it became as large as the moon, even then its atoms would be no larger than ordi- pary marbles. But in that event the electrons which compose the atoms would still be in- to the naked eye. : Visite layman is not to be blamed for skepti- cally asking “How do scientists know so much about electrons and atoms inasmuch as both are invisible even with the most powe microscope?” And “Isn't if mostly guessworkjll anyway, with one guess about as good as another concerning such infinitesimal things? These queries are legitimate and require ani} answer. It is the purpose of this treatise to} 8 give to the reader, in non-technical terms, a{ history of the research work in this field up { to the present moment, that he may reason- ably determine what is theory and what is actual discovery. Literally speaking, all conclusions which | are arrived at by deduction are theoretical; ! Pt when theory has been corroborated by | independent modes of calculation it is then, elevated from the realm of fancy to the plane} bf reasonable fact. It is true that no human being has seen or can see an atom of matter, ' | much less to look within it and observe its complex electronic mechanism. Nevertheless these minute particles, when emitted by highly radioactive substances like radium, can be made to produce visible effects in a gaseous medium through which they may pass, cause phosphorescent screens to become luminous, and make impressions upon sensi- tized photographic plates. These and many other producable effects are capable of analy- 8is and logically lead to certain definite con- clusions. Any effect must have a competent cause, and from an aggregation of effects that ave Dogn produces by the same factor much nowledge may often - cerning that factor. y be gained cum 50 i A % Nig j BE We have already seen how that early éxperiments demonstrated the fact that radio- active substances emit the same amount of energy at midnight as at high noon, thereby proving that the action of the sun’s rays has nothing to do with radioactive phenomena. The next experiment undertaken was to ascertain if temperature of the substance would increase or decrease its radioactivity. This experiment likewise gave negative ‘results. Radium was also found to be equally active whether in the solid or in the dis- solved state. These results show that the emission of these particles is not only inde- pendent of outside forces but that it is like- wise independent of the molecular constitu- tion of the substance. Here, then, we have laboratory proof, not theory, that the radia- tion emanates from within the atom. There- fore the atom must have activity within it, revolving or vibrating parts; and the energy of these moving parts must be enormous since they impart such high velocities to the emitted particles. Thus the first step was taken on the scientific exploring expedition into the unknown depths and structural com- plexities of the atom. Next, an analysis was made of the radium emanations themselves to ascertain their exact nature. Although these radiations are | invisible to the eye nevertheless they were | made to appear visible by various ingenious | contrivances. By placing a small quantity of | radium into a prepared cavity in a solid lead | 91 : block, the rays were then permi through a tiny aperture in the lid and made. to graze along a wall which had been covered with a phosphorescent substance such as zind sulphide. The radium rays, brushing against this wall produced a faintly illuminated streak. Now a magnet of known strength was held against the wall a few inches to one side of the streak. Immediately the streak divided into three parts, one portion bending toward the magnet, another portion bending away from the magnet, while a third portion retained the original position, being neither attracted or repelled. This proved that three distinct streams are emitted, one of which consists of positively charged particles, another consists of negative particles, while another is of such a nature as to absolutely defy the magnetic field. The positive stream they called Alpha rays, the negative stream Beta. rays and the independent stream Gamma rays, after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet. These are usually referred to by the Greek characters them- selves, as a, b and y rays. By letting these rays fall squarely upon a phosphorescent target held at variable distances from their source, minute sparks, plainly visible through a telescope, were pro- duced by the @ and b streams, thereby prov- Ing that they consist of infinitesimal parti- cles, like leaden shot from a shotgun. The Y rays were found to be of the nature of X-rays, but far more penetrating. 02 / After determining the existence of the three different kinds of emissions from radium various experiments were then undertaken to determine their exact nature. First their respective velocities were ascertained. This was accomplished by noting the amount of deflection that could be produced by magnets of known strength acting upon the charged particles. Prof. Schuster proposed a mathe- matical formula by which velocity may be computed where the amount of curvature and the strength of the magnetic field are known. - But his equations required certain assump- tions and were therefore not entirely satis- factory until later experiments supplied the missing data. Accordingly Profs. Thomson, Wilson and others experimentally determined the velocity, energy and charge of both the @ and b particles without indulging in any assumptions whatsoever. It was found that an electric current flow- ing from negative to positive possesses all the properties of the b rays from radium, except | velocity; hence it was possible to make a | very close study of b particles under most | favorable circumstances in vacuum tubes, | Such currents are called Cathode rays, be- ¥ | cause they flow from the negative pole (or jf cathode) to the positive pole (or anode). | By boring a hole through the centre of the anode some of the current or ray would pass directly through it because of its velocity, and when it thus fell upon a phosphorescent screen behind the anode the same scintilla- ” 03 tions were produced as in the case of the ras dium emanations, thereby showing that the cathode current or stream actually consists of multitudes of individual particles (elee- trons) which were found to be identical with those which comprise the bd rays from radium. It was arranged that the negative particles (electrons) which pass through the anode would be deflected by a magnet and caused to fall into an insulated hollow vessel. An electrometer . connected to the vessel was therefore able to record the aggregate charge id of the particles collected within a given time. By a similar arrangement their aggre= gate energy was measured by means of a galvanometer. With these quantities known, together with the amount of curvature pro- duced by a given force, a simple algebraie equation then yielded tle information sought, viz, the velocity. In like manner the velocity of any current or any radioactive emanation may be definitely ascertained. This experi- ment, and various others of a more elaborate nature, enabled scientists to determine the following facts about radioactive radiations: a. rays consist of positively charged parti- cles which are almost identical with helium atoms, having a mass 7000 times greater than | b particles. An a particle is not, therefore, an individual proton, but is an aggregation of protons and electrons in which the protons predominate and thus give it a positive charge. These a particles, because of their relatively larger size, are far less Penetrating bd 5 khan Care the b particles. They are unable to | gs through an ordinary sheet of paper. | B® rays consist of individual electrons whieh Te of course, negatively charged. | They have a mass of about 1/1700th of an ' atom of hydrogen (the smallest atom known) and can easily penetrate thin sheets of alu- | minum or iron. They have a maximum veloc- | ity of 170,000 miles a second, which is aver | pine-tenths the speed of light itself. | y rays are similar in nature to X-rays but | have greater penetrating powers, and like | the latter they possess the same velocity as | ordinary light, viz., 186,000 miles a second. | They carry no electric charge and therefore | eannot be deflected by a magnetic or electro- | static field, They are emitted only by those | radioactive substances which also emit B | rays (some substances emit only a particles). | They do not consist of particles such as | make up the a and b streams, but are pulsa- | tions of energy evidently produced "by the | atomic “explosion” when the b particles are | shot forth. Owing to the unusual penetra- | bility of the y rays it is difficult to utilize | them efficiently in the study of radiochemi~ | eal effects. There remains much yet to be | determined regarding these powerful y rays. | Prof. 2 Thomson’s apparatus, mentioned | above, proved that b particles carry a con- | siderable charge; yet their mass was SO | excessively minute that it could not be | measured by any means then employed. He | Their velocity is about 20,000 miles a second. . estimated that it would take a centu collect a weighable amount of Bui ir! his insulated vessel. viz | , ., one-thirtietk milligram. of course the mass, ep Sy quently the size, of these electrons eoul tn the number of positive and negative elec “trons which compose it. The apparatus was SO arranged that a ' known amount of vapor could then be forced have been mathematicall y computed f their aggregate charge, energy Wiis into the jar containing the ionized gaseous speed, provided the nimber of particles eon- | atoms. Immediately this was done the vapor Stituting the aggregation were known. Being ||P} Pesan to condense around each ion, thereby e to determine this by means of the 4 forming tiny globules of mist or fog. Now it aforementioned apparatus, h , he underto entirely different experiment and was Ea Tewarded with success. The details of this lliant experiment are quite interesting, MEASURING AN ELECTRON By means of a vacuum pump th gas in a glass jar was a os a a stream of electrons (cathode rays or beta rays) was passed through it. The bombard- Tent of the swiftly traveling electrons Be just the gaseous atoms caused the latter 0 be deprived of some of their pPlanetary electrons, thus leaving them out of balance Such atoms are then said to be charged, ause they will react either negatively or Positively depending upon whether they have 00 many protons for the remaining electrons, | or vice versa. Charged atoms are called fons, and the process of disrupting the atoms by a | bombarding current is called ionization. An fon, in other words, is an atom or molecule | which is charged by Sue of an inequality | {s well known that vapor cannot condense into droplets without a nucleus upon which to form. An uncharged atom or molecule will not permit of condefisation around it, but fons readily attract the vapor and cause con- densation upon their surfaces, in much the same way that dust does. It is generally because of minute particles of dust in the atmosphere, acting as nuclei for condensa- tion, that we have cloud formations, result- ing in fog, mist, rain, hail, ete.,, upon the earth. These nuclei are frequently so infini- tesimal that they cannot be seen through a microscope, yet in a test tube they may be filtered out with cotton wool to such extent that no -condensation can take place when the temperature is lowered to the dew point, even though the air in the tube be super- saturated with vapor. But immediately dust particles are introduced, condensation into fog begins. The uncharged molecules of air in the tube are too small to act as conden- sation centres; something larger like a dust particle, which consists of millions or bil- lions of atoms, is necessary. But the elec- tric tension within sh oN seems to compen- sate for the minuteness of its circumference; | hence ions will permit mist to form around § them even though the tube be free of dust. COUNTING FOG-DROPS AND ATOMS The purpose of the experiment was to | ascertain the number of ions present, which, | together with their known aggregate charge | would enable the mathematician to determine | their individual charge, inertia, mass and size. Then, by deduction, the mass and size of the missing electron (which caused the ion to become charged) could be ascertained. But how was the number of ions to be arrived at? Was this done by simply counting the glob- ules of fog in the jar? Exactly; but it | was not so simple as it might at first appear. ‘While the ions were present in great number the resulting fog appeared as a dense cloud, and the individual globules were of course indistinguishable. But by first rarefying the gas in the jar and then repeating the ioni- zation and condensation processes the nuclei were fewer in number and the globules were correspondingly larger. They were still too small, however, to count in an ordinary man- ner, being about 30,000 to the cubic centime- ter in the most successful experiment under- taken; and a further rarefying of the ions was found not to aid but really to hinder the success of the experiment. It was therefore necessary to determine the amount of water in each fog-drop and i J divide it into the total quantity of water that | had been introduced into the jar in vapor 5 all of which had now been condensed “into fog. The result gave the number of in- dividual globules in the cloud. But how could the amount of water in each tiny fog- drop be ascertained? Even if one of them could be isolated it would certainly be too minute to be measured or weighed by any ordinary process. Nevertheless these tiny droplets have weight and are acted upon iby gravitation the same as anything else. I Therefore, by noting the rate of their fall litheir size could be determined mathematically jinasmuch as the density of the medium Through which they were falling was known. § Alb clouds are acted upon by gravity ; and fthe larger the globules which compose the cloud the faster the cloud will fall. Some- jtimes a cloud condenses sufficiently to cause ithe globules to fall quickly in the form of rain. If the globules have not condensed so as to pe as large as raindrops then their fall is slower, in the form of a fine mist; or possibly they settle down still more slowly, in the form of a thick fog. But if the globules are exces- sively minute they will remain on high as clouds; yet they are not beyond the force of gravity. Contrariwise each globule, no matter how infinitesimal, is slowly but surely falling through the resisting air. Air cur- “rents may carry the cloud upward more quickly than the globules are falling down- ward; but no matter how high and how 59 : — rapidly the cloud is elevated by the wind, the globules continue to trickle down through it as fast as the resisting medium will permit. Since, therefore, the size of the globules affects the rate of their fall, large drops fall- ing more rapidly than smaller ones through the same resistance, it has been possible to work out a formula by. which the size of any drop or globule may be determined by taking into consideration its velocity of fall and the density of the air through which it# falls. In the experiment in question th gradual descent of the cloud in the jar coul be easily observed and timed by illuminating | the top surface of it with a transverse bean! of light and then noting how long it took |i for it to fall an inch, which was about t minutes, Then by a simple computation} the size of each globule, and the total numbert of globules, was ascertained. This gave the number of ions present, because each globulg . had an ion as its central nucleus. ~ Before the vapor was introduced into thei Jar all the positive ions had been electrically \| eliminated so that only the negative ions were utilized as nuclei for the vapor. The number of globules therefore gave the num- {ER ber of negative ions only. These were now | attracted to an anode which was introduced into the side of the jar, and their aggregate | charge and energy measured. Then by divid- | ing the number into the total, the charge and energy of each ion was established. This gave the charge for an individual electron 8 ‘because the ions were charged by virtue of- having lost one electron by bombardment. | Another simple calculation gave the mass and I inertia of an electron. It is important to note that the same value was obtained for the | mass of an electron, no matter whether the bombarding stream consisted of beta rays or cathode rays or electronic streams set up by X-rays or ultra-violet light falling upon negatively electrified plates. The ions be- haved identically regardless of how they were produced, thus justifying the conclusion that each of the methods accomplished the same thing, viz., shaking loose one electron from each ionized system. » The mass, inertia and charge of an electron Snow having been mathematically determined, Io nother equally simple calculation established ts size, because it is known that a given amount of electric charge, having a given inertia, must exist on a sphere of certain radius and could not occupy a sphere of any other size without doing violence to proven land established electromagnetic laws. The diameter of an electron was thus found to be ohe-fifth of a trillionth of a centimeter. It would thus take 13 trillion electrons, laying side by side in close formation, to make a row one inch long. Our minds can scarcely fcomprehend the magnitude of such a num- Pber. If we had a book containing 13 tril- lion pages, and each leaf was as thin as the paper used in this pamphlet, our volume ‘would be 400,000 miles thick—nearly twice . 61 the distance from the earth to the ‘moon; Inasmuch as the sizes and masses of elec- trons, atoms, etc, are so excessively small when considered in terms of the customary scientific units such as the centimeter and the gram, the scientist finds it necessary to make a modification in our decimal system ; otherwise his figures would become wun- wieldy. The exigency is easily met, how- ever, by simply using successive products of 10 (for all numbers above 1) and indicating these products by a small figure in the upper right-hand corner, called an exponent, thus: 10! means 1 x 10 or 10 102 n 10 x 10 ” 100 108 " 10 x 10 x 10 1000 104 3 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 ” 10000 108 »” one million 1012 » one million million 1018 » one billion billion For numbers smaller than 1 it is equally simple. Any fraction may be expressed in negative .powers of 10 by placing a minus sign before the exponent, thus: 10-1 means .1 or one tenth 10-2 n 01 10-3 n 001 10-6 » 000001 ” one millionth 10-9 n 000000001 ” one billionth 10-12 000000000001 ” one trillionth . 62 ” one hundredth | ” one thousandth § # % ~ Any desired quantity, large or small, may easily be expressed by this system. If, for example, we wish to set down one fortieth of a millionth, instead of writing it .00000025 we would express it as 2.5 x 10-8 (i.e, two and a half times a hundred millionth). Accordingly, instead of specifying the dia« gmeter of an electron as one fifth of a trik onth of a centimeter we would designate it as 2 x 10-13 em. (i.e, two times a tenth- rillionth). Likewise the diameter of the hydrogen atom is written as 10-8 em. With this method of numerical expression it is as feasible to work out a problem involving excessively minute or excessively large quan- tities as it is to calculate the number of square yards in a city block. To the mathe- matician it is but a step from the infinites- imal radius of an electron (10-13 cm.) to the illimitable distance from earth to the arthest nebulae (1024 cm.) ; yet when these pigures are converted into the units of every- day usage they are of such proportions as to y cludes that they signify nothing more than fn elaborated bit of arbitrary guesswork. The diameter of an atom is exceedingly large in comparison to the diameter of an electron. We would therefore suppose that an atom is made up of billions or trillions of electrons, were it not for the fact that experi- ments have shown that such is not the ease. If all the electrons in any atom were crowded 63 close together they would comprise only a small fraction of the atom’s bulk. The hydro- gen atom, for instance, contains but one elee- tron and one proton.: This was demonstrated by Profs. Thomson, Aston and others in a set of brilliant experiments in which they actually succeeded in isolating the proton from the electron and measuring it. They bombarded hydrogen gas with positive rays, causing the electron to be separated from its nucleus. The nucleus was then deflected by a magnetic field of known strength and the amount of deflection from a straight line | was registered upon a photographic plate. From the amount of deflection produced by the magnet, the mass and inertia of the parti- cle were computed. Its inertia was found to be 1845 times that of an electron, and thus its mass is almost equal to the entire atom itself; although it is evident that its size. is identical with that of an electron, inasmuet as they are elemental charges of electricity the one positive and the other negative, and the two are complementary to each other, Equality in size does not signify equality in mass. Various other experiments have corre borated the fact that the greater portion off the mass of all atoms resides in the nucleus. MUCH EMPTY SPACE IN ATOMS e If the diameter of an atom of hydrogen is 10-® em. and it is composed of only cne proton and one electron, each of which has a 64 18 [°F \ 4 § 8 7 originally | 4 diameter of only 2 x 10-13cm. how is its bulk made up, seeing that the two electrons, even if laid side by side would have a combined diameter which would be insignificant in comparison to the diameter of the atom which they form? The only conclusion to be reached is that the negative electron revolves around its proton nucleus at a distance, just as the moon revolves around the earth 240,000 miles away; or else the two revolve around each other in dumbbell fashion at relatively great distances apart. Thus the greater portion of the bulk of the atom consists of empty space. Various experiments corroborate the conclusion that the negative electrons in all atoms revolve about their positive nucleus at considerable distances therefrom, and from each other, even as the planets of our solar system have large orbits about the sun. The proof that the one electron and one proton which compose the hydrogen atom, for instance, are not welded together into one | united solid sphere, rests not merely upon the mathematical variance between electron- i ic and atomic sizes, but upon the hydrogen spectrum in the spectroscope which indicates an orbital motion on the part of the electrons {1 of the atom. When an electron and a proton i do combine into one granule, however, experi- | § ments have shown that they then, in their I united state, actually occupy a space eight- § tenths of one percent smaller than either did Prof. Aston has demonstrated that even two protons and one electron may 85 : have a combined size which is smaller than one electron alone. Here is a real paradox in nature. An explanation which has been | offered is that an individual isolated electron | I | i or proton suffers internal repulsion between its parts (if it may be said to have parts), thereby swelling its size; but when the two come in contact their spontaneous attraction for each other is so intense that they im- mediately merge into the closest possible union, there being no longer any repulsive Swell in either particle because each has found its complement. Thus the two united can | occupy a smaller space than either of them did in its individual, unsatisfied condition. It is the inertia of the electron and proton in the hydrogen atom that keeps them apart. For the same reason the moon does not fall upon the earth, nor the earth upon the sun, although there is strong mutual attraction. The size of any atom is marked by the orbit of its outermost electron, just as the Size of our solar system is determined by the orbit of our distant sister Neptune. Now a comet may pass through our solar system without colliding with any planet in it, traveling through free space between the planets. But if the comet continues its jour- ney through a vast number of solar systems | the chances are that sooner or later it would find some planet in its path and a collision would result, unless a guiding Providence prevented. If the comet were larger than the planet which it Be if it were moving at an enormous velocity, it would either knock the obstructing planet to one side or else it would drive it on ahead as it continues its journey through the heavens. The comet might thus collide with several planets before its energy was sufficiently expended to cause its own deflection and ultimate stoppage. In a similar manner the gaseous atoms in a testing tube may be subjected to bombard- ment of electrons (cathode rays or beta rays) or by alpha particles, in which event § it is found that some of the atomic systems 1 suffer collision while others escape unharmed I by reason of the flying particles passing suc-. ‘| cessfully through the open spaces between the | planetary electrons. When a collision occurs in any atomic system, that system is immediately charged, because the bombarding particles have deprived it of one of its satel- lites, or else has struck the nucleus and knocked out some protons. If an electron is struck, the atom is then deficient in negative electricity by one electron and is said to be | charged positively. But if the nucleus is . struck, and protons are thrown out, then the atom is charged negatively. In either event the wrecked atom is called an ion, and their | presence is experimentally discernible. ii The path of the alpha or beta particles may 1 be traced through the gas, and the collisions 1 made visible by introducing water vapor into the tube and noting the points of condensa- If tion. It is simply a variation of the Thomson- Wilson cloud experiment already described. 67 Every atom that is ionized b | ecomes a nucl for a small drop of water, whereas the sn which escape collision will not cause any | condensation. The water globules are easily discernible. If alpha particles are shot | through the gas, the resultin 1 80 numerous that they Ar Shales axe streaks throughout the length of the tube. If the tube is sufficiently long the white streaks suddenly stop before the end of the tube is reached, thus indicating that the alpha par- ticles have spent their energy and are unable to travel further through the gaseous atoms. If beta or cathode ra | ys are used fo J bombardment a very different effect is the } served. Instead of there being a continuous J streak of drops throughout the 1 ength of tube only an occasional drop Eth ot is ormed. This shows that the beta particles are much smaller than the alpha particles, because they are able to pass through more | of the atomic systems with i 4 out colliding wi anything. Alpha particles, as po in tioned, are aggregations of Protons and elec- § trons, whereas beta rays consist of ndivs. dual electrons. While the former possess the enormous velocity of ot nevertheless they are capable of ionizing mil lions of molecules in each centimeter of their path and are rarely deflected from a straight line until their energy becomes largely spent near the end of their course Th . e beta parti- cles, on the contrary, ionize only phi one mercury molecule in 10,000. Their size is so 68 ff¥minute that they can pass through the free {striking any obstruction. In ordinary air ‘|! porus before these infinitesimal particles. | And no better proof than this could be had spaces in that number of systems without they will ionize on an average about one mole- cule in every four inches, or the equivalent of one collision in each 100,000,000 mole- cules. It is not surprising, therefore, that ordinary solids, like metal sheets, appear of the enormous relative spaces existing be- tween electrons within the atom. Spectrum analysis has contributed much to our present knowledge of electrons, particu- larly concerning their orbital motion in the atomic systems. The spectroscope, as the reader probably knows, consists in its sim- plest form of two telescopic lenses placed on opposite sides of a glass prism, together with a screen or photographic plate upon which the light under examination may fall. When light rays from any substance pass through {|| the first lens they emerge parallel and thus ‘|| pass into the triangular prism. When they | | | emerge from the prism, however, they are | broken up or separated according to fre- | quency so that each wave length takes a dif- | ferent direction, being spread out like a wedge upon the spectral screen. Every line : | upon the screen or plate has its meaning, I'l and spectrum analysis has become one of the ' || most fruitful fields of physical research. The spectral lines are manifestly due to the ! {| frequency of rotation of the planetary elec- 69 : SSR # 3 ai NR dB, trons in the atoms under examination. Ie! | this is so, then any change in their rate of | rotation should cause a shifting of these lines to a slightly different position on the screen. But how can the frequency of their rotgtion § be affected? This can be done by the intro- § duction of a magnetic field near the radiat- ing substance. Its lines interweaving with the circular currents of the revolving elect- rons of the substance should either increase | or retard their orbital frequency. The experi- § ment was early undertaken by Larmor with | unsatisfactory results; but in 1897 Prof. Zee- man of Amsterdam succeeded in demonstrat- ing that a strong electromagnet does produce | a definite shift of the spectral lines, thereby establishing the revolving state of electrons within the atom. We might hastily conclude that the “immediate effect of a strong magnet would be to overpower the revolving electrons, or at least to cause their orbits to face round par- allel to the lines of force instead of main- taining their accustomed positions. But ex- periments prove otherwise, the only percepti- ble effect being a slight change in velocity. No doubt the tendency of these circular cur- rents is to adjust themselves normal to the magnetic lines of force; but they are pre- vented from actually doing so because of their great inertia, just as the inertia of a JK spinning top is able to resist the influence of gravity. The constant tendency of the top is to fall over, but so long ag it is spinning at 70 y the proper speed it will defy gravitation sufficiently to remain erect. As soon as frie- tion reduces the speed, however, the top yields more and more to gravity’s force, resulting in a wobbling motion until eventually its inertia is overpowered completely and it falls motionless to the floor. But neither gravity nor any known magnetic or electrostatic field !l can compel the electrons of any atom to come to a standstill. This proves their velocity and ‘inertia to be enormous. The spectroscope thus confirms the previously calculated inertia of || electrons as determined from the Thomseon- /| ' Wilson cloud experiment already described. Every frequency of rotation will produce ‘its definite line in the spectrum. Planetary electrons may revolve many billions of times || per second without impairing the stability of || the atom, although there is, of course, a limit beyond which all atoms would radiate them- selves to destruction. Theoretically, an aggre. ‘gation of electrons would produce a red glow if they traverse their orbits at a speed of 400 billion times per second, and light of higher refrangibility would be emitted for velocities in excess of that. Obviously, there- fore, the electrons in a normal atom do not possess such velocities as this, nevertheless ll | their frequency of rotation is enormous when | compared with any man-made machine. The [armature of the highest speed modern type motor revolves less than fifty times a second. | Electrons revolving even one billion times a | | second would thus rotate twenty million 3 71 times faster than the most rapid electric motor. It is this enormous rotating motion | of the electrons in the atom that gives the| expelled particles of radioactive substances their exceedingly high velocities. We have already mentioned that alpha particles emitted by radium, polonium, etc, if permitted to fall upon a target covered | with zinc-sulphide, will produce luminous] flashes which are plainly visible through a} small telescope. Inasmuch as the mass, velo- city and inertia of these particles are known, it Is therefore possible to compute the amount of power that is generated when they are suddenly stopped. If the stoppage is suffi- | ciently quick, say within the diameter of a | molecule, there is actually involved the ex- penditure of nearly 80 horse-power for an exceedingly minute fraction of time. There can be little doubt but that a way will even- tually be found to harness some of the enor- mous energy now locked within the atoms of § particles of matter around us, making it gen- erally available for the benefits of humanity. WHY ATOMS DIFFER We have now considered experimental evidence: (1) that atoms are composed of aggrega- tions of minute particles known as electrons; (2) that some are negative and some are positive (the latter being called protons) ; (3) that they have definite size with deter- § minable mass, inertia and charge; 2 ; (4) that there is no characteristic differ- ence between the electrons (or protons) of one type of atom and those of any other type: (5) that some of the electrons of atoms rotate in planetary fashion around a central nucleus at enormous velocities; (6) that there are great spaces between the planetary electrons in all atomic systems, similar to the arrangement of the planets of a solar system. These established facts bring us to the consideration of the precise arrangement of the electronic orbits of the various atoms and il of the elemental difference between the ninety-two types of atoms known to science. The Rutherford-Soddy atomic models have lately been improved by Prof. Bohr, who was \| awarded the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics by the Swedish Academy of Sciences (Einstein having received this prize for the preceding year). We shall accordingly endeavor to fol- low the reasoning of these eminent physicists and see how their theoretical structures account for known phenomena. If electrons revolve there must be some stabilizing force that holds them in bounds. There is no reason for supposing that their infinitesimal size works a reversal in the [| tried and proven laws of electromagnetics; | therefore any and all atomic systems must be | so arranged as to neutralize the character- istic repulsion of one electron for another of | } the same sign. How, then, does an atom hold | 71tself together? The reasonable eonclusion is 73 that each atom must have a central nucleus which is of opposite charge to that of the electrons which rotate around it and having sufficient attractive power to hold all the | orbital electrons in bounds even as our sun holds in check the various planets which i revolve around it. This would necessitate | there being at least as many protons in the | nucleus as there are planetary electrons. The nucleus, however, could not consist en | tirely of protons; for positive charges are mu- tually repulsive even as negative charges are mutually repulsive. Hence the nucleus would be unstable if it were composed of protons alone. The Rutherford-Soddy atomic model, therefore, proposes that the nucleus of an - atom consists of both positive and negative electrons, but not in equal number, probably arranged in blocks of four protons, with two negative electrons on each side as a binder. This would make the nucleus stable and would always result in an excess of protons for the purpose of stabilizing the remainder of the atom. The foregoing deduction has been confirmed by experiment. As early as 1911 Prof. Rutherford succeeded in isolating the nucleus of an atom and ascertained the number of elemental charges which it carried. This he found to be in each case approximately equal to half the atomic weight. He first deter- mined the mass of an alpha particle, which turned out to be identical with that of the helium atom minus two elemental nega- TH atom knowy and, as will be seen presently, it has two 1 .anetary electrons. The alpha par- tive oe Helium ‘is the second lightest A | { } } | the world war, fully ticle is therefore one and the same thing as [i nucleus of the helium atom with the two revolving electrons missing. If alpha rays from radium are inter- mingled with ordinary electric sparks the | spectrum will show helium lines in the dis- | charge path, although no such lines are | observed before the discharge is subjected to | the radium emanations. Now if these alpha | particles (helium nuclei) are permitted to | bombard the nuclei of other types of atoms | thus ionizing them and causing them to con- | dense vapor in the manner heretofore de- | seribed, they may be deflected by a magnet | of known strength; and from the amount of | their deflection the quantitative charge on | | these nuclei may be calculated. The experi- | | ment was repeated for various types of atoms ' | and the respective results compared. Moseley, | | in 1914, shortly before his untimely death in corroborated Ruther- ford’s findings as to the character of the ' nuelel of various atomic types, although he followed an entirely different experimental ll | method. His results are believed to be very "| accurate and are relied upon by chemists 1 for the establishment of atomic weights. ( | of all types of Slory are found to consist With the exception of hydrogen, which is | | the lightest atom known and which contains only one electron and one proton, the nuclel ad of aggregations of both protons and electrons, | the protons of course always predominating. § Helium, the second lightest atom, has a | nucleus consisting of a “block” of four pro- | tons and two binding electrons, the same as the alpha particle. Then for all other types ‘| up to and including uranium, which is the | heaviest known atom, these nuclei are com- { posed of increasingly numerous blocks. The § more massive the nucleus the greater will be | the number of planetary electrons. In other words, whatever number of excess protons | there are in the nucleus there will be just | that many negative “satellites” revolving || around it. Thus the stability of the atom is i} maintained. The atomic weight of any ele- [i ment is therefore governed by the excess pro- ji tons in the nucleus. Here, then for the first time in the history of chemistry we have a [| reasonable explanation of why one type of || atom differs from another. Variations of the “cloud” experiment and IB certain other methods heretofore mentioned have enabled scientists to determine the mass, | size, etc, of all known types of atoms— || ninety-two in number. These have been classified according to their atomic weight, | gi ranging from hydrogen (the lightest) to || uranium (the heaviest), and the tabulation | discloses a remarkably even graduation !! throughout the list with only six gaps or || breaks in the progression. These gaps evi- || dently signify that there are six correspond- | ing atomic types somewhere in nature about | 76 us which have not yet been discovered. A complete list of all known atoms is given below, in the order of their weight. The num- | ber preceding the name of each element | represents the number of excess protons in the nucleus (and consequently the number of electrons rotating around the nucleus), while the abbreviation which follows in par- enthesis is the symbol by which the atom is known in chemistry: Hydrogen HELIUM Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Flourine 10 NEON Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus 16 Sulphur 17 Chlorine 18 ARGON 19 Potassium 20 Calcium 21 Scandium 22 Titanium 23 Vanadium 24 Chronium 25 Manganese 26 Iron 27 Cobalt 28 Nickel 29 Copper 80 Zinc 31 Gallium OPINION = 32 Germanium 33 Arsenic 34 Selenium 35 Bromine 36 KRYPTON Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Todine XENON Caesium Barium Lanthanum 58 Cerium 59. Praseodymium $0 Neodymium ( 62 Samarium (Sa) HAarEAS wn RT =i NEE ANNE CSS jg sesd aii (SEE aT i z Su pe 63 Europium : 64 Gadolinium { 7 Gog num 65 Terbium (Tb) 80 Mercury 66 Dysprosium 81 Thallium 67 Holmium 82 Lead 69 Erbium 83 Bismuth 69 Thulium 84 Polonium 70 Ytterbium 85 3 Lutecium 73 Tantalum ~~ 88 Radium 74 Tungsten 89 Actinium 9 Osmium ri Thorium Xii(U Si 97 Iridium ~~ (Ir) 95 Uranium (Ur) It is from these ninety-two kinds of atoms that all matter of which we have any knowl- edge is formed. It is a comparatively easy task to chemically analyze a substance and find out exactly what combinations of these known atomic “elements” go to form its mole- cules. The molecules of bure water, as every schoolboy knows, consist of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Common salt, chemically known as Sodium Chloride, is composed of sodium and chlorine atoms in equal parts. That is, one each of these two kinds of atoms is found in each salt mole- cule. Nearly every substance with which we have to do in daily life is a combination of different types of atoms; yet some common substances are wholly elementary, as for in- stance, gold, silver, copper, nickel, iron, tin, lead, etc, as will be observed from the fore- going atomic list. Even these, however, are seldom seen in their pure state, unmixed with alloy of some kind. 78 Although there are ninety-two places in the ‘aforementioned tabulation of atoms, it will be noted that six of these are blank, viz, Nos. 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, and 87. This means there are actually only eighty-six “elements” thus far discovered; although if nature pre- serves the perfect graduation in atomic weights, from the lightest to the heaviest, she must have produced atomic types corres- ponding to these six missing numbers. No doubt such atoms do exist somewhere in the earth, and eventually they may be discovered.* Like some others which have more recently come to light, they doubtless will be found to belong to some very rare substances, pro- bably buried far below the earth’s surface where man has not yet penetrated. Certain other types of atoms were discovered subse- quent to their theoretical cldssification and were found to fill the positions assigned to them in the chemical table. As soon as these six missing types are located another chap- ter in the great book of nature may then be closed. It is within the realm of possibility, of course, that some atomic type or types heavier than uranium may yet be discovered, although many physicists consider this very unlikely even as they do not expect to ever * Two rare earth substances were found in 1922- 1923 which are claimed by the discoverers to be new elements, corresponding to two of the six missing atoms. They have been named Celtium and Hafnium respectively. The matter is still in controversy, however. find an atom lighter than hydrogen. The | hydrogen atom, consisting as it undoubtedly does of only one electron and one proton, has ever maintained its position at unity in the atomic family, and still maintains it in this day of the most extended and thorough physi- cal research work of the world’s history. Uranium likewise defies all competition at the other end of the scale. Uranium was the first radioactive sub- stance ever discovered, and that epoch-mak- ing revelation happened only three years before the dawn of the twentieth century. There is evidence that it is in fact the par- ent of all the highly radioactive atoms; that is, that all the “elements” from 91 back to 82 in the foregoing atomic table are really uranium disintegrations. It is therefore believed that in the course of time all ura- nium, thorium, actinium, radium, niton, polonium and bismuth (as well as the two missing types which precede and follow niton) will disintegrate into lead, and that these seven atomic types are but character- istic steps in the slow, disintegrating pro- cess. Absolute proof of this, however, is admittedly lacking. With the exception of hydrogen and helium it is not definitely known what the total num- ber of protons and electrons in the nucleus of any given atomic system might be; but as we have seen, it is the excess protons in the nucleus that determine the number of Planetary electrons in a system (and there- 80 re the atomic weight), and this knowledge 4 do possess. Furthermore, the affinity which certain types of atoms have for those of other types, which results in the formation of molecules, furnishes the modern chemist with much valuable information as to the arrangement of the planetary electrons around the nuclei of their respective sys- tems. Some atoms are electropositive, some are eleetronegative, while others are self- satisfied having neither positive or negative valence. Such atoms are said to be inert. There are altogether six inert atomic 8ys- tems, and these we have distinguished in the foregoing tabulation by setting them in caps, viz, (2 ) HELIUM - having 2 planetary electrons 10) NEON - ” 10 (18) ARGON - nag (36) KRYPTON- »” 36 (54) XENON - »” 54 > (86) NITON - » 86 hat causes one atomic type to react oly and another positively? Why are the six inert atoms different from all oer in this respect, being in what may be called a self-satisfied condition? Any theory tha furnishes a plausible answer to these ques- tions without conflicting with any Brown fact is worthy of consideration. The Rut or ford-Soddy atomic models do provide a rea sonable explanation of such phesouienss Their hypothesis arranges the plane ary electrons in eoncenmtle rings, or rather con ” ” 99 ” 9” ” n centric shells, inasmuch as they are distri- buted on all sides of the nucleus like the cover of a baseball instead of having orbits parallel to each other like the successive bands of Saturn. These “shells” of electrons revolve at relatively great distances from the nucleus and also from each other (with certain exceptions hereinafter described) Except for hydrogen, all atemic systems have at least one ring or shell of planetary elec- trons around the nuclei. The hydrogen atom being composed of one electron and one pro- ton, might be said to have no nucleus, each charge being in planetary rotation around the other like a Swinging dumbbell. This Ee ymmlietrical configuration of the atom is 0 account for the i of Baregen a8 in ite Sxireme Seavity um, e second lightest ato Inert system. Why? This is os ~ by the natural assumption that its two plan- etary electrons revolve on diametrically oppo- Site sides of the nucleus which would insure Perfect balance and electrical stability. Its nucleus consists of four protons and two. elec- trons, being identically the same formation as an alpha particle emitted by radium and other highly radioactive substances. Even as the two nuclear electrons serve to stabilize the four protons, 80 do the two external elec- trons, pulling against each other on opposite i of fhe hudieus, tend to perfect the sta- e entir oo lie e system. Hence the helium 82 It is believed that there are never more than two planetary electrons in the first shell of any system, and that for all atoms which possess more than two external elee- trons there must be additional shells. The six inert atoms, therefore, are those which have all of their shells exactly filled, whereas all other atoms have their outer shell only partially filled and consequently they react positively or negatively depending upon how nearly filled or how nearly empty this outer shell may be. When each shell is symmetri- cally filled with electrons the atom is then in a satisfied or inert state and will not seek to join in molecular union with any other atom for the purpose of attaining further satisfaction, although an unsatisfied system may sieze an inert atom and hold it in a molecular embrace in its craving for one or more of the electrons with which the inert system is so abundantly blessed. Neon, with its ten planetary electrons, is the second inert system. It must, therefore, possess two completely filled shells. If it has two electrons in its first shell, then its second shell must have a capacity of eight. This is entirely reasonable; because if the second shell is the same distance from the first one as the first is from the nucleus, then it would have exactly four times the area of the first and could consequently accommodate four times as many electrons, namely eight. Thus the inertness of this ten-planetary system is accounted for. Atoms 83 _ possessing over ten external electrons must have more than two shells. Argon is the third inert atomic system. It has eighteen planetary electrons, i. e.,, two in the first shell, eight in the second and also eight in the third. Hence the third eannot be situated at a distance from the second shell like the second is from the first, otherwise its area would be greater and its capacity more, The fact that it contains the same number of electrons as does the second shell suggests the logical conclusion that it ‘must be practically coincident with the seec- ond, or superimposed upon it in lock-joint fashion with no spatial partition between the two. Krypton, the fourth inert atom, possesses thirty-six planetary electrons. If it has two in its first shell, eight in the second and eight in the third, then it must have eigh- teen in its fourth shell. This would indicate that it is located exactly as far from the second and third shells as they are from the first. In other words, its diameter is three times that of the first shell, which gives it nine times the area and consequently nine times the number of electrons of the first shell, which would be eighteen. This makes a total of thirty-six for the four shells, the location, area and capacity of the first three being identical with that of the preceding inert system (argon), while the fourth shell is also spaced in perfect symmetry with the other three, 84 The fifth inert atom is xenon. It has fifty- four planetary electrons, which is just eighteen more than is possessed by krypton, the fourth inert system. Thus the outer (fifth) shell of xenon must be superimposed upon the fourth because they each contain eighteen electrons. The arrangement of the fourth and fifth shells is therefore evidently identical with that of the second and third already considered, the electrons being paired or interlocked in each case. The sixth shell, however, is a little distance removed from the fifth, because niton (the sixth inert atom) possesses eighty-six external electrons, which is thirty-two more than the fifth inert type. Inasmuch as niton’s sixth or outer shell, therefore, has a capacity for thirty-two elec- trons while the fifth shell contains only eigh- teen, it must have a somewhat larger -dia- meter in order to possess the necessary area, As for the systems above niton, which pos- sess more than eighty-six electrons: these atoms must have a seventh shell which is superimposed upon the sixth. There is no atomic system which has this seventh shell filled, however, because that would require at least as many electrons as there are in the sixth shell, viz. thirty-two. This would make a total of 118 external electrons for such an atom, whereas the heaviest atom known is uranium, and it possesses only 92. This leaves only six electrons for its seventh or final shell, and it is therefore an unsatis- fied system. 85 = From the foregoing descriptions of the inert systems it is seen that more than mere quantitative balance between protons and electrons is necessary in order to make an atom “satisfied.” Each of the ninety-two types of atoms is numerically balanced in positive and negative charges, having exactly as many planetary electrons as there are excess protons in the nucleus. But if their configuration around the nucleus is such as to leave an outer shell only partially filled, then the system is in an unsatisfied condi- tion so far as valence is concerned and will seek satisfaction by embracing certain other atoms with which it may come in contact; thus molecules are formed. Now if such mole- cular systems are later broken up, as may be done by various laboratory methods, the atom of the aggregation which is the least satisfied often deliberately steals an electron from one of its erstwhile partners which is better able to part with it. This is easily demonstrated by laboratory experiments. The atomic systems just below and just above an inert system have, respectively, a positive and a negative valence of one; as, for instance, fluorine and sodium, which occupy positions on opposite sides of the inert atom neon. Fluorine lacks one nega- tive electron in its outer shell and therefore craves one negative charge, while sodium has one electron more than enough to fill its second shell and has therefore started a third shell with only one electron therein. Now 86 4 ot there are two methods open to the sodium atom to obtain satisfaction: (1) by gaining seven additional electrons so as to complete its third shell, or (2) by relinquishing its one extra electron and thus leaving it with only two full shells, same as neon. It is at once apparent that the latter method would be the easier of the two. Accordingly it is found by experiment that the sodium atom will readily part with one electron, and because of this disposition on its part it Is said to have a positive valence of one. Mag- nesium is found to have a positive valence of two, and aluminum three. That is, they have this many electrons in their outer shells: which they will readily part with in order to attain a satisfied state. Silicon, next to aluminum, has four elec- trons in its outer shell; that is, the shell is exactly half full. Therefore there are two equally feasible ways for this atom to secure: satisfaction: It may either take on four electrons and thus fill its outer shell, or it may relinquish four and thus drop back to a two-shell system like neon. And, singu- larly enough, silicon is found by experiment to be in just such a quandary; it will react either electropositively or electronegatively with equal ease. It is therefore said to be am amphoteric system. As for the next three types, however (phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine), the valence changes from positive to negative, and they are found to have'a negative valence oe three, two and one 87 respectively. Inasmuch as they are appr . ing completion of their outer oe it is ou. ous that the easiest way for them to become satisfied is to take on rather than to give away, electrons. Thus the behavior of all atoms is accounted for by the concentric shell arrangement of the planetary electrons. This same graduation of valence that exists in the systems between neon and argon, just considered, is also found to exist between every two consecutive inert systems. WHAT CAUSES RADIOACTIVITY? Having examined into the internal struc- ture of the atom we are now prepared to understand the underlying causes of radio- activity and of radiant energy in general. What is this strange phenomenon so manifest in radium and certain other heavy atoms? And is all matter radioactive? Answering the latter question first: there can be little doubt but that all matter is radioactive to some extent, although it is more pronounced in those “elements” of high atomic weight. It is only in the latter atomic systems that we find the radiations sufficiently intense to make visible impressions on photographic plates or on phosphorescent screens, yet there are other experiments that do reveal the ema- nation of energy from ordinary matter. This is well demonstrated by Abrams’ reactions. = It was discovered many years ago that the leakage” from a charged electroscope is 88 more rapid than can be accounted for by allowance for imperfections of the apparatus and other known causes. It is therefore be- lieved that fully 70 percent of this leakage ig due to radioactivity from the ordinary materials used in the construction of the in- strument itself, which tends to neutralize the outside charge upon the electroscope pro- per. By screening the electroscope from stray radiations from the outside about 30 percent of the neutralization is eliminated. But no amount of screening seems to further reduce it, thereby indicating that the major cause lies within rather than without the instru- ment. Furthermore it is found that different degrees of neutralization or “leakage’ are produced by different substances used in the lining of the electroscope. Metals of all kinds are found to ionize the air molecules in their immediate neighbor- hood, each in a characteristic or specific amount. This is a further experimental cor- roboration of the theory that radioactivity is a property common to all matter; that it is as likely to be displayed by one type of atom as another if the conditions are similar, but as already noted it will differ in amount or intensity according to the massiveness of the atom and certain other internal peculiari- ties. While one gram of radium emits about 37 billion alpha particles per second, it is probable that an equal quantity of some lighter substance would emit only a few thousand or a few hundred per second, and 89 would therefore be inobservable by any ordi- nary methods. Yet Dr. W. H. Russell, while experimenting with radium emanations, also noted faint photographie influences produced by common materials; again suggesting that radioactivity is a general property of mat- ter. Although this latter experiment is other- wise explained, it is nevertheless admitted that this spontaneous photographic power of ordinary substances has puzzling aspects about it so long as actual radioactive emana- tions from their atoms is denied. Why should any substance continuously emit energy? What mechanism is there in matter that produces this phenomenon ? Radio- activity, especially in those atoms of high atomic weight, is explained as being the result of internal convulsions in certain of its atoms. In the crowding of the electronic orbits, due to molecular contractions and other causes, dissatisfaction and consequently instability of certain atoms must of neces- sity occur. If an atomic system becomes dis- satisfied in its nucleus then eruption of alpha particles and electrons forthwith takes plaee in the effort of the atom to regain its equili- brium. Often these eruptions are such as to cause the explosion of the entire atom. This disintegrating process is what is con- stantly taking place in any highly radio- active substance such as radium which emits billions of particles per second from each gram. However enormous this number of atomie explosions per second appears, yet 90 % when we consider the total number of atoms in a gram then the number that erupt are actually few, so few in fact that it would take nearly two thousand years for all of them to explode, even if they kept up this rate constantly. Numerically speaking, there- fore, the eruption of a dissatisfied atom is a “rare” occurrence, analogous to an oceca- sional shooting comet among a thousand mil- lion heavenly spheres, yet we are accustomed to thinking of them as excessively numer- ous simply because we forget to view them relative to their setting. If only ten drops of water should ooze out every minute from a reservoir which contains millions of barrels we could consider the leakage insignificant. The outflow per minute of positive and nega- tive particles from a single gram of radium is likewise insignificant when considéred in relation to the grand total in the “reservoir.” The experiments of Rutherford and Geiger with alpha emanations from polonium demon- strated that these eruptions, both in respect to time and place, simply obey the law of chance. Nevertheless they are sufficiently constant to appear to the ordinary observer as though they were governed by some inner economy which doles them out forever at a given rate. When convulsive ejections of the swiftly “moving electrons or beta particles occur, & disturbance is caused in the surrounding atoms and in the atomic and molecular sys- tems through which they pass as they make 21 their exit. The result is, as maintained by Prof. Bohr, that various atoms suffer a tem- porary change in the dimensions of their electronic orbits. Now as these disturbed orbits move back to normal, energy is neces- sarily given out. Gamma rays are an ex- ample of this form of radiant energy. They carry no charge and are therefore not com- posed of electrons or protons, yet they carry definite quanta of energy in exact ratio to the disturbance which generates them. Simi- larly when an outside disturbance such as - an electric current or a beam of light falls upon any substance, the electronic orbits of the surface atoms of that substance are af- fected; and in the adjusting process there is an expenditure and outflow of energy which we specify by the general term radiation. Planck, 'in' 1901, found that all radiation, whether light, heat or otherwise, is given out in quanta, i.e.,, in amounts which are invari- ably proportional to the “wave length” or frequency of the disturbing cause. He put the matter upon a definite mathematical bas- is, and the universal numerical ratio which he discovered to exist is called “Planck’s constant”. It is found to hold good for all cases irrespective of the wave length caus- ing the radiation. Some radiations of energy are so small in quanta that they escape ex- perimental detection, Nevertheless such a faint radiation as that caused by an ordinary candle three miles away will produce a vis- ible effect upon a BLojgraphic plate. Gamma rays, X-rays, radio waves and any light or heat rays are all related phenom- ena, being kindred manifestations of energy emissions from disturbed electronic orbits. The only difference between them is in the frequency of vibration. The frequency of the radiation is determined by the frequency (not the amount) of the disturbing factor. Thus if we permit a strong light, then a dim light, both of the same frequency, to fall upon any given surface, the electronic orb- its of the surface atoms will be affected to the same extent in each case. The strong light will affect more atoms than will the dim light, but it will not disturb any individ- ual atom any more than will the dim ray of the same frequency. Each atom will radiate the same quantum of energy in both instances. If the frequency “is increased, however, then the quantum of radiant energy will be larger, although the ratio between the two remains constant. Thus a dim light of high frequency will produce a greater amount of radiation per atom than will a strong light of lower frequency, although the sum total of radiation in the latter case may be great- er due to the fact that more atoms are ene gaged in the radiating process. It is like fifty 25-watt incandescent lamps as against a thousand 10-watt lights. The latter aggre- gation will give more illumination, but no individual lamp in it shines as brightly as does a single 25-watt bulb. It is not the quan- tity but the quality (i.e, the frequency) of 93 - the disturbing element that determines the amount of contraction or expansion of the orbits of the planetary electrons in any atomic system, as Planck clearly demonstrat- ed. His “quantum theory” was not readily embraced by scientists in 1901 due to the generally limited knowledge of atomic struc- tures at that early date. The Planck con- stant, however, was later resurrected by Einstein and employed by him in calculating the specific heat of solids with such remark- able success that its accuracy is now no longer questioned. The acceptance of the quantum theory of energy, however, necessitates a radical re- construction, if not a complete repudiation, of the ether theory. Instead of radiation be- ing regarded as pulsations or wave motions in an ethereal medium, similar to waves in water, Planck holds that it consists of infinitesimal bundles of energy which are shot out in all directions, each carrying ex- actly the same amount so long as the source is being excited at a definite frequency. There are, of course, difficulties involved with the theory, even as there are many un- solved problems confronting the champions of the older ether theory; yet the former has so satisfactorily accounted for the hitherto. inexplainable phenomena of radiations that modern scientific concensus of opinion is leaning rapidly toward the quantum and away from the ether hypothesis. There is no doubt, of opante that radiant energy travels in a wave-like manner, because ine terference can be produced in the same man- ner as- interference of waves in water. But this wave motion may be confined to the . guantum itself rather than being a phenom- enon of the hypothetical ether. Certainly no experiment thus far undertaken has actually demonstrated that “ether” exists, and if all known phenomena can be accounted for a- part from it, then we are probably on safer ground when we ignore it altogether. CONCLUSION Having now examined into the fundamen- tal basis of material atoms, and seeing how completely wonderful are their electronic mechanisms, we are the better prepared to appreciate the electronic reactions of Abrams as outlined in the first part of this book. That which at first may have appeared fan- tastic and far-fetched is now seen to be scien- tifically well founded. It must also be remembered that while our present treatise on the electron theory has been confined to atoms of inorganic matter, Dr. Abrams’ researches concern the still more intricate problem of living organ- ism. There is a difference between the atoms of organic and inorganic ‘matter, but just what that difference consists of no scientist yet knows. He must content himself with the mere descriptive distinction that the one has life while the other has not. 95 What is life? That is the great problem that is still unsolved. To declare that life is energy is entirely too indefinite, because all kinds of atoms, organic or inorganie, possess energy, as we have seen. The chemist can analyze living organism; he can determine the elements of which it is composed, and can specify the atomic proportions of each to the molecule. Yet when they are put together by the hand of man the combination, though chemically correct, lacks life; it is but inor- ganic. Considering, then, the electronic intrica- cies of living organism, who can afford to blindly contend that the electronic reactions of Abrams are the products of imagination? It is inexcusable folly to say “it can’t be done” when it has been done and 7s being done every day by a thousand physicians. Nearly every advance in knowledge has been brought about by the sheer aggressiveness of somebody who has dared to depart from the beaten path of ages and plunge determin- edly into the wilderness of the unknown. Dr. Albert Abrams has enlarged the horizon of physical science; he has thrown new light upon the subject of atomic mechanism ; he has broken entirely new ground in the field of na- ture and has opened wide a door to undreamed of possibilities. It is plainly the duty of every true scientist to now aid in further uncovering the long hidden treasures of this infinitesimal world of electrons of which we are made and which he has brought into prominent view. FINIS 96