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Nicholson, Edward.

Indian snakes. An
elementary treatise...

Madras

1870

 

 

 

BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD TARGET

University of California at Berkeley Library
Master negative storage number: 00-1561
(national version of the master negative storage number: CU SNOOO156.1)

FORMAT: BK LEVEL: r ISBN: GLAD|S#: 67295244A
LANG: eng CNTRY: ii LCCN: MOD: 991123/GHA

ME: Nicholson, Edward.

Tl: Indian snakes. An elementary treatise on ophiology with a descriptive
catalogue of the snakes found in India and the adjoining countries

lM: Madras, Higginbotham, 1870

CO: 118 p. plates

CALL: k-QL661.N5
BIOS

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AWOAV

INDIAN SNAKES.

’AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE

 

ON OPHIOLOGY

WITH A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE SNAKES

FOII N D IN INDIA

AND THE ADJOINING COUNTRIES,

BY

EDWARD NICHOLSON,

ASSISTANT SURGEON, ROYAL ARTILLERV.‘

 

mating:
HIGGINBOTHAM & CO.
1 8 7 O .

 

ﬂ ' K— QLLL/ '
Litii N6

13%,
PREFACE. “"

~50.“
C Q

I HAVE written these pages as much in hope of dis-
pelling the lamentable prejudices entertained in India
against some of the most beautiful and harmless of
God’s creatures, as to afford an elementary treatise
for the study of an interesting branch of natural
history by which the weariness of Indian service may
be mitigated.

I believe that this treatise will be also of use as
an introduction to the splendid work of Dr. Gunther
on the Reptiles of British India, which is, at present,
a sealed book to the uninitiated in Zoology.

The Descriptive Catalogue in Part IV., is drawn
up on the basis of Gunther, and for the description of
those snakes, with which I am not personally
acquainted, I am largely indebted to his work. The
rest of the treatise is drawn nearly entirely from my

(own observation ; it is probably less complete on
that account, but I can certainly say that very little
indeed is stated, for the correctness of which I
cannot personally answer. ' 1

Printed by Caleb Foster, Foster Press, 23, Randall’s Road, Vepery.

I can recommend the compact little Greek Lexicon,
published in Weale’s Series, to those persons who
wish to ascertain the meaning of the Greek terms
uSed in Zoological nomenclature.

E. N.

RANGOON, I
7th May 1870. }

"MSGQESEB

/

 

* m

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION. _
Place in the Animal kingdom

PART I.——-PHYSIOLOGY.
CHAPTER I. ' The Skeleton -
II. The Mouth and Teeth

II I. The Poison-apparatus of venomous snakes.
IV. Internal organs -
V The Senses -

VI. The In‘teguments

PART II.—-—-NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I. The snake at liberty

II. The Serpentarium
III. The Museum - -
IV. Antidotes to Snake-poison

PART III.——CLASSIFICATION.
.CHAPTIBR I. Principles - - -
II. Diagnosis of an unknown snake
‘ III. Method of description -
PART IV.-—DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE
APPENDIX - - -

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION.

PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

The third class of Vertebrate animals are the Reptiles;
they are divided into six orders.

First Sub—Class—REPTILIA PROPER.

Order I. Uhelonia——Tortoises. ’
,, II. Sauria~Lizards.

,, III. Uphidia—Snakes.

Second Sub-Glass—BATRACHIA.

Reptiles breathing by gills at some period of their lives.

Order I. Batmchia, salientia—Frogs.
II. Bat'rachia gradientia~Newts.
III. Batrachia apoda—Snake-like batrachians.

The division of zoology, which treats of reptiles, is called

hematology; the sub-division devoted to snakes only is
called ophiology.

Snakes may be thus deﬁned :---

Reptiles of very elongate body, without limbs or with
rudimentary limbs scarcely visible from without ; progress-
ing by lateral undulations of numerous ribs articulated
moveably with the vertebral column. The jaws, especially
the lower, capable of extensive movement and great expan-
sion; both jaws and palate generally bearing teeth. The
external ear absent, and the internal ear rudimentary. The
eye unprotected by eyelids. The integument scaly, and
the epidermis cast at frequent intervals.

Some kinds of snakes possess perforated teeth conveying

a poisonous salivary secretion into the system of animals
bitten by them.

 

[3]

 

PART I.——PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.—-—THE SKELETON.

The bony parts of the snake consist of a skull and of
a long vertebral column. The vertebrae are numerous ;
those of the body support an equal or nearly equal number
of pairs of ribs, and vary in number from 120 to upwards of ‘
300 ; those of the tail have no appendages, and vary in
number from 4 or 5 in some burrowing snakes to as many as
200 in certain tree snakes ; but even then they never exceed
the dorsal in number. The bones composing the verteme
column are connected with each other by cup and ball joints
and by ligaments; the individual movements of the verte-
brae are limited by the apposition of their apophyses ; but,
on the whole, their movements are capable of great exten-
sion in every direction. The spinous processes are not-
generally prominent, excepting in Bungarus fasciatus, where '
they are large and ﬁrmly connected with the skin. '

 

5’. The pair of ribs which spring , from each dorsal vertebra
rake backwards, and then, bending inwards, they terminate

- in two cartilaginous ﬁlaments which are attached to the
scutae or 'ventral shields; 'as these latter are arranged in ,

» clincher work, their projecting posterior margins catch hold ,
of the ground and form organs of progression. The snake
progresses by the contraction of the muscles of either side“
throwing the body into an 8 form, (not perpendicularly, but
horizontally,) and at each curve one side of the ventral shields '
holds the ground, whilst the other side is progressing. These"
movements are not done with any visible alternation, but in a
progressive and undulating manner of considerable graceful-‘
ness. When turning round slowly, the movement becomes
a kind of countermarching, where every pair of ribs has to

 

 

4s

. come up to the pivot point before proceeding in the opposite
di1ection. In case of alarm, these movements become m01e
sudden, the snake throws itself into sha1 p curves, and a
jerking motion of the body changes the ordinary 1mpercep—
tible gliding motion into a rapid series of wriggles. Obsta-
cles flip other animals are rather favourable to the progressof
snakes; Whilst they are powerless on a smooth ﬂoor, a
rough surface aids them considerably 5' a stone, a root of a

tree, becomes a fulcrum for the anterior parts of the body,
and brings the posterior parts rapidly up ; so that the ground

most, favourable for the pursuit or retreat of the snake is
thatiwhich‘ is least favourable to his prey or his pursuers.

Three families of snakes, Tortricidw, Pythonidoe, Erycidce,
have rudimentary hind limbs, but these cannot be of any use

for progression, they are mere relics of a former stage of

deVelopment. Each limb consists of a claw or spur protrud-
ing from a groove on either side of the anus, and internally
of two small bones, which may be called the tibia and the
tarsus. Four muscles give it slight extensive and lateral
motion. ‘ ..

i The skull is elongated and of somewhat oval shape, being
rounded behind the jaws and tapering at the muzzle. Its

broadest part is just behind the eye, where it expands above.

to form the posterior bony ring of the orbit, the anterior,
limit of the orbit is formed by asimilar bony process, the
anterior frontal bone, and it is bounded below by the upper
jaW bone or maxilla. This part of the skull is neaily,
entirely occupied by the orbital cavities, which from each
side go deeply 111 towards the median line. As it is not my
intention to ente1 into any details of anatomy which have
nota direct bearing on em subject, I will not desoribe all the
bones which compose the skull, but pass at once to the
important bones” which belong to the month.

These bones are-u

The intermawillary, a small bone wedged in between the

two maxillae, and, except in the Pythons, 1arely bearing
teeth.

The maxillaries, one on each side, of very variable shape.
They are» free at their anterior extremities, and articulate
above with the anterior frontal bone, behind With the exter-
nal pterygoid bones, or, more accurately, the external pro-
cesses of the pterygoid bones. °

The palatine bones run parallel to the maxillaries, between
them, they are tolerably free at their anterior extremi-
ties, and articulate continuously behind with the pterygoid
bones.

The pterygoz’ds are two ﬂat bones extending along the
posterior part of the base of the skull, to which they are
attached. Their posterior extremities are free. The ptery.
goid itself and its internal process (continuous with the
palatine) generally bear teeth, its external process supports
the maxilla, and is of a length in inverse ratio to the length
of that bone.

The lower jaw-bones or mandibles are connected at the
chin by an extensible ligament. Each mandible is composed
of two‘ parts ﬁrmly united by a wedgeshaped suture just at
the back of the teeth ; it is curved With the concave side
upwards, and its posterior extremity articulates with the
inferior extremity of the tympanic bone. The tympanic
bone of each side is directe‘d‘downwards and backwardsand
is suspended from the mastoid portion of the temporal bone.

Owing to the loose connection of the mandibles at the
chin and to there being three joints between them and the
skull, they possess an extensive range of motion, and work

 

6.

independently of one another. The loose connection of the
upper jaws with the frontal and pterygoid bones also
allows a good deal of play. This power of independent
movement possessed by the maxillae and mandibles enables a
snake to advance one of these four jaw-bones at a time whilst
its prey is ﬁrmly held by the teeth of the three other bones
and of the palate. We will, in another chapter, consider
the changes in the shape of the maxillary which are found
in the venompus snakes.

CHAPTER II.--THE MOUTH AND TEETH.

. The gape of the mouth is very considerable, and, owing
to the multiplication of joints between the skull and the
mandibles, the upper and lower jaws can be separated until
they form nearly a straight line. The mouth is never
opened except for the purpose of seizing prey or in defence ;
a chink in the rostral shield permits the slender-forked
tongue to dart in and out with a rapid quivering motion.
0n separating the upper and lower jaws, one cannot fail to
be struck with the exact ﬁt of these two parts; Every
relief on'one surface ﬁts into a corresponding depression
on the other surface, and accurate apposition of every part
is obtained. The roof of the mouth is divided into three
parts by the four rows of teeth. These three depressions
receive, on either side the mandibulary teeth, in tlie middle
the windpipe, the three prominences of the lower jaw. The
prehensile apparatus is thus composed, on either side, of a
row of lower teeth ﬁtting between two rows of upper teeth ;
the middle space being occupied by the windpipe, or rather
its upper extremity, the larynx. This, however, only occupies
the two posterior thirds of the middle space, as the anterior

third is occupied, above by the nasal fossae the ﬂoor of d

which forms a low fore-palate, and below by the sheath of
the tongue. The posterior aperture of the nasal fossae
is therefore just in front of the aperture of y the larynx,

’7

and air passes in a straight course from the nostrils to
the windpipe. Beneath the skin of the lips, especially
at the angle of the upper jaw, are numerous small salivary
glands, but their oriﬁces are generally too small to be detected.

Every snake, except the genus Oligodon and some of the
burrowing snakes, has six rows of teeth, two on the maxillae

, two on the mandibles, and two on the pterygo-palatine lines of

bone. We will consider in the next chapter the modiﬁca~
tions found in'venomous snakes, and will conﬁne ourselves
in this chapter to the ordinary type of harmless snakes. In
this, the maxillae each bear from ﬁve to twenty or more
teeth ; the palatine teeth, which name includes all the teeth
borne on the pterygoid and palatine bones, are more numer-
ous and often stretch back a considerable distance down
the throat; the mandibulary teeth correspond nearly in
extent and number with the maxillary teeth.

These teeth are all directed more or less backwards, and
oppose a formidable obstacle to any resistance on the part
of prey once seized; they are composed of a horny sub4
stance impregnated with bone-earth, formed originally on a
vascular centre, hollow in structure, and in the form of an
elongated cone, curved backwards at the base.

Some snakes have teeth of equal or nearly equal size,
whilst in other kinds the teeth are irregular, or gradually in.
crease or decrease from before hindwards. A very common
form of dentition is for the teeth to gradually increase
and to terminate by a long tooth at the hinder end of the

_ maxilla. Their number cannot be determined very readily

owing to their non-permanent character and to the diﬂiCulty.
in distinguishing the new teeth from the old.* '

 

* Hence the numbers given by Gunther are too high. Ptyas mucosus
instead of 18 or 20 has 11 ﬁxed teeth 5 Tropidonotus quincuncictus instead
of 18 has 12 ﬁxed teeth. ' ' . ‘ -' * '

 

 

 

 

s

p I ﬁnd that the teeth are not replaced merely when acci-
dent has broken oﬁ' the old teeth, but that all the teeth are
shed at more or less regular intervals, generally coinciding
with the casting of the epidermis. They do not all fall
together; but, at the time of casting, a crop of young teeth
work their way into the intervals of the old teeth, and
gradually expel these latter. The depressions between the
maxillary and palatine rows of teeth are occupied by the
matrix of these young teeth ; not a cut can be made in this
part of the palate without the knife turning up a quantity of
young teeth in.every stage of development. The dental
matrices of the maxillaries and mandibles are on their inner

sides, those of the palate bones on their outer sides.

CHAPTER III.-—THE POISON-APPARATUS or VENOMOUS
SNAKES.

There is but little doubt that the poison-apparatus has
been developed by natural selection. Several snakes have
long fangs for the purpose of holding tough-skinned prey,
but are unprovided with any poisonous salivary secretion;
at least, no variation of structure is visible either in the fangs
er the salivary glands similar to that seen in the venomous
snakes. It is not difﬁcult to imagine how natural selection '1
Would favour any individual amongst these fanged snakes
whose teeth should become provided with apertures for the
instillation of, saliva, and with saliva of poisonous quality.
We certainly ﬁnd a notable gradation in the development
of poison-apparatus 5 this will be seen in the following
description of it as it occurs in seVeral kinds of snakes. .

The simplest form of poison-apparatus is that of the sea-
snakes (Hydrophidw), where the addition of a poison-gland -
with duct- and of a canal through the front tooth of the
maxilla is attended with but little of the modiﬁcation in the
shape of the, maxilla Which is seen'in the more highly deve-
loped venomOus snakes. The Bungarus genus (and proba-
bly the genera Gallophis, etc.) have the” same structure of

 

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9

apparatus as that which will be described of the cobra, but on
a smaller scale, and though the maxillary teeth are reduced
in number from the shortening of the bone, yet there
remain two or three of them behind the poison-fang.

On examining the mouth of the cobra (N aga tr-ipuclians)
L we ﬁnd a very marked departure from the arrangement seen
in that of a harmless snake. The palatine and mandibulary
teeth are unchanged, but a considerable modiﬁcation has
taken place in the upper jaw. Instead of a row) of teeth, the
maxilla shows a single tooth, of which the point is barely
visible until a fold of mucous membrane which surrounds
it is pulled up. Slit up this gingival fold and the fang will
then be exposed; it will be seen to be ﬁxed in very much
the same position as a dog’s fang, though curving more back-
wards, and to ﬁt into a depression in the lower lip. Now
dissect the skin off the cheek of the cobra, from the
nostril in front to the angle of the mouth behind. A large
ﬂask-shaped gland will be exposed on the cheek, extending
for half an inch or more behind the eye; it is continued

by a duct along the lower edge of the orbit as far for-
, wards as the nostril; a dense ﬁbrous sheath covers the
gland and forms a point of attachment to many ﬁbres of
the maxillary muscles. Cut through the duct at its begin-
ning, just behind the eye, and a canal of very small calibre
will be seen in its axis ; pass a ﬁne bristle down the canal,
and by careful manipulation this probe will be seen to go
to the end of the maxilla, turn downwards over it, and enter
the mouth inside the gingival envelope of the fang, and in
front of an oriﬁce in the base of the fang. This examina~
tion requires careful dissecting and skilful manipulation
in the Elapidce, but in the vipers the arrangement is on a
larger scale and much easier of demonstration.

If we now dissect away the soft parts and expose the
maxilla, we shall see a great modiﬁcation in its form compared
2

 

 

10

with the normal type. It barely reaches as far back as the
hinder part of the orbit, its shortness being compensated by
increased length of the external pterygoid. A short tooth
is found at its hinder part, but this is rarely perceptible
until dissected down to, and appears to be rudimentary.
The 1est of the maxilla is ﬂat and occupied on the lower
surface by the matiix of the fang; in front in line with
the fore part of the orbit, is the socket for the fang.
This part of the bone is thick and wide, and it bears,
side by side, depressions for two fangs , one, the inner
socket, is generally occupied by the fang in use, the
other by the. fang in course of growth. The new’fang is
generally found not yet set and then the outer socket is
often open, at other times it is occupied by the newly set
fang whilst the inner socket is vacant, and remains so until
the new fang has worked its way inwards. Sometimes these
' two fangs are found perfect at the same time, then one of
them, generally the inner or old fang, will be loose. This
occurs at the time of casting the skin, and I have several
times removed the old fangs easily with the ﬁnger and thumb
or a small forceps.

The fang is slightly curved backwards and inserted at an
angle so as to form a hook in the jaw. It is in shape like a short
elephant—task and does not exceed 28-hundredths of an inch
in the longest specimen I have seen. In structure it differs
from other teeth in having, when ﬁxed, two oriﬁces communi-
cating with the interior. Instead of a conical hollow it con-
tains a complete canal. Both oriﬁces are in 'front, the
upper close to and forming part of the base, the lower at

adistance from the point equal to about one-tenth of the
length of the fang, a groove connects the oriﬁces, or
lather did connect them during the growth of the fang, at
which time the canal, originally open in. its entire length,
gradually closed from above downwards. The .canal only

 

 

11

occupies the front half of the fang ; the hinder part is a
bony column giving considerable strength to the structure.

In the 17732967 7716 snakes a transition takes place, gradually
culminating in the most perfect form of poison-apparatus,
viz., a long fang usually lying supine along the jaw, but. ‘
capable of erection by a special muscle. The genus Trime—
sums is not nearly so complete as this, the fang is long, but
there is no special muscle of erection. The maxilla consists I
of an open shell communicating with the exterior of the
cheek. But it is in Debate that we see the perfection of
mechanism ; on removal of the skin covering the cheek, we
come at once across a strong tendon lying below the eye ;' it
arises from the muscles of the cheek and from the .ﬁbrous
covering of the poison-gland, and is inserted into the
maxilla. This bone is found to be considerably modiﬁed in
form; it is no longer placed below the orbit, this posi-
tion is occupied by the elongated external pterygoid,
whilst the maxilla, only one-ﬁfth of an inch long (in
a large Daboia) but double that in height, is placed
at the end of this bone like a hammer-head at the end of its
handle. Imagine the head of a hammer, with the claw
downwards representing the .fang, hinged at its junction
with the. handle, and with a string fastened to the head so as
to erect at will the claw from its usual supine state; you
will then have a pretty accurate idea of the mechanism of a.
viper’s upper jaw.

In the vipers the fang is much longer than in the cobra and
other Elapidae, but their length has been greatly exaggerated,
as it rarely exceeds half an inch in the largest specimens.
It is of larger calibre also, and the poison duct is plainly
seen to enter the mouth just in front of its superior oriﬁce» ;
the duct winds round a groove in the surface of the maxilla,
and a bristle passed along its canal from behind forwards

 

 

 

12

can hardly fail to pass out at the buccal oriﬁce at the bottom
of the gingival envelope of the fang.

The mechanism of the bite of a poisonous snake may differ
‘ somewhat in the viperine families from that usual with the
Elapidoe. The cobra bites just as a dog does, the re-curved
position of the fangs rendering a slip impossible; whilst the
vipers, thoughbiting also, are able to strike sideways with their
long erected fangs. In either case the effect is the same. The
gingival envelope of the fang is mechanically puckered up,
and by its contraction forces the poisonous saliva, as it
issues from the duct, to ﬂow into the canal of the fang by
its upper oriﬁce. Muscular pressure and spasmodic action
of the gland cause an ejection of poison into the fang and
through it into the wound. But under ordinary circumstances,
the poisonous saliva ﬁnds its way into the month just like
the saliva of the other glands, running down the inside of
the gingival fold along the outer surface of the fang. I have
seen the saliva ejected by an enraged cobra in quantities
which could not have passed through the fang, for experi-
ments enable me to afﬁrm that a cobra could not inject
through the fang with more force than would be necessary
_ to expel one drop (a minim) in three seconds, so ﬁne is the
inferior oriﬁce of the fang. A viper, however, could inject
the same quantity in half a second, and ﬂuid may be forced
through its fang in a ﬁne stream, whilst small single
droplets can alone be ejected from the cobra’s fang.

CHAPTER IV.—-—INTEBNAL ORGANS.

The digestive organs of snakes are simple in arrange-
ment. The red lane down which frogs go croaking to their
grave shows but little difference between the gullet and the
stomach. It is well lubricated by the mucous secretions of
the mouth and throat, is capable of great distension, and
occupies the greater part of the foremost half of the abdomi-
nal cavity. Digestion appears to go on principally at the

13

lower end, where that part of the animal which was s'wallow—
ed ﬁrst passes into a state of solution and the rest gradually
comes down as the space becomes vacant. The intestinal
canal, very little convoluted, occupies the hinder half of the
abdomen 3 the mesentery is plentifully loaded with fat, which
becomes a reserve of nutriment for the long fas’ts which
snakes often undergo. The liver lies alongside of the gullet
and stomach ; it is a long organ, in two longitudinal lobes,
of the usual hepatic colour and texture ; it reaches upwards
nearly as high as the heart, and terminatesobelow at about
the same point as the stomach. The gall bladder, with the
other digestive glands, is situated a little further down, at
about the middle of the body. The end of the bowel opens
into a short cloaca, the common passage of the intestinal
canals and of the ovarian or spermatic ducts, according
to sex.

The ovaries or testicles are found at the end of the abdo.
men, behind the intestines ; when eggs are about to be
laid the ,ovary extends at least half way up the body. The
male snake has a double organ of copulation lodged in the
tail (which is generally longest in males) ; when protruded
by pressure from behind forwards it is seen in the form of
two highly vascular protuberances armed with spines
emerging each from a depression at the side of and behind
the anus. No canal passes through these, the spermatic
ducts terminating some distance within the cloaca.

The heart is situated at about one-sixth of the distance
down the body. It is composed of one ventricle incom-
pletely divided, and of two auricles (atria). The division of
the ventricle is sufﬁcient to enable the pulmonary and the
systemic circulation to be carried on in very much the same
way as in the higher classes of vertebrata. The blood is
aerated in the lungs, which consist of a lacework of, air-
cells lining the walls of large air cavities spreading out

 

lit

upon the back of the upper part of the abdominal cavity.
The shape and extent of these organs vary considerably ;
they are most‘ extensive in the sea-snakes, a family which
naturally require a large supply of air for their long stay
under water. Under ordinary circumstances, snakes breathe
but slowly ; the amount of air in the lungs lasts them a long
time, and I have frequently seen land-snakes remain under
water for half an hour at a time. The air breathed by the
nostrils passes through the trachea or windpipe, the upper
part of which lies on the ﬂoor of the mouth and is closed by
two cartilages which when open have a vertical slit between
them ; this slit is just opposite the inner oriﬁce of the nos-
trils when'the mouth is shut ; it is the rapid expulsion of air
through it which produces the hiss of some snakes when
they are angry (the noise, to my mind, is more like‘the spit
of an angry cat).

.Nearly all these organs are liable to be infested with
entozoa. The mouth, lungs, and gullet bear little red round
worms in many kinds; but Tropidonotus quincunciatus is
remarkable for having its intestines and abdominal cavity

inhabited by numbers of small tape-worms about 6 inches in‘

length. I believe that they are developed from “ ﬂukes” in
the frog. Both the round~worms and the tape-worms per-
meate the muscular tissues ; I have found both 'emerging
from under the skin of the tail, both in the abovementioned
snake and in a tree-snake.

CHAPTER V.-—-THE Srinsns.

Sight appears to be the only sense which is well developed
in snakes, at least according to the conventional standard. The
sealy tegument can hardly be endowed with much sensibi-
lity ; frOm their habit of swallowing food whole, it is probable
that their taste cannot be very delicate; the nasal cavities
are but little provided with expansions of mucous membrane 3
and hearing cannot be an important sense considering the

15

rudimentary state of the external ear. The only remaining
portion of this latter is a bone which conducts any vibrations
of air that may have penetrated the scales and muscles of
the head to the expansion of the auditory nerve. There is
no external oriﬁce or tympanum.

The eye is well developed in those snakes which live above
ground, although it varies in size and adaptation according
to the mode of life which it is destined to serve. It is
covered by a transparent layer of epidermis, which is east
along with that of the general integument. It is unprovided
with eyelids, and is moved to a slight extent by the usual
muscles. The pupil varies in shape and size; in most snakes
it is round, but it is elliptical and erect in the vipers
and some of the tree-snakes, whilst in other genera of
the latter it is horizontal. The iris is often tinged with
various colours, yellow and green being frequent 3 in
Lycodon, it is so black that the shape of the pupil is most
difﬁcult to see.

It is doubtful whether an elliptical or linear pupil is a
sign of nocturnal habits.

' In the Typhlopz‘dce, the eye is hardly visible at all.

CHAPTER VI.-—-—THE INTEGUMENTS.

The skin is very variable in appearance. On the upper
parts of the body it is a smooth soft tissue, generally white,
sometimes coloured, and giving off numerous folds known
as scales (squamce) which overlap one another. In snakes
which can expand the neck this skin is seen dotted over
with separate scales. In most viperine snakes the scales
are dull, stiff, and sufﬁciently overlapping (imbricate) to,
produce a rustling noise when the skin is crumpled ; in the
burrowing snakes, a cuirass of smooth-polished scales leaves
hardly any interval visible; in the sea-snakes, the scales
become tuberculated.

 

 

 

16

On the lower parts of the body the scales become broad
(in the higher types), expanding into ventral shields (scutoe)
and, beyond the anus, into subcaudal shields (scutellae).

On the head a few snakes have scales like on the rest of
the upper parts, but the majority have the head covered with
plates (nona-imb'ricate shields) varying but little from a
normal pattern, and, when varying, doing so with sufﬁcient
regularity to form characteristic distinctions.

The squamous covering of these three regions, the upper
parts, the lower parts and the head, aﬁ'ord together such a
large proportion of the characters used in classiﬁcation that
they require attentive study.

I have before said that each pair of ribs supports and
moves a ventral shield 5 to each also appertains a correspond-
ing transverse row of scales. The ribs not being ﬁxed at
a right angle to the vertebral column, but raking more or
less backwards, the transverse row of scales corresponding
to each pair is inclined backwards in a similar manner. If
this incline is at an angle of 45°, the rows of scales will be
crossed by lines at an equal angle in the opposite direction ;
the scales will be of a rhombic or lozenge shape, and the"
rows capable of being counted in two cross directions. But
if the ribs be inclined at a slight angle to the spine, then
the scales will be nearly square 3 whilst an excessiVe incline
causes them to be rhomboidal or elliptic, and the rows to be
more or less longitudinally inclined. In the neck of the
cobra, for instance, the ribs lie down like the, ribs of an
umbrella, the scales are consequently arranged in such acutely
inclined rows as to become quite linear and imbricate; when
the snake raises the ribs, expanding the skin of the neck
into what custom calls the hood, the scales are seen dotted
like long grains of linseed on the stretched surface.

The number of scales in each transverse series varies with
great regularity. The extreme range is from 12 t0 75 '01‘

 

 

 

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17

thereabouts, but 13 to 25 are the most general numbers.
In conjunction with other characters, the number of . scales
in each transverse series, or, as it is commonly called, the
number of - rows (longitudinal)* of scales is a. valuable dis-
tinctive character, as it is comparatively rare that individuals
of the same species should have a diﬂ’erent number of rows.

This number is nearly always uneven, the vertebral row
being azygos, and often of a different shape ,- in only
two genera (Zaocys and Peltopelor) is there a double row of
vertebral scales, and consequently an ever! number in the
transverse series. The number of rows should be Counted at
a distance from the head equal to about one quarter~ of the
length of the body-[j as the number on the neck exceeds the
normal number by two or more, the number settles down at
a point varying from the tenth to the thirtieth ventral‘ shield,
and remains constant for, at least, half way down the body ;
then sooner or later the scales begin to diminish, always in
uneven number, down to the root of the tail. There several
rows may be observed without corresponding ventrals, three
or four of these being rudimentary or deﬁcient where the

a anal oriﬁce is covered by its large shield. The number of
scales on the tail is nearly always even, beginning with
about ten and diminishing by pairs to four or two.

In sortie snakes, the number of rows of scales settles down
very soon to the normal number which continues till very
near the tail, in other snakes barely four-tenths of the trunk
is occupied by the normal number. Thus in Bungarus
fasciatus, the number of rows settles down, at about the
tenth ventral, to the normal number 15, and remains at that
right down to the vent ; but the more common arrangement

 

*" The number of transverse series is not counted; the number of ventral
shields is practically more constant, and is stated instead.

1- In the sea-shakes, the number on the neck is most constant.

 

 

 

18

is shown in the following diagram, dividing the body (not
the tail) of a snake with 19 rows of scales into tenths :-—-
Tenths. 1 2 3‘4: 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tail.
No.0frows. 21 19 19 19 19 19 17 17 17 15 10 8 6 4

We have seen that the scales may be more or less over-
lapping or imbrtcate ; another important character is the
presence or absence of a raised keel along the centre of each
scale. This keel is very capricious in its presence or
absence, and does not depend on the habits of the snake.
It is found in ground-snakes, in water-snakes, and in tree-
snakes, indiﬁ'erently, and in each of these groups, the
snakes with smooth scales do just as well as those with keels :
the history of the keel is not known. These keels are
generally strongest on the dorsal rows, and they become
faint towards the abdomen, and rarely appear on the outer
row of scales. This row is generally of larger size than the
others.

The presence of an opposite feature~grooves~is fre-
quently" noted; they are far from obvious, and are only
visible by reflection as one or two minute gougings at the
apex of the scales.

The ventral shields are narrow at their ﬁrst appearance
between the chin shields; the ﬁrst one or two are often
biﬁd, and as many as ten to twenty rows of ordinary scales
often intervene. (All these scales which intervene between
the last pair of chin shields (q. v.) and the ﬁrst undivided
ventral are called gular scales). The ventrals are absent,
rudimentary or narrow in the burrowing snakes, the gro~
A veiling snakes, the pythons and the sea-snakes, whilst they
are mest developed in tree-snakes and others of active
habits. In these latter they become broad, turned up at
the sides, and often have two lateral keels so well developed
as nearly to divide- them into three sections. The last of
the series» is the anal shield ; it is sometimes biﬁd, and this

 

19

character, when itoccurs, is very regular. Still more, regu- .
lar is the single or double (biﬁd) condition of the subcaudal
shields ; they are generally double, being divided down the
centre by a‘zigzag line. I
The head is covered with scales like on the rest of the
body, with large plates of regular form or with various
gradations between these two classes of covering.

In the greater number of vipers, there is no trace of the
regular-shielded crown possessed by the majority of snakes ;
the Eryc’idoe and ”Acrocho’rdz'dw have also scaly heads ; the
burrowing snakes have an incomplete shielded cOvering. ,
In two snakes of very opposite habits, the head-covering is
composed of large scales simulating the arrangement of
shields ; Xenopeltis unicolor, a burrowing snake, and
Peltopelor macrolepis, a tree-viper, both solitary species of
their genus, have large triangular scales occupying with
tolerable regularity the place of the head-shields.

The head-shields appear to have formed round a central
shield, the vertical, which is always of a shape departing but
little from the form of a pentagonal heraldic shield, base in

" front, apex behind. Behind this, are the two occipitals, large,

elongated, and either rounded or truncated behind. In
front of the vertical are two pairs of shields, the posterior
frontals more or less square, and the anterior frontals of mini-
lar form, but smaller and liable to encroachment in front
and at the side. On either side of the vertical are the two
supraciliarws, of very regular and of crescentic shape,
shading the eyes.

These four pairs of shields with their centre, the vertical,
form the crown ; the other shields are on the sides of the
face.

“The muzzle is covered by a convex triangular shield, the
rost-ral, which often extends up a little way between the

. anterior frontals; it is broad at its base with a slight chink

 

 

20

in the middle for the exit of the tongue without the mouth
being Opened.

Behind the rostral on either side is a double series of
shields, one above the other; the lower series are the labials,
(21.101er varying ordinarily from ﬁve to nine in number, and
increasing in size from before hindward. One or more of
them enter the orbit when there is no subocular. The shields
between. the labials and the crown on either side are the
nasals, the lhreal, the oculars, and the temporals. The nasal
is sometimes single being pierced by the nostril, but more
frequently there are two nasals with the nostril between them.
In the water-snakes, both river and sea, where the nostrils
are superior, the nasals of either side are often contiguous,
excluding the anterior frontals from contact with the rostral.
The loreal is absent in the Elapidoe, and in some of the
harmless colubrine snakes it is merged into the anterior
oculars or the frontals. It is generally present, and, in some
snakes, it is double or triple (Ptyas, Zaocys, Herpetoreas).
Sometimes it wedges itself between the anteoculars into the
orbit. The anteocalars are variable in number; one or two

is the usual number; the upper is generally the larger and ‘

often reaches on to the crown, and more rarely as far as
the vertical; the lower is smaller and often seems to be
a fragment of a lower labial. The postoculars. number
usually from one to three, and extend lower down than the
anteoculars. The lower border of the orbit is sometimes
occupied by a subocnlar, but this completion of the orbital
ring is rare (Zamenls, certain Homalops'idae, Amblycepha-
ltdae) ; the rule is for one or more labials to enter the orbit.
Behind the postoculars are the temporals, variable in number,
shape, and arrangement. They are counted backwards in
vertical rows ; thus 2 + 2 + 3 temporals means that behind
the postoculars are two shields one over the other; then
come two more similarly placed, and lastly a set of three.

'

 

21

These temporals are very transitional to ordinary scales.
In one snake (Ophlcphagas) the temporals join in a complete
ring round the occipitals by the addition of two large shields
behind them.

The shields covering the lower jaw are also regularly
arranged. In front, corresponding to the rostral above, is
a single shield, the mental, and from it the lower labials go
backwards as in the upper jaw. The pair of ﬁrst labials
nearly always meet in the median line behind the mental,
but the other lower labials are separated.by two pairs of
longitudinally disposed chin shields* one behind the other.
The chin shields of either side are separated by a tolerably
deep mental groove in all but the lower types. One or more
pairs of scales (gula'r scales) usually intervene between the
chin shields and the ﬁrst ventral.

This arrangement of head—shields is sketched out in the
skinks, a family of lizards of very ophidian form and feeble
limbs ; but the lowest type of snakes, the Typhlopédoc,
strangely enough have a totally different arrangement of head-
shields, (see description in Part IV). Redundancy of head-
shields is comparatively rare 3 the multiple shields may be
increased or diminished in number, but the intercalation of
abnormal shields is not often met with. Zamc'nis diadema
and the Pythonidae offer almost the only examples of redund-
ant shields on the crown. Sub-division of shields often
occurs, but very rarely is the character constant ; it is
usually an individual eccentricity to be commonly found in
certain species.

The colour of the integument is generally resident in the
scales, although it frequently happens either that the true
skin partakes of the colour of the scales or that the 'scales
shows between their edges the ground colour of the skin

* Or rather gular shields in order to obviate the ambiguity of the terms
‘ mental’ and ‘ chin’ shields when expressed in Latin.

 

22

beneath. Thissikin is usually white, but black crossobands on
it are not uncommon, as also reticulated'patterns in yellow,
red, or pale blue. The two latter colours come and go in the
same manner as the colours of a turkey’s wattles, and are
‘often interchangeablein the same individual. (Ex. Trap/ido-
Inoitus stolatus). The scaly coat has generally a ground-colour
of olive brown in various shades and tints. Other colours
also commonly occur, black, brown, yellow, green, white and
more rarely.red and blue. Green is the usual colour of
tree-snakes ; itis very delicate, and rapidly passes through
‘changes from tender green to bronze and blue. In a few
cases the colours are dull, but generally they are iridescent in
certain lights, and afford a beautiful play of colours.

.The patterns .in which these colours are arranged are
often very difﬁcult to describe, and there are, I should say,
few artists skilful enough to paint a drawing of a snake from
a written _ description of the colours and pattern. The
entrance of an interstitial pattern from the skin below, the
secondary patterns produced by dark tinged margins to the
scales, and the play of colours in different lights, sorely tax
the word-painter’s power of description.

The patterns are formed by stripes, series of dots, of ring-
spots, of ocelli or of other shaped marks in a longitudinal or
in a transverse direction, or in both. Theilongitudinal pat-
tern may cross the transverse pattern or vice versed, and the
points of crossing may be marked by another pattern.
These markings rarely extend round the body, except in a
few snakes encircled by rings ; generally the undenparts
are of a different pattern, plain, mottled, banded, or spotted.
The throat is also of a different colour, lighter, often yellow.
The head is sometimes marked with ﬁllets, and streaks fre-
quently pass obliquely backwards from the, eye to the
throat. Collars are very common, either >shaped (point for-
ward) or< shaped (point backwards). Crossbars are often

23
ocellate, that is, including eyesin their course, and a fascia-
latecl pattern is common; it consists of cross bars of varie-

gated colours produced by darker or lighter tips to certain
series of scales.

I have not yet been able to ascertain the exact period at
which snakes cast their skins, but I think that about two
months 18 the average interval between each cast. At the
approach of the casting, the colours of the snake become
somewhat dull, and a white ﬁlm 13 seen over the surface of

.the eye. When the skin, or rather the epidermis, (for it is

the colourless scarf skin which separates, like in human
beings after an attack of scarlet fever,) is ready to be cast,
the snake rubs the skin back from his nose and chin, and
seeks some projecting point such as would be afforded by a
split bamboo, some stiff thatch, or a heap of stones, on which
to catch the loose skin; perhaps adhesion is aided by the
application of glutinous saliva ; anyhow the snake manages
to stick the loose skin of the nose and chin to some conve-
nient object, and then proceeds to peel himself out of his
integument, which, of course, remains inside out like an eel’s
skin after the involuntary exit of its tenant-with this differ-
ence, that the snake has had numerous opportunities,
denied to the eel, of becoming used to the process. The cast
skins are beautiful objects, there is often not a break in
them from nose to tip. The epidermal covering of the eye
comes off- along with the rest of the skin, and every scale,
every keel is distinctly marked ; colour alone is absent,* but
even without it the kind of snake to whom the skin
belonged can often be identiﬁedcr They are very delicate
and fragile, and are liable to destruction by mites unless
kept along with camphor.

 

* The pattern of the Python' is visible 1n his cast skin.

1- When I was stationed at Kamptee 1n 1868, the house I occupied, jointly
with a brother ofﬁcer, also gave shelter to a cobra and a. pair of Bungarus
arcuatus. I never saw them, but easily identiﬁed them by the skins they
periodically cast. I could not ﬁnd out where the cobra lived; the other
snakes lived 1n 3. hole 111 the wall under my dressing table.

 

 

PART II.-—~NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.~—-—THE SNAKE AT LIBERTY.

WE. have but little knowledge of the habits of snakes
when at liberty, owing to the difﬁculties attending the
observation of such animals in trepical climates ;* vigilant
and patient, they mostly remain during the day in a state of
repose, seeking their prey at those hours when most ani-
mals have relax’ed from their usual watchfulness and are
seeking shelter for the night. Whether ground or tree-
snakes, they remain patiently in the same attitude until
their prey approach, then, gently gliding over the short dis-
tance which intervenes, they pounce on the unsuSpecting
victim. The approach is so imperceptible that doubtless a
certain amount of curiosity must often ﬁx the attention of
animals on perceiving the snake for two or three seconds
before they become aware of their danger ; but of fascina-
tion as it is called, there is none.

The habits of snakes are so retiring and so little apt to
attract attention, that they rarely obtrude themselves on our
notice. The only occasions on which we observe them are
when they imprudently venture near our habitations, or
when the eye of the sportsman is quartering the grorind anxi-
ously for the ﬁrst movement of snipe or quail. At other
times, they generally elude notice; unless a European has
sharp sight and. habits of unconscious observation of what
is going on around him as he walks, he may live for ten
years in Indian stations without seeing as many live snakes
otherwise than in the hands” of the juggler. My own expe-

 

* From the eagerness of people to look for the marvellous in all that con-
cerns snakes, the observations of non-scientiﬁc enquirers are always open to
suspicion. On this subject, the safest plan is to believe nothing that you
hear, and only half what you see.

 

25

rience is hardly a fair criterion as I am very short-sighted;
I cannot, therefore, attach much importance to the fact that
I have never yet come across a snake accidentally ; although,
when I go out snake-hunting, keeping a sharp look-out,
I rarely fail to bag a specimen of some sort.

The rainy season is the time when snakes are most
lively ; in the hot and dry weather they retire to
cool and moist places. I have not found that season
inﬂuences either the shedding of the skin or the laying of
eggs, but with respect to the latter act I cannot be certain.
I have found that the cobra’s eggs are generally laid in the
rainy season, whilst Tropiclonotus quincunciatus lays in J anu-
ary or February. The eggs are not laid for about three
months after impregnation ; they are of the usual oval form,
and have a soft white parchment covering ; they are gene-
rally deposited in a mass of decaying vegetation, occasion-
ally in sand, and I am informed on trustworthy authority
that the hamadryas (Ophiophagus) has been found coiled on
a nest of evidently artiﬁcial construction. The eggs laid in
strings and adhering together as usual were deposited on,
and covered by, a layer of wild plantain shrubs, so as to
afford protection combined with the heat and moisture of
decaying vegetation. I have in vain endeavoured to hatch
the eggs’of snakes that had laid in captivity. Whether I
removed them to a place of equable temperature, or placed
them in a moist heat or left them in the pot for the mother
tolook after, the result was the same. Snakes appear to
watch over their eggs, but I do not believe that they
impart any warmth to them. The eggs that I left under a
snake for three weeks were as hard and shrivelled when
I removed them as those which I had taken away; heat
and moisture are evidently needed for the development of
the embryo, as the thin membrane which serves for a shell

allows evaporation to take place very quickly. The number
. 4

kn

 

26

\

of eggs laid vary from twenty to thirty. Some snakes are
viviparous, the sea-snakes for instance ; others are ovirvivipa~
rous, that is to say, that the young are fully developed when
the eggs are laid and speedily effect their exit ; but the
great majority of snakes are strictly oviparous. With
reference to the story of snakes offering their young a tempo-
rary refuge in their stomachs on the approach of danger,
I cannot offer an opinion of any value, never having seen or
heard of it in India 3 there is nothing impossible about it,
as the young snakes could certainly do without air for half
an hour, and. a snake’s stomach is sufﬁciently capacious to
allow a frog to croak ole profundis clamcwi when he evident-
ly occupies a position about two feet from the daylight.

Snakes feed upon small animals of any description as
long as they are of proportionate size. Frogs are the
principal food of the large and middle-sized ground-
snakes, toads do not come amiss to them ; rats, birds’ eggs,
and mice are also favourite articles of food, whilst young
birds, lizards, tree-frogs and grasshoppers are the food of
the tree-snakes. The water-snakes live“ on ﬁsh, and the

amphibious land-snakes catch the ﬁsh which inhabit the”

mud of the paddy-ﬁelds. A. large python might possibly
manage a kid or a fawn of the smaller species of deer, but
the stories of their swallowing goats, stags, men; and oxen
arelpure travellers’ tales. Many of the burrowing snakes
live on worms and other insects, and some snakes actually
live on their brethren, at least on other snakes; they are
probably hard up for food at the time. There is no reason
why a snake should not swallow another snake nearly as big
as himself if he gets the chance; Ihave seen two snakes
who had caught the same frog between them manoeuvre
very cleverly when their noses met; the one who got his
head within the other’s jaw would certainly have gone down
. along with the frog if he had not freed, himself from the

 

 

 

27-»

frog and the snake too by a sudden effort. When young,
snakes live on larvae, ﬂies, young geckoes, and other lizards
until they are big enough to manage the usual prey of
their species.

Snakes drink water freely; I have frequently counted
above a hundred gulps of water go down before the drinker
was satisﬁed. I have never succeeded in inducing a snake
to drink milk, though, when water was afterwards offered,
it drank eagerly. The stories, ancient and modern', of snakes’
sucking cows’ teats and robbing dairies would appearto be
without foundation.

I am incredulous of the stories commonly received con—-
cerning the manner in which snakes are said to kill their
prey, viz., by crushing it in their folds. The pressure which
the largest snake can exercise is very mild indeed, just suf-
ﬁcient to hold their prey if necessary and prevent it escap—
ing; the only inconvenience of having a nine.foot python
or hamadryas coiled round one is that he is apt to make a
mess on your clothes. Neither do snakes lick their crushed
prey (‘ slaver it over’ is the term used in story and simile)
before swallowing it 3 if the prey is active, after catching it
with their teeth they throw a few folds round it simply to
prevent it. from struggling, and then bolt it just as they
would a frog:

CHAPTER II.—-—-THE SERPENTARIUM.

The collector of snakes must study their habits if he

wishes to be successful in his search for specimens ; and I
can only give a few indications as to the likely places for
them. Dry nullahs leading down to tanks are a good ﬁnd
for amphibious snakes such as the Tropidonoti ; tussocks
of grass in wet paddy-ﬁelds often afford shelter to the
ground vipers ; the neighbourhood of houses is affected by
'Lycodon ; the old galleries of white ants’ nests are the refuge

 

28

of various kinds of snakes, cobras included ; and the hollows
of old trees containing decaying vegetable matter are often
chosen by snakes as a nest for their eggs. But the European
in India can do little himself beyond keeping a sharp
look-out whilst walking for exercise or after game ; by far
the greater part of collections are made by employing the
patience and acuteness of natives in this laborious pursuit.
In stations where a reward is given by the authorities for
every cobra that is killed, other snakes will often be brought
in, and an arrangement with the police will bring these to
any one willing to give a small reward. But the best way
is undoubtedly to make generally known amongst toddy-
drawers, grass—cutters, ﬁshermen, and native followers in
general, that a reward will be given for every snake that is
brought in, varying in amount according to the rarity of
the snake, whether it be in good condition, and alive or
dead. By giving an extra reward for live specimens, all
unnecessary destruction of life will be avoided, andas in
most cases the snakes brought in would have been killed
out of malice or fear, the reward can hardly be said to incite
to the destruction of snakes. Nay, a few words of explana-
tion to the people who usually bring snakes will teach them
the difference betweenthe harmless and the poisonous snakes,
and either direct their attention to those which are wanted
for observation, or divert their attention from the more
common species.

, I may here observe that natives of India, of the South at
least, know nothing about snakes, have no names for them,
and can give nothing but erroneous information. If you do
not know Tamil, it is useless to ask natives for the name
of a snake ; you will simply obtain a polysyllabic compound
of the word pambz’b with about as much meaning in it as the
stupid ‘ whip-snake’ and ‘ carpet-snake’ of the Anglo-
Indian vocabulary. If you possess the rare accomplishment

\

29

of knowledge of some language of the South of lndia,

manufacture your own. names for the snakes, as I have been
obliged to do in English for the more common of those
described further on. In Hindustani, there are but three
names of individual snakes which are at all recognized:
‘ Nag samp,’ the cobra—J Dhaman,’ Ptyas mucosus~and
Ajgur, the python. The natives of Burmah are far more
intelligent in ophiology ; the cobra, the hamadryas, the
dhaman, the chain-viper, the black-striped red dh‘aman,
Compsosoma, have all names in the Burmpse and Karen
languages, and the people are well acquainted with their
habits.

Some snakes allow themselves to be caught without the
slightest attempt at resistance. The gentle Tropidonotus
stolatus, subminiatus, and plumbicolor allow themselves to
be taken up, and in dry weather the offer of a drink of
water will at once gain their heart. But most snakes are
strongly opposed to being captured, and some show their
independence by snapping viciously. Tropidonotus quincun-
ciatus and Ptyas both ﬁght for their freedom even at the
earliest age, and, though they resign themselves philosophi-
cally to a domestic life, are always a little uncertain to
handle ; their bite is, however, quite harmless, and by no
means painful.

The collector need provide himself with no implements ,
beyond his walking stick, which, if placed on the neck of any
snake, will permit of its being grasped without trouble. If
the specimen has to be carried any distance and is too large
to be stowed into a pocket, a piece of string to bind him to
the stick will be found useful, as holding a large snake by
the tail is inconvenient, and holding him by the neck becomes
irksome, especially in the case of a venomous kind. It must
be remembered that the great mobility of the maxillaries

 

   

a

30

will often enable a snake to turn round on your ﬁngers
when you think he is quite secure; therefore, take care to
place your ﬁnger and thumb on either side of the neck,
never above and below it.

A cobra standing at bay can be readily captured ; put the
point of a stick gently on his head and bear it down to the
ground by a ﬁrm and gradual pcessure ; .he will not resist;
then place the stick horizontally across his neck and take
him up. Ybu must not dawdle about this ; sharp is the
word in dealing.with snakes, and they have as much respect
for ﬁrm and kind treatment as contempt for timidity and
irresolution. When, however, an active snake carries on a
running ﬁght, the only way to capture him is to give him a
tap across the back sufﬁciently hard to take the go-out of
him without injuring him. If you .wish to capture your
specimen alive, err rather on the side of mercy and see how
gentle a blow will sufﬁce to put him hers dc combat. Even if
you want the snake for the museum and not for the mena-
gerie, it is important to secure him with as little injury as
possible.

The juggler or snake exhibitor keeps his snakes in ﬂat
baskets of just sufﬁcient size to hold a cobra when coiled up.
However convenient this basket may be for portability and
exhibition purposes,it is not suitable for othersnakes than the
cobra, and it is only admissible as a temporary lodging. The
best habitation for snakes would doubtless be a verandah
fenced to a,sufﬁcient height with wire gauze 3 it might -be
divided into compartments in order to separate snakes of
ophiophagous habits from the rest of the community, and be
provided with water and shrubs sufﬁciently to gratify the
desire for coolness and shade. Such a serpentarium would
enable interesting observations to be made on the habits of
snakes. The ﬂoor should be strewn with sand ; it will not

*«osz'm’w 135,“: 3 .mn

'.H,:

     

l

31

often require renewal owing to the inoffensive nature of
the uric acid excreta of snakes."6

Next to the above arran gement,the best serpentarium con-
sists of wooden boxes, old wine cases, in which the wood
is re-placed as much as possible by glass and wire gauze or
perforated zinc. A ﬁat-bottomed pan of water should
always be kept in the box, for not only do snakes drink freely,
but they also like the Cool shade to be enjoyed by coiling
themselves close round the pan. If a small cha'tty of water
be also given them, some snakes will proceed to inhabit it.
It will not be uncommon to see half a dozen Trapidonotus
quincunciatus coiled down comfortably in the chatty of water
and staying there for days together; a head coming up
occasionally to breathe, and sinking down again directly.

A few pieces of brick must also be provided in order to
facilitate the periodical casting of the skin; failing these
convenient points of attachment, the skin will come off in
fragments instead of being cast in its integrity.

To take a snake out of the box, when he is not sufﬁciently
domesticated to be taken up with the hand, lift his body
with a hooked stick, and, as his tail glides over it, take hold
of it and deposit him on the ﬂoor or in a spare box. If you
wish to tame the snake, he must be taken out daily and gra—
dually accustomed to being handled ; if you could persuade
him to drink milk, the offer of it would become a great induce-
ment to good behaviour. A cobra must always be taken
out daily and gradually tired out of his wildness, but in the
intervals of his performances he should be left alone and not

~worried. There is very little danger about handling this

 

" Snake’s dung was, some years ago, of some value; about three shillings
per lb. was the price, if I remember right; it was used 501- the manufacture
of mureaaide, a brilliant purple dye. Aniline has probably beaten uric acid
out of the market by this time.

   

 

32

snake, nerve is all that is required. , I have very little of it
myself, and can never handle venomous snakes with conﬁ-
dence ; I have often envied the nerve of a friend in Rangoon,

who, emboldened by the possession of an antidote in case of .

accident, handles cobras with perfect freedom ; he puts his
hand into a narrow-mouthed basket containing several
cobras, and picks out the one he wants without the slightest
objection on the part of the snake beyond the usual hard

swearing. .

When the cobra is on the ﬂoor, squat down before him and

bring him to attention if he is making tracks, by a smart

smack on the back ; then, by a side-to-side movement of the
knees or gently moving in front of him a piece of chalk held in
the left hand, he can be kept steady for a long time, following
your movements. If your attention relaxes, he calms down
and backs away ; catch hold of him by the tail or smack him
on the back, and he will come to attention again. Keep him
occupied with an object in front of him, and you may do any
thing to him ; place your right hand above his head, and you
can bring him ﬂat to the ground, swearing hard, but without
any attempt at resistance. After he has stood up for some
time, it is easy to provoke a strike ; this, however, is rarely
done viciously, and the injury inﬂicted is generally conﬁned
to his own nose ; most captive cobras have their cnos°es barked
raw from frequent hits against hard substances.

The country music played by snake-charmers during the
cobra’ s performance is, I need hardly say, quite superﬂuous,
and it is highly probable that, far from enjoying music, he
has very little appreciation of sound. The Burmese do
exactly the same tricks with snakes, without the aid of
music, and also without extracting the snake’s fangs, a pre-
caution generally taken by the Indian juggler. _ I believe
that these men not only take out the fangs, but, aware of

 

33

their reproduction, 'Cauterize the fang-matrix ; for, in some
escaped cobras which I have in my collection, there is not a
trace of fang or matrix.

The small red ants which infest some houses have often
given me much trouble; they will attack live snakes, and I
have several times found of a morning valuable specimens
killed, and their skins seriously damaged. The only remedy
for this is to isolate the boxes from the ﬂoor by pieces of
wood saturated with a solution of corrosive sublitnate. The
boxes should be examined daily and any casu‘alties transfer-
red to the museum.

A feast and a fast is more the custom of snakes’than fre—
quent feeding ; their prey is generally sufﬁciently large to
afford their digestive organs exercise for several days, and,
during this time, they take their ease lying in wait for an-
other meal. The possibility of keeping snakes in captivity
entirely depends on their temper ; some snakes feed readily,
others are sulky and obstinately refuse food. Amongst the
latter are cobras ; I do not know how they manage with .
them in Zoological Gardens, but I have never seen a, cobra
feed, and I think that, unless fed by force, he will starve
himself to death. The chain-viper Daboia. is very sulky,
and will live for four or ﬁve months without food 5 the cobra
though will not survive his voluntary starvation for more
than a month or six weeks. J ugglers, I believe, either feed
their cobras with liquid nourishment, or else let them loose
when their lives are endangered; probably their experience
in snake-catching enables them to re-capture their prisoners
at a future time. ‘

If a snake will not feed. himself after being two or three
weeks in captivity, he must be fed. The most convenient food
for the purpose is ﬁsh; catch the snake by the heck, the
ﬁnger on one side, the thumb on the other; presenter-the

5

 

34

head of a convenient-sized ﬁsh to him, he will easily be
induced to make a bite at it, then force it down his throat,
guiding the tail with a forceps when it comes within range
of the teeth. I need hardly say that the ﬁsh should not be
cooked, and need not be alive. If the snake, on being releas-
ed, throw up the ﬁsh,* you must begin again, and give him
two ﬁsh (on the chance of his retaining at least one) and
coax them gently down his gullet. Leaving the back-ﬁn

untrimmed may also mechanically prevent the rejection of
the ﬁsh.

Most of the ground colubrine snakes feed freely in capti-
vity; Ptyas mucosus especially is very eager at his foo'd,1'
and will bolt frogs of very large size. I feed these kinds of
snakes once a week ; I put two frogs per snake into the
boxes, and let them divide the total number amongst them—
selves. Pythons need only be fed about once a month ; big
frogs, chickens, or bandicoots are the best food for them.

CHAPTER III.—-THE MUSEUM.

The collector will rarely be obliged to kill a snake for the

purpose of examination. He will generally have quite enough 0

snakes brought to him dead, and most snakes can with very
little trouble be identiﬁed while alive ; he will only have to
kill snakes when they are quite new to him or are rare
specimens worthy of preservation. The best.way to kill a

 

it A. snake on being captured generally throws up any recently ingested i
food, and some timid snakes must not be disturbed after their meals 1931;
their digestion be deranged in a similar way.

1' My attention was once drawn by the cries of four Malabar weaver-bird’s
(Ploceus bayou) who were in a cage in my verandah. On going out I
found that a large Dhaman had lifted the lid of his box, carelessly left.
unfastened, and had got out; but instead of making instant use of his
liberty, he could not, resist the temptation offered by this cage of birds ; he
insinuated himself between the bars, and was bolting the second bird when-I
came to the rescue 5 he caught hold of the third before I could secure him
agam.

 

 

35

snake is to poison him ; interesting experiments may be
made by. causing him to be bitten by venomous snakes, but
the easiest and least painful way is to put him in a sufﬁciently
large bottle and pour in a few drops ,of chloroform. If

- the quantity of vapour produced be sufﬁcient to saturate the

air in the bottle, the snake will be insensible in a few
seconds, and, if left in for ten or ﬁfteen minutes, will be quite
dead. If taken out directly insensibility is complete, the
anaesthesia will remain for an hour or more, and then pass
away ' without injury to the snake ; but .this temporary
anaesthesia should, of course, be avoided. Another convenient
way of killing a snake without injury is by blowing into his
mouth a drop or two of the oil from a dirty tobacco pipe.
Nicotine can, of_ course,be manufactured for the purpose,
but a small bottle of essence of tobacco is readily procured ,
from the kind contributions of pipe-smoking friends, and is
quite as effectual as more elegant preparations. Do not
commit the cruelty of putting a snake alive into a bottle
of spirit, for as long as a bubble of air remains in the bottle
the snake can breathe, and the death is a most lingering
one.

When you have your dead specimen before you, you can
take down its description, diagnose it, draw or paint its poré
trait (a plan .strongly recommeded to oﬁicers who are disin;
clined to trail large bottles of specimens about the country)
or even photograph it ; but photography is. not, I ﬁnd ,‘ a very
successful delineator of snakes, and it does not give the
slightest clue to the pattern of their coloration. V

Either the whole snake, or merely its skin,may be preserv-
ed ; of stuﬁing I do not speak ; perhaps, on their arrival in
England some cunning taxidermist may be able to make
something better than a hideous sausage of your' snake
skins, but that is beyond the limits of my subject. I intend

 

36

at some future time trying to preserve snakes entire by
substituting glycerine with antiseptic substances dissolved
in it for the ﬂuids in the body, but Ithave yet only partially
carried out my idea. I have some heads of venomous snakes,
with the poison apparatus dissected for demonstration,
which were preserved nearly a year ago, and they are now
quite inoffensive and perfectly fresh and moist.

They were merely soaked for a week in glycerine mixed
with an eighth part of carbolic acid, drained, wiped dry, and
putin a stoppered bottle. I take them out occasionally for a
few hours and replace them in the bottle when I have done
with them ; they promise to keep for any length of time.

This process apart, the two methods available for the
preservation of snakes is by putting them bodily into spirit
of wine or by preserving the skin only. Large snakes do
not usually keep well in Spirit unless they have been clear-
ed of their internal organs.

Tree-snakes are particularly difﬁcult of‘ preservation, and,
however great care be taken,their beautiful colours generally
fade, and their epidermis peels off in a very annoying
manners Bright light is fatal to the colours; the bottles
should be kept covered up from the light or arr uniform
dirty white will soon be the general colour' of the col-
lection. '

If the snake is known by experience to be perishable in
spirit, it should be .slit up and the whole of the interior
removed, otherwise a few incisions into the abdomen to let
the Spirit penetrate every- where will be sufﬁcient, especially
in the case :of small specimens.

It- should be removed to a‘permanvent location in fresh
spirit afterra week’s soaking in the ﬁrst or depot bottle.

37

The spirit should be strong, from 40 to 60 degrees 0. P.
(sp. gr. '870 to ‘825) brandy or arrack are not nearly strong

' enough. When rectiﬁed spirit is not procnrable, common

arrack may be concentrated to the desired strength by the
addition of quicklime, or of potash, (pearl-ash, carbonate of
potash, not bicarbonate)———or even by the old process of put-
ting the spirit into fresh bladders and hanging them up
until the volume is reduced to about one-half.

Unless the stoppers of the bottles ﬁt very‘acciirately, it is
well to prevent weakening of the spirit by sealing the stop-
pers with soft wax.

-

If you wish to show the teeth or poison apparatus of a
specimen, its mouth must be kept open with a gag before
putting it into spirit, as otherwise you will ﬁnd it a matter
of no small difﬁculty to open the mouth after the muscles
have become rigidly ﬁxed.

I think that the best collection is that where there are
two specimens of each snake, one in spirit, the other con-
sisting of the skin only ; it is well to avail oneself of a
leisure day to dissect and skin a duplicate specimen instead
of simply, popping it into a bottle. ‘

Begin by dissecting the skin from off the head, taking
care not to out further down than the subcutaneous tissue if
you want the head for subsequent dissection. Slit the snake
down from chin to tip with a pair of sharp scissors, keeping
carefully in the median line of the ventral shields ; separate
the skin carefully as far back as possible on each side, and.
then take off the skin from the head downwards, relieving
the tension by frequent strokes of the knife on the sub-
cutaneous tissue. When you have skinned as far as the vent,
the skin must be carefully separated from its anal attaehu- ‘

 

 

38

ments ; and if it does not peel readily off the tail, dissect
it off rather than run the risk of breaking it.*

When the skin is removed, it must be pinned out with
the inner surface upwards on a board (teakwood is the
best) with a pin at every 3 or {L ventrals,taking care to stretch
the skin as evenly as possible ; the subcutaneous and fatty
tissue must then be removed, if the snake be at all of large
size. The best way to do this is to scrape from the cut
edges of the ventral shield towards the median line. When
this is done, the’whole surface must be brushed over with a
preservative solution made by dissolving about half an ounce
of corrosive sublimate in a reputed pint bottle of spirits)-
This will coagulate any remaining subcutaneous tissues, and
will, effectually preserve the skin against the attacks of rats
or insects. Do not get any on your nails, as it dyes them a
brown colour. Then complete the pinning out of the skin
with a pin to every one or two ventrals, according to size,
and let it dry in-doors until next day; it may then be taken
off the board and tranSferred to the collection. Small thin
skins may be gummed on to large sheets of paper, the others

1'

5“ The only snake whose body- skin comes off with difﬁculty is Bungarus
fasciatus; the spinous processes are so long and so ﬁrmly attached to the
vertebral row of scales, that each has to be separately drssected cut, no
slightmatter when two hundred have to be so treated ; even then, button-
holes will occasionally be made. The Dhciman has a most intimate union
betwixt his tail and its skin, it must be dissected off, do not attempt
traction.

+ Corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury) being often required for
these purposes, I may mention that it is procurable in the drug bazaars under
the name (Tamil) 'of Shavimm. In Hindustani, the name is stated to be
RaskapzZr (meaning mercurial camphor) ; but this name is frequently and
more properly applied to a sulphate of mercury. This substance is insolu-
ble in spirit, and water changes it into the insoluble yellow subsulphate
(turpethum minerale) ; this mskapur must be sublimed with common salt to
change it into bichloride of mercury. I have known many people disappoint-
ed at getting this substance when they wanted corrosive sublimate.

Q

 

 

“Ms

39 .

  

are best kept between two boards, as they otherwise curl up
in the hot weather.

CHAPTER IV.-—ANTIDOTES TO SNAKE Poxson.

I would fain not speak on this subject, as I do not believe
that there is any antidote known for the bite of a poisonous
snake, yet I cannot well avoid doing so considering that
I belong to the medical profession. If you are really bitten
by a snake such as the cobra, the hamadryas, the chains
viper, or other kinds well known to possess a poison fatal
to mam-and the snake has really injected poison into your
system, unless. you have the means of applying at once very
active measures, you had best hang up your harp on the
willow tree, beg your friends not to torment you with

antidotes and make your bow to this pleasant world as
gracefully as you can.

Q

If you are fond of brandy and ammonia, by all means take
your usual drams for the satisfaction of your friends ; it pleases
them, and will not,under the circumstances, do you muchharm ;
but if you are not addicted to those stimulants, do not inconve-
nience yourself by their ingurgitation. The Melbourne gentle-
man (I forget his name) who, about a year ago, got himself
bitten by a viper for experimental purposes, appears to have
fared very well until the faculty administered stimulants to
him, contrary to the distinct caution of the snake-exhibitor,
who guaranteed no harm if his orders were strictly followed.
It certainly seemed very hard that this unfortunate man (the
snake exhibitor) was afterwards prosecuted for manslaughter,
because it was taken for granted that he was an impostor and
that the experimenter would have died, if his advice had been
followed. My View of the case is this. This man had probably
been bitten with impunity the ﬁrst time by one of the snakes
he was in the habit of catching- , either from its poison being
weak, or from his having used caustics to the wound, the

4O

blood-poisoning was insufﬁcient to kill him, but sufﬁcient to
establish an immunity, (I do not see why this should not
occur in snake blood-poisoning as well as in that of contagi-
ous fevers) ; the man was, therefore, able to be bitten without
harm, though be ascribed his immunity to the powers of his
drug (a preparation of iodine or bromine, I believe). That
he was not an impostor is evident, from the fact that when
pressed to experiment by taunts of imposture, he produced
a viper from inside his waistcost, and acceded to the experi-
menter’s request. The gentleman was bitten, the antidote
applied, and distinct directions were given him as to his
regimen, and there was no evidence,beyond that of aprofessor
speaking on a subject on which he evidently knew no more
than the poor snakecatcher, to show that, if these directions
had been followed, death would have ensued. It is perfectly
possible that, in certain conditions, stimulants may destroy
the patients natural chance of recovery in snake bite just as
they do in cholera. A snake-bitten person may recover after
the administration of spirits just as a cholera patient occasion-
ally recovers under the same unfavourable circumstances;
a long experience of cholera is beginning,however,to teach us
better, (I hope so at least).

In cases of poisonous snake bite, we are, however, worse off
than in cholera; the number of cases are very sinall, and
are mostly spread about the country out of the reach of
medical aid, so that regular. experimentation cannot be
carried out. The average number of cases of death by
snake bite are about 1,800 per annum in the whole of the
Madras Presidency, and there is little doubt that a great
many cases of suspicious death are reported as snake bite
in order to avert inquiry. This number is very small,
considering the way in "which the natives of India go about
barefooted, and I believe that no Englishman has, fer many
years, beenbitten otherwise than from his own. rashness.

41,

In a large number of cases the bites take place at night,
and the kind of snake cannot be recognized; there is then
a chance that a bungarus or some other snake less deadly
than the cobra or the chain—viper has inﬂicted the bite.
At all events, directly it is ascertained that the snake is a
poisonous one, either by view of the snake or by inspection
of the bite, no time should be lost in adopting local treat-
ment ;. a string should be tied pretty tightly round the
limb, toe, or ﬁnger, the punctures should be enlarged and
vigorously sucked 3* after this some tincture of iodine, or
solution of iodine in an aqueous solution of iodide of potas-
sium should be rubbed into the wounds. In default of this
drug, vinegar or common salt might perhaps be used with

advantage.1- M ore than this I would not do.

Several medical men, both in India and in Australia, have,
of late, been experimenting with snake poison; but their
results have hitherto been entirely negative. Attention
has been especially directed to substances injected into the
circulation at or near the place of the bite, but though various
substances of alkaline, or antiseptic nature have been
employed, the results have been unsatisfactory. If any one
wishes to pursue these experiments, he should provide
himself with a good hypodermic syringe; those ordi-
narily sold are all but useless ; the best pattern would
be a small India rubber Sphere ﬁtted with a steel or plati-
num “nozzle made in exact imitation of a viper’s tooth.

 

\

* I do'not believe that there is the slightest danger in this.

+ About a week ago, a horsekeeper came to me at night, having been.
bitten about ten minutes before by some snake, kind unknown. The foot
was already much swollen and painful, and two streamlets of dried blood
showed the places of the punctures and that they were undoubtedly done
by a pair of poison fangs. I sent him to the hospital (close by) and ordered
the punctures to be slightly enlarged and tincture of iodine rubbed in ; to
my considerable astonishment, I found him quite well in the morning. In
this case, the snake not having, been seen, the evidence is obviously gefectivo

 

42

As for medicines given internally, I have but small faith
in them. ‘I have known a bad case of snake-bite cured by
, the administration of the contents of the cruet stand mixed
up together, but the remedy was heroic. If the patient
insisted on having medicine, I should give about 20 grains
of the chloride of sodium dissolved in an ounce of water
every half hour ; it could do no harm, and might pos-
sibly be of beneﬁt. I would certainly eschew Spirits.
Eau de Lupe, the compound tincture of ammonia, has, of
late years, revised considerably in favour,* probably in conse—
quence of some experiments of Dr. Richardson’s in support of
his theory that the blood was kept liquid by ammonia. The
experiments were at once seen to be fallacious by alliscien—
tiﬁc men, but the theory had, for many years, a strange fas—
cination for the medical profession.

Now, all that I have said on this subject must certainly
appear to be very unsatisfactory ; I am sorry for it, but we
are advancing very slowly indeed towards the solution of
the problem—an antidote for poisonous snake-bite. I have
Vseen enough of experiments with antidotes to know that they
are of a very unsatisfactory nature and their evidence open
to any amount of objection. Antidotes for snake—poison
like those for cholera only succeed in the hand of their
inventors. '

 

3“ Mr. Buckland, late Assistant Surgeon of the 2nd Life Guards,
well known as a genial and facile writer on popular natural history, states
that he owes his life to this medicine, (Curiosities of Natural History). If
I remember right, he supposes that he must have pricked his ﬁnger with a
knife which was dissecting a rat which had been bitten by a Zoological
Garden’s cobra. He was, shortly after, suddenly taken ill in the street and

.had just time to stagger into a, druggist’s shop, murmuring “ Eau de
Luce” ! Fortunately the druggist was a highly intelligent tradesmen and
with as much presence of mind as his customer, understood at once what
had happened and administered the antidote.

 

 

 

 

PART III.-—-GLASSIFIGATION.

CHAPTER I.-—-PRINCIPLES.

The following table of the families of snakes with their * .
sub-divisions is here presented in order tb give a general idea "
of the system of classiﬁcation observed, before entering into
the details of the descriptive catalogue.

ORDER. OPHIDIA. .
FIRST SUB-ORDER. HARMLESS COLUBRINE SNAKES.
(Serpentes colubriformes non-venenati.)
Snakes without poison-fangs in front of the maxilla.
Families. Genera. '

I. TYPHLOPIDZE. Blind Snakes.

Small and quite cylindrical, resembling at Typhl'l’na.
ﬁrst sight earth-worms rather than snakes. giggtiﬁphalm
Eyes rudimentary, no ventral shields, forepart
of the head covered with shields of a peculiar

J type. Rudiments of hind limbs, hidden. Bur-

rowing snakes, rarely appearing above ground.

II. TORTRICIDE. Short—tailed Earth Snakes.

Body cylindrical; tail very short, conical. C's/“Worm-

Eye small. °Head shielded, but only one pair
of frontals; ventral shields beginning to appear.
Palatine teeth ; Median groove at the chin.
Rudiments of hind limbs visible. Burrowing
snakes, occasionally found above ground.

III. UROPELTIDE. Rough-tailed Earth Snakes.

Body cylindrical; head short, conical; tail Rhmgpaa,
very short, ending in a rough or scaly disk, 355$:
generally obliquely truncated. Head shielded, ”Gems.

. M lo. Md' ‘
but only one pair of frontals; ventralshields e MP mm

\

 

 

    

44

apparent. No rudiments of hind limbs.* No General,
palatine'teeth. Burrowing snakes, living at
some distance under ground. _

IV. CALAMARIDE. Grovelling Snakes.

Body cylindrical; head small; tail short, Calamaria.

Microcephalus. {5

tapering. Eye small, ventral and subcaudal Oxycalamus,
shields well developed ; head shielded, but with 331333;.

one or more shields absent (generally one or gaff/3:53:33:
more anterior frontals, and the loreal). Pala-

tine teeth. Small snakes, living on the surface,

under trees, stones, &c.

V. OLIGODONTIDZE. Filleted Ground Snakes.

Body more colubriform'; tail moderate, taper- 0,590,,”
in g. Ventral and subcaudal shields ,well deve- S‘mm“

loped. Head normally shielded, with peculiar f

markings. Teeth few in number, in one genus
no palatines.’ The connecting link between the
foregoing ground-snakes and the next family.

VI. COLUBRIDE.

This family Comprises all those harmless
snakes which do not present any striking cha-
racter, are fair and moderate in their propor-
tions, and have none of the qualities necessary
for their admission into other families. Their.
head shields are normal, with the exception of

one or two species on the debatable ground A}.

betwixt this family and the Calamaridee ; they
have not the compressed and slender body of
the tree—snakes, yet some of them climb, and

 

*_ It may be taken, as a general rule, that when a character is not speciﬁed
it has nothing notev‘rorthy abo‘ t it, or that the arrangement is normal. Thus
the presence of palatine teeth being normal, I mention their absence, but .
not their presence except when it is necessary to note the point; and I only ‘
say ‘ no rudiments-reef hind limbs; when the neighbouring family has those
appendages. '

  

425

have a green Coloration; they have not the Genera.
superior nostrils and aquatic build of the true ,
fresh-water snakes, yet some of them are am-

phibious. They are divided into the following

groups :-—
Group I.—-CORONELLINA. Ground Colubers.

Of small size, with smooth scales ; some gene- Abzab“,
. . . z ' .
ra approach the Calamaridee 1n imperfect head 3213,2328“,

shielding, whilst others have the slender body ﬁgmfﬁ’fid‘um
and keeled ventrals which indicate ﬁtness fbr
climbing or swimming.

Group II.——COLUBRINA. Agile Uolubers.

Attain a large size. Their scales are keeled, Coluber.

. 1 - - Elaphis.
they are actne enough to climb and szm on compsosoma.

occasions, and are swift in their movements ginorm-
yes.

along the ground. Xenelaphis.
Group IlI.——DRYADINA. Bush Colubea's. zamm,‘

Their compressed body, numerous ventrals Zaocys.
(200 or more), and general green coloration Hamilton“
show that they are transitional to the families

of true tree-snakes.
Group IV.-——NATRICINA. Amphibious Colubers.

These 'snakes lead off to the river-snakes; Tropidonotue.
. . ' . . Ahetium.
their nostrils are often superior;the1r scales Xmachopm,

are always more or less keeled,the ventrals con- PWW‘WOW '
siderably less than 200 ; long teeth at the back
of the maxilla. '

VII. HOMALOPSIDE. River Snakes.
Bedy cylindrical ; tail mederate, compressed Fordonia-

. 0 t ' .
at the root. Ventrals rather narrow. Nostrils 0:713:73.
superior, provided with a ﬂeshy valvule: Head gimim‘

shields often irregular, anterior, frontals Hewlorsit
Hiptstes. ,

encroached on by the largernasals. The last 'Horpetoa.

 

tooth is transitional between a tooth and a Genera.
poison-fang. Rarely found far from the water.

VIII. PSAMMOPHIDE. Desert Snakes.

A class of snakes resembling the tree-snakes Psammophis.
in their form, but of strictly terrestial habits. Psammodynastes
Body slender, head very distinct from the neck, '
head shields normal.

IX. DENDROPHIDE. Tree Snakes.

Body slender, snout rather long but round- Gonyosonia. "
ed fairly ; eye mOderate or large with round 5313:2332

pupil. Ventrals broad with two lateral keels. Chrysopezw,
X. DRYOPHIDE. Long-nosed Tree Snakes.

Body excessively slender ; head narrow with Tropidqcoccyu.
the rostral shield deveIOped into a snout often ggafgﬁa.
of some length. Eye moderate with horizon-

tal pupil.
XI. DIPSADIDE. Broad-headed Tree Snakes.

Body slender, much compressed. Head Dipsas.
very distinct from the neck, Short and broad.
Eye moderate, with vertical pupil.

XII. LYCODONTIDE. Harmless-fanged Snakes.

Head depressed ; snout spatulate and ﬂat.'.fllivycodon.

Eye small, generally with vertical pupil. A 1,330,333?“
large fang in front of the maxilla and mandi— 3PM“:
eroaspw.

ble, but not grooved or hollow. Ground snakes.

XIII. AMBLYCEPHALIDE. Blunt-headed Snakes.

Body compressed, slender; head-short and ngMleW-
thick. Often a complete orbital ring of shields. '
Cleft of the mouth small, lower jaw not expan-
sible, no mental groove. A degraded type, con-

nected with the python family.

 

 

 

47

XIV. XENOPELTIDE. Iridescent Earth Snakes. Genera.
Body cylindrical; tail short, tapering; head Xenopeltis.
ﬂat, depressed, covered with large triangular

' shield—like scales. Burrowing snakes transi-

tional between the small earth-snakes and the
pythons. I
XV. PYTHONIDE. Pythons.

Body rounded or square, very thick ; head Python.
depressed, abnormally shielded. Labial shields
pitted. Ventrals very narrow, 240 or more.

Scales smooth, 65 or more. Rudimentary hind
limbs visible as aspur in a groove on each side
of the vent.

XVI. ERYCIDIE. Sand Snakes.
A family allied to the preceding by their ru- Gongyzopms,

Cursoria.

dimentary hind limbs, narrow ventrals, numer- Erya'

ous rows of scales. Crown of the head scaled.
XVII. Acnocnonnmn. Wart Snakes.

Head small; eye small; nostrils superior. Acrochordus.
Entirely covered with small tubercular or spiny Chmydms'
scales, no ventrals or subcaudals. Transitional
to the sea-snakes.

SECOND Summing. VENOMOUSCOLUBRINE SNAKES.
' (Serpentes colubriformes venenati.)

Snakes with a short, erect and more or less immovable per-
forated tooth in front of the maailla, and a poisonous
salivary secretion. '

Families. Genera.

I. ELAPIDJE. Venomons Coluhrine Land Snakes. Naga.

' Land-snakes with a short and nearly immov—' 23mm”

able poison-fang. Head normally shielded, but {1275:3253

.no loreal. Callophis. ‘

 

48

II. HYDROPHIDzE. Sea Snakes. Genera.

A short and nearly immovable poison-fang, pzatums,

- ' , - ) Aipysnrns.
Tall compressed 1nto a paddle. Head shields Diste'lra.
tolerably regular, nasals generally contiguous. Aggy}???-

.3] rep LS.
Ventrals narrow or none. Scales tubercular Enhyolrina.

and dull. Eye small 3 nostrils superior. ”lam-5'

THIRD SUB-ORDER. VIPERINE SNAKES.

(Serpentes viperini.)

Arboreal.
Dryophidae

Erycidee
l
Dryadina
Dendrophidee
' Dipsadidae
Amblyoephalidae
Viperidee g--—~Crota1idoe. ‘

Elapidae

Colubrina
Psammophidae

. i u o
Snakes teeth a long curved patson fang, more or less erectile.

Calam arldaa
l
Oligoilontidee

Families. Genera.

Xenopeltidae—Pythonidae

(Retrograde forms)

I. CROTALIDZE. Crotali or Pit-Vipers.

Broad thick head, very distinct from the Trimesurus.
Peltopelor.

neck, and generally scaly or imperfectly shield- Calloselasma,
ed. A deep, pit between the eye and the nos- gall/S-

. . ,, . . , ypnale.
trlls, leading to 'the antrnm mamlloe.

Lycodontidae -- Coronellina

 

II. VIPERIDZE. Vipers.

Broad thick head, scaly. No facial pit. Fang Daboia.
. . Echis.
very long W1th a speclal erector muscle.

The order in which I have arranged these families differs
somewhat from that adopted by Gunther; the improvement,
if any, is very slight, for it is difﬁcult, especially ‘when the
Indian genera are alone considered, to arrange the families
in groups which will show the afﬁnities of the families which
compose them. ~ I have given ﬁrst all those families which
appear to have successively developed from the burrowing
snakes, the lowest type, and then (at Lycodontidae) I have
returned to the lower types." which either have retrograded
or have developed on another principle. I imagine that the
process by which development has taken place must have
been somewhat. on the system shown below, and I have no
doubt that a consideration of general ophiology and not that
of India alone, would ﬁll up many hiatus at present evident.

 

Subterrane.
l .
Uropeltidae

- Typhlopidee

 

 

Q.)
"N
:3
N
N
6
'2
,h
N
R
O
Q)
IQ'
9-3
x
a
9
“R
N
3:
Q)
N
s
an
N
3-3
(9
Q.)
'3
“a
0
ea
a
Q
v‘x“.
U3

(Original type) Tommcmn
Acrochordidae

Aquatic.
Natricina
l
Homalopsidae

Hydrophidae

 

50

CHAPTER II.——DIAGN0s1s or AN UNKNOWN SNAKE.

The student of Ophiology should take some common and
well~known snake and practice making the description of it
with a view to familiarize himself with the various characters.
He should practice drawing the head shields ; to do this cor-
. rectly, he must begin by drawing the vertical, and then gra-
dually build up the other shields round it 5 to draw a snake
full length in a natural attitude is a difﬁcult task to any but
a cunning limner 3 but an exact representation of the head
and neck is possibleﬁo any one who will take a little trouble
about it. Colouring the drawing accurately is far from an
easy task, and requires some study of the natural process by
which the colours have become blended.

When an unknown snake IS required to be identiﬁed, the
ﬁrst step is to determine the family to which it belongs.
Does it belong to the Colubridae or to any one of the 20
other families? Some families have characteristics obvious
at ﬁrst sight. It is hardly possible to mistake the Hydro-
phz’doe, the Umpeltidoe, the Pythonidoc, the Typhlopidw, for
any other families, though even in some of these the bound-
ary line'is not always very distinctly marked. In order to
facilitate the comprehension of the preliminary allotment
into families, I have drawn up the follOwing synoptical table
of them ; if there be any uncertainty, their characters must
be studied more minutely in the descriptive catalogue. In
it, also must the divisions into groups, genera, and species be
sought.

SYNOPTICAL TABLE or FAMILIES.

A. No Porson—mnas.

1. Ventral shields absent or very narrow.

No ventrals ; hinder parts thickest 5 eyes not Typhlopidae.
visible.

 

51

Very small ventrals ; head shielded,one pair Tortricidae.
frontals ; tail very short. .

'Similar, but tail short, truncated: Uropeltidae.

Narrow ventrals ; large scales simulating XenOPeltidw.
head shields.

Head shields redundant,labials pitted, scales Pythonidaa.
above 60.

Head scaly, scales 36 or more. Erycidae.

No ventrals; head scaly; scales tuberculated Acrochordidw.

2. Ventral shields fairly developed.

a. Head shields deﬁcient or redundant.

One pair frontals deﬁcient or single, nos- Calamaridae.
trils lateral.

Anterior frontals single, or nasals conti- Homa10psidee.
guous, or orbital ring complete ; nostrils
superior.

Head thick ; orbital ringcomplete (generally) , Amblycephalidae.
no mental groove.

(Intercalated verticals; complete orbital ring
——-genus Za-menis Colubridae.)

b. Head shields normal.

Few teeth (in one genus, no palatine) ; p Oligodontida‘).
marks or serpiginous ﬁllets on the head.

Colours green or bright,ventral keels, pupil Dendrophidae.
round, snout rounded. ‘
Colours green or bright; excessively slen- DrS'Ophidaé-
der ; pupil horizontal, snout very long.
‘ Very slender, head broad, pupil vertical.
Slender, head distinct, terrane (3 preceding Psammophidee.
are arboreal).

Dipsadidae.

 

52

Head and snout depressed, ﬁat; large harm- Lycodqntidwo
less fangs.

Of moderate proportions ; not referable to Colubridze.
the preceding families. .

B. POISON-FANGS PRESENT.

1. Short erect fangs ; no loreal, head Elapidze.
shielded.

(The Hydrophidae belong to the class with
out ventrals.) '

2. Long re-durved fangs.

Facial pit, head scaled or shielded. Crotalidae.

No facial pit, head scaled. Viperidw-

CHAPTER III.-—-M‘ETHOD or DESCRIPTION.

It is necessary to lay down a system of description for
snakes in general which will prevent useless details being
given and direct the attention to the important points.
Accurate description may be given very neatly in Latin; We
must try and imitate in English the conciseness of the more
classical description. The following scheme will give an
idea of the way in which the description should be arranged.

Date Place

Length—~-—-~—.—--; tail-—--——-—~-—-. Sex ___..._...-,

Scales «~— rows ; smooth, keeled, or with apical'grooves ;
imbricate ? rounded, oval, linear, rhombic or rhomboidal ;
vertebrals enlarged? at what distance in tenths of length
the number diminishes.

Ventrals, namber} broad or narrow (in proportion to the
circumference) ; keeled ? turned up at the sides? Anal
single or biﬁd. Subcaudals, number; single or double. "

Head, distinct from neck? high, ﬂat; broad, narrow;
snout acute, obtuse; eye large, small, moderate; pupil
round, erect, horizontal ; iris, colour.

 

 

53

Head shields, normal? note peculiarities of crown-shields ;
loreal present, absent, single or multiple; nasal single or ‘
multiple, position of nostril. Antoculars, number, does the
upper one reach to the crown-to the vertical ? (subocular),
Labials, number, how many enter the orbit, peculiarities;
temporals, number, arrangement. Lower jaw—~labials,
number, ﬁrst pair not contiguous? gular shields, number of
pairs ; gular scales, number.

Ground colour.

Longitudinal pattern. Stripes or streaks, number, breadth,
pos1tion (vertebral, dorsal, lateral). Series of spots, of ring-
spots, size, margins, disposition.

Transverse pattern. Cross-bars or cross-bands, series of
rings (number), fasciolation ? ‘

Interstitial colouring.

& Belly,throat, subcaudals~ground colour, marbling, stripes,
0.

Head, ground colour ; stripes, cross—bands, ﬁllets, :> or <1
markings 5 postocular or subocular streaks.

Teeth, number (ﬁxed), equal, increasing, decreasing;

, any longer teeth before or behind ; separated by any inter-

val ; palatine teeth.

 

 

PART IV.-—¥DESGRIPTIVE CATALOGUES.

In the following catalogue I have considerably abbre-
viated the full description, giving in. most cases only the
colour and the. distinctive features. In the more common
kinds of snakes, such as are ordinarily met with, I have
somewhat enlarged this description . in order to admit of
their more ready recognition, whilst in those of which only
one or two specimens exist in museums, I have given a des-
cription just sufﬁcient to show the speciﬁc differences, but
yet sufﬁcient, I hope, to cause their recognition as rarities
in case they should be perchance met with.

I have given the descriptions as succinctly as possible, but
to avoid any mistake I may remind the reader that the late-
ral halves of a snake being symmetrical, I have, as a rule,
described only one side. If I say that a snake has a ver-
tebral, a dorsal and a lateral stripe, it must be understood
that on each side of the single vertebral stripe there is a
dorsal and a lateral, stripe.

FIRST SUB-ORDER. HARMLESS COLUBRINE SNAKES.

FAMILY I.-—-—TYPHLOPIDZE.

Of small size ; body cylindrical,.thicker behind ; tail not
longer than the breadth of the head, ending in a minute
spine. Covered with equal scales, no ventrals, head cover-
ed with shields of a peculiar type. The rostral is prolonged
backward ; on either side of it, are four labials and
four large shields, the nasal, the fronto-nasal, the anteocular,
the ocular; behind it,’are some small frontal and supraci-
liary shields. The eye is rudimentary, often quite invisi-
ble through the shields. Mouth very inferior, jaws hardly
dilatable, no mental groove, a few maxillary teeth only.

 

 

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55
TYPHLINA".
Rostral large, rounded in front ; no anteocular ; nostril!
inferior.
T. LINEATA. Scales 22. Transverse rows 405. Length
18 in., diameter 1—1.5 (of length).

Reddish olive with numerous brown lines; snout and
belly yellow. ‘
, Straits.*

TYPHLOPS.
Rostral large, rounded in front; nostril lateral.

T. NIGRO-ALBUS. Scales 26. Transverse rows 326—353.
Length 14 in., diameter 3%.

Bluish black, belly yellowish.
Straits.

T. HORSFIELDII. Similar to the preceding, but nasal
and fronto-nasal united ,above, and colour shading more

- gradually below. In Burma, I have found a snake with

the character of this species, but colour pearl-grey above,
white below.

    

T. BOTHRIORHYCNHUS. Scales 24. Diameter 335. Four
sutural grooves in the lower part of the snout.

Uniform brownish olive:
Penang.
T. STRIOLATUS. Scales 24.

Each scale with a yellow, posteriorly black-edged, cross-
streak. '

Bengal.
T. SIAMENSIS. Scales 22. Diameter 33—.

Greyish olive, yellowish below.

 

* When the Straits are mentioned as a habitat, they include Java,
Sumatra, and the neighbourhood.

  

56

T. BRAMINUS. Scales 20. Diameter 21—6. Fronto-nasal
not in contact with labials.
Brown, paler below.
India.
T. TENUIS. Similar to the preceding. Diameter 71-3..
Madras.

T. MIRUS. Scales 18. Diameter 3-15. A subocular pres

sent.
Brown with yellow snout.

C eylon.
ONYCHOCEPHALUS.

Nostril inferior. ‘Rostral with an anterior trenchant edge.

0. ACUTUS. Scales 28—29. Longitudinal rows 500.
Diameter 3-1;. Light bronze, each dorsal scale has a pale
_centre 3 yellowish below,

South of India.

 

FAMILY II.-—-TORTRICID£E.

Body cylindrical; depressed rounded head not distinct
from neck 3 tail very short, conical, its end smooth. Rudi-
ments of hind limbs visible. Scales smooth, polished 3 ven—
tral row little larger than the others. Head shielded,
but only one pair of frontals 3 six labials. Eye small. Cleft
of the mouth moderate 3 palatine teeth 3 mental groove.

CYLINDROPHIS. ,

Nasals single, contiguous. Occipitals small. Frontal
enters the "orbit.

C. RUFUS. Width between the eyes greater than the
length of snout. Scales 19—21. Ventrals 1842—200+6--9.*

 

1‘ The ventrals after the sign + are subcaudala. ‘

 

 

 

 

57
Brown 3 belly has irregular white cross-bands extending
up the sides.

Burma and Straits.

C. MACULATUS. Width between the eyes equal to the
length of snout. Scales 21. Ventrals 186—496 + 5 or 6.

Brown, with a network of black lines and cross-bands.
White below.

Ceylon.

 

FAMILY III.——UROPELTID£E.

Body cylindrical with a short narrow head not distinct
from the neck 3 tail very short, truncated, terminating in a
rough naked disk or covered with keeled scales.

Scales round, polished 3 ventral row scarcely larger than
the others.

One pair of frontals 3 four labials. Eye very small. Maxil—
lary and mandibulary teeth, no palatine 3 generally no men- '
tal groove.

RHINOPHIS.

Tail cylindrical, covered with smooth scales and ending
in a convex, scaleless, rough shield. Head conical;
supraciliary and postocular conﬂuent 3 nasals separated by
the rostral. Scales 17—19. Ventrals 150—22283 subcaudals
4-—-10. Length 10-14 inches.

Ceylon:

R. OXYRHYNCHUS. Rostral nearly half as long as head;

. keeled above. Nearly uniform brown.

R. PUNCTATUS. Similar to the preceding. Yellowish

with black scale-dots. 8

 

58

R. PHILIPPINUS. (rumours) Rostral shield not half as
long as head, and without keel. Short. Uniform blackish

olive.

R. TREVELYANUS. Similar to the preceding. Black,
with white triangular lateral spots ; belly white, black spot-
ted.

R. SANGUINEUS. Similar to the preceding ; rostral shorter.
Black above ; belly with lateral scarlet streak ; caudal shield
black with yellow streak and red margin. Found by Major
Beddome in Wynad.

R. BLYTHII. Caudal shield small, not half size of head,
sometimes keeled. Common in Ceylon.

R. PULNEYENSIS. Snout obtuse ; caudal shield very small.
Brown with yellow lateral band and spots.

UROPELTIS.

Head conical; nasals contiguous; supraciliary and post-
. ocular conﬂuent. Tail cylindrical, obliquely ”truncated as if
severed by a knife ; the disk ﬂat, rough, scaleless.

U. Gama. Scales 23——21. Ventrals lee—.148. Subc.
7-—-8'biﬁd. Length 20 inches.

Brown with occasional white or yellow spots.

Ceylon. V '
SILYBURA.

Head conical; nasals contiguous; supraciliary and posts
ocular conﬂuent. Tail subcylindrical, the scales on its upper
side are shield-like and keeled, forming a ﬂattish disk ending
in a horny bi-spinous‘scale. Length 6—-—-l4s inches. Hills of
South of India. , .

S. MACROLEPIS. Scales 15. Ventrals 137. Black, with
an irregular lateral yellowish stripe.

 

 

 

59

S. BEDDOMII. Scales l7. Ventrals178. Rostral longer
than the vertical, slightly keeled. Brown, lateral and ven-
tral white dots; short yellow lateral stripe; vent and tip
yellow. ‘

S. OCELLATA. Scales 17. Ventrals 200. Rostral shorter
than the vertical. Olive or brown, with numerous trans-
verse series of four yellow, black-edged ocelli, (Major
Beddome).

S. ELLIOTTI. Scales 17. Ventrals 1413-468. Rostral shorter
than the vertical. 0
Brown, short yellow lateral streak, yellow caudal ring.

S. BICATENATA. Scales l7. Ventrals 135. Rostral very
short, vertical, rhombic. Black above and below, with
yellow dorsal scale dots, and yellow lateral stripe.

S. SHORTII. Scales l7. Ventrals 139, twice as broad as
other scales. Fourth labial longer than high.

Black with irregular white scales; yellow lateral stripe
and caudal ring. (Major Beddome). .
S. BREVIS. Scales 17. Ventrals 122. Body short.
Brown, yellowish below, subcaudals black with white late.-
ral line.
° . PLECTRURUS.

Head conical; nasals contiguous; supraciliary and post-
ocular distinct. Posterior part of tail compressed, covered
with keeled scales and ending in a horny scale with two
points one above the other. . y

P. Puanoram. Scales 15. Ventralsl6l. Uniform browns

Madras and Nilgiris.

'P. GUNTHERI. Similar. Purple, yellow below 3 with late-
ral yellow triangular markings. ~ - - . ~

Nilgiris. (Major Beddome).

 

   
  
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
  
 
 
 

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60
MELANOPHIDIUM.

Snout rather obtuse ; nasals contiguous ; supraciliary and
postocular conﬂuent. A mental groove. Tail slightly com-
pressed, ending in a very small, smooth, horny point, slightly
turned upwards. ‘

M. WYNADENSE. Scales 15. Ventrals 180, thrice as broad
as the other scales. Black, belly black and white behind.

FAMILY IV.-CALAMARID1E.

Body more or less cylindrical; head short, not distinct
from the neck; tail short, tapering. Scales 13—17 rows.
Ventral shields well developed, generally less than 200, and
generally entire; subcaudals single or double. Eye small
with round pupil. Normal number of head shields always
reduced by absence or conﬂuence of one or more, generally
the anterior frontals or loreal. Mental groove; palatine
teeth present. Length 12——24 inches.

CALAMARIA.
Nostril in a single nasal. Loreal none, merged in the
frontal; 1 antocular, 1 postocular. Only one pair of ﬁantals,
4 or 5 labials. Scales 13, smooth ; subcaudals double.

0. SIAMENSIS. Ventrals 179-490, subc. 12—20. Labials
4. Brown, with 7—-11 black lines ; black collagwith white or
yellow edges; belly white, brown-spotted.

Burma, Siam.

C. QUADRIMACULATA. Ventrals 136—145, subc. 13. La-

bials 4:. Similar to preceding; 2 pairs of white caudal 'spots.
Java, Burma.

C. ALBIVENTER. Ventrals 160—~166, subc. 16. Labials 5..
First pair lower labials not in contact as usual. Brown, with
white (red?) stripes and belly.

Penang.

 

 

4e

 

an «Mu-mg

. ‘- ..MW.\\.. ,»
-.'<.«~.M«HWWMWWW .4 ‘. 5

61

C. macaw. Ventrals 147—166, subc. 25—430. Labials
5. Upper parts black, belly white.
Penang.

C. LEUCOCEPHALA. Ventrals 136 + 37. Similar, but head
white.

MACROCALAMUS.

Nostril between the nasal and the ﬁrst labial. Loreal
none, merged in the frontal; 1 antocular, l postocular3
only one pair of frontals ; 8 labials. Scales 13, smooth.

Anal entire, subcaudals double.
M. LATERALIS. Ventrals 118 + 20.
Brown ; lateral, dark, white-dotted line.

A solitary museum specimen.

OXYCALAMUS.

Head narrow, pointed. Two pairs of frontals ; loreal merg-
ed in post-frontal ; 1 antocular, 1 postocular; 5 labials.
Scales 15, smooth; subcaudals double.

0. LONGICEPS. Ventrals 131 + 26. Uniform brownish
black.

Penang. A solitary museum specimen.

' GEOPHIS.

Two pairs of frontals, nostril between two nasals ; la 2
postoculars; antocalar and loreal conﬂuent. Scales 13—47
Smooth, anal entire, subcaudals double.

G. MICROCEPHALUS. (Platypteryx Perrotetii ?) Scales 13.
Ventrals 14:8, subc. 26-—30.

Brown ; lateral black white-edged stripe. Yellow buccal
streak; brown below. '

Madras, Nilgiris. ‘

 

l.
l.
e
.
t
z

m .... n—bygaurmnv... whammy

some names.

62
A‘SPIDURA.

One anterior frontal ; loreal merged in the frontal ;
2 postocular, l antocplar (sometimes merged in the frontal,)
5 or 6 labials, two. small nasals. Scales. 15—17, smooth,

those near the vent sometimes keeled ; anal and subcauda ls
entire. Length 14—16 inches. Ceylon.

A. BRACHYORRHOS. Scales l7. Ventrals 148—1545, subc.

‘ 30. Antocular present.

Yellow olive with two dark lateral stripes ; vertebral
series of white dots. Belly white. ”

A. Corn. Scales 17. Ventrals128 + 34!. Antocular merg-

ed in post-frontal; 3 pairs of gular shields. BrOWn with
dorsal row of black spots, belly white, marbled.

A solitary museum specimen.
A. TRACHYPROCTA. Scales 15. Ventrals 128—144, subc.

10—23. Antocular very small ; post-frontal enters the orbit.
Brown with a vertebral and two dorsal rows of dark spots.

HAPLOCERCUS.
One anterior frontal ; loreal merged in the frontal;
2 postoculars, 1 antocular 3 '7 labials ; two very small nasals.
Scales 17, keeled ; anal and subcaudals entire.

H. QEYLONENSIS. Ventrals 208 + 45. “Brown with ver~
tebral narrow black stripe, and dorsal row of black spots ;
white black-edged neck-streak ; belly yellowish.

Ceylon. ‘ .

. New Calamaridoe.

Falconeria’l‘ gen. nov. (Theobald).

 

* The practice of naming new genera after private friends is very objec-
tionable. Falconeria is doubtless a very handsome name . that any snake
might be proud of ; but tributes of respect to my friends Smith, Brown, and
Robinson would endow ophiology with as hideous a set of names as any in a
seedsman’s catalogue. Besides there are many Smiths, and we should be
compelled to fall beckon such names as Johnsmithia. bengalensis or Sydney-
smithia elegans. Happy the pioneer in zoology whose friends have hand-

 

 

63

Scales 1’7, keeled. One ant. frontal, post. frontal enters the
orbit 3 labials 5. Anal and subcaudals double. Loreal present.

- F. bengalensis.

Blythia. gen. nov. (Theobald).

Scales 13, smooth. Two pairs of frontals. Loreal and
antocular none, both merged in post. frontal. Anal and sub-
caudals biﬁd. B. reticulum.

Grotea. gen. nov. (Theobald).

Proposed for Ablabes bicolor.

FAMILY V.—OLIGODONTIDZE.

Body subcylindrical, with a short head not distinct from
the neck, tail moderate or short. Scales smooth, rounded,
15—21. Ventrals of moderate breadth, rarely above 200,
generally much fewer ; subcaudals double. Eye. moderate,
pupil round. Head shields normal (one exception). " Teeth
few, increasing, no palatine teeth in Oligodon. Head nearly
always with symmetrical l>markings ; belly often with square

. symmetrical dark Spots on the ventrals.

OLIGODON.‘

Nostril between two partly conﬂuent nasals. One ant-
ocular, one or two postoculars. Rostral produced backwards
Scales 15—17. Length 10—20 inches. No palatine teeth“

0. SUBGBISEUS. Scales 15.Ventrals 18.0—20.2 8311100...- 48—54,. . . _ .-

Labials7(3and4). - _ - _ . . . 6..

Brown with numerous narrow cross lines, crossed by a
vertebral and dorsal white stripe; belly white ; "head-mark-
ings. ' i . ' ‘

South of India, Anamullies.

O. SPILONOTUS. Scales 15. Ventrals 155—162 subc. 50.
Labials 7 (3 andAs). ' -

 

 

on a. av w

64.4

Vertebral series of about 17 brown 8-shaped spots, with
alternate thin cross lines ; belly white; head-markings.

South of India.

0. ELLIOTTI. Scales 15. Ventrals 156+30. Labials 7
(3 and 4).

Vertebral series of about 37 large rhombic black spots,
giving off cross streaks ; belly white; head-markings.

A solitary museum Specimen. South of India.
0. SUBPUNCTATUS. 8 labials (4, 5 and 6) .*

Grey with vertebral series of round black white-edged ,
spots ; belly white with lateral black dots ; head-markings.

Western Coast.

0. SPINIPUNCTATUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 193 + 62.
Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6).

Similar to the preceding, but no ventral dots.
' A solitary museum specimen.

0. FASCIATUS. Scales 15. Ventrals 180 + 40. Labials ‘
7 (3 and 4s).

. Brown; about 27 broad black-edged cross-bands ; a nar-
row vertebral stripe; belly white with small brown spots;
head-markings indistinct.

South of India.

0. SUBLINEATUS. Scales 15. Ventrals 150 + 32. Labials
7 (3 and 4).

Brown, with dorsal series of brown white-edged spots;
belly with 3 punctulated brown streaks.

Common in Ceylon.

 

"‘ (4. 5 and 6) means that the ith, 5th, and 6th labials enter the orbit.

"m mmrwmrrﬁ'wuaw~ WWA‘WWW w..»..—..-.... -7.......... . i

65‘

O. AFFINIS. Scales 17. Ventrals 134 + 25. Loreal none.
Labials 7 (3 and 4). Brownish grey, with short thin black
cross-bars, belly white with square black (ventral) spots;
head-markings with longitudinal streak.

Anamullies (Major Beddome).

O. TEMPLETONII. Scales 15. Ventrals 135 + 31. Labials 7
(3 & 42) 5th and 7th contiguous below. Brown, with light
vertebral band, and about 18 dark cross-bands, belly white,
square spots.

Ceylon.

O. MODESTUS. Scales l5. Ventrals 158 + 41. Ana] single.
Labials 6 (3). Loreal none, one postocular. Brown, with
posterior light vertebral stripe ; light collar, belly white with
square black spots; head-marking obscure.

Ceylon (1?). Solitary museum specimen.

0. DORSALIS. Scales 15. Ventrals 173+ 60 Labials 7
(3 & 42). Brown, punctulated with black; yellow vertebral
stripe bordered with black spots; black dorsal line; belly-

‘ white, with square black spots.

0. BREVICAUDA. Scales 15. Ventrals 172 + 30. Only
one pair of frontals ; rostral reaching far backwards. La-
bials 7 (3 85 4.). Loreal none. Greyish violet ; posterior whit—

,ish vertebral stripe, bordered with black spots; black lateral

stripe. Belly same colour, with square black spots ; head-
markings distinct.

Anamullies (Major Beddome). Solitary museum specimen.

SIMOTES.

Anterior frontals short, transverse; rostral produced back-
Wards between them ; nostril between two nasals. Scales
smooth 17—21 rows. Ventrals often have a slight lateral
keel. Head markings of the family always9 present.

 

66

Palatine teeth. Length 15 to 27 inches. Generally 7 labials
(3&4). Found in India, but more common in Burma, Siam;
&c.

S. VENUSTUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 143—445, subc.
31—35. Anal biﬁd. Brown, with 3 rows of round black
yellow-edged spots ; belly white with square black spots ;
head-markings.

Western Coast.

S. RUSSELLII, Scales 17. Ventrals 160—-190, subc. 47——56.
Anal biﬁd. Light brown, with 20 to 30 broad black (white-
edged) cross-bands ; belly white ; head markings very dis-
tinct, a black ﬁllet through the eyes, a> rising from the
throat, point on the vertical, the ﬁrst cross-band forming
another ;> behind it.

India, Ceylon.

S. BINOTATUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 1814—41. Anal biﬁd.
Rhombic black-edged spots on each side of vertebral line,
smaller spots in the intervals ; belly white ; three angular
head markings.

'Western Coast.

S. ‘hLBivENrER. Scales l7. Ventrals 179 + 4.53. Anal
biﬁd. Loreal none. Brown above, white below, subocular
spot.

Ceylon.

S. SIGNATUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 149-«157, subc.
47~59. Anal entire. Brown, with about .15 white cross~
bands, the middle of each wide and pointing forwards.

S. CINEREUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 165. Anal entire.
Labials 8 (4 & 5). ‘ Grey above, white below.

Cambodia.

 

 

 

 

 

m an“. 3 ‘-

 

67

S. Swmnoms. Scales 17. Ventrals 158-468, subc.
--—3539. Anal entire. Reddish olive with indistinct dark
reticulated cross-bands, white below.

China.

S. TENIATUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 150—166, subc. 30 .
~44. Anal entire. Brownish olive, brown vertebral' stripe
inclosing a light median line ; black spot on root of tail,
another on tip ; belly white with square black spots.

Siam. . o
S. CRUENTATUS. The CoralstailSnake. Scales 17. Ven-

trals 163 + 36. Anal entire or biﬁd. Olive brown; dark
vertebral stripe, sometimes enclosing a lighter stripe ; late:

, ral thin stripe ; belly greenish yellow with square blue-black

spots; subcaudals coral-red with black spot at the root
and near the tip. Punctulated head markings, often not
unlike a mask. In the young, there are the superior tail-
marks of the preceding species.

Common in Burma.

S. TRILINEATUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 145 + 54. Anal
entire. Brown, with a vertebral yellow stripe and a dorsal
white stripe. 9

S. PUNCTULATUS. Scales 19. Ventrals 180—202, subc.
52-—-—6 2. Anal entire. Brown, with about 20 light, black-

edged cross-bands or pairs of spots ; belly with square
spots.

Himalayas.

S. BICATENATUS. Scales 19. Ventrals 161—180, subc.

' 36-47. Anal entire,'s1ight ventral keel. Labials 6, 7, or 89

Of stout habit. Light reddish brown, .with three darker
stripes; the vertebral stripe encloses a light median line and
extends on the vertical, separating two oblique head mark-

 

68

ings that converge from the dorsal stripes. Fillet across
the eyes. Belly white or fawn with alternate square spots.

Common in Burma.

S. ALBOCINCTUS. Scales 19. ventrals 175-181, subc.
47——65. Anal entire. Brown, with about 18 white, dark-
edged cross-bands, narrow black cross-bands alternating;
belly white or spotted ; usual head markings.

Assam.

S. FASCIOLATUS. Scales 21. Ventrals 163 + 42. Anal
entire. Yellowish, with black irregular cross—bands; light
dorsal stripe, median white line on tail; belly white, usual
head markings.

\Cochin-China.

., S. cocnmcnmnnsrs. Scales 21. Ventrals 216 + 47.
Anal entire. Grey, with about 12 black cross-bands; belly
white ; head marking black.

S. TRINOTATUS. Scales 21. Ventrals 183—-189, subc. 49—-51.
Anal entire. Brown, with three series of dark, black-edged
spots 5 belly yellow with square black spots ; headwmark-
in gs indistinct. .. - i

Straits.
S AMABILIS and

S. THEOBALDI are also recorded.

Mr. Theobald has made species S. obscurus and S. crassus
of two solitary museum specimens, but they appear to be
aberrant varieties cf 8. bicatenatus. Indeed, nearly all the
species 'of this genus may be referred to two types, S.
bicatenatus and S. russellz’i. -

(:9
FAMILY VI.——COLUBRID/E. ‘

This family is a general refuge for snakes with none of
the characters necessary for their allotment to the other
families. Their head—shields are normal, they have not the
exceptional dentition and head-markings of the Oligodon—
tides, they have no trace. of fangs,they have not the compress-
ed and slender body of the tree-snakes, nor the hydrophi-
dian build of the true fresh-water snakes. Nevertheless,
several genera lead off to other families. _ Some of the
group Coronellina (grovelling colubers) are‘hardly remov-
ed from the Calamaridee, the group Dryadina (bush colu-
hers) lead off to the tree-snakes, and the group Natricina
(water colubers) ‘are a transition towards the Homalopsidae.
The other group, Colubrina, although ground-snakes, are
exceedingly agile, and able to swim and climb with facility 5
they are the type of the sub-order of harmless snakes.

Group I.——CORONELLINA.

Colubrine snakes of small size with smooth scales ; some
genera approach the Calamaridue in imperfection of the head-
shields.

ABLABES.

Body rather slender ; head moderate, more or less dis-
. tinct from the neck ; tail moderate, eye moderate, pupil
round. Head-shields normal except in A. fuscus and bicolor.
N ostril between 2 nasals; 1 loreal; 1 or 2 antoculars, 2
postoculars. Scales 13—47 smooth, ventrals ’122 to 245,
anal and subcaudals double. Teeth normal, numerous,
small, equal. Length 12—22 inches.

A, BALIODIRUS. Scales l3. Ventrals 122—132 subc.
65——-7‘2, labials 7 (3 & 4). Brown, with anterior dorsal series
of black, white ocellated spots; belly pearl colour.

Straits.

 

70

A. TENUICEPS. Scales 13. Ventrals l37+39. Labials 6
(3 and 4). Scales about the vent and root of the tail are
keeled. Blackish ash, belly white.

Himalayas. ’ p ,

A. FUSCUs. Scales 13. [Ventrals 154—161, subc. 34—42
Labials 6 (3 and 4). Scales about the vent and root of the
tail are keeled in the male. Posterior frontals united into
one shield, (whence this is sometimes made a genus of Ca-
lamaridae, under the name of Trachischium fuscum). Black
above, whitish below.

Himalayas.

A. RAPPII. Scales 15. Ventrals 191—198, subc. 60.
Labials 6 (3 and 4). Black above, white below; when young,
grey with black bars and collar.

Himalayas.

A. BICOLOR. Scales 17. Ventrals 210—221, subc. 75—80.
Labials 6 (3 . Frontals united into two transverse plates
' (whence Mr. Theobald makes this a genus of Calamaridae
and has named it, after a friend, Grotea. bicolor). Brown
above, white below.

Assam.
A. omvacaus. Scales 17. Ventrals 2244-75. Labials 5

3). Dark greenish olive, paler below ; four dorsal series of
small black dots. '

Nilgiris. (Major Beddome).

A. SAGITTARIUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 216—245, subc.
57—70. Labials 7 (3 and 4). Reddish or grayish olive 3
blackish dorsal line, beneath which the colour darkens ; ver~
tebral series of dots ; head brown; dark collar edged with
yellow; belly yellowish, with a. blue lateral line and ventral

- dots.

Penang, Bengal.

 

- 71
A. HUMBERTI. Scales 17. Ventrals 175+55. Labials
10 (4s, 5 and 6) 7th and 9th contiguous below. Reddish
olive; punctulated dorsal line, beneath which the colour
darkens ; vertebral series of black yellow.edged dots; black,
yellow-edged collar; belly white, dotted.

South of India, Ceylon.

A. COLLARIS. Scales 1'7. Ventrals 177 + 102. Tail near-
ly one~third. Labials 10 (4!, 5 and 6). Greyish brown, with
anterior vertebral series of black dots ; broad black collar
with posterior yellow edge, produced forwards to. the eyes ;
belly white, dotted. '

Himalayas.

A. MELANOCEPHALUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 152+ 65. La-
bials 10 (4, 5 and 6) 7th and 9th contiguous below. Light
brown, with two anterior white stripes commencing from a
black collar, and interrupted by square black spots; belly
white, spotted; head brown, lips yellow. Tail one-third (?).

CYCLOPHIS.

Body slender, tail moderate or long, head rather distinct
from the neck. Head-shields normal, but only one nasal, ,
pierced by the nostril. Scales 15, smooth. Anal biﬁd. Eye ‘
moderate or large, pupil round. ‘

C. MAJOR. Head narrow, not very distinct. Ventrals
175 + 78. Uniform green, paler below. ‘

China.

C. FRENATUS. Head distinct from the slender neck, broad
with short snout. Ventrals 165 + 95. Olive with 3 anterior
dorsal black stripes, the lateral pair are zigzag; yellowish .
below.

Afghanistan.

 

 

72

C. CALAMARIA. Head scarcely distinct, with obtuse Vconi-
cal snout. Ventrals 129-—132, subc. 64w83. Loreal, none.
Grey with small irregular black Spots coalescing into pos-
terior stripes; belly white. Of small size.

Ceylon and South of India.

C. NASALIS. Ventrals 149 + 77. Nasal large and long,
no loreal; two antoculars. Greyish olive, with two dorsal
irregular black streaks ; belly white.

C, MONTICOI-A. Ventrals 125 + 44. Brown with yellow
collar. A solitary museum specimen.

Mr. Theobald makes a genus Chlorophis for a Cyclophis

with two nasals.

O. Oldhami Labials 8 increasing, (4 and 5). Uniform
bronze-brown.

ODONTOMUS.

Body slender, strongly compressed; head moderate, dis—
tinct from the neck. Ventrals above 200, angularly bent
at the sides. Scales 13—15 smooth. Head shields regu-
lar; nostrils in a half-divided nasal. Eye moderate, pupil
round.

0. NYMPHA. Scales 13, apical groove. Ventrals 234~243,
subc. 82-——87. Labials 8 (3 and 4 .) White; with about 38
brown cress-bands.

South of India.

0. SEMIFASCIATUS. Scales 13, apical groove. Ventrals
232+84. Labials 7 (3 and4.) White with about 50 broad

dark—b1 own cross-bands.

O. GRACILIS. Scales 15. Ventrals 234 + 81“. Anal entire.
Labials 8 (3 and 4.) About 38 broad black crossbands;
intervals white, marbled with brown. ‘

South of India.

 

73
NYMPHOPHIDIUM.

Only differing from the preceding genus by the three
last teeth being strong and trenchant.

O. MACULATUM. Scales 15. Ventrals 244 + 107. Anal
entire. Loreal long, enters the orbit. Light brown, with

a dorsal series of large brown spots; lateral series of dots,

belly white.
CORONELLA.

A genus of doubtful occurrence in India. C. loevis was
discovered in England a few years ago.

C. ORIENTALIS. Scales 17. Ventrals 163 + 65. Last maxil~
lary tooth strong. Greyish brown, with 2 dark dorsal stripes,
conﬂuent posteriorly ; narrow white collar ; belly white,
black spotted.

Group 11: ~OOLUBRINA.

Snakes of moderate or large size and active habits, with
scales 1n 15 or more iows, and generally more or less keeled.
Head shields generally regular.

COLUBER:

Body rounded, of moderate proportions; tail one-ﬁfth or
less. Head shields regular, crown shields large ; 1 antocular.

Scales smooth or feebly keeled in 19 or more rows. Anal
biﬁd. Teeth equal. Peculiar head—markings.

C. RUFODORSATUS. Scales 21. Ventrals 174——1 78, subc:
. 50-—52. ant. frontals pointed. Brownish grey with 4! series

of irregular brown spots conﬂuent posteriorly into stripes.
Head with 3 black :> bands.

China.

. C. MANDARINUS. Scales 23. Vehtrals 222+ 62. Scar-
let with a series of about 44 dorsal, black, yellow-Centred,
rhombic spots; head with serpiginous black ﬁllets.

China.

10

 

we ”My. i."-&r“~m4~.‘;<

 

  

74!

C. Poarnraaccus. Scales 19. Ventrals 189M211, subc.

56--70. Olive, with about 22 dark cross-bands, and posterior -

dorsal stripe; head with 3 black streaks, one median, the
others postocular. .

Assam.

C'. pictus. Is noted by Mr. Theobaldas occurring in
Burma. Scales 23. Vertical and supraciliaries large. La-
bials 9 (5 and 6.) Reddish grey with four anterior dorsal
series of rhombbidal black ocellated spots ; posteriorly four
dorsal dark bands with white intervals. Oval black post-

ocular spot.

The snake obscurely described by Blyth as Plenty/caps
semifasciatus is here placed by Mr. Theobald and more fully

described :-—-

C'. semifasciatus. Scales 19. Ventrals 187. Labials 9.
(5 and 6.) Occipitals very large ; vertical with very concave

' sides. Pale olive grey, with anterior dark cross-bands and ~

alternate dark spots, fading posteriorly. Cl mark on oc-
cipitals; belly white.
‘ Subathoo.

ELAPHIS. ~ ' .

Body elongate and compressed, head distinct from neck.
Tail moderate. Scales 23-25 keeled. Ventrals 200 or more,
plain or slightly keeled; anal biﬁd. Eye moderate, pupil
round. Head shields regular ; 2 nasals ; 2 antoculars.
Maxillary teeth equal.

Central Asia and China.

E. DIONE. Brown or olive, speckled with red; dorsal

series of- black rings, vertebral and dorsal black stripes 3"

head with brown oblique cross~bands.

 

 

 

 

     

 

  

'75

 

E. SAUROMATES. Broad black cross-bands with yellow
intervals. Head and belly often yellow. with black markings.

' E. TENIURUS. Olive with black interrupted dorsal stripe
and caudal black stripe inferiorly m’argined with white.

COMPSOSOMA.

Body elongate, compressed, head narrow, snout leng, tail
moderate. Eye moderate, pupil round, scales 19——23 keeled.
Ventrals above 200. Anal generally entire. Head shields

normal; generally] antocular; 2 nasals. {Ileeth numerous,
equal. Of large size.

0. RADIATUM. The chestnut dhc’iman. Scales 19, middle

rows strongly keeled. Ventrals 222-3428, subc. 67—95.
Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6.)

Antocular and loreal have a rough porous appearance.
Frontals square. Iris golden. Colour bright chestnut, dark-
ening posteriorly ; three anterior black dorsal stripes, the
upper broad, the middle interrupted, the outer interstitial.
From the eye radiate three black streaks, one down, one,
downWards and backwards, one horizontally along the occi-
pitals joining a broad black nuchal band. This snake puﬂ's
out its thi'oat vertically and rises like a cobra, showing the
beautiful interstitial pattern of the neck, and looking aslant.

Hence known by the Burmese as the side~looking snake.
Grows to six feet. ‘

Common in Burma.

I C. MELANURUM. Scales 19. Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6). Brown
anteriorly, black posteriorly; anterior yellow black-edged

vertebral stripe; three inferior ocular streaks ; belly yellow,
black posteriorly. '

- Java and Archipelago.

 

 

76

p C. RETICULARE. Scales 21 (or 19) rows. .Anal entire.
5 , . ‘Labials 8 (4«, 5, and 6) Brown, behind black; with whitish

’ with black. The head shields have a tendency to coalesce.
Assam.

C. Honesomr. Scales 23. Anal biﬁd. Labials 8 (4, 5, and 6)
Brownish olive ; black interstitially.

Himalayas.
CYNOPHIS.

Body slender. and compressed ; head narrow; tail moder-
ate ; scales 25—27 with slight keels or apical grooves. Ven-
trals above 200; anal entire. Eye moderate, pupil round.
Head shields regular, two nasals, one antocular.

EH %1#Mo p/ C. HELENA. Scales 27, slightly keeled. Reddish olive;

w 3:11;}: with numerous reticulated black cross- bands, each enclosing
‘ W”;::€’ 2 white ocelli on either side, fading posteriorly into a broad
T Iu MWMateral brown stripe,- neck with 2 short lateral black stripes,

W W WW black line along occipital sutuie, black postocular streak.
. ww 151° DtWyW(Mmm1
‘ lon, outh of India.

C. MALABARICUS. Scales 25, with 2 apical grooves. Brown-
ish olive with about 22 black cross-bands, each enclosing 3

 

white ocelli on either side and, at the ventrals, giving off dia-
ll gonal cross lines beneath ; posterior and caudal brown lateral
band ; a subocular and a postocular black streak.

Malabar and the Anamullies.
' ’ PTYAs

6 Body elongate, somewhat compressed ; tail one-ﬁfth to
one-third ; head distinct from neck. Eye moderate or large,
well sheltered by supraciliaries. Head shields regular ; two
antoculars, the upper reaching to the crown; two or three
loreals, 2 nasals. Scales 15—47 ; smooth or slightly keeled.
Anal biﬁd. Maxillary teeth about 12, increasing. 0f large size.

 

l
,1

cross-bands, sometimes reticulated ; belly yellow marbled '

 

 

 

1......1; .,...M.1,...-.~a;... " .1. 1...... " ...........,. ,
nae-11.1.7.1...» W W“ mw 7FMWWo-yane77yr”

77.

P. MUCOSUS. The (stout) dhdman. Scales 17, the mid- aZ‘W
dle rows keeled towards the tail; ventrals 169—-—208,subc.108g.,w , 6:1;-

. ———134. Head rather short and broad; 3 loreals ; all shields,W

especially the 8 labials, with black margins. B1ownish ”5’70, W

yellowish olive, with interstitial skin-colouring of yellow andWM,W
black; scales with black tips forming a reticulated pattern
on the tail, belly greenish white. It grows to 7 feet and is
very common in India, less so in Burma. It is ﬁerce and
intractable ; natives of India believe that it breeds with the
cobra. English people in India often call itnthe ratmnalga
a name as inappropriate as its scientiﬁc name. It is not

 

 

 

more mucous or salivary, and does not feed more on rats than
the average of other snakes.

P. KORROS. The slender dhdman. Scales 15, smooth, with
apical grooves ; ventrals 176—179, subc..138—-—14~7 (I have
seen subcaudals 57 only). Slender neck, narrow head ; eye
large; loreals 2, rarely 3 ; colour uniform brown olive, no
black margins to head shields, slightly to the caudal scales.
Grows to 6—7 feet.

Common in Burma, where the people eat it.

XENELAPHIS.

Body elongate, not compressed ; tail long ; head distinct,
rather short ;.eye moderate, pupil round. Head shields
regular, 2 antoculars. Scales 17, smooth, the vertebrals
large, 6-sided. Anal biﬁd. Teeth numerous, sub—equal.

X. HEXAHONOTUS. Ventrals 191—197, subc. 148—179.
Loreal long,.wedged between the antoculars. Labials 8 (4):
Brown with anterior faint black cross-bands ; belly yellowish. .5,

Burma, Straits.

w www...“m.~._. a... M...,...AM_—. m»... - n .“__.-

ZAMENIS.

Body and tail elongate; head distinct, ﬂat; eye moderate,
pupil round. Head shieldshave a tendency to divide;

 

3Wuw WM , {(1111- bush]? 8(QMW/9/ M)

2 antoculars, 2 postoculars, suboculars often p1 esent Scales
smooth or slightly keeled. Ventrals 200 01 more, anal gene-
rally biﬁd. Teeth numerous, the last generally largest, and
separated by an interval.

Z. DIADEMA. Scales 29, keeled. Ventrals 237 +110, anal
entire. 4 small shields transversely intercalated between the
vertical and the frontals ; 3 or 4 loreals ; labials 14 ; orbital
ring completed by 4 or 5 suboculars. .Yellowish olive, with
vertebral line of round brown spots, and a lateral brown
stripe. Browmﬁllets, and head-spots.

Sindh.

Z. VENTRIMACULATUS. Scales . 19, smooth. Ventrals
205—«220 subc. 90——-102, anal biﬁd. Labials 9 (5 and 6).
Occipitals truncated with small semi-circular post occipitals.
Yellowish olive, with black cross-bars, and black head-mark-
ings ; ‘ belly yellowish, laterally dotted.

South-Western Asia.

Z. GRACILIS. Scales 21, smooth. Ventr‘als 219+l20,
anal biﬁd. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Yellowish olive, with verte—
bral row of large round black spots, becoming short cross.
bars p’osteriorly ; black ﬁllets ; belly yellow, laterally dotted.

Deccan, Sindh.

Z. FASCIOLATUS. Scales 21,-—-23 apical grooves. Ven-
trals 201—229, subc. 73—87, anal biﬁd. LabialsS (4 and 5).
Yellowish olive with anterior, narrow, white black and
brown cross-bands ; 'belly yellowish.

South of India, Straits.
‘ Group III ~DRYADINA.

The compressed body of these snakes, their agility, their
numerous ventral shields, and green colour, show that they
lead off to the true tree-snakes, whilst their head shields are
those of the Colub'ridoe.

 

 

79'
ZAOCYS.

Body elongate and compressed, .tail moderate; head yery _,
distinct, high. Eye large, pupil round. Scales 14-16, the
median series sometimes keeled. Ventrals about 200, anal
biﬁd. Head shields regular ; supraciliaries large, convex ; 2
antoculars, the upper large and high; Loreal often multiple.

Z. CARINATUS. Scales 16, the 2 median rows keeled ; vena
trals 209+110. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Loreals 3. Anteriorly
brownish olive, with reticulated white cross-‘bands; poste-
riorly black, with 2 lateral series of White spots. Grows to
10 feet. Borneo.

Z. FUSCUS. This snake, hitherto assigned to Borneo, is,
according to the opinion of Dr. Gunther, the same as a snake
found by Mr. Vinton in the jungle near Rangoon, and to
which I intended to have given the name of Z. fasciolatus.
The following is its description :—-—

Scales 16, the 2 median rows faintly keeled. Ventrals .,
210+ 123. Head oblong, high; gape wide ; eye very large
and prominent; pupil round, iris dark green. Loreals 3.
Labials 9 (5 and 6), the sixth extending high behind the orbit,
Dark green, with narrow fasciolated cross-bands of lighter

and darker colour, and yellow vertebral spot on each ; pos~

teriorly the cross-bands merge into a general greenish black
with 2 lateral rows of yellow spots; under-parts nearly
black; head dark green, with an appearance of bloom,
throat White, yellow orbital circle.

Z. DHUMNADES. Scales 14 or 16, the 2 median rows
keeled. Ventrals 189-19’9, subc. 92—«98. Loreal single.
Greenish anteriorly, with a yellow, black-edged vertebral _
stripe ; posteriorly black ;.indistinct black lateral stripe.

China.

 

 

8‘0
Z. NIGROMARGINATUS. Scales 16, elongate and pointed,
* the 4 median rows keeled, others with apical grooves. Ven-

trals 193+l26. Green above, paler below, with 2 posterior
broad black stripes.

Himalayas.
HERPETOREAS.
Body slender compressed, head elongate, rounded in.
front. Eye moderate, pupil round. Scales elongate, 17 or

19 ; ventrals pent up at the sides, above 200; anal biﬁd.
One antocular, head shields regular. Last tooth the longest.

H. SIEBOLDII. Scales l9, slightly keeled. Ventrals
216 + 90. Loreal single. Labials ’8 (3, 4 and 5). Greenish
brown, belly yellowish.

Himalayas.

H. PRASINUS. Nicholson. sp. nov. Scales l7, smooth, im-
bricate; Ventrals 200-205, subc. 112—177, bent up at the
sides. Occipitals truncated, vertical broad in front, ant.
frontals small, loreals 3, antoculars 2, lower very small, upper
reachesto the crown,labials 8 (4 and 5). Eyelarge, pupil round.

0
.Green, paler below; numerous narrow cross-bands of darker

tint with light anterior edge; posteriorly this fasciolated
pattern merges into numerous black X bands on a yellow
ground-colour; dark posterior margin on the side of each
alternate ventral. I have three specimens of this, all about

the same size 3 the largest is 18% inches long, of which the '

tail is 4% inches. It is perhaps the ill-described snake call-

, ed Col-uber prasivnus by Blyth, though Mr. Theobald men-

tions Herpetodryas prasz'nus, Blyth, as a synonym, of Gon-

yosoma omyccp-halum. The head is not unlike that of Zaocys.
, Rangoon.

Group IV.——NATRICINA.

These snakes lead off to the Homalopsidae; they are
ground-snakes, but many of them frequent the w ater, an

 

81

t

have the nostrils rather superior. Scales always more or
less keeled ; ventrals considerably less than 200, anal biﬁd.

TROPIDONOTUS.

Body rather stout, head distinct from the neck, gape wide.
Eye moderate, pupil round. Scales generally 17 «~19, keeled,
especially towards the tail. Teeth numerous increasing.

T. QUINCUNCIATUS. The Checkered Snake. Scales 1.9,keeled.
Ventrals generally l37+85 or 145+ 7 7, the total not being
far from 222. Tail often much shortened infemales, I have
seen it with only 18 subcaudals. Loreal rhombic; 1 auto-
cular, 3 postocular, labials 9 (4 & 5) ; anterior frontals form a
triangle. Crown narrow.

Variety on. Olive brown with black checkers formed by 6
alternating rows of square black spots ; belly cream coloured
with lateral black ventral margins 3 2 black streaks go
backward from the orbit.

Variety b. The outer row of checkers alone distinct;
they are high, intervals red; ventrals tinged with red, black
nuchal streak ; 2 black post-orbital streaks.

Very common throughout the East Indies ; variety I) in its
most marked form is peculiar to Burma. Grows up to 40
inches.

0

T. ANNULMRIs. Scales 19. Ventrals 158 + 54. Upper
parts plumbeous; lower parts red with about 40 black
cross~bars, extending up the sides.

China.

T. TRIANGULIGERUS. Scales 19. Ventrals 140—148, subc.
70—90. Labials 9(4, 5, 8t 6). Dark broWn, reddish anteriorly,
with lateral triangular black spots, apex resting on the
ventrals.

Straits.

[Thereinaining snakes of this genus have the last tooth enlarged and
enveloped in a gingival fold] .
11

 

82

T. MACROPHTHALMUS. Scales l9, numerous on the neck,
which is dilatable, like that of the cobra. Ventrals 162 +
78. Eye large. Dark brown dark vertebral spots and an

[indistinct p collar ; belly with anterior square spots.

Himalayas.

i T, DORSALIS. Scales 17. Ventrals 143 + 52. Eye large.
Resembles the preceding species.

. China.

T. MACROPS. Scales 17. Ventrals164 + 13. Eye very
large. Dull red, with a vertebral series of yellow spots and
~ black lateral spots; variable.

. Darjiling.

[The following species have the last tooth enlarged and separated by a dis.
tinct interva1.]

' T. PLATYCEPS. Scales 19, feebly keeled. Ventrals 173-—
186, subc. 90-96. Brown with a pale dorsal stripe; a red
and a black lateral ventral stripe ; black or yellow postocular
streak ; variable.

'1 Himalayas.

T. SUBMINIATUS. Scales l9, keeled. Ventrals 142—168,
subc. 61—-88. Light brown, with an interstitial colouring
of bright red on the neck, of black and yellow on the rest
of the body; yellow <1 collar; head green, cheeks pink,
green and black double post—orbital streak, throat yellow.
When young it resembles T. stolatus with yellow collar.

‘Burma, Assam, Straits.

~ ’1‘. HIMALAYANUS. Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals
171 + 85. Brownish olive, with dorsal series of transverse
yellow spots ; yellow collar and throat.

'1‘..ANeuercr.rs.ﬁ Scales 17. Ventrals“ 1674172: subc.

 

 

83

5.7--67 2—4 antoculars, 4-—-—5 postoculars. Head narrow
Dark, spotted uniformly with black.
Assam, Bur.ma

T. STOLATUS. The Chameleon Snake. Scales 19, strongly =

-keeled. Ventrals125-—161,subc. 50—79. Labials8(3, 4, and (W/

5. ) Brown with numerous cross-bands of black, the intervals
having an interstitial colouring of red, or of pale blue, or
of both, the red prevailing in the ﬁrst four or ﬁve intervals.
These bars are crossed by a dorsal light brown stripe, the,
point of intersection of the black bars being still lighter.
Belly white with lateral black dots on alternate ventrals;
throat yellow; black marks on the labials. I

This snake only shows these beautiful colours when excit;
ed; at other times it is brown with a light dorsal stripe.
Grows to 2% feet. The gentlest of snakes. Very common in
India and Burma.

T. MONTICOLA. Scales 19. Ventrals 142 + 82. Green, with ‘
about 28 black cross-bands, crossed by a green dorsal stripe ;
white spots at the intersection ; pair of white dots between
the eyes. ‘

T. JUNCEUS. Scales 19. Ventrals 154 + 86. Greyish olive,
with a dorsal row of round white spots; belly white with
lateral ;dots. Throat yellow ; <l yellow collar.

Straits. '

T. CEYLONENSIS. Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals
137+ 60. Brownish olive, with about 20 unsymmetrical cross-
bands, each enclosing a lateral yellow ocellus, black post-
orbital streak.

T. BEDDOMII. Scales 19, strong keeled Ventrals 146 + 70‘.

, Labials 9 (4, 5, and 6). Brown, with dorsal transverse orange

bars ; nuchal yellow cross-bar, and yellow black-edged post-
orbital streak.

Nilgiris.

 

 

 

“antiwar... ant/45 . 1% 23.7705: W
imam-Etmcfe ariawwﬁ W~

84

.T. NIGROCINCTUS. - Scales 17. Ventrals 160 +81. (mye
grey, passing into green near the head, with about 50
narrow black—cross bands and nuchal black band preceded
by a pale or red collar ; belly grey, darkening posteriorly.

Burma.

T. FLAVIPUNCTATUS. Scales 17. Ventrals 128 + 78.
Uniform dusky yellow, spotted with yellow above and with
black below; black nuchal band, and two black post-orbital
streaks.

I China.
T. ZEBRINUS. Scales 15. Ventrals 137+96. Plumbeous,

spotted and cross-banded withblack ; Labials with triangu-
lar black spot at their junction above ; nuchal band.

Tenasserim.

T. TIGRINUS. Scales 19. Ventrals 152—168, subc. 62——80.
Olive with a vertebral and a dorsal row of square black spots,
reddish lateral intervals anteriorly ; belly black spotted ;
black post-orbital markings. A.

China.

T. LEUCOMELAS. Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals
129+61. Black above, white below, with about 23 narrow
White rings rising across the back; head greenish olive
with black collar, yellow-edged posteriorly. '

Straits.

, T. PLUMBICOLOR. (T. air/{dis would be preferable). Scales
25 (23—-27) strongly keeled. Ventrals 160+4-2. When young
it [is bright green with a broad yellow black-margined b
collar, and narrow black cross-bars, with a black lateral spot
in the intervals. These beautiful colours fade in the adult.

It is very gentle.

South of India, Nagpore.

85

T. ‘runcrnmrns. Scales 17, obtusely keeled. Ventrals

1401—156, subc. 68-—-83. Tail compressed at the root. Upper V

parts either jet black, or brown irregularly spotted with
white ; belly and outer 2 rows of scales white, with a zigzag
black or brown line along the junction of the ventrals and
outer scales; labialswhite ,- subcaudals have a black pos-

terior margin. Grows to 80 inches.

Burma.

T. MORTONI- Scales 19, strongly keeled. .Dark brown,
with dark vertebral stripe and interrupted cross-bars of
yellow or white spots. A solitary museum specimen; it
has no connection with the person after whom it was named
by Mr. Theobald.

T. NATRIX.lS the common harmless snake of England.
'7: {1..wa 1 TMK “kw-VA; (ﬂ. .._..,..,' ".. aw],

~.

ATRETIUM.

A Tropidonotus distinguished by having the anterior
frontals united into one broad triangular shield (in contact

/

with the rostral). Other head—shields regular. Scales 19,1}

Sho‘ib’rhOmbiC; kecled. Ventrals broad, anal biﬁd. Teeth gas...-
.numerous increasing. M‘W/C / Wim-

ish olive ; lips, outer two rows of scales and belly, yellow-
ish ; purple 01' blackish long post~orbital stripe. . Expands
the neck somewhat.

Ceylon, South of India, Straits.

XENOCHROPHIS. .

A Tropidonotus with the middle teeth longest, and with

the nostril in the upper part of a single shield. Scales 19
keeled. Anal biﬁd.

X. CERASOGASTER. Ventrals lib—149, subc. 60—-—69.-

Shields of the crown elongate. Labials 9 (4:). Brown with

(a;

”We rad}.
at... 60257,
duty/dam)“.

0/3, Maﬁa wbum lea}

A. soulsrosum. Ventrals 147 + 80. Uniform black- 3

 

86

lighter) dorsal stripe or dorsal series of 'dark spots; belly
purple,zmarbled 3 bright yellow lateral line beginning at
the snout. -

Bengal, Assam, Straits.
PRYMN OMIOD ON.

A Tropidonotus with minute teeth much enlarged antec
riorly. Head-shields normal. Scales 19, keeled.

P. CHALCEUS. Ventrals 152. Green. A solitary museum
specimen. ‘

Siam.

CADMUS.

A genus made by Mr. Theobald for a Tropidonotus of
stout form with 27 rows of smooth scales. Rostral large and
penetrating between the small anterior frontals. Labials 7 (4).

C. CUNEIFORMIS. Olive brown with two dorsal rows of
.black spots. A solitary museum specimen.
TYTLERIA.

Under this objectionable generic name Mr. Theobald
places a snake of Homalopsic aspect. . '

T. .HYPSIRHINOIDES. Scales l7 smooth. Nasal semi-
divided ; head-shields normal. Labials 2 (3, 4, and 5). Red-
:dish brown above,'belly yellowish white. ‘ . .

Andamans.

FAMILY VIL—HOMALOPSIDZE.

Body cylindrical ; head thick, not very distinct from the
"neck; tail moderate, compressed at the root. Scales often
strohgly keeled ; ventrals rather narrow, anal biﬁd. Eye
small, prominent. N ostril superior, small, valvulated;
anasals large, encroaching on the size of the anterior frontals
(Which are often conﬂuent). Head-shields generally tend to

87

deviate from the normal arrangement. The last tooth is
transitional between an ordinary tooth and a fang, but there
is no evidence that the saliva is poisonous. .They live in
rivers and estuaries, rarely coming to land.

FORDON IA.

Head shielded, nostril superior in a single nasal. Ante- .
rior frontal single, small, in contact with rostral. Five
labials. Scales smooth, 25—29.

F UNICOLOR. Scales‘ .5—27. Ventrals 140—156, subc.
26—37. Labials 5 (3). Brown , belly and outer scales whitish.

Straits, Burma.

F. Brooms. Theobald. Labials 5 (5). Yellowish' grey,
dark spotted, sides and belly white.

Rangoon.

CANTORIA.

Head shielded; anterior frontal single, in contact with

rostral. Eye very small. Orbital circle complete. Five
labials. Scales 19, smooth,

C. ELONGATA. Ventrals 278 + 84. Reddish violet, with

' cross-bands of white dots; whitish below.

Straits: . '
CERBERUS.

Occipat scaly. Anterior frontals two, small ; nasals two,
large, contiguous; orbital circle complete ; posterior labials
divided transversely. Cleft of the mouth turned up behind.
Scales strongly keeled, 21—25.

C. RnYNCHOPs. Scales 23—25. Ventrals 132—148,.
subc. 54—62. Vertical broken up; labials 9—10. Dark

ash, with darker cross bands posteriorly , under-parts
whitish with marbled or cross-banded ash.

 

s8

’ 2 Common in East Indian estuaries. It often goes some
distance from the water; I have a specimen which was
brought half-alive to me, having been just caught in a com-
pound nearly two miles from the Rangoon river.

HYPSIRH INA.

Head shielded; a single anterior frontal, nasals half-
divided, large, contiguous. Seven or eight labials. Scales
smooth, l9—-—23.

H. PLUMBEA. Short and thick. Scales 19. Ventrals
120~131,sub6g29—'—4l. Greyish olive, often with vertebral
row of black spots ; outer scales and belly yellowish, with
black median subcaudal line.

Straits, China.

H. ENHYDRIS. Of very variable form, the male said to
be slender, the female stout with ogival snout. My speci-
men has a sharp triangular head, slender and very elongate
neck; posterior part very stout, tail very thin. Scales
21. Ventrals 159—166, subc. bet-69. Colour variable,
that of my specimen is as follows :«Plumbeous, with pos-
terior dorsal light line; lower parts and outer scales whitish,
with salmon-coloured stripe along- the second row of scales,
dark stripe along median and lateral line of ventrals.

Rivers and irrigated ﬁelds in Burma and Siam. '
H. JAGORII. Scales 21. Ventrals 128 + 66. Brownish

grey above, belly and four outer rows of scales blackish with
.8: yellow lateral stripe and white median ventral stripe.

Siam. A solitary“ specimen.

H. BENNETTH. Scales 21. Ventrals 160 + 50. Ante-
rior frontal small, does not touch the loreal. Brownish
grey with transverse series of black spots , belly and three
outer scales white; each ventral with median and lateral
black spots.

» China.

 

89
H. CHINENSIS.-—-Scales 23. Ventrals 150 + 45. Ant.
frontal as large as a posterior frontal. Blackish ash with

small black spots; belly and outer scales whitish, with
black lateral band.

FERANIA.

Head short, body stout, head shielded. Nasals large,
single, contiguous. Two small anterior frontals. Scales
8m00th, 27.

F. SIEBOLn11.-——-Ventrals 147—156, subc.4:8———55.White with
about 32 (vertebral) large, brown, black edged spots ; small
dorsal triangular spots in the intervals. Head brown with
two diverging white lines.

Bengal, Straits.

HOMALOPSIS.

Head ﬂat, triangular; body stout. Head shielded;
anterior frontal single; nasals single, contiguous. Orbital
circle complete. Posterior labials transversely divided. Cleft
of mouth turned upwards behind. Scales 37—47, heeled.

H.BUCCATA.-—-Ventrals 160-—171,subc. 70-——84. Brown with
about 30 narrow white crossbands. Belly and outer scales
white; head markings.

Burma, Straits.
HIPISTES.

Head short; neck slender; tail stout, tapering. Head
shielded ; anterior frontal single, in contact with the rostral ;
nasals semi—divided. Scales smooth, 39 ; ventrals narrow,
with sharp lateral keel.

H. HYDRINUS.-—Ventrals l53———161, subc. 34. Occipitals mul-
tiple. Greenish yellow, with about 48 black crossbars.

Straits. Semi-pelagic.
.11 a

 

"88

‘ Common in East Indian estuaries. It often goes some
distanCe from the water; I have a specimen which was
brought half-alive tome, having been just caught in a com-
pound nearly two miles from the Rangoon river.

HYPSIRHINA.

Head shielded; a single anterior frontal, nasals half—
divided, large, contiguous. Seven or eight labials. Scales
smooth, 19—23.

H. PLUMBEA. Short and thick. Scales 19. Ventrals
120—12“, subcl.l29-—4‘r. Greyish olive, often with vertebral
row of black spots 3 outer scales and belly yellowish, with
black median subcaudal line.

Straits, China.

H. ENHYDRIS. Of very variable form, the male said to
be slender, the female stout with ogival snout. My speci-
men has a sharp triangular head, slender and very elongate
neck; posterior part very stout, tail very thin. ' Scales
21. Ventrals 159-——166,' subc. 54-69. Colour variable,
that of my specimen is as follows :wPlumbeous, with pos~
terior dorsal light line; lower parts and outer scales whitish,
with salmon- -coloured stripe along the second row of scales,
dark stripe along median and lateral line of ventrals.

Rivers and irrigated ﬁelds in Burma and Siam. °
H. JAGORII. Scales 21. Ventrals 128 + 66. Brownish

grey above, belly and four outer IOWS of scales blackish with
a yellow lateral stripe and white median ventral stripe.

Siam. A solitary~ specimen.

H. BENNETTI-I. Scales 21. Ventrals 160 + 50. Ante-
rior f1ontal small, does not touch the loreal. Brownish
grey with transverse series of black spots; belly and three
outer scales white, each ventral with median and lateral
black spots.

. China.

89
H. CHINENSIS.——Scales 23. Ventrals 150 + 45. Ant.
frontal as large as a posterior frontal. Blackish ash with

small black spots; belly and outer scales whitish, with
black lateral band.

FERANIA.

Head short, body stout, head shielded. Nasals large,
single, contiguous. Two small anterior frontals. Scales
smooth, 27.

F. SIEBOLDII.——Ventrals 147—156, subc.448.~—-55.White with
about 32 (vertebral) large, brown, black edged spots ; small
dorsal triangular spots in the intervals. Head brown with
two diverging white lines.

Bengal, Straits.

HOMALOPSIS.

Head ﬁat, triangular; body stout. Head shielded;
anterior frontal single; nasals single, contiguous. Orbital
circle complete. Posterior labials transversely divided. Cleft
of mouth turned upwards behind. Scales 37 ~47, heeled.

H. BUCCA'rA—Ventrals 160-—171,subc. 70—84. Brown with
about 30 narrow white crossban'ds. Belly and outer scales
white; head markings.

Burma, Straits.
HIPISTES.

Head short; neck slender; tail stout, tapering. Head
shielded ; anterior frontal single, in contact with the rostral ;
nasals semi-divided. Scales smooth, 39 ; ventrals narrow, V
with sharp lateral keel. ‘

H. Hrusmus.—-—Ventrals 153—461, subc. 34. Occipitals mul-
tiple. Greenish yellow, with about 48 black crossbars.

Straits. Semi-pelagic.
ll a

 

90

GERARDA.

G. BICOLOR.——-A snake caught at Rangoon is believed by
Mr. Theobald to belong to this reputed West Indian genus.

‘ My Own specimen I at ﬁrst thought to be a new Cala-
maria, though of amphibious appearance, as it was found in
a dusty street of Rangoon. ‘ ‘

Ventrals 156 + 18. Scales l7. Anterior frontal single,
elongate, convex—ended, concave-sided. Nostrils superior,

in a single shield slightly split. Shining lead colour above,
' white below. '

HERPETON.

' Sweat ends in two flexible cylindrical tentacles. Head
shielded; two small anterior frontals ; nasals single, conti-

guous. Orbital ring complete. Scales 37, keeled. Ventrals
narrow with lateral keel. .

H. TENTACULATUM.—-—-Ventrals 133~136. Brown with 3 dor-
Ial stripes ; the uppermost connected with its fellow by cross-

bars; belly yellowish with dark lateral stripes.
Siam.

-m ,~.-..__.,._. a...» .

FAMILY VIII.—¥PSAMMOPHIDZJ£.

Body and tail generally elongate head very.di.sti1ict with
the loreal region very concave. Eye moderate, pupil round
or vertical. Head shields normal ; loreal present 3 posterior
frontals rounded or angulated behind; superciliaries promi-
nent. Anterior teeth longest, the last grooved.

Ground snakes approaching the Dryophidae in form.

PSAMMOPHIS.

' Body and tail elongate; long and rather pointed snout.
Vertical long” and narrow,- loreal elongate. Pupil round.
Scales smooth, 15-——19. Anal biﬁd.

 

 

 

91

P. CONDANARUSr‘SCﬂdGS 17, lanceolate, with minute api-
cal groove. Ventrals l76~l82, subc. 80—90. Nasals
generally double, sometimes single. Buff or light brown ,w1th
a dorsal and a lateral dark stripe ; belly yellowish With late-
ral black stripe, sometimes a supra and an infra orbital yel-
low streak from nose to neck.

India, Burma; rare.
PSAMMODYNASTES.

Body and tail rather stout; snout shoort, vertical long,
anterior frontals very small, nasal single, pierced by the
nostril. Pupil erect. Scales 17, short, rhombic, smooth.
Anal entire.

P. PULVERULENTUS.-—Ventrals 146—467, subc. 50~59.

Head long, crown ﬁat, snout obtuse. The second or
third tooth long and enveloped in a gingival fold so as to
simulate a poison-fang. Labials 8(3,-:t&5)i, the ﬁrst 3 high.
General appearance and colour not unlike a short, narrow-
headed Dipsas. Light brown, motted ; when young 3. black
vertebral stripe with an edging of black and white spots
this disappears with age; belly and sides yellow with a
median and two lateral rows of brown mottling or lines ;
throat white, mottled; *4 mark 011 head. . . ‘

I caught one specimen while it was swimming across th
Rangoon lake. Adult length 1 foot.

Assam, Burma, Straits.

...¢-M...M.._~—~—

FAMILY IX.——DENDROPH1DZE.

Body and tail either much compressed or very slender 3
head rather long, ﬂat, and distinct from the slender neck ;
snout moderate or long, rounded. Eye moderate. or large,
pupil round. Head shields normal ; scales much lmbmcate ;‘
ventrals with two keels ; anal biﬁd.

 

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ﬂ. PICTUS. “The blue tree-snake. Scales 15. Ventralsh

GONYOSOMA. ,. I
160——187,subc.100——~156. Eye moderate (or large whe 11W:1"3"‘5 ‘

Body long, compressed, head moderate. Loreal» some—
times absent, antocular one. Scales generally smooth. Ven-

33 5‘.’
young). Colour rather variable ; either deep blue With a W
W

trals above 200.

G. OXYCEPHALUM.—-Scales 25, elongate, with a pair of
apical grooves. Ventrals 236-263, subc. 138—449. La-
bials about 11 (2). Green, paler below ; dark labial line ;
tail brown with yellow anterior ring. Length 5~7 feet.

Tenasserim and the Straits.

Gr. GRAMINEUM.——Scales 19, with apical grooves. Ven-
trals 203 + 100.‘ Labials 9 (4,5 and 6). Green, fialer below ;
tail reddish.

Khasya hills. A solitary specimen.

G. FRENATUM.——Scales 19, the dorsals faintly keeled.
Ventrals 203 + 120. No loreal. Green, paler below, black
labial stripe:

Khasya hills. A solitary specimen.

PHYLLOPHIS.

Body and tail elongate, much compressed. Head shields
normal, two antoculars ,nasalsingle, nostril 1n the centre.
Scales 23, keeled. Ventrals above 200. ' -

P. CARINATUS.——Ventrals 223 + 97. Greenish olive;
dark'nuchal spots, and vertebral’dots, whitish below.

China ; rare.

DENDROPHIS.

Body and tail very elongate, slender, compressed. Eye
large. Head shields regular. Scales 13—45, smooth, inn-
bricate, the vertebral series large, polygonal. ‘Ventrals nearly
square at the keels. I

bright yellow lateral stripe, ventrals yellowish with a late—
ral Spot at regular intervals (Malabar) or, bronze with blue

' t th 1 d the ' b 'cation, ellow bell ‘m-‘ILW' _
margms o e sca es un er 1m r1 y y ) . i

and outer scales, with dark lateral stripe from eye to vent.

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Common in India and Burma.
0

D. CAUDOLINEAT us.-—Sca1es 13. Ventrals 183—188, subc.
105—110. Bronze, with black lateral stripe, two dorsal pos-
terior stripes, superior and inferior median caudal stripe.

CHRYSOPELEA.

Body and tail slender and elongate ; head elongate, snout
rounded. Head shields regular. Scales 15-17, smooth,
rhombic. Ventral keels sharp, with a notch at the hind
margin.

'0. onmra-The black and gold tree-snake. Scales .17.

.Ventrals 180-—-236, subc. 96—447. Head black with yellow
punctulated crossbands ; body black with a ﬂowered pattern
formed by bright yellow dots on each scale, or with yellow
punctulated crossbars. Length 2—4: feet.

More common, I think, in Burma than in India.

C. RUBEsCENs.-—Scales 15. Ventrals 187---225, subc. 108—?
146. Purple, dotted with brown and black spots; head with
brown stripes.

Straits.

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FAMILY X. ~DRYOPHIDE. [5:11:45 Mam]

Body and tail excessively slender, snout much elongated
and tapering. Eye moderate with horizontal pupil. Head

 

94

shields n01 mal nostril in a single nasal Scales lip-«‘17
nari ow much imblicate; the vertebral series large,fan-shaped
Ventrals broad, not much keeled. Anal biﬁd. Tail often

nearly as long as the body.
TROPIDOCOCCYX.

Snout tapering, but without any appendage. Lo'real none.

T. PERR.orEr1.——-Scales 15, smooth, last dorsals sometimes
keeled. Ventrals 140, subc. 70-—-8‘2. Grass—green ; yel~
low lateral striipe, - belly yellowish.

Nilgiris. JMW [5... W MW a“? u; (907; MM

garmfw WW¢MMQ. W11? "4», - swan. /4/(,-7}M“"

TRAGOPS.
Snout very long, but without any appendage. Loreal
present, its region concave. Scales l5.

' T. PRASINUS. Ventrals 212—234, subc. l76———203. Co-
lour variable, generally green with white lateral stripe ; a
not uncommon variety is light ochre, belly white with a
lateral ochre stripe, under the tail yellow with white lateral

stripe. . ..
Bengal, Burma.
T. DISPAR.——Ventrals 151 + 100. Males bright green,

females bronze-coloured ; black interstitial skin ; yellow la-

. teral stripe.

Anamullies.
T. rnonrlcmcrus.—~Ventrals 190 + 140. Rostral small,

nasals elongate, contiguous. Grass-green or bronze, with

black yellow-edged lateral stripe.
Swamps in Arakan.

I

PASSERITA.

Snout very long, ending in a. ﬂexible appendage; no Zonal;
antocular region concave. Head shields regular. Scales l5.

 

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P. MYC’I‘ERIZANSr—le common green tree-snake. Ven-mgaw M
tals 172———188, subc. 140—166. Grass- -‘g1een, with yellowzé’” mac-Z5
lateral stripe, paler below; black and white crossbands, cum 5
the interstitial skin. Length 4——-—6 feet. This 1s the most com- "7 W
mon tree snake, and 1s sometimes called the “ eye- -snake” iné‘M’) meg”
consequence of an idea prevalent amongst otherwise 83:1165Mte1
Englishmen that it is in the habit of hanging by the tail j .

from a branch ofa t1ee for the purpose of hitting gpasseis by l
in the eye. 1

£731. 051W

P. PURPURAS Ens—Ventrals 194 +154. Bi'ownish grev,
marbled with purple and dotted with .brown. u

Ceylon.

. “-WM

FAMILY XI.~—D1PSADIDZE.

Tree-snakes with vertical pupil, short breadthead, very
distinct from neck, body compressed, elongate. Head shields
regular Scales smooth, imbricate, the vertebral series
enlarged. Anal entire. Last tooth elongate and grooved;
the front tooth also elongate sometimes.

, DIPSAS.

D. CYNonon.——Scales 23. Ventrals 275—28 7, subc.
141—«162. Anterior palatine and mandibulary teeth enlarg—
ed. Brown ; dotted with black, and with rhombic black
crossbands ; or.reddish olive with a vertebral series of large
black ocellate spots.

Burma, Straits.

D. F0RSTENI.-—Scales 25—2 7. 'Ventrals 260—275, subc.
106—-—13l. Teeth as in the preceding. Brownish olive, 'with
black fasciolated cross-bands; medianand lateial black head

, stripes. .

Anamullies ; very rare.

[The anterior palatine and mandibulary teeth of the following species are
but little enlarged if at all]

 

 

96

D. Boers.-—Sca1es 21. Ventrals 265+160. Eye yery

(large. Reddish olive, spotted with black and brown in

transverse and longitudinal bands; belly marbled with purple.

Bengal, Straits ; rare.

D. DENDROPHILA.——Sca1es 21. Ventrals 211~229, subc.
90—412. Black, iridescent, with numerous narrow yellow
crossbands ; throat yellow ; belly black, or marbled with
black. ‘

Straits.

D, BUBALINA.-—-Scales 21. Ventrals 249-4252. Green
above, greenish olive below 3 black interstitial skin.

China or Assam ; rare.

D. MULTIMACULATA—w-The ring-spotted tree-snake, or the
Burmese brown tree-Snake, Scales 19, sometimes 17. Ven-
trals 202-245, subc. 80—‘106. Dark fawn with a numer~
ous dorsal series of round dark spots with black and white
margin; head with a black pand postorbital streak; the
spots often have black pendants and alternating small dots ;.
belly white mottled with fawn. Length 2--3 feet.

Burma, Straits, China. In Burma it appears to replace
D. gokool. . .

vs'mmaaew; 1). TRIGONATA.——-Scales 21. Ventrals 235—269, subc-

aﬂ. 05: -~

79-387. Yellowish olive, with a yellow black-edged irre-
gular vertebral stripe. Head with a broad black 4, and
postorbital streak ; belly white with lateral brown dots.

Common in India.

D. MULTIFASCIATA.-—~A variety of the preceding. A soli-
tary museum specimen.

.D. Garcon—The common brown tree-snake. Scales 21,
vertebrals much enlarged. Ventrals 224+ 90. Yellowish or

97

greyish brown, with a series of irregular buff vertebral dots,
from the-sides of each of which drops a black fasciolated
Y mark; belly yellowish, with black lateral dots; the
head has a broad black arrow mark, divided in front by a

yellow median line which bifurcates behind enclosing a
large round spot.

Common in Nagpore,

D. CEYLONENSIS. Scales 19. Ventrals 220 + 108. Grey,
with black vertebral spots, each emitting a down-streak;
black head blotch and postrorbital streak.

FAMILY~XII.--LYCODONTID1E.

Body moderate or slender, head distinct, moderate, with
depressed and elongate snout. Eye small, generally with
vertical pupil. Head shields regular. A large fang (harm-
less) in front, both in the upper and lower jaws.

These snakes are a degraded family of O'olubridoe.

LYCODON.
' Body rather ﬂattened, head distinct, depressed, with "ﬂat
Spatulate snout. “Scales 17, smooth. Pupil erect.
L. AULICUS. The Flat—nosed Brown Snake. Ventrals
183——209, 'subc. 57——77. Anal biﬁd. Antocular. reaches
the vertical; .

Eye small and beady ; so black that it is nearly impossi-
ble to distinguish the pupil. Colour chocolate brown with
numerous white or yellowish cross-bands decussating late—
rally ; the ﬁrst forms a broad collar ; .belly white With inter-
stitial ﬂesh colour. Length 1--2_ feet.

A common snake everywhere ; it is often found climbing
the angle of the jamb of a door, «or about dark places in
godowns. It is .of- uncanny appearance, but is perfectly

harmless.
12

 

 

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L. LAOENSIS. Ventrals 185+ 68. Snout shorter and poste-
rioryfrontals. much shorter than in the preceding. Black
with white cross-bands.

Siam. _

L. STRIATUS. Ventrals 167—174, subc. 46~—48. Anto-

cular does not reach the vertical; posterior frontal short;

otherwise much like L. aulicus.
South of India, Anamullies.

L. ANAMALLENSIS: Ventrals 202 + 74. Anal entire. Two
loreals. Greyish brown with white brown-edged cross-bars.

A single Specimen (Major Beddome).

L. RUFOZONATUS. Ventrals 200 + 72. Loreal enters the
orbit. Anal entire. Crimson, dotted and cross-banded with

brown; head shields marked with yellow ; brown post

orbital streak. ' Stout, above 3 feet.

China. .
TETRAGONOSOMA.

Head shields regular; loreal none. Scales smooth, 17.
Ventrals above 200, angulated. Anal entire.

T. EFFRENE. Ventrals 215—-2 28, subc. 72—401. Black
above and below, with complete buff rings, and buﬂ' labial
streak. ' '.

Solitary museum specimen from Penang.

T. ATROPURPUREUM. Ventrals 257 +191. Purple, mar-
bled With black and White. '
Solitary museum specimen from Tenasserim.

LEPTORHYTAON.

Loreal present; nasal single, pierced by the nostril Scales
17, smooth Anal biﬁd

9.9
L. JARA. Ventrals 167—-—175,subc.56 + 63. Brown,

each scale with two white dots; generally a white collar,
belly white.

Assam, Ganjam, Anamullies.

OPHITES,

Loreal present; antocular sometimes absent. Scales 17,
heeled. Anal biﬁd.

O. SUBCINCTUS. Ventrals198—221, subc. 69--8‘2. Loreal
enters the orbit, re-placing the antocular.’ Black, with
whitish cross-bands and collar.

Straits. .
O. ALBOFUSCUS. Ventrals 256 + 204 (tail tl- Antocu-
lar present. Light reddish, with broad brown cross-bands ;

reddish white collar.
Straits.

I

CERCASPIS.

Scales 19, strangly keeled. Ventrals angulated ; subcaur
dale entire.

C. CARINATA. Ventrals 188—-193, subc. 53-—-60. Black,
completely encircled by white rings. .

Ceylon.

FAMILY XIII. ~AMBLYCEPHALIDZE.

Body and tail s1ende1 , strongly comp1essed, head thick,
large, very distinct. Eye moderate with vertical pupil. Nos-
tril 1n a single nasal; rostral very high. Head shields often
increased above the normal number. Cleft of the mouth
smaller within than without; lower jaw not expansible ,

chin shields unsymmetrical, no mental groove. Scales gene-
rally smooth, 13—15. Maxilla small, with few and small
teeth, other teeth strong.

 

100

. AMBLYCEPHALUS.

Head short, thick, high, with convex lips. Crown shields
have often small shields intercalated ; several loreals ; a com-
plete orbital ring. Scales 13, smooth, elongate ; . vertebrals
large hexagonal. Anal and subcaudals entire. Teeth few ;
a long anterior palatine and mandibulary tooth.

A. BOA. Ventrals 152—-—170, subc. 88——1 12. Loreals 3,
one above the other. Purplish, marbled and dotted with
brown ; cheeks and lips carnation, with vertical subocular
streak. Grows to 3 feet.

Straits. Climbs, and lives on insects.

PAREAS.

Cleft of mouth very short. Brown shields regular. Scales
15, generally smooth; vertebrals larger. Anal entire, sub-
sandals biﬁd. Nasal generally simple.

P. CARINATUS. Ventrals 160—474, subc. 52—-74. Re-
sembles amblycephalus in its tumid lips and complete orbital
ring. Greyish brown, with reticulated black cross—bands ;
black post-orbital streak.

Java, Cochin-China.

P. MONTICOLUS. Ventrals 194 + 87. Loreal none, re-
placed by a large antocular ; orbital ring of shields incom-
. \plete below. Brown, with black nuchal ring and Y shaped
cross-bars. .

Assam.

P. LIEVIS. Ventrals 150—164, subc. 34-46. Loreal
none, re-placed by the antocular. Two labials enter the
orbit. Brown, marbled with black in irregular cross-bands ;
belly brown, or white with blackish lateral spots.

Java, Cochin-China, Khasya Hills.

P. MASCULARIUS. resembles P.‘ carinatus in its. com-
plete orbital circle and general appearance. The young
and adult differ in colour, and it is said in the disposition

 

101

and shape of the head shields. Ochrey brown, with traces ~
of cross-bands. In the young, rich reddish brown with
fasciolated cross-markings in white and claret colour; white
collar, mottled with claret-red; belly brown, spotted and
mottled. 1

Martaban.

P. MODESTUS. Theobald. A band-like subocular. Pos-
terior frontal enters the orbit. Median scales faintly keel-
ed. Uniform brown, pale yellowish below.

Rangoon.

I

FAMILY XIV—«XENOPELTIDZE.

Body cylindrical and stout; tail short, tapering; head
depressed, not distinct from the neck, rounded. Scales
large and polished. Ventrals narrow, the outer row of scales
enlarged to nearly half their size. Head shields of scale-like .
appearance. Eye small. , Burrowing snakes transitional
between the small earth-snakes and the pythons.

XENOPELTIS.

Head shields simulating scales; antocular large; no
loreal. Scales 15. Anal and subcaudals biﬁd.

X. UNI‘COLOR, The iridescent Earth-snake. Ventrals 180,
subc. 20—-—:°)O. Behind the triangular vertical. are other
similarly shaped large scales. Colour brown, with remark-
able iridescent eﬂ‘ects ; below white or yellowish. Grows to
3 feet, of savage appearance.

Common in Burmaand the Straits.

FAMILY XV.~PYTHONIDE.

Body rounded; head distinct from the neck ; snout long,
rounded. Eye moderate, pupil erect. Head Shielded. SOme

 

102

of the labials pitted. Scalesnumerous, smooth. Ventrals
narrow. Rudimentary hind limbs visible. Intermaxillary
teeth present.
PYTHON.
Body stout} grows to a large size. Occipitals rudimentary ;
forepart of the crown with intercalated shields. Rostral
and labials pitted. Anal entire. Ventrals very narrow.

P. VRETICULATUS. The Malay Python. Scales about 75.
Ventrals 300——330, subc. 82—102. Two or three pairs of
shields intercalated between the vertical and posterior front-
als. Labials about 15 (7) ﬁrst 4 pitted. Brown with an
irregular vertebral chain of black rings, from each of which
depends a black bar enclosing a white ocellus. A thin black
line prolonged along the median line of the head; post-
orbital streak. Grows to 10 feet and upwards; probably
20 feet is'the maximum. '

Burma, Straits.

I: a St. (W P. MOLURUS. The Indian Python. Scales about 65.
Maw/(mg, Ventrals 242—262, subc. 60-72. Intercalated crown
’ W?) shields. Labials about 12, ﬁrst 2 pitted. A subocular some-
- m" '2‘“ times present. The pattern consists of three rows of quad-

W163»:

W 25%.rangular brown Spots (one median), separated by narrow buﬁ'
lines; or it may be considered as brown with longitudinal
dorsal buff stripes with irregular transverse bands above and
below. A brown spot. formed by a bull or yellow1> offset
of the reticulations occupies the head. Size aboht the same

as the preceding.

India, Burma.

Norn.--I think that the exaggeration of travellers as to the length of these
snakes arises from the disproportionate thickness of adult specimens. I
have now a Python molnrus which in the middle is fully as thick as a stout
man’s arm ; and a person deriving his ideas of proportion from large Colu-
bridee would naturally suppose, on' seeing a snake of this thickness either coil-
ed up or moving through the jungle, that it must be at least 20 feet long;
yet it is in reality only ‘9 feet long, very little longer than a dhamam. of an
inch and a half in diameter. The capacity of these creatures’ jaws isaolﬁo
exaggerated. The above-mentioned individual has a throat only wide enough
to take in a ﬁsh of about 8 inches long ; so that it is probable that his prey
consists rather of rats and birds than of goats or deer. * ' ‘

 

103

FAMILY XVI.—-ERYCIDJE.

Body moderate, rounded ; tail very short; head with a
broad snout. Eye small with vertical pupil. Head scaled.
Scales small in numerous rows. Ventrals narrow, subcaudals
single. Rudimentary hind limbs visible, as in the Python.

GONGYLOPHIS.
Head ﬂat, oblong, scarcely distinct. Scales keeled. Chin
scaled, without mental groove. .

G. CONICUS. Scales 41-47. Ventrals 168—476, subc.
17——-23. Small labials, a rostral and nasals are the only
head shields ; the orbit is surrounded by scales. Grey with
an irregular vertebral chain of square brown blotches; belly
white. Length 2 feet.

Southern India, Himalayas.
CURSORIA. _
Similar to the preceding genus, but with smooth scales.

0. ELEGANS. Scales 36. A solitary museum specimen.

ERYX.

a Head hardly distinct, snout obtusely conical, with a sharp

transverse edge. Scales keeled. A few small chin shields - '
separated by a mental groove.

E. JOHNII. Scales 54—65. Ventrals 194—209, subc.
26-—-36. Apdir of frontals, head otherwise sealed as. in
Gongyloph'is. Reddish olive; often with irregular black!

spots.
Southern India, Himalayas.

FAMILY XVIIr-ACROCHORDIDE.

Body moderate, rounded, or slightly compressed; tail
short; head small, not distinct. Eye small. N ostrils.
superior. Head scaled. Scales small wan-like, tubercularj‘
or spiny. No ventrals. ' H i i ' ~

 

 

1041

, ACROCHORDUS.

Tail slightly compressed, without any fold of skin below.
Each scale with a triangular keel, ending in a spine.

'A. JAVANICUS. Nasals simple, contiguous. The mouth
has a bull-dog arrangement of the lips, there being a central
notch above, and a notch below on either side, with corres-
ponding protuberances. Brown with large conﬂuent dark
spots. This ext1aordinary snake grows to 8 feet, is quite ter-
restial (and even frugivorous) though of pelagic appearance
and viviparous. -

Java, Straits.

CHERSYDRUS.

. Tail compressed, and expanded by a fold of skin running
along the lower side. Each scale with a short tubercular
keel.

C. GRANULATUS.
otherwise like Acrochordus. Dark grey above, yellowish
below, each colour sending out short alternate cross-bands.
Aquatic.

Rivers and coasts of Burma and the Straits.

Only the ventral scales are spiny;

SECOND SUB ORDER-VENOMOUS COLUBRINE
‘ SNAKES,

FAMILY I. ~ELAPIDZE. , 0

Body mederate, tail rather short. Head shields normal
but no loreal. Eye small or moderate, with round
pupil. A poison-fang 1n front of the maxilla (which is but
little movable or erectile), and only one or two teeth behind.

NAGA. *

Anterior ribs elongate, erectile; skin of the neck dilat-
able. JHead short and rounded. Ohe rudimentary tooth
behind the poison-fang. Ventrals less than 200. Anal entire.

 

* Usually written Nada,- as the word is probably derived from My, I
prefer to write it Nags.

 

 

 

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105

N. TRIPUDIANS. * The Cobra. Scales 21—23 on the
four-tenths of the body below the ﬁrst tenth or expansive
portion, but as many as 33 on the b1 oadest portion of the
‘hood,’ as we must continue to call the expanded neck in
default of a better English term. The antocular and the
anterior frontal are somewhat fan-shaped, the posterior angle
of the latter resting on the broad part of the former. There
are two distinct varieties of this snake :—

Va/riety a. The Binocellate Cobra. The Spectacled Cobra:
Scales 23. They are 3l-—-33 at the ocelli, 25 at the black
posterior edge of the hood. Ventrals 193~194.«,subc.58—-
67. The neck 1s marked between the 10th and 17th trans-
verse series of scales with a white, black- edged c: or '4
enclosing at either extremity a black ocellus. This pattern is
entirely on the steelbbrown skin, and is only seen when the
hood is eXpanded ; then the scales are distant from one
another like grains of linseed symmetrically arranged in
rows ; at other times the scales are imbricate and conceal the
pattern. The general colour is a dark brown with, occasion-
ally, black and white bands on the interstitial skin. Belly
ash or dark mottled, with a lateral spot corresponding to
the position of the ocellus above, and four or ﬁve ventrals
(the 18th-—23rd) black. Some cobras are much lighter in
colour ; -I had one at Calicut which was very nearly white,
with the spectacles faintly marked ; it was muchrespeoted
as a raja amongst cobras. '

This binocellate variety is found in the South of India and
on the coast generally. I found two specimens in Burma;
but, from their being deprived of fangs, they had evidently
been imported by jugglers and had escaped. My largest

Specimen was 5 feet 7 g inches.

 

it Twpud/iate, v. i. to dance on the toe (Hyde Clarke 3 English Dictionary.)

Ex. “ tripudiant matrons”——(Sa.twday Review.)
‘ 13

I

“#1545?“ V ‘ I

 

 

 

 

~ -' -—- MM M —. “—yv—s‘,
. a
- ,Wv .

l 106 ' i 107.
Variety b. (9 of Gunther). The Monocellate Cobra. Scales 9 BUNGARUS.
21; they 31.32047 at the OCGWS- Ventrals 185*191, , Tail short, head small, hardly distinct from the neck, the

subc. 53. Instead of spectacles, this variety bears a plain

. , skin of which is not dilatable. Eye small. Scales 15, Smooth,
white ocellns With black centre and margin. The colours

the vertebrals large and hexagonal. Ventrals above 200.
Anal and subcauclals entire. One or two teeth behind the
poison fang.

l" are very much the same as in the other variety. This one
does not grow to so large a size, 4 feet 6 inches being the

i i 1 th of m largest s ecimeu. It is the cobra of Central
eng y b p B. CERULEUS. The White—arched Bungarus.*Ventrals 201-—~ 7;, emu.

‘,

' d B ' .' . A
Indla an uima 221, subc. 38—56. Upper parts jet black; lower partsf‘ru‘ﬁm}

 

OPHIOPHAGUS.

The neck is dilatable, but to a much less extent than in
Nags. Occipitals surrounded posteriorly by three pairs of
large shields, the two anterior being temporals. Scales
smooth, large, 15 rows. Ventrals above 200.

O. ELAPS. The H amadryad. Scales 15; on the hood there
are about 19. Ventrals 215—262, subc. 80-——lOO ; about
the ﬁrst ten subcaudals are entire, and sometimes the last
few ventrals are two-rowed. There are two varieties distin-
guished by the Burmans, the dusky and the banded. The
former is of general brownish olive colour. The latter is
yellow with about 50 bands formed by black interstitial skin
and black margins to the scales, the latter increasing until
towards the tail the colour becomes black with yellow
bands. Lower parts yellow, posteriorly black.

This snake grows to 12 feet in length ; when at bay its
head stands about two feet off the ground. From its large
size it is much less manageable than the cobra, but Barman
jugglers make it go through much the same performance.
It will eat other snakes, and there appears to be enmity
between it and the cobra, the latter (I am credibly informed)

attacking it with fatal effect. When watching its eggs it is,

very savage, and will drive away by hostile demonstration,
or even pursuit, any ‘passers-by ;‘ at other times it is peace-
able enough. It is found in the jungles of Cuttack and
Burma, and in the Anamullies.

 

 

white, throwing white arches over the back. (Hence B. Arou-

‘atus is a far preferable name, as there is 'not the slight-

est caerulean colour about the snake). The ﬁrst arch is gene-
rally an incomplete collar, the next three are single -; then
they divide into pairs, of which there are about 30. There
is great variety about the mode of sub-division; sometimes
the arches remain single, and in one variety there are no
arches. This snake grows rarely above 4 feet long; young ‘
specimens are very handsome. It is found in most parts of
India, but is rare in Burma, where it is re-placed by the fol-
lowing :-—- i

B. rascwrns. The “Yellow—banded Bungwrus. Ventrals thaw
200....233, subn on .04. Tail very short and stumpy, even {wﬂmy

swollen at the tip. Body of triangular section ; spinous pro-r
cesses‘ of vertebrae very prominent. Black with about 20
yellow cross-bands completely encircling the body and tail.
Head black With a yellow l> converging upwards from the
throat. Grows to above 6 feet long. Common in Burma,
rare on the Eastern Coast.

B..canomcus. Similar to the ﬁrst species, but with com.
plete black rings and narrow white intervals.

 

*Probably the “ krait ;” only every Anglo-Indian has his own idea of
a “ krait,” often evolved from his inner consciousness; so that there is no
certainty on the point. ‘

 

 

 

108

B. SEMIFASCIATUS. Also similar to B. cceruleus, but the
tail has complete black rings round it.

China.

XENURELAPS‘.

Similar to Bungwms but with double subeaudals.

X. BUNGAROIDES. Scales 15. Ventrals 237+46. Black
with narrow white cross-bands directed forward; white
bands on the head; belly white ‘with irregular cross—bands.

Assam. A. solitary museum specimen.
° MEGZEROPHIS.
, Form similar to Bungarus, but with 13 rows of scales, the
vertebrals large, hexagonal. Anal and anterior subcaudal‘s
entire.

M. FLAVICEPS‘. Ventrals 209—226, subc. 38—52. Black,
with a vertebral line and zigzag lateral stripe, white ante-
riorly, red posteriorly; head- and neck red ;' belly red, some-
times black anteriorly.

Straits.

CALLOPHIS (ELAPS.)

‘ Body very'long and slender; head short, obtuse, not dis.
tinet from the: neck; tail short.. Scales 13, vertebrals not
enlarged ;~ anal. generally biﬁd; subaaudals b'iﬁd.

C. BI‘V‘IRGATUS. Ventrals 248—284, subc. 38—30. Head,
belly, and tail red"; body black, with a lateral zigzag white
blue-margined-‘stripe. Upwards of 4 feet in length.

Straits.

C. INTESTINALIS. Ventrals 223—271, subc. 24—26. A
red-black-edged vertebral stripe; at buff, black-edged lateral
stripe. Belly alternate pale yellow and black.

India, Straits.

, C. ,GBACJLLS. Ventrals 238—311,,subc. 21—28. Grey, ‘

a brown vertebral line with small button-like, swellings; a

 

109

white, black—centred, and black margined lateral stripe;
between these stripes is a series of black, white-edged Spots ;
belly pale yellow with black cross—bands ; tail red below, with
an anterior and posterior black, white-edged ring.

Straits.

C. MACCLELLANDII. Ventrals 196—224, subc. 25—34.
Head black with a yellow ﬁllet ; body reddish brown with
black vertebral line ; belly yellow with variable black pat-
tern.

Assam.

C. ANNULARIS. Ventrals 208+33. Head black with a.
yellow ﬁllet ; body reddish brown, surrounded by about 40 ‘
narrow black rings ; on the belly these are doubled by alter-
nate ventral cross—bars.

C. TRIMACULATUS. Ventrals 258—274, subc. 35. Brown ;
head and neck black with yellow spots ; belly red.
Tenasserim.

C. MACULICEPS. Ventrals 205—247, subc. 24—32. Brown;
3 black lines run from the snout to join a broad black collar 5
belly red ; tail black-ringed.

Straits.

C. NIGRESCENS. Ventrals 232—247, subc. 33—42; anal
generally’ entire. Upper parts blackish, lower parts red;

head marbled with black ; a black Cl collar ; a black, yellow-
edged dorsal line.

Anamullies.

' FAMILY II.—HYDROPHIDZE.

Body cylindrical, compressed posteriorly; tail strongly
compressed, forming a verticabﬁn. Head shields pretty

regular, but no loreal, and usually only a single pair of front-

als; nasals generally contiguous. In most genera there are

 

110

no ventrals. Scales generally tubercular and dull. All

provided with a poison-fang, followed by 3 or '4 ordinary
teeth. Eye very small.

PLATURUS.

Head shields normal ; 2 pairs cffrontals, nostrils lateral,

‘ nasals not contiguous. Scales smooth, neutrals well develop—
ed, anal biﬁd 5 subcaudals present.

P. _SCUTATUS., .Scales 21-—23. Ventrals 213-——24I.
Generally an azygos shield between the posterior frontals.

Black rings, head yellow with black pcstocular stripe and
median stripe.

P. FISCHERI. Scales 19-. Ventrals 232—241. No my-
gos shield. About 30 black “rings, and median head stripe.

AIPYSURUS.

Body not much compressed ; the ventrals are well deve-
loped, and have a sharp median keel. Head shields generally

divided ; one pair of frontals ; nasals contiguous. Scales
smooth, subcaudals broad, entire. '

Belongs to the Polynesian fauna.

A. ANGUILLZEFORMIS. Scales 17. Ventrals 142. Brown with.
yellow cross-bands. .

A. LEVIS. Scales 21. Ventrals ]51——-—154.
A. FUSCUS. Scales 19. Ventrals 157—166. Brown.

DISTEIRA.

A pair of anterior frontals between the nasals. Scales
imbricate ; ventrals very small with double keel.

D‘."DOLIATA. Scales 39—41. Ventrals 234:. Brown cross-
bands. A solitary museum specimen.

 

111
ACALYPTUS.

Crown scaled; a pair of frontals, nasals contiguous ; no
Ventrals.

A. SUPERCILIOSUS.

Rare ; found in the Paciﬁc.

HYDRO PHIS.

Head short, shielded. One pair of frontals, nasals conti- ~
guous. Scales generally tubercular. Ventrals rudimentary
or absent. (They are said to be ‘ broad,’ purely in a com-
parative sense.) .

This extensive genus comprises by far the greater number
of the sea—snakes met with. The range of these animals being
unlimited by the circumstances which conﬁne land-snakes
to particular localities, it may fairly be said that every sea-
snake of the Indian and Paciﬁc oceans may be found on the
East Indian coasts ; therefore these individuals not actually
found on these coasts are still included in the East Indian

' fauna. I may here mention that 6 to 7 feet is the adult size

of the largest of the species at present known. Gunther
makes no less than 35 species of this genus. Their
colour is generally buff or dirty white, with black or dull
sea-blue cross-bands. Ventrals, when present, number from
220~440. As their description takes up twenty pages of
Giinther’s book, and I am afraid that the work of discrimina-
tion, already' difﬁcult, would not be possible by the aid of any
synopsis, I must fain refer the collector to the original des-
criptions. H. cyanocinctus, coerulescens, gracilis, are about
the most common.

ENHYDRINA

Differs from Hydrophis in having a deep notch in the
lower jaw.

E. BENGALENSIS or VALAKADYEN. The rostral is lobulated ~
and ﬁts into the deep mental notch.

Common on the Burman coast.

 

110

no ventrals, Scales generally tubercular and dull. All

provided with a poisonafang, followed by 3 or '4 ordinary
teeth. Eye very small.

PLATURUS.

Head shields normal ; 2 pairs of frontals, nostrils lateral,
‘ nasals not contiguous. Scales smooth, neutrals well develop—
ed, anal biﬁd ; subcaudals present.

P. . SCUTATUS, Scales 21-—-23. Ventrals 213-24L
Generally an azygos shield between the posterior frontals.

Black rings, head yellow with black postocular stripe and
median stripe.

P. FIsCHERI. Scales 19. Ventrals 32—-—241. No my-

gos shield. About 30 black rings, and median head stripe.

AIPYSURUS.

Body not much compressed 5 the ventrals are well deve-
loped, and have a sharp median keel. Head shields generally

divided 3 one pair of frontals ; nasals contiguous. Scales‘
smooth, subcaudals broad, entire.

Belongs to the Polynesian fauna.

A. ANGUILLZEFORMIS. Scales 17. Ventrals 142. Brown with
yellow cross-bands. . .

A. LEVIS. Scales 21. Ventrals 151—»154.
A. FUSCUS. Scales 19. Ventrals 157-——166. Brown.
DISTEIRA.

A pair of anterior frontals between the nasals. Scales
imbricate ; ventrals very small with double keel.

D. DOLIATA. Scales 39-4151. Ventrals 234:. Brown cross—
bands. A solitary museum specimen.

 

1 11
ACALYPTUS.

Crown sealed ; a pair of frontals, nasals contiguous ; no
ventrals.

A. SUPERCiLIosus.
Rare ; found in the Paciﬁc.

HYDRO PHIS.

Head short, shielded. One pair of frontals, nasals contia .

guous. Scales generally tubercular. Ventrals rudimentary
or absent. (They are said to be ‘ broa'd,’ purely in a coma-
p‘arative sense.) '

This extensive genus comprises by far the greater number
of the sea-snakes met with. The range of these animals being
unlimited by the circumstances which conﬁne land-snakes
to particular localities, it may fairly be said that every sea-
snake of the Indian and Paciﬁc oceans may be found on the
East Indian coasts ; therefore these individuals not actually
found on these coasts are still included in the East Indian

' fauna. I may here mention that 6 to 7 feet is the adult size

of the largest of the species at present known. Giinther
makes no less than 35 species of this genus. Their
colour is generally buff or dirty white, with black or dull
sea-blue cross-bands. Ventrals, when present, number from
220—440. As their description takes up twenty pages of
Giinther’s book, and I am afraid that the work of discrimina~
tion, already'diﬂicult, would not be possible by the aid of any
synopsis, I must fain refer the collector to the original des—
criptions. H. cyanocinctus, ceerulescens, graeilis, are about
the most common.
EN HYDRIN A

Differs from Hydrophz's in having a deep notch in the
lower jaw.

E. BENGALENSIS or VALAKADYEN. The rostral is lobulated ‘

and ﬁts into the deep mental notch.
Common on the Burman coast.

 
    

 

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112
PELAMIS.
Head ﬂat, with long spatulate snout, a pair of frontals,

nasals contiguous; no ventrals.

P. BICOLOR. Black above, brown below, with a yellow
lateral band.

All this family of snakes are very venomous. At Maul—
main several sailors have died in consequence of being
bitten whilst bathing; this is contrary to their usual habits.
I have always found them stupid, peaceable, and nearly
blind when out of the water.

THIRD SUB-ORDER.—~VIPERINE SNAKES.
FAMILY I.——CROTALIDE. *

Body stout, tail moderate or short. Head broad, sub-

triangular, generally scaly or imperfectly shielded. A deep
pit on the side of the snout corresponding to the cavity of
the maxilla. Eye moderate, with erect pupil. Poison-fang
long, more or less erectile but without a special erector muscle.

TRIMESURUS (Trimeresu‘rus, Ganther).

Head shielded only in the supraciliary and rostral regions.
Body and head covered with more or less keeledascales} 17—27
rows. Anal entire, subcaudals double.

T. GRAMINEU’S. In this and the following ﬁve species the
Second labial forms the front of the facial pit. The small
supranasals are separated by a small azygos shield. Scales
19—21. Ventrals 158——170, subc. 58—71. Grass green, belly
paler, yellow lateral stripe.

Burma, Straits, China, Assam.

3“ This family includes the rattlesnakes of America, and most of the p0i<
Eonous snakes of Australia and the West Indies.

l

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113

T. ERYTHRURUS. Scales 21. Ventrals 1504-164, subc.
54.470. Supranasals contiguous. Same colour as the pre-
ceding, tail red or ruddy, lips often white.

Bengal, Burma, China.

T. CARINATUS. Scales 23-25. Ventrals 161~—167, subc.
45—«68. Head scales small, strongly keeled ; supranasals not
contiguous. Grass green, paler below, with or without
a white lateral stripe, tail often reddish, belly often white.
Grows to about 3 feet long. .

Burma, Assam.

I consider that the above three species - are merely varie-
ties of a species. T. viridis, the green tree-viper. Their colour
is delicate and variable; the keeled scales, the reddish tail,
and the side stripe may be present or absent in either of
these varieties.

T. PURPUREUS. Scales 25——-27. ‘Ventrals 162-171, subc.
65—70. Dull reddish brown, pale green on the sides, yellow
lateral stripe, ventrals and subcaudals marked with brown.

Straits.

T. ANAMALLENSIS. Scales 21, more or less keeled. Ventrals
14.8—45.8, subc. {SI-55. Supranasals generally separated,
Yellowish green, with vertebral series of rhombic black Spots
variegated with yellow. Head marbled With black, post-
orbital streak.

. Anamullies and Wynaad.

T. MONTICOLA. Scales 23, slightly keeled. Ventrals
137—1421, subc. 41. Dark ash or brown, alternating dorsal
series of black spots; sides black-spotted, yellow-post orbital
streak; yellow 9'4 mark on the neck, belly mottled brown.

Himalayas,
' 14

 

 

. 114:
T. STRIGATUS. Scales 21, keeled. Ventrals 136-442.

The second labial does not form the front of the facial pit.

No supranasals. Brown with irregular dark spots and :3
angular mark on the neck.
N ilgiris. Formerly Trigonocephalus nilgiriensis.

. T. WAGLERI. Scales 23—25. Ventrals 139—-—150, subc.
42'-—53. The second labial does not form the front of the
facial pit. Head scales keeled. Variable in colour; when
young, green with short, reddish buff cross-bars ; the adult is
black with about 35 yellow cross-bands ; yellow post-orbital
streak.

Straits. Formerly Trigonocephalus sumatmnus.
Tmnreonocnrmms. Scales 17——19. Ventrals 147—152,
subc. 574—63. The ante-anal is notched or divided. Green

with black vertebral stripe emitting alternate cross-bars ;
black post-orbital and head streaks ; pale green below.

Ceylon;

T. MUCROSQUAMATUS. Ventrals 2194—91; Brownish grey
with black ring-spots.

Assam. A solitary museum specimen.

T. ANDERSONI AND T. onscuaus are noted by‘ Mr.
Theobald, but they would appear to be varieties of '1'. par“

0

purcus and of T. wagleri respectively. '

PELTOPELOR.
Head covered with large shield-like imbricate scales.
Body scales 12, large, keeled.

P. MACROLEPIS. Ventrals 134-4 38,. subc. 53—56. The
large head scales are arranged very much like shields, there
being a vertical and frontals. Uniform green, paler below
with yellow side streak. '

Discovered by MajorBeddome in the Anamullies.

“ska—R

‘LEF,

 

f3»

 

1. 15
CALLOSELASMA.

Head normally shielded. Scales 21, smooths Tail ends in a . ,

long spine.

0. RHODOSTOMA. Ventrals 138—456, subc. 36—64. A
subocular present. Reddish olive, dotted with brown ; black
vertebral line ; dorsal series of erect triangular black spots;
ﬂeslpcoloured streak from the snout above the eye ; lips
reddish olive. Grows to 3 feet.

Siam, Java.

HALYS. '
Head normally shielded. Scales 21—27 keeled. Tail ends

in a long spine.

H. BLOMHOFFII. Scales 21. Ventrals 136—450, subc.
iii—~56. Three large temporals separated from the occipi-
tals by scales, and contiguous to last 3 labials. Brown, with
a dorsal series of large, round dark spots; belly marbled
brown.

Japan.

H. HIMALAYANUS. Scales 23. Ventrals 162—466, subc.
43——-51. Temporals separated from occipitals by scales, and
conﬂuent with the last 3 labials. Dark brown, with band-
like Spots; black post-orbital streak; belly black, marbled
with yellow. .

, H. ELLIOTTII. Scales 23. Ventrals 151—«43. Green,
white below.

Nilgiris. Found and partially described by Mr. J erdon.
HYPN ALE.

Snout covered with numerous small shields; crown nor‘
mally shielded. Scales 17 keeled. Tail ends in asmall coni—
cal scale.

H. NEPA. Ventrals 1420—452, subc. 31—435. Brown,
grey, or olive, with a dorsal series of dark spots. Sides and

 

 

116

belly mottled with brown 3 brown \post~orbital streak with
whitish upper margin. '

Ceylon, Malabar, Anamullies.

FAMILY II.———-VIPERIDE.

Body stout ; tail short ; head broad, scaled or imperfectly
Shielded. No facial pit. Eye moderate with erect pupil.
Poison-fang very long with a special erector muscle.

’ DABOIA.

Nostrils large, in 3 shields ; head completely scaled. Body
" scales 29-431, much imbricate, strongly keeled.

D. ELEGANS. (russellii) The Chain-viper (Tic polonga
of Ceylon, Cobra monilla of the Portuguese.) Ventrals
163-470, subc. 45-60. Grey with 3 series of large black
white-edged ring spots, the vertebral series often irregular.
In young specimens the spots have a beautiful velvetty
lustre. Ayellow g> converges towards the snout. Belly spot-

ted with brown. Grows to 5 feet long. £2: “Mvam ‘7‘}: “rd”
5 I _ ‘ I

South of India and Burma. Commoniq 37’?”-

ECHIS.

Head scaled ; a pair of very small frontals ,; nostril small
in a single shield. Scales 25——29 strongly keeled, much
imbricate. Subcaudals single.

E. CARINATA. Ventrals 1419-4545, subc. 21-—-26. Grey,
with a vertebral series of white, brown-edged spots, below
each. of which is a semi-circular white streak enclosing a
(brown spot. Broad brown p head-mark ; belly white, spot-
ted. 1—-_1% foot.

South of India.
[The viper of England is Pelias Z'IBT’ll8J

Wimdshww)u W .... u; 47]”)ij
\ W W, 070.719. (906, i414, MW LW-fo.5*”w& M;

 

 

 

4.

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APPENDIX.

 

 

0:
ON THE FREQUENCY AND PROPORTION OF THE KINDS OF
SNAKES MOST COMMONLY MET WITH.

IN the foregoing catalogue I have given English names to
those snakes most commonly met with, and the small
number of these names shows how narrow is the circle of
snakes with which the average Englishman in India is at all
likely to make acquaintance, and how few of them are
venomous. I think it may be of use to give a list of these
snakes together, and to give a rough idea of the proportion
of each of them likely to be found in a promiscuous collec—
tion of a hundred snakes.

Proportion
per cent.
lst.—-—-Venomous Snakes.
Naga tripaoliansmthe Cobra , 5
Banger-rue arcuatus~the White-arched Bun.-
garus.... 3
Trimesurus ciridis—the Green Tree-viper. 1 *1
Daboia elega'ns-‘the Chain-vi per. J
. ° ' 2nd.-——Harmless Snakes.
Pig/as macasus—the Dhaman 20
Tropidonotus quincunciatus—the Checkered
Snake.... ... 15
T. stolatus—the Chameleon Snake... 20

Dendrophis pictus—the Blue Tree-snake 2

 

3‘ I may remind the reader that the ﬁrst two of the four common venombus
and-snakes have shielded heads like the harmless colubrine snakes, whilst
the two vipers have scaly heads. The latter are rare out of Burma, Malabar,

and hilly jungles. Various kinds'of Hydrophidoe are also common on our

coasts.

 

2:19;?“ «1- ‘3‘, I, ;? Mun-1». w“ :r«, .

-« ﬁ-i'm'iw

 

A-other genera.

Passerita myc‘ter-izans—the Green rFree-snake.
Dipsas gokool———the Broad-headed Tree-snake

(striped) ... ... . .. ...
Lycodon caucus-the Chocolate—coloured Snake

'il‘otal percentage of these common snakes

Leaving 18 as the proportion of rarer snakes.

the foregoing are increased or .-re placed by the

snakes: ~—

Bzmgarus fasciatusﬂ—the Black and Yellow
Bungarus
Simotcs cruentatus~the Coral—tail Snake ...
vS. bicatenatus~the F illeted Ground-snake
"Compsosoma, q'adt'a'tum—the Red Dhaman
Ptyas homosmthe Slender Dhaman .
Dipsas multimaculata—the Broad headed Tree-
snake (ring-spotted)

Xenopeltis unicolor~the Iridescent Earth—snake

A last postscript, and I have done.

According to m y experience the poison of venomous snakes
affects not only harmless snakes but also venomous snakes of
This question is not yet settled, as snakes
are not quarrelsome amongst themselves, and great doubt
always exists as to the efﬁcacy of involuntary bites.

THE END.

Proportion
per cent

4

10

82

In Burma
following

0

10
1,0
.3

10

 

 

ADDENDA. ‘ °

 

Some of the English synonyms in the Appendix have inadvertently been
given differently from those in the Descriptive Catalogue.

The ﬁrst footnote at page 41 was written previously 'to Dr. Shortt’s recent

observations on the subject.

I have lately found that the Trimesuri included under the head of the
‘ green tree-viper’ have very weak poison, insufﬁcient to kill a. small dog ;
so that the common snakes possessing poison fatal to man may be reduced

to two—the cobra and the chain-viper.

    

  
 

 
 
 
 
   
  
  
 
  
  
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
  
 
    

,,,,,,

 

 

END OF TITLE