''BERKELEY LIBRARY UNIVEASITY OF CAUFORNIA Bioscience & Natural Resources Library '' '' '' '' '' '' ''Famopn lets on Trees, Courterts . California. State board of Sprestry., Nemorial. clSS ats | . yeser: Georee. x catalogue oss The forest trees of the United States. I$ 7G. 3. Gray, Asa. oT aud its history. iS Tea. A. Nluir, Sonu: On The post-@lacia | histor 4 ot Sequels ai gantes. ¢IST13 5, Harvard university . Arnold arboretum, Report o& the director, 871+. 6, Sargent ,C. oe The forests of central Nevada, I8/9. 7, Ofrearns, Ri B.C. Ou the erewth of certain California eee trees, c 882A" 5 oe Dress, 4 ee. | Forest tree eulfture jin California, a (882 4a ale Collier, G. HH, Liat of the Treas oF Oregon} toh. lo. LOS. Forest service. Report Tar... [0g4, N. Saree, Cc. DS, Some additions to Me sy|va of TVorth Amer- tea... \B8G. y.. Cand, 2c. Cinus JDautssisus on the enage of Maine. —/88-ts Id. Delus- Loneehar ps madam oid. Nore sur une varieté pyuramidale du Popu lus virai niava Wea G ¢ 1864, iA, Olwsted fF. 4 Observations on The treatment of public Plautatyous. 1&39. (Continued ou naypt page a '' '' is. New York stete) Forestry Commission. Report .. Jan.2d, 1885, lo. CA worker expe Jak no ) Ph. Aydersson y a oelices boreali- americanae. + Syy0 psis ot North American willows. IS 58. IR. Penh, N.S. elie macrocarpa, Nutt, vet a& Audersson. IG, Gra , rsa, e willows ot the northern United States, 1887. aD Perkins, GH. The vecgetation of the Lilinois lowlands, I8sTs., at. Lopatecki, ae The trees of Dritish Columbia. 188975 Wee, Condon, Thomas, The Ssrest trees of Oregon. o 1890%, . Tweedy Frank, Notes on the ConiSerse of Washinetou Territory, cish '' '' '' '' k x ; ; : 9 ;- 3 ‘ MEMORIAL. California State Board of Forestry to the Congress of the United States : To the people of that portion of the United States inhabiting the so called arid districts, or those States and Territories visited either with scanty or only periodical rainfalls, there is no single question that so profoundly affects their material welfare and future prosperity as that of a copious and enduring water supply for domestic, mining, and irrigation uses. Any conditions which result in impairing even slightly the supply now obtained in these districts, must be viewed with apprehension—any MATERIAL de- crease in some of the affected localities would imply a shrinkage of millions of dollars in taxable values; while raiLurE of present supply would involve in business paralysis and financial bank- ruptcy some of the fairest and most thriving sections of the great southwest. The continued progress and future development of large portions of Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, and, above all, California, seems to be only limited by this question of water supply, and it would appear to be a fair field for congres- sional action to inquire into causes threatening its diminution, and by wise remedial measures preserve the integrity of such as we have, and promote wherever possible its further increase and usefulness. Recent investigations of the Senatorial Arid Lands Committee have shown that irrigation, wherever practiced, has resulted in phenomenal benefits to people fortunate enough to come within the scope of its operations. In California the vast area of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley (greater than the State of New York) is rapidly becom- ing opened up to settlement and profitable occupation, chiefly through the agency of elaborate and costly systems of irrigating canals. The more southern end of the State owes its surprising industrial advances more to the successful artificial distribution of a naturally limited water supply, rather than to especial eli- matic or geographical advantages. 604709 ''< . Se ae a8 ° Cm One 9990 Bene oe ®e, Pane ° 2,0 ° 2 Oo 4 enon o%n ° °° ° ° ° cy »? en eooe eee ener Cry ° ° ° .? ° oe nee ones ° Sg: ese o? ° » » 9 Be River bar and placer mining, as is generally known, can only be profitably prosecuted where water is abundant, and great numbers of paying properties throughout the west coast are unoperated and rendered unproductive during many months of the year, not so much from the inadequacy of the supply as from . the existence of partially remediable conditions which prevail to quickly exhaust the fountain head. The source of the water now enjoyed by the miners and agri- culturists of this coast is found in rivers, streams, and springs having their inception in the timber-covered slopes and crests of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and its spurs. Upon credible information, we believe that at points upon Kings, Fresno, and the Merced Rivers, above where any waters are with- drawn for irrigation or mining purposes, that in so called “dry years,” there is already a marked diminution in the volume of their waters over past “dry years,” and prior to the wanton deforesta- tion of the brush and timber-covered slopes of their watersheds. From personal observation we know this to be true of the Feather River, and believe that the same causes that threaten the mining, agricultural, and horticultural interests of this State are insidi- ously, but unerringly, at work to imperil and undermine the inland river commerce of our navigable streams, the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. Unfortunately, the ownership of much of these timbered lands has passed into private or corporate hands; and we say unfortunately advisedly, as it seems impossible to impose any forcible restraints that shall altogether do away with wanton and wasteful destruction of timber by fire and the axe, or the pasturing out of their forest reproductive character by per- sons unmindful of the future and heedful only of considerations of immediate gain to themselves. Nevertheless, there still remains of the brush and timber-cov- ered watersheds of the Sierra Nevadas, and comprising those por- tions upon which the very life-blood of the industries mentioned depend, millions of acres of surveyed and unsurveyed lands the ownership of and fee simple to which lies in the. government of the United States alone. The custody of these lands at present is in the Department of the Interior, and as part of the nation’s heritage, and of incalcu- lable value to the people of this country they demand as careful stewardship and wise management as do the moneys in the pub- lic treasury. A circular of the General Land Office of date of March 8, 1883, '' i ee calls for the posting on the public domain of notices warning against the setting out of fires; yet such notices over eight hun- dred miles of this State are not posted, nor can records be found of arrests or prosecutions within this State by Federal officials for such offenses. All such action has heretofore been carried out by State authorities, hampered by feeble laws, limited means, and a territory to supervise nearly as vast as the whole Atlantic sea- board. No further effort seems to have been made to arrest the obliter- ation of our forests from mountain fires or to check the still more blighting and disastrous spoliation of their young growth by nomadic flocks of sheep. Conscientious and rigorous measures have been fully carried out by the department to bring to justice trespassers upon these domains, who have cut and stolen timber and fuel therefrom; yet the value and volume of all the timber and fuel that has been stolen from the public domain in California for twenty years past, is insignificant as compared with the standing timber and young forest that is annually swept away by the combined evil agen- cies of fire and sheep. If a tithe of the money and energy applied to the abatement of the lesser ill had been brought to bear upon the suppression of the greater one, the evil of which we now complain would not have grown to such monstrous and appalling proportions. The unprotected and unguarded condition of the nation’s forests is a constant menace to freeholders and occupants of adjacent lands, and the newspaper press of the whole country during recent months has recorded innumerable disasters to both life and prop- erty from fires having their origination upon the public domain; and even if no considerations of self-interest intervene, the sover- eign ought not to be held unaccountable for its own laches when they result in death and disaster to the subject. It is here assumed that the water-storing character of forests is too well known and conceded to admit of either elaboration or argument upon that point; and that the danger from flood and freshet incident to their indiscriminate removal is as generally known as it is freely recognized; nevertheless, to the people of the Pacific Coast, forest preservation has another aspect of the grav- est import to them, and not necessarily a factor of equal moment in all forest questions. Environed on the south and southeast by an arid, treeless dis- trict, almost uninhabitable by reason of its torrid summer heats, ''cus A ee the people of the adjacent territory can only look upon the possi- ble enlargement and encroachment of this inhospitable region with profoundest apprehension. Their immunity from invasion by this hostile climate depends upon the great forests of the north- west coast, whose benign, ameliorating, and far-reaching influences alone enables them to maintain the unequal contest with greater forces. The diminution, recession, and final and threatened extinction of these forests, must only result in the expansion and aggression of elements inimical to our well-being, fatal to our prosperity. Il. Recognizing the difficulties of formulating forest protection laws that offer a solution of all objections that can be framed, the California State Board of Forestry tenders some suggestions in this direction that it is believed will meet the exigent demands of the mining and agricultural classes, nor yet be antagonistic to the great lumbering or live stock industries of this State. First—Extreme urgency demands the temporary repeal of the timber-entry law in California, and the absolute withdrawal from sale of all Federal timber lands in this State, until future surveys have determined the areas and boundaries of such tracts as are contained within the natural watershed of our streams and water- ways. For obvious reasons, the restrictive feature of the Act must operate prior, not subsequently, to the making of the sur- veys; otherwise the door is still open for some years for the per- petuation of the injury we would have abated. Timber lands, not so situated, could ultimately be reopened for- sale or occupancy, though no really valid reason can be adduced to show why this repeal should not be in perpetuity, and that all Federal forest lands, irrespective of their watershed or non-water- shed character, should not be alienated to thé people at large and from the individual forever. Such a course will conduce not only to the benefit of the indi- vidual, but to the government as well. A forest, or timber, like any other crop, when mature is fit to harvest, and when not sub- ject to wasteful abuses may with propriety and benefit be cut; when, however, to facilitate access to a tract, vast quantities of intervening lands are laid waste and valuable timber is left to decay and destruction (as is well illustrated in the accompanying photographic reproduction of a common incident of our lumber country), then such methods become improvident and should be '' LL fo rigorously suppressed. In most instances these outrages are per- petrated upon the public domain, and are as defensible as would be the acts of a farmer in burning the fields and breaking down the fences of another for the purpose of securing a more expedi- ‘tious route to market. Second—The timber on such lands, when fit to harvest, should be sold, not the land. The lumberman as a rule cares nothing for the land; in buying forest he is only influenced by the number of feet or saw logs to the acre, and consequently will pay as much for the timber alone as he will for the land and the timber; hence in selling the timber alone there is no loss of revenue to the department, while the fee remaining in the United States they can impose such reasonable regulations for the preservation of young growth and the preven- tion of fires as will not alone insure the perpetual forest character of these lands, but yield in the future further returns of revenue. Young growth forest lands for some years after the timber has been cut affords the best of pasturage, and when the trees are of sufficient size can be pastured to cattle, and even sheep, without injury, and the rentals derived from the same would in a few years more than meet the charges of guarding them from van- dals and freebooters. Accident of ownership by the United States seems to have operated to cause owners of errant flocks and herds of sheep and cattle to think they have some rights to pillage and plunder the public domain reserved to themselves and denied to those en- gaged in other pursuits. The successful prosecution and conviction of a few timber thieves has operated to almost abate the once thriving enterprise of lumber stealing. The same processes vigorously enforced would doubtless mitigate the theft of pasture, and the far worse, and almost invariable, sequel of forest fires. These lands, to be preserved to the interests of agriculture, min- ing, and lumbering, will require a systematic supervision and minute attention to executive detail not necessarily pertinent to the rest of the public lands, and which would tend to embarrass the already overloaded and complicated machinery of the Gen- eral Land Office. Hence, the propriety of assigning the custody of them to the Department of Agriculture under a competent Commissioner or Commissioners—to a department already equipped with a Division of Forestry, and under which they could be so administered as to ''e Ge become a source of national pride and wealth. If it be contended that the retirement of so much of the public domain is not in accord with the policy of our government, we suggest that this loss can be offset by wise efforts to expand the benefits of the Tim- ber Culture Act; the time for “‘ proving up” can be extended, and * to those who plant timber upon otherwise unproductive grounds immunity from taxation for all time upon lands consecrated to this purpose. The principle which would justify such legislation lies in the fact that the planter becomes a public benefactor, and that long before any direct profit can accrue to him benefit has inured to the whole commonwealth by his act. Aside from persons who have availed themselves of the Timber Culture Act of 1878, are many individuals and corporate owners of large tracts of mountain and upper foothill lands unsusceptible of irrigation or cultivation; hence, unsuitable for agricultural uses and only available for grazing or forest plantation. Would be planters of such tracts are largely deterred from so doing through want of authoritative information as to the char- acter of timber best qualified to thrive thereon, and under such conditions to yield the best final returns. All legitimate encour- agement should be tendered those willing to engage their time and means in enterprises calculated to so largely redeem the arid character of much of this country. This encouragement is best promoted by the establishment of forest experiment stations in the most arid districts of Colorado, California, Nevada, and Arizona, and while their educational | value be indisputable wherever established, the practical and material necessity for their existence is most strikingly empha- sized in those States and Territories dependent upon seasonal rains, or subject to periods of long protracted drought. Properly belonging in the jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture, such stations obviously must be independent of, and remote from, agricultural experiment stations. These latter are (and properly) conducted upon lands fitted for cultivation. The former must be upon grounds typical of the millions of acres of to-day waste lands of the arid Southwest. Public-minded citizens tender ample lands for such purposes free of cost to the government. The initial cost of planting them out will not be great, and the subsequent cost of maintenance will be in a constantly diminishing ratio until they ultimately become self-supporting, or a source of revenue to the State. '' , ; — Be The present administration, or rather want of administration, of the Federal timber lands of this coast, is an arraignment of the best intelligence and patriotism of the general government, which a disregard of the enlightened methods of other nations might not alone challenge, but which a due regard to ourselves and posterity does, and which strenuously and exigently calls for reformation and remedial measures that shall check the impend- ing menace to our immediate and future prosperity. The active and earnest codperation of the California State Board of Forestry can at all times be relied upon to supplement and forward such action as Congress may take. WALTER 8S. MOORE, Chairman. JOHN D. SPRECKELS. FRANK J. MOFFITT. Wo. S. Lyon, Forester. '' '' CF CUTTING TIMBER. '' '' RAVAGES OF FOREST FIRES. '' '' '' '' A CATALOGUE OF THE Forest Trees or THE Untrep STATES WHICH USUALLY ATTAIN A HEIGHT OF SIXTEEN FEET OR MORE, WITH NOTES AND BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MORK IMPORTANT SPECIES, ILLUSTRATING THE COLLECTION OF FOREST-TREE SECTIONS ON EXHIBITION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA. PREPARED BY GEO. VASBEBY, MD. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICK. 1876. '' ''A CATALOGUE OF THE Forest Trees or tHe UNtrep STATES WHICH USUALLY ATTAIN A HEIGHT OF SIXTEEN FEET OR MORE, NOTES AND BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MORE IMPORTANT SPECIES, COLLECTION OF FOREST-TREE SECTIONS ON EXHIBITION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA. PREPARED BY GEO. VASBY, M. D. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1876. '' z % S Re + * cat isi ''a FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. CENTENNIAL COLLECTION. Sir: The following list is a catalogue of the native and naturalized forest-trees of the United States which attain a height of 16 feet and upward. Descriptive notes of many species are appended. By an act of the last Congress an appropriation was made to enable the different Departments of the Government to participate in the Cen- tennial Exposition of 1876. In pursuance of this object, the Botanist of the Department of Agriculture undertook to make a collection to repre- sent the trees of the United States. The aim was to represent every important tree by botanical specimens of the leaves, flowers, and fruit, and also by sections of the trunk, showing the appearance of the bark and of the wood; thus giving the completest possible view of every species. The great extent of our country and the immense variety of our arborescent vegetation made this of necessity a great undertaking. Well knowing that the chief value of such a collection would depend upon its scientific accuracy, arrangements were made to engage compe- tent persons in the different fields of labor. In some portions of the country, local botanists were employed to collect the trees of their par- ticular districts. But for the larger portion of the country it was neces- sary to employ traveling-agents, whose duty it was to explore a desig- nated section, ascertain the localities of the trees desired, collect the ‘ proper botanical specimens at the right season, and, having carefully noted the localities, to return at the end of the growing period and obtain sections of the trees. As collector for the Southern States, Mr. A. H. Curtiss, of Liberty, Va., a well-known botanist, was engaged. A large number of the trees of the Middle States were obtained in the vicinity of Washington. Of these, thirty species were procured from a part of the General Washington estate at Mount Vernon, now owned by Dr. E. P. Howland. The trees peculiar to the New England States were procured by Mr. C. G. Pringle, of Charlotte, Vt. As collector for the Western States, Mr. John Wolf, of Canton, IIL, "was employed. In making the collection in Colorado, he was assisted by Mr. C. W. Derry, of Granite, Lake County, Colorado. The semi-tropical trees of Southern Florida were obtained by Dr. A. ''4 FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. W. Chapman, of Apalachicola, during a two months’ cruise by schooner on the west coast, among the various keys and inlets, and far into the in- terior by the Caloosahatchee River. Dr. Chapman is an old resident of Florida, author of the ‘Flora of the Southern States,” and better acquainted with the vegetation of that region than any other person. A portion of the trees of Texas were obtained by Dr. 8. B. Buckley, of Austin, whose labors in developing the botany of that section are well known; and a portion were collected by Dr. F. G. Lindheimer, a veteran botanist, whose collections of Texas plants, made many years ago, enrich the principal herbaria of the country. In Utah, Mr. L. F. Ward, botanist of the survey of the Colorado River by Messrs. Powell aud Thompson, made the collection of the trees of that region. : The trees of the high sierras of California and Nevada were procured by Mr. J. G. Lemmon, of Sierra County, California. The magnificent conifers of that region are represented by large wedge-shaped sections | of trees from 4 to 7 feet in diameter, the preparation of which cost a - great amount of toil and expense. The immense trees had to be felled, and the desired sections removed by sawing and splitting with wedges until the portions were reduced to proper size. The trees of the Pacific slope in California were collected by Mr. G. R. Vasey, with valuable aid and assistance from Dr. A. Kellogg, of San Francisco, Dr. J. G. Cooper, and others. Dr. Edward Palmer made the collection for the southern portion of California, Arizona, and Southern Utah. Mr. A. J. Dufur, Centennial Commissioner for Oregon, collected the peculiar trees of that State. After the woods were received at Washington, they were taken toa mill and reduced to the uniform length of two feet; then each section was divided by sawing longitudinally into two pieces, which were planed on the sawed surface, one arranged to show the outer or bark surface and the other to show the grain of the wood, its color, density, &c. The corresponding botanical specimens for each species are displayed in frames arranged in the immediate vicinity of the trees to which they belong. By this means, an intelligent view of the appearance and prop- erties of every species of the trees of the countrymay be obtained. Great difficulty was experienced in deciding upon the limitations of height and size which should characterize a tree. It is well known that certain plants which are only shrubs in some places become large trees in other places; sometimes the difference depending on climate and some- times on other circumstances. Thus, Magnolia glauca, or White Bay, grows and matures its flowers and fruit in some portions of Massachu- setts, where it attains only the size of a large shrub. It, however, steadily increases in size in situations farther south, until in Georgia and Florida it attains the size of a large tree. In some places, the same plant appears as a shrub or a tree, under different circumstances, in closely contiguous localities. Dr. Chapman, who made the collection of the trees of South Florida, says: “I was much disappointed in the size of most of the forest growth in that region. A peculiarity of these tropical trees is, that for miles they occur to you as mere shrubs, when at some other locality you find them lofty trees.” As a general rule, I have not admitted into the collection any tree which does not, under favorable circumstances, attain a height of 20 feet and a diameter of 4 inches. Yet, in a few cases, in order the more fully to illustrate a family, a tree has been admitted which would fall below that standard. The - '' FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. es accompanying catalogue enumerates about 400 species, the greater por- tion of which are represented by specimens in the collection. Some portions of the country have been so incompletely explored that our knowledge of their vegetation is imperfect; yet it is probable that this catalogue presents, with great accuracy, our present knowledge of the trees of the United States. In two or three instances only, foreign species have been admitted, because of their extensive naturalization in some sections. . The two largest genera of trees are the oaks and the pines, of which we have about 30 species of each. Of coniferous trees, including the Pines, Firs, Cedars, Larches, Cypress, Sequoias, &c., we have about 60 species. The Rose family, including the Plums, Cherries, Thorns, Wc., is represented by over 30 species. Of the order Leguminosqa, or trees of the pod-bearing family, we have over 20, embracing the Locusts, Acacias, Redbuds, Mesquits, &c. Of ericaceous trees we have 8 species, includ- ing the Californian Manzanita and Madrone trees, the Sorrel tree of the Southern States, and others. Of Maples we have 8; of Magnolias, 7; of Ash, 11; of Elms, 6; of Walnuts and Hickorys, 13; of Poplars, 8; and of Birch, 6 species. - The usual difficulty has been encountered of deciding as to the stand- ing of certain forms which some botanists regard as species and others as only varieties. In most well-marked cases, these are entered .in the catalogue under distinct numbers, either as species or as varieties, as the evidences in the case seemed most convincing. The range, or botanical region, of each species is indicated in a general manner, thus: Those trees which oecur more or less extensively over the whole or the larger portion of the country east of the base of the Rocky Mountains or east of the Mississippi River are marked Eastern United States. This region is subdivided, by a line running eastward from the mouth of the Ohio River to the Atlantic, into two portions, one of which is ealled Northeastern United States, and the other Southeastern United States. Other localities are indicated as Southern States, New England States, Western States, Alleghany Mountains, &c. The western portion of the United States and Territories is marked in detached regions, as follows: Rocky Mountains of Colorado, or Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Utah; Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, Oregon, and Wash- ington Territory; California; Southern California; Arizona. The por- tion of the country adjoining the Mexican border is indicated by the locality Western Texas and westward. Certain portions of our country have not yet been sufficiently explored to determine accurately all the species of trees thereto belonging, This is the case with respect to the southern portion of Florida. Some spe- cies which at one time were thought to be indigenous in that region have not been confirmed by any late investigations, and will probably have to be erased from our list. The same difficulty occurs with respect to some of the trees of the Rocky Mountains and the western coast, par- ticularly the Conifers and the Willows. In the short time allotted to making this collection, it has not been possible to obtain wood specimens of every species givenin the catalogue. The number wanting, however, is but a small percentage of the whole. Among the good results growing out of this work, we may mention, first, that much information has been gained respecting species hitherto imperfectly known; and, secondly, that four or five new species, or species before unknown to our flora, have been obtained. These are mainly in South Florida, and include two exogens, viz, an Anona or Custard ''6 FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. Apple, and a Chrysophyllum or Star Apple; and one endogen, a Palm of the genus Thrinaz. I wish to record my sincere thanks tothe Hon. F. Watts, Commissioner, and to Mr. William Saunders, Centennial Agent of the Department, for all possible assistance rendered in the prosecution of the work. ‘Respectfully, GEO. VASEY, Botanist. Hon. FRED. WATTS, Commissioner. MAGNOLIACE 2. No.1. Magnolia grandifiora, L.—Evergreen Magnolia.—Southern States. A large and beautiful tree, with thick glossy evergreen leaves, and large white flowers, which are exceedingly fragrant. : No. 2. Magnolia glauca, L.—Sweet Bay ; White Bay.—Massachusetts southward. Northward, this is only a small tree orshrub; but in the South it attains a large size, and the leaves become evergreen. No. 3. Magnolia Umbrella, Lam.—Umbrella Tree.—Southern States ; Alleghany Mountains. No. 4. Magnolia acuminata, L.—Cucumber Tree.—New York ; South and West. This species has a greater range to the northward, where it sometimes attains a large size. No. 5. Magnolia cordata, Michx.—Yellow Cucumber Tree.—Southern States. No. 6. Magnolia Fraseri, Walt.—Long-leaved Cucumber Tree.—South- ern States. No. 7. Magnolia macrophylla, Michx.—Large-leaved Umbrella Tree.— Southern States. No. 8. Liriodendron tulipifera, L.—Tulip Tree; Yellow Poplar.—East- ern United States. One of the largest and most beautiful of North American trees. In the Western States, itattains an immense size. It is found principally in the rich bottom-lands of the large rivers, where its wood is extensively employed for building purposes and for the man- ufacture of furniture. As an ornamental tree, it is hardly surpassed by any other; its form being regular, its foliage peculiar and pleasing, and its abundant flowers, though not highly colored, are yet very beautiful. ANONACE &. No. 9. Anona.—Custard Apple.—Southern Florida. Discovered by Dr. Chapman in South Florida. It grows 15 to 20 feet high. The fruit is small and eatable when fully ripe. The species is undetermined. No. 10. Asimina triloba, Dunal.—Papaw.—From Pennsylvania south- ward. A small tree, very common in the Southern States, less frequent at the North. It produces an oblong pulpy fruit about 4 inches long, which when ripe has a rich luscious taste. CAPPARIDACE. - No. 11. Capparis Jamaicensis, Jacq.—Caper Tree.—South Florida. A shrub or small tree of South Florida, also growing in the West Indies. The true capers of commerce are the fruit of the Old World species. '' FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. . 2 CANELLACE 2. No. 12. Canella alba, Swartz.— White Wood; Wild Cinnamon.—South Florida. A small tree in South Florida. -In the West Indies, it is abundant, and called Wild Cinnamon and White Wood. The bark is aromatic and tonic, and is much employed in medicine. TAMARISCINE 2. No. 13. Fouquiera splendens, Eng.—Western Texas and Arizona. Grows in Western Texas, and thence westward to Southern California. In our borders, it is usually only a shrub; but in Mexico it grows 20 to 30 feet high, and on account of its spiny branches is used for hedges and fences. GUTTIFER 2. No. 14. Clusia flava.—South Florida. '' FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. iI _. The leaves and young twigs are employed in tanning, and are thought to be equal in strength to those of the Sicilian Sumac. No. 66. Rhus glabra, L.—Smooth Sumac.—Hastern United States, No. 67. Rhus microphylla, Eng.—Small-leaved Sumac.—Texas and Southwest. No. 68. Rhus copallina, L.—Dwarf Sumac.—Eastern United States. No. 69. Rhus Metopium, L.—Coral Sumac.—South Florida. This grows in South Florida, where it attains a height of 20 to 30 feet. It is very poisonous. In the West Indies, it is called Mountain Manchineel and Burnwood. ' No. 70. Rhus venenata, DC.—Poison Sumac.—Eastern United States. No. 71. Rhus integrifolia, Nutt.—One-leaved Sumac.—South California. This species and the succeeding do not have pinnate leaves. They are found in Southern California. The red berries of this species are used by the Indians to make a cooling acid drink. No. 72. Rhus Laurina, Nutt.—Laurel Sumac.—South California. A low spreading tree, much branched and very leafy, and exhaling to a considerable distance an aromatic odor. The flowers are somewhat showy, and the plant would be fine in cultivation. No. 73. Pistacia Mexicana, H. B. K.—Mexican Pistacia-tree.—Texas. No. 74. Schinus molle, L.—Pepper Tree.—Southwestern United States. Cultivated as an ornamental tree in California and in Mexico. It is prob- ably introduced. The berries have the taste of black pepper. VITACEZA. No. 75. Vitis cestivalis, Michx.—Summer Grape.—Eastern United States. No. 76. Vitis cordifolia, Michx.—Winter or Frost Grape.—Eastern United States. LEGUMINOS &. No. 77. Robinia Pseudocacia, L.—Common Locust.—Pennsylvania and southward. Hardly found north of the fortieth degree of latitude ex- cept in cultivation. It is chiefly foundin the Alleghanies and the mount- ainous parts of Kentucky and Tennessee. It is a beautiful tree, attain- ing a height of 50 feet and upward. The wood is hard, compact, and very durable, much used in ship-building. No. 78. Robinia viscosa, Vent.—Clammy Locust.—Virginia and south- ward. A smaller tree than the preceding, and much more rare, being confined to the mountains of Georgia and North Carolina. No. 79. Robinia Neo-Mexicana, Gray—New Mexican Locust.—New Mexico and Arizona. A small tree, rarely exceeding 20 feet. Very tborny. Grows in stony ravines at the foot of mountains in New Mex- ico and Arizona. No. 80. Olneya tesota, Gray.—Palo de Hierro.—New Mexico and Ari- zona. No. 81. Piscidia Erythrina, L.—Jamaica Dogwood.—South Florida. A tolerably large tree of South Florida; also grows in the West Indies. Its blossoms resemble those of the Locust. The wood is heavy, coarse- grained, and durable. No. 82. Cladrastris tinctoria, Raf.—Yellow Wood.—Tennessee and Kentucky. This is one of the handsomest flowering-trees of the Locust kind. It grows chiefly in thé mountainous regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. The wood is yellow, and has been used in domestic dyeing. ''12 FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. The tree rarely exceeds 40 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter. It is well worthy of cultivation. No. 83. Sophora affinis, T. & G.—Texas and Southwest. No. 84. Sophora speciosa, Benth.—Texas and Southwest. Our two Sophoras are small trees of Texas and New Mexico, seldom over 6 inches in diameter. They produce an abundance of showy flowers very early in the season. The Sophora speciosa has evergreen leaves, and beautiful red beans, which are said to be poisonous, No. 85. Gymnocladus Canadensis, Lam.—Kentucky Coffee-tree.—East- ern United States. A tall, large, and handsome tree, rare in Western New York, Pennsylvania, and the States north of the Ohio River; more common in Kentucky and southwestward. The wood is very compact and close-grained, and valuable for cabinet-work. The large beans of the pods have been used for coffee. No. 86. Gleditschia triacanthos, L..Honey Locust.—Eastern United States. This is a large and handsome tree; the trunk and branches generally beset with long and formidable spines, on which account it has been employed as a hedge-plant. The long pods contain a sweetish pulp, and have been used in fermenting a kind of beer, but are of no practical value. The wood is heavy, and affords excellent fuel, but is not consid- ered durable as a timber. The tree is rare in the Atlantic States, but rather common west of the Alleghanies, in Tennessee, Kentucky, and the tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi. No. 87. Gleditschia monosperma, Walt.—Water Locust.—Illinois and southward. This isasmaller tree than the preceding, growing in swamps in the Southern States and in the vicinity of the Ohio River. The pods are short, roundish, and only one-seeded. The tree is thorny, like the - Honey Locust. No. 88. Cercidium floridum, Benth.—Green-bark.— Western Texas and Arizona. This is the Palo Verdi of the Mexicans and the Green-barked Acacia of American travelers. The bark is smooth and green on the young trees. It is a small, wide-spreading tree, with many branches, rarely seen a foot through, and 20 to 30 feet high. No. 89. Parkinsonia aculeata, L.—Jerusalem Thorn.—Western Texas and Arizona. Mostly a shrub; quite ornamental, and frequent in culti- vation in the region bordering on Mexico. No. 90. Parkinsonia microphylla, Torr.—Western Texas and Arizona. No. 91. Cercis Canadensis, L.—Redbud or Judas Tree.—Eastern Uni- ted States. The Redbuds are small trees; very ornamental. This spe- cies is frequent east of the Mississippi. The next is found principally on the Pacific coast. No. 92. Cercis occidentalis, Torr—Western Redbud.—Western United States. No. 93. Prosopis glandulosa, T. & G.—Mesquit.—Texas to California. A serubby, small tree, seldom more than 25 to 30,feet high; sometimes constituting extensive forests. It produces an abundance of bean-like pods, which contain a sweet pulp. Both beans and pulp are eaten by Indians and often by whites, but they are used chiefly as food for horses, which eat them with avidity. The wood is very hard and durable, dark brown, and resembles mahogany. Fences made of this timber are very durable. The wounded bark in spring exudes a gum of the same quality as gum arabic. No. 94. Strombocarpus pubescens, Gr.—Screw-bean.—Texas and west- ward. This tree is very similar to the preceding, but of smaller size. The pods are two to three inches long, and twisted like a screw. They f ''FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 1S are eaten by the Colorado Indians, powdered to a coarse meal, and made into a kind of bread. They are also good food for horses. No. 95. Leucena retusa, Gr.—Texas and westward. No. 96. Acacia Farnesiana, Willd.—Texas and westward. No. 97. Pithecolobium Unguis-Cati, Benth.—Cat’s-claw.—South Flor- ida. In South Florida, mostly a shrub, rarely a small tree. The bark has medicinal properties. ROSACEA. No. 98. Prunus Americana, Marsh.—Wild Yellow or Red Plum.—East- ern United States. This is the common wild plum of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, from Mississippi to Minnesota. In the valley of the Mississippi, and particularly southwestward, the two next named species also occur. No. 99. Prunus rivularis, Scheele.-—Wild Plaum.—Mississippi Valley and westward. No. 100. Prunus Chicasa, Michx.—Chickasaw Plum.—Southeastern United States. No. 101. Prunus umbellata, Ell.—Small Wild Plum.—South Carolina and southward. A small purple or black plum, sour and bitter, growing from South Carolina to Florida. No. 102. Prunus Pennsylvanica, L.—Wild Red Cherry.—Eastern United States. A small tree, or often a shrub, with sour, unpleasant fruit. No. 103. Prunus serotina, Ehrh.—Wild Black Cherry.—Eastern United States. A fine, large tree, of wide range, frequent in the Northern and Western States, and along the Alleghany Mountains in the Southern States. The wood is compact, fine-grained, and highly esteemed for cabinet-work. The fruit is small, rather sweet and pleasant when fully ripe. No. 104. Prunus Virginiana, L.—Choke-cherry.— Eastern United States. No. 105. Prunus Caroliniana, Ait.—Mock Orange.—North Carolina and southward. A small tree with evergreen leaves, growing from North Carolina to Florida and in the Gulf States. It closely resembles the Cherry Laurel of Europe. Itis a beautiful tree for cultivation, but prob- ably would not bear a northern climate. No. 106. Prunus demissa, Walp—Rocky Mountain Choke-cherry.— xocky Mountains and California. a 107. Prunus Andersonii, Gr.—Desert Plum.—California and Ne- vada. No. 108. Prunus ilicifolia, Nutt.—Holly-leaved Cherry.—California. No. 109. Prunus mollis, Doug.—Oregon. This is the principal wild cherry of Oregon and the northwestern coast. It grows to the height of 20 to 30 feet. The fruit is astringent and unpleasant. No. 110. Nuttallia cerasiformis, T. & G.—California. No. 111. Adenostoma sparsiflora, Torr.—Chimisell.—California. No. 112. Cercocarpus ledifolius, Nutt—Mountain Mahogany.—Rocky Mountains. A low, spreading tree, not usually over 10 to 15 feet high, but sometimes 40 feet high, and 24 feet thick. The leaves are evergreen ; the wood is a dark red, like mahogany, extremely compact and heavy. It is frequent on the mountains of Utah, Nevada, and California. No. 113. Cercocarpus parvifolius, Nutt.—Small Mountain Mahogany.— California. A much smaller tree or shrub than the precedin g; the wood quite similar. No. 114, Pyrus coronaria, L.American Crab Apple.—Eastern United States. The common wild crab apple of the United States, growing in glades and frequently forming extensive thickets. The fruit is variable, ''1-44 FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. but seldom palatable or serviceable. It is used, however, in new por- tions of the country for preserves or for making cider. No. 115. Pyrus angustifolia, Ait—Narrow-leaved Crab.—Pennsylva- nia southward and westward. Perhaps only a variety of the preceding, with narrower leaves and rather smaller fruit. No. 116. Pyrus Americana, DC.—American Mountain Ash.—North- eastern United States. A small tree growing in swamps and mountain woods, sparingly in the Alleghany Mountains, most common in New England and northward. It is frequently seen in cultivation, and much resembles the European Mountain Ash. The clusters of bright-red berries are very ornamental, and remain on the tree until winter. No. 117. Pyrus rivularis, Doug.—Oregon Crab Apple.—Oregon and Rocky Mountains. This is a small tree, ranging from California north- ward into Alaska. The fruit is of the size of a cherry, of an agreeable flavor, and used, particularly in Alaska, by the natives of the country for food. No. 118. Crategus spathulata, Michx.—Wild Thorn.—Virginia and southward. Of wild thorns, we have numerous species, most of which are small and shrubby. About twelve species and varieties of the country east of the Rocky Mountains may be counted as small trees, and two of the Rocky Mountains and western coast. No. 119. Crataegus apiifolia, Michx.— Wild Thorn.— Virginia and south- ward. No. 120. Crataegus cordata, Ait—Washington Thorn.—Virginia and southward. No. 121. Crataegus arborescens, Ell. Wild Thorn.—Southern States. No. 122. Crateegus coccinea, L.—Scarlet-fruited Thorn.—Eastern Unit- ed States. No. 123. Cratwgus tomentosa, L.—Black or Pear Thorn.—Eastern Unit- ed States. No. 124. Crataegus tomentosa, L., var. punctata, Gr.—Black Thorn.— Eastern United States. No. 125. Crategus tomentosa, L., var. mollis, Gr.—Wild Thorn.—East- ern United States. No. 126. Crategus Crus-galli, L=-Cockspur Thorn.—Eastern United States. No. 127. Crataegus estivalis, T. & G.—Wild Hawthorn.—Southern States. ; No. 128. Crategus flava, Ait.—Summer Haw.—Virginia and south- ward. No. 129. Crataegus glandulosa, Michx.—Wild Hawthorn.—Virginiaand southward. No. 130. Crategus rivularis, Doug. — Western Hawthorn. — Rocky Mountains. No. 131. Crataegus sanguinea, Pallas —Oregon Thorn.—Oregon. No. 132. Photinia arbutifolia, Lindl.—Laurel Hawthorn.—California. A beautiful evergreen shrub or small tree of the Pacific coast. It some- times attains the height of 20 or 25 feet and a thickness of trunk of 12 or 15 inches. No. 133. Amelanchier Canadensis, T. & G.—Service or June Berry.— Eastern United States. Usually a small tree, but sometimes becoming 30 to 40 feet high, with a diameter of 10 or 12 inches. It is found mostly by the banks of mountain-streams. There are several varieties. : No. 134. Amelanchier alnifolius, Nutt.—Service Berry.—Rocky Mount- ains. This is usually a shrub; in Oregon and Washington Territory, it is said to be a small tree, yielding abundance of berries, which are largely employed as food by the Indians. Sabai ''FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 15 HAMAMELACE Zs. No. 135. Liquidambar styraciflua, L.-Sweet Gum or Bilsterd.—Eastern United States. A large and beautiful tree, with singular star-like leaves, somewhat resembling the maple. It grows in the Atlantic States in rich, low woods; also in the Mississippi Valley, but not far north of the Ohio. The wood is compact and fine-grained, but not durable. It is a fine ornamental tree, and deserving of cultivation. RHIZOPHORACE 4. No. 136. Rhizophora Mangle, L.— Red Mangrove.— South Florida. Commonly a low, spreading tree in South Florida, also in Louisiana and on the coast of Texas. On the Thousand Islands, it attains a height of 40 to 60 feet. All the low keys along the coast are covered by this tree. It sends down roots from its germinating fruits, which take root upon reaching the earth, and thus forms an impenetrable thicket like the Banyan tree of India. COMBRETACEK 2. No. 137. Conocarpus erecta, Jacq.— White Button Wood.—Florida, A small tree of the West Indies and South Florida. It furnishes almost the only fuel used in South Florida, and extends north as far as Ancelote Keys.—(Dr. Chapman.) No. 138. Laguncularia racemosa, Gert.—Black Button Wood.—South Florida. Found by Dr. Chapman in South Florida; a small tree everywhere; is a mere shrub, except among the Thousand Islands and north of Cape Sable, where it forms a large tree. MYRTACEZ. No. 139. Hugenia buxifolia, Willd.—Iron Wood.—South Florida. The Eugenias are in Florida small trees, reaching 20 to 25 feet in height. They belong to the Myrtle family, and the flowers of some species are very fragrant. The wood is close-grained, hard, and applicable to cabi- net-work. No. 140. Eugenia monticola, DC.—Iron Wood.—South Florida. No. 141. Eugenia procera, Poir.—Iron Wood.—South Florida. No. 142. Hugenia dichotoma, DC.—Stopper Wood.—South Florida. No. 143. Psidium pyriforme, L.—Guava.—South Florida. The Guava is a well-known fruit in the West Indies, where it is highly esteemed, and eaten either raw or formed into preserves. Dr. Chapman found the tree extensively naturalized at Tampa Bay, Florida. CACTACE As. No. 144. Cereus giganteus, Eng.—Tree Cactus.—Western Texas and Ari- zona. The specimens for this order are from Southern Arizona, where they are striking and characteristic features of the country. The Cereus guganteus grows 50 to 60 feet in a straight column, and finally divides into several naked-looking branches. The wood of this and other large Cacti presents a singular net-work of fibers in distinct layers. No. 145. Cereus Thurberi, Eng.—Thurber’s Cactus.— Western Texas and Arizona. No. 146. Opuntia arborescens, Eng.—Tree Opuntia.—Western Texas and Arizona. ''16 FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. ARALIACE Z. No. 147. Aralia spinosa, L.—Angelica Tree or Hercules’s Club.—East- ern United States. CORNACE 2. No. 148. Cornus florida, L.—Flowering Dogwood.—Eastern United States. This is usually a small tree, but sometimes acquires a height of 40 or 50 feet, and a diameter of trunk of 14 feet. It flowers in spring before the full development of the leaves, and then presents a beautiful appearance. It deserves to be more generally cultivated. No. 149. Cornus Nuttalliit, Aud.—White Dogwood.—California and Oregon. This species, which is confined to the Pacific coast, has rather larger flowers than the preceding, and is perhaps more showy. The wood of both is hard and valuable. Grows sometimes 50 or 60 feet high. No. 150. Cornus pubescens, Nutt.—Western Dogwood.—California and Oregon. This rarely becomes a small tree, 25 to 30 feet high, on the Pa- cific coast. We have five or six other species of dogwood which do not attain tree size. No. 151. Garrya Fremontii, Torr.—Tassel-tree—Oregon and Califor- nia. The Garryas are mostly shrubs, though under favorable cireum- stances the Garrya elliptica gains a height of 20 to 30 feet. No. 152. Garrya elliptica, Lindl.—Satin Tassel-tree.—California. No. 153. Nyssa multiflora, Wang.—Black or Sour Gum; Pepperidge.— Eastern United States. A middle-sized tree, growing from Massachu- setts to Illinois and southward. The fibers of the wood are so inter- woven that it is almost impossible to split it; hence it is used for wheel- hubs, rollers, and cylinders.—(Bryant.) It is quite ornamental in cul- tivation. No. 154. Nyssa aquatica, L.—Water Tupelo.—Southern States. This species grows in low wet ground, chiefly in the Southern States, but is found also in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The wood is very tough, and has been used in the manufacture of wooden bowls, &c. No. 155. Nyssa uniflora, Walt.—Large Tupelo.—Virginia and south- ward. This is the largest tree of the genus. It is confined to the South- ern States, growing in swamps. It bears a dark-blue plum-like fruit nearly an inch long. The wood is soft and extremely light. The roots are also extremely light and soft, and have been used as a substitute for cork.e The wood is only used to make bowls and trays. No. 156. Nyssa capitata, Walt.—Ogeechee Lime.—Southern United States. This species is found in swamps in Georgia and Florida and westward near the coast. It bears an oblong red plum-like fruit, which is agreeably acid, and can be employed as a substitute for the lemon. The tree is small and the wood without value. . CAPRIFOLIACE 2. No. 157. Sambucus glauca, Nutt.—California Elder.—California and Rocky Mountains. This species ot elder in California forms a low tree, sometimes 30 feet high, with a stem 2 feet in diameter. Indians and birds eat the berries. No. 158. Viburnum prunifolium, L.—Black Haw.—Eastern United States. The haws are small trees or large shrubs, with smooth glossy leaves and handsome flowers. They are worthy of cultivation. No. 159. Viburnum Lentago, L.—Sweet Viburnum or Sheepberry.— Eastern United States. No. 160. Viburnum obovatum, Walt.—Wild Haw.—Virginia and south- ward. '' FOREST-TREES OF THE UNITED. STATES. = RUBIACE.. No. 161. Cephalanthus occidentalis, L., var. Californica.—Button-bush. —California. This is seldom more than a shrub; but in California it sometimes grows 25 to 30 feet high, with a trunk 12 to 20 inches in diam- eter. No. 162. Guettarda Blodgettii, Suttle—South Florida. No. 163. Randia clusiefolia, Chap.—Seven-years Apple.—South Florida. No. 164. Pinckneya pubens, Michx.—Georgia Bark.—South Carolina to Florida. A small tree in the lower districts of Georgia and in Florida, rarely exceeding the height of 25 feet and a diameter of 6 inches. The bark is extremely bitter, and has been employed in the treatment of intermittent fevers. It is closely related botanically to the Cinchona, which furnishes the Peruvian bark of commerce. ERICACE®. No, 165. Vaccinium arboreum, Marshall.—Farkleberry.—Virginia and southward. A shrub orsmall tree sometimes 20 feet high, growing from Virginia and Southern Illinois southward. No. 166. Oxydendrum arboreum, DC.—Sourwood or Sorrel-tree.— Pennsylvania and southward. This tree grows chiefly in the mountain- ous districts of the Alleghanies from Pennsylvania southward. In fertile valleys, at the foot of the mountains, in North Carolina and Tennessee, it attains a height of 50 feet. The common name sour-tree is derived from the acidity of its leaves. The flowers are white, and in spikes 5 or 6 inches long. They are very ornamental, and begin to be produced when the tree is 5 or 6 feet high. No. 167. Kalmia latifolia, L.—Calico-bush or Mountain Laurel.—Penn- sylvania and southward. the’ data here presented are so meager as to be of little | value, though perhaps interesting and suggestive. This cee am quite ready to admit, and while doing so will revert to _ the point temporarily dropped near the beginning of this - paper, and speculate a few moments in the direction which ieee said point indicated. METEOROLOGICAL INFERENCES. Any one who has taken the trouble to examine the — : “annual growths, or width of the annual rings in trees, has aoa at once perceived a great difference in their thickness in- the same tree. If we may assume (leaving out young trees) that this variation is principally. due to the amount or quantity of the rainfall, and that rings which exhibit maximum thickness have followed in their growth seasons — of maximum rainfall, and the thinner rings are consequent- ly the result of the influence of seasons of a less or minim- -um rainfall, we m ssume that if, upon a given date, ‘numerous trees were Yelled so that we could have trans- _ verse sections of all of the principal species, such trees being located at various points in the State, great care being taken that the trees so selected should have been subject, _ asnearly as possible, to the same environmental conditions, we might obtain an aggregation of data of sufficient volume to render a deduction therefrom of great value, as to the — meteorology of the Pacific Coast. We might find so close a parallelism between rings of maximum thickness and seasons of maximum rainfall, that we should be justified — ''more ae a puis, and iets: whether or not Wee is a periodicity or cyclical terms of wet and dry years. having the data before us according to the trees selected and-exam- _ ined—reaching back with the Pines from seventy-five to : one hundred and fifty years, with the Redwoods hiss to seven hundred or more years, and with the Seguoias of | _ the Sierra from twelve to fourteen centuries, to say nothing — of the testimony of other trees, the Madronas and Oa especially. : _ The forest monarchs of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast ranges offer a calendar whose records have been. written by the elements; and so far as the giant Sequoias are con- sidered, their evidertce would certainly be that of the old-_ est inhabitants, substantially supported by their first of kin, the magnificent redwoods of the Coast ranges. : Another matter of minor, though not of insignificant im- : _ portance, would be the relation between greatest diameter and the points of the compass, as to whether the greatest diameter is persistently incidental to a certain aspect or — quarter of the compass. In the specimen of Sequoia gigan- _ tea above mentioned, Professor Whitney gives the greatest ~— diameter, north and south, as twenty-four feet and one and — one-half inches: while the ‘shorter diameter, or that east and west, was 23 [twenty-three] feet, divided exactly even on each side of the center.” “ — its longest diameter, south of center, 13 feet 9} inches.’’ ‘‘ Across its longest diameter, north of center, 10 feet 4 inches,” or twenty-four "feet and one and one-half inches, as before stated, a differ- ence between the north and the south side of the center, of — three feet and five and one-half inches in favor of the latter. — - Difference in the diameters may be traced perhaps toa — _ difference in the amount of heat and light, which one side of * ''a. as. Lntalon to email areas, or ec as pertaining to z larger or ‘extensive regions. Au accumulation of datas. ~ might showa marked and constant character in the relation of diameters to such factors of the environment; and also ~amarked character in the diameters of one region, as a ‘whole, when compared with another region, where modi- - fied or different climatic conditions exist. . In a comparatively arid region, with a high mean tem-_ a Se atnre and infrequent rainfall and a dry atmosphere, we may suppose that the southerly half of a tree, following the -eurve of its circumference from east by way of south to west, ‘might, through excess of light and heat, suffer from dessi-_ : cating influences, and make a less growth than the north- erly half, following the curve of the trunk from east by way of north to west, as the northerly half would have the ad- vantage, if advantage it be, in such a climate, of less light and heat and'more shade; while in a region less arid with — -a much lower mean temperature, ete., the greater propor- tion of light and heat which the southerly half receives, would give that side of the tree an advantage over an Reaherly half. _ As to the effect of prevailing winds in differentiating the . Esprastar, we may suppose that the side of a tree most - exposed might be affected, and the growth on the wind- ward side much modified or repressed; while the leeward or sheltered side, being protected, would exhibit a greater diameter or semi-diameter, measuring from the true center of the ‘tree, i. e., from its initial ring. Pe Tn the “big tree’’ measured by Professor Whitney, the southerly half of the diameter shows the excess, indicating that heat and light were specially advantageous; but here altitude comes in as a factor, as the height of the Calaveras '' grove, or rather its site, is 4,759 feet above.the level of thes” 4 sea, an elevation where, though the heat of the six mid-day hours in June and July is 80° and upwards, the nights are cool; and as Professor Whitney remarks, ‘‘ during ordinary years, . . . the flanks of the Sierra are well covered [with snow] down to 4,000 feet above the sea during mid- winter months, and a heavy body of snow lies on the passes until May, or even June.’ So after the snow has melted up to and above the altitude or site of the grove, the atmos- - phere is cooled for a long period afterwards by the snow- clad slopes and the unmelted masses of snow upon the higher flanks of the Sierra beyond. In the consideration of all the factors which suggest themselves, and which no doubt are more or less operative or interoperative, the least perceptible, though perhaps the most important, is that of compensation, which modifies or neutralizes what at first appear to be conspicuous and dominating influences. What is above’ presented, it should be understood, is simply hypothetical, and for the purpose of awakening discussion and calling attention to a most interesting sub- ject; one which, if generally understood, would be of great practical importance. At present the data are so exceed- ingly meager as to preclude anything more than specula- tion, or to incite to and stimulate investigation. From a knowledge of the various points of inquiry herein suggested, might be deduced a generalization, indicating a universal and preponderating ‘law. -. Berxevey, California, Feb. 10, 1882. [Norr. Portions of the foregoing were read before the California Academy of Sciences, December 5, 1881. It has since been revised and materially modified and expanded. ] '' wet wre me Se ge SN \ FOREST TREE CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. — [ Read before the American Forestry Association, Cincinnati Meeting, April, 1882, ] Dr. Jonn A. WARDER, President of the American Forestry Association: Dear Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your favor of January 30th, inviting me to attend the April meeting of the Association at Cincinnati, and express- ing the wish to have, for that occasion, a paper ‘‘on the behavior of the Australian Trees in California.’ I should be happy to attend the meeting, but must forego that pleasure, and further, with regret to say, that I am not at present prepared with sufficient or appropriate data, from which to write a formal memoir on the text you suggest, with that thoroughness which a proper treatment of the subject demands. Nevertheless, I have some comments of a very general character which I herewith submit; as, _ however imperfect, they may be of eae interest to the ~ Association. With respect, very truly yours, ROBERT E, C. STEARNS. -Brrxevey, Cal., March, 1882. '' '' FOREST TREE CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. — K BY ROBD B.C. STEARNS, Pa 7D. - REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1872-82. In the spring of 1872, much enthusiasm was manifested ‘by a considerable portion of the community in California in favor of some of the Australian trees belonging to a few species of the Eucalypts and Acacias. A small number of copies of Baron Von Mueller’s invaluable treatise on ‘The principal Timber Trees readily eligible for Victorian Industrial Culture, etc., etc.,’’ had fallen into the hands of intelligent persons, and had been noticed by the newspaper press, and other publications of a more permanent charac- ter in California and the East, so that, without creating a fever, much interest resulted therefrom. Lest this feeling should prove ephemeral, I thought'the opportunity to stim- ulate the public pulse too good to be lost; so I prepared a paper ‘On the Economic Value of certain Australian Trees, etc.,’’ which was read before the California Acade- my of Sciences, July, 1872. This was published in the Proceedings of the Academy, and extensively noticed or _ eopied in whole or in part in various publications at home and elsewhere. In addition to the above, a pamphlet edi- tion of twenty-five hundred copies was printed and judi- ciously distributed, free of expense to the public. The result was satisfactory, for there is good reason to believe that it led to the planting of one hundred and fifty ''The chief importance of the paper was in ah aac - publication and wide di stribution, and in its not presenting — too much at “one meal.’”’ As to the matter contained in ‘it, aside from my own limited experience with and observ- ation on the Eucalypts and Acacias, and reference to the medicinal virtues of H. globulus, its merits belong to Dr. cae Mueller, who was freely quoted and properly credited. : , Before this time also, the veteran editor of the California os. Colonel Warren, had stirred up the people, and _ General Stratton, of Alameda county, and a few others, had - made their faith visible in their works, by planting several — acres. I refer to the above more fully than I otherwise - should, in order to impress upon'the Association the im-_ “portance of reaching the public through a judicious expend- — ‘iture for printing and timely distribution of documents. Ten years have elapsed, and it may be well to look back and review the situation. é “Tt may now be asked, ‘‘ What is the present sentiment as to these Australian trees. Have they fulfilled expecta- “tions, or have they disappointed anticipations and fallen from grace?” Before this question can be properly an-_ “swered, certain explanations are necessary, and these explanations, and what follows incidentally, may perhaps “be the best answer that can be given. : Of the Acacias I am not aware of any plantation that has - been made for economic purposes, though many of the — “species yield products especially useful in the arts. Thou-— ~ sands of trees of a few species have been planted for show, and are still popular for ornamental purposes. "Of the great number of species of Eucalypts, Maaybevingy over one hundred and fifty, probably three-fifths of those — planted in California are of the species popularly known as the blue- -gum, FE. globulus; the other two-fifths being” E. _viminalis, E. marginata and E. rostrata. Perhaps even a '' the a iioinay in Galiomnis nearly every. person ‘would identify the generic name with E. globulus, though, as. before stated, there are over a hundred and fifty species; ee about half a dozen are cultivated in California. ie Aside from its rapid growth, the blue-gum is undoubt edly of less value for most purposes than its harder-wooded = congeners. The number of Eucalyptus trees planted in - i ~ California during the decade under review is probably over six millions. One nurserynan, who makes a specialty of - forest trees, (almost exclusively three or four of the Euca- -lypts, the native Monterey Cypress Cupressus macrocarpa, and the Monterey pine, P. insignis,) and who contracts to. plant any number of trees or acres, claims to have raised and sold nearly the number above stated,* and between - two and three millions of the native Monterey Cypress; this Ce latter is, I presume, used only for ornament and hedges, for which purpose it is justly popular. His sales of the Eucalyptus last year were small, only fifty thousand; but this year (1882) he expects to do better, and anticipates orders for seventy-five thousand of the two species, blue and red. Asthere are many other nurseries in the State which | bi aoe ‘raise and sell the foregoing species, the whole number - must be exceedingly great, and quite likely for the ten years exceeds the total I have given. ae i A large portion of said total has been vinnaedi in the _ streets, house-lots and yards of the cities; towns and _vil- ages, and otherwise used in profusion for the adornment . _ of the larger estates of suburban neighborhoods. So ex- tensively have the blue-gums and cypress been planted in “many places, to the almost absolute exclusion of deciduous _ trees, that the vistas afforded by the streets are cneret ety 2 aia no reason to doubt his word, but for the sake of an ample margin es on the’ side of fact, I have assumed six millions as a safe total. © '' EGP somber and monotonous through general sameness of form and tone of color. As might have been expected under the circumstances, a great deal of inconsiderate planting was done, and the rapacious and irrepressible Eucalypts were, as often as otherwise, placed in a lot where there was only room enough for a flower-bed; often several trees were put in a space represented by the part that is left of a lot fifty by one hundred feet, after the house and outbuildings are provided for. Within such narrow limits the Eucalypts soon become monopolists, and kill out the small shrubs and flowers upon which their shadow falls, or that are within reach of their far-spreading roots. For the reasons just stated, namely, the monotonous effect in streets, etc., through too exclusive use, and the killing out of other and smaller forms through injudicious planting within too nar- row limits, these trees are not as universally popular for ornamental purposes in some localities as formerly. The perfume of the blue-gum, so agreeable to many persons, and undoubtedly of great value as an anti-malarial, (which is produced by the terp and camphor contained in the foliage,) is offensive to many, suggesting as they assert the urine of cats. As will be seen in the foregoing, there is no argument against the tree per se, for the fault is that of inconsiderate and unwise planting, analagous to the planting of potatoes or pumpkins in a flower-bed, or the planting of geraniums and roses in a potato-patch or corn-field. Whatever may be the special beauty or virtues of a plant, it is neverthe- lessa weed when out ofa place. So also with our Monterey eypress—which has, it may with truth be said, a cosmopol- itan and world-wide appreciation, wherever it will grow, as one of the most beautiful of evergreen forms—when out place, or over or unduly planted. In my immediate neigh- porhood, while many of both the native and foreign species are being planted, many are being cut down. As there was indiscriminate and inconsiderate planting, so there is '' likely to be indiscriminate and inconsiderate cutting down. The trees removed, however, make but a small numerical showing as compared with the number still being planted for ornamental purposes. Again, the places formerly occu- pied by the Eucalypts, cypresses, ete., are being filled with other species, deciduous trees generally, so that from many points of view there will be a gain. A gain not only through the special improvement of given localities, but from the broader aspect of an advance in popular knowl- edge and popular taste and increased public interest in tree-plauting, and incidentally in forest culture. The present set of the current, though local and limited, was anticipated by me in my paper (of 1872), where I remarked: ‘¢ We have many native trees well adapted for timber or wind-breaks, and while calling the attention of land-owners and others to the exotic forms above mentioned and their special qualities as eritumerated in Dr. Von Mueller’s excel- lent paper, I do not wish to be understood as making an unfavorable comparison as against indigenous species, as for some of the purposes mentioned they will answer equally well.”’ To have pressed the point sharply at the time might have deterred many from planting at all. And here I may be allowed to diverge for a moment from the general path I am pursuing to say that if evergreens are desirable or to be planted, no foreign species can be found that for orna- ment and utility surpass in luxuriant and graceful beauty our Lawson’s cypress (Cupressus Lawsoniana) and the Hemlock spruce (J'suga Douglassii) ; yet these matchless forms are so rarely seen in our streets and yards as to make the occurrence of a specimen noticeable to him who loves trees and knows the sylvan treasures of our native forests. Where space will admit, these beautiful trees are espe- cially suitable for wind-breaks, and high untrimmed hedge- rows; so also with the Monterey cypress and pine, the a ha) ie Ne Sma a a le a '' [8] sturdy lateral branches of the latter making it particularly useful where high winds have to be resisted. So far as the main question affects the ornamental culture of Australian trees, ete., in California, the foregoing rather diffuse explanation, must be the answer. In the matter of Eucalyptus and forest culture within the decade, much has been learned, as to the relation between climatology and these trees, and the proper selection of species to meet the climatic limitations. It should be borne in mind by those living east of the Rocky mountains and the great American desert, that but little is known of the meteorology of the occidental half of North America. The oldest inhabitant, the California aboriginee, not a very high type of the American red man, had but little thought of the subject from the economic side; or if he had, the records were simply kept upon the inexact tablets of his memory, and handed down traditionally from generation to generation. The Spanish padres, who in a certain sense may be regarded as the successors of the Indians, or the connecting link between the present civilization and the barbarism of the past, did better; but in a very general way,—limited by their limited agricultural experiments,— transmitted some light upon the peculiarities of the climate of California. Practically but little was known by the Americans at the time that agriculture became a pursuit or vocation on this part of the Vacific coast, so that our present knowledge has been purchased by experience and frequently at a great loss of money, energy and time. This loss of time and money has ensued in some places to those who planted the Hucalyptus globulus. This species, which seems generally to thrive within the influence of the | coast climate, where the saline quality of the coast atmos- phere neutralizes the occasionally too low temperature of the winter months, often fails in the interior. 28° Fahren- heit is about the temperature limit as to cold. [t would be extraordinary indeed if this species, or any other one species '' of forest tree, pl diversified a climati Oregon throughout California D somewhere within so vast a anne point as well as showing how many have been planted, ete., the following, kindly furnished me by J. R. Scupham, Esq., of the Central Pacific Railroad Company, is of partic- — iy ular interest: “The Company have eee ae cates ee rostrata, E. sideroxylon, E. cornuta, E. marginata, and other. varieties. Some were bought in the nurseries, but most _ of them were raised from seed sent by Von Mueller. Hun-— aS eR Sy dreds of thousands of trees have been planted along the right of way and in plantations. About San Francisco bay all species flourish if cultivated when young; but most growth is made by the E. globulus, H. cornuta and E. gigan- j tea. In the interior valleys these species will not flourish, are not sure even to live save in exceptional places; while the E. rostrata and E. viminalis seem to do well and bear the frost. At Delano is one interior locality where the BE. globulus flourishes in spite of frost. A rich soil -compen-— ‘sates for some frost, as is evinced also by this species also flourishing at Chico. The first group mentioned will not grow in Arizona, nor along the Southern Pacific Railroad thousand trees at Tipton, well cared for, nearly all the trees of the first group died after struggling along for two years, while the Z. rostrata and the like thrive though growing _ slowly.” “It is never too late to mend,” and though the too exclusive planting of EH. globulus has resulted in occasional — disappointment, such instances, though often chargeable to lack of judgment in the party disappointed, _(never- theless to be regretted,). are not numerous; and it is grati- fying to perceive that no material check has been given to _ tree-planting by these occasional mishaps. The Evel ye oT upon ‘this e Rae east of Colton. In a plantation of one hundred and twenty 1 ¥ Hacaol '' rer now being set out are selected with proper regard to local climate, soil and station, as well as to the quality of their wood.’ For regions where the summer heats, drouth and winter frosts are factors, the species named by Mr. Scup- ham are now being used. Touching the value of the Eucaly pts for lumber, based upon the product of California grown trees, but little can be said. The time has not arrived to determine that ques- tion. The lumber sawed in Australian mills is not made from trees of only ten to fifteen years of age, and it is prob- able that very few of the Eucalypts planted in California are as old as fifteen years from the seed. Our native trees of so recent a growth are not used for or madeinto lumber, and nothing but soft and sappy wood can be expected from trees so young. The reputed unsatisfactory results of experiments with telegraph ‘poles and railroad ties, so far as regards the latter use especially, might have been anti- — cipated, though the experiment with the red-gum, if the wood was properly seasoned, was worth the trial. Whether the telegraph poles were barked and well-seasoned before setting I have not learned. For the purposes of fuel the wood of these trees requires to be split immediately after felling, the same as the white birch of the East, otherwise it becomes soggy and worthless. Of the profit of Eucalyptus-growing for fuel purposes, the most reliable testimony is that which relates to the planta- tion of General Stratton, before referred to, which consisted of forty-five acres, (forty-three of E. globulus and two E. viminalis,) planted in 1869—ten being from seed sown April Tth, 1869. Recently, twenty acres of this artificial forest have been cleared, to make room for an orchard, and after charging every item of cost and a yearly rental of five dol- lars per acre, the net profits, as shown by the owner, are << $3,866.04 on twenty acres in eleven years.”’ Professor Hilgard, of the University of California, recently distributed circulars for the purpose of collecting ee TR : se '' facts regarding the Euealyptus from the various forest- growers throughout the State. Though but few responded the information obtained is of great interest, and the bulk - of testimony decidedly favorable. Time and space will not permit me to extend this communication by giving the details as presented by Professor Hilgard, at a meeting of the State Horticultural Society. Of his remarks thereon I quote as follows from the Rural Press of February 4th, 1882, and also enclose a copy for further reference if required: ‘¢ Of the Eucalyptus, Professor Hilgard said that it was no doubt a great pest when it was planted in the wrong place; but there is abundant use and space somewhere for a rapidly-growing, drouth-resisting tree, which grows well in half the State. Part of our State, because of its lack of trees, is called an arid region. If all the lands capable of bearing the Eucalyptus were forest, who would call it so? Not only the name, but the climate would change. «¢We need fuel, lumber, railroad ties, etc. If the blue- gum does not make good ties, other kinds of Encalyptus will. The wood is no softer or more porous than redwood; probably as durable and resistant of insects or decay. It is better fuel than cottonwood, and it is good for inner cab- inet-work if not for outside. : ‘‘ Beggars should not be choosers. If we are in a Cali- fornian hurry to get rich in tree-growing, we cannot grow first-class woods. Weare trying all sorts of trees. At the University they are now being set out. Itis desirable that hard-wood trees should be planted for future use. But let us not despise the Eucalyptus globulus for immediate use. - Let us clothe the Coast Range and foot-hills with forests, if only to increase the rain-fall and the beauty of the country. ‘¢Suppose even that the estimated returns from planting given us are too high for the average; still, if we can get full farm rent off of millions of acres now lying out, it will _ add greatly to the wealth and promote the industries of the oe '' State. We cannot grow hard-wood forests in time for the giving out of the redwood heap: Let us have something to fall back upon.” In relation to the sanitary and medicinal value of certain species of Eucalypts, though perhaps too much has been claimed by enthusiastic friends, there is enough, minus exaggeration, to justify their being regarded as of unques- tionable merit. My own opinion of the medicinal virtues of the #. globulus in certain cases, based upon personal experience as heretofore expressed, has since been con- firmed by repeated experiments. On the sanitary advant- ages of living trees not alone of this genus but of trees in general, | would particularly invite attention to the com- prehensive and interesting paper on the ‘‘ Sanitary Influ- ences of Trees,’’ by Hon. B. B. Reddin copy of which I herewith transmit. From the foregoing it will be seen, and I believe readily conceded, that tree-planting in California for the past dec- ade has not been a failure ; that if one-half the trees planted as represented by the preceding figures, are still living and g, of California, a growing, the past has been really a very great success; that if new plantations are being made at the rate of say, only fifty thousand to seventy-five thousand per annum, that the present is full of promise and the future full of hope; that the very disappointments which have occurred, though a loss to individuals, are a public gain, as being likely to eventuate in amore diversified and intelligent selection, and to induce a more extended and critical inquiry as to the economic and esthetic value of other sylvan forms. i ea 6 a Pi aS '' G. H. COLLIER. '' '' { In this list, the scientific name is printed in Roman letters, and is with few exceptions followed by the popular name in Italics. ‘ The appended remarks are intended to give the hab- itat and some of the most obvious characteristics of the tree. The Maximum observed Height aad Diameter are given in the margin. It is probably true that some species, here ranked as trees, are never really arboreous, and that others, which have been omitted as shrubs, should be classed as trees. The nomenclature of the “Botany of California” is. followed, except in the Coniferee, where that of Veitch is given. In a few cases synonyms are inclosed in parentheses. Eugene City, March 1st, 1882. '' '' The Tees of Oregon. i er MAXIMUM HEIGHT |DIAMETER IN FEET IN INCHES: 1—Rhamnus Purshiana. Chittim Wood, Bear, 40; 8 Berry. Bark decoction a violent cathartic. 2— Acer circinatum. Vine Maple. 25} 8 Bushy ; beautiful. 3—Acer macrophyllum. Large Leaved Maple. 70\ 40 4__Negundo Californica? 5—Prunus (Cerasus) emarginata, var. mollis.) 50 8 Wild Cherry. 6—Prunus (Cerasus) demissa. ool 7 Choke Cherry. 7—Nuttallia cerasiformis. Seam Berry, 20| 8 Squaw Berry. 8—Cercocarpus ledifolius. Mountain Ma- 25| 4 hogany. 9—Pirus rivularis. In clumps, Oregon Crab 30| 7 Apple. 10—Pirus sambucifolia. Shrub? Mountain Ash. 11—Crategus Douglasii. Black Haw. 20 12—Crategus rivularis. 20 13—Amelanchier Canadensis. Service Berry. 20| 4 14—Cornus Nuttallii. Dog- Wood. 50} 10 Very showy in flower. 15—Sambucus glauca. Hider. 40} 20 16—Arbutus Menziesii. Laurel, Madrona. 50| 36 Very beautiful; wood takes a good pol- lish; hard. 17—Arctostaphylos pungens. Shrub? JManza-| 20 nita. 18——Fraxinus Oregana. Oregon Ash. 60| 25 Timber strong and valuable. ''| MAXIMUM HEIGHT |DIAMETER IN” FEET |IN INCHES 19—Umbellularia (Oreodaphne) Californica. 1100} 50 Myrtle. Tree beautiful—wood well adapted to cabinet work. 20—Myrica Californica. Shrub ? 21—Quercus chrysolepis. Live Oak. Southern) 40} 12 Oregon. 22-—Quercus densiflora. 60 | 12 Resembles Eastern Chestnut Oak. South- ern half of the State. 23—Quercus Garryana. White Oak. 90} 40 Habitat all parts of the State. 24_Quereus Kelloggii. Black Oak. 90] 48 Junction City southward. 25—Castanopsis chrysophylla. Chinquapin. 60 | 12 26—Betula occidentalis. Burch. A small tree in Eastern Oregon. | 27——_Alnus rhombifolia. Alder. 80: 36 98-_Alnus rubra? 29—Salix lasiandra. W7llow. 50! 13 30—There are several willows in the “State which I have not carefully studied. 31—Populus tremuloides. Quaking Asp. 30] 8 32—Populus trichocarpa. 90 | 72 Known in Oregon as Balm. 33—Taxus brevifolia. Yew. 50 | 18 The most durable timber in Oregon. 34—Juniperus occidentalis. Juniper. Eastern) 50| 24 Oregon. 35—Cupressus (Chamecyparis) Lawsoniana. 200 | 72 Port Orford Cedar. One of our most valuable trees, but of very limited hab- itat. 36—Cupressus (Chamecyparis) Nutkaensis. 80 | 24 Sitka Cedar. J have seen it only on the Barlow road at the base of Mt. Hood. '' 37—Thuya gigantea. The common Cedar of the mills about Portland. At Eugene City called “Thin Barked Cedar.” Three or four feet from the ground the tree often has a diameter of 15 feet, but at 10 or 12 feet is as given in the margin. 38—Libocedrus decurrens. Thick Barked Cedar. Ranges from the Santiam southward. 39—Sequoia sempervirens. eedwood. South-west corner of the State. 40—Abies concolor. Frequently called «“ White Fir” in California. Found in the moun- tains from Three Sisters southward. 41Abies grandis. White Fir. Newberry, in Pacific R. R. Report, gives the name Picea grandis. This tree is the ordinary White Fir of all our valleys. 49. Abies nobilis. The Noble Fir inhabits all our mountain regions. I have seen it only at an elevation of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet. 43— Abies amabilis. Lovely Fir. This is also a mountain tree with nearly the same habitat as the preceding, though very distinct from it. Our most beautiful Fir. 44__ Abies subalpina. Grows at an elevation of 3,000 to 6,000 feet. 45— Abies (Pseudotsuga) Douglasii. Our most common Van. 46—Abies (Tsuga) Mertensiana. Hemlock. 47—Abies brs) Pattoniana. Mountain Hemlock. Known also by Newberry’s name, Abies Williamsonii.| , MAXIMUM HEIGHT |DIAMETER IN FEET |IN INCHES 175 |. 60 150 | 48 950 | 120 100 | 36 200 | 60 200 | 72 100 | 36 60 | 24 300 | 144 150 | 40 100 | 40 '' 48— Abies (Picea) Engelmanni. A small mountain tree. 49—Abies (Picea) Sitchensis. Tide Land Spruce. Frequently known among Oregon botanists as Abies Menziesii. 50—Larix Lyallii, Larch. A small tree on the eastern slope of the Cascades. 51—Larix occidentalis. Larch, Tamarack. Eastern Oregon. 52—-Pinus contorta. Black Pine, Jack Pine. 53—Pinus albicaulis. Found on the mountain tops. 54—Pinus Lambertiana. Sugar Pine. 55—Pinus monticola. Szlver Pine. Resembles the Sugar Pine. 56—Pinus ponderosa. The common pine in the valley. 57—Pinus tuberculata. : A small tree, and found in patches in the mountains of the southern half of the State. MAXI HE!GHT IN_FEET MUM DIAMETER IN INCHES. 50 200 150 70 60 250 150 175 120 200 36 36 24 100 40 60 12 ''lo eR Re ee eR Ta rea ee ag ae Tha eo U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF THE FORESTRY DIVISION FOR THE YRAR 18380: AUTHOR’S EDITION. _ FROM THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE : FOR THE YEAR 1889, PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. '' '' U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bal Pony OF THE CHIEF OF THE FORESTRY DIVISION FOR THE YEAH 1282. AUTHOR’S EDITION. FROM THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR THE YEAR 1889. PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. '' '' CONTE NAS. INTRODUCTORY—Inadequacy of facilities for the Division HORNST: PCONOMY 74. 2800 bs Oe St. Soa Sa EC eee, oe ee eee Railroads and forest supplies, —; substitution of metal ties for those of wood, 273; preliminary report on, —-; extent of substitution abroad, -—; experiments in this country, —-; drain on forest supplies by rail- roads, ——; consumption of wood by cooperage industry, —- ; by car- riage builders, 274, BORRGT TROHNOLOGY <2... 225. 2s 2c aces gcee cose cases. saws eeges ee ee Partial report on the southern pines by Mr. Roth, 275. HWORMBT BIOLOGY, — i250. .65 5. Soe es fo cs eceee sce eee ee ene eee Monographs on southern pines, by Dr. Mohr and others, ready for publi- cation, 275. Paris Exposirilon—Exhibit of the Division, medals awarded NATIONAL MusEUM—Establishment of forest collections TRRIGATION: 5222 2520 oo e206 oot cee ceereee eee a eee oe eee ee ee Report on to the Senate committee, —-; dryness of western plains due to evaporation more than to insufficient rain, --; need of planting timber belts, -—; private means inadequate, Government aid necessary, —-; best trees for planting on the plains, ——; discouraging condition of western mountain forests, 276; result of forest devastation upon irriga- tion works, 277. SEED AND SEEDLING DISTRIBUTION... .-5+i525s525-625-2 3 shoe Plants, rather than seeds, to be distributed, —-; reports from States where distribution was made, 278; actual results discouraging, but possibilities shown to be good, 280; objects in distribution of plant material, 281; distribution of seeds through experiment stations, 282. Minnie CULTURE ACT. 020 702s... oot eee ee ee Its fraudulent use,—- ; practical failure thus far, 282; tables of results, 283. erin CULTURE 228) bebe tbl. sao hee See ee ee Experiments with 70 varieties of willow, 285; table of results, 286; characteristics of a good osier, ——; profitableness of culture, 288; meth- ods of growing, 289. HOUESTRY INTERESTS EN THE UNITED STATES 2... 2...2.0.02-5. 225 see, Memorial of American Forestry Congress to President Harrison, urging efficient protection of public forests, —-; petition of the same to Con- gress for temporary withdrawal of Government timber land from sale, and appointment of a forest commission, —; instruction in forestry at agriculturai colleges and experiment stations urged, 289; memorial to Congress of American Association for Advancement of Science in behalf of forestry interests, —-; similar memorials from California, —; action in Colorado for forest preservation, ——; progress of forestry movement in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, —; proposal in New Hampshire for purchase of timber lands by the State, 290; establishment of a public forest at Lynn, Mass., 291. Ill 275 275 275 275 277 282 289 ''IV CONTENTS. PXPORD AND IMPORT STATISTICS.2-55..-.22- foo 5c2 core ns ee ees oo os Range of average export prices of timber and lumber for an years, 292; range of exports of forest products for twenty-five years, 293. PROPOSED WORK 6-2 088 ss eo oe ae nas <2 ee ae wee Experimental plantations, 296; co-operation of experiment stations with the Division desirable, —; national arboretum at Washington, 297. INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON WATER SUPPLIES ...-.------------------------- Influence upon precipitation, 300; disposal of water supplies, 304; inter- ception, 304; evaporation, 306; transpiration, 312; elements of conserva- tion, 315; elements of. distribution, 318; springs, 318; superficial water _ courses, ——; topography and soil, 321; experiments of Ebermayer on influence of soils and soil-cover, 323; conductivity, experiments of Wollny and Ebermayer, 325; forests and floods, 328; summary, 329. '' REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF FORESTRY DIVISION. Sir: I have the honor herewith to submit my fourth annual report on the work of the Forestry Division. As I have pointed out in my former reports, neither the facilities nor the present organization of the division are adequate for such work as is required and would be justified by the importance and magnitude of the interests which could be subserved by this division. Conceived simply as a bureau of information, the facilities for ob- taining the information under Government methods have hitherto been insufficient; the amounts appropriated, while unnecessarily large for a simple correspondence bureau, have never been large enough to undertake and carry through any extensive and systematic investi- _ gations such as are needed, such as can only be carried on under Government control and are worthy of governmental effort. Hampered by the inability to command and compensate the serv- ice of competent co-workers and without sufficient assistance, all efforts to build up in a systematic manner the work of the division, as outlined in my report for 1887, had to be deferred. Whatever of value has been produced in the division must be credited to the per- sonal interest and effort of individual workers beyond any compen- sation that could be offered to them, and not to superior organiza- tion and facilities such as might have been expected. As I shall show further on, there is no room for doubt as to what kind of work this division should engage upon, as soon as it is prop- erly equipped and endowed with sufficient appropriations. Pending the absence of such provisions, the work can only remain preparatory and crude, unsatisfactory to those who have a conception of the needs of forestry in this country. The most promising and satisfactory investigation which has been completed- during the year has concerned itself with railroad in- terests in forest supplies, and especially with the prospects of sub- stituting metal ties for wooden ones. The success of this latter investigation, which will result in presenting a complete history of the experiences with metal ties in all countries, is due to the inde- fatigable industry and devoted attention to the subject of Mr. E. E. Russell Tratman, civil engineer, whose preliminary report, issued during the year in Bulletin 3, will be followed by a full account, with all desirable detail, such as can not be found collected in any other literature or language. The appreciation which even the preliminary report has received — both in this country and abroad will amply justify the attention given to this special line of inquiry. While one English technical journal has copied the report verbatim, the London ‘‘ Industries” in reviewing it uses the following language: We would hardly look for ‘light and leading” on this subject from such a _ source; but it is nevertheless a fact that probably the most comprehensive statement that has hitherto appeared relative t6 the substitution of metal for timber for railway purposes has emanated from a department that is only interested in the matter in so far as the forests of the United States are concerned, : 273 '' 974 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. _ That this publication has been timely and has done its share in stimulating our railroad engineers to begin experimenting with metal ties on a large scale may be estimated from the frequent calls for copies by railroad managers, which made a second edition of the Bulletin necessary. As will appear in the full report in Bulletin 4, several railroads in this country have since put, experimentally, a larger number of metal ties on their tracks, while the mileage on metal ties in use in foreign countries exceeds 25,000 miles. A canvass among our railroad managers in regard to supplies, prions, etc., of wooden ties has also been made and the results will e presented in comparison with a similar canvass made by the division seven years ago, thus showing the change of conditions, if any, in the various localities. The magnitude of this special drain on forest supplies, which it will be remembered amounts to at least 500,000,000 cubic feet of timber—and that of the thriftiest and most valuable—as well as the appreciation which has been shown on the part of the railroad com- panies in this canvass by furnishing desired information, may justify the prominence given to this interest. In passing, it may be mentioned that as a result of circulars issued by the Department through this division, the employment for ties of chestnut oak, which formerly had remained unused in the woods after the tanbark had been stripped off, is reported from those localities where the former wasteful practice existed. A canvass has been instituted into the needs of the cooperage in- dustry, which uses probably not less than 250,000,000 cubic feet of wood bona fide, and a large amount in addition on account of waste- ful mefhods. For the State of Tennessee this canvass has been completed by the special agent appointed for this division from that State, showing a bona fide consumption of 10,000,000 cubic feet of wood for cooperage while, with the few exceptions where it is made into cord-wood, the remainder of the tree is wasted. In by far the larger part of the State where this industry is carried on the supply of material (almost entirely white oak) is reported scarcer by 10 to 50 per cent. S The Carriage Builders’ National Association last year had appointed a committee on timber supply. The chairman of the committee, Mr. H. G. Shepard, of New Haven, Conn., requested the co-operation of the division in ascertaining the present condition.of supplies for this branch of wood-consuming industries, which is estimated to use annually about 25,000,000 cubic feet of wood of special qual- ity, worth round $10,000,000. To gratify this reasonable demand, Mr. Adolph Leue, secretary of the Ohio Forestry Association, who had given some attention to the wagon and carriage manufacturers’ interests, was asked to prepare himself for conducting such a can- vass as would yield the desired information; but it was found that the finances of the division would not permit the undertaking of this canvass, and it had to be deferred. The investigations into the technology of our timbers, and espe- cially into the conditions upon which the qualities of our timbers depend—for which Mr. Roth, of Ann Arbor, had begun preliminary studies—has also made but slow progress for lack of means to supply proper material. As has been pointed out before, tomake such in- vestigations of practical utility the material for study must be very carefully collected by competent men, as it is necessary to note the conditions under which the samples have developed, and to make | '' ~ DIVISION OF FORESTRY. re 275 certain determinations on the spot. Inability to command such com- petent assistance has put a check to Mr. Roth’s work. He has fur- nished, however, a comparative study of the woods of the three prominent Southern pines—the Long-leaf, Short-leaf, and Loblolly, which will be printed eventually, together with the monographs on the life history of these trees. These biological studies have been enriched during the year by several monographs on the most important Eastern pines, notably those of Dr. Charles Mohr on the Short-leaf, Loblolly, and Cuban pines. This last valuable pine, as yet but little known and not widely distributed, the observant author considers, for various reasons, as destined to replace the Long-leaf pine in the Southern forest of the future. i The monographs now on hand still unpublished comprise the fol- lowing species: The White Pine (Pinus Strobus), by Prof. S. V.. Spalding; the Norway and Pitch Pines (Pinus-resinosa and rig ida), by Prof. William Flint; the Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), by Prof. A. N. Prentiss; the two Northwestern spruces (Picea nigra and alba), by Miss Kate Furbish; the Long-leaf, Short-leaf, Loblolly, and Cuban pines (Pinus palustris, mitis, Teda and Cubensis), by br, Charles Mohr. The publication of these monographs, which give a complete ac- count of the history and development of these trees, it is hoped will be no longer delayed, as they constitute the most valuable work in the division within the last three years. The illustrations which are to accompany these—wocdcuts of the highest order—have been partly finished during the year, and will enhance the value of the publication. During the first months of the year much time was spent in finish- ing the collective forestry exhibit for the Paris Exposition, which was accompanied by a report—so far published only in French— giving a bird’s-eye view of forests, forest conditions, and forest util- ization in the United States. The exhibit, which attempted in a small compass to give a system-- atic view of these matters, was recognized by the grant of a gold medal. Another gold medal was bestowed upon the writer for his ‘efforts in forest educational direction, and several of the exhibitors in the section of forestry received prizes. A model of a tree-plant- ing machine, described in my last year’s report, was also recognized by a gold medal, and a bronze medal was accorded for a collection of forest-tree seeds. In this connection it may be of interest to mention that the authori- ties of the National Museum have seen fit to establish a special branch of forestry collections, which has been placed under the honorary curatorship of the writer. It is a promising sign for the cause of forestry in this country that such recognition has been given to its existence and importance, since the idea of establishing such special collections is original and not copied from any of the other national museums of the world. For the present, therefore, the educational value of this departure will be mainly kept in view in these exhibits. __ During the summer the writer furnished an extensive report for the use of the Senate Committee on Irrigation, outlining the rela- tion of forests to irrigation problems. For the better performance of this task, an extended but rapid journey across the regions under consideration was made by the writer, which afforded a bird’s-eye — ''~ 276 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. view of the varying conditions prevailing over the treeless plains and wooded plateaus and mountains of the west. A short side trip into the Puget Sound regions, the red woods of California, and into the Sierra Nevada was crowded into the journey, to gain a long- needed personal insight into the forest growths of those regions. Such a hasty journey, covering over 10,000 miles of travel in less than seven weeks, can of course lead to nothing more than impres- sions and the gathering of a few unconnected notes of interest. Some of these may be -pertinent enough to be here briefly stated : (1) The dryness of the plains east of the Rocky Mountains, as far as it is inimical to vegetation, is due, probably, not so much to the small rain-fallas to the enormous evaporation under the influence of the constant winds, which produce summer droughts as well as — - winter droughts. At least, the only means for influencing water conditions of a very large part of this region appears to be in checking or reducing this evaporation by the planting of wind-breaks and timber belts. (2) The area which needs such protecting timber belts is so enor- mous that it seems almost hopeless to rely upon the effort of pioneer settlers for this work of timber planting, especially as the unsystem- atic manner in which such private planting must necessarily pro- ceed, in addition to the existing most unfavorable climatic conditions, has led and must lead to failures more frequently than to successes. (3) A tree will die where a forest would live; that is to say, plant- ing on a large scale and in compact bodies may be successful, where smaller plantations will succumb to the extremes of the climate. Hence the poor settler on the frontier who can not afford to start a large enough plantation, will be doomed to reiterated failure and discouragement with his trees as well as his crops. (4) The most serviceable trees for wind-breaks and for subsist- ence in a dry climate—the evergreen conifers—which require from six to ten times less water than most deciduous trees, do not recom- mend themselves to the use of pioneer planters, because they require much care to establish them in the open sites of the plains and grow only slowly to useful sizes. (5) All these considerations lead to the conclusion that successful reclamation of these broad acres and effectual checking of the destructive winds by means of systematic planting of forest belts can only be attained by co-operation, 2. e., by government manage- ment, be it national, State, or county. (6) The most promising conifers for planting on the plains and prairies, besides the Scotch, Austrian, and Norway Pines and the Juniper or Red Cedar in the lower latitudes, seem to be the two Rocky Mountain conifers, the Bull Pine and the Douglas Spruce. (7) The condition of the Western mountain forests, upon which largely the water supply for irrigation purposes depends, is most dis- couraging, and the result of their devastation is already noticeable in the irrigation works around Greeley, Denver, and in other localities. During this summer hundreds of square miles have been destroyed by fire—not simply burnt over but destroyed. The irrational treatment which this valuable property, still in the hands of the Gen- eral Government, receives has been pointed out ad nauseam. The people in the San Joaquin Valley have at last begun to realize the influence of the wooded mountain crests upon their supply of water for irrigation, and have, in mass meetings, demanded the reservation and administration of these forest lands. The difficulty of devising \ '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 271 « proper system of protection and management, it is believed, is en- tirely overstated and with good will could no doubt be overcome. (8) In the protection of these timber areas the judicious and sys- tematic use of fire—burning over protective belts during the season of least danger—will reduce the need of forest guneds, (9} The reproduction of the coniferous woods of the West isin many localities not as readily accomplished as is desirable, the forest- floor having been destroyed by recurring fires, conditions for ger- mination have been destroyed also. Large areas in the Colorado Mountains were seen without a sign of young growth. The red woods of California are doomed, it seems, to absolute extinction, for reproduction by seed is hardly noticeable, and the vigorous repro- duction from the stump, in which this conifer excels all others (the ephemeral sprouts of Pinus rigida and mitis are of no account), seems not to find satisfactory conditions for development. (10) During this trip the plantations made by the tree-planting machine, described in my last report, were visited and found to be superior to any others in the same locality (Stratton, Nebr.). The consisted largely of Russian mulberry planted three years, whic for rapid soil-cover and hardiness seems a most commendable plant in that droughty region. The policy of giving to the Chief of the Forestry Division an oc- casional opportunity to see a forest and to inspect the conditions of the country for which he is called upon to devise means of improve- ment may be considered not an unwise one. The more directly in touch he can be with the people and their wants the more prac- tical will become his direction of the work. The objection to ‘* book- learning” which is so often heard can only be overcome by giving liberal opportunity for personal observation. During the year the office facilities have been somewhat increased. The herbarium, which was fortunately sufficiently advanced to fur- nish needed material upon the sudden call for an exhibit at the Paris Exposition, has been enlarged, as also the seed collection; so that soon these first requisites for a student of forest botany will be on hand. The library, too, has been further enlarged, and now the Forestry Division is perhaps the best equipped place in this country for students of forestry. This does not mean much, and room for improvement even in this direction is ample. Besides Bulletin 3, on The Use of Metal Track on Railways, a second edition of Bulletin 2, on The Forest Conditions of the Rocky Mountains, became necessary and was printed. A circular on Arbor Day Planting, describing the proper methods of planting trees and giving advice on the selection of proper kinds, was issued early in the year. SEED AND SEEDLING DISTRIBUTION. In my former reports I have pointed out the perplexities which are experienced in trying to satisfy the requirement expressed in the appropriation for the division, “‘to collect and distribute val- uable economic tree-seeds and plants.” I have shown that, unlike most agricultural seeds, tree-seeds, as a rule, do not permit of long storage and in order not to lose their power of germination must be more carefully handled and more rapidly disposed of than the facil- ities of the Department permit; many desirable kinds, in fact, allow | no handling at all but must be sownas soon as ripe. I have further shown that few people know how to handle tree-seeds in the seed- ''ae : as - Panoes pe oe Ses Fath aes, “i m : i Oes REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. bed, except the commonest and most easily grown kinds; that the length of time before a plantlet fit for transplanting is obtained will almost invariably weary the patience of the average settler; that distribution of plants while more cumbersome and costly is more _ likely to insure success, but that such distribution must be done under a well prepared plan, such as I have indicated in my report for 1887. The choice of plants instead of seeds is especially prefer- able for the droughty iocalities of the Western plains. From the small amounts appropriated for the work of the division only insignificant sums can be spared for the purchase of seeds and seedlings; in fact, during the preceding year no purchases could be made, and therefore no distribution was made during this season. But a report was called for from those who had received seeds and seedlings the year before. These reports are most discouraging. A short synopsis of the reported results is herewith given, with some notes which show that nevertheless some desirable experience has been derived from these trials. Report on tree-seed and seedling distribution, 188788, Forestry Division. Norr.—The seedlings were sent out in packages of twenty-five each, with the exception of Prunus serotina (Black Cherry), of which only five were sent ina package. The columnof “ Total failures” indicates the number of reports:showing entire want of success. To each applicant two or four pack- ages of seed were usually sent, sometimes only one. The possibilities of success are indicated by - marking in the column of ‘“‘ Best reports,’ the number of packages used in obtaining the specified number of seedlings. DAKOTA. Cee yee ie ie fe eee \$a| 8 ee Boe 2 7 oeee : a B| = — |e 2a) x Pee oe tee - Sarna (a SiS Oo oe ae) oe 1 oe Names of species. Olea Ss 3 Le $3 | ae ge #2 | &3 5=| 5 a Sia eer lis stents A a o BiZ a a & ies! Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine) ........ 23] 575 | 7 18} 5} 32 as0 0} 0}...... Ee Pinus Austriaca (Austrian Pine)...... 23 Ws | .5. 17} 6 8 0 Pinus Strobus (White Pine) .......... 16 5. | 3 Pinus resinosa (Red Pine) ............ 0 0 beset Pinus mitis (Short-leaved Pine). ..... 0 0 Pinus ponderosa (Bull Pine) .......... 0 0 Pinus laricio (Corsican Pine) ......... 10 | 250 Picea excelsa (Norway Spruce)....... 20 | 500 Pseudotsuga Douglasii (Douglas pepe ese soak. Oa | 93), 25 Libocedrus decurrens - (California Wie Cedar) +o... 5.2.5.5... hoe MO 0 Juniperus Virginiana (Red Cedar)....| 0 0 safe Taxodium distichum (Bald Cypress). | 0 0 | Larix Europa (European Larch) ...| 19 75 3 Fraxinus Americana (White Ash)....) 5 | 125 13 Fraxinus viridis (Green Ash)......... Table 2 Prunus serotina (Black Cherry) ...... 5 25 2 Gleditschia triacanthos (Honey Lo- | RGN ee nee ns = 2 1 4 V4: e Robinia pseudacacia (Black Locust)../ 1 25 fo: | o pks Catalpa speciosa Garey Catalpa).. 3| 75|25.3 | 0| 8125.88] d4845 11] 2 : 8 3~t Acer dasycarpum ilver-leave Maple) a ee is a Se 6| 150 | 40 2 | 4/| 40 bso f 0} 0 | ee ree Negundo aceroides (Box-Elder) ...... 6} 150 | 60.7 1} 5 | 72.8 bc80} 13 | 29); 270 is Maclura aurantiaca (Osage Orange) .| 1 £20) PSs Sees Tle eOaes see pares | | : ipk PEGI 5 a5 sae oe sw ences 522 [00 3,738 14. 62 loo | 55 | 85.9 | 62 | 120 (254 po 3 0 | | i ''ee DIVISION OF FORESTRY. : Report on tree-seed and seedling distribution, etc.—Continued. NEBRASKA. — s - oS rs} 0 . + e Be 3 16d g 2 g ¢ ° 4 € § te a a 8 i £ 3 ‘ seek) = 12128) Sy | Bs [se iezl ag | of Names of species. Be 2g # Caer 43 oe BE ke 23 a eu ds| © |g lee 8 2 gaig@ |S | ae 54) =| & | 5 IBA! 8 5 | /3 |e Z| Zi ee el oe & i mine - Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine)... .... 13| 350/14 | 6| 7| 28 00 E01 0 feats staaee : _ Pinus apirincs (Austrian Pine). -| 13 | 850] 9.1 7| 6 | 21.33 432 0420) ~ Pinus Strobus (White Pine)...... 25:20 gS 1 4 _ Pinus resinosa (Red Pine) .........-- 0 Oe ae 2| 8 Pinus mitis (Short-leaved Pine)....... 0 D5 SQ _ Pinus ponderosa (Bull Pine) .......... 0 0 CEE Slee ee 3|-4 Pinus laricio (Corsican Pine) ......... 0 0 tee MIs ee Picea excelsa (Norway Spruce)....... 1 257 0.40 Pseudotsuga Douglasii (Douglas . Mee Spruce). es tec oaks ---| 9 | 225 21-8 One: Libocedrus decurrens (California De COORD). oso. So. pees oe es 0 Oe) sais eID AR See eae oe ats Cokie 1 | 1 Ons Juniperus Virginiana (Red Cedar)....| 0 Oo ee dee al eae eee 208 OF oe : Taxodium distichum (Bald Cypress)..| 0 O .sseees Ge Saal aw cee O40 ee pei Larix Europea-(European Larch). ..| 1 251 0 Veen] ERA a eee ee eee _ Fraxinus Americana (White Ash) ....| 0 0 | acess veseleeselecee ealeee ---f Of Of.---..f..0.. _ Fraxinus viridis (Green Ash) ......... 3 75 | 60 0} 3) 60 gj80 216 One cain Prunus serotina (Black Cherry)......- 1 5 | 80 0| 1/| 80 POR ss lee Gleditschiatriacanthos(HoneyLocusty 1 25 | 20 0214 20 h20 ties 1 i oe Robinia pseudacacia (Black Locust)..) 1| 25 rg 0} 1| 4 41 2] 8| 2 5 Pe Catalpa speciosa (Hardy Catalpa)....| 11 | 275 | 62.9 1} 10 | 55.64 | b g100 1)) 2-400 ; he Acer dasycarpum (Silver-leaved - Mamie os hee aes sue: 1| 2 | 24 0} 112% 24 O04 ee srice Negundo aceroides (Box-Elder) ...... 1 25 | 80 04> 11.80 g80 2; 6] 500 . om ~ Maclura aurantiaca (Osage Orange)..| 0 DA cstee SE ser te aeos lances 1) 4 Or ea Te 2G eed ee a 7 |1,455 | 26.06 | 21 | 36 | 40.36] 54.5 | 21 | 55| 931 3?PIR : KANSAS. : ae| g| & | & les! « 2 Sate |e ae s : So) fe a |e feet om os fobinsg gy oS 3 Names of species. HO! Sm <4 3 KS $2 BE Pe Sige) we | we aaa | & la lecl 8° | =9 Peolse|a2]os : eal ae = Ss E z 2 2 ae 3 3 2* Ee sae |3- ® 3 ; eee 4 2 & a i242 la |m | a —|— - Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine) ........ 29 | 725 | 8.4.|47 112] 888). BOE O01 Ole cedenee ' Pinus Austriaca (Austrian Pine) .... | 28) 700| 0.57 | 25) 3) 5.3 kg Of Once siccee _ Pinus Strobus (White Pine)........... (Aeon) Wa Te eee lee eee 6 | 24 (i Pinus resinosa (Red Pine) ............ 0) PD ecis. leAelad cae 4 sleek pip racers 6 | 12 0 Gites Pinus mitis (Short-leaved Pine) ....... 0} O-Tisitcen Fists l aia stacey elas ereaes OD toa, _ Pinus ponderosa (Bull Pine) .......... 0 0 6 | 12 Di \ixeexe _ Pinus laricio (Corsican Pine) ......... 5 4s O75356 ' Picea excelsa (Norway Spruce)....... 0 0) Bl pee eee _ Pseudotsuga Douglasii (Douglas : : BC er Irae Naar e ee, 13 1} -2 Oe, cg _ Libocedrus decurrens Brae OCDAT oS oo rs sees os os 0 64-6 _ Juniperus Virginiana (Red Cedar)....| 0 6 | 14 Taxodium distichum (Bald Cypress) .| 0 5 | 20 Larix Europeea (European Larch)....| 0 0 ae: _ Fraxinus Americana (White Ash)... | 0 | Ose Fraxinus viridis (Green Ash) .:....... 4 7 | 138 Prunus serotina (Black Cherry) ...... 1 hee O18 Gleditschia triacanthos(HoneyLocust)) 5 | 125 | 44 1) 4 | 8 176 a Robinia pseudacacia (Black Locust)..| 0 Oe be erase oe theacdl es ves eae 6 | 12 | ; | Catalpa speciosa (Hardy Catalpa)....| 24| 600 50.5 | 5) 19 | oz.1 [f* mnt 6) 13 Acer dasycarpum (Silver-leaved é MEAD Breer eeu a Gos ee 1 Dat 4: Odes 14 2| 8 0 - Negundo aceroides (Box-Elder)....... 1 25 | 80 0; 1) 80 180 7) 18 | 450), “os Maclura aurantiaca (Osage Orange)..|....|......|....00. lotrel dsctuaseg dali ores vk tee | sees Ro oe. » geese, {116 [2,880 | 14.76 70 | 46 | 29.88] 43 | 71 [155 {1,197 5 io ''280 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, Report on tree-seed and seedling distribution, etc.—Continued. COLORADO. 1 2 oo bod | BI < } be 3s [oS g : el es 3 8 ea (Stee! | oe ee |e ei S 2 £ la2] 3 Eas Fass le. a) es eis pS Names of species, -e oe 2 2 ES of 2S SE Ze 2e| S38 = Sul S@| # |S [SS] 29] £° Bim) PR | 58 4.4 8 = |22] 6 218 | a a S18 1 ¢ 12h is 1 8 48 ies 18 A, a |e ia | & Pe h Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine) ........ 20] 500} 8.4 |15| 5] 35.2 |ors64 Oo Oe eee Pinus Austriaca (Austrian Pine)...... 20} 500| 9.6 | 13| 7 | 27.42} o@48 0 4 Oe Pinus Strobus (White Pine) .......... 1 25.1 8 ode soon sleeuenees) 0: Oe ae Pinus resinosa (Red Pine) ............ 0 Defoe see cha sooo wine as] oes oe 13 | 26 800 3 hee Pinus mitis (Short-leaved Pine)....... 0 Oye se eee | ess). seen] esse 01-0) ae Pinus ponderosa (Bull Pine).......... 0 Oil Clots ectawes aw meeenes = 12 | 23| 300 ; _— Pinus laricio (Corsican Pine) ......... 1 2 | 0 Doe | ce scclocewecs= i728 LE eee Picea excelsa (Norway Spruce)....... 0 Os se. ease epee eos 0) Os al aes Pseudotsuga Douglasii (Douglas BeNOR Sn oe Fy 14} 350] 5.7 |12| 2) 4 072 0; 0 Libocedrus decurrens (California : Rie @edan. 5k. 0 0}. 12 | 12 Juniperus Virginiana (Red Cedar)....| 9 0}. 13 | 28 Taxodium distichum (Bald Cypress)..| 9 0 |. 2) 8 Larix Europeea (European Larch)....| 9 0}. 0; 0 Fraxinus Americana (White Ash) .... 0 Oth oe te sacle ies sete a 1 1 Fraxinus viridis (Green Ash) ......... 8 | 200 | 31 4) 4/62 |pqi00] 14| 28 Prunus serotina (Black Cherry) ...-..} 1 5 | 20 0; 1/20 pot 0; 0 Gleditschia triacanthos (Honey Lo- fe eA ela ss 13 | 325 | 29.8 | 6] 7| 55.48 jorsi00} 1) 4 Robinia pseudacacia (Black Locust)..| 9 Dee cele 12 | 26 Catalpa speciosa (Hardy Catalpa)....) 7 | 175 | 33.14) 3] 4 | 58 pqioo} 14) 51 Acer dasycarpum (Silverleaved Maple) Bee eR yee nr MS 0 Oe stcefececys ceecelecceces ede ceee 0 Negundo aceroides (Box-Elder) ... .. 1} 2% |100 0| 1 |100 plod} 12 | 24 Maclura aurantiaca (Osage Orange) .|----|--+++-|--++++- wa afueccefecccecel-cecccs-Pecose cose one 86 [2,130 | 16.66 | 55 | 81 | 82.73 a 107 |238 Localities of best reports: aNew Salem, 6Cavourand Sioux Falls. cDoland. dGlenUllin. e Pax- ton and Newport. Fleming. gRushville. hCapay. iNewport. jStratton. kPortland. /La ——. m Dermot. n Griswold. oFort Collins. p Pueblo. g Rocky Ford. rColorado Springs. s Hudson. Only a limited number of reports have been returned and only those received from the four States appearing in the table did it seem worth while to tabulate. : Most of the reports, it should be stated, refer to hail or unusual drought during the last two seasons as producing the failures. The column “best result” gives an indication of what individual success was possible. In fact the table shows most clearly that suc- cess, if we call success 40 per cent..saved through two years of un- favorable weather, was attainable in most cases by and is due to indi- vidual effort or knowledge. Thus of twenty-three reporting on Scotch pine in Nebraska, only five had any success ; but while these together saved forty plants (32 per cent. of what they received), one of them reports 80 per cent. or twenty plants living, leaving only twenty plants to the other four. The same applies to success with seeds. Of nine applicants receiv- ing sixteen packages of seed of Douglas Spruce only one was success- fal, raising three hundred plants from one package ; and so it will be found that in almost every case the success was with one man, '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 281 _ showing that failure could have been avoided and was not necessarily - due to uncontrollable conditions. The locality in which the best success (above 40 per cent.) with - each species was obtained is denoted in foot notes. s Altogether, more total success is reported from Nebraska than from the other States, although individual success was reatest in Dakota. It may be noted, that of the conifers the Scotch Pine did pest, and next to it the Douglas Spruce, with 84 per cent. in Ne- braska and 72 in Colorado. This tree also, together with the Red Pine and Bull Pine gave re- sults, each in one case, from the seed. Of deciduous trees the Ca- talpa shows the most uniform success, except in Dakota, where it is perhaps out of its range. There can be only three objects in the distribution of plant material which are worthy and desirable for the Department to attain: either to give aid to and stimulate by it the efforts of forest planters, to test the adaptability of certain kinds to certain localities, or to intro- duce new desirable species and facilitate the use of certain kinds which have not found favor for some reason outside of their intrin- - sic value—such as high price, difficulty of obtaining seed, slow growth, etc. The first object can of course only be attained by giving sufficiently large quantities of plants of acknowledged value. How futile it would be on the part of the Department, with its present appropria- tions, to distribute plant material with this object in view, will ap- pear readily from an inspection of the subjoined table, exhibiting the number ‘and acreage of timber-culture entries. There are now on the average 25,000 claims entered annually. Even if the distri- bution were confined only to these planters and not more than the material for one acre were furnished—a small enough encouragement —the amount to be spent in that direction would have to be not less than $150,000. If the introduction of untested kinds is the object, then, as the foregoing synopsis of reports may show, the distribution should go only to experienced planters, who can give proper attention and are able to judge whether failure is due to external causes which may be controlled, or to inherent qualities of the species tested. The third object, namely, to facilitate the introduction of kinds diffi- cult to obtain, would tax the financial conditions of the division for _ only asmall result. Yet this consideration is a proper one, and has ~ somewhat directed the selection of the material which has been used for distribution. Thus seeds of two valuable Acacias were obtained from Australia, and seeds of Abies Nordmanniana from Asia Minor, _ the latter now recognized as by all means the best fir for ornament, timber, or hardiness. Of native trees, the Bald Cypress (Taxodiwm distichum), a tree of our Southern swamps, has proved better than was hoped for, namely, that it is drought-proof and a most rapid grower even on the uplands of Texas.. The wild black cherry was also selected for distribution, as it promises to become one of the most promising trees for Western planting. The Bull Pine (Pinus pon- derosa) and the Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), the most Aiea conifers of the Rocky Mountain region, which should ave a full trial in the plains country, have been secured for dis- tribution this season. It is objected, and quite properly, that conifer seeds are too difficult for the inexperienced planter to handle, and ''282 ‘REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. that it would be preferable to send well-rooted plants. It is there- fore proposed to send these seeds largely to Experiment Stations, - through the medium of which the plants could be distributed when grown, in the same manner as is now done at the California Experi- ment Station, by charging enough to cover the cost of packing and postage. A small assortment of seeds of the various more commonly planted trees, in half-ounce and ounce packages, is also kept on hand to satisfy applications. TIMBER-CULTURE ACT. It seems proper for this division to keep a watchful eye on any movement that promises an increase of forest area and to note espe- cially the working of the timber-culture act, as far as it promises to clothe the treeless plains with a forest cover. The-following com- pilation of the status of timber-culture entries from the reports of the General Land Office one would be inclined to think would fur- nish, at least approximately, an idea of the area planted to timber; ‘but since it may be said that the majority of these entries have not only changed hands, and thus appear in the annual statements re- peatedly, but have also been changed to entries of other kinds, no conception of the actual area planted can be gained from the study of these figures. They do show, however, that even with these con- ditions, which tend to increase the figures, the results of the act are so far not satisfactory. An analysis of the figures shows that 38,080,506 acres were entered under the timber-culture act up to June 30, 1888. This should represent a planted area of 2,380,030 acres, if the law were complied with and the entries not changed. Allowing ten years for timber-claim planters to prove up their en- tries (the law places it at eight years, allowing extensions on account of failures), the entries of the first six years, 1873 to 1878, alone give us some points of comparison for the estimation of results. During that time 3,821,843 acres were proved up, representing an area of less than 50,000 acres planted to timber. From this it would appear that the timber-culture act has been a failure, so far as the creating of forests is concerned. It is asserted that a better percentage will be obtained from the entries of later years, because more experience has been gained, and timber-claim planting is now done under contract by persons who make a business of it. Yet the consensus of unbiased testimony goes to show that timber-claim planting, as a rule, does not produce the results sought after, and has mostly been used as a means for speculation in Government lands, partly with that design from the beginning, partly as a necessity after failure to obtain the land by timber planting. There is also considerable planting of wind-breaks and groves done on homesteads, which is said to be attended with better results. Altogether, however, the amount of tree planting is infinitesimal, if compared with what is necessary for climatic amelioration; and it may be admitted, now as well as later, that the reforestation of the plains must be a matter of co-operative if not of national enterprise. '' ee GRY MN IETS Ce RO Pee x = e DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 283 Original and final entries under the timber-culture act. State or Territory. 1873—Original.| 1874—Original.| 1875—Original./ 1876—Original.| 1877—Original. Acres. | No. | Acres. | No. | Acres Arizona .. 3 10 1,197 2 2, PTI SAS ccna c Giate & jince «wll sesl sveies | ear rumba ee dias wiivce Ilaria outloiere | \fapmrmalll ates eee - Bb POL) ae ah onaeaee California ... 29,065 | 186 | 20,524] 75) 10,586 Colorado 3, 453 45 6,514 3, 343 Dakota 61,969 | 842 | 119,885 | 476 68, 266 Idaho 2, 583 1%: | 41, 908 52 7, 085 Iowa 9, 127 99 8, 563 59 4,791 esas coe cove 168, 269 |1,354 | 185,596 |1,666 | 238,020 ENO UIAR TEL TNA css Sos o.6 cis w wie'e Bilis ciscuce Gini] ecteiotaiace teva 'y sw teie ['ote usecase hin sf S/s) operons] ech, cool ceeee [ote Meech Meet Naso O Ne eter eee ad Minnesota 63, 673 |1,070 | 140,126 | 561 76, 021 teri ee aE ee NE Gh a oe ep eieeats a ee ware On ae 3 398 Nebraska 130,894 | 834 | 106,499 | 706 90, 812 toe oes hae che woes Gale = caw Siglo seme sie Geek spout ere eas Corea mee Ge yee ee 2 PEE RICO cats gisewlactuies cle ficiauusis ee Poly uve ssl Sais ete UNI Rl eta rene Chron iz 1128 fee ee FOE SOOe teow ss 882 13 1,793 19 2, 509 Oe a le hs [eee cate mec [ater tee en econ em 3 399 3 338 Washington...... eee 8, 824 54 5,374 | 148 19, 746 Wyoming 1 1 10! ie ecccle ae Motal.<... ee | 819 | 50,244 [5,928 | 851,223 |8, 652 | 473, 689 .|4, 488 | 599,912 18,819 | 524,545 ba Se ee State or Territory. 1878—Original. | 1879—Original 1880—Original. | 1881—Original. No. Acres. No. Acre. No. Acres No. Acres. PE oo 55 6 sian cere ous 11 1, 600 3, 2 ql RECA TASS ght oe costes Ic Sis cama nad csi Sansa Ow coe neal eis a ee dolore Somes Yi\s whined chal ec esen wi ihe Coes ee eee MUTE OPI os. o's ois sss oas os 5 60 8, 029 112 14, 458 99 12, 120 201 24, 538 PEQIGUAUG oe ees ce cs ies os oa 125 17, 436 121 16, 142 214 30, 302 195 26,473 Henle sic ie anes eee ee es 4,675 | 728,687 | 5,575.| 868,748 | 5,188] 868,400 Idaho 158 22, 169 162 22,013 181 23, 300 224 28, 680 MOWS. 8s 65% 89 7,535 7 6, 577 57 4,714 55 8, 643 EAMSAS a cece clot eels e's os 4, 031 593, 295 | 7,776 11,167,582 | 2,891 | 408, 261 1, 924 268, 575 PENH SUEUR acts esiace ajc folate sw aos cte wien on steam eee 40 19 2, 293 DUIMCCOUA oF. sg ee a. Fe 5 2,693 | 377,017 | 1,847 | 257,642 909 | 123,735 1,168 167, 582 MOREA ooo oe ees oven ft 9 961 27 5. 134 6 6, 835 131 16, 535 PUB OPASIR os Ss ee as 1,408 | 195,306] 3,183 | 465,968 | 3,202 | 475,275 | 1,682 , 306 PNG VARA 18 oi isi Guides cars 5 600 1 160 5 5 < 1, 040 NG OXICO scjoce sats vn sc oo 2 320 14 1,891 24 2, 887 16 2, 039 BROS ON oe. veer ees ke 130 18, 446 117 17, 046 482 73, 061 212 31,176 TE Sein Are mei Vine, 9 1, 280 20 2,328 35 4, 044 35 3,921 PASMIN OOM 3. S85). ec 562 78, 237 479 68, 506 893 | 134, 637 540 77, 008 Wyoming ...... Sen oe ela ten | vc one es betes ees eoeee rae as 8 5 784 ROUSE Ss les cs oo te 9, 292 |1, 822, 230 | 18,629 |2, 775,494 | 14,644 |2, 168,478 | 11,553 | 1,763, 754 ts | 1882. | 1883. 1884. State or Territory. | | 5 | Original. | Final. | Original. | Final. Original. Final. | No | Acres. |No.|Acr “es No. | Acres. No Acres| No. | Acres. |No.| Acres : S522... 33) , 336) . eee - ; ae ayes cio SIN pene Sod sty Pennie oy OO eee ie aee 827) 670) 1 160 685 72,319 1 160 413) 58° OSbis eels 917) 187,933) 1 160 Peta ea oe cites sail as 1991, 755, 419} 111/14, 968/11 2791, 748, 640) 166/21, 470 Bete ae 7) BB 06BIe 1. ee 310 LOSS: Abs kee 407|’ 56,171) 1] "180 cs: mel ow gabe te. | 42; _8,373| 20| 2,165] 45) 8,346] i! 2,794 HRSA oo Foca ees wees] 9, 915) 1,690] 287,860) 185/24, 965) 2,738} 897,525) 181/28, 093 Louisiina ..... Boe ie ee al ee ae Soe “BQ Te (oe eco as 265: B ERs esate MENESOLAS 2.5, ccs ce 2, 308) 883} 122,750! 84/11,495| 689] 95,538! 90/12, 324 foe wees ANSI BB OBO ils ee 471 68; Sebi 7 esas: 9,975) 8,216] 481,704) 317/43, 522) 2, - 1,068, 189 239/30, 040 Sees 2| PRO ES rales 1b lees Dees 159| 22, 091|..-.|...... 131 A dp eee wi] 767} 116,384)" 2!" “240| 978] 1487356] i] 160 8 iis 62 1 Oe oe SOb TP TOR a eae Prone 944| 139,737; 3) 820 1,158] 178,142; 7 914 oie 98, 14,204)... |..... | 46 Ace : o 164128, 40010, 600.3, 111, 763 oe 835 22, 996 4, 084, 116 @4 91, 295 1 } ''/ 284 - REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. Original and final entries under the timber-culture act—Continued. 1885. 1886. State or Territory. : Original. Final. Original. Final. Arizona ........ Arkansas California Colorado. Dakota .. eee CS ER a eee Is be oe sow ond ee ewe ee esos Louisiana Minnesota Montana. Nebraska NEN oo os ca cw occa cece nce cuss New Mexico Grevon:- 50. eRe tee Sas sees lwc. uicd ao << o> a = Washington Wyoming Total 5,374,010 |1,086 | 141,770 1887. 1888. State or Territory. Original. Final Original. Final. No Acres No. | Acres.| No. Acres. | No. | Acres. ARE oi. c55 Sacpee actos aeeseeee 144 20,199 2 320 303 45 B74 A eee Arkansas .... .. Saweietcee's occas mais 7 BA ec te are 5 G00 $525 22 Amepiarenia a8 oe Se 1,168 | 165,382 1 40 | 1,668 | 240,216 1 49 EIR os ge as Sos Ses 9,092 |1, 437, 636 4 559 | 6,173 | 970,281 7 7 PURI oes eee views cece cece - 4,194 ,420 | 387 | 57,311 | 4,087) 626,629 | 202] 29,996 MORN hae ape os faa. SS ein 3's 306 38, 912 3 387 51; 74¢. 9 891 MIE ohn so siincigke <0'400 Ha 5 =: 4, $45 15 3 37 2, 187 32 2, 888 Rem Se 4,405 | 686,137 | 157 | 21,881 | 4,746 545 | 421] 56,502 RADIA 5g 9 Se soe es ses 2 AGP) ere es 80 S469 Ue ee MIE ag ook se sa cece: 395 52,306 | 185 | 25,009 433 56,622; 118} 15,008 WME 2G cS. 3c. 5 52.5 ins. 282 38, 847 2 280 274 36, 407 1 Nebraska ...| 5,310 | 794,047 | 879°] 52,541 | 4,277 | 660,915 | 345 | 48,264 UII og hee cr ote. sees) OMEN OS fie sees Bb DOO esc cpeie aoe eee New Mexic 168 23695 [Sool see ob 266 39, 692 3 Oregon. .... 68 93, 137 8 920 855 | 126,979 29 4,436 AL Siena 179 21, 638 1 160 257 , 234 4 420 Washington 7, 568 54] 7,686 599 89, 980 49 6, 816 Wyoming ...... SS aay ue eeese eiesuee 462 GOL814 ee ee 360 [200 Ieee? DMR ohn cS cn ones susie = 5 <3 27,366 4,175,565 |1,198 168,314 | 24,76! |3, 775,667 1,221 | 166,390 i | \ SUMMARY. State or Territory. | Original entries. Final entries. No Acres. No. Acres. SNE eon oe. on nisin'n ses seein ass cese es 856 122, 570 4 640 OARS RIEINANS oe pees n= sw cles ow awk ssid saceeccecewesss 39 4 AIG css eee ae Wuutactin 8 Rs 6, 671 856, 07 ? 889 I Ss ro cas wan se Sse don co stb cases 23, 650 3, 498, 351 18 2,278 Me ee race asi - oiase seis onesie cacaces 63, 647 11,500,026 | 1,306 185, 064 MRIS a oa ows nee waco teenees 3, 257 427, 017 15 1,711 I oe ee oan wc ee ee = ~ 540s oes oss scin ss cameess 931 75,514 124 11, 505 se gS ees ee are oa ae ais ss os oe sede oceans 58, 8,738,944 | 1,544 206, 146 MMR Sc oS ao ae ow is ges es o was ce cacense te 96.349 |: eee TIM ioe roe oe es see on ewe wpe eng ccencess 14,377 1, 882, 030 781 104, 75 LRT enc os ees oo ca See oe eee cesses See 2, 555 339, 998 4 479 RN oh age ree on a an eco sews n ck oss's cae a5= 48, 589 7, 780,825 | 1,753 237, 657 NR Se on ens Se nn he eee eee wns Sse eb cece sess 42 §:979 | Ss ees Re OMIT ooo ake ui canisis ae ok Chins sess tee ees saan a 1,059 146, 928 3 ER an wh ae as wn sen saan Souccdanc ab teas 6, 128 908, 248 47 6,7 fee ee ee os <5 os ew gnge= sero cee 2 eS 1,048 128, 1 6 ee a eee Soe sae Sas 7, 673 1,114, 761 194 20, 673 er aoe aa cae ccccesecss -3 055 Ceeeeaa ese eee ee sige ae 2,401 RA cease aol aken ness Se ket ee Bae cee ian Ga acces ---| 241,778 38, 080, 506 | 5, 806 779, 582 '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. . 285 a OSIER CULTURE. In my report for 1886 there was given a brief instruction for osier-growing and a fuller manual was promised. The manuscript of this manual has remained unfinished and unpublished for want of sufficient knowledge to write the chapter on the selection of kinds to be grown. “This knowledge can only be obtained by actual experi- ment, for which, at the time and since, the Department did not have the means or facilities. By private endeavor of the writer, and through the favor of a prominent osier-grower in Austria, Hein- rich Ritter von Manner, a selection of rods of some seventy varieties was obtained in the spring of 1887, and. cuttings were distributed to the various experiment stations. The long journey, absence of facilities to readily prepare and send the cuttings from here, andthe consequent delay in reaching their destination proved detrimental to a large number, and in most cases the experiment stations which have been heard from report entire failure. Yet the reports from the Agricultural College, Michigan; State College, Pennsylvania, and the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tions at Berkeley, Cal., indicate that these stations have been able to save quite a number. Mr. Sudworth, of this division, secured space in some private grounds and planted the full selection, with the results as stated in table below. The report of Professor Hilgard, of California, is specially satis- factory; as he has been able to grow nine varieties in sufficient quan- tities to announce a distribution of plant material in lots of ten cut- tings of a kind for 10 cents or 1 dozen assorted at 20 cents. He does not, however, propose to extend this distribution beyond the limits of his State. These experiments, although giving no definite answer as yet either in regard to adaptability to our climate or the basket-making prop- erties of these varieties when grown under our hot sun, have yet given an indication that the repetition of this introduction would be a proper course forthe Department. It should be added that the plants (except probably those in California) were not cut down as they should have been after the first season. The largest number were saved at State College, Pennsylvania. Professor Buckhout reports fifty-nine alive, although more than half in poor condition, and says: The cuttings came wrapped in oiled paper and in good condition; they were put — out in rows 6 inches apart in the row, and have received ordinary cultivation and light hoeing, such as is usually given to nursery stock; soil, rather heavy clay loam with flint gravel; high uplands. The Roman numbers inthe table refer to varieties which are more commonly used in Europe. 690———2 ''~ 286 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. Results of growing Pennsylvania. Register number. Name. Height. Remarks on growth.* 5 Ft. in. I | Salix amygdalina canescens ....... woesay 1:26.) Poor erowth:.. .. esa kes sees moo ees III | Salix amygdalina latifolia ........ beste le Osea dO ....2..-eeeee Rebaces ues conc eee 57 | Salix amygdalina palida...... boeaessees ioe Stout (one-half inch) and fairly vigorous 59 Salix amygdalina spadicea........ peaceee Ba Very poor Prowl 2.22: css tease eee ee 60 | Salix amygdalina regalis...... eee 6222 de euetc sees oes ae oases Snse ose eo eee 61 | Salix amygdalina lutea .......cecccesese- 6 les GO ses. eas seececee pease aa eee 66 | Salix amygdalina inflexa ...... Soisee co ee|) 1a 8} BOORPTOWUN 2. 565055 cess ce ce eee 67 | Salix amygdalina italica nigra........... ey ics GG ee. anaes 69 | Salix amygdalina erecta.......... Beet ees ice meee ees eee oeaenen ees 70 | Salix amygdalina crispifolia ...... ...... $256 | air crowth 3352550224 s0 525s eee oe 71 | Salix amygdalina picta ......... wiseeeel (ho 6 yee GO 20 eet es ce Secs eowerees 72 | Salix amygdalina italica alba............ zt PoOrmerowthh ec. s. cai: oo: je cesensee ence 114 | Salix amygdalina pyrifolia............... 2 61] Good growth and tough........ pire ce 189 | Salix amygdalina supera.......... ...../......: SS a Tlie ee eae So ge ee ees 81 | Salix alba flora..... Re eesesese es eee sees ee 2 6 Good growth and tough (yellow bark) .. . 88 Be 6 fee ecae GOs esses eee eae ee ees 87 1 POOr SLOW: 3.22 Fs ae ee 112 2 6] Good growthand tough (yellow orange). 21 | Salix fragilis...... 2 Good erowih 2252555 eee 22 | Salix fragilis pentandra.................- Sie re GO See ae ee ee pee Oc) Salix purpurea... .-..-..<-. =... 4s 5 XXI | Salix purpurea (Stone Willow). .........|-.----- 38 | Salix purpurea (wild, from Danube) 24 | Salix purpurea pyramidalis...... 2 29 | Salix purpurea Kerksii...... teh senses eee 80 | Salix purpurea gracilis. ............... Sa IV | Salix purpurea X viminalis .............. 1 ee ete, PASM sie oe os iw ww oe'wie w= 2 Good crowth==...222) ee 131 | Salix uralensis (from Galicia) ..... Suen 4 Good growth, slender, tough (red-gray). 85 | Salix uralensis serotina ..............++.- 1 6) Poor growth Me) Salix TUDTA VITIGIS ices. tee cscs cee e= dB ee Ooo ee eee sae kee ae tee 116 | Salix rubra cinnamomea...... sesseeesse.| 2 6] Good growth and tough .............. X | Salix viminalis (Belgian) ...... Sees Seeeee lon seek cles es Spek ack iG ses sane eee ees XI | Salix viminalis (Rough Golden) .......... 1 6} Pair growth oe. oso. 2 sce ocinoins oaen ese XII | Salix yiminalis (ene Bed) ce os. acs eA cos On Be Re Ras eee ee XII | Salix viminalis (Smooth Golden) ......... Oe G6 2.5 eee ee XIV | Salix viminalis (Rough Green)............ 2664 8 doses ee ee ee XV | Salix viminalis (high-growing varieties). .}........)..62 cece cece eee eter e een e eect eee ceeces 143 | Salix viminalis (French).................. 1 Poor growth. ..........-..+----seeeeeee- 144 | Salix viminalis (English Longskin)....... 1B esp san CO a oa ee eee 6 | Salix viminalis alba ............... eek Very poor growth ........----.+0++----- 9 | Salix viminalis stricta..............0.000. 1 6) Fair growth 14 | Salix viminalis meliorata ................ [once cece fe ee ee cece eee cece tees enccceeee secceaerecs 16 | Salix viminalis patula..... Bees ce ete G |. Very poor erowth ©...-..5.ci.0.<-05- 5 142 | Salix viminalis nobilis....... Sosa se ee GS Rea A So ons vac nates acest cis 3s ae eleGiieeee XXX | Salix hippophaéfolia..........-- cc | Sa 6, Baie prowth | i é ‘ moisture or periodic overflow. * Cuttings arrived in good condition. Setin rows 6 inches sper in the row, and receiving ordinary cul- tivation and light hoeing. Soil rather heavy clay loam wit flint gravel; high upland, with no extra | H iy '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. oe 287 varieties of Osiers. - Washington, D. C. California. Michigan. : ks i |Height Remarks on growth.t Remarks on growth. Height. oe Hes Ft. in. Ft in 8 Very stout (one-half to one inch) |....... ose ok Sas penne SOS SE learners ~ : much branched, bush-like. 1 6 Slender, producing clean rods....| Rather small rods; wood |... .... hard (dark green bark). 8 10 | Slightly branched, but tending to : produce good rods. : ; , 7 6 | Producing clean slender rods..... Bee Aes Oe eye acca ABA sat: OD oie Si a POs cece GOP aise osc see ieee ee sets Spices ds Pore Cc eec eee eee nec enceenereees Soil usually 9 aus clean slender rods..... y 1389." Pell dan 3 Slightly branched, but mostly vated Ande cba. good rods. Some plants set 8 : +too near other ee 7 small trees. A number of other . 1 6) Stunted and branched; suffered |..... ME A ee cee 1 . ea hae ree : from drought. growth of lessthan é 7 6| Slightly branched, but mostly |..... ...... welte tens oe deneets 2 one foot good rods. ; Bei ison bons Oana eee ah cecs caae secce ees | SUrOnE oo (bark green- | 2 ish yellow). Beers oe lisaiio's midis oaiciSainaseiet sees oats siscinsis os [sce ake ss sepecen Ponte e see eeeatt Ol eee ceiede olyiee ois cate oe sie ceiestaie vie Ne Ss ciaia|s colaieghes ieee hese soy eeden loom ra Nese ga a eet negate sss aban oc Rather small, slim growth |........ (bark greenish yellow). 3 Slightly i B04. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. © = ‘ the amount of water-fall. At Iquitos 284 centimeters fall in the course of the year. It must be remembered that Iquitos lies in a plain 2,100 kilometers from the ocean and 350 from the mountains; nowhere on the earth is the rain-fall so great under similar circumstances. Without further discussing the influence of the forest upon quan- tity and distribution of rain-fall, we may say that many observations and the philosophy of meteorological forces lend countenance to the following statements: (1) During the time of vegetation large quantities of vapor are transpired and evaporated by a forest, by which the absolute humid- ~ - ity of the air above the forest is increased; and since, on account of the cooler temperature which prevails over and within a forest, the relative humidity is also greater, the tendency to condensation is increased. (2) This moister and cooler air stratum communicated to the neighboring locality must increase the dew, at least, over the neigh- boring field. (3) This relatively moister air stratum, carried away by air cur- rents, has the tendency to induce precipitation at such places, es- pecially where the additional influence favorable to precipitation— namely, increased altitude—exists; therefore, (4) While the forest may not everywhere increase precipitation over its own area, yet a large system of forests over an extensive area will influence the quantity of precipitation over and within this area. (5) Itemust never be overlooked that there are certain rain condi- tions prevailing in climatic zones (rainy or rain-poor localities, with periodical, seasonal, or irregular rains) which are due to cosmic influences and can not be altered, but may be locally modified by forest cover. Hence, experiences in one climatic zone can not be utilized for deductions in another. DISPOSAL OF WATER SUPPLIES. Given a certain amount of precipitation in rain or snow over a - certain area, the disposal of the water after it has fallen, and the in- fluence of the forest-cover on its disposal, require our attention. For the sake of convenience we can divide the elements which need con- sideration in this discussion into elements of dissipation, elements of conservation, elements of distribution. The difference in effect between the first two classes of elements will give us an idea of the amount of available water supply or run- off resulting from precipitation; while the third class bears upon the methods of distributing the available water supply. ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. Elements of dissipation are those which diminish the available water supplies; they are represented in the quantity of water which is prevented by interception from reaching the ground, in the quan- tity dissipated by evaporation, in the quantity used by plants in their growth, and in transpiration during the process of growing. Interception.—The amount of rain-fall and snow which is pre- vented by a forest growth from reaching the soil varies considerably according to the nature of the precipitation and to the kind of trees which form the forest as well as tae density and age of the growth. ''* ‘DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 305 A light drizzling rain of short duration may be almost entirely intercepted by the foliage and at once returned to the atmosphere by evaporation; if, however, the rain continues, although fine, the water will run off at last from the foliage and along the trunks.* And this amount, of which the rain-gauge takes no account, represeats, ‘according to measurements of the Austrian stations, from 8 to 14 per cent., thus reducing considerably the loss to the soil. While the careful measurements at the Swiss stations in a twelve years’ average show the interception in a larch forest as 15 per cent., in a spruce forest 23 per cent., in a beech growth 10 per cent., the figures for the Prussian stations are for beech growth 24 per cent., for spruce at various stations 22 per cent., 27 per cent., and 34 per cent., respectively. Altogether, for the rain-fall conditions of the countries cited, a dense forest growth will, on the average, inter- cept 23 per cent. of the precipitation; butif allowance be made for the water running down the trunks, this loss is reduced to not more - than 12 per cent. : The amount of interceptionin the open growths which character- ize many of our Western forest areas would be considerably smaller, especially as the rains usually fall with great force, and much of the precipitation isin the form of snow. Although branches and foliage catch a goodly amount of this the winds usually shake it down, and consequently but very little snow is lost to the ground by intercep- tion of the foliage. There is also a certain amount of water intercepted by the soil- cover and held back by the soil itself, which must be saturated be- fore any of it can run off or drain away. This amount, which is eventually dissipated by evaporation and transpiration, depends, of course, upon the nature of the soil and its cover, especially upon their capacity to absorb and retain water. This retentive power is called the maximum water capacity of the soil, and depends largely upon the structure and more or less compact stratification of the material. The least retentive soil is a coarse sand followed by finer sands, loams, clays, marls, and organic matter; that is to say, humous earth or vegetable litter will retain the most water. The amount of such retention, varying somewhat with the temperature, as shown in the analyses of Professor Hilgard and others, is from. 1.64 per cent. of its own weight in a ‘‘ second class” Florida sand soil to 28 per cent. and more in a peat soil; a pure clay rarely exceeds 12 per cent., while calcareous clay soils rise to 15 and 20 per cent. Different from this hygroscopic water, known as ‘‘ moisture co-efficient,” which represents the amounts of water permanently absorbed by the soil in its natural condition, is the amount which it may hold temporarily, liable to be drained off or evaporated. According to Ebermayer, these amounts may vary from 38 to 88 per : cent. According to Dr. Raman’s investigations, the water capacity of sand soils of fine and medium fine: texture may amount to from 38 to 4 per cent. of their own weight, or 4 to 5 per cent. of their volume in the upper strata, and 5 to 6 per cent. in the lower strata. Impermeable soil strata (loam and very fine sand) allow, when a superficial run-off is possible, only a passing and inferior retention of water after precipitation; being capable in spring-time of holding no more than 10 or 12 per : *The maximum rain-fall observed in Germany is 4 inches in twenty-four hours _ and2inches in one hour. In Switzerland there has‘been recorded a rain-fall of 18 inches in twenty-four hours and 2} inches in three-quarters of an hour. This would equal 5,000 gallons per acre. Of such falls the foliage will retain only an inappre- ciable amount. Intensity of rain-fall in the United States becomes clear from a few records: Paterson, N. J., 14 inches in eight minutes; Sandy Spring, Md., 5 inches 4 in 23 hours; Clear Creek, Nebr., 4.50 inches in one hour twenty-seven minutes; x Castroville, Tex., 5.80 inches in twenty-four hours; Ellsworth, N. C., 18 inches, of id which 9 inches in three and one-half hours; and rain-falls from 14 to 4 inches per twenty-four hours are quite frequently reported in almost every month, especially in the Western States, where the rain-fall is often quite explosive. ''806 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. | cent. of their weight, while a stratum of sand of medium grain 20 to 25 feetdeep _ — would, it was calculated, be capable of taking up and holding the entire annual pre- cipitation of 24 inches. ‘As to the distribution of water in the soil, it is found that the upper humous strata contain the highest amounts, the following deeper strata the least; the water capac- ity then increases downwards, and at last remains stationary to a considerable depth. The capillarity of the sand soils investigated was not capable of raising the ; ground water higher than 14 feet, so that the upper strata of the soil which was 3 within reach of ground water did not show in reality greater amounts of water than ; the soil which had no ground water to fall back upon. The water capacity of litter, which Wollny investigated, depends on its nature and, of course, its thickness to a certain degree, and is quite considerable, much greater than that of soils. . The water capacity of various litters was found to be as follows in volume per cent. : | | | E | Calcare- - Depth of litter. 1 a pao pie a Moss. | ous sand | When 2 inches deep...... BO i tee Balas s onc. 19:82 le icczeeess When 12 inches deep..... 45. 42 39.7 41.65 BOL Vo. esse. 3 24. 93 No soil cover was found so variable in water contents as moss, while litter would hold two or three times as much water as moss and twice as much as the soil. mn The variation of water capac.ty at different depths appears from the following gures: | A Oak | Spruce Depth of litter. : feaoee | fone | RRP NONOR oo Sao cen tosis 50.77 38. 98 WOGE INCOR fas i oc Se caw ce ve. s0ee- 52.99 40.76 MIM U IMERON o2 $30 (ss 55.cc. lasts ae 53. 09 41.03 SMOIVE MNCHOS io no5)s5 Se hotles sas 45, 42 41.65 That is to say, the increase in water capacity ceases with about 8-inch depth. Altogetler an appreciable amount of the precipitation does not run off or drain through the forest cover but is retained by it; yet while this is apparently a loss, we shall see further on that this moisture retained in the upper strata fulfills an important office in checking a much greater loss due to evaporation, and thus becomes an element of conservation. Evaporation.—The loss by evaporation after the water has reached the ground depends in the first place upon the amount of direct inso- lation of the soil, and hence its temperature, which again influences the temperature of the air. The nature of the soil cover, the relative amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and the circulation of the air are also factors determining the rate of evaporation. The impor- tance of this element of dissipation may be learned from the experi- ments of Prof. T. Russell, jr., of the U. S. Signal Service, made in 1888. We learn from these that the evaporation on the Western plains and plateaus may, during the year, amount_to from 50 to 80 inches, nay, in spots, 100 inches, while the rain-fall (diminishing in reverse ratio) over this area is from 30 to 12 inches and less. Thus in Denver, where the maximum annual precipitation may reach 20 inches, the evaporation during one year was 69 inches. \ = '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. - 807 This deficiency of 49 inches naturally must be supplied by waters coming from the mountains, where the precipitation is large and the evaporation low (on Pike’s Peak alone, there may be 45.6 — 26.8 = 18.8 inches to spare). If the loss by evaporation from an open field be compared with that of a forest-covered ground, it will, asa matter of course, be found to be less in the latter case, for the shade not only reduces the influence of the sun upon the soil, but also keeps the air under its cover relatively moister, therefore less capable of absorbing moist- ure from the soil by evaporation. In addition, the circulation of the air is impeded between the trunks, and this influence upon avail- able water supply, the wind-breaking power of the forest, must be considered as among the most important factors of water preserva- tion. Especially is this the case on the Western plains and on those Western mountain ranges bearing only a scattered tree growth and where, therefore, the influence of shade is but nominal. The evaporation under the influence of the wind is dependent not only on the temperature and dryness of the same, but also on its ve- locity, which being impeded, the rate of evaporation is reduced. Interesting experiments for the purpose of ascertaining the -changes in the rate of evaporation effected by the velocity of the wind were made by Prof. T. Russell, jr., of the Signal Service, in 1887. The result of these experiments (made with Piche’s hygrom- eters whirled around on an arm 28 feet in length, the results of which were compared with those from a tin dish containing 40 cubic cen- timeters of water exposed under shelter) show, that with the temper- ature of the air at 84 degrees and a relative humidity of 50 per cent., evaporation at 5 miles an hour was 2.2 times greater than in a calm; at 10 miles, 3.8; at 15 miles, 4.9; at 20 miles, 5.7; at 25 miles, 6.1, and at 30 miles the wind would evaporate 6.3 times as much water as a calm atmosphere of the same temperature and humidity. Now, if it is considered that the average velocity of the winds which constantly sweep the Western subarid and arid plains is from 10 to 15 miles, not rarely attaining a maximum of 50 and more miles, the cause of the aridity is not far to seek and the function of the timber- belt or even simple wind-break can be readily appreciated. ’ What the possibilities of evaporation from hot and dry winds may be, can be learned from statements regarding the ‘‘ Foehn,” which is the hot wind of Switzerland, corresponding to the ‘‘ chi- nook” of our Western country. The change in temperature from the normal, experienced under the influence of the Foehn has been noted as from 28° to 31° Fahr., and a reduction of relative humidity of 58 per cent. A Foehn of twelve hours’ duration has been known to “‘ eat up” entirely a snow cover of 23 feet deep. In Denver a chinook has been known to induce a rise in tempera- ture of 57° Fahr. in twenty-four hours (of which 36° in five minutes) while the relative humidity sank from 100 to 21 per cent. _ The degree of forest influence upon rate of evaporation by break- ing the force of winds is dependent upon the extent and density of the forest, and especially on the height of the trees. For according to an elementary law of mechanics the influence which breaks the force of the wind is felt at a considerable elevation above the trees. This can be practically demonstrated by passing along a_ timber plantation on the wind-swept plains. Even a thin stand of young trees not higher than five feet will absolutely calm the air within a ''aa : - me * ¥ a “¢ cs is Pee see PN orgs 308° REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. considerable distance and height beyond the shelter. Unfortunately no accurate experimental data concerning this influence are at hand. According to Becquerel, a simple hedge 6 feet in height will give protection for a distance of 70 feet; and according to Hardy, a belt of trees every 300 feet will defend vegetation almost entirely against the action of the wind. Another authority finds for every foot in height one rod in distance protected. This division has lately begun a canvass to ascertain the actual experience in regard to the value of wind-breaks on the prairies and plains. This canvass is not completed as yet, but to show what the drift of this experience is, we give an extract from the letter of one farmer in Ilinois:° My experience is, that now in cold and stormy winters wheat protected by timber belts yields full crops, while fields not protected yield only one-third of a crop. Twenty-five or thirty years ago we never had any wheat killed by winter frost, and every year a full crop of peaches, which is now very rare. At that time we had plenty of timber around our fields and orchards, now cleared away. It may not be necessary to state that the damage done to crops by the cold dry winter winds is mainly due to rapid evaporation, and that plants are liable to suffer as much by winter drought as by summer drought. This is certain, that since summer and winter drought, 7. e., rapid ~ evaporation, due to the continuous dry winds, is the bane of the farmer on the plains, rationally disposed timber belts alone will do much to increase available water supply by reducing evaporation. Various experiments comparing the rate of evaporation within and without a forest are recorded in the following table, which refers to evaporation from a water surface in the open field on the one hand and within the shelter of the forest on the other. It is shown that under ordinary circumstances evaporation may under forest cover be decreased from two to three times. Evaporation of a water-surface from April to October, cxpressed in centimeters. Without | Within the : , the Ratio. | forest. forest. | is Eastern France .... ...(2) .. 41.2 | 13.2 | 312to 100 Alsatian Mountains. ...(3) .. 33.5 15.9 | 211to0 100 BAWanIae 02 os (4) ..| 37.7 15.8 | 239 to 100 Brandenburg.......... Chia 39.9 16.3 | 245 to 100 Silesian Mountains ....(6) ..| 26.7 10.6 | 250to 100 Eastern Prussia ....... ()i4 25.2 12.0 | 210to 100 References to table: (2) Station Belle-fontaine, (3) Station Melkerei, (4) Six Stations, (5) Station Eberswalde, (6) Station Carlsberg, (7) Stations Fritzen and Kurwien. S An experiment made in Bavaria in which soil saturated with water was used, showed the values in centimeters of evaporation for seven months—from April to October—to be as follows: Wathouy the foLest- 104... cas sco ee ean os ese 40.8 Within the forest: Pme woods, ..2.. Bese sy sc ee Cues eee ee eS Se 15.9 APCCIGUOGUS UhOCS oe ae 8. Se eae ew ee ee eae 6.2 That is to say, evaporation progressed six and one-half times as fast in the open field as in the deciduous woods during the warm months. '' + The stations of Prussia allow the £ = pIVISION OF FOREST ». ollowing avera , RY. = s ge for evapora- 309 tion; the amount evaporated in the open fallow field being called 100: — Retained Evapo- | more than rated. in open fallow field. Under beech growth ............+..- Under spruce growth ......... «s+. Under pine growth........2...-s-0 From cultivated field .............. Per cent. | Per cent. 40.4 59. 45.3 54.7 41.8 58.2 90.3 9.7 i sb ll kc cent. to penetrate the soil. A balance calculation of the amounts of precipitation and the amounts lost by evaporation for sixteen stations at-varying eleva- tions shows that with increasing altitude the surplus of water remain- ing for the soil increases, the mountain forest decreasing evaporation to its minimum of 9 to 13 per cent., and leaving from 87 to 91 per Surplus of precip- | Of precipita- itation over evap- | tion evapor- oration. ated. Stations. Altitude. ye In the In the | In the} In the - open. forest. | open. | forest : M. Mm. Mm. | Per ct.| Per ct.” m Schoo .......<. ...- Ge cee eco owe seikenne cosh S pene 3 322.5 343.6 55 28 EEG SA ee eee Oe er ny ore 30 387.5 822.5 40 28 PIMMOERICDEM coals vicas sss eek est Monee eae Sees sels swe oe 34 495.8 481.4 5 20 METUEPS WL G! act iii2. sfoick niecrci classe 0 eau uis UH wie feet erale pele 42 142.1 7.5 3 Ad Be Lintzel ... 2... 2... ieee cette eee nee cet e nes 95 174.6 180.6 70 iv 4 Average for the recion. .:. 7. /:25-4.- 4220s. 0-100 305.3 313. 1 55 37 IRN 5 ss Se, Saas. hg SS EES ied gh iad saa 124 346.1 365.7 44 26 PSII OTUH AN 2s cet < cain (icon ees Cons Seas eects te nee ae 143 184.9 254.7 68 37 EAPO oss ee ee pas Soicc Ace ees une oe cad sme aes 145 436.1 434.3 46 26 Avetare fOr the TepiOn ss 4s.) act's. caw keatece wes 100-200 822.4 351.6 53 30 REINA ec es tess oath ws cao Ve RES spas Gide baeee Seen 340 828.5 510.9 60 23 BR BIOCIMCR STOUR ooo aids a sige sites where 4 ue Ae Spears eutse 353 291.0 5.8 57 26 Average for the region. : 2. 228 i.e es2. es cc swan 300-400 809.9 448.3 58 25 MMOs Se iss ook ve oek wats pie Rien eid san ema 602 685. 2 pas 15 MAMI tnis seeps. coos n ce sus ees sieaec eae sy eee 612 717.5 490. 2 26 21 ATU LGU 3:5 cs oc aia'cs hu cioht cake Sete 6 aeiwhcie vieis whe a bvalaie one 680.| 1,468.2 | 1,114.3 13 7 BO PRPA IN one ear ee Stns sic Oia chia lone ulna 6 atone 690 718.8 9.1 27 10 pAverare tor the TeplOAs.. 15. .c ce wcicmen essa cans 600-700 | 938.7 | =. 782.2 22 13 Sonnenberg . es 774 | 1,196.4 | 1,093.8 15 9. IMCIKOPEL <<<. cce ee see e eect eet ee eee sete tenet eee eenees 930 | 1,142.1} 1,196.8 19 il The reason for this influence of the forest, as has been stated, is due not only to the impeded air circulation, but also to the tempera- ture and moisture conditions of the forest soil and forest air. ''810’ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. ek From the following table appear the differences of soil temperature (conticraiiel al in the forest, the minus sign denoting the lower temperatures in the forest, the plus sign the bigher temperatures: Differences of temperature of the soil inside and outside of a forest. February- | yy ay-July. August- November- April. October. January. Year. Sur- j0.9m.| S4 |0.9m.| SU |o.9m. 0.9m.| SY 0.9m, face. face. face. face ‘ace. Alsatian Mountains ms Soe eee —1.0 | 40.5 | —7.8 | —2.8 | -5.7 | —3.2 | +0.3 | —0.7 | —3.5 | —1.5 Bavaria (1 —0.8 | —4.5 | —3.9 | —2.6 | —3.0 0 —0.1 | —2.2| —2.2 Bavaria (2 0.6 | —4.6 | —4.1 | —2.6 | —3.0 | +0.3 | —0.1 | —2.1] —2.0 tern 0 —4.4 | —3.6 | —2.3 | —2.2 | +1.3 | +0.9 | —1.6] —1.2 (1) Same stations as for preceding table on page 308. (2) Same stations with the addition of Duschberg, Johanneskrenz, and Altentartn It appears that in winter it may occur that the soil is even warmer in the forest, especially in regions which, like eastern Prussia, have cold winters and where the ground is covered with snow for several months. The mitigating influence on the soil temperature appears still more clearly when the maximum and minimum temperatures for the year or the range of temperature is compared. | Range of temperature. Without Within | the forest. | the forest. | Degrees. Degrees. | 39.5 29.5 VRIES 0c te. sos sc assess ee ene ee eee eee | Alsatian Mountains . 3] 35 2 NE Moos eee ao as awe eee cose cie else eo rade eee aece a 41.8 26.7 For the air temperatures the differences are much smaller, yet in general the sum- mer temperatures are lower and the winter temperatures are higher in the forest, and this influence seems greater in the warm climate of Italy than in the colder climate of Prussia. In the following table the maximum, min:mum, and mean tem- peratures within forest stations are noted—the plus sign denoting higher the minus sign lower temperatures than those observed in the field stations. | | February- August- | November- | April. May-July. October. | January. | Year. 1 ] | } 1 ‘ Pte |. lid Leg [ee Se el eel ae Pee Ste Lele bala tae eS glale| 3 Sie ia a lalalSs (Sia sia aa |e eee | Central Italy (1) ......].....]..... j--.-.|—4.1}-4+-1.6—1.2}—8. 641.1} -1.3).....|.....)....2 a. / ae | Eastern France (2) ...|—0. 3 +0.8 0 |—8.241. 2|—1. 0|—2. 6| +-1. 3,—0. 6 —0. 9/+-0. 6|—0. 1.—1. 9 +1.0|\—0.4 Alsatian Mountains (3) —1. 1/+1. 9}+0. 4\—2. 5/441. 9}\—0. 3\—1. 9] +-2. 4| —0. 2|+-0. 9) +1. 7/+-1.3'—1. 2| +2. 0)+-0.4 Bavaria (4) .... 552... }—0.5 +0. 2;\—0. 3) —2.2/+1. 1)—0. 9—3.2)41.6—0.8 O |+1. ae 6 —1.5)+1.0\—0.3 Eastern Prussia (5) . eae “+0. in pie see 5—0. 5; ee 2|\—0. 7 —0.3) “| —0.2,—1. o 0. 2—0.4 | | | | { (1) Station Vallambrosa, Tuscany. (2) Station Bellefontaine near aS (8) Station Melkerei, in the Vosges Mountains. (4) Stations Seeshaupt and Rohrbrunn. (5) Stations Fritzen and Kurwien. The greater humidity of the atmosphere under forest cover, 7%. e., in shade, tends also to reduce evaporation. The temperature, especially during the warm months, being considerably lower in the forest interior, the air receives less moisture in pro- portion from the soil and lower vegetation. A cubic foot of forest air, then, contains in the average less moisture than a cubic foot of air over a cultivated field under otherwise same conditions. While thus the absolute amount of moisture in the forest air is really less, the relative humidity is greater; that is, the air of the forest being of lower tempera- '' ce DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 311 ture is nearer the state of saturation. The state of affairs is exhibited in the follow- ing tabulated observations: Influence of forests, especially in summer, on the moisture of the air, expressed in percentages of the state of saturation. {Relative humidity within and without the forest.] February- May-July. August- November- April. October. January. Year. With. | With- | With- | With- | With- | With-| With- | With- With- | With- out. in, out. in. *| out. in. out. in. out. in, Alsatian Mountains (1)....... 80 85 68 c 78 o . _ co . : TAO) oo. ee ewee ene 80 84 70 7 7 EA eens ga; | 64| -68| 7| 81) 9| 8) 7 82 (1) Melkerei. (2) Six stations. (8) Fritzen and Kurwien. The difference of temperature of the soil, and therefore also of the air, is depend- ent as well upon the degree of shade exerted by the forest cover as upon the nature of the soil cover. The influence of the latter has been carefully investigated by Wollny. In the following table is noted the range of temperature during the day of various soil-covers, from which it appears that the naked soil cools off during the night much more and heats up much more during the day than the various soil- covers, of which pine litter shows the next greatest range to naked soil. Soil, cal- | 5. ‘ 2 Pine lit- | Spruce Oak careous | “"ter. | ‘Iitter. | leaves, | Moss. | Morning temperature 18. 24 14.51 15. 25 15.00 14. 66 Evening temperature 19.11 | 18. 16 18. 62 18.24 | . 17.27 Range of temperature .........e008 « eeeeseee 5.87 | 8.65 8.37 3.24| 2.57 _ The different rates of evaporation from various soil-covers has been carefully in- ‘vestigated independently by Drs. Wollny and Ebermayer. According to Wollny, the unprotected soil evaporated more than twice or three times as much as that covered with litter, while a moss-cover came very near evaporating as much as the open soil. The amounts in grams which were evaporated from a surface of 400 &quare centimeters during the time from June 6 to September 7 were as follows: NOAM Se oles ore Se oats soe 2,014 | Spruce litter: ......4. eects 952 AOA silos secon nee. 2, O11 | Beech leaves 7.5. cee 724 IMOSR 562: Roe compa oes 1, 766 | Oak leaves: Voss. 3c. eee Pe pe Ping (bers 56.35 occ aaa 959 | This difference must be accounted for by the difference in physical structure of the material, which either impedes or facilitates replacement of the water evapo- rated by capillary attraction. Therefore, according to the nature of the forest floor, _ the rate of evaporation varies. __ The experiments of Wollny in 1883 on the amounts of evaporation from soil coy- red with straw and uncovered are also of interest here as showing the numerical | _ influence of a cover or mulch of dead material, which does not, like the litter, pos- Sess capillary forces. The cover in these experiments was 2 inches thick; for a _ Surface of 1,000 square centimeters the amounts evaporated were, during the months of July and August, 571 and 5,739 grams, respectively; that is to say, the naked soil evaporated more than ten times as much as the covered soil. While in the above experiments the evaporation from the soil-cover was investi- _ gated, the Austrian Forest Experiment Stations investigated the influence of moss and litter upon the evaporation from the soil underneath. A fine sand with an _ average moisture of 4.82 per cent: was covered with various materials, and the _ amount of moisture which remained in the sand after an exposure for four months '' ay 3812 “REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. was measured. The amounts lost by evaporation, which allow an estimate of the relative amount of protection of the various covers, were as follows: : Per cent. Wncéovercd: sande 2. OE SPE Ne ee Neda 5 54, Sands«covered with dry earth: 2.2.95 662 so oe og ee 40.7 Sand covered with beech leaves (vertical Jayers)................ Blt Sand covered with beech leaves (horizontal layers).............. 26.8 Sand covered with beech leaves (kept moist)...............2.--. 0 g Sand covered with air-dried spruce litter.................... .. 384.4 q Sand covered with air-dried pime litter. -.22. 002... oe ee 43.6 anid. COVered. with vine, -OTase SOG. os 22.8 ck oe ee 35.9 : Sand covered with living hypnum moss................2- se.e- 27.8 2 Sand covered with living sphagnum moss............. Sa 6.3 3 The soil covered with moist beech leaves not only did not lose any moisture but during the first months it absorbed water from the cover, which, however, was ~ Jost again later during the warmer weather. The last three covers were kept alive ~ by careful sprinkling in small amounts for three months; this was. however, not — sufficient to keep the grass alive to the end of the experiment. The low dense hypnum moss preserved the moisture Well as long as it was sprinkled, but when allowed to dry it could do no better than the dry beech leaves. The sphagnum ~ moss, however, continued its protective function even after the sprinkling. The — pine litter in an air-dried condition showed but little power of protection ; this — a have been more effective if, as it occurs in nature always, it had been kept moist, Altogether, it will have to be admitted that the factor of dissipation represented in the evaporation from the ground is considerably - reduced by the forest-cover; and since the rate of evaporation in our western Territories is probably the greatest element in the dissi- — pation of moisture, the greatest attention to checking it will be neces- sary in the husbanding of water supplies. This check to evapora- tion refers not only to the preservation of the water supply where it — falls, but also in the natural and artificial channels through which it — may be conducted or in the reservoirs where it may be stored. The surface exposed determines the amount of evaporation from — water-coursesand reservoirs ; but if the amount evaporated is related to the available volume of water, it will appear that the smaller _ and slower run loses proportionately more than the larger, which thus exhibits the value and protective character of accumulation. Take a brook 6 feet in width and only a foot in depth; this for a length of 30 feet would contain 180 cubic feet of water. If from ~ this surface only one-tenth of 1 inch evaporates, the amount evapo- | rated is equal to 1.5 cubic feet or 745 of the entire supply. On the other hand one-tenth of 1 inch evaporation from a river 60 feet broad and 12 feet deep for a length of 30 feet, containing therefore ~ 21,600 cubic feet of water, would bring the loss to 15 cubic feet or only y#rs of the available supplies; the loss, in proportion to the © supply, being twelve times greater in the former case. _ _ Transpiration.—All vegetation takes up a certain amount of water, — a part of which is consumed in building up its body, and a still larger ~ part returned to the atmosphere by transpiration during the process — of growth. The quantity of water so used is as variable as the amount of pre- cipitation and in fact within certain limits depends largely upon it. That is to say, a plant will transpire in proportion to the amount of water which is at its disposal. Transpiration is also dependent on the stage of development of the plant, on the nature of its leaves and amount of its foliage, on temperature, humidity, and circulation of the air, on intensity of the sunlight, and on temperature and structure of the soil and on other meteorological conditions. Rain and dew reduce transpiration, wind increases it. The amount of transpiration depends considerably upon the thick- A a ki '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. eee “B15. ness of the leaves, therefore the surface of the foliage is not a reliable measure, but it should be compared with the weight. With so many factors to vary them the values which may be given for the amount of transpiration of the various kinds of trees can only be approximations of its range within wide limits. All the figures which have been published, based upon calculations or ex- _ periments in the laboratory, are useless for practical purposes. _Es- _ pecially do those figures which represent the requirement of the plant as exceeding the amount of precipitations, exhibit on simple reflec- tion, their absurdity. If the requirement per acre is considered, the density of the growth of plants must also be taken into account. The first careful and comprehensive investigations into the water - requirements of forest trees were made by the Austrian forest experi- ment stations in 1878 (F. B. Hoehnel), and full tables of the results - obtained can be found in the records of those stations. _- An average of the many figures there presented would make the - amount of transpiration per 100 grams of dry weight of leaves in conifers 4,778 to 4,990 grams of water, in deciduous-leaved trees 44,472 to 49,553 grams of water. That is to say, the deciduous trees transpired about ten times as much as the conifers, and compar-_ ing the two extremes of transpiration, the deciduous tree with the highest rate of transpiration utilized twenty-three times more water than the coniferous tree with the lowest rate. Ash, birch, and linden were found to be the most vigorous transpirers, oaks and maples transpiring much less. Curiously enough, while in the conifers shade reduced the transpiration considerably, in the deciduous trees it had the opposite effect. During the period of vegetation the following varieties transpired per pound dry weight of leaves : Pounds : 2 of water. Airch-anG DNNden 2. ees oo. oo cies oe oe cea ae ee 600-700 BNA ei ee I es ace She ohare wes Cgh a's SESE eae te be i ee 500-600 HSRC ess ios ee ES eaee OS eae AEA ae oe ee ee 450-500 MaiDIO oa. Sones Se sac pice Drees wes nl eee eee eens 400-450 a A, rs SS ee ies one wre 5 eee eee ree 200-3800 Spruce and Scotch Pine... ess os we teeter ee ees 50-70 PT ee Ee AOL a aire cate ee) emamee sae 830-40 BIACK PING. oo. 5 ss eas 5 os ee oe en ee ee ae ale te oe 30-40 The next season, which was more favorable to transpiration, the _ amounts were larger; the deciduous trees transpiring from 500 to 1,000, the coniferous from 75 to 200 pounds, or in the proportion of one to six. The following actual amounts transpired per 100 grams of dry leaves during the third season (1880), will show the relative position of the various species (European): Kilograms. | Ejlograms. saan hi eae: 101, 850: | Seoteh- Pine 3. ss.3<% se on 12, 105 Biren. ss, lee Ne ee 91, S003| Bins ie eee. eae 9, 380 BSC OC He ON cece es 91.3807) Austrian Pine; . ..0. 00% 7, 005 ilornbeninien? oe oo. O7, VO AS DON. Foose cue oe 95, 970 PET gs Ee eins oe 82: 280) Alder 7. os se ceere eee 93, 300 Maple(A. campestre)...... 10,080: | lamden,; 3. orev fan ee 88, 340 Norway Maple (A. plata- Larch ges sa we ee ae 125, 600 GenPR It is, then, the protection against evaporation alone, due to greater relative humidity of the forest air, to the shade, to the breaking of the winds, and to the protective soil cover, which makes the forest a conservator of moisture everywhere, even where it does not by its peculiar location increase the amount of precipitation. Springs, then, may be influenced in the amount of their discharge _ by a removal of the forest; not because the forest supplies them di- _ rectly with more water, but because by its removal the rate of - evaporation is increased. The total conservative action of the forest with reference to avail- able water supplies, aside from an increase of precipitation, is ex- _ pressed by the difference between the elements of dissipation and _ those of conservation; the former comprised in the loss of the water by retention or interception, evaporation, and transpiration, the latter in the protection against evaporation. This balance is known to be in favor of the forest cover in some localities and under certain given conditions; but it will have become apparent that a general statement or quantitative expression of the amount of benefit would be well nigh impossible. Water supplies remaining available.—As will have appeared from the foregoing statement it is almost impossible to calculate the differ- ence between the precipitation on one hand and evaporation and transpiration on the other. Yetin an ingenious manner acalculation for one of the Prussian mountain districts is proposed by Dr. Weber _ asfollows: Using the figures which are exhibited in the table on page _ 809 he argues that the amount of water left over and above the _ amount evaporated m the open at low altitudes, deducted from the amount left over and above evaporation in the forests of high alti- tudes, will suffice to cover the amount of transpiration ; thus, in the spruce forest at the station of Sonnenberg, the surplus of precipita- 690 ——4 * ''318 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. tion above the water needed for evaporation had been 1,093.8 milli- meters; deducting from this the quantity which was found remaining ) in the open at Schoo, and which would suffice for purposes of trans- piration and plant growth, a balance for drainage of 771.3 millimeters results; for the beech forests at Melkerei and Hadersleben, the calcu- lation gavea balance of 1,176.8 — 495.8 = 681 millimeters for drainage. On the average, therefore, 700 millimeters of the precipitation in the — mountain forest in this locality are saved for the “‘run-off,” that is, 100,000 cubic feet of water per acre. To get a conception of what these 100,000 cubic feet mean in the © river flow, it may be stated that with average water level the Rhine above Mannheim has a flow of 47,7700 cubic feet per second, an amount which would be yielded by 40,000 acres of mountain forest, provided all water is drained into the river ; and to keep the river continually flowing at this rate would require, on the basis of these figures obtained experimentally, a forest area of 23,472 square miles, a calculation which by no means leads to absurd results for practical probability, since the drainage area of that part of the river is in reality about 30,000 square miles, largely in forest. ELEMENTS OF DISTRIBUTION. ‘The distribution or ‘‘run-off ” of the available water supply is al- most as important and often a more important factor in the economy of the water than the quantity of available supply itself, and the manner in which this takes place influences considerably the ulti- mate availability of the supply for human use. This distribution of water proceeds under the action of two natural forces, gravity and capillarity. These two forces are acting in opposition to each other, a fact which is often overlooked. Under the action of gravity the water seeks a lower level; the action of capillarity tends to elevate the water. The movement of the water in the soil is therefore a resultant of these two forces, and since gravity remains constant but capillarity is variable according to the structure of the soil, the latter force and the condi- tions upon which its action depends are the most important factors in determining the nature of the distribution or run-off of the water. After precipitation has reached the ground its run-off is influ- enced by surface conditions of the soil-cover, by the structure and stratification of the soil itself, its water capacity, its permeability and other physical conditions; further, its slope and also its liability to disintegration and to form detritus under the erosive action of the water ; further, upon the topography of the ground and such ele- ments as modify soil-cover, soil conditions and topography. There are two methods of distribution or run-off, namely, the — superficial or surface run-off, and the underground run-off resulting in springs which eventually change into open runs, brocks, and rivers. To understand any influence upon the run of water in springs and brooks a brief consideration of the nature and essential features of springs and open runs 18 necessary. Springs.—A spring is that place where the water which has penetrated the soil re-appears collected on the surface. Springs are in most cases the beginnings of brooks and rivers. According to the manner in which the percolated water reaches the surface, springs may be classed as standing and running springs. The standing or ground-water springs are such as collect water in some depres- sion of the soil and overflow only as long as the water reaches the lower level of the outlet. Their formation is easily understood from the accompanying figure (J), in which (1) represents a hill-side of messive rock, continuing under the overlying strata ata. The latter consist of impermeable strata (2, 2) (clay, loam, marl); above this < ''a BK DIVISION OF FORESTRY. — "ae a layer of gravel or coarse sand and rock material (3), and above this a stratum of soil (4), which at X is absent, leaving an open bowl where the gravel layer becomes visible. All the rain-water falling on the plateau o p and on the shope o a running Sf UME WM, i) K iy a Ms UU, ] down, when arriving at the impenetrable strata near b, will be diverted into the gravel bed and spread in this, being prevented by the underlying impermeable strata from sinking. When sufficient water is supplied the water level rises until it appears at X, and if there is an outlet over the rim of the bowl and sufficient slope of the ground the spring begins to flow, forming, it may be, the beginning of a brook. Such a standing or ground-water spring ceases to run if precipitation cease for a length of time sufficient to reduce the water level below the outlet. Similar conditions can occur alongside of rivers when the seepage of the river supplies the water to a spring below the river level, and the level of these seepage waters rises and falls, of course, with the rise and fall of the river level. Of running springs, there may be distinguished, according to the manner of their formation, three kinds—soil or surface springs, fissure springs, and cavern springs. A surface spring originates when a more or less impermeable soil forms part of or lies near the upper soil stratum, allowing the water to enter only imperfectly and to an inconsiderable depth, and, passing through the looser parts of the soil, to collect and come to the surface at some point where the top soil is absent. These shallow-soil springs naturally vary quite sensibly, according to the physical condi- tions of the surface, and are dependent directly on the precipitation ; dry up easily if it does not rain or if the soil is exposed to insolation and is deprived of shade; they are warm in summer and freeze out in winter. They are usually found in localities where the rock consists of easily disintegrated clay slates and sandstones, capped with a shallow layer of decomposed rock, or in the neighborhood of loam hills. An addition of broken rock and stones to the soil facilitates the penetration of the water and increases the comparative flow of thes> springs. Whole districts along the foot of the Alps in Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, and the Carpathians in Galicia, etc., have hardly any other kind of springs. The second class, conveniently called ‘‘ fissure” springs, originate from waters which have deeply penetrated the soil and rock through the fissures, rents and splits, or numberless cleavage strata of the upper rock formations, and ultimately reach a deeper-lying inclined rock formation, which prevents further penetration and causes . RY ff e a Din LK ZO = SS : the water to run along its upper plane until the formation somewhere comes to the surface and with it the collected water of thespring. These conditions are illustrated in the accompanying cut (fig. II), in which bc de f represents the upper fissured ''~7e ad 320 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. formations through which the rain and snow waters penetrate to the lower imper- meable strata below the line b f, necessarily gravitating to point f, where the oppor- tunity for discharging as a spring exists; a smaller spring might occur ate. Such conditions exist whére lime or dolomite rocks overlie hard sandstones, compact clay slates, or clay beds. These springs, as a rule, are much less dependent on the changes of precipitation and temperature; they are mostly continuous and even in their flow and their temperature. The third class of the running springs may properly be called ‘‘ cavern” springs, from the fact that while their waters are drained like those of the second class, they are first collected in some subterranean basins or caverns, and appear on the sur- face as overflow of these basins. In the accompanying figure (III), a b cisthe catchment basin, from which the vari- Ss ‘ y ip My : My i Yfp Z 7 A yy) ( ] l ous fissures conduct the water to A, overflowing at X into B, and from there overflowing and appearing at the surface at Y. This kind of spring is found frequently in limestone formations, and since the water _ of such often come from great distances from above their discharge at the surface, they are usually of very cold and even temperature ; they are apt to run low when the soil is frozen and when precipitation is smali, and their discharge is more or less intermittent. The obstruction of the old and opening of a new outlet by a fall of rocks at Xand Y,and the widening of a formerly insignificant fissure at z or f, may reduce the flow or stop the original spring entirely, opening a new one in an entirely different part of the locality. While we have here considered conditions under which springs are formed, there are also conditions under which their formation is excluded; such might be found in extended plains or low hill lands, with a compact, impermeable soil which may give rise to pools and morasses but not to springs. Plateaus of fissured limestone dolomites or of compact gneisses or granites may also be poor in springs, their waters sinking at once to such depths that no discharge is met in the immediate neighborhood of the catch-basin, or else shedding the water at once superficially. The object of this elementary explanation of the formation of springs is to show that geologic conditions toa large extent influence the manner in which the waters falling on a certain territory are collected and discharged or distributed in underground channels, and that, in spite of favorable forest conditions, a region may be poor in springs and without any disturbance of the forest cover a change in the run of springs may occur. The water of the springs finally flows off in open runs, brooks, rivers, and lakes to the sea. Besides, there is a certain amount of water running off the surface without first penetrating the soil or having been collected in springs ; this run-off takes place during precipita- tion and melting of snow, finding its way through smallest furrows in the soil surface, or directly over the surface and slopes in track- less courses into the open runs. These are the waters which occasion the dangerous floods, which _ fill the channels that were dry before, and give rise to so-called '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 321 torrents, to freshets, and to a great waste of available water supplies’ by the rapidity with which they are collected and carried off. - The watercourses which rely on. this source of supply must nat- urally differ from those supplied by springs in the uncertain change and fitful state of their water conditions. _ Between these two main types of ‘“‘run-off” there are intermediary types, which supply themselves by both methods in varying degree ; _ astream may begin as atorrent and later in its course find additional _ supplies from springs, or the reyerse may take place—being origi- nated by a spring it may have no other additions except from the superficial run-off. It is evident that the conditions for a superficial run-off are to be found, first, in the amount and nature of precipita- tion, and next in the soil and surface conditions. A violent rain-storm will naturally furnish more superficial run- off than when, the rain falling slowly, time is given for the soil to absorb it; a snow-cover fallen on frozen ground is apt when melt- ing to shed its water over the frozen surface without peretrating the soil. . Nature of soil and soil-cover and topography determine, with equal amounts of water to dispose of, what the nature of the run-off will be. An impermeable soil takes up sufficient water to make it plastic and then sheds all additional water superficially ; a permeable soil continues to take up water and conducts it into the depth. This dif- ference of behavior must influence and determine largely the condi- tions of any river-bed; for if it run for some distance through impermeable soil, even insignificant rain-falls will rapidly collect and swell the river, while the permeable soil would have taken up and held all or parts of the precipitation and would only gradually have given it up. Since the amount of superficial run-off is in inverse ratio to the amount drained off by springs, it follows that, where superficial drainage is the rule, the supply to springs is scanty, and vice versa. The topography determines the rapidity of run-off and of collec- tion. The more diversified the country—cut into dells, coves, rills, and furrows, steeper and less steep slopes—in the greater number of runs of unequal length is the water collected, while the less diver- - sified the contour the more water must be carried off in each run. Yet where the diversity of configuration is accompanied by steep slopes the run-off may be so rapid that the valley river is filled more rapidly than the river of the open plains country with even slopes of moderate inclination. Thus in some of the river valleys of West Virginia the water- sheds are scooped out into such an array of coves, gashes, and water- courses and minor water-sheds, and so steep and rapid in descent that, in spite of the forest cover, a rain-fall of a few days will induce _ arapid rise of the rivers, while the same amount of rain will hardly __ wet the ground in a prairie country like Iowa. As regards soil and surface conditions it is obvious that the less permeable the soil or soil-cover the less the absorptive capacity of the same, and the fewer mechanical obstructions are met the more water runs off superficially. _ _ An additional factor in determining the nature of superficial runs _ isthe amount of rock material and soil which they carry. Since this detritus is deposited wherever the velocity of the water sinks below _ that necessary to carry it, forming sand-banks and rubbish-heaps _ which obstruct and change the direction of the run, it plays quite ''’ 322 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, — an important part in shaping the bed of the river, besides influenc- 4 ing the whole system of dependent brooks and rivers. And in this the nature and shape of the detritus—whether fine sand or earth, — smaller or larger rock masses, stones, roundish, square, or flat—cause much difference ; and this in turn depends upon many conditions, — ‘geological and climatical. According to the nature of the rock from which it is derived, the — detritus appears in different shapes, which again changes in form — during its further transportation by the waters in different ways, and therefore exerts a varying influence upon the run. Thus the detritus, which appears in large plates or shales, is carried more easily than the square or round rocks; the former, even when deposited, hinders the flow of water between the plates but little, and therefore © gives less cause for stow-water than the heavy square rocks, which resist the transportation and obstruct the flow more effectually. Sand and gravel detritus is easily carried, easily accumulated, and again with a new flood easily removed; it offers, therefore, little resistance to the.flow of water, but becomes objectionable in filling ~ the lower channels of rivers, etc. Clay detritus, although easily carried, is apt to compact and cement the rock detritus together, and thus becomes one of the worst impedi- ments of water flow and is the cause of the worst dangers from flood waters. From these examples it is apparent that two rivers, although under similar conditions of rain-fall, physical conditions of soil and topog- raphy, may yet have a different behavior, according to varying char- acter of the detritus. As to the amounts and nature of precipitation we must keep in view rainy and rain-poor localities, short and insignificant rains, short but violent, long and mild, or long, plentiful rains; also peri- odical, seasonal rains and irregular rain-falls. The effect of these differences in the nature and time of occurrence of the rain-fall must naturally affect the nature of the run-off. The effect is still further complicated when the precipitation is partly snow, when not only the mass of accumulated supply but also the progress of melting determine the result of the run-off. Therefore we find based upon this one factor, namely, the nature and time of occurrence of precipitation, differences in the run-off which are dependent upon differences in climatic conditions. Thus tropical rivers show one or two regular high stages of water accord- ing to whether they have one or two rainy seasons ; in regions of equinoctial rains a spring and fall freshet is normal, while the rivers may be almost dry in summer or winter; the frequent thunder- storms in the mountains of Switzerland produce short but rapid-floods during the summer, while the fall is eciaaned by low water in the rivers. Thisclimatic difference in water-flow it is important not ~ to forget when discussing the influences which may modify the dis- charge of waters. With these premises as to the general nature and conditions of run-off we can now discuss the variable influences which may change or modify the manner of distributing the water though springs and open channels. In general, the amount of water in springs and open runs depends on the area of the catch-basin; 7. e., the area from which the precipita- tion is drained into the springs or runs, and further on the amount and frequency of the precipitation; but the manner of its disposition ''a ss *PIVISION OF FORESTRY. : 823 nd its distribution,*as we have seen, depends mainly on conditions of soil and soil-cover. oe On a given territory with given geological, topographical, and climatic conditions, the only directly variable conditions are those of the upper soil-strata and of the soil-cover. We are interested, therefore, mainly in determining not only the water capacity of soils and soil-covers, but also the intensity of their water absorption and the amounts of water which are drained through them in given times. We are interested in studying by what means the draining capacity of the soil is increased, and by what means altogether the run-off may be changed in its nature from a superficial to a subterranean one and the reverse. Unfortunately the material for the discussion of these points is still meager and unsatisfactory. : The water capacity of soils and soil-covers in general has been re- ferred to as an element of interception. With reference to the run- _ off, this capacity becomes influential in determining the manner of _ run-off. As soon as the soil-cover and the upper soil-strata are satu- rated, and especially when the latter are impermeable and the rain _ continues, either no water or only a small part gradually can find _ entrance into the soil, and the run-off becomes superficial, or, if the _ ground be not sloping, stagnant water results. For every forest there is, therefore, a time when the superficial _ run-off would be no more impeded than from an open field of similar conditions but for the retardation by the trunks, underbrush, and roots. This time, however, occurs later in the forest than on the un- forested and especially naked soil, because the water capacity of the. soil-cover as well as of the protected soil is greater than that of :the naked soil or that covered with field-crops. In addition to the experiments’in this respect cited on page 305, we give the following results of the experiments of Dr. E. Ebermayer, - which refer to the amount of water contained in a heavy loam soil under a forest of spruce twenty-five, sixty, and one hundred and twenty years old, and a naked soil at 16-inch (40 centimeters) and 32-inch (80 centimeters) depth. _ Water contents of a loamy sand; results by seasons expressed in percentages of the weight of the soil. Spruce. = Naked soil. 25 i ; fe years old 60 years old. 120 years old. _ 16 82 |Aver-| 16 | 382 ee: 16 82 re 16 32 baseet inch. | inch. | age. | inch, inch. | age- | inch. | inch.) age. | inch. inch. | age. [. ; Winter (January and Feb- | e BEN ee 6 Bie a eins isis 5 20. 23) 17.00} 18.61] 18.06] 17.76] 17.91| 19.75) 22.44) 21.09] 19.96] 24.73! 22.35 _ Spring (March to May)....| 18.62) 18.02) 18. 32! 15.29) 16,28) 15.78) 17.47) 20.83} 19.15) 20. 66} 20.51) 20.58 _ Summer (June to August).) 15.10] 16.22] 15.96) 14.42) 17.03] 15.72) 17.78; 20.90) 19.97) 19.97; 19.98] 19.97 Fall (September to No- | | WEMIDOD) oa. ee hese ce. 16.57) 17.57 me es 16.52 mm 14, 88) 19.46) 17.17) 20.04 ae 20,12 | _, These figures show that a loam soil under forest cover is apt to be drier in the depth of the root-region than in the open field, less so _ under an old and scattered growth than under a younger growth or thicket, and that at all seasons. '' 324 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. = © A repetition of these experiments, in which depths from the top. to 32 inches were included, gave during two years the following ae e water capacity, expressed in percentages of the weight — of the soil: : ; Averages of water capacity, expressed in percentages of the weight of the soil. p 2 Spruce. 3 Depth. a : 25 years | 60 years | 120 years ‘ old. old. old. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent., Per cent. 30. 93 | 29.48 40.32 | 22.33 DIO PANCHCR 5.00 025s jaseee ss a Ss ses Bcd ena eas Wits SCO sooo 55 eon es Since oe et Sees eis 19.19 18.99 19.30 | 20. 62 ee Ad Bt NCR a os og woe ee cust ese es 19. 10 16.07 18. 28 | 20. 54 RAS an) MIR Sa ENT ae ogee Sin ic was Ube bcoe le soeassdes 18. 40 16. 26 20.16 | 20.14 RIO ee OC ee a is ohn oe Son's e cist capes ose cpeecics 17.91 17 &8 21.11 20.5 PI Sooo ios is bow bcc on alesis ouido cer ceee teases 18. 65 17.30 19. 71 20. 46 Ebermayer combines the values for depths from 6 inches down to 32 inches, and then concludes that the forest soil is less moist, due to the transpiration of water by plants. This conclusion is, however, not at all warranted. For if one combines the figures found in all the strata from top to 3 inches down, they figure as follows: Spruce twenty-five years old, 24.79 per cent.; spruce sixty years old, 23.39 _per cent.; spruce one hundred and twenty years old, 30.01 per cent. ; naked soil, 22.39 per cent. Hence, take it altogether, the naked soil contains considerably less water than the forest-covered soil. ‘But the distribution of the water through the different layers of the soil is different in the two cases; the naked soil, due to rapid evaporation no doubt, contains the least amounts in its upper strata, where the forest soil with its absorp- tive cover preserves the largest amount. Measurements of the stratum from 2 to 6 inches would probably have shown the preserv- ative effect still more prominently.* Nor is the further conclusion of the eminent author warranted, that this condition of things necessarily influences the effect of forests — on springs. This is more dependent on the porosity of the soil, due to the mechanical protection which the soil-cover offers against the compacting effect of raindrops and to the numberless channels which growing and decayed roots offer to conduct the water into the depths. In regard to the water supply of springs, Ebermayer maintains that the forest reduces it more than uncultivated: naked soil but less than meadows and uncultivated fields, but that the forest has great significance for the preservation of existing springs. There- fore, extensive deforestation will result in reducing the supply to springs, because the deforested soil covers itself soon with grasses and weeds, which require more water and furnish less drain-water than the forest. * How much water the soil-cover can contain appears from the following measure- ments of Dr. Ebermayer: On the 17th of August, 1885, after rainy weather, the moss-cover in a sixty-year-old spruce growth contained 72.33 per cent. at the top; 76.64 per cent. on the lower side, and 71.67 per cent. in the humus soil beneath. After a rain-storm lasting one and a-half days, on September 9, 1885, the moss- cover contained 80.45 per cent. at the top; 74.61 per cent. on the lower side, and 74.42 per cent. in the top soil. ’ '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. : 825 _ Of still more importance for the run-off than the water capacity is the water conductivity of the soil, or, as I should call it, the intens- ity of water absorption. The rapidity with which the water is conducted from above down- ward must necessarily influence the nature of the run-off. Gravity tends to drain the water downward, capillarity to carry it upward; the difference of these two forces in the main must, besides the mechanical obstructions of the soil particles, determine the ra- pidity of drainage. Experiments to establish the rate under various conditions are very few and eeeaiery- The capillary conduction from below has frequently been made the subject of investigation, but the downward movement has not yet been studied with sufficient detail, and it has hardly yet been recognized by the experimenters that this depends upon the difference of gravity and capillarity as two opposed forces. Accorning to E. Wollny’s experiments in 1883 and 1884— (1) Water is conducted downwards the more rapidly the larger the soil particles (i. e., the less capillary attraction exists). (2) The non-capillary interstices of the soil accelerate the downward movement of the water (7. e., the less mechanical obstruction of soil particles). (83) In granular soil the water penetrates faster than in powdery soil (7. e., pene- tration is the slower the denser the stratification). It is most rapid in quartz and slowest in clay; in humus at a rate between these two, but in a mixture of clay soil and humus faster than the average of the two. (4) The,rapidity of drainage in a granular soil is independent of the size of the raln. . The experiments were made with soils of varying grain in tubes 110 centimeters deep, the water dropping on top constantly; the results are exhibited in the follow- ing two tables: Water conductivity in soil with varying size of grain. Water sank to a depth of— Soils. | | After 5 | After 10 After 15 | After 25 | After 45 | After 65 | Af er 120 minutes. | minutes. | minutes. | minutes. | minutes. | minutes. | minutes. | | In soil of grain: Cm. Cm. Cm Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. 0.01 to 0.071 millimeters ... 8.8 12.8 16.2 21.3 30.0 36.7 52.0 0.071 to 0.114 millimeters. .. 18.0 7.0 37.0 52.5 79.0 108; 05) 05.c5 seen 0.114 to 0.175 millimeters .. 28.3 48.0 65.0 06:0: | sccss ccd shee tovcteae pee ueee 0.175 to 0.2 millimeters. .... 45.0 82.0 WOO) is. Ras ck beak Mee ees awe ee 0.25 to 0.50 millimeters..... B40 ose cacieala:ss wpa e te oaey ee apie learn gaa sot epee ca kgalevieeaeane Mixture of various grains. 11.0 19.0 24.5 33. 2 50.8 65.5 106.0 Water conductivity in granular soils. Water sank to a depth of— Soils. Afterone-| After1 | After3 | After 4 | After 23} After 59 halfhour.| hour. hours. hours, hours. hours. Loam powder: Cm. Om. Cm. Cm. Cr ; Oto 0; 25 millimeters joc essoes costs 9.0 12.1 20.2 23.4 57.4 - 97.6 0.5 to 1.0 millimeters....... sale slew en ee 18.8 32.1 82.4 100, 0: ) ui. ccree ems olan onsets Loam granules: bcc tO) 2 WMMINOLETS. .2 ..c0e vase eseee ys 19.0 82. 2 83.1 100: 0° |occesseetsl wave ce tee 2 to 4 millimeters .... 19.3 32.0 81.5 100.0: | eect apes teas ce ee 4 to 6.75 millimeters. . 18.8 30.4 [7.5 99. 6: scseeeua teres ose: 6.75 to 9 millimeters. . Sigs 18.5 31.0 80.5 OOO aaceks cele wees IME LIEO sc Sisecears sin ieee pics se saints soe 4.0 8.0 1350: 19.5 100.0 According to Fesca the downward movement proceeds quickest in a dry dust, only slowly in clay soils; the same amount of water being drained through the former in one hour which it took two days to drain through the latter. ''826 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. The influence of a soil-cover on the condition of soils was investi- gated directly by Wollny; he comes to the result that vegetation and cover with dead material (straw, litter, etc.) tend to preserve the loose granular structure of the soil. Now, since the forest cover has a tendency to preserve the granular porous structure of the soil, which is favorable to filtration, and as moreover the roots furnish channels for unimpeded drainage, it must have the tendency, other things being equal, to allow a more rapid filtration than the naked, mostly compacted soil. The tem- perature too appears to have an influence favorable to rapid filtration in the forest, for, according to Pfaff, in the field during winter three- quarters of the precipitation will sink to 2 feet depth in the soil, and not more than 10 to 30 per cent. in summer. Unless, therefore, the forest cover itself had a tendency to retard penetration, which we will see is not the case, the influence of the forest upon the intensity of water absorption would be in the direc- tion of diminishing superficial flow. This factor is of the utmost importance in the discussion of the causes of floods. Without a consideration of the water capacity, and still more of the intensity of water absorption, it will never be possi- ble to draw conclusions as to probable floods from the amount of pre- cipitation alone. The influence of various soil conditions and soil-covers upon the amount of water that will filter through has been investigated by Wollny and Ebermayer in an ex- tended series of experiments. Experiments of this kind which will yield results applicable to natural conditions are exceedingly difficult to arrange, and require not only many precautions but must be continued for a long time before generalizations can be attempted. One of Wollny’s series of experiments attempted to show the influence upon filtration of a grass-cover on different soils. The results calculated for an acre are as follows: Amount of filtration. Kinds of soil. Fallow | Grass field. covered. Pounds. | Pounds. Calcareous sand with humus 1,593,216 | 782,334 Quartz sand* ..... racemase es se 044,250 | 661,548 er ore ons sie sce anccwanes scenes > Veetesask Scce oe sepeees 1,529, 671 | 59, 105 oss oo so nc once duicaog 6 oon esse ce tees wec so sue scenes 2, 048, 124 405, 162 *From May to November. The grass-cover, therefore, reduced considerably (by 50 per cent. and more) the percolation of water. Ebermayer experimented with boxes 43 square feet surface © (4 square meters) and 4 feet deep, filled with fine garden soil, leaving one bare, cov- ering another with moss and two others each planted with six-year old plants of beech and of spruce, with the following results arranged according to seasons: Filtration water in height— ME snc Rain. | Under | Under | Under | Naked beech. | spruce. | moss. soil. 1886. Se _ — rus = = BC 00 AY ooo ice cnc si pe ccee nce i cvsansse 156. 12. 65 . 5 93. June to hao eee ar, eee cides sce csce 560. 22 15.89 12.09 31.60 26.13 September to November ..............cccccccece-e- 114.45 1.12 0.76 tcl 3.27 December to February ..........sssseeseeeseeeeees 126. 30 9.73 5.98 11.40 | 9.08 DNQUAN eo Soca Cs cs oe as Se Sconce wes Sauls es 957. 95 39.39 29.35 67.13 49.41 1887. : Miwon tO Mayo ooo. 5 SO SS esa cawacaaecceeesses 219. 20 10. 61 5.05 14.40 9.97 PARTIED SO PABOUSG = casos Coc oa Pee o cee eee ease Ses « 210.60 2.50 1.49 13.00 3.91 '' DIVISION OF FORESTRY. Seo In these experiments it is remarkable how small a percentage of the rain-fall was filtered through, which would lead us to look at the results with caution, namely: Of the total rain-fall was filtered— 1886. 1887. x Per ahah Per ee By soil covered with MOSS. ..... cee ccccecce coscetecccscecscssecvsessevcess oer 6. By ROU TAKE 22 3226 6050s ee ee ne ae eek ies Siecwees Sst ies ck G1 3.5 By, soil covered with beech Srowbhe 2 cs csek secs sees cease pews secu) seles savics 4.1 2.9 By. soil covered with spruce growth se: =o cs) tw csw ees cee secbtscs av ervceesieses sci 3 1.5 In regard to the amount of filtration which various soil-covers allow, we have ~ the following very instructive results from the experiments of Wollny, in which the amounts of rain and corresponding filtration on 62 square inches surface are given: May to September, | April to September 1886 — total rain 1887—total rain-fall 28,529 grams. 18,652 grams. Per cent. Per cent. Amount, |‘of rain. | Amount, of rain- grams. fall. grams. fall. Oak leaves: D:COUUMMECLONS 52 ascs6 swears vise 6 ous howls oCaae ae eee ee "17,591 61.7 7,894 42.3 10 centimeters ....... 19, 482 68.3 7, 353 39.4 20 centimeters ........ 21, 160 74.1 12, 954 69.4 30 centimeters ..... 21, 061 73.8 18, 272 171.2 Spruce litter: i) COMMIMGLCIS = Mic Fs0s oS eie sso ccc aces tsseerweteee te 17,793 62,4 8, 653 46.4 AO COWULIMOPODR isis tie ois aa ats ative cote specie Coy ee ees A9, 277 67.5 | 7, 356 39.4 Par CRMUATIMOUOTR 51s FESS SES Ol s dasa Saliee teh eee 19, 523 68.3 14, 611 78.3 SU CORDUMIGLCIS) costs oes clea Peas oebitee bebo oe pure eee 19, 467 68. 2 18, 912 74.6 Pine needles: OO Genbimeters: 2650. 62 ee 8 is fade ection wade sow suaees 19, 734 69.2 9, 784 52.4 Moss: S COMMMECUCIS 22.055 se occ beeen ee ee 14, 993 52.5 7, 260 ~ 38.9 Bare soil: OO CONLIMELOTS 526 osis canes ieee cow aieesiete ccc) Setes ce ee 11,610 40.7 3, 636 19.5 These figures show that a litter will filter considerably larger amounts of water than a soaked soil of the same depth, and that the moss cover allows less water to filter than the litter. This is accounted for by the soil needing a larger amount of water to supply the moisture evaporated than the litter which remains moist. Notable is the influence which the thickness of the cover exerts upon the amounts of drain water and also the relation of the amount of precipitation to the amount of filtration. It will be noticed that with a thicker cover to 1 foot in depth (30 centimeters) the amount of precipitation hardly changes the amount of drain water, while the lighter covers have much less power to preserve a small precipitation, for of course the amounts not drained are evaporated. We come then to the conclusion that a forest floor, although re- taining much of the water in its upper strata, renders the soil more permeable and therefore allows less water to run off superficially. With regard to the superficial run-off, without any evidence fur- nished by experiments, we can at once understand that it is impeded by any kind of mechanical obstruction, such as is offered by the vegetation of a meadow or of a forest. The great number of inequalities which the forest floor offers in addition to the trunks and stumps and fallen trees subjects the run- off to many detours; thus retarding its flow and its collection in the open runs and brooks. This retardation is increased by the mechan- ical obstruction which the crowns of the trees exert upon the rain- fall. Every leaf, every twig breaks the force and retards the fall of ''328 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. the raindrops, allowing those fallen before to penetrate the soil. And although, as we have seen, the amount of water which is thus lost to _ the soil is by no means as large as has been believed (see p. 305), — the devious waysin which it reaches the soil makes the flow of water from a forest-covered hill longer in time than if the rain had fallen on a bare slope. This mechanical effect is further favorable to the penetration of water into the soil, as it prevents the rain from compacting the soil; preserving thereby the mellow condition of the soil, which is de- stroyed on the open field by the force of the raindrops. It also al- lows more time for the absorption of water by the soil. There is, in fact, no influence of the forest of more moment in the distribution of the available water supplies than the mechanical re- tardation of the “run-off,” while in the conservation of supplies the retarding influence upon évaporation is the potent one. There occurs, to be sure, as the result of long-continued precipita- tion, a stage when the run-off is hardly more impeded by the forest than it would be under the same conditions by an unforested slope, but this stage occurs in the forest later than on unforested soil and later still than on naked soil. Still more effectual and beyond all dispute is the office of a forest cover in averting or diminishing the torrential action of water in carrying and depositing the debris or detritus in its course, and, as we have seen, the detritus affects the nature of the run-off consid- erably, narrowing the channels, filling the river beds, causing stow- age and floods in the mountain valleys and upper river systems. - The history of the mountain torrents in southern France has roved, if proof were needed, not only the effects of deforestation, but also that reforestation of the denuded hills is the only proper remedy for the regulation of these torrents. We can not go into the discussion here of the effect which the for- est influence upon the head-waters causes in the water conditions of the rivers, since it can not be done briefly, local and purely meteor- ological conditions giving rise to many differences. I can point out only a few considerations affecting this discus- sion, which are apt to be overlooked. In dry times the retention of the waters by the forest may affect the river flow unfavorably, although for a time the protection which it furnishes against evaporation may keep up the supply more contin- uously. Whether this conservative effect outbalances the former retentive one depends on local conditions. During ordinary rainy seasons, without excessive rain-falls this effect of a forest cover will act as a regulator of the run-off, and therefore of the river flow. In seasons of abnormal rain-falls the regime of rivers will show different behavior in different parts, according to differences of con- dition at the head-waters, the middle, and the lower course. The first cause of abnormal floods is the occurrence of abnormal rain-falls or the sudden thawing of abnormal masses of snow. If ~ the former occur after the soil has been saturated, or the latter when the soil remains frozen, the forest cover will be powerless to influ- ence the run-off and will shed the water as rapidly almost as the open ground, although even the brief retardation of the confluence of water masses which the obstacles of a forest growth cause, may, under certain circumstances, become important. But in its further cotrse the drainage of this water, collected in the runs, is favorably influenced by the presence of the forest, it hav- “ x ''DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 829 ing prevented the formation and deposition of detritus in the river bed. In the main river, which consists of the confluence of many affluents, the effect of flood waters depends almost entirely upon the compara- tive lengths of the affluents, or rather on the simultaneous or non- simultaneous arrival of the flood waters. A deforestation in one of the side valleys may, therefore, be an advantage or it may be a dis- advantage, while a retardation of the total flood, which can only be for a few hours, would be of no account in the main river. An interesting note as to the amount of retardation which may be produced by the artificial means employed in the French Alps for regulation of water-flow, namely, forest-planting in connection with overflow dams, is given in M. Mathieu’s work on ‘‘ Reboisement in France.” The two basins of Faucon and Bourget were visited by a terrible downpour of rain of twenty-five minutes’ duration. In the upper mountains there fell 42 millimeters, in the lower regions 12.3. The torrent of Faucon (which was in a devastated, deforested condition, but otherwise topographically similar to that of Bourget) was at once filled with flood waters which were estimated to consist of 60,000 cubic meters of water and 180,000 cubic meters of rock material or detritus, the flood subsiding in two hours. In the torrent of Bourget, which had been reforested and corrected in its bed, a simple, somewhat turbulent run of water was observed, which at the overflow reached the height of 45 centimeters (18 inches) and lasted about three hours. The report continues: These facts show the importance of the forest cover. Thanks to the dense forest growth planted, the flood waters, divided in numberless runs and retarded con- stantly in their movement over the declivities in the upper basin, arrive only suc- cessively and little by little in the main bed, instead of those formidable masses of water and débris which rapidly agglomerated rush into the channel; the brooks called to replace the torrents receive only pure water; flood waters flowing off gradually and made harmless by the regulation of the torrent bed and of the slopes. The beneficial influence of the forest in case of abnormal floods can then probably be claimed only in so far as it protects the slopes against abrasion and the formation of debris or detritus with which the upper head-waters are filled, and which carried down. into the rivers give rise to sand-banks and changes in the river-bed which may affect the next flood. We may now attempt to summarize briefly what can be said of the influence which a forest cover may be expected to exert upon the distribution of available water supply or the run-off. In regard to springs.—The moss or litter of the forest floor retains a large part of the precipitation and prevents its filtration to the soil, - and thus may diminish the supply to springs. This is especially pos- sible with small precipitations. Of copious rains and large amounts of snow water, quantities, greater or less, penetrate to the soil, and according to its nature into lower strata and to springs. This drainage . is facilitated not only by the numerous channels furnished by dead and living roots, but also by the influence of the forest cover in pre- serving the loose and porous structure of the soil. Although the quantity of water offered for drainage on naked soil is larger, and although a large quantity is utilized by the trees in the process of growth, yet the influence of the soil-cover in retarding _ '' 830 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. evaporation is liable to offset this loss as long as the soil-cover is not itself dried out. The forest then may not permit larger quantities of water to drain off underground and in springs, but it can influence their constancy and equable flow by preventing loss from evaporation. In regard to surface run-off.—Small precipitations are apt to be prevented from running off superficially through absorption by the forest floor; on larger falls of rain topographical and soil conditions have eventually more influence in this respect than the forest floor; regions with steep declivities and impermeable soil will shed the waters superficially in spite of and over the forest floor as soon as the latter is saturated. The influence of the forest on such waters is to retard their move- ment over the surface and to prevent their rapid collection into runs. By preventing the formation of detritus and carrying off debris, the disturbances in the open runs below are prevented or abated. Upon the water flow of rivers and streams which move outside these mountain valleys with lesser grades the forest along their banks has but little influence; but at the headwaters the influence may be considerable by retarding the collection and arrival of waters » in the main river-bed, and thus reducing the danger of the flood. B. E. FERNOW. '' '' '' '' '' \ 314 BOTANICAL GAZETTE, [Nov ‘| From the BoraNicaL GAZETTE, Vol. xi, No. 11.] Some additions to the Sylva of North America.—During the month of April of this year I was able, in company with Messrs. C. G. Faxon and A. H. Curtiss, to make a somewhat detailed examination of the trees of the semi- tropical Florida region, among which should now be included: Myginda integrifolia Lam. (M? latifolia Chapman, Flora, not Swartz), a peculiar plant, not rare in the West Indies, and, although early collected upon Key West in a shrubby state, often confounded in American collections with M. latifolia and M. pallens; referred to! Nex by Kunth, and on account of its di- cecious flowers and suspended ovules made by Grisebach (Cat. Plant. Cub. p. 15) the type of his section Gyminda of the genus Myginda. Myginda integrifolia is truly arborescent upon Key West, reaching a height of 20 to 25 feet, with a straight slender trunk, not rarely six inches in diameter. It may be distin- guished from the other North American species of the genus by its entire obo- vate leaves, rounded or often deeply emarginate at the apex, revolute, pale yel- low-green in color; its wide-spreading axillary and terminal cymes, diccious flowers, the staminate with long erect filaments (those of M. pallens become re- flexed between the petals upon the expansion of the flowers) surrounding a deeply-cleit pistillate process, the pistillate flower with two-lobed sessile stigmas with a single suspended anatropous ovule in each cell, and by its small dark blue or black ovoid drupe, the large embryo surrounded with a thin covering of albumen. Terminalis Buceras Bentham & Hooker (Bucida Buceras L.). This well- known West Indian tree was first seen in the U. 8. by Mr. Curtiss. It is com- mon in the hummocks, near a Mr. Farley’s house, towards the east end of Ell- iott’s Key, where we found it in full bloom on the 19th of April. It is here a fine tree, sometimes 50 feet in height, with a trunk 12 to 18 inches in diameter, these tall, upright stems often springing from stout, short, prostrate trunks two to three feet in diameter. The wood is heavy, hard and moderately close- grained, but probably of little value except for fuel. PsEuDoPHaNIXx Sarcentit H. Wendland (in lit.) Dr. Wendland proposes provisionally to establish a new genus in Chamedorie, to receive an arborescent Palm, also detected by us near the eastern end of Elliott’s Key, with abruptly pinnate leaves four to five feet long, the pinne lanceolate acuminate 12 to 16 inches long, bright green above, glaucous beneath; branching interfoliaceus spadix 36 inches long by 30 inches wide, the main and secondary branches very light yellow-green, flattened and the latter thickened at the base, espe- cially on the upper side, with an ear-shaped process, and with three-lobed three- seeded fruit or often one or two-lobed by abortion, one- half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter, in April bright orange or red, fleshy and very conspicuous. Unfortunately neither flowers nor mature fruit could be found, so that Dr. Wend- land, to whom specimens were submitted, is unable to characterize the interest- ing addition to the North American sylva. The Pseudophenix is a tree with the general habit and appearance of Oreodoxa, 20 to 25 feet in height, with a trunk 10 to 12 inches in diameter. Six individuals only, in two localities, two or three miles apart, were found. Ea SIE Ee POR Ee ae '' 1886.] ‘BOTANICAL GAZETTE. 3 It is perhaps worthy of remark that upon the island of Key West, which is less than four miles long by about three-quarters of a mile wide, there are growing at the sea level 41 indigenous arborescent species, a greater number no doubt than can be found in any other area of similar extent in the United States. Lysiloma latisiliqua, Colubrina reclinata, now the rarest of the Florida trees, and Clusia flava, not rediscovered in Florida during the last 40 years, and probably not now growing naturally in the United States, although found on Key West, according to Nuttall, in Dr. Blodgett’s time, have now disappeared from the island ; and it is not improbable that other species, which now flour- ish upon the adjacent islands, have been exterminated from Key West in the general cutting of the woods which is continually going on there.—C. S. Sar- GENT. x '' A * ‘s z 294 (Reprinted from BULLETIN OF THE TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB, Vol. XVI., No. 11.) Pinus Banksiana on the Coast of Maine. By Epwarp L. RAND. This peculiarly northern species has its province thus de- fined in Professor Sargent’s Report on the Forests of North America; ‘“ Bay of Chaleur, New Brunswick, to the southern shores of Hudson’s Bay, northwest to the Great Bear Lake, the valley of the Mackenzie River, and the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains between the fifty-second and sixty-fifth de- grees of north latitude; south to northern Maine, Ferrisburg, Vt., the southern shores of Lake Michigan and central Minne- sota.” Gray’s Manual credits it to ““N. Maine, N. Michigan and Wisconsin, and northward.” In August, 1882, Mr. Frank M. Day, of Philadelphia, showed me an undoubted specimen of this pine which he had found on the summit of Schoodic Mountain, in the town of Gouldsboro, on the eastern side of Frenchman’s Bay, a point far to the south of its hitherto accredited province.* Some years passed before it was convenient to gratify my desire of visiting this locality, but in August, 1885, in company with President Eliot of Harvard University, his son, Mr. Charles Eliot, and other friends, I was enabled to accomplish my wish. Landing at a little cove a short distance south of Winter Harbor, Schoodic Mountain lay a mile or more south of us, across a low, thinly wooded, somewhat boggy plain. Wood paths led towards the mountain down along the west coast of Schoodic Peninsula, through groves of spruce. Following one of these paths for about half a mile, we suddenly came upon the object of our search, before reaching the mountain. It was a straight hand- some tree of at least twenty feet in height, easily recognized by its peculiar dark green, short foliage, and its abundant curved cones. Other trees were Soon seen, both large and small, show- ing that this pine is not limited to the mountain, but might con- fidently be expected over the entire peninsula. Proceeding to- wards the mountain we saw here and there more of it. Crossing a well traveled wood road which apparently traverses the penin- *The locality at Ferrisburg, Vt., quoted by Professor Sargent above, on the authority of R. E. Robinson, is equally exceptional being in about the same lati- tude as Schoodic Peninsula. It is well here to add that I have been informed that there is a single tree of Pinus Banksiana at Bucksport, Me., on Penobscot River, a few miles below Bangor. I have never verified this statement, however, '' 295 sula we reached the gentle northern slope of Schoodic Mountain. Its summit is very similar to the summits of Mt. Desert moun- tains,—bare rock with thickets of alder, Viburnum cassinoides and red oak,—but where I should have looked for dwarfed spruces or for Pinus rigida,1 found Pinus Banksiana instead. Strange, weather-beaten, dwarfed shrubs they were, twisted into many a fantastic shape along the wind-swept summit, and very different from the handsome trees we had seen below. Descend- ing the western cliffs of the mountain we returned to our starting point by a wood path running near the western coast, and here we saw very little of the Pzwus Banksiana, showing that it is more abundant towards the eastward in the interior of the peninsula. This unreported coast station of Pzuus Banksiana, so much farther south than hitherto known, has always had great interest for me in connection with the studies upon the flora of Mt. Des- sert in which I have for many years been engaged. The locality is separated from Mt. Desert Island by a bay not over five miles in width, yet up to the present time no observer has seen even a single tree of Pzxus Bankstana upon that island. Pinus Banksiana with Corema Conradii. By. JoHN H. REDFIELD. When Mr. Rand a year or two ago mentioned to me the ex- istence of Pzxus Bankstana upon Schoodic Peninsula, I was very desirous to visit the locality, and on the 24th August last I was enabled to do so in company with Mr. Theodore D. White, a member of the Agassiz Club of New York. At that time I had not the benefit of Mr. Rand’s notes as given above, and ignorant of the topography, we were obliged to make our search very much at random. From Winter Harbor we drove by the road which crosses to the eas/ern side of the peninsula and then turns southerly till it terminates in a farm. Long before reaching this terminus we passed through a forest composed almost exclusively of Pinus Banksiana, the trees reaching to the height of at least twenty or thirty feet. Occasionally a spruce or arbor vitae appeared Nore.—Since the above was written I have received a letter from Mr. Day, cor- recting mein oneimportant particular Hestatesthat his specimen of Pzzus Bank- siana came from Prospect Harbor, Goldsboro, a station lying on the eastern shore of the Schoodic Peninsula, not on the western shore where I found this pine. My discovery of it both there and on Schoodic Mountain appears, therefore, to have been the fortunate result of a misunderstanding. Mr. Day’s station was evidently somewhere north of the station discovered by Mr. Redfield. '' 296 but for the most part this pine seemed to have displaced the usual coniferous growth of the Maine coast. Its very short leaves give the tree somewhat the aspect of a spruce, but its less conical form, and the bunching of the leaves towards the extremity of the twigs, after the usual manner of pines, render it easy to recognize even at a distance. We continued to see more or less of this pine, until our road brought us out of the woods. An attempt to fol- low a wood path to the summit of Schoodic Mountain was frus- trated by want of time. But Mr. Rand’s article above shows that our two separate visits covered both sides of the peninsula as well as the mountain itself (427 feet in height). We may therefore safely conclude that this peculiar species abounds over the whole peninsula. The locality is the most southern one on record, being in latitude about 44° 20’. Mr. Lindsay, an intel- ligent resident of the vicinity, told me that he knew of its existence at intervals to a distance of at least twenty-five miles northward. It would be interesting to know what degree of continuity there may be between these localities, and the larger areas in northern Maine. While gazing at the trees of Pinus Bankstana we were sur- prised at finding ourselves in the midst of a remarkable station of Corema Conradit. This plant was growing most abundantly in the open, rocky glades among the pines, and seemed to cover every spot where there was sufficient earth to support it. One of these glades was about 250 feet in length by 125 feet in width, and another of nearly equal extent was also covered more or less with patches of Corema, and probably we did not see its utmost limits. Wherever the glades were closed by a more compact growth of pines the Corema disappeared, and was replaced mostly by Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum In the localities of Corema farther west and south which I have seen, the accompanying tree growth has usually been of Prunus rigida, but evidently this little shrub is equally athome with Pimus Banksiana.* *I may here state that Mr, T. G. White has recently found Corema upon the summit of Mt. Batty, near Camden, Me., where Prof. Chickering saw it in 1859 and 1860, and where it eluded my searchin 1885. Three new localities have been re- vealed upon Mt. Desert I.; one upon Beech Mountain, where it has been seen by Mr. Rand; another near Ship Harbor, east of Bass Harbor, seen by Mrs. Annie S. Downs ; and the third upon Beech Cliff, east of the locality first named, seen there by Mrs. L. R. Boggs. The locality on Beech Mountain is especially inter- esting, as the mountain is rarely visited by anyone. '' '' '' '' p gs Mb, de Selys. Longehamps (Extrait des Bulletins de la Société royale de Botanique de Belgique , tome HI, no 1. — Séance du 2% avril 1864.) Broxecres, mpr. ve M, Hayez. '' '' NOTE SUR Une variété pyramidale du Porutus vircintana Desf. (P. monilifera Ayt.) Dans la province de Liége le Populus virginiana de Des- fontaines (P. monilifera Ayton) a été introduit au commen- cement de ce siécle et a fait depuis Pobjet de plantations de plus en plus considérables. [I y est désigné sous le nom de peuplier du Canada, mais cette dénomination, la seule adoptée par les planteurs et par les marchands de bois, est erronée, car lespéce aujourd’hui si répandue, et que lon multiplie par boutures, n’appartient pas au P. canadensis de Desfontaines. Notre peuplier est assez généralement connu en France sous le nom de P. suisse, appellation bien plus inexacte encore que celle que nos compatriotes lui donnent. On remarque que les deux espéces virginiana et cana- densis sont souvent mélangées dans les plantations des environs de Paris; mais chez nous je crois que si le vrai canadensis existe il doit étre rare,-attendu que je ne Vai ''(a) jamais observé, et que personne ne m’a dit connaitre deux espéces ou races de peupliers du Canada employés dans les plantations. La croissance de cet arbre est fort rapide dans les bons terrains frais et fertiles, notamment dans les prés humides de la Hesbaye. La, on calcule qu’un canada agé de vingt- cing ans peut se vendre de trente a trente-cing francs. A Yage de trente-cing 4 quarante ans, qui semble le plus pro- fitable pour la coupe des peupliers de bonne venue, ils valent de cinquante 4 soixante francs. De grands exem- plaires plantés par mon pére au commencement du siécle a Longchamps prés de Waremme et atteignant, a l’age de soixante ans, une hauteur de trente-cing métres avec trois et demi de circonférence au pied, se sont vendus jusqu’a cent soixante franes (1). L’un des plus beaux en Belgique et sans doute l'un des plus anciens, planté probablement vers 1785, se trouve placé au coin du Pare de Bruxelles vers la Place Royale. Il a quatre metres trente centimetres de circonférence 4 un métre du sol. Mais le canada ne convient pas pour étre planté dans un sol sec, et encore moins dans les localités stériles, rocail- leuses ou schisteuses qui abondent sur la rive droite de la Meuse. La sa croissance se ralentit de bonne heure et le rapport pour la vente est mauvais. Cet arbre est Join d’étre inoffensif pour son voisinage. Ecoutant enfin les plaintes des cultivateurs, le gouverne- (1) Les trois exemplaires que je conserve mesurent respectivement, a un métre du sol, 57,52, 35,55 et 5™70. Trois Populus alba de la méme localité, agés de cent ans, mesurent 5™,20 , 5™,50 et 5",56, Cest a peu pres la méme dimension. On m’a offert deux cent cinquante frances pour chacun de ces Populus alba. s '' (o> se ment a sagement renoncé a en planter lelong des routes car ses racines s’étendent fort loin, appauvrissent Te sol et ses feuilles saturées de baume populeum sont nuisibles aux champs cultivés et aux prés. Nous conseillons donc de restreindre la plantation aux prairies grasses qui longent les chemins, et au bord des fossés dans les prés humides, oi, tout en consolidant le sol, le peuplier lui enléve ’excés d’humidité. Dans ces conditions il n’est pas nuisible et produit un brillant re- venu. A Liége, il se fait une énorme consommation de plan- ches de canada pour les usages communs et pour les caisses dans lesquelles on expédie les armes. C’est aussi le bois que l’on emploie généralement pour les toitures, mais au bout d’un certain nombre d’années les clous des ardoises doivent y étre assez mal assurés, quoique ces planches soient supérieures a celles du peuplier d’Italie, étant beau- coup moins sujettes 4 étre attaquées par les vers. La con- sistance du bois devient, du reste, meilleure chez les canadas dun 4ge un peu avancée. On me pardonnera, jose l’espérer, ce long préambule, parce qu’habitant une province ot le peuplier du Canada constitue en grande majorité la plantation des arbres en ligne, j'ai cru qu'il y avait quelque intérét 4 exposer d’une maniére générale les résultats qu'il m’a été permis de con- slater. Jarrive enfin a Pobjet spécial de ma communication. Parmi les nombreuses plantations de peupliers du Ca- nada (P. virginiana), que mon pére avait faites aux envi- rons de Waremme, il s’en trouvait une datant de 1818, et qui contenait deux arbres d’un aspect tout différent, et tellement semblable 4 celui du peuplier d’Italie (P. pyra- i: ee : ey i 4S % wa WS Lea LY ‘ PVs oar Lib & y ig C zy we a ''(6) midalis Roz. fastigiata Persoon) par le port et la direction des branches et des rameaux , qu’au premier abord on ne les en distingue pas. Cependant le chef ouvrier qui les avait plantés sous Ja direction de mon pére, et qui les avait soignés depuis cette époque ne s’y était point trompé; il me les fit souvent re- marquer comme étant, disait-il, des canadas d'une autre espéce. Ces deux arbres qui sont des pieds males different du peuplier d’[talie par les points suivants : 1° Les rameaux des jeunes pousses anguleuz ; 2° Les bourgeons plus gros, plus visqueux; 3° Les feuilles plus grandes, moins en lozange, peu lustrées; 4° La couleur gris clair de l’écorce chez les jeunes su- jets, le trone des vieux plus arrondi prés du sol; 5° L’époque beaucoup plus tardive de la floraison et de la feuillaison ; 6° Les chatons males. Tous ces caractéres chez nos deux pieds se rapprochent de ce qui existe chez les canadas (P. virginiana ou moni- lifera) plantés avec eux: Ils s’en séparent seulement par le caractére doffrir un port aussi pyramidal que chez le P. d'Italie. Quoique plantés a la méme époque et a la méme distance Pun de l’autre que les soixante canadas de la méme prairie, ils n’ont pas atteint un diamétre aussi considérable, bien que leur élévation soit la méme; (a un métre du sol, ils n’ont Pun que 1",80, l'autre que 1",60 de circonférence). J’ignore quelle est la véritable origme des deux pieds que je signale. Ils ont été recus, en 1818, avec des virgi- niana provenant d'une pépiniére de Bernissem prés de Saint-Trond, et étaient évidemment des boutures. '' oo . Notre collégue le professeur Wesmael (Alf.), auteur de la Monographie botanique horticole des peupliers cullivés en Belgique, me fait observer qu’on ne peut guére admettre que des arbres changent de port 4 ce point, étant multipliés de bouture, ce qui le porte 4 croire qu’ils ont d’abord été ob- tenus de semis. Jai eu soin (examiner la végétation de ces arbres pen- dant le printemps de 1865. Il suffisait de les voir 4 distance au moment du développement des chatons et de la pousse de feuilles et de les comparer aux P. d’[talie et du Canada qui croissent aux environs, pour reconnaitre sans la moin- dre hésitation que ces deux phases périodiques de la vie végétale se font chez eux au méme moment et avec les mémes apparences que chez le monilifera, connu chez nous sous Je nom de peuplicr du Canada. Si, comme j’en ai la conviction , nos arbres n’en forment qu'une variété, je propose de les désigner sous le nom de P, monilifera var. erecta. Nos peupliers seraient au Populus monilifera, ce que le P. pyramidalis est aux yeux des personnes qui ne consi- dérent ce dernier que comme une variété pyramidale du Populus nigra. N’ayant nullement la prétention de me donner pour bo- taniste, je me hate de prévenir que si j’assimile au moni- lifera les peupliers pyramidaux que j’ai décrits, c’est en me reposant sur l’opinion conforme de plusieurs botanistes et pépiniéristes. Cette race, si elle se conserve, offrira une certaine utilité en dehors de son intérét comme variété nouvelle : en effet, le monilifera type est @une forme peu ornementale, et par sa téte trés-élargie, il couvre dune ombre nuisible une grande étendue de terrain. Le peuplier d’Ttalie au con- ''(8) traire est recherché comme arbre élégant et nuil peu par son ombre restreinte , mais la qualité de son bois est infé- rieure et l’arbre dépérit fréquemment dans les lieux hu- mides de la Hesbaye ot prospére le monilifera. Souvent méme ses rameaux gélent en Belgique, probablement 4 cause de sa feuillaison précoce, ce qui cette année a encore eu lieu. D’aprés ces considérations , on regardera comme avantageux de posséder un peuplier qui réunisse la rusti- cité, la croissance rapide et le bois passable du canada, et qui y joigne l’élégance des formes et l’absence d’ombre nuisible du peuplier d’Italie. J'ai prévenu plus haut que la grosseur du tronc des deux sujets est moindre que chez les canadas plantés en méme temps; mais nos pyramidaux peuvent étre plantés a une distance bien plus rapprochée les uns des autres, a cause de la forme de leur téte non élargie. Longchamps sur Geer prés de Waremme, avril 1864. EXPLIGATION DE LA PLANCHE. PoPULUS MONILIFERA var. erecta. D’aprés une photographie prise le 5 mai 1864. Nota. — Il est & remarquer qu’A cette époque ies peupliers d’Italie portaient déja leurs feuilles, tandis que les canadas (P. monilifera) en étaient dépourvus. Aujourd’hui (20 mai), ces derniers, de méme que notre arbre nouveau, n’ont encore qu’une feuillaison trés-incompleéte, qui ne sera pas parfaite avant Je 25 mai. '' '' '' '' '' '' ''x M ORE ESPECIALLY RELATING TO + / FL. OLMSTED ano J. B. HARRISON, a BOSTON: __T. R. MARVIN & SON, PRINTERS, '' ''MORE ESPECIALLY RELATING TO THE USE OF THe By P.-L, ORM St Bae Landscape Architect. AND J. B. HARRISON, Corresponding Secretary American Forestry Congress. _ BOSTON: MARVIN & SON, PRINTERS, 1889. ''Improvement Association, the Torrey Botanical Club, the Park Commissioners of New York and others interested, in relation to the treatment of public plantations. - Your obedient servants, FREDERICK LAW OLMSTED, Landscape Architect. J. B. HARRISON, Cor. Sec. Amer. Forestry Congress. a 30th AprRIL, 1889. '' OBSERVATIONS ON THE TREATMENT OF Pustic PLANTATIONS. MORE ESPECIALLY RELATING TO THE USE OF PRE AXE: Ir has been said of our old frontier settlers that they seemed to bear a grudge against trees, and to be engaged in a constant indiscriminate warfare with them. If this were so a strong reaction has since set in, of which a notable manifestation appears in the fact that with regard to no other matter pertaining to the public grounds of our cities has pub- lic interest taken as earnest, strenuous and effective a form as in respect to the protection of their plantations against the axe. It has occurred repeatedly of late years that ladies and gentlemen, seeking their pleasure during the winter in public parks, have chanced to see men felling trees, and have been moved by the sight to take duties upon themselves that nothing else short of a startling public outrage would have led them to assume. Sometimes they have hastened to stand before a partly felled tree and have attempted to wrest the axe from the hand of the woodsman. Oftener they have resorted to the press and other means of rousing public feeling, and not unfrequently a considerable popular excitement has re- sulted. At the time of such excitements a strong tendency has appeared in many minds to assume that the act of tree- cutting marks those who are responsible for it as unsuscepti- ''4 Observations on the Treatment ble to the charm of sylvan scenery, and to class them with the old indiscriminately devastating pioneers. We say that such manifestations of public spirit in respect to the protection of plantations have been frequent. They have occurred, for example, within a few years in Brooklyn, Boston, Washington and San Francisco. They have in some cases affected legislation. They have appeared in the halls of Congress, and statesmen have had part in them. Since the planting of Central Park there have been several in New York. The leaders in them have often been citizens de- servedly high in public esteem, more than commonly well equipped with general information, liberally educated, of good social standing and wide influence. Naturally an effect of such manifestations of public senti- ment has been to make those in direct superintendence of public plantations, and the governing boards supervising them, extremely reluctant to use the axe. In some cases, for years not.a tree has been cut down; in others only decaying trees which were prominent eye-sores or dangerous to passers- by, and even when these were to be dealt with the work has been done in stormy weather, when it was little likely to be observed by visitors, and care has been taken to put the fallen wood out of sight as soon as possible. To guard against the provocation of public feeling even in such extreme cases, a standing order has been made by one Park Commis- sion that not a tree should be cut in its plantations till leave had been granted for it by a majority vote of its Board. One of the best trained and most successful tree growers in the country having been dropped from the service of this Board, a member of it gave as the reason for his dismissal that he had been too anxious to obtain leave to cut out trees. In another case the effect of the agitation was such that a laborer refused to fell a tree when ordered, fearing that he would be punished for it as for a crime. Early this Spring there was a movement in New York partaking of the character of those which had gone before. In the opinion of some having part in it, trees had been felled in Central Park to an extent, and with a degree of unfeeling '' of Public Plantations. 5 indiscrimination and disregard of the landscape effects with a view to which they had been planted and grown, that called for the severest condemnation. Some difference of opinion having been developed in the course of the proceedings to which this movement gave rise, it was thought desirable that an opinion should be obtained from experts other than those to whose judgment the Com- missioners had been leaving the matter. To this end the undersigned were selected,—one the Secretary of the Ameri- can Forestry Congress, the other one of the designers of the Park, and for forty years a tree grower. The request to them was made in behalf of the West End Improvement Associa- tion, the Torrey Botanical Club and the Park Commissioners. The duty which they assumed was to review the plantations of the Park, and report how far the tree-cutting upon them had been in accordance with the requirements of the park design and with approved professional practice. While no sensible man will deliberately maintain that a tree can never be wisely removed from a public plantation, it will be seen from what has been said, that a public sentiment is liable to be cultivated, the effect of which, in numerous instances, may be to keep trees standing for years that might more wisely be cut, and in a general way to prevent the free exercise of any specially competent judgment upon the question. Hence, instead of simply reporting our own view of the particular case that we have been asked to consider, we have thought it better that we should set forth by quotations what may be regarded as the Common Law view of the duty, in respect to the cutting of trees, of a professional public servant to whom has been given the direction of plantations. We venture to say that no man, however well informed he may be in other respects, can have a respectable understand- ing of this duty to whom such precepts as are about to be cited are not familiar. It is greatly to be desired that knowl- edge of them and faith in them should be more generally diffused than it is at present among leaders of public opinion in all our cities. In view of the circumstance that New York has a large scheme of new parks and park improve- '' 6 Observations on the Treatment ments before it, a publication of them may be hoped to be useful.* I. “It is in the act of removing trees and thinning woods that the landscape gardener must show his intimate knowl- edge of pleasing combinations, his genius for painting, and his acute perceptions of the principles of an art which trans- fers the imitative, though permanent beauties of a picture, to the purposes of elegant and comfortable habitation, the ever- varying effects of light and shade and the inimitable circum- stances of a natural landscape.’ —Repton. 2. ‘The old adage, ‘PLANT THICK AND THIN QUICK, holds as good now as centuries ago.” —Douglas. 3. “Fully half the number of plants inserted per acre should be removed by the time that the most valuable are twenty-five feet high.” —Grigor. * Among those to be quoted are the following: Loudon, J. C., author of Arboretum Britannicum, the Cyclopedia of Gardening, and many other standard technical works; De Candol/e, Augustin, an eminent botanist, friend and co- worker with Cuvier and Humboldt; Zauder, Sir Thomas Dick, editor and com- mentator upon the works of Price and Gilpin; Whateley, Thomas, a member of the British Parliament, and author of the first standard work on Modern Gar- dening; Coddet, William, author of “ Woodlands ” and various famous works on Rural Economy; eftox, Humphrey, author of several works in Landscape Gardening and the most distinguished English landscape designer of the present century; Swzth, C. H. J., author of a treatise on Parks and Pleasure Grounds ; Speechly, Grigor, Main and Brown, authors of well-known treatises on Planta- tions ; Emerson, G. B., author of a treatise on Trees, prepared at the request of the Legislature of Massachusetts; Brisbane, Gen. J. L., U.S. A.; Hough, Scott and Sryant, authors of works on Tree Planting and Landscape Gardening, pub- lished in the United States; Fernow, Editor of U.S. Government Reports of Forestry; Sergent, C. S., Professor of Forestry in Harvard University and Super- intendent of the Forestry Division of the United States Census, 1880; a//, J. H., State Engineer of California; McLaren, John, Superintendent of Golden Gate Park, San Francisco; Bea/, Wm. J., Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College of Michigan; Fay, J. S. and Forbes, J. M., notable citizens of Eastern Massachusetts who have been in direction of plantations, one above thirty, the other fifty, years; Douglas, Robert, the oldest and most successful large planter in North America, his plantings in the arid regions of the far West alone amounting to over three million trees. aaenesihieieete arth are tere '' of Public Plantations. 7 4. “For the best results, we must plant thickly, keep removing, some here some there, perhaps adding others.”— Beal. 5. “Thinning is one of the most indispensable opera- tions. ’—Brown. 6. “Of the implements required to produce a fine tree the axe is certainly the first and most important.” —Sargent. 7. “We now come to the most important consideration connected with forestral questions, that of thinning the trees.” —Hobbs. (Report to American Forestry Congress, 1886. 8. “They go on vegetating but hardly growing. The remedy is obvious. very year they need to be thinned.” —Emerson. g. “Though they are still far short of their growth, they are [from neglect of thinning] run up into poles, and the groves are already past their prime.”— Whately. (Criticism on Cleremont Park.) 10. “A natural growth of pine which was thinned when six years old showed an increased rate of accretion three times as great as that of the part not thinned, which was also deficient in height growth.” —Fernow. 11. “ Wherever systematic thinning has been applied the crops are of nearly double the value at a given age.” ‘We divide the several plantations into three portions, and thin one portion regularly and systematically each year success- ively.”—Brown. 12. “It is an undeniable fact that the weakly, unprofita- ble, and therefore unsatisfactory state of a large extent of plan- ''8 Observations on the Treatment tations is to be attributed to the neglect of systematic thin- ning.” ‘We frequently see woods growing upon the best land, matured when only some sixty years old: This arises from neglect of systematic thinning.” —Bvown. 13. ‘At all stages of a plantation, spaces should be grad- ually allowed, according to the growth of the trees, which, with some sorts, in favorable situations, extends till the plantation is eighty years of age.” —Gvigor. 14. “The thinning may be continued gradually as the trees grow larger.” —Bryaut. 15. Hough gives a table showing the number of trees held, as the result of long experiments, by the German Gov- ernment Department of Forestry, as desirable to be left in thrifty plantations after a growth of from thirty to one hun- dred years. The number to remain at fifty years is less than half that at thirty, at one hundred years less than half that at fifty. 16. “To form fine ornamental groves or most valuable woods, the trees should be planted thickly, and when they have attained a sufficient length of bole, thinned gradually till each individual tree enjoys a sufficient share of light and air to bring it to its utmost magnitude and perfection.’— Main. 17. Loudon, in Arboretum Britannicum, concludes from an examination of the cultivated larch plantations of the Duke of Athol, that in the most successful practice seven trees out of eight will have to be thinned out in the first twenty years, and quotes De Candolle as having reached a similar conclusion from observations in France. '' of Public Plantations. 9 18. Lauder, (in a note upon Gilpin’s Forest Scenery), says that to make an artificial plantation which shall ulti- mately resemble a natural plantation, “the best way” is to so manage as that “by a frequent and judicious use of the axe, the best individuals, and those most calculated to associate and harmonize together, are left in permanent possession of the ground.” ‘This mode, be it understood,’ he adds, “requires constant attention —an attention unremitting from the earliest years of the plantation, till nothing remains but the permanent trees ; otherwise, from too long confinement or other causes, stiff and unnatural forms may be produced.” 19. ‘‘Nurses are surplus trees or shrubs introduced into the plantation for a temporary purpose, for the occupancy of the ground to shelter and protect the permanent plants and to aid in forming them into well shaped trees.” “Unless care be taken to subordinate these nurses they will be likely to overwhelm the more valuable plants.” —Arvisbane. 20. “Experience shows us that the oak would make but a slow progress fora number of years were it not for some kind nurses; the birch seems to answer that purpose the best.” “After the birches are cut down there is nothing more to be done but thinning the oaks, from time to time, as may be required.” —Sfeechly. 21. Cobbett records in “ Rural Rides” that he saw at New Park two plantations of oaks, one twelve years old, grown with nurses, the other adjoining, on land thought to be better, twenty years old without nurses. The second “was not nearly so good as the first.” 22. ‘White pine cannot endure our prairie winds if standing exposed, and the same holds good on our Eastern ''10 Observations on the Treatment Coast ; but intermixed with Scotch pine they have succeeded admirably ; the Scotch pine making the most rapid growth during the first five years were overtopped in less than two years [afterwards] and cut out, leaving the White pines to occupy the ground.”—Douglas. 23. ‘When the nurses consist of inferior kinds, they should generally be all removed by the time that the planta- tion arrives at the height of fifteen or twenty feet.” —Loudon. 24. “From the time that all the nurses are removed, in each of the subsequent thinnings, those trees should first be cut down which appear to press on their stronger and more healthy neighbors, and to deprive them of the room and nourishment needful to their increasing growth.” —Smzth. 25. Addressing the Southampton Chamber of Commerce, Mr. 7. W. Shore, urging the importance of a School of For- estry, observed that the management of the New Forest was “ a national disgrace.’ ‘ Look,” he said, “at the many thousands of young trees choked by their nursing pines.” “So many young trees killed before they are grown, and see the pines growing so large and thick as to be at the present time actually killing each other.” 26. Consistently with this, Mr. Gladstone, speaking on the same topic in the House of Commons, referred to a pop- ular “ superstition,” which caused the thinning of plantations to be too much neglected, as the most serious difficulty to be overcome in an improvement of British tree-growing. 27. ‘Now we have trees whose natural habits would produce heads of foliage twenty-five to thirty feet across, at ten to fourteen years of age (and which were planted four '' of Public Plantations. Ii to eight feet apart, with the view of gradually cutting out full two-thirds of the number within the years down to this time), still standing in the groups as planted — spindling, bare-stalked saplings within the groups and one-sided shams around the margin thereof; in many cases not a single well-developed specimen in the whole group. In this respect the main large clumps of the older trees are rotten shams, which in a few years, because the individual trees are spind- ling, weak and light-rooted, and with foliage and branches high up the trunk only, will commence to blow down whole- sale.” ‘These trees were never intended to stand perma- nently in such places. There are thousands which are serving no other purpose than to ruin others.’’—Ha//, 28. “I have charge of several hundred acres in forest and ornamental tree growths. My practice has been to plant thick, and thin as soon as the trees showed the slightest indication of interfering with one another. The result has been most satisfactory. Where this work [of thinning] has been neglected, the result has been disastrous.” —McLaren. 29. “I find the older plantations in very bad condition, which is the result of the neglect of thinning. They are planted thick for various reasons, but have been allowed to stand as planted until the lower branches have died off, and the trees spindled up to their stems.”’ ‘I have seen whole acres of conifers die off in a single year from these causes ”’ [neglect of thinning ].—McLaren. 30. Mr. Forbes planted extensively fifty years ago, and, on account of the extreme bleakness of the site, under the advice of Mr, Downing, as he writes, “very thickly; but he '' 12 Observations on the Treatment adds ‘“‘the axe has been used vigorously every year, and a look at the plantations at this time will convince everybody that this was absolutely essential.” Of certain other planta- tions he says: “They were nearly ruined for the want of courage with the axe.” ‘The trees are fast becoming broom- sticks with branches on top.” 31. “Most trees are gregarious in extreme youth, from habit transmitted through many generations; they love com- pany, and only thrive really when closely surrounded. Close planting is essential, therefore, to insure the best results. As the trees grow, the weaker are pushed aside, and finally destroyed by the more vigorous, and the plantation is gradually thinned. This is the operation which is always going on in the forest when man does not intervene. It is a slow and expensive operation, however, and the result is attained by a vast expenditure of energy and of good material. The strongest trees come out victorious in the end, but they will bear the scars of the contest through life. The long, bare trunk, with a small and misshapen head—the only form of a mature tree found in the virgin forest—tells of years or of centuries of struggle, in which hundreds of weaker individuals may have perished, that one giant might survive. But man can intervene, and by judicious and systematic thinning help the strong to destroy the weak more quickly, and with a less expenditure of vital force. Thick planting is but following the rule of nature, and thinning is only helping nature do what she does herself too slowly, and therefore too expen- sively. This is why trees in a plantation intended for orna- ment, like those in a park or pleasure-ground, should be planted thickly at first, and why they should then be syste- matically thinned from time to time; and it is because this systematic thinning is altogether neglected, or put off until '' of Public Plantations. 13 the trees are ruined for any purpose of ornament, that it is so rare to find a really fine tree in any public place or private grounds.” — Sargent. It will be observed that all agree that in good practice trees are planted originally much closer than it is desirable that they should be allowed to grow permanently, and that, from every well-planted large body of trees, some are removed every year up to at least eighty years. This for centuries has been the established custom in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe, and it is approved by every American to whom the subject has been one of anything like profes- sional study, whether with reference to the object of sylvan charm of scenery or simply that of growing the largest amount of wood in the shortest time. Upon this point, we have not, with considerable search, found one man with any claim to be regarded as an authority, differing from those we have quoted. Many writers on Land- scape Gardening say nothing about it; but this evidently because they assume that their readers will be of a class not needing to be advised of a principle so well established. Undoubtedly authorities differ a little in their views as to the extent to which, in the management of plantations for landscape-effect, the thinning process should be pursued. But such differences mainly represent varying degrees of susceptibility to the charm of one or another variety of sylvan scenery, and a consequent disposition to give more promi- nence in writing to one or another. We may observe that if there can be considered to be two schools in this respect, we should ourselves be classed with that which favors the less uniform use of the axe, and which believes in sometimes sacrificing more of the chances for long and perfect devel- opment of trees to the result of a more playful disposition and greater variation of companionship of them. We should, more than some, guard in thinning against making any tree individually conspicuous. We would not have the least con- ''14 Observations on the Treatment fusion between the purpose of a Park and the purpose of an Aboretum. But no difference in this respect among those who have carefully studied the results of varying practice during many years, subtracts, in the slightest degree, from the unanimity with which they condemn all such management of plantations as it is the tendency of public sentiment to compel public servants to adopt. Instead of saying that if men are seen to be cutting trees out of a plantation there is a presumption of ignorant or unfeeling management, which, practically, is the prevailing disposition with those expressing the most affectionate interest in our parks, they are agreed in teaching that whenever a year passes in which trees are not cut out of any extensive plantation, there is ground for presumption —a very strong presumption—that the management is ignorant or neglectful of its most important duty. The fact is, nevertheless, that until men, whether non- professional commissioners of public plantations or non-pro- fessional planters on their own private account, have learned better by costly lessons of personal experience, they are generally much indisposed to plant as thickly as is necessary and still more indisposed to allow plantations to be thinned as is desirable.- Often, therefore, plantations become and remain crowded to a degree which brings many of their trees to death, or to a decrepit and slowly dying condition, and which draws all others into such forms that, even if by a late use of the axe they are at last given ample brahch and root room, they are precluded from taking advantage of it. They come to be of senile habit, and it is no longer possible for them to contribute to broad, rich and harmonious composi- tions of foliage. The question then will often arise: What can best be done in places where trees have been more or less seriously injured by crowding ;—in what degree is their restoration to be wisely aimed at ;—to what extent will it be more judicious to clear the ground and replant? A landscape architect who has had probably as large a private practice as any other in the country, says that no other question oftener comes to him, '' of Public Plantations. 15 and no other is a greater tax upon his professional resources. It is easy in any given case, for a shallow, conceited quack to settle it flippantly; it is easy to settle it indolently ; it requires experience, close study and sagacious foresight to determine the best practicable settlement of it. Upon this point we present a few additional quotations : — 1. Speaking of a case where due, gradual thinning had been neglected, Grigor, in his Treatise on Forestry, (Edinburg, 1868), says: “Although a thinning is now going on, it is doubtful if the trees left will make much more progress.” “The only question is whether it would not be better to clear the trees off at once by rooting them out. Had the ground been in a conspicuous position I should have had no hesita- tion in recommending that course, for, however common, few scenes more unsightly are to be met with than the display of unshapely trees struggling for existence, and diseased through mismanagement.” 2. Loudon quotes a passage from Lang, urging the importance of timely thinning, observing that if neglected “the plantation will inevitably be ruined.” 3. “If thinning is delayed too long, the stems will be slender and feeble.” ‘Dead and dying trees should be taken out whenever found.” —Hough. 4. “Considerable loss is frequently sustained by produc- ing through long confinement tall trunks without a propor- tionate diameter; and unless the soil is very congenial and the trees of great vigor, they are often slow to become stout or shapely when ample space has at last been afforded to them.” —Gyvigor. '' 16 Observations on the Treatment 5. “The first thing to be decided is the amount of clean cutting to be done,— what had better be entirely removed in order that something better may be developed.”— Scott ; Advice as to the Renovation of Old Places. 6. “It is very difficult to determine how to treat planta- tions that have been neglected in thinning. It is a bad job, and you can only hope to prevent further ruin, but not to entirely remedy that which is now so painfully apparent to any-one who knows about trees and their cultivation. Zhe trees in some parts are so far gone that they cannot be saved to good purpose. Better cut out spaces within such groups and around the margins, fertilize the soil, trench it over, plant new trees, and as they grow cut away the balance of the old ones.” —McLaren. 7. “If I were again to set out young trees among the old woods, J should cut the latter all down clean.’—/._S. Fay (Experiments in Tree Planting, U. S. Forestry Report, 1877). 8. “When any plantation has stood long without being thinned, particularly such as are composed of coniferous trees, it is, we may say, impossible to recover it.”—Bvown’s Forester. g. “This plantation in place of being thinned gradually had been subjected to a severe thinning all at once.” «“ When a pine plantation has been mismanaged in this way, the proprietor should never hesitate but have it cut down at once and the ground replanted.”—-/, B. Webster, in London Garden, April 13, 1889. '' of Public Plantations. 17 We are now prepared to take up the case of the last winter’s management of Central Park. What the designers of this Park had in view as to the treatment of its plantations may be inferred from the following passage in a report of theirs. Writing in advance of certain advised plantations, they said :— “They are to be thinned out gradually as they come to interlock, until, at length, not more than one-third of the original number will remain; and these, because the less promising will have constantly been selected for removal with little regard to evenness of spacing, will be those of the most vigorous constitution, those with the greatest capabili- ties of growth, and those with the greatest power of resist- ance to attacks of storms, ice, disease and vermin. Individual tree beauty is to be but little regarded, but all consideration to be given to beauty and effectiveness of groups, passages, and masses of foliage. The native underwood is to be planted in thickets and allowed to grow in natural forms, enough of it being introduced to prevent, (in connection with the grouping of trees and interspaces of groups, to be formed by the process of thinning the tree plantations), a grove or orchard-like monotony of trunks.” * But in much of the planting of the Park not only were several trees planted of each kind designed to remain perma- nently, with the object first, of protection, second, of selecting that to remain which should prove most promising of long life and vigor under the circumstances, but nurses were also planted among them. At the time of the earlier planting, the commercial nurseries of the country were overstocked with imported Norway Spruce, and plants of it could be bought by the thousand, of unusual size, at low rates. They *General plan for the improvement of the Niagara Reservation, by Fred- erick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, SR Se '' 18 Observations on the Treatment were therefore much used as nurses, especially in the bleaker parts on the west side and where the planting was designed to be largely of white pines and hemlocks, which when young grow very slowly and often die if not well nursed. When the time came for gradually removing these nurses and thinning out the less promising of other trees, the nec- essary work was restricted within exceedingly inadequate limits, and, as has been stated, at times, was for years wholly suspended. Consequently but a small part of the thinning needed was ever done. Numbers of the spruces intended to serve only as nurses from three to six years, remained on the ground after twenty years; some remain yet, after thirty years, and the pines and hemlocks that they were designed to foster have long since disappeared ; — either smothered to death or cut out because dwarfed, sickened and mutilated by the oppression of the spruces. Of the spruces thus brought into undesigned prominence, the late Governor Horatio Seymour stated, from experience on his own farm at Utica: — “They grow rapidly when young, but become ragged and thin when they have got to be of any size. Their effect in groups is bad, as their sharp, tapering tops give them a weak, ineffective aspect.” Probably there are localities in which this condemnation would be found too sweeping, but the Central Park is not one of them. Whenever a Norway spruce has proved worthy to remain, it would appear to be because of an exceptional vigor of constitution, and individual adaptation to the local circum- stances. A large majority of all planted in the Park fell into a dwindling condition before they had come to be twenty years old. Four years ago it was observed that much the larger part of those originally planted had disappeared, but many quite dead ones remained; many more were barely alive, and these were disagreeable objects, disgraceful in themselves Saree ate ’ a eee '' of Public Plantations. id to the management, but much more disgraceful in the ruin they had made of what would otherwise have been beautiful plantations, contributive to charming passages of sylvan scenery. Fourteen years ago the professional adviser of the Park Department at the time made a report to the Commissioners, going over much of the ground of the present paper, includ- ing in part the citations from eminent tree-growers that have been given above, in support of his statements. He pointed out that the neglect of thinning had already gone far to de- stroy some of the most important plantations, and that if it continued it was but a question of time when the best thing that could be done, would be to clear considerable areas of ground and replant them. This report was not published, but as a result of it a special force for thinning was allowed to be employed, and during an inclement season, when few visitors passed through the Park, within less than a month’s time, more trees were felled than there had been altogether, probably, in ten years before. The advantage gained where the thinning was most resolute is now conspicuous. It may be seen, for example, on the rising ground, between the two lobes of the North Meadow, the most park-like part of the Park ; again on the north side of the eastern half of the road crossing the Park at Mount St. Vincent; on the borders of the drive mounting Bogardus Hill from the south; near the drive opposite Summit Rock; on Cherry Hill and at a few other points. A few complete clearances and replantings were made at this time. A group of hemlocks northwest of the Great Reservoir, for example, occupies ground in which a previous plantation had been ruined by the overgrowth of Norway spruce, the latter having been also ruined a little later, by their crowding of one another. It can be seen that these hemlocks have not been growing thriftily. This is because, in dread of a repetition of the first experience, they were planted too openly. '' 20 Observations on the Treatment Within a month the public indignation was excited and the Commissioners ordered the work to be stopped.* Not one man with the slightest pretentions to be regarded as an expert in Sylviculture has ever been employed in the service of the Park Department, without making efforts to obtain leave to thin the plantations, or without giving warn- ing that a time was approaching when, if more thorough thinning than the Commissioners were willing to allow, should not soon be made, some of the most important bodies of trees would be ruined, and nothing would remain but to exterminate them and replant the ground. When we were last passing through the Park before our recent visit, we had observed numbers of dead trees; larger numbers in a dying, and whole groups in a feeble, gaunt and dwindling condition, due to neglect of thinning. It had seemed to us probable that the time was passed when any process of thinning could be successfully used with them. Reading the reports sent this spring, with the request that we would review the plantations, we had been led to suppose that extensive clearings had accordingly been made, and that the principal question that we should have to consider would be whether such clearings had been carried too far, and had been of the insensate character alleged. On the 20th of March we made an examination of the plantations of the Park, passing nearly from end to end of it four times, walking through all the localities to which our attention had been particularly invited, and bringing under close review all parts of the Ramble and other interior and secluded districts. * There is probably no direct connection between the circumstances, but it is worthy of note that immediately following the public protest against the thin- ning of the Park plantations, of last winter, a bill is introduced to legislate the Commissioners responsible for it out of office. There may be no direct con- nection, but if public sentiment had been alive to the real character of that work, would those whoinstigate legislation have been as ready for the move? '' of Public Plantations. 21 It was nowhere apparent to us that trees had been lately removed inconsiderately or without regard for the motives of the original plan. At a number of points what might be regarded as small clearings were found. We saw no reason for doubting that the trees removed in these cases had been ruined for the purpose that had been had in view in the planting of them, by neglect of thinning, and that it had been intended to replant the ground; and at one point we actually found men, so early in the season, beginning the work of replanting. We saw not a few trees, which in our judgment must die before many years, standing in positions where, if allowed to remain, they will greatly retard the growth of others which if uncrowded would yet become long-lived and umbrageous. It is fair to assume that not a few failing trees thus doing mischief show an incomplete work of improvement. It was estimated in a report sent us that the quantity of wood cut on the park during the last winter would measure little short of 250 cords. The plantations of the Park are mainly in the form of narrow belts and groups of irregular outline, alternating with spaces of rock, turf, water and road- ways; these vacancies being larger on the whole than the planted spaces, so that a large proportion of the trees are open on two sides to light and air. The planted ground was well-drained ; the soil taken from the uncovered rocks and the road and water spaces was added to its original soil; many parts had been occupied two years before the planting by small market gardens; the whole was liberally treated with a compost of dung and limed peat, and with phosphates, and - finely tilled to a depth of twenty inches. It has since been frequently top-dressed. The trees have been generally grow- ing with extraordinary rapidity. The extent of the planted ground is estimated at 400 acres. The principal tree-planting of the Park was made in 1858,’59 and’60. Having been before thinned much too scantily, would it be thought, by experienced tree-growers, that the taking out of two or three '' 22 Observations on the Treatment hundred cords of wood from such plantations, at the end of thirty years, was, as has been supposed, an excessive amount ? We cannot think that it would. Considering how large a proportion of all the felled trees were probably of dead, dying or greatly enfeebled condition, we doubt if they would have borne this year two per cent. of the entire leafage of the Park. We are of the opinion that before midsummer the expanse of leafage that will be gained by new growth will be more than equivalent to all that has been cut off in the winter’s thinning. (Let anyone passing through the Park six weeks hence ask if the foliage seems less in amount than it did at the same period last year.) It is, however, more important to consider the lasting effect. As to this we do not think that a man can be found, of extended experience in plantations of a character corre- sponding with those of the Park, who, knowing the facts we have recounted, will have the least doubt that the body of foliage on the Park must within two years be considerably larger than it would have been, had the two or three hundred cords of trunks and limbs taken out last winter been left standing. We have taken for granted that it has been intended to replant various small] areas which, because of the destruction by crowding of the originally designed low foliage, were at the time of our visit of dreary aspect. It hardly lies within the - duty assigned us, but we may be permitted to add that there are many parts of the Park where ground not now shaded by trees might much more suitably be occupied otherwise than it is. About a hundred paces east of the Springbanks Arch, on the south side of the road, there is a piece of ground of thin soil partly broken by rock, which is charmingly over- grown with low bushes and creepers. It has had much of its present pleasing character for at least twenty-five years, and in that time the annual cost of keeping it has not probably been a fiftieth part as much as the average annual cost of '' of Public Plantations. 23 keeping an equal area of the open turf and high shrubbery- studded spaces of the Park. In our judgment a somewhat similar covering would be desirably substituted for turf in many of its smaller openings, which it is never well should be crossed by visitors; in nearly all those, for example, of * the Winter Drive and the hill north of it, which are now at large expense kept by lawn-mower and hand-rake, smooth, smug and tame, incongruously with the general character of the designed local scenery. Some slight indications of a desire for improvement in this direction were apparent to us. Should they be liberally followed up, the result, in connection with that of a more courageous management of the old plan- tations, would, at comparatively small expense, accomplish more for the beautifying of the Park than all that has been done for the purpose in many years. It may be well to say at this point that we have had no recent communication with anyone in the service of the Park, and none for years on the subject of this report. In speaking of the intentions of the management we mean only what is naturally to be surmised in that respect. At first view it will seem remarkable that complaints so specific and so sweeping as those we have considered should be made by persons of a high degree of general intelligence without any support in the actual facts of the case. It will perhaps be thought hardly credible that the common impres- sion and sentiment of the great body of good citizens as to what is desirable in the management of plantations should be in such direct conflict with what we have shown to be the general conviction of all lovers of natural scenery to whom the question has been one of professional study. The explanation of the mystery is to be found, we sup- pose, in the fact that the management of a large park is an art the principles and methods of which are much further from being generally comprehended, even by cultivated men, than is commonly supposed. On this point we offer one more quotation bearing directly upon the particular point of management as to which expert opinion has been asked: '' IRON eck he ati oe SPAT 7 te Se, ey me pegs a St BAe Bo Bin IE SR eo ee ae Be a, as ie s ie * Se a } et ci Cie SO ls a ea 24 Treatment of Public Plantations. “To give such general rules for thinning as might be understood by those who never attentively and scientifically considered the subject would be like attempting to direct a man who had never used a pencil to imitate the groups of a Claude or a Poussin.” —Repton. And yet it is most undesirable that public-spirited citizens should be led to relinquish any degree of interest that they may now feel in the management of the public grounds of our cities. It is most desirable that they should manifest still greater and more searching interest ; that they should influ- ence the management more directly, constantly and effectively. But to do so wisely will require a seriousness of thought upon the subject such as it yet seldom obtains. It will also require a degree of respect for the technical responsibility involved that few have yet begun to realize to be its due. ai er I nap ae ee sre fon desire Dee rw ere a ee ee a '' '' '' = OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION APPOINTED BY THE COMPTROLIA: PURSUANT TO CHAPTER 551, LAWS OF 1884, PF TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE, JANUARY 28, 1885. f ALBAN: WEED, PARSONS AND COMPANY, LEGISLATIVE PRINTERS. 1885. irre). '' '' STATE OF NEW YORK. No. 36, > IN ASSEMBLY, JANUARY 28, 1885. COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMPTROLLER SUBMITTING REPORT OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION. . STATE OF NEW YORK: - CoMPTROLLER’s OFFICE, Apany, January 23, 1885. To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New York: At its last session the Legislature, without request or suggestion from me, appropriated $5,000 to the Comptroller for the employ- ment of experts to report a system of forestry. Pursuant to this authority, I at once appointed Professor Charles S. Sargent, of Har- vard University, a trained and eminent specialist ; D. Willis James, Esq., of New York city, a public spirited citizen, of large business experience and long interested in this important question; Ion. William A. Poucher, of Oswego, an able lawyer, frequently elevated by his neighbors to elective oftice, and Edward M. Shepard, Esq., of Brooklyn, a gentleman whose rare native capacity, strengthened by legal study and practice, gives peculiar value to his unselfish and earnest effort to unravel the complexities of this task. The Commission, therefore, represented the apparently conflicting interests of different neighborhoods and was competent in its ad- ministrative and legal equipment, as well as in technical proficiency. Its members have done their work actively and “zealously without pay. Of their expenses, more than one-half are for a map of per- manent value. Their report — unanimous in all but one particular, [Assem. Doc. No, 36. ] 1 ''2 : [AsSsEMBLY, No. 36.] - and that a question of administrative method — is now submitted to _ your honorable body. It should be noted that although comprehensive and elaborate, it avoids all projects involving large present outlay or future burdens. Three bills are appended to the report. One of these bills pro- vides for a Forest Commission to be appointed by the Comptroller. In order that the Commission might be freed from partisan entan- glement, the proposed act, at my suggestion, was changed from its first form so as not to take effect during the term of the present — Comptroller. The problem in its fulness affects the welfare of many sister Com- monwealths and of the Nation at large. It is eminently fitting that in its solution the Empire State should lead the way. _ Very respectfully, ALFRED C. CHAPIN, © Comptroller. '' REPORT. To the Hon. Aurrep C. Cuariy, Comptroller of the State of New Ome: Str. — The Commissioners appointed by you on the third day of July last, pursuant to the provisions of chapter 551 of the Laws of 1884, to “investigate and report a system of forest preservation,” entered at once upon their duties. They have devoted themselves industriously to the study of the question, and have now the honor to submit the following report : The Commissioners have examined the forests covering the Ad- irondack plateau, and the relations which these forests bear to the commercial and industrial interests of theState.. They have visited the forest region of Ulster and Delaware counties, and have heard and considered the views of a large number of persons interested, di- rectly and indirectly, in forest property. They have caused a de- tailed examination of the position and condition of the Adirondack forests to be made by trained forest experts. The results of this examination are displayed in the map joined to this report, which the Commissioners are further able to ilbustrate, through private liberality, by a series of photographs, which will show, better than any words can describe, the condition to which excessive forest de- vastation has already reduced large areas within the water-sheds of the principal streams of the State. - Stare Lannps. It appears from the records of the Comptroller’s office that the State has or claims to have title to 781,000 acres of so-called unim- proved or forest land. ''4 _ [ASSEMBLY ~ They are located as follows: Acres. Northern or Adirondack counties............2.+++++2++ 750, 000 erie re ays i eer TE 2 Greene county.. .... 6.02.01 1s. este eee e eee cece eens 2, 646 ee OH es es = : 971 ee OI ee a ee 38, 543 oe eR Se see oe 9, 368 781, 000 It will be seen, by consulting the forest map, that in Essex, Ham- ilton and Herkimer counties there are large, continuous bodies of State land. Generally, however, State holdings consist of small and often widely-scattered tracts, rarely exceeding a few hundred acres in extent. The locations of the State lands, as indicated upon the map, have been determined from the records in the Comptrol- ler’s office. The real position, however, of the State lands is largely a matter of tradition. The surveys which have, at different times, been made of portions of these lands are believed to be generally in- accurate or defective; no general attempt seems to have been made to locate or mark the boundaries of these lands in the woods, while the title of the State to parts of them is disputed by owners of adjoining property. It has, for these reasons, been found impossible to make any special study of the conditions of the State lands in distinction from lands belonging to individuals. It will be neces- sary, therefore, to consider the forests without regard to ownership. Portions of the State lands located in the most.remote and inacces- sible districts of the Adirondack region are still covered with the original forest growth; from others all merchantable timber has been removed; while there are -considerable areas of these lands entirely stripped of forest covering. ADIRONDACK REGIONS. The Adirondack forest region has claimed the principal attention of the Commissioners. The extent of this region, its importance to the people of New York, and the fact that within its borders are found nearly all the wild lands belonging to the State, make the consideration of methods necessary for its preservation of the first importance in any proposed scheme of forest management. The Adirondack plateau occupies the region which lies between '' '' ‘AN ADIRONDACK FARM. '' No. 36.] 5 Lake Champlain on the east and the valley of the Black river on the west ; it reaches south to the valley of the Mohawk river. To the north it extends to the fertile plain of the St. Lawrence. The Adirondack plateau is crossed in the south-east by four distinct ranges of hills; of these the principal, the Adirondack range, attains a maximum elevation above the sea of over 5,000 feet and contains the highest land in the State. _ The western and northern portions of this great plateau contain numerous lakes, interspersed with considerable areas of swamp scattered between the low Laurentian hills. The whole plateau has a high average elevation above the ocean; the mean average temperature is, therefore, low, while the whole region, with few ex- _ ceptions, is destitute of deep or rich soil below the surface covering of decaying vegetable deposit. The rain-fall over this whole region is large. The innumerable streams which cut it in all directions, its countless lakes, and extensive swamps show that the Adirondack plateau enjoys a more copious and regularly distributed rain-fall than other portions of the State, less favorably situated in elevations and mean low average temperature to compel the discharge of clouds saturated with moisture. Extensive and valuable deposits of iron ore underlie portions of the Adirondack plateau; they are most common in the east and south-east. Aprronpack F'arMIna. The Adirondack plateau was once covered with a dense forest. This forest, poor in the number of species which it contains, although vigorous and rich in the development of individuals, illus- trates the influence of abundant moisture upon forest growth in regions of low and mean temperature and poor soil. Such regions, if the rain-fall is sufficient, will, within certain limits, produce for- ests. They cannot, however, be safely or profitably devoted to any other form of husbandry. A wise economy in the use of the natural resources of a country should recognize the fact that cer- tain regions of the earth’s surface are adapted by nature to remain covered with forests, and that any attempt to devote such regions to other purposes can only be followed by failure and disaster. The people of New York have not yet learned this lesson. Attempts have been constantly made since the earliest settlement of the north- ern counties to cultivate the Adirondack plateau. The cheapness of the land has attracted and still attracts settlers to try their fortunes ''6 : [ASSEMBLY along the borders of the Adirondack forests. Farms are cleared, two, or at most three, meager crops are snatched from the cold stony land; and then starvation drives the settler, exhausted in the fruitless struggle with the uncompromising and unforgiving fate of nature, to abandon his fields dearly purchased at thé price of indescribable suffering and privation, and seek a new home, which in turn must be abandoned at the end of a few years. All attempts at settlement of the Adirondack plateau by an agricultural popula- tion, with the exception of some of the most fertile valleys adja- cent to the shores of Lake Champlain, and toward the south and south-eastern limits of the region, have resulted in disastrous failure. Abandoned homes and fields are scattered everywhere along the borders of the forest, while the scanty population which still strng- gles to compel the inhospitable soil to yield it a miserable existence too plainly shows the hopelessness of the task. Probably in no other part of the United States, certainly in no other part of the State of New York, can a more unfortunate agricultural population be found. VaLvuE oF Aprronpack Forests. The-dearly bought experience of the past fifty years has shown that, except along its eastern and southern borders, the Adirondack plateau is incapable of supporting an agricultural population, and that its real and only value consists in the forests which cover it. It will be seen that the existence of these forests makes this region more valuable to the people of the State of New York than any other of similar extent within its boundaries. Their extermi- nation will reduce this whole region to an unproductive and danger- ous desert. The part which these forests Beye in the economy of the State is three-fold. Tue Frow.or Rivers. The most important function of the Adirondack forests is found in the influence which they exert upon the streams heading among the hills of the Adirondack plateau, which distribute the heavy rain- fall of this region. As reservoirs of moisture, these forests are essential to the continued prosperity of the State; as such they are properly an object of interest to the whole community. Their in- fluence is felt far beyond the limits of the State, and their destrue- tion must be followed by widespread commercial disaster. ''. je \ 4 ~ P > { \ te — 2 \ ~ > : } . INDIAN RIVER COUNTRY, HUDSON WATERSHED. en & Rowell, Photo '' '' '' Allen & Rowell, Photo. THE HUDSON RIVER ABOVE NORTH CREEK. '' No. 36.] ek The Hudson river, born of many mountain streams, flows in rapid course down the steep southern slopes of the Adirondack mountains. The Mohawk is largely fed by the streams in the south-western portion of the plateau ; the Erie canal receives a large part of its water supply from the upper Black river, diverted from its original northern course for this purpose. Many streams, im- portant to the people of the State, in the aid they bring to great industrial enterprises, although of less general importance and far- reaching influence than the Hudson or the Mohawk, flow out from the Adirondack forests to the St. Lawrence. It is not necessary to discuss here the question of the influence of forests upon the flow of rivers. Science long ago pronounced,upon this subject, which now, moreover, seems te be fully understood in all its bearings by the people of this State. The future of the - rivers which flow from the Adirondack plateau may be judged by their past. Great changes have been noticed in these streams since the area of the Adirondack forests has been materially reduced. All the testimony which the Commissioners have been able to collect upon this subject indicates that the summer flow of the Adirondack rivers has decreased within the memory of men now living, from thirty to fifty per cent. Many of thesmall streams, which a quarter of a century ago were abundantly supplied with water during the entire summer, are now usually dry during many months. It is re- ported by competent observers that the flow of all the Adirondack streams becomes more uncertain and irregular every year, and that the damage from spring floods and summer droughts is increasing. This is the effect of forest destruction in the past. The evil may be expected to increase under the existing condition of affairs more rapidly in the future than it has increased in the past.*% The reason is obvious. The highest ground from its elevation and temperature compels the largest precipitation of moisture. The most important reservoirs of supply for the Adirondack rivers are upon the high ground about their sources where the rain-fall is heavier and more evenly distributed than at lower elevations. The * The Superintendent of the New York Central and Hudson River railroad, reports that when the railroad was first built up the Hudson, water was taken from the river at low tide, at Peekskill, for the locomotives. Later, how- ever, the water at this point became so impregnated with salt as to be unfit for use. And now the salt water extends as far up the river as Tivoli, showing, it is argued, that the volume of fresh water now coming down the Hudson is much less than formerly ; and that since 1850 the amount has gradually decreased. ''8 [ AssEMBLY destruction of the forest, however, has, up to the present time, been confined, or largely confined, to the borders of the plateau; the high ridges and slopes of the interior still bear their forest covering. The forests which control the water which falls upon the high Adi rondack mountains have hardly been disturbed by the agency of man. And yet it is seen that the destruction of the forests of the far less important lower water-sheds of these streams has reduced their summer flow fully thirty per cent. It is not difficult to foresee, therefore, what must happen to the rivers when the destruction of the forest reaches the high ground which crowns the plateau, or what must be the effect upon the commercial, industrial and mechan- ical interests of the State, when the controlling portions of the Adi- rondack forests are exterminated. Tue Aprronpack “ Resort.” The first claim of these forests for existence is well founded in the duty which they perform as great natural reservoirs. Only second in importance to this is the part which they play in making the Adi- rondack plateau attractive. Many thousand persons visit every year the Adirondack lakes and mountains in pursuit of repose, recreation and health. The whole region is one of the most accessible, salutary and enjoyable summer “ resorts” in the United States. The num- ber of persons who visit it is growing rapidly, and the number of such visitors may be expected to increase much more rapidly in the future than it has in the past. Greater wealth and population, a growing appreciation of the enjoyment of out-door life, and better means of transportation than now exist, must vastly increase the nnmber of persons anxious to pass a portion of every summer in the woods; and nowhere else in the United States can this object be more freely or easily accomplished. The transporting, feeding, housing and guiding the Adirondack tourists has grown into a large and lucrative business. Millions of dollars are invested in it; and thousands of persons draw from this business their principal support. The tourist business is now the principal and permanent element of prosperity in the Adirondack region; it is still almost in its in- fancy. The existence of this business is dependent upon the exist- ence of the forests. They make the Adirondack region attractive ; they protect the game which still abounds in some portions of the plateau, and supply the element of wildness, —the charm which draws people to visit this region. '' No. 36] oe 9 If the forests are destroyed, if the desolation which now every- where marks the outer border of the forest, is allowed to extend over the entire plateau, this great lucrative business, capable of vast and permanent development, will be lost forever to the State, while the public will be deprived of the opportunity to enjoy the benefits which a visit to the Adirondack woods now offers. Tur Lumper Inpustry. The manufacture of Jumber cut in the Adirondack woods and the gathering of other crops of the forest 1s a valuable and important industry to the State. This business employsa considerable capital and a large number of men, both in the woodsand at the manufactur- ing centers located on the banks of the principal streams flowing from the Adirondack plateau. It is needless, perhaps, to point out that the life of this business is also dependent upon the life of the forests ; and if these are destroyed, this whole business will disappear, and the capital now invested in the mills and tanneries engaged in manufacturing the product of these forests will be lost. In this connection moreover, it must be borne in mind that lumber becomes every year more difficult to obtain throughout the world; that its value in the future must increase in at least the same proportion as it has increased in the past quarter of a century ; and that the advan- tage, from a purely commercial point of view, of retaining in per- manent forest, regions adapted to produce forests and nothing else, will be greater as the value of forest products advances under the stimulating influence of increased demand and decreased supply. The Adirondack region, if the experience of other countries in forest management teaches any thing, could be made to maintain and increase, under a wise and comprehensive policy, the annual out-put - of lumber without serious injury to the forests as reservoirs of moist- ure or as health resorts for the people; and it is clearly in the in- terest of the owners of forest property as well as for the people of this State to encourage the adoption of any system of management which will insure such results. : Errecrs or Forrest Destruction. It must appear to the most casual observer of the present com- mercial development of the State, that the destruction of the Adiron: dack forests will prove a serious calamity. If this destruction is al- [Assem. Doc. No. 36.] 2 ''102 : [ ASSEMBLY lowed, the State will feel the effect in empty rivers and increased droughts. A vast region will be deprived of its only permanent source of wealth, and its inhabitants must gradually sink into a con- dition of great misery and dependence. Its future lies in the Adirondack forests ; if these are eee its prosperity will dis- appear forever. ConDITION OF THE ADIRONDACK ForEstTs. Various causes have produced and are still producing the destruc- tion of the Adirondack forests. RESERVOIRS. Considerable areas of Adirondack forests in different localities and at different times have been destroyed by the construction of reser- voirs built in the hope of increasing the flow of rivers at periods of low water. The custom is a bad one, rarely followed by success commensurate with the cost. The effect of the back water created in this way is disastrous to scenery and natural beauty, while the mass of rotting vegetation it develops is highly injurious to human health. The proper reservoirs for the Adirondack region are the natural woods, and the State might wisely devote its energies to ‘their protection rather than in oentios large sums of money in creating reservoirs destructive of property and dangerous to human ‘life as long as they last, and which sooner or later, released by some unusually severe flood, Pecome doubly destructive in their own de- struction. MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL. The manufacture of charcoal on a considerable scale has long been practiced in the Adirondack woods, and especially in the re- gion adjacent to the shores of Lake Champlain. It is the custom, in cutting wood for charcoal, to clear off the forest, taking small as well as large trees. In this way large tracts of land are every year laid bare; still if fire could be pa from running through the debris left thickly scattered over the ground behind the wood-chop- pers, no permanent injury to the forest would follow even this wholesale cutting of the charcoal burner, so favorable is the climate to the development of forest growth. LUMBERING. Lumbering in the Adirondack forests has long been practiced. Pine and spruce were cut from the valley of the Hudson river and '' "No. 36.] It the shores of Lake Champlain early in the present century. Log cutting hasbeen practiced for many years along the banks of all streams flowing from the Adirondack plateau; and recently such operations, stimulated by the high prices obtained for low-grade lumber, under the existing tariff law, have greatly increased. The heart of the wilderness has been penetrated by the log-cutter. Lum- bering operations are now common in regions which a few years ago were considered inaccessible. Trees are cut from the shores of the most remote mountain lakes, and one by one slowly and tediously - floated to market down slender and tortuous streams. No part of the Adirondack forest is now too remote from a stream capable of being driven, or too broken or inaccessible in sur- _ face to defy the zeal and energy of the lumberman. The value of - lumber in the city of New York, and not the difficulty of obtain- ing it, controls his operations in the woods. “The lumbermen, how- ever, have inflicted little direct damage upon the Adirondack forests. These forests are principally composed of deciduous hard-wood trees. The sugar maple, the yellow birch, and the beech are the prevailing trees in the southern and eastern portions of this forest, while west and north the beech is the most common species. Among these are dispersed white and red pines, generally forming small and usually isolated groups occupying low, gravelly ridges, and spruce and hemlock widely scattered among the deciduous trees. ‘The hemlock is the most common toward the valley of the Black river. Swamps and low banks of streams are occupied by balsam, tamarack, and toward the north and west by yellow cedar. The high peaks and ridges above 3,000 feet elevation are generally cov- ere] with a stunted growth of balsam and spruce of small size and little commercial value. The spruce, the pine, and the hemlock, known as ‘‘ soft-woods,” are the only trees which have, up to the present time, been cut for lumber. The stores of maple, birch and beech contained in these forests have so far escaped the axe of the lumberman. Their trunks are too heavy to float, and cannot, there- fore, like lighter woods, be floated down the streams; while the price of hard-wood lumber has not yet justified the adoption of any more expensive method than floating for getting it to market. The _ proportion of “soft-woods ” in these forests is small, probably rarely exceeding five per cent of the whole forest growth; and as these are the only trees cut for lumber, serious injury is not directly in- flicted by lumbering... The “ soft-woods” can be cut without taking from the forest its ''~ 12 [ASSEMBLY power to absorb and retain moisture, and without greatly interfer- ing with its general attractiveness. The injury which the lumber- men have inflicted in the Adirondack woods is not in cutting trees ; what they have cut would hardly have been missed from the forest. The. danger to the Adirondack forests from lumbering, as now prac- ticed (and it is a serious and alarming danger), is this: lumbermen are forced in their operation to leave the branches and other debris scattered over the ground, and thus they increase immensely the danger of forest fires. Forrest Fires. Fires are slowly and surely destroying the Adirondack forests. Unless they can be stopped or greatly reduced in number and vio- lence, nothing can prevent the entire extermination of these forests. They are most common and destructive along the borders of the forest ; they do comparatively little injury in the denser growth of the interior. If the Adirondack forests are destroyed, they will perish from the outside . Oricin oF Forest Fires. * These fires owe their origin to many causes. Often they are started in the carelessness of guides, travelers and hunters. Fires originating in this way, however, are less common now than formerly, and as they usually occur in the interior, where dense and heavy undergrowth checks their rapid spread, except dur- ing the short period in the spring between the melting of the snow and the unfolding of the leaves—a season of the year when trav- elersand hunters do not greatly visit the woods — the damage caused by such fires is rarely far reaching. Freres in Loaaine Cames. Fires started among the debris of the logging camps on the char-’ coal field find abundant material to feed their flames and every year destroy-immense tracts of forest. Such fires generally owe their origin to carelessness. Cases are not unknown, however, where fires have been started among the debris left by lambermen in order! to remove, in the destruction of the forest, all traces of operations illegally carried on upon lands belonging to the State. '' No. 36.] | is Fires Ser sy Locomortives. Fires are often set by sparks from locomotive engines; and great damage has been done along the outskirts of the forest in this way. Frees Set By AGRICULTURAL SETTLERS. The largest number of forest fires, however, in the Adirondack region, as in other parts of the State, are set by agricultural settlers clearing with fire fields covered with timber. A time of drought, when timber will burn most readily, is naturally selected by the settler to start his fire. He seldom regards the direction of the wind or the condition of the atmosphere. The fire fairly estab- _ lished in the piles of, dry brush and fallen timbers, unwatched, and often entirely uncontrollable, almost inevitably spreads from the field - to the adjacent forest. Thousands of acres of forest lands are thus burned over every year in attempts to clear a few wretched fields, from which the timber should never have been stripped. Errreots or Aprronpack Forest Fires. These fires have burned a desert belt about the remnants of the Adirondack forests; every year sees its gradual extension. This is not an exaggerated danger. The forests, upon which the great rivers of the State depend for their water supply ; the forests, which bring into the State thousands of travelers every year and support the population of several counties, are being destroyed in a vain and hopeless struggle on the part of a small and impoverished popula- tion to cultivate land unfit for all agricultural crops, and destined by nature to remain perpetually covered with forests. GeneraL Errects or Forest Figs. Forest fires do more than consume timber; they change the na- ture of the surface soil and deprive it of the ability to produce a sec- - ond growth of the trees which they destroy. When the maples, beeches and pines of the Adirondack forests are burned, these trees do not _ appear again. They are followed by a growth of brambles which soon cover the soil; these in time give way to poplars, wild cherries and other inferior trees of no economic value. Sugar maples rarely spring up from low ground. This new growth, unless destroyed by fire, is in time followed by another, in which appear trees of the species which composed the original forest. Such a rotation of for- est crops, however, necessarily occupies long periods of time, and ''- 14 [ ASSEMBLY years must elapse before a forest destroyed by fire can,even under the most favorable conditions, be replaced by a new forest of similar composition. Land, however, upon which the timber has been de- stroyed by fire rarely escapes subsequent burning. A second fire runs more easily and rapidly than the first over the ground cleared of its protecting covering of undergrowth, and finds abundant fuel in the half-charred trunks which the first fire only partially con- sumed. Each subsequent fire spreads more rapidly and easily; the surface soil is gradually rendered unfit to produce plants of any sort, or is washed into the streams; rocky slopes are laid bare, and whole regions, once valuable in the forests which they supported, are made worthless forever. Denupep Aprronpack Lanps. | : The effects of continual burning upon the light soils of the Adiron- dack region may be seen all along the water-shed of the Hudsen river and its tributaries, from Luzerne to the southern slopes of the principal Adirondack range of mountains. They may be seen in the sandy wastes stretching between the Black river and the present western limit of the forest, and in the north-east where the manufac- ture of charcoal has made forest fires common and destructive. The hills through which the Hudson flows after its rapid descent down the flanks of Mt. Marcy, were once covered with noble forests of maple and birch ; pines occupied the sandy intervals; the spruce and hemlock, scattered through the forests of these hills, supplied the manufacturer of lumber with logs, and the tanner with bark. These hills are now mere piles of bare rock, stripped of vegetation, or only supporting a growth of weeds and bushes, feebly pushing from holes and crevices; déstitute of soil, terrible in the very hope- lessness of their ruin and destruction. Fire has reduced these hills to their present condition. What. fire has done in the past it will do in the future, and so long as these fires are allowed to rage, nothing can prevent the extermination, at no very distant day, of the whole Adirondack forest. The preservation of this forest is reduced to a. question of the possibility of preventing forest fires. If they can be stopped, this forest can be preserved; if they. are allowed to go go on, nothing can prevent its early and total ruin. Tur Forests oF THE CaTsKILL REGION. The forests of the Catskill region are not unlike in actual condi- tion those covering the hills which mark the southern limits of the '' DENUDED HILLS OF THE HUDSON WATERSHED '' '' No. 36.] 15 Adirondack plateau. The merchantable timber and the hemlock bark were long ago cut, and fires have more than once swept over the entire region, destroying the reproductive powers of the forest as originally composed and ruining the fertility of the thin soil, cover- ing the hills. The valleys have now, however, all been cleared for farms, and forest fires consequently occur less frequently than for- merly. A stunted and scrubby growth of trees is gradually repos- sessing the hills, which, if strictly protected, may sooner or later develop into a comparatively valuable forest. The protection of _ these forests is, however, of less general importance than the preser- vation of the Adirondack forests. The possibility of their yielding merchantable timber again in any considerable qnantities is at best remote; and they guard no streams of more than local influence. Their real value consists in increasing the beauties of summer resorts, which are of great importance to the people of the State. Dancer rrom New Mernops or Lumprrina. It is true, that lumbering, as at present carried on in the Adiron- dack forests does not, perhaps, always greatly affect their permanency, There is every indication, however, that the existing methods must soon change, as the demands for hard-woods increase. The Northern Adirondack railroad has already been built several miles into the forest by a firm of lumbermen, with the avowed purpose of furnish- ing transportation for hard-woods which abound along its line. The _ most enterprising lumbermen are already endeavoring to secure a profitable market for their hard-woods; and it is inevitable that in a : very short time the demand for beech, maple and birch will jus- tify the construction of narrow-gauge logging railroads or tramways toall parts of the forest; and that the general introduction éf such roads must be followed by their general extermination. SucGEstions For Preservinc THE ADIRONDACK FOREST. The value of the Adirondack forests has been explained, their. present conditions and the dangers which threaten them described ; it now remains to discuss the methods which it seems wise, under the circumstances, to adopt, if any attempt is to be made to check the ruin of these forests clearly doomed: to destruction unless some- thing is done to arrest the causes operating against their existence, State Ownersurp. The Commissioners ‘are not prepared to recommend the pur- ''1G | ASSEMBLY chase or condemnation of wild lands by the State. The practical objections to any such scheme seem to them insuperable. It will not be denied that the future permanence of these forests cannot be abso- lutely insured except through State ownership and control. Ex- perience has shown that private ownership means — sooner or later — forest destruction. Individuals will cut down their forests, or allow them to burn up, when it is for theirinterest to do so, without re- gard to public welfare. Thespirit of American Jaws and the sen- timent of the American people are opposed to any State interference with the enjoyment by individuals of the right to do as they please with their own. Public sentiment is not ready to acknowledge that the State can rightly interfere in the management of forest property, or that the owners of such property in its treatment owe any thing to neighbors or descendants. It is probably impracticable to regu- late by law the cutting or planting of trees on the land of individu- als, or impose upon them by act of Legislature methods of forest management. It must be conceded that if the people of this State are convinced that the preservation of the Adirondack forests is es- sential to their future prosperity, there is but one way by which they can be certain of accomplishing that end. Absolute control can be insured only by absolute purchase. There are forest estates in the Adirondack region which are, and for many years have been, wisely and. economically managed. Such management, however, lacks the guaranty of permanency. The death of an individual ora. change in the condition of the timber trade may at once throw any of these estates into the hands of mere speculators, who, like too many owners of Adirondack property, are content to remove all merchant- able timber from the land as fast as possible, and then permit it to return to the State for unpaid taxes. Powerful as are these con- siderations, the practical embarrassments, however, in the way of any | general State purchase seem to the Commissioners decisive. The enormous expenditure that would be required, and the danger of | artificially enhancing the value of such lands for the sake of a sale | to the State, have convinced the Commissioners that the State cannot : wisely enter upon any scheme of general purchase. Stare PurcuaseE or Forests. e é i The Commissioners believe that, under different circumstances the State might acquire the whole Adirondack forest by purchase : ; and that the price of such a purchase, if the forest could be effici- + '' No. 36.] ee Ag ently managed by the State, would be returned, directly and indi- rectly, to the people a hundred fold. The securing at the present time effectiye State management of forests is too doubtful, however, in connection with the other considerations already advanced, to justify them in recommending the State to purchase these lands at the exorbitant prices which owners, in the hope of selling to the State, now place upon them. State control of forests, in any proper meaning of the term, has never been attempted in the United States. It will be wise to make the first. experiment upon a small scale, and without large expenditures in advance of assured success. The State already ownsin the aggregate no inconsiderable part of the Adirondack forest ; and its not improbable that its holding will be very largely sAaeeined during the next few years by the voluntary relinquishment, in lieu of payment of taxes, of land from which the soft-woods have been cut. The State should first demonstrate its ability to protect the forests which it already owns, and develop a wise system of forest management applicable to these lands, before the question of the purchase of other lands of the same character can be seriously considered. Present MansaGemMent or StatEe LAnNps. There is nothing in the past management of its wild land by the State to justify their increase by purchase at this time. Little attention has ever been paid to thé care of these lands. As their bounds have not been marked attempts to guard them from depre- dation have naturally been unsuccessful. The State lands every- where offer opportunity and inducement for theft. The existing system encourages idleness; it educates people living near them to feel that it is right to use as much of the public property as they can safely appropriate to their own uses; and it pauperizes a consid- erable population. There are settlements along the border of the forest where it is an open boast that the population live almost en- tirely upon the products of the State lands. Trees are cut on these lands for shingles and lumber. The wood is habitually taken for domestic use, and often for market. The forests suffer under the present management, and the people of the region are degraded. ImeortTANcE OF Protectrina Strate Forssts. The rigid protection of the forests still covering lands. belonging to the State, or which, it is probable, must soon be relinquished to [Assem. Doc. No. 36. ] 3 ''ee ce ‘[AssemBLy the State, and the gradual growth of trees upon lands now denuded, which will naturally follow the decrease of fires, will accomplish, if not all, at least something in the direction of preserying for the people of the State the advantages which they derive from the ex- istence of the Adirondack forests. The State forests, thus extended and protected, may be expected to check any further considerable degradation of the principal rivers of the State, and will afford abundant opportunity for the enjoyment by the people of the pleas- ures and benefits of sylvan retreat. The lumber product, however, would, during a long period of years and for the whole region un- doubtedly be much larger under uniform State administration than if cut by individuals without regard to the maintenance of the sup- ply. Itis hardly the function of the State, however, to become a lumber producer, except so far as lumber production is incidental to the protection of forests essential to public safety. Private owners of forest property must be left to regulate the supply of timber by the demand, and devise and put into execution the methods neces- sary for the development of their property. The protection of rivers is the aim and excuse for forest ownership by the State; and the production of lumber should be made secondary to this control- ling purpose. : Oxsections ro Present System. The management of the public forest must be shielded from the effects of political change so far as it is practicable to do so, if the State desires to obtain the best results from its ownership. The care and improvement of forest property, in order to be effective, should be based upon some well-considered system, requiring in its development a long series of years, and demanding an administra- tion of thoroughly trained, skillful and enthusiastic officials. The duties which belong to the complete guardianship of the forest preserve obviously have a close relation to the duties of the Comptroller. This was recognized by the Legislature at its last session in committing to him the initiative of the present investi- gation. The executive of the proposed forest law, will, upon the plan now to be submitted, have the custody of a great part of the public domain. He will probably have the collection of some reve- nue from sales of timber which is cut for the better preservation of the remaining trees. He will have to discharge very important functions with relation to the non-payment of taxes upon forest lands, and with relation to the proper assessment for taxation of ia ages Radi '' No. 86. 19 State lands within the forest preserve. The work of the forest exec- utive, however, will, especially at the outset, be of a character re- quiring undivided official attention, a careful study of business and scientific problems which are new in this country, the opportunity to conduct, without interruption, experiments stretching over several years, and a good knowledge of the varied relations of the forest problem as well as of the general interests of the State. The Comp- troller rarely holding office for more than one or at most two terms, and occupied in various and perplexing duties, cannot, therefore, be expected to insure the execution of the permanent policy essential for the wise management of forests. The incumbent of an elective office of such importance has neither the time to organize nor the power to maintain the far-reaching system of forest control which the importance and necessities of the case demand. _ Importance oF A Forrest Comission. The Commissioners believe that the wild lands now belonging to the State, or which the State may acquire from time to time, can only be safely administered by a Commission. Such a Commission should be non-political in character. Its members should serve for considerable periods of time, in order that a fixed policy may be in- sured. Absolute power of appointment and dismissal of subordi- nates should be vested-in the Commission; without such power they would be helpless to secure effective forest administration. The reward of the office of Commissioner must be found in the consciousness of the performance of great public services, and not in the hope of pecuniary recompense. Men fitted to fill the re- sponsible position of Forest Commissioner will find abundant honor in preserving the public forests and in inaugurating a broad system of forest control for the State of New York without seeking other reward, Salaries, however small, would bring an element of insta- bility into the composition of such a commission, and sooner or later defeat the purpose for which it was created. The present relations of the Comptroller to the wild lands of the State, and to the pro- posed work of the Commission, make it desirable ‘that the appoint- ment of the Forest Commissioners should be made by that officer ; and that he should have over them some power of removal. The Commissioners are aware that experience has led the public to doubt the executive efficiency of commissions or boards of several members. But the Forest Commission will not, like the Superin- ''20 SS [AssEMBLY tendent of Public Works, the Superintendent of the Capitol, or a Commissioner of Emigration, be a mere executive of a long-estab- ‘lished and well-defined duty. The Forest Commission will have a sort of legislative function. It is to devise regulations for the ad- ministration of a great public domain ; it is to lay down a general policy for such administration. It has an advisory and consulting function almost as important as its executive functions. A body - capable of inaugurating this great work must be composed of mem- bers representing different bodies of citizens, different trainings and different experiences. The singleness necessary to executive efliciency the Commission- ers propose shall be found in the forest warden, who is intended to be the active executive officer in the forest administration. He will represent the policy of the Commission, but should be left untrammeled in the execution of the details of his work. It is of the utmost importance that the forest warden should not be exposed to political vicissitudes or be deemed in any respect a political officer. He should, therefore, have no definite term of office beyond the pleasure of the Commission. The person selected for this position must have peculiar qualifications. He must have a good scientific training and excellent business ability. But be- yond these, he must bring to his office tact, vigor, firmness and the breadth and aptitude of mind which are needed at the inaugura- tion of any new policy. A very serious objection to the appointment of a forest warden or paid forest commissioner as an executive head for a fixed term is the grave doubt whether, with the utmost care on the part of the appointing authority, a man having the qualifications just mentioned will be at first selected. Some of these qualifications nothing but experience will develop; and the Forest Commission, it is to be pre- sumed, will not hesitate to make changes until the peculiar ability requisite in the forest warden is found. A fixed term, whatever might be the provisions for removal, would be a serious danger to the efficiency and success of the forest administration. And the decision as to the ability of the forest warden should be with a body whose sole official concern is with the forests. When such an officer is found properly equipped for the duties of the place, it would be wise to retain him. as long as his services are efliciently performed. He would certainly need many years, prob- | ably not less than ten, to establish and perfect any general system of forest treatment. '' No. 36.) 21 During several of those years the value of his services to the State would become greater and greater. The latter element it has also seemed wise to the Commissioners to recognize by increasing his salary year by year for six years. The same considerations have been applied to the less important officers in the forest administration. The proposal of the Commis- sioners is to establish these places upon a purely business basis and to remove them completely from the accidents of political and per- sonal changes. And unless this general idea prevail in the novel and critical work contemplated by the laws proposed, it is not rea- sonable to suppose that it will succeed. Nor can it be expected in that case that the enormous material interests of the State involved in the proper solution of the forestry problem will be adequately protected. TaxkEs on State Lanps. It appears from the report of the special committee on State lands in the Adirondack region, made to the Senate in January, 1884, that in 1873 the State owned 38,854 acres of wild land; that from 1873 to 1883 the area of State lands increased about 711,762 acres, making the total area of such lands in 1883 750,616 acres. This acquisition of land by the State took place almost en- tirely through the purchase of lands by the State tax at sales. There is little doubt that in the immediate future, if there be no change in the conditions of the Adirondack. wilderness, there will be added several hundred thousand acres to this domain of three-quarters of a million acres which the State now holds. It has been suggested that this tendency of lands to accrue to the State from the non-payment of taxes may possibly solve the forest prob- lem by making the State ultimately the owner of all the lands within the Adirondack forest. It is to be noticed, however, that this very acquisition of lands by the State which has occurred almost entirely within the last twelve years is the clearest and most striking demonstration of the destruction of natural wealth which has taken place in that region. These lands have fallen into the ownership of the State simply because they have been stripped of their merchant- able timber and rendered waste, and for many years to come practi- cally valueless. The lands which will come to the State hereafter through tax sales will likewise come because they will have suffered asimilar ruin. It is of vital moment to the State to put an end, if possible, to the temptation to strip the land of its forest wealth, ''22 oe © [ Asgeerery which the practical absence of an efficient collection of the taxes has created. Under the present law prevailing in the forest coun- ties the tax becomes collectible between November and February in each winter, and it is not until about four years from the succeeding summer that the State can completely divest the title of the owner who refuses to pay his taxes. This period of nearly four years and a half isthe minimum period required if the proceedings of the local authorities and of the Comptroller be conducted with the ut- most rapidity which the law permits. In practice, however, sales for unpaid taxes have been held at intervals of several years, rarely less than four and often as many as seven. It will be perceived, therefore, that the owner of forest lands in the Adirondack region who proposes to strip the lands of all their forest value and then to surrender them to the State will have a period of between five and ten years during which he has practically complete immunity from the payment of. taxes, and an enormous advantage over his compet- ing neighbor who may feel compelled. to pay iis taxes. This is practically what has been done. The lands acquired by the State have been acquired after their long abandonment. They have been acquired after the towns, the counties and the State have lost the taxes of many years, and the lands have finally fallen to the State stripped of merchantable timber, and requiring fully half a century for their restoration to a condition in which, under existing condition of the lumber business, they can have any commercial value. The Commissioners consider it to be obviously just between the State and its citizens, as well asa matter of the greatest moment to the welfare of the State, that the owners of lands in this wilderness who have decided to bear no'longer their fair share of the expenses of the government, shall not be permitted to waste and ravage the’ real estate which is in itself the only security the State holds for the payment of the taxes levied upon it. The third bill which the Commissioners have prepared proposes, therefore, to prevent the cutting or removing of timber from lands in the Adirondack region upon which the taxes are overdue. It proposes also to enable the Forest Commission, as part of their duty in the preservation of the forests, to directly enforce this law. There is nothing oppressive in such a provision. Forest land differs from building lots, farms and nearly all other lands in the State, in that its sole present and avail- able value consists in a growth which may be completely removed to '' the utter destruction of the value, although the land nominally re- mains. | It also-seems to the Commissioners obviously wise that the pro- ceedings for the collection of taxes upon forest lands in the Adiron- dack region should be much more efficient. Communication with the remotest part of this forest region is now more rapid than in former years, and there is no longer a valid reason why the delay should be so great in giving title to the State upon lands whose owners propose to abandon them. Forest lands are neither home- _ steads nor farms, and tax laws which may be properly indulgent to a farmer or the owner of a house ought to be made much more strict with respect to forest property controlled generally by large owners. It is no exaggeration to say that when an owner of forest lands has let the taxes for one year go into arrears, he has usually taken the first deliberate step toward a surrender of the lands, and the only doubt is to what extent he can, to his own profit, render the lands valueless before his surrender of them is complete. The Commissioners propose, therefore, in the third bill to reduce very greatly the delay in the proceedings upon the non-payment of taxes, and to make those proceedings much more certain and efficient, and to bar objections to the title of the State after a reasonably short time. There is no good reason why an owner of forest lands should be indulged more than one year after the taxes have become overdue, before his title is vested finally and absolutely in the State. This change will also afford a reasonable protection to the owners of property in the Adirondack towns, who now pay their taxes and are unjustly compelled to bear a steadily-increasing burden imposed upon them by owners, generally without permanent local interests, and desiring to seek new fields of operation as soon as they have completely stripped the old fields of their value. If the State speedily acquire sucn land, and then, as the Commissioners next proposed, if the State pay or bear the taxes upon the land, the in- habitants who honestly and promptly pay their taxes will be at once relieved of the unjust burdens of unpaid taxes which sooner or later fall upon them. It is only after the most careful and prolonged consideration that the Commissioners have concluded te recommend that the State hereafter bear taxes upon its lands in the Adirondack region. The Commissioners are aware that this is an unusual course fora govern- ~ ment to follow, with respect to its own lands. But the peculiar cir- '' sonnubies | in which they lie, bat in a much greater. tee for a enefit of the whole State. It is not, therefore, the case of acounty ourt-house, jail, asylum or other local institution. Nor is it the case of a single building or of a few buildings, which, like the Capitol or a State insane asylum, though benefitting the whole State more than the county in which it stands, still forms so incon- siderable a part of the real property of that county that if a tax were laid upon it, the tax would be no more than the share of benefit. which the county derives. In the Adirondacks the present lands of ne State are 4 considerable fraction of the lands in very many owns. By the bills now submitted a policy is proposed which will probably result in a considerably greater acquisition of lands by the State upon sales for taxes. Ultimately, therefore, there will prob- bly be the position of the State holding a large part of the prop- erty in the Adirondack towns which would normally pay taxes, and this holding would be chiefly for the benefit of the rest of the State. It is to be observed, also, that when the State becomes the owner of lands upon the plan now considered, the State assumes many of the advantages of a private owner which ought, in common fair- ness, to carry with them the corresponding burdens. The roads in the Adirondack region will afford access and protection to the State lands. The courts, offices and officials of the Adirondack counties will be constantly used by the State in the protection. of its domair and in the assertion and establishment of rights with respect thereto, recisely as they are used by private citizens. It is not unreason- ble, therefore, that the State should, up to the extent of taxes upon the lands which it holds in these counties, bear a proportion of. the expenses of local administration whose benefits it receives. The Commissioners, as has been intimated, believe, as did. the eéusie committee of 1883, and as is believed by nearly all who have studied the problem, that default in the payment of taxes will bring to the State, from time to time, considerable acquisitions of land. If the State do not pay ‘or bear taxes upon these lands, then the re- aining owners in the various Adirondack towns will see their bur- dens steadily increase without any increase to them of the benefits 1ich taxation purchases. It is qeeicus, however, if the general scheme of administration '' ‘of State lands now proposed be not adopted, that the reason for an = ae assumption of taxes by the State disappears. There is annexed to this report, in Appendix A, tables showing — the total area of wild lands in the Adirondack region and the taxes _ levied thereon in the year 1883. These tables have been prepared by Mr. William H. Sanger, of the Comptroller’s office, to whose large and varied information upon this subject and upon many matters relating to the State lands in the Adirondacks, and to whose zealous and intelligent labors the Commissioners feel them selves greatly indebted. The tables are, of course, not entirely ac- curate, but are sufficiently so to furnish a reasonably close estimate of the annual amount the State may be called upon to pay for taxes. The total acreage of wild lands in the Adirondacks is about 3,- 600,000. The taxes for 1883 upon these lands was about $113,000. If the average of value of 750,000 acres of lands now owned by the State were as high as the general average, the State would have to pay or bear annually for taxes about one-fifth of $113,000, or about $23,000. But doubtless many, if not most, of the State lands are re- cently abandoned and wasted lands, and, therefore, worth consider- ably less than the average of the wild or forest lands. So that at the present scale of valuations, it is doubtful whether the State would have upon the lands it now owns to bear more than an annual payment of about $15,000. And this or a somewhat greater payment the Commissioners be lieve would be a very slight price for the State to pay for the advan tages which a sense of fair dealing by the State in the Adirondack region would bring to the plan which it is now proposed to estab- lish, This plan must be largely dependent for its usefulness and success upon the support of public opinion in the region of the for-— est preserved. The Commissioners are thoroughly convinced, in- deed, that apart from questions of taxation, the proposed forest preserve will add materially to the permanent prosperity of the Adirondack counties. But this is not the main reason which induces the State to consider the present plan for forest preserva- tion ; and it is an insufficient reason for the State, through an arbi- trary exercise of its sovereign power, to refuse to contribute to the support of counties and towns, the benefit of whose institutions it proposes as a great land owner to share. The necessity of making the establishment of State titles more certain is too well known and obvious to need argument. The third [Assem. Doc. No. 36.] 4 ''Se tite GEL Te. Ie meg VOR AE NALS tolabe Sage Se Oi ee te fre hee ge rege ee oat Oe ees” : [ASSEMBLY - proposed law provides, therefore, that after reasonable opportunity | to attack the State title and pay accrued taxes, the Comptroller’s deed shall become conclusive evidence of title. Necessity oF GeneraLt Forest Laws. It is desirable that private owners of forest and wild landsas well as officers of the State should be invested with more authority to protect their property, under the law, than they now possess. Protection AGAINST SETTLERS. The owners of such property need protection against persons clearing iand by fire without regard to the safety of their neighbors’ forests. The protection of forests is impossible unless the unre- strained practice of setting such fires can be prevented. PROTECTION AGAINST TRESPASS. Owners of forest property require more power than the law now affords them to secure the punishment of trespassers upon their Jands, to prevent the setting of fires in their forests, and to stop the eutting and killing of trees. Comeputsory Bornine or Desris In THE ForREsT. It has often been suggested that lumbermen in this State should be compelled by law to gather and carefully burn branches, chips and other debris left by them in their logging camps. The pres- ence of such debris in the forests isan element of great danger and inereases enormously the probability of destructive forest fires. The impossibility, however, of collecting and burning such refuse in the Adirondack forest at least, as long as only the soft-woods are cut, will be apparent to any one familiar with these forests. It is rare that more than ten treesare ever cut to the acre by lumbermen, and the enforced burning of the debris of these trees in the midst of a dense forest would be a greater source of danger to the growing timber than if left to rot upon the ground. In the former case, forest fires would be practically inevitable; in the latter case, there would always be a chance that the debris might become covered with uninflammable undergrowth, or its combustibility lessened by decay before the spark of some careless settler or hunter might ignite it. In cases where a considerable portion of the forest is cut '' at once, as in . cutting for charcoal, the danger of £ firing the debris would disappear, and such a plan might ly be adopted. ¢ DancEeR FROM RAILROADS. It has already been pointed out that many forest fires originate from the sparks of locomotive engines. The damage to the State from this cause is widespread, and has already attracted the atten- tion of railroad managers. The railroads of the State of New York pay a large sum of money every year in fire damages. These are largely paid for injury inflicted upon growing timber, and represent the loss of material destroyed and not the injury sustained by the land from being burned over,— often a more serious calamity to the community than the mere loss of timber. Numerous attempts have ‘been made to overcome this evil, through the adoption of some efficient spark consumer which could be used on locomotives with- out interfering with their power of generating steam. None of the contrivances yet tried have been satisfactory in all particulars ; and it does not appear wise at this time to enact any compulsory legis- lation, looking to the general adoption by the railroads of spark consumers — desirable as such legislation might be in the case of their refusing to adopt a gecesi efficient invention. This, how- ever, the most intelligent railroad managers are already anxious to — do for their own protection ; and the treatment of this question can for the present at least be safely left to them. When a really efli- cient and economical contrivance is found, it will be wise to make its general adoption compulsory by legislative action. SUMMARY. ~ The Commissioners are convinced that a portion of the Adiron- dack forest is essential to the welfare of the State, and that its pres- ent holding of wild lands should be strictly preserved and protected. They do not believe, under existing circumstances, that the State should acquire wild lands by purchase, except at tax salés. They believe that the State forests cannot be longer protected under the present system, and that the appointment of a Forest -Commission with abundant power is essential to secure their per- manency. They believe that the laws regulating the sale of wild land on account of unpaid taxes shouldbe modified, so as to prevent the destruction of the property, while the taxes remain unpaid; to ''28 ; _ [ASSEMBLY hasten the proceedings for sales of lands for such unpaid taxes, and to perfect the title of the State to the lands it now owns or hereafter acquires upon such sales. They believe that the State should bear in common with inva uals the proportion of taxes assessable on its lands. They believe that greater security than now exists under the law for the protection of forests should be given to the owners of wild and forest lands, and that trespassers upon such property should be promptly punished. They have prepared a series of bills (see appendices B, C, and D), which contain the important features of the scheme of forest man- agement which they recommend. Your attention is invited to the consideration of these bills. The Commissioners believe that they will be found to contain no provisions conflicting with any vested interests, and that no honest citizen will be injured by their passage. Laws, however, are not all that is necessary, and forests cannot be preserved by legislative action alone. A forest law, to effect its purpose, must rest on a broad and solid basis of public interest. The only real safety for the forest will be found in the appreciation of its value by the community. Dated Axsany, January 23, 1885. CHARLES 8. SARGENT. D. WILLIS JAMES. EDWARD M. SHEPARD. '' 29 To Hon. Aurrep ©. Caapin, Comptroller : The undersigned dissents from that portion of the report of the majority of the Commission appointed under the provisions of chap- ter 551 of the Laws of 1884, to investigate and report a system of forest preservation, which recommends the passage of an act authorizing the appointment of a commission of three to serve with- out compensation, who shall be vested with power to appoint and remove at pleasure the superintendent, forest wardens and other officers and employees necessary to carry out the provisions of the proposed act; and also dissents from the reasoning and arguments advanced by the majority in their report in support of the appoint- ment of such commission. The undersigned believes that a single responsible head should be appointed by the Governor to carry into effect the proposed legislation and thus obviate the evil effects which flow from “ divided counsels and divided responsibility.” A three-headed non-paying commission meeting only occasionally would be an entirely useless and unnecessary body and an embar- rassment rather than a help to a competent executive officer having the actual charge of the forests. It is well known that the work of non-paying State boards of commissions is chiefly done and the busi- ness planned and conducted by the secretary or other paid officer ; and whether it be well or poorly done depends not so much upon the character and ability of the board as upon the efficiency, integ- - rity and competency of its paid executive officer. I, therefore, re- spectfully recommend a modification of the proposed act in accord- ance with the views above expressed. In other respects I concur with the majority report and approve the recommendations contained therein. W. A. POUCHER. '' '' APPEN DEX eT SEAT: EMEN de i the acreage of forest or wild and cleared or improved lands in the Adirondacks, with the assessed ie in 18 of each class, compiled from reports of the assessors of the vartous towns. CLINTON County. se Moriah . TOWNS. via. a clencea gant geehas hs acreage. PAUROMP Heo Sc ce oie ss cM e e a oie 10, 799.95 $16, 995 00 POT 3 es 0 $241, 338 00 61, 93 PINUS OIE OE oss eae e bate ac. Sets 13, 120 75, 000 OO II, 130 23, 410 00 24, 25 HBG DlOOK ance oc seen cee aes 29, 407 42, 680 00 Bi, 512 252, 401 00 8 MGIMUON an ete cn eens soe 14, 876 17,985 00 25, 6o1 162, 711-00! Dir rs 30, 164.50 64, 216 00 A, 122 88, 465 00 PCM Od ese oa sie ewe cre weeks as 44, 132 198, 594 00 19, 152 153, 216 00 PAGE eho eas vue te re 15, 813 40, 375 00 29, 347 664, 820 00 DATA AC is se eo ver eats Soe 22, 875 27, 070 00 40, 319 346, 430 00 OWA hte. sic Oo cs set yen eas 181, 187.45 $482, 915 00 232, 314.50 | $1, 932, 791 00 EssEx COUNTY. : Chesterield et eis itaeee sous ee 21, 500 $64, 500 00 21, 500 $761, 070 00 oe 14, 619 10, 390 00 30, 290 1, 185, 483 00: Elizabethtown... A sata SE ROAG eres rem eseesa 34, 934 55,030 00. 12, 661 287, 405 00 Ben se Oe Ce Oe Rs esis Ge eee nas 2, 677 9, 593 00 39, 009 419, 585 00 © ee Deeg let el 56, 752 45, 500 00 33,0207, ILI, 451 00 Soap ch 7g oe pk cat 22, 538.90 66, 580 00 20,435. © 4. 92. o9,. 661 00 _ Minerva.......... CATH L has hao 65, 564.10 68, 739 00 26,431.50 10) See us cue a eee 13, 398 19, 125 00 F ''APPENDIX A, § 1.— Continued. Essex County — Continued. TOWNS. dpsige or | Ame eo, | INEWCOMD. «cree « RO i ean ee ons oie 118, 484.30 $129, III OO 10, 498 $25, 215 00 128, 982.30 DORR Iea ya tice ev ak cian ete osc 35, 598.67 19, 871 00 12, 946.33 + 38, 839 00 48, 545 North TICS OM io vec core sie bh oe lvray « 84, 302 +84, 302 00 2, 500 17, 500 00 86, 802 SCHIQUR rece veer ves cen nee nenes 56, 395 45, 340 00 17, O41 201, 600 00 74, 036 EAN, ies cave ye uses ne ee on ee 10, 836 16, 615 00 6, 304. 34, 806 00 17, 140 Ticonderoga * Beipssiensnatins sik cos cater au ocanseen te outers 20, 500 20, 500 OO 28, 080 140, 400 00 48, 580 PUTRI LOM With ia s-eecce sea dong oats 20, 778 13, 908 00 13,955.25 48, 265 00 34, 733-25 POU Al wastes ioe wi eteeree wae nas ¥ dite 578, 876.97 | $669, 104 00 302, 222.08 | $7, 145, 973 00 881, 099.05 FRANKLIN COUNTY. gent Mor aan abies nea ns 77720 $77, 720 00 25, 000 $100, 000 OO 102,720 » ee MEK ie Grea) Vomace teat wraisia set a eins go, 169 180, 338 oo 19, 902.60 153, 451 50 110, 071.60 po COUN A eaveeniciny ers Stel of inceralare «hie sty. « 24, 125 14, 903 00 1, 728 12, O1I 00 28, 853 pusne, Beh coe ene erece nie de Sve weiyi el Grace ace 23, 740.75 40, 760 00 D7: 6, 550 00 26, 452.75 ren EE i die eet ee ohn weve gles 53, 843 5, 20a: OO. 15, 961 63, 844. 00 69, 804 pt ettetown ee es Lael era 86, 065 80, 068 00 11, 949 43, 254 00 98, O14 mene CSA 2) ee Weil oe ai, 6, 096 6, 150 00 24, 904 124, 520 00 31, 000 UST vec dar ses conNG wwii oie leunheioreiibiy ate eihis 107, 254.32 130, 344. 00 A2; 312.37 89, 285 00 149, 566.69 BO Ua lars re sa eh sineG pu ein cole taress 472, 013.07 | $1, 285, 566 00 144, 468.97 $592, 915 50 616, 482.04 eS x1anassy] '' ‘9g ‘ON ‘007 bey epee ASEAN eo Caroga - IPGL CG tosis eens etn ot ca ca eS tego nG ec ces oh eo eee nt tees skue en CC Ota ee OS Oats eee ces Ck a FULTON COUNTY. % Uo Arietta $y’... BENSON Ser hse ee ces Hope t . indian MG AINE So eee pis lois ence os © Lake Pleasant....... ce onpyicake, 25% Morehouse.. .. Wells . sweeter meer e eens seem ere m ee me ewe re rere rere sene eee eee ew tenes ee eee eo weet ewer er eee sree ee wwe wwe ee eee meee reewoeeorere TPOtal hoe ees Sestak Sees bake vee BRISA each ince arte is SGALISDMIN (5 ooo «vk o0e etna oes wee es Wilmurt ee a ee eg a te deat ct ous aig ee a 30, 787 $15, 393 00 1, 500.33 $31, 887 00 23, 000 18, 000 CO 6, 000 30, 000 00 9, 552 9, 552 00 27; 807.25 640, 787 00 24, 007 26, 483 00 17, 501 49, 605 00 87, 346 $69, 428 oo 52, 818.58 $752, 279 06 140, 164 HAMILTON CouNTY. 139, 200 $152, 000 00 1, 700 $18, 000 00 140, 9 16, 120 16, 120 00 9, 668 9, 185 00 a 308 10, 718 10, 718 00 20, 000 45, 000 00° : 108, 771 41, 246 00 13; 262 44, 671 00 82, 773 205, 330 00 10, 407 39, 104. 00 165, 086 275, O90 00 7, 035 50, 800 00 134, 597 149, 350. 00 1, 674 17, 401 00 92, 059 150, 830 00 3, 515 133, 877 00 749, 324 $1, 000, 684 00 67, 281 $458, 038 oo HERKIMER COUNTY. 14, 120 $15, 000 00 14, 880 $74, 400 00 41, 336 44, 030 00 26, 497 393, 242 00 447, 856 144,485 00 | 75S 17, 610 00 $03,312 | $203, §15 00 48,892, | $485, 252 00 ''LEWIS COUNTY. ‘ ag ses Total TOWNS, Wie leeics, ie sleated lead, Sc acteage. Croghan Scie sates aattialdle ee auee dielabete 50, 229 $51, 330 00 55, 595 $352, 220 00 105, 824. Diana Dg el Cae HEE ORO Cees 64, 272 42, 000 00 16, 800 35. 096 00 81, 072 (Ca destenchy san ae Siete hae quails y sand 28, 677 39, 148 00 21 776 72, 230 00 50, 453 TAVORBSOMIG gt woman saiaeiearic seein toss 24, 853 22, 709 OO 16, 673 66, 251 00 41, 526 USOW eee Cae siisaleaiee 6 Denes Coles 22).277. 17, 980 00 38, 940 133, 872 00 G1, 217 MOUs at ree Geis esa tees Kees Hs 190, 308 $173, 167 00 149, 784. $659, 669 00 340, 092 SARATOGA COUNTY, GOINU Me fue a vcs's en onan a eee an 5, 527 $9, 518 00 27, 305 $234, 136 00 32632 BY ieee vanvssesceectis cen oseday eves 14, 422 5,750 0O 25, 400 70, 065 00 39, 822 HPAMUDUTO Nett s cen as sis oe yethaioue: 20, 000 25077 00 16, 000 96, 000 00 36, 000 HAO W rads eteus Mii deg e cick sciences II, 500 9, 200 00 II, 500 103, 500 00 23, 000 DUOUEAM a cise ce MMe cei ava ieee ak wa tale 12, 000 12, 000 00 13,735 216, 263 00 25, 735 EOLA Lieu tree vales ik pwede wes eres 63, 449 $72, 445 00 93, 940 $719, 964 00 157, 389 St, LAWRENCE Country. Bye ieee cree swe case ee es 27,052 $31, 290.00 3, 168 $11, 020 00 30, 220 MOWERS 4 hos. ss oe Siete eH eis eerie eo 48, 664. 36, 498 oo 6, 336 31, 680 00 55, 000 Bd dinn 4s av anh « pine oot guecnk 154,759 185, 590 00 37, 109 310, 980 co 191, 868 PCy ies aieiy esd wea ea eae arp caah 96, 510 57, 760 00 5, 707 37,775 00 102, 217 FLOPEINUOR: Fin as oe 500 bo terece fraesneee Ge 131, 794. 190, 240 00 39, 856 323, 980 00 171, 650 PAMISHVANIC te cue ne eC eon nie hs 30, 043 60, 500 00 29, 495 452, 450 90 59, 538 VE ATanassy | ''PRCHRDORE a. os eG ei et eee PATUCAIEN 6 eco es Loe eed cas otal... CO a Bolton... ORE. ae tices Ad oareaieng ee Caldwelk.... Rea erat taue sara hoarse es POMS PUTED sae dco. e wn's lei ies ve oi HSUZEING eG. es iss Noses es ae een (OUESMSOULY qo. s Hose ce ns es cee § Stony Creek..........0... sees eee eens PPM ee oa ee os ies cy le WanrrenSBULP hs f:< vce. c se eee oa. POTESOEN (oh eee rece Siew BMOri A bs Ss os a ee oe wa coe as Pia cise sales see ee oe wee eee ee GAM MARYA tect cetcs bas oes 5 ne a: 2, 400 10, 410 00 34, 294 413, 810 00 36, 694% 21, 588 30, 410 00 14, 252 48, 440 00 35, 840 512, 810 $602, 698 oo 170; 217 $1, 630, 135 00 683, 027 WARREN COUNTY. 8, 020 $21, 310 00 22, 220.60 $350, 185 00 30, 248.50 13, 180 79, 080 00 5, 720 82, 359 00 18, 906 2, 189 5,525 00 46, 554 372, 586 00 48, 743 25, 792 12, 896 00 12, 896 14, 186 00 38, 688 7, 105 9, 885 00 30, 656 176, 712 00 37 FOL 69, 995 69, 995 00 69, 005 138, O10 OO 139, 000 6, 556 4, 500 00 28, 188 78, 451 00 34, 744 4, 462 25, 940 00 32,322 780, 340 00 36, 784 30, 000 15, 000 00 20, 000 35, 802 00 #50, 000 21, 574 20, 325 00 29, 289 47, 608 00 50, 863 20, 855 17, 550 00 14, 874 135, 184 00 35, 729 209, 728 $282, 006 00 BIT, 739: 50 | B2) 21 EA 2 3" 00 521, 466. 50 WASHINGTON COUNTY. 16, 670. 75 $12, 650 00 13, 989. 50 $130, 003 00 30, 660. 25° 33, 000 "76, OOO OO 33,000 198, 000 00 66, 000 15, 584 136, 084 00 3, 896 116, 880 00 19, 480 65,254.75 | $224,734 00 50, 885.50 | $444, 883 00 | 116, 140.25 3,613, 609.24 $5,066,262 oo 1,624, 562.13 | $17,033,322 50 | 5, 238, 171. 37. * Villages not included. + Estimated. '' APPENDIX A, § 2. [ASSEMBLY a STATEMENT of taxes for the year 1883, on forest or wild lands in the Adirondacks, tabulated from reports of county treasurers, and returns to the Comptroller's office. CLINTON COUNTY. Total based on TOWNS. Grae | toGiepee| Toms 1 ee cent of tax. Altona os. toss. $294 64 $563 10 $857 74 PIS AINE ee ois 15 18 5-03 Bit Black Brook........ 167 93 165 81 333 74 hppone os... 146 08 171 81 317 89 WaAaveMOlaAs.- 655... 455 93 308 o4 763 97 Bllenbureh ....-.. 2. 2,139 64 I, 720 05 3, 859 69 em ee 51 48 38 54 go 02 Sarmade 2. 6.6... 92 QI 160 08 5252.90 otal 2s. 34 $3, 363.79 | $3, 143,36 | $6, 507 I0 $9, 702 25 ESSEX COUNTY. hesterteid =... 52. $26 52 $45 21 $71 73 Crown Pomtss. . 2... 55 81 9 21 65 02 Elizabethtown....... 400 37 108 78 509 15 Maye ns he es 185 06 38 41 223 47 MPEG ee 1, 265 84 968 30 2,234 14 eS es ss 619 QI S123 75 743 66 WHCIVA = 20. 2s 5s 3,375 72 3, 685 26 7,060 98 Winns ss FE OZ 57. 42 128 44 WeweOmD <2. 5. Aes: 2,400 39 2, 419 O4 4, 819 43 Morn Elva... :... .. 872 52 950 64 T- 823-10 North Hudson...... I, 35400 I, 226 81 2, 580 81 BERIOOR 7.62 s...s- 588 47 307 13 985 60 Se Armand. —<: 25... 627 66 797 87 1,425 53 Ticonderoga....... 87 48 353 69 441 17 Wilmington ........ 320 03 [12 4Ol 15 PeGiAl + FRANKLIN COUNTY. Belmonts... 16... - $2, 487 86 $575 32 | $3,063 18 Beran GON ...c- @. se Ss 591 50 2,404 OI 2,995 51 Brighton <2. ..--..<- 61 07 744 72 805 79 BF iANe 2 eee 324 72 505 11 829 83 Peeling ot eos 121 81 1, 189 74 1, 311-55 Harnetistown.. .:.-< 146 08 540 99 687 07 Malone (S. 1-2)...... OL aAz 13 59 94 76 Waverly. secon ee 2,559 28 2,159 85 4,719 13 Ta 33. | $14, 506 82 | $14, 860 66 $6, 373 49 | $8, 133 '' > 3 Te ae FULTON COUNTY. APPENDIX A, § 2— Continued. Toial based on TOWNS. pede 1 Senedak, ok eee cent of tax. Bleecker 225. 3.8... $153 44 "$514 96 $668 4o REAL OG a ee Nee 380 II 194 95 575 06 eMayiield: oc) 508 38 92 80 13 119 05 mtraAnord:. sss: Res 163 62 610 38 774 00 pe Otals cso. ce $736 09 | $1,400 42 | $2,136 51 $2, 136 51 HAMILTON COUNTY. PATOL AY facts hee $1,175 85 | $4,215 64 | $5, 3901 49 WEUSON so. oss 100 66 I, 772,90 1, 873.50 Hope Sree eee ROT AT 53. O7 381 44 Tndian- Lakes... <: 2, 258 46 1, 872 73 4,131 19 Hake Pleasant... . 184 53 3,355 95 3, 540 438 daong Lake 3. 60050. 138 21 9, 256 64 9, 394 85 Morehouse. : =. 320 201 16 3, 436 97 arose els NViCMS aye Sock Foes 822 97 2, 293 27 3) EVO. 2a MRotals cae. oes. ‘$5, 209 31 | $26, 258 07 | $31, 467 38 | $31, 467 38 HERKIMER COUNTY. De ne eee $254 55 $113 97 $368 52 s AMS DULY .. che ase, 726-78 370: 75 ¥, 103 53 E Walmurt, << ws os 2, 365 94 1, 816 46 4, 182. 40 etal felt $3, 347 27 | $2,307 18 | $5,654 45 | $5,654 45 4 oe LEWIS CouNTY. PRAY i 5.5 5 Ghee Sos7 AG | kre $337 45 AAD oS. he 2; OO2 OA occ ie een 2, 962 84 UCI ees ccs I AZO AO eee eee: I, 430 49 bey ousdale 2.7... AOI SO" ace ees 361 59 NWACSON 7. yes ets O30 es ne eas 23h Tt Told os $5532: 4041 oe $5, 323 48 $7, 037 46 SARATOGA COUNTY. POOUNU oc. es oes $32 50 $69 92 $102 42 Wa ter 8S ee I 37 132 06 133 43 dinburph .. 2.352. 17 43 64 47 81-90 OMe eee. 24 00 46 14 70 14 MOVER 3 co. oo BD LOGE es ara 272 26, OLAL GS icra -$347 56 $312 59 | > $660 f5 $1, 123. 73 ''38 APPENDIX A, § 2— Continued. ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. [ASSEMBLY Paid in Returned Total based on assessed value TOWNS. county. to Comptroller. 7oak and rate per cent of tax. Clate: 2. 2+ .+-. +5. $445 79 $3 49 $449 28 iiOn 263.2. 496 22 225 21 721. 43 Pomon 2.20. i I, 146 19 1,074 32 2,220 Bi DAGe els eee 596 61 884 go 1,481 51 POPIciNhon fs ess I, 116 03 846 16 I, 962 19 Panishville . 72. 2... IQI 62 535. 196 97 Pictrepvnt - ees. 5s: - 76: 35 4 40 80 75 Presi 252 fo. es 448 73 564 83 F013 506 PROtAL. 2k aes e $4, 517 54 | $3,608 66 | $8,126 20 $8, 367 86 WARREN COUNTY. aPC ss ss v's $48 71 $43 OI $91 72 Reatewell.. yo c.5s-:s 104 88 4 76 109 64 CONS SS a ey BO Oye es 50 87 EaASUG f2 555.6. 8s. ss 112 24 292 93 405 17 PAOUCOU 2665 te se 63 90 Lr £3 75-03 dohnsbureh......-.. Z10 25 I, 984 10 2, 203 35 PeHZOiHe 2s .'s 72412 109 81 181 93 Oagcensbury....°.... TOLOO ts cs eS 70 00 SEOHY CICCK 0 5 39 40 887 97 627. 37. CAN So. es 80 49 1, 222516 I, 302 62 Warrensburgh...... 97 28 77.18 174. 47 SGtake 22s... $959 14] $4, 633 02 |- $5, 592 16 $7, 368 92 = WASHINGTON COUNTY.* Paden. .......... $123 43 $52 66 $176 09 Be AGE 225... 721 85 95 QI 817 76 Putnam 223s. S. PETORR OS [oe es I, 105 95 WTGtal. 25. land, shall forfeit treble damages to the party injured thereby. Every person so offending shall also be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on conviction, shall be piped by fine or imprisonment, or both, at the discretion of the court ; such _ fine not to-exceed one thousand dollars, and such imprisonment not to exceed one year. § 2. Whenever the woods in any town shall be on fire, it shall be the duty of the justices of the peace, the supervisors and the commissioners of highways of such town, and of each of them, to order such and so many of the inhabitants of such town liable to work on the highways, and residing in the vicinity of the place where such fire shall be, as they shall severally deem necessary, to repair to the place where such fire shall prevail, and there to assist in extinguishing the same or in‘stopping its progress. aS § 8. If any person so ordered to repair to and assist, in manner aforesaid, shall refuse or neglect to comply with any such order, he shall forfeit and pay the sum of fifty dollars, and shall also be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on con- viction, shall be punished by fine or imprisonment, or both, at the discretion of ' the court; such fine not to exceed one hundred dollars, and such imprisonment - not to exceed fifty days. _ § 4. Every forfeiture recovered under the last section shall be appliedasare- ward to such person or persons as the officers above mentioned, or a majority of them, shall deem best entitled thereto for superior exertions in extinguishing or stopping the progress of such fire. } Vide also section 414 of the Penal Code, which is as follows: § 414. Refusing to assist in extinguishing fire in the woods: A person who, having been lawfully ordered to repair to the place of a fire in the woods and assist in extinguishing it, omits, without lawful excuse, to comply with the order, is guilty of a misdemeanor. +The powers and duties of the Comptroller and the Commissioners of the Land — Office as to lands belonging to the State are to be found in 1 R.8., pp. 197-209 _ (articles first, second, third and fifth of chapter nine, part one);inchapter2680fthe — cs - nett chapter 61 of the Laws of 1831, and in chapters 18 and 470 of the aws of 1883. +. '' — arrest any person found upon the forest preserve violating any of the provisions of this act or any of the rules or regulations prescribed by the Forest Commission, as provided in section seven of this act ; but, in case of such arrest, the person making the arrest shall forthwith take the person arrested before a magistrate having jurisdiction to issue warrants in such case, and there make or procure to be made a complaint in writing, upon which complaint the magistrate shall act as the case may require. § 14. The Forest Commission may bring in the name or-on behalf of the people of the State of New York any action to prevent injury to the forest preserve or trespass thereon, to recover damages for such injury or trespass, to recover lands properly forming part of the forest preserve, but occupied or held by persons not entitled thereto, and in all other respects for the protection and maintenance of the forest preserve, which any owner of lands would be entitled to bring. The Forest Commission may also maintain in the name or on behalf of the people of the State an action for the trespass specified in sec- tion seventy-four, article fifth, title five, chapter nine, part one of the Reyised Statutes,* when such trespass is committed upon any lands within the forest preserve. In such action there shall be re- coverable the same penalty and a like execution shall issue, and the defendant be imprisoned: thereunder without being entitled to the liberties of the jail, all as provided in sections seyventy-four and seventy-six of the said article ; and in such action the plaintiff shall be entitled to an order of arrest before judgment as in the cases mentioned in section five hundred and forty-nine of the Code of Civil Procedure. The trespass herein mentioned shall be deemed to include, in addition to the acts specified in the said section seventy-four, any act of cutting or causing to be cut, or assisting to cut, any tree or *Sections 72, 738, 74, 75 and 76 of this article are in 1 R.§., p. 209, as follows : $72. The Commissioners of the Land Office may require the sheriff of any county in which lands belonging to the people of this State, for which patents shall not have been issued, or any Indian lands, may be situated, to exam- ine and report to them, and to the district attorney of his county, any trespasses that may be committed on such lands, by cutting or carrying away the timber thereon. § 73. Every district attorney, on receiving any such report, and also whenever di- rected by the Commissioners of the Land Office, shall commence suits against such trespassers, for the penalty imposed in the next section ; or shall present indict- ments against such trespassers to the grand jury of his county, as he shall judge most discreet. In either case, he shall cause the witnesses to support such prosecu- tions to be duly subpcenaed, and shall conduct such prosecutions to a final deter- mination. § 74. Every person who shall trespass on any land belonging to the people of this State, or any Indian lands, by cutting or carrying away timber growing thereon, shall forfeit and pay the sum of twenty-five dollars for every tree that shall be cut or carried away by him or under his direction. § 75. The district attorney shall apply such penalties, when collected, first to the payment of the costs and expenses incurred, including a reasonable compen- sation to the witnesses who shall attend in behalf of the people, to be certified by the court before which such recovery shall be had, and shall pay the residue thereof into the treasury of the court. § 76. Whenever execution shall be issued upon judgment recovered in actions for such penalties, and the body of any defendant shall be arrested thereon, he shall be imprisoned according to law, without being entitled to the liberties of the jail. die =) © pepe '' RT x No. 36.] ee ™ * timber standing within the forest preserve, or any bark thereon, with intent to remove such tree or timber, or any portion thereof, or bark therefrom, from the said forest preserve. ee _ With the consent of the Attorney-General and the Comptroller, the - Forest Commission may employ attorneys and counsel to prosecute any such action, or to defend any action brought against the Com- mission, or any of its members or subordinates, arising out of their or his official conduct with relation to the forest preserve. Any attorney or counsel so employed shall act under the direction of and in the name of the Attorney-General. Where such attorney or counsel is not so employed, the Attorney-General shall prosecute and defend such actions. § 15. In an action brought by or at the instance of the Forest Com- mission an injunction, either preliminary or final,shall upon application be granted restraining any act of trespass, waste or destruction upon the forest preserve ; and in cases where any lads within the forest preserve are being overflowed or injured, or are threatened with over- flow or injury by the maintenance of any dam or obstruction which may hereafter be erected in any stream, lake or body of water, the court shall, by injunction, restrain the further erection of the dam or obstruction, and the court may order the removal or partial removal of the dam or obstruction during the pendency of the action. § 16. Whenever the State owns or shall own an undivided interest with any person in any lands within the counties mentioned in section first of this act, or holds, or shall hold, or is or shall be in possession of any such lands as joint tenant or tenants in common with any person who has an estate of freehold therein, the Attorney-General shall, upon the request of the Forest Commission, bring an action in the name of the people of the State of New York for the actual partition of the said lands according to the respective rights of the parties inter- ested therein ; and upon the consent in writing of the Forest Com- mission any such person may maintain an action for the actual parti- tion of such lands according to the respective rights of the parties interested therein, in the same manner as if the State were not entitled - to exemption from legal proceedings ; service of process in such action upon the Attorney-General to be deemed service upon the State. Such actions, the proceedings and the judgment therein, and the proceed- ings under the judgment therein shall be according to the practice at the time prevailing in actions of partition, and shall have the same force and effect as in other actions, except that no costs shall be allowed to the plaintiff in such action, and except that no sale of such lands shall be adjudged therein. The Forest Commission may, without suit, but upon the consent of the Comptroller, agree with any person or persons owning lands within the said towns jointly or as tenants in common with the State for the partition of such lands, and upon such consent may make, on behalf of the people of the State, any convey- ance necessary or proper in such partition, such conveyance to be forthwith recorded as now provided by law as to conveyances made by the Commissioners of the Land Office. § 17. The Forest Commission shall, in every year immediately before the thirty-first of December, make a written report to the Comp- ''4G Lee [ASSEMBLY troller of their proceedings, together with such recommendations of further legislative or official action as they may deem proper. § 18. The sum of fifteen thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated for the purposes mentioned in this act during the year eighteen hundred and sixty-six, out of any moneys in the State treasury not otherwise appropriated. § 19. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby repealed so far as the same are so inconsistent with this act. : § 20. This act shall take effect immediately. APPENDIX C. AN ACT for the protection of forests, and to amend the Penal Code. The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : Section 1. Section four hundred and thirteen of the Penal Code* is hereby amended so as to read as follows : § 413. A person who negligently or willfully — 1. Sets fire or assists another to set fire to his own woods, or any other woods, by means whereof the property of another, or of the State, is endangered ; or who * This section now reads as follows: : § 418. Negligence in respect to fires — A person who negligently sets fire to his own woods, by means whereof, the property of another is endangered, or who negligently suffers any fire upon his own land to extend beyond the limits thereof, is guilty of a misdemeanor. Section 640 of the Penal Code is as follows: § 640. Malicious injury and destruction of property. A person who willfully — 1. Cuts down, destroys or injures any wood or timber, standing or growing, or which has been cut down and is lying on lands of another, or of the people of the State ; or 2. Cuis down, girdles, or otherwise injures a fruit, shade, or Ornamental tree standing on the lands of another, or of the people of the State; or 3. Severs from the freehold of another, or of the people of the State, any pro- duce thereof, or any thing attached thereto ; a *. * * * * is punishable by imprisonment not exceeding six months, or a fine not exceeding two hundred and fifty dollars, or both. Section 654 of the Penal Code is as follows: § 654. Injury to real or personal property, how punished : A person who unlawfully and willfully destroys or injures any real or personal property of another, in a case where the punishment thereof is not specially pre- scribed by statute, is punishable as follows: 1. If the value of the property destroyed, or the diminution in the value of the property by the injury is more than twenty-five dollars, by imprisonment for not more than four years. 2. In any other case, by imprisonment for not more than six months, or by a fine of not more than two hundred and fifty dollars, or by both such fine and imprisonment. 3. And in addition to the punishment prescribed therefor, he is liable in treble damages for the injury done, to be recovered in a civil action by the owner of such property, or the public officer having charge thereof. '' No. 36.] 47 2. Upon any land whether or not his own kindles or maintains any fire for any purpose, so that the same may extend to, burn or injure any trees, saplings, or forest growth, upon land not his own ; or who 3. Suffers any fire upon his own land to extend beyond the limits thereof ; or who 4, Within the limits of any town, two-thirds of whose total area con- sists of land covered with forests or of land which, although not so covered with forests, is wild, or not customarily tilled or used for pas- ture or building sites, or within two miles of the boundary of any such town, burns or sets fire to, or assists another to burn or set fire to trees, stumps, bushes, brush, underbrush, grass, or any undergrowth, cut or standing, or any of them, or clears, or assists another to clear lands by means of fire, unless upon permission in writing to be given as in such cases provided by law (provided, however, that this subdivision shall not extend to fires set within the limits of any garden or yard attached to any dwelling-honse or barn, or to fires kindled simply for the cooking of food or for warmth, if the person or persons kindling such fire for cooking or warmth remain by the fire until the same is extinguished), or who 5. Cuts down, girdles, rings, or otherwise injures a tree upon lands not his own, without the permission of the owner thereof — Is guilty of a misdemeanor, and is punishable by imprisonment not exceeding six months, or by a fine not less than fifty dollars, but not exceeding two hundred and fifty dollars, or both. § 2. Upon the application in writing of ten citizens of any county, or of the Forest Commission, and upon the consent of the Comptroller, it shall -be the duty of the State Engineer and Surveyor forthwith upon such information as he possesses or may obtain to estimate what proportion of the total area of any town within the county consists of land covered with forests, or of land which, although not so covered with forests, is wild or not customarily tilled or used for pasture or building sites. Upon completing his estimate, the State Engineer and Surveyor shall reduce the same to writing in duplicate and certify and sign each duplicate, and file one duplicate in the office of the clerk of the county within which such town is situated, and the other duplicate in the office of the clerk of the town. The State Engineer and Surveyor shall also file a copy of such estimate in the office of the clerk of every town bordering upon the town for which such estimate was made. ‘The supervisors of any county for which such estimate shall be made shall adjust, audit and provide means for the payment of, and the treasurer of such county shall thereupon pay the reason- able expenses so incurred by the State Engineer and Surveyor. After the expiration of five years from the making of any such estimate, upon like application and consent aad in like manner, the State Engineer and Surveyor shall make a further estimate, to be reduced to writing, certified, signed, filed, and copies thereof filed in all respects as hereinbefore provided, which further estimate when so filed in the office of the clerk of the county shall supersede every former estimate. § 3. In the case of the commission of any of the acts mentioned in the fourth subdivision of section four hundred and thirteen of the Penal Code as amended by section first of this act within any county, or within two miles of the boundary thereof, after an estimate has been '' roceeding whatsoever, civil o the punishmen f such violation, or relating thereto, such estimate shall be cc sive evidence of the fact that two-thirds of the total area of the tow ‘mentioned in the estimate consist of land covered with forests, or of land which, although not so covered with forests, is wild, or not cus- tomarily tilled or used for pasture or building sites. Se § 4. Application in writing for permission to burn or set fire to trees, tumps, bushes, brush, underbrush, grass, or any undergrowth, cut or standing, or some of them, made by any person owning or occupying Jand within any town mentioned in the fourth subdivision of the first section of this act, may be made to the supervisor of the town, except- _ ing, however, that in the towns of Altona, Au Sable, Black Brook, Clinton, Dannemora, Ellenburgh, Peru, and Saranac in Clinton county; the towns of Chesterfield, Crown Point, Elizabethtown, Jay, Keene, Lewis, Minerva, Moriah, Newcomb, North Elba, North Hudson, ‘Schroon, St. Armand, Ticonderoga and Wilmington in Essex county; the towns of Belmont, Brandon, Brighton, Duane, Franklin, Harriets- town, Malone (the southerly half thereof) and Waverly in Franklin ounty; the towns of Bleecker, Caroga, Mayfield and Stratford in Fulton county; the towns of Arietta, Benson, Hope, Indian Lake, Lake Pleasant, Long Lake, Morehouse and Wells in Hamilton county; - the towns of Ohio, Salisbury and Wilmurt in Herkimer county; the towns of Croghan, Diana, Greig, Lyonsdale and Watson in Lewis county; the towns of Corinth, Day, Edinburgh, Hadley and Moreau in Saratoga county; the towns of Clare, Clifton, Colton, Fine, Hop- -kinton, Parishville, Pierrepont and Pitcairn in St. Lawrence county; the towns of Bolton, Caldwell, Chester, Hague, Horicon, Johnsburgh, Luzerne, Queensbury, Stony Creek, Thurman and Warrensburgh in Warren county; and the towns of Dresden, Fort Ann and Putnam in ‘Washington county — such application shall be made to the officer or ‘person designated for that purpose by the Forest Commission by its rules or regulations, if such designation shall have been made. Upon such application such supervisor, officer or person shall summarily decide, in view of the season, the temperature, dryness or moisture prevailing, the position of the land, the proximity thereto of forests, - the direction of the wind, and the other circumstances of the case, _ whether it will endanger any forest growth, to burn or set fire to trees, stumps, bushes, brush, underbrush, grass or any undergrowth, cut or _ standing, according to the application; and if such supervisor, officer or person shall decide that it will not endanger any forest growth to so burn or set fire, he shall give to the applicant a permission in writing - to so burn or set fire. . §5. Any person committing any of the acts specified in section four hundred and thirteen of the Penal Code as amended by section first - of this act shall be liable to any owner of lands upon or to which a fire kindled in violation of such provisions shall be or extend, or upon — - whose land shall have been any tree so cut down, girdled, ringed or injured for three times the damages thereby caused such owner and the sum of one hundred dollars in addition thereto. In an action brought by the owner to recover such damages after, by verdict or '' x No. 36.] Ne ap otherwise as the case may be, the amount of such damages has been ascertained, judgment shall be rendered in favor of the owner for three times the amount so ascertained and for one hundred dollars in ad- dition thereto. Upon any trial to recover such damages for a violation of subdivision fifth of section first of this act, the value of a three which is a sapling shall in any case be presumed, and without evidence shall be deemed proven, to be at least two dollars and a half, and the value of a tree larger or older than a sapling shall in any case be presumed, and without evidence shall be deemed proven, to be at least five dol- lars. In every such action upon proof, by affidavit, of the facts, the plaintiff shall be entitled to an order of arrest against the defendant, as in the cases mentioned in section five hundred and forty-nine of the Code of Civil Procedure ; in such action the plaintiff’s right to arrest the defendant shall be deemed to depend upon the nature of the action ; and upon any judgment in such action an execution may is- sue against the person of the judgment debtor as provided in the sec- tions of the Code of Civil Procedure relating to execution against the person. ‘The owner shall likewise be entitled to bring an action to prevent injury to his lands by any of the acts in this section herein- before mentioned ; and in such action shall be entitled to an injunc- tion preliminary and final according to the practice prevailing at the time in other actions in which preliminary and final injunctions may be granted. § 6. The term ‘‘owner,” used in the section next preceding, shall include any person or persons, corporation or corporations, or the people of the State, having an estate in fee, or for a life or lives, or for ten remaining years or upwards, in lands, providing, however, that but one civil recovery shall be enforced for any one act herein men- tioned. As to lands within the forest preserve, the Forest Commis- sion shall be entitled in behalf of the people of the State to bring actions as owners. Any one of several owners shall be entitled to maintain an action for such damages without joining the other . owners, providing that where several actions are brought by different owners to recover the same damages, the court may consolidate the actions and require the plaintiffs to sue together and to be entitled to but one bill of costs. In such action the defendant shall be liable to pay such damages but once. § 7. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are repealed so far as the same are inconsistent with this act. § 8. This act shall take effect immediately. [Assem, Doc, No, 36.] % ''0 [AssemBLy APPENDIX D. AN ACT for the speedy collection of taxes upon the forest lands in cer- tain towns in the counties of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Ham- ilton, Herkimer, Lewis, Saratoga, St. Lawrence, Warren and Wash- ington. The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows: Section 1. Lands covered with trees, saplings, sprouts or seedling trees and lands which, although not so covered,sare wild and not cus- tomarily tilled or used for building sites are hereby defined and are hereinafter described, and they shall be known as forest lands. § 2. All lands belonging to the State, or which may hereafter be acquired by the State, within the counties of Clinton, Essex, Frank- lin, Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer, Lewis, Saratoga, St. Lawrence, Warren and Washington, and which form or shall form part of the forest preserve, shall be assessed and taxed at a like valuation and ata like rate to those at which the lands of individuals within such coun- ties are assessed and taxed, subject, however, to the provisions of this act. On or before August first in every year, the assessors of the town within which the lands so belonging to the State are situated, shall file in the office of the Comptroller and in the office of the For- est Commission a copy of the assessment-roll of the town, which, in addition to the other matters now required by law to be stated therein, shall state and specify which and how much, if any, of the lands as- sessed are forest lands, and also and separately which and how much, if any, of the lands assessed are lands forming part of the forest pre- serve, such statement and specification to be verified by the oaths of a majority of the said assessors. The Comptroller shall thereupon, and before the first day of September following, and after hearmg the Forest Commission and the assessors, if they, or any of them, so desire, correct or reduce any assessment of lands forming part of the forest preserve which may in his judgment be in unfair proportion to the re- maining assessments of lands within the town, and shall in other re- spects approve the assessment and communicate such approval. And no such assessment of lands within the forest preserve shall be yalid for any purpose, until the amount of the assessment is so ap- proved by the Comptroller, and such approval attached and deposited with the assessment-roll of the town and therewith delivered by the assessors of the town to the supervisor of the town or other officer authorized to receive the same from the assessors. No tax for the erection of a school-house or for opening a road shall be imposed upon lands within the forest preserve unless such erection or opening shall have been first approved in writing by the Forest Commission. If the board of supervisors of any of the said counties in which shall be part of the forest preserve shall, at their annual meeting; or at any other time, alter the valuations of real estate in any town, then no tax levied upon any part of the forest preserve within the said county shall be valid until the Comptroller shall have received from the board ''oc 51 of supervisors a duly authenticated copy of the aggregate valuation of the real estate ingthe several towns therein and the valuation of the reat estate in every town separately as corrected by them, together with a duly authenticated copy of the aggregate and separate valua- tions of the real estate in the towns and in every town as the same had been made by the assessors and theretofore approved by the Comptrol- ler, and until after so receiving the same the Comptroller shall approye of corrections made by the board of supervisors, and certify and return such approval in writing to the said board prior to the ee of the corrected assessment-rolls to the town collector. Payment of the taxes which may be imposed according to law and the provisions of this act upon lands so belonging to the State shall in every year be made by the Treasurer of the State upon the certificate of the Comptroller as to the lawful and just amount of such taxes by allowing to the treasurer of the county in which any such lands may be situate a credit of the amount of such taxes due upon such lands upon the amount payable by such county treasurer in such year to the State for State taxes, providing, however, that no fees shall be allowed by the Comptroller to the county treasurer in adjusting their accounts for such portion of the State tax as is so paid. § 3. Whenever a tax imposed upon forest lands (other than lands forming part of the forest preserve) shall be unpaid on the day on or before which the tax collector of any town in which such lands shall be situated, should, according to law, pay over moneys collected b _. him to the county treasurer, then it shall thereafter, and until sue tax is paid, or, in default of such payment, until the title to such lands is conveyed by the Comptroller after a sale thereof for unpaid taxes, be unlawful for any person, whether owner, occupant or otherwise, to cut, injure, bark or remove therefrom any trees or timber, whether standing or felled. Any person not expressly permitted by law, who shall thereafter so cut, injure, bark or remove any such tree or timber shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, upon conyiction thereof, suffer a fine not exceeding two hundred and fifty dollars, or imprisonment not exceeding three months, or both, in the discretion of the court; and he shall be liable as for trespass in a civil action brought by the Forest Commission in the name or on behalf of the people of the State for damages, and to arrest and to imprisonment upon execution, in all respects as provided in section fourteen of chapter of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-five, enti- tled ‘‘ An act for the preservation and care of the Adirondack forest,” as to either of the actions therein mentioned. Upon learning that any trees or timber are being so cut, injured, barked or removed from any such lands after any tax thereon is so unpaid, it shall be the duty of the Forest Commission to bring, in the name or on behalf of the . people of the State, an action to restrain such cutting or removal, and in such action the court shall, upon due application, grant preliminary and final injunctions restraining the continuance. of. such cutting, injury, barking or removal, and such action shall proceed and be conducted in all.respects as provided in sections fourteen and fifteen of the said act entitled ‘‘An act for the preservation and care of the ‘ Adirondack forest.’ ” § 4. The assessors of all the towns within the counties mentioned '' _ [ASSEMBLY _ In section first of this act shall assess forest lands separately, and shall describe and specify all forest lands, whether or not forming the whole or only a part of any tract, farm or holding, within their respective towns separately upon the assessment-rolls before completing the same. The Comptroller shall prepare and submit to such assessors forms for such description and specification, which forms such asses- sors shall follow. The boards of supervisors of the said counties shall, in any alterations they may make in the assessment-rolls pursuant to law, take care that the separate description and specification of forest lands are properly made and preserved. § 5. In the assessment to be made in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-five, and thereafter, of forest lands within the counties men- tioned in section first of this act, and in all proceedings upon such assessments, or to levy or collect taxes upon such forest lands, or in the payment of taxes thereon, or in the return of such forest lands for unpaid taxes, or in any proceedings by reason of the payment or the non-payment of such taxes, or in the sale of any such lands for un- paid taxes, or any proceedings in or by reason of any such sale, or of the conveyance of property therefor, there shall be no distinction or difference between the lands of residents and non-residents; and ex- _cepting as herein otherwise provided, all the sdid assessments, pay- ments, return and proceedings whatsoever shall be had as now provided by law in the case of non-resident owners. § 6. The collector of each of the said towns upon first delivering to the county treasurer any account of unpaid taxes shall specify thereon the forest lands therein described upon which the taxes are unpaid. The county treasurer shall thereupon, in addition to his other duties with respect thereto prescribed by law, compare such specification with the original assessment-roll; and if the county treasurer find such specification to be as to such forest lands a correct transcript of the said assessment-roll, he shall add to it a certificate which may form part of the certificate first mentioned in section fourth of chapter four hundred and twenty-seven of the laws of eighteen hundred and fifty- five, showing that he has examined and compared the specification of the said forest lands upon which the taxes are unpaid with the assess- ment-roll and found the same to be correct ; and in transmitting the collector’s account to the Comptroller, as now provided by law, the county treasurer shall in his certificate state that he has so examined - and compared the specification of the said forest lands with the entries -of the said lands in the original assessment-roll, and has found the same to be a true transcript of such roll. § 7. Taxes assessed upon forest lands within the said towns and not paid prior to the transmitting of the collector’s account to the Comp- troller as mentioned in the preceding section shall thereafter be paid only to the Comptroller, who upon such payment, if made prior to the statement of the account of the county treasurer for the year, shall credit the county treasurer with the amount so paid. § 8. The Comptroller forthwith, upon receiving the account of unpaid taxes on forest land as mentioned in section sixth of this act, shall prepare a separate list or statement of all such forest lands within each of the said counties and included in the said account, together with the amount due on the various tracts or holdings thereof respect- '' “ively for unpaid taxes and interest and charges, if any. The Comp- troller shalt then forthwith transmit to the county treasurer of each of the said counties the list or statement relating to forest lands within - guch:county, together with a notice addressed generally to owners of — forest lands (but not naming the owners), stating that so much of the said forest lands as may be necessary to discharge the taxes, interest and charges which may be due thereon at the time of sale will, on a day in the succeeding August and the succeeding days, be sold at pub- lic auction at the Capitol in the city of Albany. If, in the judgment of the Comptroller, the sale cannot advantageously or justly be held in August, then the notice may specify some day later than August. The Comptroller may at any time withdraw such a notice of sale, and transmit to the county treasurer a new notice for as early a day as he ~ may deem to be consistent with the interests of the State. i § 9. The Comptroller shall cause to be published the said list or statement of forest lands upon which the taxes are so unpaid in each county, together with the notice mentioned in the section next pre- ceding, in the newspapers in which the list or statement mentioned in section thirty-fourth of chapter four hundred and twenty-seven of the laws of eighteen hundred and fifty-five is now required to be pub- lished in or forsuch county, excepting that the selection of newspapers or the ascertainment of the newspapers, most generally circulated in such county, shall be made by the Comptroller instead of by the county treasurer, and excepting thatif the proprietor or manager of any news- paper shall decline or omit to make such publication, or shall make the same incorrectly, then the Comptroller may withdraw such notice, and may in such newspaper as the Comptroller may designate as proper recommence the publication of the notice or commence the publication of a new notice. Each such publication shall be made once a week for ten weeks; and the first publication shall be made not less than ten weeks before the date of sale therein mentioned. Every proprietor, manager, or printer of a newspaper to whom such notice shall be trans- mitted for publication, and any other person having knowledge of the publication upon being requested by the Comptroller, shall, within two days after the last publication thereof, transmit to the Comptroller an affidavit of due publication, made by some person to whom the fact of publication shall be known; and every such person shall upon being | requested so to do make such affidavit. . § 10. Every purchaser, except the Comptroller or the Forest Com- mission, shall at the time of purchase pay in cash to the Comptroller such proportion of the purchase-money as the Comptroller may specify, and the remainder of the purchase-money shall be paid within forty- eight hours of the time of sale, or the premises shall be resold by the Comptroller and the amount paid by the purchaser shall be forfeited to the State. Such resale shall require no further notice of sale; but the Comptroller may, after the sale or resale of the last parcel and upon an oral or written notice, at the time of adjournment, adjourn the sale for forty-eight hours or more, fora resale of such of the premises as were sold to purchasers who shall not haye fully paid therefor. § 11. It shall be the duty of the Forest Commission to attend or be -Tepresented upon every such sale, and to make in the name and on '' _ behalf of the people of the State such bids and purchases thereon as it may deem for the advantage of the State, providing, however, that - no payment shall be required from the Forest Commission or the people — of the State upon any such bid or purchase, excepting for the sum by which the bid of the Forest Commission shall exceed the amount of taxes, interest and charges for which the property bid for was adyer- tised to be sold, and providing that if the bid of the Forest Commis- sion be for any larger sum than the said amount of taxes, interest and charges, then the bid or purchase shall not be binding or final unless and until the Legislature, not later than at its then next regular ses- sion, provide for the payment of so much of the sum so bid as shall be in excess of the said amount of taxes, interest and charges; and providing, further, that if the Legislature do not so make such pro- vision, then such bid and purchase shall be void, and the property shall, without prejudice, be resold by the Comptroller at the next or some succeeding sale of forest lands held in the county in which the property is situated, for unpaid taxes, under the provisions of this act, such resale to be had in all respects in like manner and upon like no- tice as that in and upon which such next sale.is had. § 12. Any owner, or any person acting or assuming to act for any owner, or any incumbrancer of forest lands within the said counties may register his name, together with a description of his lands, with the Comptroller, and a place to which notices relating to the said lands may be sent. § 13. A redemption of lands so purchased by the Forest Commis- sion may be made only by the owner of the lands, or by some one having an interest in or claim to the lands derived from the owner, upon the payment to the Comptroller of the amount so bid, together with interest thereon from the date of sale, at the rate of ten per cent _ per annum, and an amount to be fixed by the Comptroller to’ be _ thereafter paid by him to the Forest Commission to reimburse the Forest Commission for such expenses as it may have incurred in ad- yertising, posting or sending notices. § 14. The Forest Commission, as soon as practicable after the re- - ceipt from the Comptroller of the certificate of sale, now provided by law, which certificate the Comptroller shall deliver to the Forest Com- mission, shall cause to be published in some newspaper to be desig- nated by the Comptroller as being best calculated to give notice within the county in which the lands are situated, a copy of the certificate, together with a notice that on or after a date, to be fixed by the For-_ est Commission, but which shall not be less than three months after the first publication of the notice, nor before a full year from the date of the delivery to the town collector of the warrant for the collection of the tax for which the sale was had upon which the certificate was delivered, the Forest Commission will apply to the Comptroller for a deed of the premises sold upon the said sale to the people of the State. - Such notice shall be published, once a week, for ten weeks. The For- est Commission shall also cause a copy of the said certificate and no- tice to be personally delivered or sent by mail, postage prepaid, di- rected to any person who shall have made the registry mentioned in section twelve of this act, at the place mentioned in such registry. The Forest Commission shall also cause a copy of the said certificate '' s. At or after the date mentioned in the notice mentioned in the ‘section next preceding, the Forest Commission shall, upon filing with — the Compt roller affidavits reasonably establishing the fact that a copy of the certificate of sale, with the said notice, was published, posted and delivered or mailed, as mentioned in the section next preceding, ~ more than three months before the time of applicatian, be entitled t receive from the Comptroller a deed to the people of the State of New York of the lands described in the said certificate, providing, how- ever, that no such deed shall be delivered within one year after the date of the delivery to the town collector of the warrant for the col- lection of the tax for which the sale was had upon which the certifi cate was delivered. The consideration expressed in the deed shall be the amount for which the property therein described was sold. The said deed shall vest in the people of the State an absolute estate in fee-simple in the said lands. : Pes 3 ss § 16. Durmg one year after its execution, a deed executed by the — Comptroller to the people of the State, which purports to be executed — in pursuance of the provisions of this act, shall be presumptive evi- — dence of the title of the grantee and of all persons claiming under him, and presumptive evidence that the deed was in all respects duly and rightfully and at the lawful time executed and valid ; that the notice or notices mentioned in the two last preceding sections were pub- lished, posted and delivered or mailed; and in all respects givenin the manner and place and at the lawful time in said sections specified ; that the sale of the premises was in all respects conducted duly and rightfully upon proper notice and at the lawful time ; that the list or _ statement and notice mentioned in section eighth of this act were duly, — rightfully and at the lawful time prepared, transmitted and published, — as in this act provided ; that the taxes for the non-payment of which — the said sale was had, or purported to be had, were rightfully and © duly and at the lawfultime by the lawful officers or authority levied — upon the lands mentioned in the said deed ; and that in all other respects all the acts and proceedings prescribed by or in pursuance of law as proper or necessary to precede any assessment, levy of taxes, sale or the delivery of such deed were rightfully and in lawful time © had and completed. : cae oS § 17. An action may, upon service of the summons therein upon the Forest Commission, be brought in the Supreme Court against the people of this State to set aside any deed heretofore executed and pur-— - porting to be executed upon any sale for unpaid taxes to the people of © the State, of any premises within the counties mentioned in section — first of this act, or to any person through whom the people of the — State have derived or claimed any title to such premises, or to set — _-aside any deed hereafter executed to the people of this State executed — or purporting to be executed upon any sale for unpaid taxes, provid- — ing, however, that any such action to set aside a deed heretofore exe- cuted may be brought only within one year after the passage of this — _ act and not later, and providing that any such action to set aside a — _ deed hereafter executed may be brought only within one year after _ '' _ the date of such deed and not later, thereof the plaintiff deposit with the Comptroller the amount ex- pressed in the deed as the consideration for which the same was exe- cuted ; or, if only nominal consideration be expressed, then the amount of unpaid taxes, interest and expenses for which the property was sold, together with interest at the rate of ten per centum per an- num upon such amount from the date of the sale upon which the deed was given, and unless the complaint in the action shall allege that such deposit has been made, subject to the provisions of this act, Upon the plaintiff’s discontinuance of such action, or upon a final judgment therein against the plaintiff, and the plaintiff’s stipulation, duly acknowledged, not to appeal therefrom, which stipulation shall bind the plaintiff and his successors in interest, the Comptroller shall repay the money so deposited to the plaintiff or his representative. Upon the plaintiff’s final success in such action, the Comptroller shall apply the amount so deposited in payment and satisfaction of the taxes, for non-payment of which the deed was given. Upon the trial of such action the plaintiff shall succeed, if he affirmatively show that there was a substantial failure to comply with any provision of law relating to the assessment, levy of the tax, sale and delivery of the deed, or to the notices to be given of any proceeding with relation thereto; but no informality or irregularity shall, in the case of any deed hereafter executed, be sufficient for the success of tHe plaintiff, unless the court shall find and adjudge that the same was ina sub- stantial matter, and that the plaintiff has suffered by reason thereof. ‘ §18. As to every deed of premises within the said counties hereto- fore executed, upon any sale for unpaid taxes, to the people of the State, or to any person through whom the people of the State have derived or claimed any title to such premises, the same shall, after one year from the passage of this act — and as to every deed of such premises hereafter executed or purporting to be executed to the peo- ple of the State upon any sale for unpaid taxes, the same shall, after - one year from the execution thereof, be conclusive evidence of the title of the grantee, and that the deed was in all respects duly and rightfully and at the lawful time executed and valid; that in all re- spects all the acts and proceedings prescribed by or in pursuance of law as proper or necessary to precede any assessment, levy of taxes, sale or the delivery of such deed were rightfully and in lawful time had and completed; and as to deeds hereafter purporting to be executed ee pursuant to the provisions of this act, that the notice or notices as mentioned in sections fourteen and fifteen hereof were published, posted and delivered or mailed and in all respects given in the manner and place and at the lawful time in the said sections specified, that the sale of the premises was in all respects conducted duly and right- fully upon proper notice and at the lawful time, that the list or state- ment and notice mentioned in section eighth of this act were duly, rightfully and at the lawful time prepared, transmitted and published as in this act provided, and that the taxes for the non-payment of which the said sale was had or purported to be had were rightfully and duly and at the lawful time and by the lawful officers or authority, levied upon the lands mentioned in the said deed. Providing, how- and providing further that no _ such action shall be maintained, unless before the commencement '' rovisions of law now in force as to assessment, th a ction of taxes, proceedings for the non-pay thereof, sales therefor, and conveyances thereupon, shall, so far a applicable and excepting as modified by this act, be deemed to relat to every assessment, levying and collection of, taxes, proceedings for. non-payment thereof, sales therefor and conveyances thereupon me tioned in this act. JO eociaiaeae § 20. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are, so far ag so inconsistent, hereby repealed. ae ae — -§ 21. This act shall take effect immediately. ee ee E ‘[Assem. Doc. No, 36.] 8 ~- '' '' “om of Nes . 20, dot ? ALTONA P.O) eo —. LEGEND. pm eee Virgin forest { ee Forest from which the merchantable soft woods Pane explo meme tiall (Pine, Heralock and Spruce) have been removed. Denuded regions, (burns, barrens,windfalls and overflows), inchiding small areas covered with poplars and bird cherries. farms, and the hills mostly covered with a >) Region in which the valleys are occupied by | v ir hi csecond: growth of hard. woods seldom large. * tye i, . Went FOREST COMMISSION STATE OF NE 1884. MAP OF THE : ve - § | ADIRONDACK PLATEAU /.<°: oY SHOWING THE POSITION & cont le OF A 5 P.O. ? e / EXISTING FORBI SHS. ~/ 4 Prepared under the direction of C.S. SARGENG CHAIRMAN. Field notes: J. S.Brandegee & H. B. Ayres FAIRFI Compilation: A.Robeson. Scale of Miles. Julius Bien & Co.Photo Lith ''gg een! SSRIS 6 aeeen nad ay han 5th i a ay | i" '' '' '' 7 - + : : x oS Seana ae ¥ regs a EEF x PSNOE e ea Siba Ness fs : ; , bs - \ x ¥ a vant % at my er » [ Read before the American Forestry Association, Cincinnati Meeting, April, 1882, ] RUSS es Dyed Ag Dr. doHN A. WARDER, ~ Gee President of the American Forestry “Association: Dear Str: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your favor of January 30th, inviting me to attend the April meeting of the Association at Cincinnati, and express- ing the wish to have, for that occasion, a paper ‘on the behavior of the Australian Trees in California.” i should. be happy to attend the meeting, but must forego that s pleasure, and further, with regret to say, that I am not at se ; present prepared with sufficient or appropriate data, from which to write a formal memoir on the text you suggest, with that thoroughness which a proper treatment of the subject demands. Nevertheless, I have some comments — of a very general character which I herewith submit; as, however imperfect, ey may be of seme interest to the Association. | ~ With respect, very truly yours, : ROBERT £. ©. STEARNS. Berxeey, Cal., March, 1882, '' '' bv ee Kok - FOREST TREE CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. BY ROBT... C.CSTREARNS, -b aD REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1872-82. In the spring of 1872, much enthusiasm was manifested by a considerable portion of the community in California in favor of some of the Australian trees belonging to a few species of the Eucalypts and Acacias. A small number of copies of Baron Von Mueller’s invaluable treatise on ‘¢The principal Timber Trees readily eligible for Victorian Industrial Culture, etc., etc.,’’ had fallen into the hands of intelligent persons, and had been noticed by the newspaper press, and other publications of a more permanent charac- ter in California and the East, so that, without creating a fever, much interest resulted therefrom. Lest this feeling should prove ephemeral, I thought the opportunity to stim- ulate the public pulse too good to be lost; so I prepared a paper ‘On the Economic Value of certain Australian Trees, etc.,’’ which was read before the California Acade- my of Sciences, July, 1872. This was published in the Proceedings of the Academy, and extensively noticed or copied in whole or in part in various publications at home and elsewhere. In addition to the above, a pamphlet edi- tion of twenty-five hundred copies was printed and judi- ciously distributed, free of expense to the public. The result was satisfactory, for there is good reason to believe that it led to the planting of one hundred and fifty '' ue ey _ thousand trees more than would otherwise have been planted. — The chief importance of the paper was in its timely publication and wide distribution, and in its not presenting too much at ‘‘one meal.’’ As to the matter contained in it, aside from my own limited experience with and observ- ation on the Eucalypts and Acacias, and reference to the medicinal virtues of H. globulus, its merits belong to Dr. Von Mueller, who was freely quoted and properly credited. Before this time also, the veteran editor of the California Farmer, Colonel Warren, had stirred up the people, and _ General Stratton, of Alameda county, and a few others, had made their faith visible in their works, by planting several acres. I refer to the above more fully than I otherwise should, in order to impress upon the Association the im- portance of reaching the public through a judicious expend- iture for printing and timely distribution of documents. Ten years have elapsed, and it may be well to look back and review the situation. It may now be asked, ‘‘ What is the present sentiment as to these Australian trees. Have they fulfilled expecta- tions, or have they disappointed anticipations and fallen from grace?” Before this question can be properly an- swered, certain explanations are necessary, and these explanations, and what follows incidentally, may perhaps be the best answer that can be given. Of the Acacias I am not aware of any plantation that has been made for economic purposes, though many of the species yield products especially useful in the arts. Thou- sands of trees of a few species have been planted for show, and are still popular for ornamental purposes. Of the great number of species of Eucalypts, ‘iilonnag over one hundred and fifty, probably three-fifths of those - planted in California are of the species popularly known as the blue-gum, ZF. globulus; the other two-fifths being L. viminalis, E. marginata and E. rostrata. Perhaps even a . '' < f larger proportion of the blue-gum has been planted than I have estimated, as its more rapid growth gave it the lead of the others in attracting attention, so that in speaking of the Eucalyptus, in California nearly every person would identify the generic name with F. globulus, though, as before stated, there are over a hundred and fifty species; only about half a dozen are cultivated in California. Aside from its rapid, growth, the blue-gum is undoubt- edly of less value for most purposes than its harder-wooded congeners. The number of Hucalyptus trees planted in California during the decade under review is probably over six millions. One nurseryman, who makes a specialty of forest trees, (almost exclusively three or four of the Huca- lypts, the native Monterey Cypress Cupressus macrocarpa, and the Monterey pine, P. insignis,) and who contracts to plant any number of trees or acres, claims to have raised and sold nearly the number above stated,* and between two and three millions of the native Monterey Cypress; this latter is, I presume, used only for ornament and. hedges, for which purpose it is justly popular. His sales of the Eucalyptus last year were small, only fifty thousand; but this year (1882) he expects to do better, and anticipates orders for seventy-five thousand of the two species, blue and red. Asthere are many other nurseries in the State which raise and sell the foregoing species, the whole number must be exceedingly great, and quite likely for the ten years exceeds the total I have given. A large portion of said total has been planted in the streets, house-lots and yards of the cities, towns and_ vil- lages, and otherwise used in profusion for the adornment of the larger estates of suburban neighborhoods. So ex- ‘ tensively have the blue-gums and cypress been planted in many places, to the almost absolute exclusion of deciduous trees, that the vistas afforded by the streets are exceedingly * [have no reason to doubt his word,but for the sake of an ample margin on the side of fact, I have assumed six millions as a safe total. '' E81 somber and monotonous throunh aenerd sameness of form and tone of color. As might have been expected under the ‘circumstances, a great deal of inconsiderate planting was done, and the rapacious and irrepressible Eucalypts were, as often as otherwise, placed in a lot where there was only room enough for aflower-bed; often several trees were put in a space represented by the part that is left of a lot fifty by one hundred feet, after the house and outbuildings are provided for. Within such narrow limits the Eucalypts soon become monopolists, and kill out the small shrubs and flowers upon which their shadow falls, or that are within reach of their far-spreading roots. For the reasons just stated, namely, the monotonous effect in streets, etc., through too exclusive use, and the killing out of other and smaller forms through injudicious planting within too nar- row limits, these trees are not as universally popular for ornamental purposes in some localities as formerly. The perfume of the blue-gum, so agreeable to many persons, and undoubtedly of great value as an anti-malarial, (which is produced by the terp and camphor contained in the foliage,) is offensive to many, suggesting as they assert the urine of cats. . As will be seen in the foregoing, there is no argument against the tree per se, for the fault is that of inconsiderate and unwise planting, analagous to the planting of potatoes or pumpkins in a flower-bed, or the planting of geraniums and roses in a potato-patch or corn-field. Whatever may be the special beauty or virtues of a plant, it is neverthe- lessa weed when out ofa place. So also with our Monterey cypress—which has, it may with truth be said, a cosmopol- itan and world-wide appreciation, wherever it will grow, as‘one of the most beautiful of evergreen forms—when out place, or over or unduly planted. In my immediate neigh- borhood, while many of both the native and foreign species are being planted, many are being cut down. As there was indiscriminate and inconsiderate planting, so there is '' [7] likely to be indiscriminate and inconsiderate cutting down. The trees removed, however, make but a small numerical showing as compared with the number still being planted for ornamental purposes. Again, the places formerly occu- pied by the Eucalypts, cypresses, ete., are being filled with other species, deciduous trees generally, so that from many points of view there will be a gain. A gain not only through the special improvement of given localities, but from the broader aspect of an advance in popular knowl- edge and popular taste and increased public interest in tree-planting, and incidentally in forest culture. The present set of the current, though local and limited, was anticipated by me in my paper (of 1872), where I remarked: : ‘« We have many native trees well adapted for timber or wind-breaks, and while calling the attention of land-owners and others to the exotic forms above mentioned and their special qualities as enumerated in Dr. Von Mueller’s excel- lent paper, I do not wish to be understood as making an unfavorable comparison as against indigenous species, as for some of the purposes mentioned they will answer equally well.”’ : To have pressed the point sharply at the time might have deterred many from planting at all. And here I may be allowed to diverge for a moment from the general path I am pursuing to say that if evergreens are desirable or to be planted, no foreign species can be found that for orna- ment and utility surpass in luxuriant and graceful beauty our Lawson’s cypress (Cupressus Lawsoniana) and the Hemlock spruce (7’suga Douglass) ; yet these matchless forms are so rarely seen in our streets and yards as to make the occurrence of a specimen noticeable to him who loves trees and knows the sylvan treasures of our native forests. _ Where space will admit, these beautiful trees are espe- cially suitable for wind-breaks, and high untrimmed hedge- rows; so also with the Monterey cypress and pine, the Se nae eo! ts, 1 i a oe Sk Se ks '' [8] sturdy lateral branches of the latter making it particularly useful where high winds have to be resisted. So far as the main question affects the ornamental culture of Australian trees, ete., in California, the foregoing rather diffuse explanation, must be the answer. ; In the matter of Eucalyptus and forest culture within the decade, much has been learned, as to the relation between climatology and these trees, and the proper selection of species to meet the climatic limitations. It should be borne in mind by those living east of the Rocky mountains and the great American desert, that but little is known of the meteorology of the occidental half of North America. The oldest inhabitant, the California aboriginee, not a very high type of the American red man, had but little thought of the subject from the economic side; or if he had, the records were simply kept upon the inexact tablets of his memory, and handed down traditionally from generation to generation. The Spanish padres, who in a certain sense may be regarded as the successors of the Indians, or the connecting link between the present civilization and the barbarism of the past, did better; but in a very general way,—limited by their limited agricultural experiments,— transmitted some light upon the peculiarities of the climate of California. Practically but little was known by the Americans at the time that agriculture became a pursuit or vocation on this part of the Pacific coast, so that our present knowledge has been purchased by experience and frequently at a great loss of money, energy and time. This loss of time and money has ensued in some places to those who planted the Hucalyptus globulus. This species, which seems generally to thrive within the influence of the coast climate, where the saline quality of the coast atmos- phere neutralizes the occasionally too low temperature of the winter months, often fails in the interior. 28° Fahren- heit is about the temperature limit as to cold. [t would be extraordinary indeed if this species, or any other one species '' ’ , «€ ¥ , : ¢ ‘ . d is ‘ j , . . < et f : of forest tree, planted as extensively and over so wide and diversified a climatic area as Ef. globulus has been, from. Oregon throughout California, into: Arizona, did not fail -gomewliere within so vast a territory. Bearing upon this | point as well as showing how many have been planted, etc., the following, kindly furnished me by J . R. Seupham, Eisq., of the Central Pacific Railroad Company, is of partic- ular interest: “The Company bave planted Eucalyptus globulus, E. rostrata, E. sideroxylon, E. cornuta, Ei. marginata, and other varieties. Some were bought in the nurseries, but most of them were raised from seed sent by Von Mueller. Hun- dreds of thousands of trees have been planted along the right of way and in plantations. About San Francisco bay all species flourish if cultivated when young; but most growth is made by the F. globulus, E. cornuta and EB. gigan- fea. 1n the interior valleys these species will not flourish, are not sure even to live save in exceptional places; while the E. rostrata and E. viminalis seem to do well and bear the frost. At Delano is one interior locality where the B. globulus flourishes in spite of frost. A rich soil compen- gates for some frost, as is evinced also by this species also flourishing at Chico. The first group mentioned will not grow in Arizona, nor along the Southern Pacific Railroad east of Colton. In a plantation of one hundred and twenty thousand trees at Tipton, well cared for, nearly all the trees. of the first group died after struggling along for two years, while the E. rostrata and the like thrive though growing slowly.” ‘Tt is never too late to mend,’’ and though the too exclusive planting of E. globulws has resulted in occasional disappointment, such ‘instances, though often chargeable to lack of judgment in the ‘party disappointed, .(never- theless to be regretted,) are ‘not numerous; and it is grati- fying to perceive that no material check has been given to tree-planting by these occasional mishaps. ' The Eucalypts '' ham are now being use ae Touching the value of the Eucalypts for lumber, based upon the product of California grown trees, but little can be said. The time has not arrived to determine that ques- tion. The lumber sawed in Australian mills is not made - from trees of only ten to fifteen years of age, and it is prob- able th: ; very few of the Eucalypts planted in California e as Old as fifteen years from the seed. Our native trees of nt a growth are not used for or made into lumber, and nothing but soft and sappy wood can be expected from trees so young. The repated unsatisfactory results of experiments with telegraph poles and railroad ties, so far as regards the latter use especially, might have been anti- cipated, though the experiment with the red-gum, if the wood was properly seasoned, was worth the trial. Whether the telegraph poles were barked and well-seasoned before setting I have not learned. For the purposes of fuel the wood of these trees requires to be split immediately after felling, the same as the white birch of the East, otherwise it becomes soggy and worthless. Of the profit of Eucalyptus-growing for fuel purposes, the most reliable testimony is that which relates to the planta- tion of General Stratton, before referred to, which consisted of forty-five acres, (forty-three of EZ. globulus and two E. viminalis,) planted in 1869—ten being from seed sown April Tth, 1869. Recently, twenty acres of this artificial forest have been cleared, to make room for an orchard, and after charging every item of cost and a yearly reutal of five dol- lars per acre, the net profits, as shown by the owner, are << $3,866.04 on twenty acres in eleven years.” Professor Hilgard, of the University of California, - recently distributed circulars for the purpose of collecting '' "growers ‘throughout th tee the information obtained is f gr bu of testimony decidedly favorable und pace will not permit me to extend this communice ‘on by giving the details as presented by Professor Hilgard, ata ‘meeting of the State Horticultural Society. Of his remarks thereon I quote as follows from the Rural Press of February 4th, 1882, and also enclose a copy for further Be if a required: ‘¢ Of the Eucalyptus, Professor Hilgard said that it wae ; ed in : wrong no doubt a great pest when it was p place; but there is abundant use and somewhere for a rapidly-growing, drouth-resisting tr e, which grows well in half the State. Part of our State, because of its lack of trees, is called an arid region. If all the lands capable of bearing the Eucalyptus were forest, who would call it so? Not only the name, but the climate would change. “¢We need fuel, lumber, railroad ties, etc. If the blue- gum does not make good ties, other kinds of Encalyptus will. The wood is no softer or more porous than redwood; ‘probably as durable and resistant of insects or decay. It is better fuel than cottonwood, and it is good for inner cab- inet-work if not for outside. ‘‘ Beggars should not be choosers. If we are in a Cali- fornian hurry to get rich in tree-growing, we cannot grow * first-class woods. Weare trying all sorts of trees. At the University they are now being set out. Itis desirable that hard-wood trees should be planted for future use. But let us not despise the Eucalyptus globulus for immediate use. Let us clothe the Coast Range and foot-hills with forests, if only to increase the rain-fall and the beauty of the country. ‘¢Suppose even that the estimated returns from planting given us are too high for the average; still, if we can get full farm rent off of millions of acres now lying out, it will add greatly to the wealth and promote the industries of the '' haps too much has been on of the medicinal virtues "cases, based upon personal xpressed, has since been con- ments. On the sanitary advant- e of this genus but of trees in arly invite attention to the com- ssting paper on the ‘‘ Sanitary Influ- copy of which T herewith transmit. ‘From the foregoing it will be seen, and I believe readily conceded, that tree-planting in California for the past dec- ade has not been a failure ; that if one-half the trees planted as represented by the preceding figures, are still living and growing, the past has been really a very great success; that - if new plantations are being made at the rate of say, only ; fifty thousand to seventy-five thousand per annum, that the - __ present is full of promise and the future full of hope; that the very disappointments which have occurred, though a ‘ Joss to individuals, are a public gain, as being likely to eventuate in a more diversified and intelligent selection, and to induce a more extended and critical inquiry as to the economic and esthetic value of other sylvan forms. . id medicinal value of certain _ there is enough, minus g regarded as of unques- - ences "ee y Hon. B. B. Redding, of California, a Be os ''By N. J. ANDERSSON, PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN. * i [From the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Vol. IV. — Com- ‘municated April 13th, 1858.) 4 CAMBRIDGE: METCALF AND COMPANY. “NEW YORK: B. WESTERMANN & CO. * 1858. pee '' '' NORTH AMERICAN WILLOWS. In attempting an enumeration of the Willows of North America, every author must feel himself rather at a loss. Any acquaintance, even the most superficial, with the different species of that genus, is sufficient to show that a proper treatment of the subject requires, not only access to the richest collections, but also an opportunity of seeing almost every shrub for many years. Distributed over a great part of the surface of the globe, inhabiting a great variety of localities, the species of this genus are exposed to the most heterogeneous influences from all kinds of soil and all variations of climate, — thus presenting a greater multiplicity of forms than most plants now known. ‘The liter- ature of the subject also proves how very difficult it has been, and per- haps ever will be, to establish certain determinations. While some authors believe that there are only a few species, others (as Schleicher, Tausch, Host, &c.) seem to think “species tot numeramus, quot creata sunt individua.” If, then, a botanist most favorably situated for the pur- pose finds it no easy matter rightly to understand the Willows of his own limited native country, how embarrassed must not a stranger be, who tries to form an exact idea of this intricate genus in a distant and extensive part of a new world, which he has seen only in one spot (California), and for a few weeks? But, as it may perhaps always = Aa '' 4 be impossible for one person fully to examine, in a living state, and in their native regions, the Willows of Lapland, Switzerland, the Pyre- -nees, Siberia, Himalaya, and North America (not to speak of the trop- ical regions), and as it nevertheless is of advantage to science to have a synopsis of all the known species, constructed upon uniform prin- ciples, a botanist may hope to be favorably judged when he undertakes to publish his views of these plants, after having studied them in sey- eral of their natural districts, and in the largest collections. For two years I occupied myself with the Willows in various regions of Lapland. I afterwards collected them in the Riesengebirge (Silesia), in Switzerland, and in many parts of the Continent, and in England. I have consulted the herbaria, as well as the botanical gardens, of Paris, Berlin, and Vienna; also -the herbaria of M. De Candolle and of Sir W. Hooker, the latter the largest now existing, and especially rich on plants from North America. For many years I have wished to pub- lish some general remarks upon this genus; and M. De Candolle has lately honored me with a request to elaborate it for his celebrated Prodromus. But in arranging for such a work my annotations upon the Northern species, I could but know how imperfect is our knowledge of the North American forms. As the Willows especially belong to cold regions, why should they not be as numerous in America as in Europe or Asia? As they are with us so extremely subject to variations and to hybridi- zations (a fact now generally acknowledged), must it not be the same in the New World? ‘To answer these and similar questions, our ma- terials in Europe are not sufficient, and all determinations founded upon them alone must be imperfect, and liable to frequent mistakes. In this dicecious genus it is very important to be sure that the speci- mens, both of leaves and flowers, belong to the same species, and that the foliage, flowers, and fruit should be taken from the very same shrub. But in herbaria the specimens — gathered by travellers who generally care little for Willows — often are so imperfect, confused, and = '' 5 miserable, that they only serve to make the study more difficult and uncertain. : * ‘ Looking into the American Floras, published by various authors since the time of Michaux, we find that the indigenous Salices of America (with the exception of a few of the most arctic) all have names totally differing from the European species. Now this was hardly to be expected, when the well-known fact is considered that the vegetation of a large part of the Northern regions is, I dare not say quite identi- eal, but very uniform or homogeneous, all round the world. Hence, although the indigenous Willows in America generally are considered different from those in the Old World, we should look for a greater resemblance than has yet been recognized, not only in the higher arctic regions (as partially shown in Hooker’s Flora Boreali-Americana), but also in the more southern parts. And, in fact, my inquiries have persuaded me that the similarity or analogy in this respect is greater than is generally supposed. With my experience of the European Willows, which frequently vary from one extremity of size, form, and color to another, according to the area of the species (e. g. S. nigricans), and which in different countries not seldom have the most different aspects (e. g. S. Lapponum and S. glauca in Lapland and Switzerland), I could not be surprised to find many American Willows equally varying from ours, although certainly be- longing to European types, or at least so analogous to their European relatives that they might be considered as subspecies of them, till we . discover the intermediate forms which are the connecting links of that unbroken series which we may consider as constituting a true natural genus. This idea, is it anything more than my individual opinion? It must be proved by others; it must be ascertained by diligent, un- prejudiced, and accurate researches upon the living species in America, and especially by botanists who have acquired a profound acquaintance with the European species, as older in the history of the science. My esteemed correspondent, Professor Asa Gray, who has kindly ''6 promised to assist me in procuring materials for a more complete trea- tise upon this very difficult genus, has encouraged me to send him an enumeration of the American species already known to me, which may be brought to the notice of botanists of the United States generally, in the hope that they may be induced to make renewed and critical obser- vations upon the species indigenous around them, and also to favor me with contributions of specimens, which are so greatly needed to perfect my contemplated revision of the entire genus for De Candolle’s Pro- dromus. I have tried to lay before the reader some of the reasons why I must consider several American species as very much allied to, or perhaps identical with, ours in the Old World. But neither time at present, nor the space at my command, has permitted me to treat the matter at the length requisite to prove the correctness of my opinion. I have also been obliged to restrict this communication to short diagnoses only for the new species here proposed, and to a few synonymes from the principal American Floras. Should this essay fulfil its purpose of directing the attention of the botanists of the United States to this diffi- cult genus, and bring forth the materials and the observations needed to dispel the many remaining doubts, the author may perhaps here- after find an opportunity of publishing, in the New World, a complete monograph of the North American Salices, and thus “redit ad Domi- num quod fuit ante suum.” StockHotm, March 4, 1858. « “a '' ENUMERATIO SALICUM NOBIS Ex AMERICA BOREALI COGNITARUM. A. AMERINA, Fries. I. Avustrates. — Hee tribus, staminibus numerosis, filamentis sub- ~ fasciculatis basi seepius hirsutis, antheris minutis rotundatis, squa- mis rotundatis tomentosis, capsulis plus minus longe pedicellatis et ovato-globosis, nectario subcirculari insignis, Amygdalinis om- nino analoga, regionibus meridionalibus et tropicis fere priva videtur. Huc pertinent species omnes Afric et Americe Au- stralis indigenz, Indie Orientalis et Persia pleraeque (S. tetra- sperma et affines) ; nonnulle (8. Humboldtiana, S. Bonplandiana, S. Hartwegi, etc.), Americam Centralem transgredientes, etiam Mexico australem incolunt. 1. §. ntera, Marsh. ; Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p- 198; J Carey in Gray, Man. ed. 2, p.417. S.ambigua, Pursh. S. Houstoniana, Pursh. S. Caroliniana, Michx. S. faleata, Pursh (S. Purshiana, Spring. §S. ligustrina, Miche. f.). 2. S. LonaipEs, Shuttlew. ined. : pentandra ; amentis lateralibus pedunculatis laxis; pedunculo foliato; capsulis ovato-globosis glabris, — pedicello nectarium sexies superante ; stylo subnullo ; stigmatibus brevibus indivisis ; foliis lanceolato-oblongis demum glabris subtus glaucis reticulato-venulosis exstipulatis. Var. puBEscENS (S. gongylocarpa, Shuttlew.): capsulis subcrassi- oribus fere longius pedicellatis ; foliis utrinque hirsutis.* Has. Prope St. Mark’s, Florida, Rugel. * This is the S. subvillosa, Ell. in Herb. Schweinitz, ex Nutt. N. Am. Sylva, 1, p.79, —a work to which Prof. Andersson had not access, —also mentioned in Ell. Bot. S. Car. & Georg. 2, p. 671, under S. nigra. A. G: ''8 Utraque forma non parum cum priori congruit, multis autem notis (foliis exstipulatis, etc.) ab ea differt. 3. S. AMYGDALOIDES, n. sp.: triandra; amentis lateralibus pedun- culatis rigidiusculis ; pedunculo foliato ; capsulis ovato-conicis glabris, pedicello nectarium sexies superante ; stylo subnullo; stigmatibus bre- vissimis partitis; foliis late lanceolatis utrinque glaberrimis subtus pallidioribus, margine glanduloso-serratis exstipulatis. Has. Missouri, Fort Pierre, Newwted, in Herb. Vindob. Hee species, pre ceteris affinibus, S. amygdalinam nostram latifoliam refert. Habitu quasi hybrida ex S. lucida et S. nigra, huic fructibus, illi foliis omnino similis. IJ. Fraaeiies, Fries. 4. §, (PENTANDRA) LuciDA. — S. lucida, Muhl. ; Hook. l. c. p. 198; J. Carey in Gray, l. c. p. 417. Var. LATIFOLIA : foliis apice plerumque longe cuspidatis. Var. OVATIFOLIA: foliis non vel abrupte cuspidatis. — Forma DENSIFLORA: capsulis condensatis majusculis, squamis subpersistenti- bus (L. Winipeg, Herb. Benth.). Var. ANGUSTIFOLIA. — Forma LasIAnpRA (S. lasiandra, Benth. Pl. Hartw. p. 835): squamis amentorum glandulosis ; filamentis basi subpilosis (California, Hartweg, J. M. Bigelow).— Forma PILosa: foliis subtus passim rufo-pilosis. (Columbia River; L.-Winipeg; Fort Franklin.) Primo obtutu hee species a nostra S. pentandra non parum differt ; comparatis autem formis e variis partibus Americ et Europe, affinitas ne dicam identitas negari non potest. Etiam apud nos folia adsunt longe cuspidata, ut et in America folia obtusiuscula, non lucida.* 5. S. FeNnDLERIANA, n. sp.: tri—pentandra; amentis pedunculatis foliatis erectis; squamis amenti masculi magnis margine glandulosis ; capsulis ovatis glaberrimis, pedicello nectarium sexies superante ; stylo evidenti; stigmatibus minimis integris; foliis ovatis acutis utrinque * Nuttall, in his N. Am. Sylva, supplementary to that of Michaux, Plate 18, has figured a form of S. lucida as S. pentandra, var. caudata, from the western side of the Rocky Mountains. A.G. '' 9 glaberrimis creberrime glanduloso-serrulatis ; stipulis sat magnis glan- duloso-serratis. Hab. New Mexico, Fendler (Pl. N. Mex. no. 816); Rocky Moun- tains, Geyer, no. 287. Habitu toto cum S. lucida maxime congruit; sed differt, capsulis brevibus longius pedicellatis, neenon foliis crebrius glanduloso-serrulatis, quibus notis etiam a S. amygdaloide dignoscitur, cui omnino analoga.* 6. S. Wricuti, n. sp.: amentis pedunculatis; pedunculo foliis _ 2-3 oblongis obtusiusculis instructo ; squamis facillime deciduis ; nec- tario basin pedicelli semicirculatim cingente; capsulis ovato-conicis glaberrimis sat longe pedicellatis, pedicello capsulam dimidiam super- ante gracili; stigmatibus sessilibus integris; foliis anguste lanceolatis longius acuminatis tenuissime glanduloso-serrulatis utrinque glaberrimis subtus pallidioribus; stipulis caducis; ramis erectis pallide testaceis nitidis. Hab. New Mexico, C. Wright, Coll. 1851 — 2, no. 1877. A ceteris hujus tribus speciebus differt foliis angustissimis (2 —3-pol- licaribus, vix 4 lin. latis) utrinque glaberrimis, amentis brevioribus et crassis (vix pollicaribus). A S. alba vitellina, cui sane proxima, foliis et capsulis longe pedicellatis facillime dignoscitur. 7. S. arpa, L.; J. Carey in Gray, Man. ed. 2, p. 416. Var. S. vitel- lina, Smith (= S. Pamechiana, Barratt, see. J. Carey in Gray, Man. .c.; quam tamen ad S. fragilem e speciminibus ducerem).— Var. S. cerulea, Smith. 8. 8. viripis, Pries, Novit. p. 283. §. fragilis, var. proteifolia, Barratt in Herb. Hook. A. S. alba differt amentis longis acutis et flexuosis, ramulis subpen- dulis, foliis latioribus utrinque viridibus et lucidis. A S. fragili, ramulis tenacibus pendulis, foliis cuspide recta acutatis, maturis consis- tentia durioribus, sub prelo non nigrescentibus, amentis erectis. 9. S. rracriis, LZ. ; Hook. 1. c.; J. Carey in Gray, Man. l. c. — Var. * This appears to be the S. speciosa of Nuttall (Sylva, 1, p. 58,t.17), from Oregon. There is a much older S. speciosa of Hooker and Arnott, from Kotzebue’s Sound. Vide no. 22. A. G. 2 ''10 S. decipiens, Hoffm.: foliis obtusiusculis; cortice ramulorum pallide testaceo. — Var. S. Russelliana, Smith: arbor excelsa; foliis maximis acutissime serratis. Ill. Lonerror1#. Amenta in ramulis lateralibus annotinis elongatis valde foliatis terminalia; squamez spathulato-ligulate, apice sa- pissime glandulosa-denticulate. (Folia primaria pinnato-incisa !) 10. S. ronewortA, Muhl.; Hook. Fl. Bor-Am. 2, p. 149; Gray, Man. p. 147. §. rubra, Richards (sec. Hook.). * Jam cognitum est nullam fere aliam Salicis speciem (S. cordata et S. vagante forte exceptis) in America crescentem mire variationibus ludere. Statura nunc bipedalis, nune 4—5-orgyalis (qualem in California ipse vidi), nunc stricte erecta arboris instar, nunc humifusa vel repens, rami longius viminei aut breves subtorulosi, cortice vario obducti; folia latitu- dine et longitudine, indumento et serratura eximie varia, ut etiam amenta. His omnibus perspectis species sequentes (S. sessilifoliam, Hindsianam et S. taxifoliam) tantum ut formas australes et occiden- tales ejusdem per Americ regiones latissime disperse speciei propo- nere vellem: quam autem in serie contigua a formis maxime latifoliis et vegetis ad minimas, microphyllas et pumilas, membra adhuc deside- rantur nonnulla, eas seorsim descripsi donec, quod hic autumavi, omni- bus sit expertum. Inter formas autem numerosissimas Salicis vere longifolie hee precipue notanda : — Var. ANGUSTISSIMA: amentis laxifloris et eximie remotifloris ; cap- sulis squamas acutiusculas hirsutas primo non excedentibus basi. parum gibbis subcylindricis densissime sericeis breve pedicellatis ; foliis an- gustissimis et argute dentatis exsiccatione fusco-nigrescentibus. — Hab. in Texas, Berlandier, No. 911, 3019, 2341, 2368); N. Mexico, C. Wright, Coll. no. 1875. . 11. S. sessrxirot1a (Wutt. in Herb. Hook.*): amentis masculis uncialibus ecrassiusculis cylindricis acutis densifloris ; squamis oblongo- ovalibus filamentis triplo brevioribus et pilis albis staminibus breviori- bus dense vestitis ; antheris post anthesin fulvescentibus ; foliis polli- caribus sessilibus exacte lanceolatis medio semipollicem latis acuminato- cuspidatis utrinque dense griseo-tomentosis (pilis sat longis subadpres- sis micantibus vestitis) integerrimis. — Hab. Oregon, Nuttall, Lobb. * Published by Nuttall in his NV. Am. Sylv. 1, p. 68, 1842. AG. ''11 « Hiypsiana, Benth. Pl. Hartweg, & Herb.: amentis brevibus (vix semipollicaribus) ; squamis acutiusculis dense tomentosis ; antheris pal- lide flavis ; capsulis breve pedicellatis e basi gibba longe rostratis rugu- losis glabriusculis ; foliis anguste lanceolatis (medio 24-3 lin. latis) margine integerrimis utrinque adpresse sericeis. — Hab. California, Hartweg. Ad eandem seriem hee ultima, regionum subtropicarum incola, etiam pertinet: S. raxirotia, HB. K. Nov. Gen. & Spec. 2, p. 22 (1817). S&. microphylla, Schlecht. & Cham. in Linnea, 6, p. 354 (1831): pulcher- rima, ut mihi videtur, formis supra memoratis haud dubia in S. longi- foliam sensim abiens. B. HELIX, fries. 12. S. purpurea, Z.; Hook. 1. c.; J. Carey in Gray, Man. p. 416. 13. S. viminauis, LZ. ; Hook. 1. c.; Gray, Man. I. e. C. VETRIX, Fries. J. TemprrataZ (Subdaphnoidee). 14, S. acutiror1a, Willd. —Ramum foliatum tantum vidi. 15. S. (DAPHNOIDES) IRRORATA, 0. sp.: amentis sessilibus perulis maximis primo bracteatis valde condensatis, masculis brevibus, foemi- neis horizontalibus elongatis densifloris ; capsulis sessilibus crasse conicis glaberrimis ; stylo producto; stigmatibus integris; foliis lanceo- latis utrinque viridibus ; ramis densissime glauco-irroratis. Hab. N. Mexico, Fendler, no. 812. ‘Nostra S. daphnoidi ita est similis, ut nullis notis nisi amentis eximie condensatis et foliis (novellis?) integerrimis utrinque viridibus ab ea distingui possit. Squame amenti mase. pilis brevibus aureis vestite ; squamz amenti fom. pilis sat brevibus griseis ciliate ; unde amenta foem. non ut in vera S. daphnoide longe pilosa conspicuntur. 16. S. er1ocEPHALA, Michx. Fl. 2, p. 225; J. Carey, in Gray, Man. p. 414. E Salicibus Americanis hee mihi fere maxima obscura. Specimina numerosa, inter se eximie diversa, nune S. eriocephala Michx., nunc S. crassa Barratt, nune S. prinoides Pursh (Hook. |. c. p. 150), nune ''12 S. conifera Willd., nunc immo S. myricotdes, a me examinata, confu- sionem tantum adhuc majorem reddiderunt, nec e diagnosibus auctorum quidquam certi eruere potui. Exstant specimina gemmis maximis oblique conicis, stipulis semicordatis et serratis, foliis sat longe petio- latis (petiolo basi dilatato gemmam amplectente) demum rigidis subtus glaucis, margine argute serratis, supra saturate viridibus et lucidis nervis conspicuis percursis, amentis omnino nudis, masculis e gemmis erumpentibus pilis fulvo-aureis densissime villosis, squamis et stamini- bus pilis chryseis absconditis, amentis feemineis pilis cinerascentibus obtectis, stylo elongato, etc. — ita omnino cum nostra S. daphnoide con- gruentia, ut formis numerosis quibus ea apud nos mirum in modum luditur perspectis, hanc ut formam parum aberrantem haberem. Obstant autem rami rarissime glaucescentes, folia margine remotius serrata, preecipue autem capsule multo angustiores, distincte pedicel- latze et sericeo-pubescentes. Exstant etiam specimina quedam, ad S. discolorem non indubie transeuntia, amentis magnis laxis et rari- floris, capsulis sat longe pedicellatis foliis fere ut in S. grandifolia nostra, obovato-elongatis margine repandis et sinuato-dentatis. Maxime autem memorabilis videtur quadam grisea, foliis utrinque hirtis subtus subferrugineo-pilosis, ramis cinereo-villosis et amentis iis S. cineree similibus, sed stylo producto distincta. Quibus omnibus sequitur me de hac specie vix quidquam certi cognoscere; quare omnes rogo velint specimina varia diligenter et accurate observare. 17. S. BrezLrovu, Zorr. in Herb. Hook. [§ in Bot. Pacif. R. R. Expl. 4, p. 139]: amentis sessilibus bracteis facillime deciduis paucis suffultis ; capsulis ovatis brevibus obtusiusculis glabris, pedicello necta- rium bis superante squamam subrotundam pilosam subzquante ; stylo elongato ; stigmatibus brevibus erectis bipartitis ; foliis ovali-obovatis integerrimis subtus adpresse flavido-tomentosis nigrescentibus. Hab. California, J. 1M. Bigelow, 1854. Quoad foliorum forma et indumentum (quod tamen fusco-flavescens) et amenta ebracteata densiflora similitudinem quandam cum S. Coultert habet: capsule autem iis S. hastate similiores. Unicum tantum speci- men vidi. 18. S. LasroLepPis (Benth. Pl. Hartweg. & Herb.) : amentis sessili- bus nudis adscendentibus ; squamis cuneato-subrotundis tomento den- sissimo et brevi obtectis capsulas fere occultantibus; capsulis acutis '' 13 glaberrimis, pedicello nectarium bis superante; stylo mediocri; stig- matibus crassis brevibus integris ; foliis lanceolatis vel late lingulatis acutis supra glaberrimis subtus ferrugineo-glaucis margine subsinuatis* Hab. California (near Monterey), Hartweg, no. 167. Pulcherrima species, Vetrices et Capreas quodammodo ambigua. Arbor dicitur 20 — 25-pedalis: rami crassiusculi, atri, novelli tomentosi. Folia 3 —4-pollicaria, seepius semiuncia latiora, supra nitide viridia, subtus glauca, indumento ferrugineo juxta nervos relicto colorata. Amenta mascula fere bipollicaria, erecta, subflexuosa: squame atre, rotundate, basi angustate, pilis aureo-fulgentibus vestite ; filamenta squamas duplo superantia; anthere minute, oblonge, etiam auree. Amenta foeminea vix breviora, sed subangustiora; squamz capsulas lineales flavo-virides supra medium tegentes, densissimze cano-tomentose. 19. S. CovutTErt, n. sp.: amentis omnino sessilibus bracteis 2-3 suffultis ; squamis fulvis pilis albis longissimis dense hirsutis ; foliis oblongis supra obscure viridibus costa alba, subtus vellere lucido argen- teo densissime tomentosis; ramis angulatis dense griseo-tomentosis. Hab. California, Coulter. Hee species, cujus tantem tria specimina foliis rite evolutis et amen- tis masculis predita vidi, non absque dubio affero: cum nulla a me cognita attamen confundenda, ab id precipue insignis, quod S. erto- cephalam cum SS. lanata (mediantibus S. Hookeriana et S. speciosa) serie naturali aperte connectit. Il. Arctica vel SuBAROCTICA. 20. S. Hooxrrtana, Barratt in Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p.145, t. 180. Amentis masculis est S. daphnoidi subsimilis, amentis foemineis S. hastate, foliis autem S. lanate ! 21. §. tanwata, Z., var. AMERICANA: capsulis hirsutiusculis.— Forma «. S. Barrattiana, Hook. . c. p. 146, t. 145: capsulis sericeis ; foliis tomentosis magnis, amentis sepius lateralibus. @. S. Richardsoni, Hook. 1. c. p. 147, t. 182: capsulis et foliis glabriusculis ; foliis minori- bus; amentis subterminalibus. In Lapponia S. lanata sub multis formis frequens occurrit ; sunt queedam his Americanis tam similes ut nec habitu nec notis ullis dis- tingui possint. Exstant apud nos forme numerose ad S. glaucam, sed optime ad S. hastatam accedentes, quarum folia glabrescunt, et ''14 amenta lateralia fiunt. Americana potius ad S. Lapponum vergit ; hee etiam multo humilior crescere videtur (presertim S. Richardsont). E Siberia partibus variis eadem variationes etiam adsunt. 22. S. speciosa, Hook. & Arn. Bot. Voy. Beech. p. 1380; Hook. 1. ¢. p. 145; Seemann, Bot. Voy. Herald, p. 40, t. 10. Quanquam Salici cuidam, S. amygdaline affini, hoc nomen jam 1818 imposuit Host, id tamen huic speciei Americanz conservandum censeo, ut pote Salici omnium in regionibus borealibus crescentium facile speciosissime aptissimum. 23. S.-Lapponum, L.; Hook. lc. p.151? §. Stuartiana, Smith, Hook. 1. ¢. Fateri debeo me nulla specimina Americana hujus speciei certe vidisse. Non sine hesitatione permulto huc refero Salicem eam “ pul- chram,” de qua Chamisso (Linnza, 6, p. 543) in America arctica oc- cidentali pluries a se lecta, mentionem fecit. Amenta sessilia: capsule non pedicellate, sed folia fere ut in S. phylicifolia utrinque acutata, viridia, subtus pallidiora, glaberrima: stipule persistentes lineares. Unicum tantum specimen ex herb. Berolinensi vidi. Notandum ut Salicem Lapponum, alpium summarum incolam, etiam folia nonnun- quam habere glabrescentia. 24, §. canpipa, Willd. ; Hook. l. c.p.148; J. Carey in Gray, l.c. D. Caprea, Fries. I. Crverascentes, Fries. Stigmata sessilia! Amenta precocia, vix pedunculata. 25. S. (CAPREA) CAPREOIDES, n. sp.: amentis sessilibus bracteis paucis et minutis primo suffultis densifloris ; capsulis pedicellum quin- quies superantibus sericeis ; foliis obovatis vel oblongis basi angustatis subtus glaucescentibus pilis rufescentibus villosis denique (nervis ex- ceptis) glabris. Hab. California (Coulter) et Oregon, Herb. Hook. S. caprea vera Europea, quantum scio, in America nullibi reperta, hee forma eam ibi optime representat. Quod ad fructificationis partes vix ulla exstat differentia essentialis. Amenta mascula tamen angus- tiora, sed foeminea erassiora, utraque quam in nostra breviora; squamz fere majores, atrate, obovato-spathulate ; capsule e basi gibbo fere '' 15 cylindrica, 21 lin. longe ; stigmata sessilia erecta. Folia novella - utrinque rufo-hirsuta, subtus etiam vellere albo plus minus denso ob- tecta, denique denudata, integerrima, dura. Gemme, ut in S. caprea vera, subglobose glabra ; rami sepius obscuri et glabri.— Proxima huic sine dubio est S. brachystachys ; que tamen differt amentis adhuc brevioribus, foliis densissime albo-velutinis. 26. S. crnprEA, Z.?—In herbaria Hookeriano specimina adsunt duo, quantum videre possum ad hance speciem referenda, quibus annexus erat ramus foliis parvis glabris, omnino iis S. rostrate simillimis, obtectus. Vereor ne confusione quadam commixta sint ? Hab. “ Thickets along rivulets, Columbia River valley, near Fort Colville ; 15 - 20 feet high, shrubby, C. A. Geyer.”* Num S. caprea vel S. cinerea hic crescit ? 27. S. (aurita) BRAcHYsTACHYS, Benth. Pl. Hartweg, & Herb.: amentis sessilibus nudis brevibus ovatis; squamis pilis longissimis seri- ceis dense vestitis; capsulis villosis acutatis, pedicello nectarium 4- 5-ies superante; stylo nullo; stigmatibus longis integris divaricatis ; — foliis obovatis subtus densissime velutino-tomentosis demum glabres- centibus rufescenti-nervosis. Hab. California (woods near Monterey), Hartweg, no. 1957. Frutex dicitur 4-orgyalis, sat similis videtur prioribus; sed differt, amentis semiuncialibus, squamis mediocribus rufescentibus pilis duplo vel triplo longioribus densissime sericeis, pedicello breviore, foliis 14 unc. longis supra medium unciam latis subtus molliter velutinis. E nostris speciebus in Europa indigenis S. aurita L. sine ullo dubio huic tam similis ut hance facile subspeciem ejus haberem. Sub nomine S. Scouleriane Barratt, Hook. 1. c. p. 145 in herbario Hookeri vidi specimina duo florentia ad S. brachystachym absque ullo dubio pertinentia, et specimen foliatum (S. Sitchensis Sanson. Hoe nomen itaque e Salicum turba excludendum. 28. S. vacans, Anders. — Qui S. depressam Scandinavie, S. Star- keanam Rossiz et Borussi, et S. rostratam Americe Borealis eamque formas attente, nulla certa opinione preoccupatus, comparare studet, non potest quin eas omnes ad unam eandemque Salicum speciem * These specimens are described, under the name of S. grisea ? in Hook. Kew Jour. Bot. 7, p. 372. A. G. ''16 pertinere credat. Hoc mihi saltem, specimina fere innumera, e variis terris inspicienti, omnino persuasum habeo. Nominibus jam allatis formas varias tantum spectantibus, vagantis nomine speciem notare volui, que per terras plurimas septentrionalis late vagatur, que insuper notis admodum vaga est. Variat statura, de qua Linneus in Flora Lapponica, no. 361 “arbor parva,” sed in Flora Suecica “ arbuscula ad terram depressa”: variant folia nunc glabra nunc villosa, nunc magna nunc parva, nune lanceolata nunc ovata vel obovata: rarissima autem variant amenta laxiflora, capsulis angustis (glabris seu hirtis) subcylindricis longissime pedicellatis et stigmatibus coronatis sparsim ornata. His premissis hujus speciei sequente modo proponendas censeo : — 1. Oinerascens : foliis velutinis. i Var. «. Linnz=ana (cfr. Fries, Nov. Mant. 1, p. 59): foliis plerum- que obovatis supra demum glabratis. Linn. Fl. Lapp. no. 361 (see. Fries). §.livida @. cinerascens, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. no. 273. §. depressa, a. cinerascens, Fries, I. c. p.57. §S. depressa, velutina, Koch. S. sphacelata, Smith., nomen ambiguum !) Forma ELATA: orgyalis, Wahl. 1. c. “ pppREssA: foliis crassioribus utrinque tomentosis. §. de- pressa, LZ. FU. Suec. SS. livida 8. in alpibus, Wahl. ; Fries, 1. ¢. Hab. ex alpibus (forma depressa) juxta flumina (forma elata) in regiones sylvaticas Lapponiz descendens. Var. 8. OCCIDENTALIS: arbor 4—15-pedalis ; foliis plerumque lance- olatis demum rigidis et leviusculis sinuato-crenatis (fere ut in S. caprea). SS. rostrata, Richards. ; Hook. 1. e.; Gray, le. Hab. per Amer. Sept. omnem et in Siberiz partibus orientalibus. 2. Glabrescens: foliis glaberrimis lucidis subtus pallidioribus. Var. g. INTERMEDIA: frutex parvus et humilis; foliis sapius late obovatis subcoriaceis; amentis masculis tenuibus; staminibus flavis ; pedicello capsularum nectarium sexies superante. Forma Lrvipa: foliis subtus lucido-glaucis ; capsulis glabris vel sericeis, S. livida, « Wahl. S. depressa, 8. Fries. « prcoLor: foliis subtus glaucis haud lividis. §. depressa, 7. Fries, l. e. : Hab. in regionibus mediis (divida) et meridionalibus (dicolor) Sueciz. Var. 8. ORIENTALIS : frutex altior; foliis majoribus utrumque gla- '' 17 berrimis margine sinuatis; amentis masculis crassioribus ; staminibus fulvis ; capsularum pedicello nectarium sepe novies superante. S. Starkeana, Willd. Hab. in Silesia et prope Keenigsberg Borussiew, necnon per Rossiam medium et septentrionalem. Et J. Carey in Gray, Man. 1. ¢., et Hooker hance speciem in America valde esse variabilem affirmant. Formas majores foliis fere ut in S. caprea longis (sed multo angustioribus), obovatis et acutis, margine sinuatis, textura duris, subtus tomentosis, supra obscure viridibus in formas minores foliis lanceolatis aut obovato-oblongis, junioribus ru- fescenti-pellucidis, nervis subtus elevatis costatis abire videmus, omnino ut s. d. S. depressa in Scandinavia ubi forma einerascens altitudinem orgyalem sed forma livida vix bipedalem attingit. Has formas livédas et bicolores ex America non reperimus. Amenta mascula S. rostrate omnino ut in S, Starkeana, i. e. quam in vera S. depressa paullo longi- ora et crassiora, pilis fulvis squamarum magis hirsuta; amenta foeminea vulgo quam in nostra longiora, sed capsule omnino exquales. Etiam in America margines sylvarum et pratorum inhabitare dicitur. 29. S. GEYERIANA, n. sp.: amentis breve pedunculatis bracteis paucis suffultis brevibus subramifloris; capsulis ex ovata et crassa basi conicis tenuiter sericeis, pedicello nectarium sexies superante ; stigma- tibus sessilibus cruciformibus ; foliis lineari-lanceolatis planis utrinque molliter tomentosis integerrimis. [S. rostrata, Hook. in Kew Jour. Bot. 1. c.] Hab. Missouri v. Oregon, Geyer, coll. No. 286! Priori valde similis, sed differt habitu toto, ramis interdum glauces- centibus, foliis (novella tantum vidi!) multo angustioribus, nec ullo modo obovatis, integerrimis, sed praecipue amentis fom. triplo breviori- bus subrotundis, nec cylindricis, et capsulis e basi valde crassa acutatis. Amenta mascula etiam breviora et crassiora; stamina magis aureo- fulva. Habitu amentorum propius ad S. repentem appropinquatur. II. Virentes. Amenta sepius pedunculata, foliis seu bracteis suf- fulta: capsule brevius pedicellate, stylo producto : folia exsicca- tione non nigrescentia. 30. S. Drummonp1ana, Barratt in Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p. 144. Species pulcherrima, ramis elongatis nitidis castaneis vel rufis, amen- : 3 ''18 tis sessilibus, et capsularum forma, magnitudine, et indumento sequenti proxima et valde similis; sed differt abunde foliis (que iis S. laurine haud dissimilia) subtus vellere densissimo candido lanatis. Stylus in capsulis junioribus stigmatibus bifidis equilongus, in capsulis adultis magis productus videtur, brevior tamen ac in S. discolore. 31. S. (pHyLicrFoL1A) DiscoLor.—S. discolor, Muhl. ; Hook. l.c.; J. Carey in Gray, I. c. p. 414. S. phylicifolia, J. Carey, Lc. p- 416? Specimina pleraque numerosa, que attente examinavi, parum differt a vera S. phylicifolia, qualis in Europe alpestribus crescet vulgatissima et eximie polymorpha, eique saltem exacte analoga. Folia quam in nostra majora, adulta rigidiora et margine irregulariter sed non profunde repando-serrata, stipule in surculis et ramis novellis vegetis sat conspi- cue, amenta omnino precocia, capsule anguste sericex, et squamz atre longe pilose. In pluribus herbariis hee species et S. eriocephala confuse. Nullam aliam S. phylicifoliam ex America vidi, nisi forsan sequentem. — Nonne species apud nos loca alpina potissimum amans, quum in Americe regiones magis temperatis inhabitat, hoe modo mutatur ? 32. S. PHYLICOIDES, n. sp.: amentis subsessilibus elongatis crassi- usculis ; capsulis breve pedicellatis ovatis longe acutatis tenuissime pubescentibus ; stylo elongato integro ; stigmatibus brevissimis indivisis ; foliis lanceolatis acuminatis basi angustatis margine integris subtus pallidioribus nec glaucis. — Forma LATIFOLIA: foliis 3 —4-pollicaribus 14 poll. latis margine subsinuatis. Forma ANGUSTIFOLIA: foliis 1- 2- pollicaribus 3 poll. latis lanceolatis integerrimis. Hab. in Arctica America occidentali (Avatscha Bay, Seemann, Herb. Hook.). En aliam speciem mihi valde obscuram! Est ita inter S. diseolorem et S. cordatam intermedia ut fere eodem jure ad quamvis ut subspecies relata esse possit. Cum priori congruit amentis longis, capsulis pubes- centibus, stylo producto, foliis elongatis acutis basi angustatis; sed dif- fert, capsulis multo brevius pedicellatis, stigmatibus indivisis, et foliis adultis vix rigidis nec subtus glaucis. Cum S. cordata communia habet stipulas basi latiores, folia subtus venulosa, et capsulas viridius- culas. — Folia 2-8-pollicaria: amenta fere eadem longitudine: cap- sule 2-3 lineas longe. '' 19 . 33. S. macrocarPa, Vutt. in Herb. Hook: amentis pedunculatis foliatis erectis; capsulis breve pedicellatis conicis glaberrimis ; stylo mediocri; stigmatibus integris; foliis exstipulatis lanceolatis integris glaberrimis subtus pallidioribus. Hab. [Oregon ? Nuttall] Hudson’s Bay, Burke. De hac specie iterum non parum sum incertus cui potissimum proxima censenda. Videtur frutex sat altus, ramis glabris. Folia iis S. phylictfoke simillima, 14 pollicem longa, semiunciam lata, acuta, basi acutata, matura rigidiuscula. Amenta foeminea pedunculo foliis 3-4 rite evolutis instructo infixa, pollicem longa, subramiflora. Cap- sule ut in S. phylicifolia nostra 2 lin. longa. — A precedentibus longe differt amentis pedunculatis et foliatis: cum sequentibus non multa communia, nisi cum S. glauce formis denudatis.* 34. S. corpata, Muhl. ; Hook. l.c.; J. Carey in Gray, Man. p. 416. In Europe hortis non raro colitur salix hecce pulchra, foliis magnis rigidis basi profunde cordatis, apice cuspidatis margine acute serratis, insignis. Qui hanc formam tantum inspexit vix ullam ejus affinitatem cum S. hastata nostra sibi fingeret, licet amenta, et mascula et foeminea huic omnino similia conspiciuntur, ceteras autem modificationes, quibus dilata est terra Americana usque ad septentrionem summum, quum videat, facillime intelliget has duas sibi valde esse analogas. Apud nos frutex S. hastate variat nunc orgyalis (in conyallibus alpium), nunc (in campis alpium elevatis) repens, prostratus, et bidigitalis: folia sunt latissime ovata, acuminato-cuspidata, acute serrata, stipulis magnis cordatis ornata, nunc autem anguste lanceolata integra exstipulata. Prorsus exdem modificationes etiam ex America vidi, quare eas hoc modo serie analoga disponere vellem : — S. hastata, ' 8. cordata. malifolia, Sm.: foliis cordatis stipulis magnis, = rigida, Muhl. elegans, Hort: foliis ovatis, stipulis mediocris, myricotdes, Muhl. alpestris, Fries : foliis lanceolatis, stipulis nullis, swbarctica. S. cordata autem a S. hastata plerumque capsulis longius pedicellatis dignoscitur: caeterum omnibus partibus simillime, presertim foliis rigi- dis subtus dense venulosis (character his speciebus valde singularis). Sub hac specie duas formas attulit Hooker, 1. ¢.: 1. S. balsamifera, Bar- * In his N. A. Sylva, 1, p. 67, Nuttall gives a character, but no figure, of this species. He calls it the “ Western Pond Willow,” and says it is closely related to S. grisea. He has omitted to mention the habitat. Aa G; ''20 \ ratt; 2. S. Mackenziana, Barratt. Quantum e speciminibus in herb. Hook. judicare possum S. balsamifera, cujus ramus foliis tectus tantum adest, ad S. acutifoliam, W. pertinet. Ramus cortice ccerulescenti- castaneo obductus. Stipule lanceolate, curvate; gemmeze magne acute ; folia fere 4-pollicaria, semiunciam lata, argute sed remotius- cule serrata, subtus glaucescentia. S. Mackenziana mihi hybrida proles ex S. cordata et S. vagante (rostrata) videtur. A priori habet folia glaberrima, viridia, elongato-cuspidata, capsulas basi gibbas glabras, stylum brevem sed evidentem ; a posteriori foliorum forma magnitudi- nem et consistentiam, capsulas longissime pedicellatas. 35. S. ADENOPHYLLA, Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p. 146. Est sine dubio S. hastate valde affinis: congruit enim cum ea, foliis subcordatis duris subtus reticulato-venosis argutissime serratis, stipulis magnis, pedunculis foliatis, capsularum forma et colore ; sed differt abunde, foliis lana sericea densa primo obsitis, serraturis elongatis glanduligeris, capsulisque brevius pedicellatis. 36. S. myrtitLoiwes, Z S. pedicellaris, Pursh ; Hook. l.c.; J. Carey in Gray, Man. l. c. F Jam cl. Tuckerman, in The American Journal of Sciences and Arts, Vol. 45 (1843), p. 387, observavit speciem Americanam cum Lapponica valde congruere, nec possum quin ei omnino assentiar. Apud nos etiam species est vere elegantissima foliorum forma consistentia et co- lore, nec non capsulis statim ab omnibus dignata. In America adhuc magis luxurians videtur, folia nempe multo majora et ovalia. Ad nostram certissime se habet ut S. rostrata ad S. depressam ! Il. Niericantes, Fries. 37. S. BARCLAYI, n. sp.: pedunculo foliato; amentis incurvatis den- sifloris longe pilosis ; capsulis glabris conicis in stylum longum inte- grum attenuatum productis, pedicello nectarium vix duplo superante ; stizmatibus profunde bipartitis ; foliis rotundato-ovalibus brevissime apiculatis supra parcissime pilosis vel glabriusculis subtus pallidioribus denudatis reticulato venulosis; stipulis ovatis acutis serratis. Hab. in America boreali-occidentali: Kodiak, Barclay (Herb. Hook). Species ob id precipue memorabilis, quod S. hastate, S. nigricanti, et S. glauce simul sit affinis. Cum S. hastata congruit, amentis pe- dunculatis, squamis longe cinereo-pilosis, capsulis obscure viridibus '' 21 glabris, stylo producto, foliis subtus subglaucescentibus et pulcherrime reticulato-venulosis, stipulis denique latis serratis; cum S. négricante habitu, foliis exsiccatione nigricantibus et subtus (sub lente) ecrebre albo-punctulatis ; cum S. glauca capsulis subsessilibus, pedunculo foliis 5 —6 ceteris subsimilibus instructo, et consistentia foliorum. Ob hance variam affinitatem locus in dispositione methodica difficilis determinatu. IV. ArGENTEA, Fries. 38. S. Srrcuensis, Sans. ex Ledeb. Fl. Ross. 3, p. 609. Hab. in America boreali-occidentali: Sitcha, Mertens ; Oregon, Scouler ; et juxta Columbia River, Hinds. Jam sub S. brachystachya observavi specimina S. Sitchensis in her- bario Hookeriano S. Scoulertana appellata cum aliis esse confusa. 39. [S. sericea, Marsh.; J. Carey in Gray, Man. l. ec. p. 414.] S. grisea, Muhl. ; Willd., ete. Locus in dispositione methodica omligtea, S. rubre nostre primo subsimilis ob id ad Helices interdum ducta, ab iis amentis haud longe pilosis, staminibus discretis, et capsulis pedicellatis longe diversa. Amenta, precipue mascula, parva subrotunda. Maxime affinis est se- quenti, et per eam S. repenti nostra. 40. S. peTIoLaRts, Smith; J. Carey in Gray, Man. l. c. Amentis et foliis prasertim junioribus S. repenti L. vel potius S. rosmarini folie L. sat similis. Capsule, que in [\S. sericea, Marsh. seu] grisea, Muhl. obtusissime et stigmatibus sessilibus coronate, in hac ovato-rostrate stylo distincto apiculate: squame in priore obtuse vel truncate, apice summo atrate ; in hac acute, superne infuscate. 41. §. numitis, Marsh. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. 1. ce. §. Muhlen- bergiana, Barratt, et S. conifera, Muhl. sec. Gray, Man. l. c. ES. cinerea et S. Smithiana quasi composita videtur. Ab utraque foliis amentis et capsulis aliena. _S. tristis, huic maxime affinis, aperte differt foliis utrinque opace cinereis, amentis foemineis subglobosis, et capsularum stylo evidenti. 42. S. rristis, Ait.; J. Carey in Gray, Man. l. c.— Var. micro- PHYLLA: foliis semiuncialibus ; amentis globosis. Fruticulus parvus. 43. 8. nepens (L.?), J. Oarey in Gray, Man. p. 418. §S. fusca (L.), Hook, 1. c. ''22 Nullam veram S. repentem ex America in herbariis vidi. S. repens, Bigel. Fl. Bost. (S. fusca, Oakes) quum Tuckerman, 1.c. S. ambiguam Ebrh. habet, ab utraque diversa, ad S. arbusculam referenda. 44. §. eraciuis, Anders. (= §. rosmarinifolia (Z.), Hook. l. c. p. 148): amentis lateralibus bracteis paucis deciduis suffultis; capsulis ovato-cylindricis obtusis tenuiter griseo-puberulis, pedicello nectarium octies superante ; squamis lingulatis apice infuscatis ; stigmatibus stylo brevissimo duplo longioribus integris; foliis angusto-linearibus planis integerrimis basi longe angustatis latitudine fere decies longioribus subtus pallidis glabris. Hab. Saskatchawan, Drummond, Richardson. Var. ROSMARINOIDES: foliis apicem versus serrulatis marginibus acutiusculis subrevolutis.— Hab. Durham County [New Jersey ?], Herb. Hook. Ab omnibus mihi cognitis speciebus bene dignoscitur foliis et capsu- lis. Quasi hybrida e S. vagante et S. myrtilloide videtur. lily will grow to a height of three or four feet. The finest speci- men it has been my fortune to meet grew in the debris by the side of a Sierra stream. It was over eight feet high and had an enormous bulb. This lily increases by seeds only, in its na- tive state, and where the natural conditions happen to be ex- -actly suitable is found in great numbers. I took over eight thousand good bulbs from one place some years ago. It was on a hillside in volcanic soil, where years ago the gold miners had cut the timber. I had spent the previous week in hard traveling to find five hundred. I once found fine bulbs in an oak grove near Chico. They were doing splendidly in the black adobe of that section. In cultivation I find it will thrive in clay loam or sandy soil. In hot sections it does better planted in the shade. It needs to be planted six inches to a foot deep, and will give the grower value received. High up in the Sierras above the pine timber on those grand slopes crowned with a mixed growth of wild cherry, manzanita and ceanothus, Lilium Washingtonianum finds its most congenial home. The soil is loose decomposed granite and mold. The snow lies very deep in the winter and is late in melting. It keeps the bulbs moist in their early growth, and when it is gone they make a very rapid growth, often blooming six or eight weeks ''92 Californian Lilies. after the snow has melted. Thestalk grows up from three to five feet, densely leaved in whorls, and with from a few to twenty-five flowers, pure white and with a mosi delicious fragrance. I have seen places fairly white with this lily and the air heavy with per- fume. The bulb is large. I have bloomed it at Ukiah, but find it rather harder to bloom than any of the other native lilies. I ‘ believe, however, that it is quite successfully grown in England. It should be given a loose soil and abundant moisture during the growing season. Lilium rubescens is like L, Washingtonianum in every. particu- lar excepting that the flower blooms out pure white, blotched with purple, and gradually gets darker till itis of rich ruby color, hence its name. Similar as the two lilies are in habit, their native homes are very different. L. Washingtonianum is a lily of the high Sierras, L. rubescens of the Coast Range. It is found in the redwoods close to the coast, on shaded hillsides in sandstone gravel, and on high ridges in the chapparal. The finest I have ever seen in numbers were ona chapparal ridge in a soil of gravel mixed with mold, of the ordinary chapparal soil. The bulb grows deep and has abundant moisture in winter and spring, but in the summer such places get very dry. A friend grows and blooms them readily in half barrels filled with sand and mold and placed in the shade. The first essentials with them are per- fect drainage anda loose, porous soil. Of all our California lilies it is the most beautiful, and of all lilies the most deliciously fra- grant. AQ flower will perfume the leaves of a book for months, . and a well grown plant is the admiration of all beholders. Carl Purcy. CALIFORNIA FLOWERS IN ENGLAND. (Extracts from correspondence.) Phacelia Parryi, with dark violet purple flowers, is now well- known. It has been in cultivation here several years and seed is cheap. Itis lower in price and much less in request than P. campanularia, which I introduced through Messrs. Parish. The latter is more delicate. If the season happens to be wet, the plants die off. If the Californian seeds like the European climate they soon get cheapened, through the competition which prevails here. But they are not all at home, in England at least. _I failed to do eny good with Gilia aurea, which Messrs. Parish once sent me. But G. dianthoides, G. dichotoma, and others do very well. Mimulus glutinosus has long been grown here under its early name of Diplacus (Nuttall’s), also a form with red flowers (puni- ceus); they outlive mild winters, but perish in severe ones. I may make the same remark of Dicentra chrysantha. It is only seen to advantage in a climate like yours—which would suit me well, but I am too old to transplant. ''Aq Central Railroad, Great Latin orator, what a disgrace to your immortal name! Oswego, N. Y. J. H. Wisse. Notes on the Conifere of Washington Territory,—The follow- ing observations are limited to the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains, between the parallels of 46° 30’ and 47° 30’ north lati- tude. It is difficult to give any fixed altitudes for the range of a species, as this is in a great measure regulated by the amount of moist- ure, these two factors of altitude and moisture combined determining the composition of the forests in the different localities. The damp winds from Puget Sound, after passing over the crest of the moun- tains, are gradually deprived of their moisture until, at a distance varying from thirty to forty miles from the summit, the soil becomes too dry to support a growth of timber. This line between the forest and sage-brush areas varies in altitude from 1,500 feet, along river valleys, to 3,000 feet. The lowest and perhaps the most extensive, at least the most valuable forests, consist of an open growth of yel- low pine (Pinus ponderosa, Dougl.) and Douglas spruce or yellow fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasit, Carr.), the former extending to an alti- tude of 4,500 feet, and in dry situations even to 5,000 feet, while the latter ranges somewhat higher. The yellow pine is never found in the denser and damper forests towards the summit, even at as low an elevation as 3,000 feet. The whole timbered area can be well divi- ded into the lower and dry or yellow pine forest, and the upper and damp or fir (Ades) forest. The term upper in this sense means proximity to the summit rather than altitude. Probably nine-tenths of the upper area are composed of fir—Adies grandis, Lindl., (white fir) first appearing, then becoming mixed with Ades amabilis, and finally the first species disappearing and the latter forming the bulk of the forest area at the summit. Another species of fir probably occurs here, Adzes concolor, Lindl., or perhaps A. subalpina, Engelm., but its distribution was not well determined. A few trees of Adses nobilis, Lindl., (red fir) were seen near Natches Pass at an elevation of 6,000 feet. Pinus contorta, Dougl., var. Murrayana, (black pine, tamarac) grows throughout the upper yellow pine area. In this situation it often forms dense thickets, the trees being small and with trunks as straight as arrows. The black pine is also often seen on high exposed summits with Pinus albicaulis, the latter ranging higher than any other of the conifer of the region, except perhaps Juniperus communis, L., var. alpina, (juniper) which carpets the alpine peaks. The white pine (Pzuus monticola, Dougl.) is found scattered through- out the upper yellow pine and lower fir forests, and the beautiful light green foliage of the larch (Larix occidentalis, Nutt.) is often a conspicuous object at low elevations. Picea Engelmanni, Engelm., (spruce) is often a companion of the fir at high elevations, but is rather local in its distribution. The two hemlocks of the region, Lsuga Pattoniana and Tsuga Mertensiana, Carr., the latter much re- sembling the eastern species, 7. Canadensis, Carr., grow through the upper fir forests. The cylindrical, oblong cones of the former are, after falling, very conspicuous by their reflexed scales. The yellow or Sitka cedar (Chamacyparis Nuthaensis, Spach.) is a middle-sized 23 ''48 tree along streams and on lake shores, but on high exposed summits at over 6,500 feet it is hardly more than a shrub, and forms dense thickets. ‘The arbor vite, the red cedar of Oregon (Zhuya gigantea, Nutt.) is the largest tree of the region, some specimens being over ten feet in diameter. The yew (Zaxus brevifolia, Nutt.) is frequently seen in the dense damp forests, but rarely exceeds a height of 25 feet. Some few specimens of /uniperus Virginiana, L., (red cedar) were seen at low elevations. —he main summit of the Cascade Range, in the region where the above observations were taken, has an alti- tude varying from 6,000 to 6,800 feet, and is generally bare of timber. Its immediate slopes are covered with grass and flowers of every hue interspersed with bunches of willows and groves of fir. Newport, R. I. FRANK |'TWEEDY. Fasciation in Rubus.—A curious case .of fasciation was brought to my notice a short time since. The specimen was a cane of the cultivated black-cap raspberry, which, at the extremity, had become strongly flattened and coiled upon itself in the form of a flat spiral. The width of the cane was seven-eighths of .an inch, and the thick- ness about one-third of an inch near the outer circumference of the coil, while on the inner side it was much thinner. The four com- plete coils were from one and one-half to three and one-half inches across. From the beginning of the first coil the cane bore an un- usual number of abortive foliar organs, which increased in number toward the extremity until the entire tip was of a thickened and foliaceous character. A cross-section of the cane showed it to consist of two regions of entirely different tissue. The thickened portion which followed the periphery of the curve was of normal woody structure, while the opposite side was composed almost entirely of parenchyma. This differentiation of tissues, with their unequal rates of growth, doubt- less explains the phenomenon of curving. The coil became more distinct and its radius shorter as the difference between the two regions became more marked, until, at the extremity, the paren- chyma predominated and expanded into a sort of flattened mem- brane. At the time of collection the woody region was still fresh and active, but the parenchyma was dead and withered. This, no doubt} assisted in the curvature, since several transverse fissures across the parenchyma showed that it had been subjected to con- siderable tension. I believe the cultivated species of Rudus are especially liable to oddities of growth, but I have never seen so striking a departure as this before. Houghton Farm, Mountainville, N. Y. W. E. STONE. Genus Labels.—Mr. H. N. Patterson, of Oquawka, IIL. desires us to state that the first box of his North American genus-labels, from Ranunculacee to Composite, 650 genera (3 of each), is now ready for delivery. Price $1.30. Note.—We send out with this number three plates, which are to be substituted for the badly printed ones that accompanied our March issue. 945976 '' '' '' '' '' '' ''U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES } CO814bi?7il '' ''