FUNDED IN PART BY NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES REPRODUCTIONS MAY NOT BE MADE WITHOUT PERMISSION. Filmed by University Microfilms International Ann Arbor, MI 48106 for the University of California at Berkeley in 1992 This material may be covered by Copyright Law Title 17 US Code. Reproductions of the film are available through the ILL Photo Section, Main Library, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720. AUTHOR : Avery, Ralph EmmelT TITLE : The greatest engineering feat in the world at Fanama . Authentic and complete story of... ~ PLACE : New YorK DATE : clai5 VOLUME : CALL Xioeq M NEG :a2- NO‘: Ag 1339 IMAGE EVALUATION , TEST TARGET (MT-3) o¥, WV, Q %Y V7, 7 Yo, WO WV Il 10 B= je ew f132 ll22 wo. l= wo figs I Ee iE IE [2 fli ne 150mm = APPLIED IMAGE 1653 E. MAIN STREET ~ ROCHESTER. NY 14608 TEL (716) 482-0300 FAX (716) 288-5989 Precision IMAGE Products & Services 12:1 UNNUMBERED PAGE [S] numbering starts at pP- 4; pp-Cil- Cs) not indicated Cv ~ LL we A ~ ” |/ A — . / rr wl fr f3 } 1 3 3 14 7 / 1 nl i J] CPF ¢ Vu ov / uaa aid 1s Ud pel ON { 1) 7) 17 1" / 1) THE GREATEST ENGINEERING FEAT IN THE WORLD PANAMA hip dP Authentic and Complete Story of the Building and Operation of the Great Waterway —the Eighth Wonder of the World. With a Graphic Description of the Panama - Pacific International Exposition the Official Celebration of the Completion of America’s Triumph at Panama, the Gigantic Undertaking Successfully Carried Out under the Supervision of COL. GEORGE W. GOETHALS, U. S. A. By RALPH EMMETT AVERY TRAVELER, AUTHOR AND LECTURER Edited by WILLIAM C. HASKINS of THE CANAL RECORD Profusely Illustrated With Photographs in Half-tone and Color. LESLIE - JUDGE COMPANY NEW YORK w ~ *(\* \ Sd), Tt 3 | a Lé / wg “af DEDICATED TO THE MeN oF Brain AND Brawn oF Our CounTRYy, WHOSE MatcHLESS SKILL AND INSPIRING COURAGE Special Revised and Enlarged Edition Mabe THE DREAM OF AGEs A REALITY Copyright, 1915, | IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE by Ralph E. Avery COPYRIGHT, MCMXIII, BY RALPH E. AVERY B Panama CANAL Cn £5 SUNRISE, SUNSET AND MOONLIGHT SCENES ON PANAMA BAY. During February and March the moon is particularly bright. due to the clear atmosphere Shih Proves ing height of the dry season. On certain brilliant evenings it is possible to read in the moonlight. The cloud effects are perfect and the rainbows magnificent. One of the prettiest effects, which happens but rarely, is a rainbow at night. 3 i x FOREWORD JHE eighth wonder of the world, the crowning achievement of man’s greatest undertaking is the construction of the Panama Canal by the Government of the United States. Doubtless for centuries to come the world-wonders of the Panama Canal will be told in story and in picture, but the eloquence of the theme itself will never be ex- hausted while reverence for mighty deeds finds lodg- ment in the hearts of men. Recognizing as much as one man could the magni- tude and importance of the work being performed on the Isthmus, the Author for almost two years dwelt among the activities of this gigantic enterprise, and in these pages authentically presents to the reader his chronicles of the step-by-step progress of the construc- tion from beginning to completion, as well as the suc- cessful installation of the world’s majestic waterway from ocean to ocean. The successful opening on February 20, 1915, of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco, in celebration of the completion of the world’s most stupendous achievement—the Panama Canal—has called for and received in this work a graphically writ- ten and illustrated detailed account of this great con- temporaneous event. Clothed as it is in a beauty of typography and art illustrations in keeping with the grandeur of the subject it treats, the publishers feel assured of the book’s cordial reception on the part of an appreciating public. FROM CONGRESSMAN GEORGE EDMUND FOSS. FORMERLY CHAIRMAN OF THE NAVAL COMMIT. TEE IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, U.S. A. TO THE PUBLISHERS. —————————— I have taken much pleasure in Looking over and examining your handsomely illustrated book giving e story of "THE GREATEST ENGINEERING FEAT IN THE WORLD AT PANAMA." The Panama Canal is indeed the greatest engineer- | ing work of modern times and is of tremendous interest to | the American people on account of it's commercial and military | value. : Commercially, it shortens the voyage between the ! eastern and western coasts of. our own country and brings us | in nearer contact with South America. This will have a tendency to bind the two continents, North and South America, into closer commercial relations. ’ Tor the world at large, it will establish a new trade route for all countries and make the Caribbean Sea a new Mediterranean. From the naval standpoint, it will prove to be a great means of National Defense to us because it will prac- tically double the efficiency of our fleet. . The history of such an important undertaking should be familiar to every American, both young and old, and I would commend the attractive and condensed form in which you have placed the large amount of information in your illus- trated book as well worthy of favorable consideration by the public. ¥ Yours very truly, i Yor nz March 27th 1915. 4 RR Ri AL ERSTE CONTENTS FOREWORD. ........ coi ivi ccnvumvnsnviaidninininin swiss CHAPTERI DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT .............. 9 Early Discoverers—The First Settlement—Discovery of the South Sea—Balboa’s Unfortunate End—Settlement of Old Panama—Spain’s Power Spreads—Period of the Great Trade—The Scotch Bubble. CHAPTER II. RAIDS OF THE BUCCANEERS ................ 21 Drake’s Expedition—Fall of Old Panama—Other Attempts. CHAPTER III. PROPOSED CANAL ROUTES Tehuantepec—Atrato River and Tributaries—Calidonia—San Blas—Nicaragua—Panama. CHAPTER IV. THE PANAMA RAILROAD.................... 32 First Work on the Panama Railroad—Completion of the Enterprise—Early Rates Nearly Prohibitive— Establishment of Steam Ship Service—Concessionary Rights and Privileges—Changes in Ownership—The New Main Line—Busiest Short Line in the World. CHAPTER V. THE FRENCH FANNURE.................0..000. 45 DeLesseps, Promoter—Procuring the Concession—DeLesseps’ Plan—Inaugurating the Work—French Labor Force—LaFolie Dingler—The Sick Poorly Cared for—The Crash—The Second or New Company—French Aid to American Project. CHAPTER VI. THE AMERICAN TRIUMPH................... 69 Organization of the Canal Commission—Taking Possession, Change in Chief Engineer—The New Com- mission—Commission Again Reorganized—The Purchasing End. CHAPTER VII. MAKING THE ISTHMUS HEALTHFUL ..... 80 The Fight on the Mosquito—Cleaning House—Results Have Justified the Cost—Rigid Quarantine Maintained. CHAPTER VIII. AN ARMY OF WORKERS ............. ia 95 Getting the Force Together—Keeping the American Employes Contented—Plant—Monthly Cost of Allow- ances—Feeding and Clothing the Canal Army—The Canal Zone—The Postal Service—Postal Savings Bank, a Popular Institution—Zone Customs Service—The Zone “Dry” —Keeping Order—Guarding Against Fires— Educational Facilities—The Law Department—Paying the Canal Force—Accounts—No Graft. CHAPTER IX. CONSTRUCTING THE LOCK TYPE CANAL.. 135 The Canal a Water Bridge—The Dam at Gatun—Gatun Spillway—Gatun Lake—Dams on the Pacific Side.— The Locks—Guards Against Accidents—How the Locks Were Built—Making the Dirt Fly—Dredging—C utting Through the Divide—Across the Isthmus in a Hydrobiplane—70,000,000 Pounds of Dynamite—Slides, Eloquent Argument Against Sea Level Project. CHAPTER X. AUXILIARY PLANS AND PROJECTS........... 213 Acquisiton of Private Lands—Tolls—Protecting the Canal—Fort Grant Military Reservation—Fort Amador Military Reservation—Fort Sherman Military Reservation—Fort Randolph Military Reservation—Fort De Lesseps Military Reservation—Breakwaters—Lighting the Canal—Port Facilities—Dry Docks—Permanent Repair Shops—Government Coal and Fuel Oil Business—Private Coal and Fuel Oil Storage—Bonded Warehouses— New Floating Equipment—Permanent Villages and Buildings—Permanent Organization—Wire- less Communication—Beautifying the Canal—Permanent Administration Building, Balboa—Cost of the Canal. CHAPTER XI. FUTURE CANAL TRAFFIC.................... CONTENTS — (Continued) PAGE CHAPTER XII. REPUBLIC OF PANAMA .................... 258 The Panama Flag—National Hymn of the Republic of Panama—The Reconstruction Period—*“The Land of the Cocoanut Tree” —Government is Progressive—Revenues—National C urrency— Public Improvements—Free Public School System—Panama Richly Endowed by Nature—The People—The Indians of Panama—The Guaymies—The Chocoes—Ancient Civilization of Chiriqui—Sightseeing—Bathing—Panama Hats—Canal Zone Souvenir Stones—The Panama Lottery—Panama to Hold National Exposition. CHAPTER XIII. THE LAND DIVIDED—THE WORLD UNITED ..... as cesissnvsmonisnsnscnsnnsssssssnssssgrace ros 313 Destruction of the Dikes—Letting Water Into Culebra Cut—“Gamboa is Busted” —Gatun Locks, the First in Actual Operation—The First Practical Lockage—First Lockage at Pacific End—From the Sea to Culebra Cut— Earthquakes—Making a Passage Through Cucaracha Slide—Secretary Garrison's Visit—The Official Opening—First Boat Through the Canal. CHAPTER XIV. THE MONUMENTAL TASK COMPLETED 336 CHAPTER XV. PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION.... 343 CHAPTER XVI. PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION ...ccovverrsvassssnsstrrssssasssvssssssssnsnsss 347 ILLUSTRATIONS IN FOUR COLORS Colonel George Washington Goethals. .................. Facing Title Page The Famous Flat Arch in the Ruins of Santo Domingo Church, Panama CHY o.iiiiovininnns fis sntunsnnnsnmehninannss fs Ee One of the Driveways in Ancon Hospital Grounds. ..................... Culebra Cut, Looking North From Gold and Contractor's Hills. ........ One of the Great Locks of the Canal Under Construction. .............. A Typical Street in the Native Village at Chorrera, Panama. ........... A Group of Cuna Cuna Indians, Panama. ..................0000 es Tug Gatun, First Boat Passing Through Gatun Locks, Sept. 26, 1913... ... Map of the Canal and the Canal Zone and Interesting Facts and Figures... JAIN HE history of the Panama Canal begins with the search for a western waterway to the Indies, and for fame and gold, by those hardy d| adventurers who followed in the wake of Columbus. These men, Bl fresh from the Moorish wars, and equipped for a struggle with Italy which did not come to pass, looked for new fields to conquer. Nothing suited them better than the discovery of a New World peopled by heathens waiting to be converted by the sword to the Christian faith, after their gold, of which yi seemed to have plenty, was stripped from them to fill the empty coffers of Spain. his search by the followers of Columbus was fairly successful, so far as fame and gold were concerned and, although no direct water route was found to the Indies to the west, it naturally led to the settlement of the Isthmus of Panama, the narrow strip of land separating the two great oceans and forming the connecting link between North and South America. The establishment of settlements on both coasts and the short distance between them, led to the building of crude roads and trails for the early mule trains. These trails led to the construction of a railroad, and the railroad to a ship canal, for trade follows settlers, and water is the natural highway between nations. The story of the Isthmus is, therefore, in a measure, the evolution of transportation routes. EARLY DISCOVERERS The first European to sail along the coast of Panama was Rodrigo de Bastidas, who sailed from Cadiz in October, 1500, and first touched the continent near the island of Trinidad, and from there went west as far as Nombre de Dios. With him on that voyage was Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa, who, later, was to discover the great South Sea, and Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed with Columbus on his second voyage and was considered one of the most able mariners of his day. Columbus sailed from Cadiz on his fourth and last voyage in search of a passageway to the Indies in May, 1502. On this voyage he skirted the shores of Honduras and Costa Rica, to Almirante Bay and Chiriqui Lagoon on the coast of Panama. At the latter place he was told by the Indians that, if he [9] CTHE HAND DIVIDED ~CTTHE WORLD, [I[NUTED would continue his course to the east, he would soon come to a narrow place between the two seas, and this led him to believe that his search for a strait was nearing success; that he would soon pass into the Indian Ocean and thence around the Cape of Good Hope to Spain, surpassing the achievement of Vasco de Gama, the Portuguese, who had already sailed around Africa (1497- 1498) 1n his search for a water route to the Indies. Columbus continued on his way and passed the site of the present city of on at the Atlantic entrance to the Canal, and on November 2, 1502, arrived at a harbor 18 miles northeast, which he named Porto Bello, signifying beautiful port. He stayed there a week stormbound, and then continued on past Nombre de Dios, thus overlapping the voyage of Bastidas. He gave up his unsuccessful search for a strait eventually, and took to the more prac- tical work of hunting for gold. His attempt to found a colony at the mouth of the Rio Belen, southwest of Colon, failed, and on May 1, 1503, he sailed from the shores of the Isthmus. He died on May 20, 1506, still believing that he had discovered the eastern shores of Asia. This belief was shared by all the early voyagers until the dis- Statue of Columbus and Indian Girl. Pre- covery of the Pacific Ocean in 1513. sented to General Mosquera of Colombia in 1868, by the Empress Eugenie, and afterwards turned over to Count DeLesseps. Now occu- pies a commanding position on Cristobal Point. THE FIRST SETTLEMENT After the unsuccessful attempt of Columbus to found a settlement in Castilla del Oro (Golden Castile), as the Isthmus was termed, two colonizers were sent out by King Ferdinand. One of these, Diego de Nicuesa, a Spanish nobleman, more fitted for the court than for a command in the wilderness, was given control of all the land between Cape Gracias 4 Dios, Nicaragua, and the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, the eastern limit of the present Republic of Panama. The other was Alonso de Ojeda, who accompanied Ce on his second voyage, and in addition had made two trips to the continent independently. Ojeda was placed in charge of the land east and south of the Gulf of Urabs called Nueva Andalucia. Both of these expeditions outfitted and sailed from Santo Domingo in November, 1509. Associated with Ojeda were Juan de la Cosa, as lieutenant in the future government, and a lawyer named Bachelleer Enciso, who furnished most of the money to equip the expedition. It was arranged that Enciso should remain at Santo Domingo to collect recruits and supplies, procure another ship, and join Ojeda later at the proposed colony. Ojeda landed near the present city of Cartagena, Colombia, founded in 1531. Here he attacked and overcame the Indians with a part of his force, [10] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CT HE WORLD, UNITED i lowing up his victory, his men became scattered, and all those who had i killed, with dt of himself and one other. Among the killed was the veteran Juan de la Cosa. Ojeda then entered the Gulf of Uraba and founded the town of San Sebastian on the eastern shore, but no : soon compelled to return to Santo Domingo to obtain men and supplies. i left the new colony in charge of his lieutenant, Francisco Pizarro, famous 2 a tory as the conqueror and despoiler of Peru, with the understanding that if : 1 not return within 50 days the colonists should decide among themselves the boat course to follow. He finally reached Santo Domingo, after suffering s bp wreck and many hardships on the island of Cuba, and found that Enciso departed long before with abundant supplies for the colony, but he was unable to recruit another force to follow. ; : Pizarro and his men, suffering for lack of food, waited anxiously and in vain for the return of Ojeda, and then abandoned the colony and sailed for Cartagena. Here they found Enciso with reinforcements and provisions. With Enciso was a stowaway in the person of Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa. Enciso insisted on Pizarro and his men returning with him to San Sebastian. On their arrival, they found the settlement destroyed by Indians. They were without food, and at the suggestion of Balboa, who had sailed along these shores with Bastidas, they crossed the Gulf of Uraba, where it was reported the Indians were less warlike and provisions could be obtained. It was necessary, however, for them to defeat a band of Indians under a powerful chief named Cemaco, who disputed their landing, but they obtained the much needed supplies, and founded the settlement of Santa Maria de la Antigua, the first on the Isthmus. They were now in the territory which had been assigned by the King to Nicuesa and, consequently, had no right there. The ambitious Balboa took advantage LL UU — Columbus Island where Christopher Columbus stopped to repair and scrape the bottom of his ships before proceeding on to Spain. WH) THE DAND DIVIDED —~CTE WORLD [JNITED of this circumstance and the fact that Enciso was disliked by his men, for the reason that he allowed no private trading with the Indians, to depose him, and asked Nicuesa to come and take charge of the colony. November 2, 1502, Columbus arrived at this harbor, 18 miles northeast of Colon, which he named Porto Bello, signifying beautiful port. Rock for the concrete used in the locks at Gatun was obtained at this point. Nicuesa had already sailed from Santo Domingo, taking along with him about 700 colonists. During the voyage, a terrific storm arose, wrecking some of his ships and causing the loss of 400 lives. In the tempest the ships became separated; some of them reached the coast at the mouth of the Belen River, and others the mouth of the Chagres River. After collecting his men, Nicuesa left the Belen River, and after doubling Manzanillo Point shortly landed, saying: ‘‘We will remain here in the name of God.” This was the site of the town of Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. During American canal times, the sand for the concrete in Gatun Locks was obtained here, and in 1910 and 1911, the sand dredge cut through the hulks of two old ships, believed to be relics of the days of Nicuesa. The dredge pumps also drew up bullets and other small articles. Nicuesa’s situation was desperate, as he was without arms or provisions, but fortunately there arrived shortly his lieutenant Colmenares, who brought supplies, as well as information concerning the new settlement at Antigua. Nicuesa declared his intention of going there and taking all the gold found by Ojeda’s men as rightfully belonging to him. News of his intention reached Antigua before he did and, on his arrival, he was met by an armed mob, secretly urged on by Balboa, which cast him adrift in a leaky brigantine along with 17 followers who had remained faithful to him. They were never heard of again. Of the two expeditions, one was now left at Antigua, and of the two men sent by the King of Spain to colonize the mainland, both were gone. Balboa the stowaway ruled in Darien, March 1, 1511. DISCOVERY OF THE SOUTH SEA The first move Balboa made on finding himself in charge of the colony was to secure his position by persuading Enciso and those who had led the mob in [12] Ty Snide CI'HE HAND DIVIDED —~CST"HE WORLD, [NITED the attack on Nicuesa to return to Spain. Knowing that they would i i ately go to the King and ask that he be Aone he ed in to alt gold which he knew the King thought more of than all else, and to make new discoveries which would help his cause. The gold he obtained from the Indian chiefs of the Darien. It was made the price of peace, and Balboa showed his shrewdness by making allies of the Indians after he had obtained their treasure. Such an alliance he made with Careta, the cacique of Coyba who after his village had been sacked by the Spaniards, left with Balboa one of his daughters as a hostage. Balboa accepted the Indian maiden, of whom he became very fond and, although they were never married according to the Christian rites, she considered herself his wife. Balboa started from Antigua on September 6, 1513, to cross the Isthmus and find the great sea to the south, of which the Indians, knowing the cupidity of the Spaniards, had told him glowing tales of the riches of the great race of people which inhabited its shores. Fighting the different tribes which he met on the wa s subduing and making friends with them, on September 25, he reached a hill in Darien from which it was said the South Sea could be seen. Halting his men, Balboa made the ascent alone, and was the first European to gaze upon this heretofore unknown ocean. Six days later, September 29, 1513 four hundred years ago, he waded into the ocean and took possession in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. This was in the Gulf of San Miguel, so named for the reason that it was discovered on St. Michael's Day. He also performed a similar ceremony when he reached a point of land at the entrance to the gulf. Balboa subdued the local Indian chiefs, who gave him presents of gold and also many pearls from the Pearl Islands a few miles off the shore, and confirmed the rumors of a powerful and rich nation to the south. The Pearl Islands, so A family of Indians, Darien. [13] THE LAND DIVIDED —~CSTHE WORLD, UNITED named by Balboa, could be plainly seen, but he did not visit them at that time on account of the roughness of the sea and the frailty of the available Indian canoes. He named the largest of the islands, Isla Rica, which is now known as San Miguel, or Rey Island. Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. Sand was obtained here for the cement usea in the Gatun Locks. . months. His messenger telling of his great discovery did not reach the King, unfortunately, until after that monarch, listening to Enciso’s complaints, had sent out a new governor to take charge of the colony. BALBOA’S UNFORTUNATE END The new governor was named Pedro Arias de Avila, commonly called «“Pedrarias the Cruel,” which nickname he won in the New World by his method of extorting gold from the Indians. With Pedrarias was Hernando de Soto, who was later to discover the Mississippi River, and Diego de Almagro, who was to become the partner of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. Unlike Balboa, Pedrarias did not try to make friends with the Indians, but in many instances repaid the hospitality which they extended to him as a friend of Balboa with the utmost treachery, destroying their villages, killing women and children, and selling those who survived into slavery. He undid what Balboa had been in a fair way of accomplishing, that is, the settlement of Darien, for the In- dians were everywhere aroused and repaid cruelty with cruelty as often as an opportunity was presented. Pedrarias strove to establish a line of posts for communication between the two oceans in accord- ance with the ideas of Balboa, but without success. The first of these was located on the Atlantic coast at a place named Santa Cruz. Shrines are common along the waysides and at the entrance to villages, but this one has been placed in a hollow tree. The photographer dis- covered it near Gorgona. [14] Balboa returned Wd to Antigua after an absence of about four THE LAND DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORLD, [NITED In the meantime, the King had recognized Balboa’s di i commission as Adelantado of the South os and Viceroy of Cy Te an empty title, as he was subject to the orders of Pedrarias of Balboa’s achievement, held up this commission : and kept Balboa fighting for his liberty in the court of Antigua on trumped up charges. F nally Balboa made an alliance with Pedrarias by promising to marry one of his daughters, who was at that time in Spain, and went a few miles up the coast to a place called Acla, between Antigua and Santa Cruz where he established a settlement and had timbers cut and Shaped which could be readily built into ships with which to explore the new sea which he had discovered. These timbers were carried across the Isthmus by Indian slaves and were set up in San Miguel Bay. While at the Pearl Islands, from where he made several short cruises, Balboa heard of the comin of a new governor to supersede Pedrarias. Think. ing this governor might be hostile to his plans, he sent messengers to Antigua to see whether or not he had arrived. If he had, he instructed the messengers to return without allowing their presence to become known, and he would then leave on his voyage of discovery before orders for his recall could be delivered. His messengers went to Antigua and found Pedrarias still in Se for the new governor had died on his arrival. One of them, however, told Pedrarias that Balboa was contemplating treachery and the founding of an independent colony on the Pacific coast. The bitterness and jealousy 3 Pedrarias, jealous A wayside cross, or shrine. Some of these are very old. Village of San Miguel on Rey Island, one of the larger of the Pearl Island Group. [15] UNNUMBERED PAGE LS] plates unpaged in the text CHE LAND DIVIDED —~CTHE WORDD, UNITED of Pedrarias for Balboa again came to life, and he sent Francisco Pizarro, who was later to finish the work Balboa had planned to do, to bring him back to Acla. At Acla, Balboa was given a mockery of a trial for treason, and was beheaded with four companions in the latter part of 1517. Second only to the discovery of the South Sea was the demonstration of the practicability of an Isthmian transit. RR SRA AAA dh EA prs SIS ’ . ashi SETTLEMENT OF OLD PANAMA Pedrarias seeing the advantage of a settlement on the new ocean as an outfitting station for future exploring expeditions, crossed the Isthmus and, on August 15, 1519, founded Panama, situated about five miles east from the new city. The name “Panama” is supposed to have come from an Indian word meaning a place abounding in fish, and tradition relates that the town was built on the site of an Indian fishing village. In the same year the Atlantic port was transferred to Nombre de Dios, directly north of old Panama, and afew years later Antigua and Acla were abandoned to the Indians. Hg aE a th Se sa Same ae i meties us | \ 2B ! IRIE iF When the French first started work, the peak of Gold Hill was 534 feet above sea level and the greater part of excavation by steamshovels has been confined to this section. pa ET aA Some of the interior villages have no jails stout enough to hold a prisoner, so the stocks are resorted to. On September 15, 1521, the settlement at Panama was made a city by royal decree, and the first bishopric in the Americas was removed there from Antigua. The new governor sent out, opportunely for Pedrarias, died on his arrival, as did several others who followed, and Pedrarias ruled until the arrival of Pedros de los Rios, who took charge on July 30, 1526. Before his arrival, Pedrarias took refuge in Nicaragua ees he had already established a settle- ment. ’ SPAIN'S POWER SPREADS Following this period in Isthmian history many parties set out inland to explore the country, and outposts were located in the provinces of Chiriqui and Veraguas. These explorations were made in mn with the desires of Charles V, who took a great interest in the exploration of the South Sea and the discovery of a strait connecting it with the Atlantic Ocean. After he came to the throne of Spain in 1516, he charged the governors of his American colonies to examine the coast line from Darien to Mexico for a possible waterway. In accordance with this policy, Gil Gonzales de Avila was sent out from [16] g e © = EY 9 « = = Hr s o = = 8-1 o 9 o <= ~~ @« $= o > @« = = <= 3 g = —- « s Ni © o o & o = —~ = © < 8 80, Ar « o bod 0 2 L & 2 = 2 fo o ~~ po 0 « g a e « A It has a span of over 40 The famous flat arch in the ruins of Santo Domingo Church, has withstood the assault of fire and earthquakes. for 206 years. Front Street, Colon, during the flourishing French days, with the pay car at the old depot. L 49] BALBOA IN THE ~~ FRENCH DAYS £8 i i f both i and the canal entrance and operations, during the days o the Lp as ls a LA The wharf was the first constructed by the French. The one-sided dump cars shown in the top picture are now obsolete. [50) THE HAND DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORLD, [NITED projects. A dam at Gamboa was found later to be impracticable, and the problem of the diversion of the Chagres River was left to some future time. INAUGURATING THE WORK On January 1, 1880, the ceremony of breaking the ground was to have been performed by De Lesseps at the mouth of the Rio Grande, about three miles west of Panama city. The boat bearing a party of ladies and gentlemen who were to take part was delayed in starting, with the result that it could not get within two or three miles of the shore on account of the ebbing tide. This, however, did not dampen the ardor of the versatile Frenchman, as the arrival of the steamer in the entrance of the river mouth was considered by him a sufficient beginning. The first blow was thereupon struck with a pick in a box of earth upon the deck of the steamer, while the observers aided their imagina- Limon Bay in the busy French days. tion by copious draughts of champagne. On January 10, 1880, De Lesseps, with another party of civil and church dignitaries, went to Culebra to witness the first blast. Accounts differ as to this event. Tracy Robinson, the oldest American on the Isthmus, states in his book on Panama, that the blast never came off, and as he was present, he ought to know. On the other hand, the “Star and Herald” of the day following gives a circumstantial account of the affair, ending with: ““The mine had been carefully laid in an exceedingly hard and compact formation of basalt at a few feet below the summit, and charged with 30 kilograms of explosive. The operation was performed with complete success, and immense amount of we rock being hurled from its original position.” No photographs of the incident are extant. Actual excavation work did not commence in Culebra Cut until some time [51] CTHE LAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [JNITED The pick and shovel brigade. later. “The Bulletin du Canal Interoceanique,” published by the company for the benefit of the stockholders, of February 1, 1882, states: ‘“The first work in the great cut of the maritime canal was formally inaugurated today (Jan. 20, 1882), at Empire in the presence of the dignitaries of the state, the leading citizens of the city and a great assemblage of the people. The first locomotive has arrived at the newly opened excavation. The city of Panama is celebrating the event with a great fete.” De Lesseps left Colon for the United States on February 22, 1880, for the purpose of interesting Americans in the undertaking. Although he was received with a great deal of enthusiasm everywhere, he was unable to dispose of the stock which he had thoughtfully reserved. Americans were interested in a canal, but not in a canal under French control. He then proceeded on a similar tour of Europe, where he was more successful from a pecuniary point of view. The first issue of stock, 600,000 shares of $100 each, was subscribed twice over, mostly taken in France. These shares were distributed among 100,000 persons, indicating the great Frenchman’s popularity with the people of his country. In 1888, when the company failed, the total subscriptions, stocks and bond issues, had reached $393,505,100, and the shareholders numbered 200,000. Two years of feverish preparation followed which witnessed the making of hasty surveys, the bringing together of machinery and a labor force, and the erection of quarters and hospitals. The actual construction work was let to a firm of French contractors, Couvreaux & Hersent, but they soon realized the difficulties of the undertaking and withdrew from the last part of their contract. FRENCH LABOR FORCE There seems to have been little difficulty experienced in obtaining a labor force, which in 1888, numbered about 20,000 men. Nine-tenths of these were [52] SHE AND DIVIDED ~CT"HE. WORLD, [NITED negroes from the West Indies, and many of them held clerical and other similar positions. The white employes, mainly from France, were treated with extreme generosity. Economy was an unknown factor in the administration of affairs of the first company. The average pay of a clerk was $125 per month, and of a division chief from $200 to $300 per month. After two years’ service, five months vacation, with free traveling expenses to and from France, were granted. The hours of labor for the clerical force was from 8 to 11 a. m., and 2 to 5 p. m., six hours a day. Free quarters, furniture, bedding, lamps, kitchen utensils, etc., were provided. As there was no system of accounting in vogue, many did quite a profitable business in the buying and selling of the company’s furniture. This was merely one of the petty forms of graft in vogue, however. Enormous salaries were paid to the directors, engineers, and other officers on the Isthmus. The director-generals lived in a house that cost $100,000, now used as the American Legation in Panama City; they received $50,000 a year, and when they went out on the work they were allowed $50 a day additional. One of the private cars in which they rode cost $42,000. LA FOLIE DINGLER There formerly stood on an artificial terrace on the western slope of Ancon Hill a building that commanded ready attention from passersby on the road from Panama to La Boca, now Balboa. It was the prospective home of M. Jules Dingler, probably the foremost director-general of the first French com- pany, prospective, because he never occupied it. Work on the mansion was begun shortly after he came to the Isthmus in February, 1883, and the cost including the grounds is said to have been about $50,000. For many years La Folie Dingler, built for M. Julius Dingler in the first French Company’s days, but never oc- cupied by him. The experience of M. Dingler on the Isthmus constitutes one of the saddest incidents in French canal history. His son, daughter and wife all contracted the dreaded yellow fever and died. [53] THE DAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORLD, UNITED The village of Empire in the old French days. The French began their first excavation in the cut near this point in 1882. it had been called La Folie Dingler, or Dingler’s Folly. The experience of M. Dingler on the Isthmus constitutes, perhaps, one of the saddest incidents in French canal history. Stories of the fatal effect the climate of the Isthmus was said to have on foreigners reached France, but Dingler scoffed at these reports. “I am going to show them,” he is credited with having said, “‘that only drunkards and the dissipated contract yellow fever and die.” In this spirit he brought with him to the Isthmus, his wife, son, and daughter. His son, who was made director of posts, shortly fell victim to yellow fever and died. Dingler subsequently went to Eero on leave of absence, and upon the return of himself and family to the Isthmus, his daughter met with the fate of his son. On his return from a second trip to France, his wife also sickened and died from the same fell disease. Dingler later relinquished his post and went back to France a man broken in mind and body. At the time the American Government took possession, La Folie Dingler had fallen into partial decay. Needed repairs The French at work in the Canal at Cucaracha, 1885, just around the point from Gold Hill. [54] Canal between Empire and Culebra, showing the French method of excavation, in 1888. were made and for several years the building was utilized as a detention station for the quarantine service. It was sold in 1910 for $525, and removed to make way for quarry work on the side of Ancon Hill. During the period of greatest activity there were probably 2,000 Frenchmen on the Isthmus, all non-immune to yellow fever. Life was a gamble and, with no suitable social diversion, they naturally resorted to the only forms of amuse- ment available, the saloons, gambling rooms, and houses of ill-repute. Colon and Panama became the Mecca of the parasites of society, the non-workers who live on vice, with the result that an nt labor force could not be kept long under such conditions, and it was continually changing. In the center of the Cut at the end of the first French Company’s days, 1889. The first French Company operated from 1881 to 1889. [55] THE DHAND DIVIDED ~C"RE WORLD, [JNITED Culebra Cut in the earliest times of the second French Company, 1894. THE SICK POORLY CARED FOR Two hospitals were built in 1883, which, with additions and alterations have been in constant use by the Americans. Ancon hospital originally cost $5,600,000, and Colon hospital cost $1,400,000, a total of $7,000,000. : The hospitals, although fairly well equipped, with excellent doctors and surgeons and supplied with the best medicines and instruments of the time, were poorly managed. They were handled under contract, and the administration Looking South from Culebra in the second French Company’s days, 1895 The second French Company operated from 1894 to 1904. ys : [56] THE _DAND DIVIDED —~CTRE WORLD, JNITED The Cut as it appeared in 1904 when the Americans began the work. Contractor’s Hill on the right; Gold Hill on the left. Note the succession of benches, lying one above the other. The Americans have followed this same method in excavating. was left almost entirely to French Sisters of Charity, who, although they were devoted and religious women, were not trained nurses. These worthy women left the wards at night after prayer, closing the doors and windows tight to keep out the night mists, which were supposed to bring malarial fever, leaving the patients without any other care than that which was given by the less feeble among themselves. When the wards were opened for morning prayer it was The valley of the Rio Grande in the French days. The present canal is between the hills. The old Panama Railroad bridge is shown at the south end of the Cut. [57] CTHE LAND DIVIDED —CST"HE WORDD, [JNITED often found that some patient had died during the night, who might have been saved with proper attention. The legs of the hospital beds were placed in tins of water to Foo insects from crawling up. These pans of stagnant water, and also the many ornamental basins containing flowers and plants in the grounds outside made ideal breeding places for mosquitoes, and it is quite probable that many patients fell victim to fever while in the hospital suffering with some minor illness, due to the unscreened windows and doors. Fhe Cut in French times, showing their cableway plan of excavation. These cableways carried the material out of the canal and deposited it to one side, but unfortunately not far enough, for much of it has slid back into the Cut, causing extra excavation. The hospital records show that during the construction period of the old company—1881 to 1889—there were 5,618 deaths, 1,041 of which were from yellow fever. The old yellow fever ward in Ancon hospital, now ward No. 16, was called St. Charles, and it is believed that more people died from yellow fever in it than in any other one building in the world. The West Indian negroes were immune to yellow fever, and very few of them were admitted to the hospitals. The victims, therefore, were nearly all white persons, and mostly Frenchmen. A large proportion of the sick did not enter the hospitals, as the contractors were charged one dollar a day for skilled medical treatment of employes. Colonel Gorgas estimates the number of laborers who died from 1881 to 1889 at 22,189, or a rate of something over 240 per thousand per year. He also estimates that as many died of yellow fever outside the hospitals as in, and places the total number of deaths from that disease at 2,082. In September 1884, during an attack of yellow fever, the Canal Company lost 654 employes out of a force of about 18,000. This is in part based on surmise, for the truth was partly suppressed or minimized by the Canal Company in order not to destroy the confidence of the people in the project, and outside of the hospital rolls, the records were incomplete. A of, a form of malaria, known as ‘‘Chagres fever,” caused a greater toll in lives than any other one disease. The negro laborers, although immune from yellow fever, succumbed quickly to attacks of this form of malaria. [58] THE LAND DIVIDED ~ SHE WORLD, NITED Under the new canal company, the hospitals were turned over to the Sisters of Charity who took care of the few patients admitted at a fixed charge. As the revenue from patients was small, they had a hard time to keep them open at all, and were compelled to sell flowers, fruits, vegetables and eh products from the hospital grounds. When the Americans took charge these women were replaced by trained nurses. THE CRASH The crash came in December, 1888. At this time $156,654,687.00 had been expended on the Isthmus, and in Paris, $78,140,330.00, a total of $234,- 795,017.00. This vast sum is said to have been ‘‘one-third expended on the canal work, one-third wasted, and one-third stolen.” Of that spent at Panama, salaries and expenses of management aggregated $16,540,883; rents and main- tenance of leased property, $3,301,070; material and supplies, $29,722,856; buildings, $15,397,282; construction and engineering expenses, $89,434,225; land purchases, $950,655; and medical and religious attendance, $1,836,768. In view of the various forms of graft, extravagance and waste, it is not sur- prising that there was so little to show in actual work accomplished. At the end of eight years the work was about two-fifths completed. * A French excavator opening a pioneer trench in the south end of the Cut. This was the best known method of excavating in that day. The work was let to contractors, very few of whom faithfully performed the service for which they were paid. Many made small fortunes. Those who were intrusted with the work of excavation were paid for the amount of spoil which they took from the canal prism. As there was no data available on the cost of such work, it was impossible to even estimate what the charge should be. In many cases the contractors took out what was most easily excavated, avoiding the hard spots. One notable exception to this was the dredging work done by the American Dredging and Contracting Company, which dredged the opening of the Canal from Colon to beyond Gatun. [59] First French Company’s days. Dredges working in the canal at Mindi. Two French ladder dredges working on the Chagres River, opposite Gorgona 20 years ago. The French suction dredges with the carrying pipes, were effective in excavating, but like their cableways, did not carry the spoil far enough. [ 60] ' SWE » THE LAND DIVIDED ~—CTHE WORLD, [JNITED Much worthless material was shipped to the Isthmus, due to ill advised buying, the French manufacturers undoubtedly in many instances cleaning house to their profit at the expense of the Canal stockholders. When the Americans took over the property they found torch lights in one storehouse apparently brought to the Isthmus to be used in the celebration of the opening of the Canal. At another time a lot of wooden shovels, made from one piece, were brought to light. They have been referred to as snow shovels, but were evidently intended for handling sand or ashes. A ton or more of rusted pen points found in the stationery store furnished additional proof as to where some of the money went. Early in 1885, it became apparent that the Canal could not be completed under the sea level plan within the time or estimated cost. During the previous year the promoters foresaw the end, and began to sell their stock. M. Leon Boyer, i succeeded Dingler as director had time to report before his death from yellow fever a few months after his arrival on the Isthmus, that the canal could not be completed by 1889, and to submit a plan for a lock canal. In May, Old French dump cars. Steel cars, 18 feet long, were used exclusively. The cars dumped on one side only, and were too small for economical use. Most of these were scrapped by the Americans. 1885, M. De Lesseps asked the French Government for authority to issue lottery bonds for a loan of $120,000,000, to replenish the depleted treasury. Before granting permission, the Government sent out M. Armand Rousseau, an eminent engineer, to investigate conditions. He reported that the canal could not be finished within the time and cost estimated unless changed to the lock plan. Similar reports were made by an engineer sent out by the company, and by the agent of the Colombian Government on the Isthmus, the latter stating that the canal could not be completed before the expiration of the concession in 1892. In February, 1885, Lieutenants Winslow and McLean of the United States Navy, reported that there remained to be excayated 180,000,- 000 cubic yards; that the work would take 26 years at the then rate of progress, and that the cost would total $350,000,000. o M. De Lesseps withdrew his request for permission to issue lottery bonds, but would not consent to a change in plans. He obtained temporary financial relief by the issue of bonds to the value of about $70,000,000, but as money again began to get scarce, he consented to a change in plan, and in October, 1887, a temporary lock canal, with summit level above the flood line of the [61] i SI'AE HAND DIVIDED ~CTHE WORLD, [JNITED Chagres River, to be supplied with water by pumping, was decided upon. Under the new plan, it was estimated that the cost would reach $351,000,000 and would require 20 years to build. There had already been spent at this time nearly $250,000,000, and only about two-fifths of the work had been ac- complished. The end was in sight. Work was pushed forward under the new plan until May, 1889, when the company became bankrupt and a liquidator was appointed to take charge. Under the liquidator, the work gradually diminished and was finally suspended on May 15, 1889. It was soon realized that the only way anything could be saved to the stockholders was to continue the project. Late in 1889, the receiver appointed a commission composed of French and foreign engineers, eleven in number, to visit the Isthmus and determine whether or not the canal could be completed. This commission reported on May 5, 1890, that a lock canal might be completed within eight years at a cost of $174,600,000. It reported that the plant on hand was in good condition and would probably Old French locomotives. One hundred and nineteen of these were rebuilt and used by the Americans. suffice for completing the canal. It also estimated the value of the plant and the work already accomplished at $87,300,000, or one-half of the total cost. Meanwhile, as a result of the exposure and investigation of the affairs of the old company, M. De Lesseps and his son Charles were sentenced to five years imprisonment, and similar sentences were imposed upon several others of their associates. The French Court of Appeals annulled the sentence of Charles de Lesseps, and that against his father was never executed for, at that time, January 10, 1893, he was 88 years old and a physical and mental wreck; he died in the month of December, following. As the Wyse concession had nearly expired, the receiver obtained from Colombia an extension of ten years. It was stipulated that the new company should be formed and work upon the canal resumed on or before F. ebruary 28, 1893. As this condition was not fulfilled, a second extension of 10 years was obtained, to run not later than October 31, 1894. THE SECOND OR NEW COMPANY The Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, the New French Canal Company, as it is generally known, was organized under a special law on October 20, 1894, with a capital stock of $13,000,000, with shares valued at $20 each. Six hundred thousand shares were sold for cash, the greater part being taken by the receiver, the contractors, and others, who had i interested in [62] The top picture shows Bas Obispo in the first French Company’s days, at the northern end of their proposed lock. The center picture shows French cranes at work. The French using laborers to fill cars is shown in the lower picture. Cableways, in the distance, were also used for handling spoil. [63] CHE [LAND DIVIDED —CSTHE_ WORLD, [JNITED the old company and escaped criminal prosecution by taking the new stock; and 50,000 ml given to the Colombign Government for the extension of the concession. The new company took possession in 1894, and work was im- mediately resumed in Culebra Cut with a force large enough to comply with the terms of the concession. As excavation work at this point was necessary under any plans that might be decided upon, it was continued, while elaborate and extensive studies of the Canal project were begun by competent engineers. The plan finally adopted by the new company involved two levels above the sea, one an artificial Joie to be created by a dam across the Chagres River at A number of old French dredges, which were valueless except as junk, when the United States acquired them. Bohio, and another a high level canal through Culebra Cut at an elevation of 68.08 feet above mean tide, to be fed by water by a channel leading from a reservoir to be constructed at Alhajuela in the upper Chagres River valley. The lake level was to be reached from the Atlantic 4 a flight of two locks, and the summit level by a second flight of two locks. On the Pacific side four other locks were provided for, the two middle ones at Pedro Miguel being combined in one flight, and the others being located at Paraiso and Miraflores. On the Atlantic side there was to be a sea level channel to Bohio, 17 miles inland, and on the Pacific side at Miraflores, about 8 miles inland. The depth of the anal was to be 29.5 feet, with a bottom width of 98 feet. The locks were to be in duplicate, 738.22 feet long, 82.02 feet wide, with a normal depth of 29.5 feet. The lifts were to vary from 26 to 33 feet. A second plan was also worked out in which the upper level was omitted, the cut through the divide being deepened to 32 feet above sea level, making the artificial lake created by the dam at Bohio the summit level. Under this plan the feeder from Alhajuela was omitted, although the dam was to be retained to control the Chagres. One flight of locks on the Atlantic side and one lock on the Pacific side were also to be omitted. The estimated cost of completing the canal under this plan was not much greater than the first, and all work on the first plan for several years would be equally available under the second. : Although the first plan was adopted on December 30, 1899, no effort was made to carry it out, on account of the interest being shown by the United States in a canal across Nicaragua. It was realized that if the United States should undertake to construct such a waterway, the work accomplished and the plant on the Isthmus would be practically worthless. In 1895, there was a force of [64] Over grounds are among the most beautiful in existence. easing to the eyes of bath the sick and well. on or £3 re ='0 QQ gs oS @ £2 =e : 3g 28 ha > Ee 25 @« 2 n+ = IE oS = - < eC cres, on the slope of Ancon Hill 250 varieties of trees and plants are grown in the grounds. One of the driveways in Ancon Hospital grounds. The site covers about 80 a THE DAND DIVIDED —~—CcT"AE WORLD, [JNITED men numbering about 2,000 at work in Culebra Cut, and a year later this was increased to 3,600. This was the largest number of men employed under the new company, for only enough work was done to hold the concession and keep the equipment in a salable condition. The French at that time were beginning to look for a purchaser; they wanted $100,000,000 for the work and equipment, but the only likely buyer was the United States. The Isthmian Canal Com- mission, appointed by the Spooner Act of 1899, reported in November, 1901, in favor of the Nicaragua route unless the French company was willing to sell out at $40,000,000. This recommendation became a law on June 28, 1902, and the New Panama Canal Company was practically forced to sell for that amount or get nothing. Although the French on the Isthmus worked under difficulties which eventually forced them to give up the Canal undertaking, they removed with their clumsy side excavators, now obsolete dredges, small Decauville cars and toy Belgium locomotives, a considerable amount of material from the Canal prism, a large part of which has been found useful under the present lan. The old company excavated 66,743,551 cubic yards, from 1881 to 1889, and the new company excavated 11,403,409 cubic yards up to 1904, a total of 78,- 146,960 cubic yards; 18,646,000 cubic yards of this total were taken from Culebra Cut, the operation of the new company being practically confined to A pile of old French dump cars. Many tons of this scrap material have been collected along the line of the Canal. that portion of the work. Of this total, it has been figured that 29,908,000 cubic vards have been useful to the Americans. The old company dredged a channel from deep water in Panama bay to the wharves at Balboa which has been used by ships docking at that port. On the Atlantic side, the channel dredged inland, known as the French canal, was found useful upon deepening in bringing sand and stone for the locks and spillway concrete at Gatun. The French also turned over valuable surveys and studies of the work, together with plans that have been found of great value to the American or- ganization. The best of this class of work was done under the new company. [65] CTHE DAND DIVIDED —CT "HE WORLD [JNITED This is especially true of the records kept of the flow and floods of the Chagres River, together with rainfall records, so essential to the present plan. FRENCH AID TO AMERICAN PROJECT Much of the work of preparation during the first two years of American occupation—1904-1905—would have been seriously delayed without the French supplies and equipment. In the shops and storehouses were found a plentiful supply of repair parts, shop tools, stationary engines, material and supplies of all kinds of good quality. At Gorgona, where the principal shops were located, known during the French times as Bas Matachin shops, were found sheds filled with old locomotives, cranes and excavators. One hundred car loads of foundry and machine shop material were removed from this point. Repair shops were found at Empire, Paraiso, Gatun and Bohio. A small machine shop was uncovered in the jungle at Caimito Mulato, when American Another view of a part of the old machinery, a legacy from the French. All of the junk along the line of the Canal, both French and American, is being turned into dollars, having been sold to a Chicago wrecking concern. engineers were running the center line of the Canal. There was also a dry dock at Cristobal, which was originally 190 feet long, 32 feet wide and 16 feet deep over the sills at ordinary high tide. At Balboa on the Pacific side, there was located a repair and marine shop for the floating equipment. The old French shops in every case formed the nucleus of the larger and better equipped shops maintained by the Americans during the period of construction. During the first two years of American occupation, French locomotives were the only ones available by the Isthmian Canal Commission. On June 30, 1906, there were 106 in service, and only 15 American locomotives. The same is true of the French dump cars. In 1904, there were 308 in service, and in 1905, over 2,000 had been repaired and put in commission, as compared with 300 American-built cars. At the present time there are about 100 French locomotives and 200 Decauville dump cars in serviceable condition. In December, 1904, there were six old French excavators working in Culebra Cut, [ 66] THE DANMD DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORLD, [JNITED which had been overhauled and placed in service. These were similar to ladder dredges, and the excavation was accomplished by an endless chain of buckets which carried earth and rock from one side and dropped it into a hopper from which it fell into dump cars on the other side. These machines were effective only when working in soft material. They remained at work 18 months before they were replaced by modern steam shovels. The floating equipment on hand was considerable, and many dredges clapets or self-propelling hopper barges, tugs, launches, etc., were found in the marine graveyards at Folks River, Cristobal, and in the mouth of the Rio Grande at the Pacific entrance to the Canal, as well as along the banks of the Chagres River. Many of these were floated, rebuilt and placed in commission On account of the excellent material used in the construction of this equi ment, most of which was Scotch-built, the Americans found it highly Eo to repair them. Heavy coats of paint and oil, which 20 or more rainy seasons A laborer looking for his belongi gings after a flood. The damage and loss of caused by the floods during the rainy season is os pictured Se operty could not penetrate, had been given the machinery when it was retired, so that when the hulls were not worth repairing, the valuable parts were used dsiwliere Several dredges were reconstructed from parts of others. A Scotch ladder dredge with a capacity of about 130,000 cubic yards per month was repaired at a cost of about $30,000, which, when new, cost about $200,000. At or present time there are several French dredges doing excellent work on the Canal. : i thousand, one hundred and forty-nine buildings scattered along the line of the Panama Railroad were included in the turn-over. These were generall small and ill-suited for use, other than as laborers’ barracks or storehouses is it was found profitable to repair some 1,500 of them even after they had stood piss for ten years or more. The large piles of French scrap, old locomotives oilers, dump cars, parts of machines, etc., which used to be one of the sights along the line of the Panama railroad have slowly disappeared. Much of it has been sold as junk to contractors, while the copper, brass, white metal, rails and cast iron have been used in the foundry at Gorgona. Old French rails [67] i i RR SAAR CTHE LAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORDD, [JNITED have been used in the reinforcement of Cnn i the lock walls, for the repair ; 1p cars, and for telephone and telegra oles. 8 Sune years after the C anal was SET from the French, May, 1911, the present Isthmian Canal Commission made a careful official estimate of the value to the Commission of the franchises, equipment, material, work done, and property of various kinds for which the United States paid the French Canal Company $40,000,000. It places the total value at over $42,000,000 divided as follows: Excavation, useful to the Canal, 29,708,000 cubic yards. ..... $25,389,240.00 Panama Railroad Stock . .. 9,644,320.00 Plant and material, used, and sold for scrap 2,112,063.00 Buildings, used 2,054,203.00 Surveys, plans, maps, and PeCOrdS. . ei aaa 2,000,000.00 Land’ 1,000,000.00 Clearings, roads, etc 100,000.00 Ship channel in Panama Bay, four years’ use 500,000.00 $42,799,826.00 A mechanical oddity—tree grown through an old French dump car. MERICAN TRI N Isthmian Canal Commission organized for the construction of the Canal was appointed under the provisions of An Act of Congress approved June 28, 1902, called the Spooner Act. This Act author- : ized the President to acquire, in behalf of the United States, at a cost not exceeding $40,000,000, the rights, franchises, property, etc., including the shares of the Panama railroad, owned by the New French Canal Company, and to obtain from the Republic of Colombia perpetual control of the necessary strip of land across the Isthmus, which control should also include the right to perpetually maintain and operate the Panama railroad, and jurisdiction over the ports at either end. If the President should be unable to obtain a satisfactory title to the prop- erty, and the control of the necessary territory, within a reasonable time and upon reasonable terms, then the Commission was authorized to construct a waterway across Nicaragua, using Lake N icaragua and the San Juan River, after the President had first obtained perpetual control, by treaty with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The impossibility of the United States to come to a satisfactory agreement with Colombia, who thought that the United States was now committed to construct a canal across Panama and, therefore, could be made to pay a larger amount than first offered, led to the revolution of November 3, 1903, by which Panama, a state of Colombia became the Republic of Panama, and the signing of a treaty by the new Republic by which the United States was granted in perpetuity the necessary territory. This strip of land, known as the Canal Zone, containing about 436 square miles, extends from deep water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific (three miles from the low water mark on either side), and five miles on either side of the center line of the canal. Included in this grant are the Islands of Naos, Perico, Flamenco and Culebra in the Bay of Panama, which are now connected with the mainland by a break- water, and upon which fortifications are being placed. The cities of Panama and Colon are excluded from the limits of the Canal Zone, but the United States exercises sanitary control over them, and also has the right to maintain public order in them in case the Republic of Panama should not be able in the judg- ment of the United States to do so. [69] | | | MEMBERS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. COL. GEO. W. GOETHALS, U. S. A. COL. WILLIAM C. GORGAS, U. S. A, Chairman and Chief Engineer. . Chief Sanitary Officer. COL. HARRY F. HODGES, U. S. A, H. H. ROUSSEAU, CIVIL ENGINEER, U. S. NAVY, Assistant Chief Engineer. Assistant to the Chief Engineer. Copyright, Harris & Ewing, Washington, D. C. [70] MEMBERS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. COL. WILLIAM L. SIBERT, U. S. A., COL. D. D. GAILLARD, Division Engineer of the Atlantic Division. Division Engineer of the Central Division. HON. RICHARD LEE METCALFE, JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP, Head of Department of Civil Administration. Secretary. Copyright, Harris & Ewing, and Clinedinst, Washington, D. C. [71] THE LAND DIVIDED ~—CSTHE WORLD, [NITED As compensation to the Republic of Panama, the United States paid $10,000,000, and agreed to make an annual payment of $250,000, to begin nine years after the date of the treaty. These annual payments commenced in hJ y < February, 1913. ORGANIZATION OF THE CANAL COMMISSION The first meeting of the Isthmian Canal Commission was held in Washing- ton, D. C., on March 22, 1904, with the following members appointed by the President: Rear-Admiral John G. Walker, Chairman; Major-General George W. Davis, U. S. A., William Barclay Parsons, C. E., William H. Burr, C. E., Benjamin H. Harrod, C. E., Ewald Grunsky, C. E., and Frank J. Hecker. On May 9, 1904 Ex-President Roosevelt, by Executive Order, placed the immediate supervision of its work, both in the construction of the canal and in the exercise of such governmental powers deemed necessary under the treaty with Panama in the Canal Zone, in the hands of the Secretary of War, William H. Taft. The full Commission first arrived on the Isthmus on April 5, and estab- lished temporary headquarters in the old De Lesseps residence in Cristobal. A thorough study was made of the plans and methods of work as carried on by the French, in which work it was assisted by Maj. William M. Black and Lieutenant Mark Brooke, U. S. Corps of Engineers, and by M. Renaudin, the resident representative of the New Panama Canal Company. From this examination it was found that new and extended surveys would be necessary before any of the problems of location and construction could be settled, so the first step of the Commission on its return to the United States on April 29, was the organization of engineering parties. Five of these were organized, the first leaving for the Isthmus about the middle of May, and the others shortly after. Surveys and investigations were made by these parties of the proposed harbor improvements of Colon, the proposed dams for the control of the Chagres River at Gatun, Bohio and Gamboa, and the design of water works and sewers for the cities of Colon and Panama. TAKING POSSESSION—CHANGE IN CHIEF ENGINEER The United States represented by Lieutenant Brooke, U. S. A., took possession of the French canal property on May 4, 1904, and operations were continued with the same employes and laborers, about 700, that had been left by the French company, for work had been continuous in Culebra Cut from -the beginning in 1881, except for a few years, in order to hold the franchise. Although neither the equipment nor the organization of this force was adequate, it was considered advisable to maintain it for the time being and to aa introduce necessary changes in the organization and in the equipment. Lieutenant Brooke remained in charge of this work until the arrival of Major-General Davis, who was appointed Governor of the Isthmus on May 8, 1904, and arrived on May 17. On the day of his arrival it was announced to the inhabitants of the Canal Zone that the territory had been occupied by the United States of America. This was a little bit too precipitate for the Pana- manians who had been accustomed under the French regimé to much speech- making, feasting, and champagne drinking when any undertaking was put into operation, so they protested to the State Department, to the end that, to their minds, more fitting ceremonies were later indulged in. Governor Davis was also placed in temporary charge of the construction work until the Chief [72] rm — Tr " RE ... The chroniclers of history for all time will associate the names of Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson with the world’s greatest undertaking, —the construction of the Panama Canal. Students of the subject will doubtless concede that to Theodore Roosevelt should be accorded the distinction of inaugurating the enterprise, to his successor, former President Taft should belong the honor of four years of faithful service in carrying forward the stupendous work so encouragingly begun, and to President Woodrow Wilson falls the duty of installing the splendid success which the re- Sources, perseverance and indomitable courage of American citizenship have rendered possible. [73] CHE DAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORDD, [NITED Engineer, Mr. John F. Wallace, entered upon his duties on June 1, 1904. Mr. Wallace resigned as Chief Engineer on June 25, 1905, after serving one year, and was succeeded by Mr. John F. Stevens on July 20, 1905. Mr. Wallace, who had become dissatisfied with the working methods of the first Commission was made a member of the Commission under an Executive Order dated April 1, 1905, which reorganized it, and gave to him full control in the department of construction and engineering. This reorganization was brought about by the Secretary of War who, by direction of the President in March, 1905, requested the resignations of the commissioners, which were at once tendered. It was believed that this change would make a more effective force for doing the required work, and do away with the long delays occasioned in purchasing material and supplies and in the accomplishment of work by government ‘“‘red tape” which had become so irksome to Mr. Wallace. His resignation shortly after this change, six days after his return to the Isthmus from Washington, was hard to understand, but it is possible that the question of health entered considerably into his decision, for it was at this time that the first outbreak of yellow fever among the Americans had occurred and the first victim was Mrs. Frank Seager, the wife of Mr. Wallace’s private secretary. THE NEW COMMISSION The new Commission created under the above mentioned Order consisted of the same number of members, seven, but full power was practically vested in three members who were placed in charge of the three executive departments created. One department was under the direction of the Chairman of the Commission, Theodore P. Shonts, and took charge of the fiscal affairs, the purchase and delivery of material and supplies, the accounts, bookkeeping, and audits, and the commercial operations m the United States of the Panama railroad and steamship lines, with headquarters in Washington; another, under the Governor of the Zone, Charles E. Magoon, which looked after the ad- ministration and enforcement of law in the Zone, the sanitation of the Canal Zone and the cities of Panama and Colon, and the custody of all supplies and construction necessary for sanitary purposes, and the third, under i Chief Engineer, John F. Wallace, which had charge of the work of construction, the custody of all supplies and plant on the Isthmus and the practical operation of the railroad on the Isthmus with special view to its utilization in the Canal construction work. An executive committee of not less than three members, a majority of whom constituted a quorum was also created to act in place of the full com- mission, which had heretofore only met quarterly, during the intervals between meetings, in order to secure the uninterrupted course of the work. This executive committee met twice a week in the office of the Governor on the Isthmus until it was abolished on November 17, 1906. The new department of Government and Sanitation was placed in charge of Mr. Charles E. Magoon, as a member of the Commission, vice Major-Gen- eral Geo. W. Davis, who returned to the United States on May 9, 1905, in ac- cordance with instructions received from the Secretary of War, on account of failing health. When General Davis left the Isthmus he turned the work over to Col. W. C. Gorgas, the Chief Sanitary Officer, who acted as Governor until May 25, when Governor Magoon assumed the duties of his office. The new Commission now consisted of seven members, as follows: Chair- [74] SOME OF THE MEN ON THE BIG JOB. (1.) Hezekiah A. Gudger, Chief Justice of the Canal Zone Supreme Court. (2.) Frank Feuille, Counsel and Chicf Attorney of the Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Rail- road. 3.) H. A. A. Smith, Examiner of Accounts. 4.) A. S. Zinn, Resident Engineer in the Central Division, who has been identified with the work in Culebra Cut since 1906. (5.) Henry Goldmark, designing engineer, in charge of the lock gates of the Canal. (6.) T. B. Monniche, designing engineer, in charge of the emergency dams of the locks. (7.) John H. McLean, Disbursing Officer of the Isthmian Canal Commission. (8.) Capt. Robert E. Wood, U. S. A., Chief Quartermaster of the Isthmian Canal Commission. (9.) W. G. Comber, Resident Engineer of the Sixth (Dredging) Division. (10.) Capt. Charles W. Barber, Chief of Canal Zone Police. (11) C. E. Weidman, Chief of the Fire Department. (12) Tom M. Cooke, Chief, Division of Posts, Customs, and Revenues. (13.) Lieut. Col. Eugene T. Wilson, Subsistence Officer. (14.) George M. Wells, Resident Engineer, Department of Municipal Engineering. (15.) Harry O. Cole, Resident Engineer, Fifth Division. [75] Lv OA I AAAS il a mma ein Sp a a Sate CTHE LAND DIVIDED —CT"HE WORDLD, [JNITED man, Theodore P. Shonts, Charles E. Magoon, also Governor of the Canal Zone, Rear-Admiral Mordecai T. Endicott, Brigadier-General Peter C. Hains, U. S. A. (retired), Col. Oswald H. Ernst, U. S. A., Benjamin M. Harrod, and John F. Wallace, also Chief Engineer. COMMISSION AGAIN REORGANIZED On November 17, 1906, the commission was again reorganized by Execu- tive Order in order to promote harmony and to secure results by more direct methods and a centralization of power. In order to do this, the following departments were created under the new organization: Chairman, Chief Engineer, General Counsel, who took over the duties of the Governor, Chief Sanitary Officer, General Purchasing Officer, General Auditor, Disbursing Officer, and Manager of Labor and Quarters. On September 25, 1906, Gov. Charles E. Magoon, was transferred to administer affairs in Cuba, and was succeeded by Richard Reid Rogers the General Counsel in Washington on November 19, 1906. While Mr. Rogers was in Washington, Mr. H. D. Reed acted as head of the department on the Isthmus until the arrival of Mr. Jo. C. S. Blackburn who was appointed as Head of the Department of Civil Administration on April 1, 1907. On April 2, 1907, the authority of the Governor, or Chief Executive of the Canal Zone, was transferred by order of the Secretary of War to the Chairman’s office, so from that time the Chairman and Chief Engineer has in reality been Governor of the Canal Zone also. Mr. Shonts resigned effective March 4, 1907, and the resignation of General Hains, Major Harrod, and Rear-Admiral Endicott, were accepted on March 16, 1907. Finally, Mr. Stevens resigned effective April 1, 1907. The resignation of Mr. Stevens was as great a surprise as that of Mr. Wallace. According to the report current at the time, the chief engineer became alarmed over the possibility of awarding the contract for the construction of the canal to the Oliver-Bangs combination, and wrote a letter to the President, setting forth that the canal organization had been pretty well perfected; that more dirt had been taken out during the previous 30 days than had ever been taken out before in the same length of time; that he did not care to share the work of building the canal with anyone, nor be hampered with men less familiar with the subject than himself. He intimated that if his wishes were not complied with he would quit. The letter is said to have caused ex-President Roosevelt something of a shock, but with his characteristic spontaneity of action, he cabled : Ee Wer mw } acceptance of the ‘‘resignation.” CEE NLA y/ i «= A In order to get competent men who were used to working under Govern- E 1 77 Fah ment regulations and orders, and who would “‘stick,” ex-President Roosevelt 0% resorted to the Army, with the result that three officers of the Corps of Engineers, U.S. A., the Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks, U. S. N., an officer of the Medical Corps, U. S. A., and two civilians were appointed in their places, thus practically abandoning the plan of carrying on the work under civilian direction. Under this new organization a combination of the positions of Chairman and Chief Engineer was effected, and the creation of the Department of Sanitation, distinct from Civil Administration was made. It was also required that the commissioners take their station on the Isthmus and thus be m direct touch [76] A flag chorus of school children is ligiously observed by the Americans on the Isthmus every year since 1904. “x db seated back of him. The Fourth has been re A feature of the Fourth of July celebration at Cristobal, in 1911, when Colonel Goethals delivered an address. THE DAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORLD, [JNITED with the work under their charge. This new commission assumed its duties on April 1, 1907, and consisted of the following: Col. Geo. W. Goethals, U. S. A., Chairman and Chief Engineer; Col. D. D. Gaillard, U. S. A., Head of Department of Excavation and Dredging; Lieut.- Col. Wm. L. Sibert, U. S. A., Head of Department of Lock and Dam Construc- tion; Col. W. C. Gorgas, U. S. A., Chief Sanitary Officer; Civil Engineer H. H. Rousseau, U. S. N., Head of Department of Municipal Engineering, Motive Power and Machinery and Building Construction; Jackson Smith, Manager, Labor, Quarters and Subsistence; Jo. C. S. Blackburn, Head of Department of Civil Administration; Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Secretary. The personnel of the hore commission has remained unchanged with three exceptions. Jackson Smith resigned on September 15, 1908, and the depart- ment of labor and quarters is now a part of the Quartermaster’s Department under direction of Captain R. E. Wood, U. S. A., and the Subsistence Depart- John F. Wallace, first Chief Engineer of the John F. Stevens, second Chief Engineer. He Panama Canal. He entered upon his duties June was appointed July 20, 1905, and resigned April 1, 1904, and resigned June 25, 1905. 1, 1907, Col. Geo. W. Goethals, taking his place. Copyright, Clinedinst, Washington, D. C. ment under direction of Major Eugene T. Wilson, U. S. A., asa separate depart- ment. Mr. Jo. C. S. Blackburn resigned, effective December 4, 1909, and was succeeded on May 13, 1910, by Mr. Maurice H. Thatcher, Mr. Rousseau acting as Head of the Department during the interval. Mr. Thatcher resigned, effective on June 14, 1913, and was succeeded by Mr. Richard L. Metcalfe, the present head of the department. The Departments of Excavation and Dredging and Lock and Dam Construction were abolished and, on J uly 1, 1908, became the Atlantic Division, under Colonel Sibert, having charge of the dredging operations in the Atlantic entrance, and the lock, dam and spillway work at Gatun, and the General Division, under Colonel D. D. Gaillard, which has charge of the excavation in the Culebra Cut section. On J uly 15, 1908, the Pacific Division was organized and charged with the lock, dam and spillway work at Pedro Miguel and Mira- flores, and the dredging work in the Pacific entrance under Mr. S. B. William- son, Division Engineer. Upon the resignation of Mr. Williamson on December [78] THE DAND DIVIDED —~—CTHE WORLD, JNITED 12, 1912, the Pacific Division was abolished and its work was placed under the immediate charge of the Chief Engineer, as the Fifth Division of the Department of Construction and Engineering. On May 1, 1913, the Jfeagng work of the Atlantic and Pacific Divisions was consolidated under Mr. W. G. Comber, Resident Engineer, forming the sixth Division of the Chief Engineer’s office. The Department of Municipal Engineering, Motive Power and Machinery, and Building Construction, was abolished on August 1, 1908, and became a part of the Department of Construction and Engineering with Mr. Rousseau, Assistant to the Chief Engineer in charge. The present commission consists of the following members: Colonel Geo. W. Goethals, U. S. A., Chairman and Chief Engineer; Colonel H. F. Hodges, U. S. A., Assistant Chief Engineer (Appointed July 14, 1908, vice Jackson Smith); Civil Engineer H. H. Rousseau, U. S. N., Assistant to the Chief Engineer; Colonel D. D. Gaillard, U. S. A., Division Engineer, Central Division; Lieutenant-Col. Wm. L. Sibert, U. S. A., Division Engineer, Atlantic Division; Colonel W. C. Gorgas, U. S. A., Chief Sanitary Officer; Richard L. Metcalfe, Head of Department of Civil Administration; Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Secretary. Of these eight men, Colonel Gorgas is the only one who has been in the service since the inauguration of the work. Colonel Gaillard left the Isthmus on August 9, 1913, on special leave of absence, suffering from a nervous break- down, due to his long service on the Isthmus, and it is probable that he will not return. THE PURCHASING END The Commission maintains an office in Washington in charge of Major F. C. Boggs, U. S. A., who fills the positions of Chief of Office, and General Purchasing Officer. The work is apportioned among the following divisions: General Office, Disbursing Office, Office of Assistant Examiner of Accounts, Appointment Division, Correspondence and Record Division, and Purchasing Department. The Appointment Division has to do with filling requisitions for American employes, and during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 2,065 persons were tendered employment on the Isthmus in grades above that of laborer. Of this number, 1,183 accepted and were appointed, covering 59 different positions. The purchasing branch was organized on August 15, 1907, and placed under the supervision of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., with an officer of the Corps of Engineers in charge. Additional offices for the purchase of materials are maintained at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco. Medical and hospital supplies are purchased through the Medical Supply Depot of the Army in New York. Nearly all supplies are purchased under contract by means of advertising for bids and making awards thereon, and all material is carefully inspected before shipment, although the right is reserved of making final inspection on the Isthmus. As an illustration of the work of this department, a total of 7,087 orders were placed during the last fiscal year to the value of $12,335,973.12. HE high mortality among employes encountered by the builders of the Panama railroad and by the French during their operations indicated that, to keep a suitable working force on the Isthmus, the Canal Zone, and the cities of Panama and Colon would have to be made healthy. Realizing this, one of the first divisions of the canal work to be established was that of sanitation under Col. W. C. Gorgas, who, prior to his arrival on the Isthmus, had successfully stamped out yellow fever and sub- stantially reduced the high malaria rate in Havana, Cuba. This division was at first a part of the Department of Government of the Canal Zone, but, on account of the importance of the sanitary work it was later made a distinct and separate department. That its work under the direction of Colonel Gorgas has been entirely successful, may at this day, be readily seen. Instead of a Pes hole with an unsavory reputation as “‘a white man’s graveyard,” the sthmus has become a winter resort for an increasing number of tourists each year. Not only was it necessary to free the Isthmus from pestilence in order that the canal work might be accomplished, but it was just as necessary that it be kept in that condition for all time. Dr. Ronald Ross of the British Army in India is credited with the discovery, through successive experiments in 1898, that the Anopheles mosquito is the germ-carrier for malaria. This mosquito bites an infected person and carries the germ to other persons. In the same way another species of mosquito, the Stegomyia, was found to be responsible for yellow fever. The theory of yellow fever transmission by mosquitoes was exploited as early as 1883, by Dr. Carlos Finlay of Havana. The definite and indisputable test was made in July, 1900, at Quemados, Cuba, by four members of the United States Army Medical Corps, who had been appointed as a commission for the study of the disease. These four men were Doctors Walter Reed, Jesse W. Lazear, James Carroll, and Aristides Agramonte. One of these men, Dr. Lazear who allowed himself to be bitten by an infected mosquito, died from the resulting attack of yellow fever. Dr. Carroll also contracted yellow fever during the experiments, but recovered. A reward of $200 was offered to encourage volunteers, and of the many enlisted men who took part in the experiments, the first to present them- selves were John R. Kissinger and John J. Moran, both of whom stated that [80] 2 § 14 CLEANING DRAINAGE DITCH : Every square foot of swamp was a breeding place for mosquitoes. Draining swamps, sub- soiling and burning grass, are some of the methods used in the prevention of mosquito breed- ing. The man in the upper picture is shown burning grass which grows along the open ditches and drains. In the lower picture he is shown spraying larvacide on the grass. [81] Se ET ge Ee es Uk lS EM i a el THE LAND DIVIDED —CT"HE WORLD, UNITED they would undergo the experiment only on condition that they should receive no reward for such service. They both contracted the fever and recovered; Moran is now in the employ of the Commission on the Isthmus. After ex- tensive experiments, the mosquito trans- mission theory came to be fully accepted by experts on tropic diseases. By this knowledge the work on the Isthmus was greatly simplified. The prophylactic method of fighting yellow fever and reducing malaria was found to be in the extermination of the mosquito as far as possible, and screening dwel- lings against them. As soon as wire netting could be brought to the Isthmus all buildings in the Canal Zone were properly screened. The destructive methods consist in the draining of low places, removal of vegetation, in the damp shade of which mosquitoes breed, A eo 5 : ey 11 aye mosquito disguise, which took first prize in the and the killing of larvae by oiling pools masquerade contest in Panama Carnival of 1904. and streams that could not be drained. At the outset, Colonel Gorgas was hampered by the failure of the Com- mission in Washington to realize the immediate necessity for large expenditures The genus Stegomyin mosquito, gs and female. Loe female oR the defi, the mle in te anit SOK woth o labor, center and the larva on the right. e species has distinctive markings, and the harp-shape : 200 natives was at one time engaged wi design near the head is found on no other mosquito. T he male does not bite, and is, therefore, In the houses in Panama, pri gag ith ladders and paste, or to fumigation. harmless; it is the female that causes all the trouble. a general clean-up was made. [82] and sortie after sortie, before the mosquito horde began to thin. A sealing all the crevices Streets were paved, a water system installed, and [83] SHE AND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [JNITED The quarantine station on Culebra Jsland in Panama Bay. Owing to the fact that the Isthmus is hemmed in on both sides, by plague-infected ports, the most rigid precautions are observed, and steamers from these ports are held in quarantine, unless they have been seven days at sea. for the purpose of exterminating the mosquito. This was later remedied, and the purse strings were loosened. Mn outbreak of yellow fever among the recently unacclimated Americans began in December, 1904, and lasted until December, 1905. During the epidemic there were in all 246 cases and 34 deaths. Of this number, 134 of the cases and all of the deaths were among canal employes. The constantly increasing headway made by the disease in the early months of 1905 caused a panic among the employes. A great many of them left the Isthmus as soon as they could obtain accommodations on the overcrowded steamships. This was an object lesson, and resulted in a partial suspension of actual canal construction work until the eradication of yellow fever was effected. In addition to a rigid quarantine, a relentless fight was waged against the mosquito, with the result that the last case of yellow fever occurred in May, 1906, two years after the work started. THE FIGHT ON THE MOSQUITO When a case of yellow fever was reported or found by one of the corps of Colon Hospital, on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus. It stands on the sea beach, and some of the wards are built over the water. . [84] The above comparison of—before and i i after paving—is not exaggerated i cans took charge of the work many of the streets in Colon and Dn City oy aw ss in the rainy season. Now, both citie : of their Sun. » ies compare favorably in clean, well paved streets, with others [85] CTHE HAND DIVIDED —CSTTHE WORLD, UNITED inspectors in the course of a house-to-house search for cases, the patient was immediately taken to the hospital and placed in a room protected by screening. The next step was the thorough fumigation of the house from which the patient had been removed, in order to kill any infected mosquitoes that might remain. Finally an endeavor was made to locate and fumigate the source of infection. When the epidemic of 1905 was at its height, the plan of fumigating every house in the cities of Panama and Colon, whether or not there had been cases of yellow fever in them, was carried out. The native residents at first submitted to the fumigation with poor grace, as they are immune and could not see the necessity RE To The Dispensary at Ancon. Dispensaries and Field Hospitals are maintained at all the important Canal Zone settlements for first aid treatment. for it. Later, they became more reconciled, but complaints were numerous. There is now pending in Congress a claim for $50,000 to cover damages due to a fire in the Malambo district of Panama in the spring of 1905, which is claimed to have been started by the overturning of a fumigating oven. The fight against the Anopheles, the malaria-carrying mosquito, has been continuous, for it is next to impossible to eliminate it entirely. This species, unlike the Stegomyia, is strong on the wing and is, therefore, able to enter the cities and villages after breeding in the swamps and stagnant pools in the out- skirts. To counteract this as much as possible, miles of drainage ditches have been constructed in the vicinity of the canal towns; small streams are kept cleaned out to facilitate the flow of water; swamps have been filled in and grass and rank vegetation kept cut. Regulations are also enforced against allowing [86] The Government operates two main hospitals. One at Ancon and the other at Colon. The Ancon Hospital is the larger and best equipped, with a reputation in the Tropics second to none. It was begun by the French in 1883, but many improvements have been made by the Americans. [871] DAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORDD, [UNITED There are 47 wards in the Ancon Hospital, and this is the interior of one of them. The white American employes, European laborers and the negroes, are cared for in separate wards. There are private wards also, and one for charity cases. The Canal Commission furnishes free medical treatment to all of its employes. any water receptacles, like tin cans, etc., being thrown into the bush where they might fill during a rainstorm and make ideal breeding places for the mosquito larvae. Such possible breeding places as cannot be eliminated by draining and filling are sprayed with a form of oil, called larvaecide, which destroys the mosquito larvae as they come to the surface of the water to breathe. In spite of all these efforts there are many cases of malaria, but the number has been rapidly reduced, and the type of disease has been reduced from a virulent to a comparatively mild type. While the mortality from malaria was never so high as other forms of tropic disease, Colonel Gorgas always considered it one of the most important on account of the heavy sick rate. Medicinally, the disease is treated by quinine, many thousands of pounds of which have been used in the hospitals and issued from the dispensaries maintained in each canal zone village. oh fs CLEANING HOUSE While a war of extermination was being waged against the mosquito, it was also absolutely necessary to clean house, especially in the cities of Panama and Colon. The latter place, the site of which was partly a tidal swamp, had to be filled in. Proper sewer systems were installed in both cities, where none existed before, unless the open drains in the streets, filled with refuse and other filth, could be called sewers. Suitable water systems also had to be introduced, for up to July 4, 1905, the supply of water was drawn from the cisterns which were allowed to fill during the rainy seasons, or from wells, and afterward peddled from door to door by the aguadores or water cartmen. When the water was turned on, all cisterns were closed. Likewise the streets which became virtually mud holes in the rainy season were properly paved with brick or graded. A method of garbage disposal was also provided, for up to this time [88] THE DAND DIVIDED ~CSTAE WORLD, [UNITED buzzards were the only scavengers. Now, the streets are kept swept and the garbage is collected every night from especially designed containers which every householder is supposed to have. It is then transported to low swampy places in the outskirts of the cities where it is burned, the ashes being used as a fill. In the Canal Zone, garbage is usually destroyed at incinerating plants. In Panama and Colon the collection is made by the health department of the Canal Commission. All the street, sewer and water improvements in these cities done by the engineering department of the Canal Commission will be paid for by the Republic of Panama from its water rates, on the amortization plan. The money advanced by the United States, about $3,500,000, is to be repaid in 50 years from July 1, 1907, but at the present rate of payment, settlement will have been made much sooner. The villages in the Canal Zone along the line of the Canal were not so filthy as Panama and Colon, but were without sewer and water systems. Since then several reservoirs have been constructed, and all houses are connected with sewer systems. Macadam roads have gradually replaced trails; garbage is collected daily and properly disposed of; grass and other tropic vegetation is kept cut down in the vicinity of dwellings, and well-kept gardens and hedges make the construction villages appear like model towns. Strict sanitary regulations are enforced in all the Canal Zone towns, as well as in the cities of Panama and Colon, and each place has its sanitary inspectors, or inspector. RESULTS HAVE JUSTIFIED THE COST With cleanliness alone, however, the high sick and death rate could not be materially reduced. The successful war on the mosquito, which was started Along the coast a few miles from Panama City, is a Le th per colony of 24 persons, called Palo Seco Thisis fhe Solony house 2nd jurtoundings. "The lepers are well nl and ‘have all the comforts furnishe ee by the Government, and spend a ir ti i - etables for their own consumption. 2 ? Dare ofhsme SERINE Ney [89] SE Ah Cpe 1 Ce asm Br i Sot To THE [LAND DIVIDED — CHE WORLD, [JNITED by Colonel Gorgas when the engineers were busy constructing water works and sewers, has freed the Isthmus of its reputation as a pest hole, and has made its sick and mortality rate compare favorably with cities in the United States, or any other parts of the civilized world. The following tables indicate the effec- tiveness of the preventive work of sanitation on the Isthmus: COMPARATIVE STATEMENT oF DEATH RATES AmoNG Canal EMPLOYES ON raE IstaMUus oF Panama UNDER THE ORIGINAL FRENCH COMPANY ror 1884, THE YEAR THE Maximum NUMBER OF EMPLOYES WERE WORKING, AND THE AMERICAN COMMISSION, 1904 To 1912, INCLUSIVE. ‘ oe Death Rate per Average No. of | No. of Deaths, 1,000 Employes. Disease Only. | Disease Only. | Lives Saved. 17,436 1,198 68.69 1904 6,213 55 8.84 1905 16,512 412 .96 26,547 1,046 .40 390238 964 57 43,891 381 .68 47,167 356 .55 50,802 381 48,876 374 50,893 325 Total for nine years. Toran PopuraTion or Panama, Coron AND CANAL ZONE AND DEATH RATES IN SAME. Lives Saved. Annual Average Population. opulanon Death Rate per 1000 35,000 45 56,624 .94 73,264 .10 102,133 120,097 135,180 151,591 156,936 146,510 1913 (June 30) 130,456 Total for nine and a half years. ................. 28,686 *Computed on six months’ figures, but averaged for a year. Only two cases of bubonic plague have developed on the Isthmus since American occupation. These occurred in Balboa, the first in June, 1905. [90] Panama, Colon, and the towns in the Canal Zone were without water mains or sewers in 1904. igh reservoirs have been buil ge is collected daily and burned. Many good roads have also b i i ned. een built, Josd 33 much used by automobile and horseback riders. The United Sites 204 the 103 Sabanas is work, but Panama is to pay it back inside of 50 years. iii [91] t, and now water is plentiful; sewers ramify the cities, and the gar- THE HAND DIVIDED —~C["HE WORLD, [NITED On the Mount Hope Road between Cristobal and Gatun, is Mount Hope Cemetery, once known as Monkey Hill, where thousands of French Canal employes, victims of yellow fever, lie buried. Under American supervision the cemetery has been greatly beautified. Each of its aven- ues is lined with a different kind of fruit tree. The village was immediately cleaned and disinfected, and a crusade against rats, the fleas of which are the carriers of buboine, was started. A ‘‘rat” brigade was set at work in Panama; rat traps were issued free to all persons who a them, and a bounty was placed on each rat delivered to the health department. In addition to the preventive work done by the Department of Sanitation, it maintains two large hospitals, one at Colon and the other at Ancon, and each settlement has a dispensary with a physician in charge. There is also main- tained a large asylum for the insane at Ancon, while at Palo Seco, a few miles east of Panama, there is an asylum for lepers. There is also a sanitarium on Taboga Island, about 12 miles out in the Bay of Panama, where convalescent white patients are given a week or more to renew fever and work-worn tissues. One of the most important things shown by the success of sanitary work on the Isthmus has been expressed by Colonel Gorgas many times, as follows: “Natives in the tropics, with the same sanitary precautions that are taken in the temperate zones, can be just as healthy and have just as small a death rate as inhabitants in the temperate zones. To bring this about no elaborate ma- chinery is necessary. The result can be attained by any community, no matter how poor, if it is willing to spend sufficient labor in cleaning, and to observe well-known rules with regard to disease. The Anglo-Saxon can lead just as healthy a life, and live just as long in the tropics as he can in his native climate.” The total cost of the work of the Department of Sanitation up to the first of July, 1913, was $16,250,164.93. This seems to be an excessive cost until it is considered that this amount includes the maintenance of modern hospitals, [92] THE DAND DIVIDED —CST AE WORLD, [NITED dispensaries, and quarantine stations at Colon and Panama, costing more than half of the total amount. To this is added the cost of street c eaning and garbage collecting, draining and reclaiming swamp land, the salaries of some 15 chaplains, the care of cemeteries and the carrying on of a general under- taking and embalming business. Colonel Gorgas when he said that it is within the power of the people of tropic countries to be just as healthy as those in the temperate zones, figures the actual cost of sanitary work on the Isthmus to the American Government will be a little more than a cent a day per capita, based on a population of 140,000. RIGID QUARANTINE MAINTAINED Since May, 1904, the quarantine on the Isthmus has been under American control with stations at Colon, and on Culebra Island near the Pacific entrance to the canal. In spite of the fact that ports on both sides of the Isthmus, north and south of Colon and Panama, have been infected with bubonic plague, cholera, smallpox and yellow fever, the quarantine has been successfully main- tained. All employes of the Commission arriving on the Isthmus have to submit to vaccination unless they can show a good scar. Ships arriving at the Isthmus from infected ports are required to fulfill seven days of quarantine from the time of their departure. Guayaquil, Ecuador, where yellow fever has been endemic since the fret white man landed on the west coast of South America, and where bubonic plague has recently gained a foothold, is about four days steaming for fast ships. As ships stopping at Guayaquil load and unload cargo where they are in danger of infection, it is necessary for them to be fumigated before they sail for Panama, and it is also necessary that the 7-day period of quarantine be fulfilled from the time of such fumigation. Sy making the trip in four days would, therefore, have to lay in quarantine at Culebra Island hree days before they could unload their cargo and discharge passengers at od oo HIE i Ln Sl WL LR ! ECC He Ancon Cemetery. | [93] CTHE_ HAND DIVIDED ~CTHE WORLD, [JNITED Taboga Island, 12 miles out from the main land, in Panama Bay. Itis noted for its sea bathing, and its pineapples. The native section is primitive and picturesque and contains one of the old- est churches in this section. Balboa. In case a ship arrives which cannot show a certificate that all regu- lations have been properly complied with before leaving Guayaquil, then it is necessary that the vessel be fumigated on its arrival at Panama, and pass through the 7-day detention period at that port. On the Atlantic side, at the present time, ships sailing from La Guaira, Venezuela, are compelled to consume seven days, and from Santa Marta, Barranquilla, and Cartagena, they are compelled to consume six days from the time of sailing. With a rigid quarantine at the two ports of the Canal, and with the effective work of the sanitary inspectors kept up as it has been in the past, it seems improbable that a serious epidemic of yellow fever will ever break out on the Isthmus again. The Canal Commission’s Sanitarium on Taboga Island, where all sick white employes are sent to convalesce. The employes are given 30 days vacation each year, with full pay, and 30 days sick leave each year, when necessary. : [94] N the month of September, 1904, the Canal force was at its lowest oint, numbering about 500. In November, 1905, the force had been increased to approximately 17,000, and in November, 1906, it was practically the same. The following tables show the highest monthly record for each year since 1906: 1907—October 1908—April 1909—October 1910—March The Canal force reached its highest point in March, 1913, with 44,733 men, divided as follows: Panama railroad, 5,248; Panama railroad commissary, 1,274; Isthmian Canal Commission, 32,567; contractors, 5,644; total, 44,733. Of the above, the *‘gold” force, composed almost entirely of Americans, numbered 4,487; West Indian laborers employed by the Commission, 10,406; West Indian artisans employed by the Commission, 13,065; European laborers employed by the Commission, 4,609. The balance was in the employ of the Panama railroad and of the contractors. Most of the West Indian laborers received 10 and 13 cents an hour, while a few received as high as 20 cents an hour. The European laborers received 16 and 20 cents an hour. The West Indian artisans were for the greater part paid on a monthly basis, the balance receiving from 16 to 44 cents an hour. 1911—December 1912—November 1913—March GETTING THE FORCE TOGETHER As the work of making the Isthmus a healthful place in which to live progressed and better living conditions were inaugurated, the work of recruiting and maintaining a labor force became easier. However, it was never possible to keep a stable force and, under the best conditions, the American force changed [95] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORLD, [JNITED considerably, the skilled mechanics about 80 per cent. during the year 1910, and that of the administrative employes about 45 per cent. During the early years, recruiting offices were opened in Europe, the West Indies and in the United States, and men representing nearly every nationality were brought to the Isthmus under contract with the Commission. Nearly all the supervisory ositions, and the positions requiring skilled labor, are filled by Americans. hese include the mechanics, carpenters, plumbers, steam shovel engineers and cranemen, locomotive engineers, railroad conductors, firemen, policemen, civil engineers, clerks, doctors, nurses, school teachers, etc. The clerical force, draftsmen, doctors and nurses are included in the classified civil service, but all other positions are excepted from civil service requirements. The common and unskilled laborers represent neaily every nationality. The greater part, ini i ilding i i the American engineers as their 1d French Administration Building in Panama City, used by ! Theo office headquarters during the first two years of Canal construction. Colonel Goethal’s motor car, commonly known as the “Yellow Peril’’ from its color; also as the “Brain Wagon.” Several of these cars have been shipped to the Isthmus, and are used by the officials in inspecting the different parts of the work. however, are negroes from the West Indies; the Spaniards, Italians and Greeks form the greater part of the European labor force. During the years 1906-7-8, there were recruited in Europe 11,300 laborers, 8,200 of which were Spaniards, 2,000 Italians and 1,100 Greeks. These men were. obtained under contract, and were promised free quarters and employ- ment at 20 cents an hour for as long as the canal work should last. Their passage money was advanced to them, and was deducted from their monthly por, so that out of a total cost of $508,770.83 for recruiting Europeans, all but nisteats idi ineering headquarters, containing the 100,000 was returned from the laborers’ wages. Recruiting ceased in Europe office of Ry Soran codmmrires wh be Changes to Balboa as soon as the new ad- in 1908, as the supply of labor became a, through Co of those 3 ministration building, which is now being erected there, Js completed. the Isthmus who, having learned of the favorable working conditions, came seeking employment of their own volition. Those who did not come under [97] [96] ARENA Ex TERE Nata Seta nan TATE TEIN TATITrIT veer AES | 1 | { a EE IB oon = — i containing various offices, including those of the Sec- The Administration Building at Ancan, the Departments of Civil Administration, Sanitation retary of the Commission, and the heads o and Law. THE HAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [JNITED contract were paid 16 cents an hour for three months, and were then raised to 20 cents an hour if their work had been satisfactory. Laborers obtained under contract will be repatriated at the expense of the Commission, but their number will not be large as, undoubtedly, many of them will find work elsewhere. The recruiting of laborers in the West Indies was carried on several years after it had ceased in Europe, the last importation of negroes from Barbados having taken place in January and February of 1913. The total number of West Indians recruited reached 30,619 at the end of 1912. Of this total, 19,444 were brought from Barbados, 5,542 from Martinique, 2,053 from Guadeloupe, 1,427 from Trinidad, and the balance distributed among the other islands of the West Indies. Recruiting of laborers was not allowed in Jamaica after 1905, in which year 47 had been brought to the Isthmus under contract. Al- The Division Engineer’s office at Gatun. lantic Division, which embraces the construction f clude the Gatun Locks and Dam. [98] i i i the At- Gatun is the engineering headquarters for Ate rom deep water in the Caribbean Sea to in Colonel Goethals’ residence at Culebra. though this class of laborer was not recruited, he was well represented on the Isthmus in the labor force, for the Jamaican came of his own volition although he was required to deposit the amount of his return fare before he could leave that island. In October, 1913, about 10,000 West Indians were laid off as the dry excavation in Culebra Cut came to an end. About 5,000 of these men went into the employ of the United Fruit Company, and the balance, unable to find work elsewhere, mostly went back to their island homes. KEEPING THE AMERICAN EMPLOYES CONTENTED In addition to much higher wages than those prevailing in the United tates, many inducements were offered to persuade Americans to go to the Isthmus to fill the supervisory positions. Free quarters, free medical, surgical, and hospital attendance, an weeks’ annual leave of absence with pay are [99] READING ROOM : TE BILLIARD ROO ; Crt i that to keep the The Y. M. C. A. Clubhouse at Gatun. The Government early discovered the Were redt i 3 ingly seven C employes contented, they must be given amusement; according’ ; ot SD now self-sustaining. They Sze conducted Indes fe Zuspices 4 fe Y Ne S. A — ng broader lines than elsewhere. ey furnish attractiv a i Ere social work consists of entertainments brought from the States, as well as local dramati¢ musical, minstrel and vaudeville productions. [ 100 ] v ss THE HAND DIVIDED ~CT HE WORDLE [JRITED rovided. Free transportation is also furnished new employes from the United States and also on their return after having completed two years of satisfactory service on the Isthmus. On their vacation leave, the employes are granted a reduced rate on the various steamship lines running between the Isthmus and the United States. On the Panama railroad steamships the employes’ rate is $20 one way for those appointed prior to January 1, 1909; for employes ap- pointed after that date, the rate is $30; the regular rate is from $75 to $90 from Colon to New York. The problem of maintaining a constant force of Americans was not solved, however, until means were found to keep it as nearly contented as possible. To do this, it was thought necessary to encourage employes to bring their Owing to the necessity of building on the side of the hill at Ancon, many steps are required at some of the quarters, as shown in the above picture. Usually more level sites were utilized for quarters. The houses, with the surrounding shrubbery, make a beautiful scene. z families to the Isthmus, and to this end, furnished family quarters were pro- vided, with free fuel, water, and light. It is generally agreed that the com- fortable married quarters supplied by the Canal Commission has led a good many to forsake the state of single blessedness, but nearly all are wise enough to wait for an assignment before ‘‘popping the question.” The demand for family quarters has always been greater than the supply, and one has to take his turn on the waiting list. If he is an old-timer and has not been out of the service since 1908, he is on what is known as the No. 1 list, and stands a fair show of getting quarters quickly. One who has been employed since 1908 goes on the No. 2 list, and there is generally several months’ weary wait before his turn comes, as the total number of applicants up to the latter part of 1913 had been rarely less than 600. Some insist on bringing their families anyway, in [ 101 ] THE HAND DIVIDED —~CT'HE WORLD [JNITED Canal medal awarded white employes on the “Gold Roll” for long service. The medal is for two years’ continuous service, and for each additional two years a bar is earned. The idea was suggested by ex-President Roosevelt during his visit to the Isthmus in 1906. which case, they are compelled to rent outside rooms, which are expensive and in no way compare with the comfortable Commission quarters. Family quarters are graded according to the size of an employe’s salary, so much floor space to each $100 he earns, or fraction thereof. Employes receiving $200, or over, are assigned, where possible, to one-family houses; those receiving less are quartered in two and four-family houses. The quarters, both family and bachelor, include a number of different types designated as Type 17, or Type 18, as the case may be, and were built from special designs to hl { them suitable for residence in the tropics. The rooms are uniformly well ventilated, and there is plenty of veranda space. Chairs, tables, beds, cook stove, refrigerator, bureau, chiffonier, sideboard, mattresses, mats, etc., are supplied free; bed linen and kitchen utensils must be obtained by the occupant. The bachelor employe has always contended, and possibly with some grounds, that he has been shown less consideration than the married employe. The Nurses have this building to themselves, called the Nurses’ Home, at Ancon Hospital. [102] Each Zone settlement has buildings for bachelors commensurate with the force quartered there, fur nished fr €e by the Go vernment | his t yp O quar ters contains 24 rooms, w ith two . c f y men assigned to each. Frankly, the bachelor employe does not have the privileges his married friend has, still he manages to get along pretty well, as evidenced by the interior of his quarters. [ 103 ] THE LAND DIVIDED —~—CT HE WORLD, UNITED In most cases, he must share his room with another, and there has been times, when three were placed in one small room. On the other hand, although he probably will not admit it, the bachelor employe has been greatly benefited by the presence of women and children in the various construction camps. It has been figured that bachelor labor costs less than that of married labor, taking into consideration the quarters assigned, allowance for fuel, light, water, care of grounds, and janitor service. A comparison follows: PLANT Married Single Quarters $500.00 Furniture 140.00 25.00 $525.00 MONTHLY COST OF ALLOWANCES .30 .20 : 80 Distilled Water .50 Care of grounds, removal of garbage .20 Janitor service RE Total $2.25 Assuming a six years’ service, a married man may be said to represent an expenditure of $3,000, and a single employe $750. In addition to the above, the married man also receives the benefit for his children of an excellent school system. This increased cost, however, is supposed to be offset by the stability of the married force. The visitor to the Isthmus is quick to note that he is in a new atmosphere. The bringing together of people from every part of the United States, and the consequent interchange of ideas has given birth to a spirit of tolerance, of a broadening of the mind, and has led to the abandonment in a large measure of narrow-minded prejudices embodied in the selfish thought that “My way is right, yours is bound to be wrong,” a rut that people in small communities in the States are so prone to fall into. To further the feeling of contentment and to make of the Canal Zone a transplanted American community, churches and schools were organized. Church work was authorized by the Commission on October 4, 1905. There are about 40 church buildings in the [ 104 ] Members of the Ancon Study Club. BEDROOM A Cozy Home in the Canal Zone. Married i : 1 e. quarters are furnished free by the Government fad sel, light and water supplied without charge. Assignments for quarters are made by the dis- quartermaster, based on date of application, rate of salary, and date of entry in the service. [ 105 ] hing LR a i i THE [AND DIVIDED —~CSTHE WORLD, UNITED Zone, representing nearly every Christian denomination. The greater part of these churches are owned by the Isthmian Canal Commission, which has in its employ ten chaplains, representing six different denominations. It has been the policy of the Commission to encourage church work, and it granted land and sold building material at cost for church buildings. Religious ser- vices are also held in the Commission club-houses and lodge halls. There are six Commission clubhouses, one each at Corozal, Culebra, Empire, Cristobal, Gatun, and Porto Bello. The one which was at Gorgona will be re-erected at Pedro Miguel, and a clubhouse of a permanent type is proposed for the new town of Balboa. These clubhouses were constructed and equipped by the Commission and are conducted by trained secretaries appointed by the International Committee of the Y. M. C. A. The work was Mealtime at a Government kitchen for negro laborers. The negroes are served three rations a day at a total cost of 27 cents. planned to meet the needs of the men morally, educationally, and physically, and to this end reading rooms, bowling, pool and billiard rooms, gymnasium classes, educational classes, chess, checker, dramatic clubs, etc., are main- tained by them. All white employes are eligible to membership upon the payment of the regular membership dues of $10 per annum. The desire for music was also recognized by the Commission and until March 1, 1913, it maintained a first-class band of 35 pieces. The members were all employes, and they received additional pay for their services. The band was first organized in September, 1905, as a private organization, and the Commission took over its maintenance on March 27, 1907. Concerts were given weekly in the different towns in the Canal Zone. Nearly every construction village in the Zone has a Commission building which is devoted to the use of fraternal organizations, and a dozen secret organizations, as well as labor organizations, are represented on the Isthmus. [ 106 ] Typical camp for European laborers. There are separate camps for each class of employes, and the American section of a Canal Zone town is entirely by itself. Interior of a bunk house for negro laborers. The men sleep on Standee berths, arranged in parallel rows, in three tiers. ( 107 ] CTHE LAND DIVIDED ~CI'RE_ WORLD, UNITED The lodge halls are assigned free of charge for weekly meetings, and are also used for entertainments, club meetings, and dances. The Commission has encouraged baseball, tennis, rifle, and pistol clubs. A dancing club holds fortnightly balls in the Hotel T ivoli at which Isthmian society 1s seen at its best. This social organization recently passed through a crisis over the question of ‘‘turkey-trotting” and kindred dances. In addition to the many 3 in the Canal Zone which are more or less under the sway of the Com- mission, the employes wishing a little more freedom founded the Strangers’ Club in Colon, and the University Club in Panama. These two clubs do not confine their membership to Commission employes. The ‘‘smokers” and ‘‘hops” Mess hall for European laborers. Three rations are served European silver employes for 40 cents a day. given by these two clubs are popular both in the Canal Zone and in the cities in which they are located. Following up its policy of encouraging employes to bring their families to the Isthmus, Ex-president Taft authorized the employment by the Commission of Miss Helen Varick Boswell to undertake the task of starting a social move- ment among the women in the Canal Zone. Miss Boswell arrived early in September, 1907, and when she left in October, she had organized nine women’s clubs in the larger villages. The purpose of these clubs was to provide recrea- tion and social intercourse for the wives and daughters of the American em- ployes, just as the clubhouses were established as centers of recreation for the men. ‘These nine clubs were finally affiliated with the General Federation of Women’s Clubs in the United States. On A ril 19, 1913, the Canal Zone Federation completed six years of activity, and on that date it disbanded on account of the approaching completion of the Canal work. Several societies, designed to perpetuate the canal work, have been organ- ized. The first one of these, the oo of the Incas, limits its membership to [ 108 ] Lodge hall at Las Cascadas. All the leading secret societies are represented in the Canal Zone, and lodge halls have been erected for their use by the Government. No rental is exacted. The Zone has also a federation of women’s clubs. Reading room in the University Club, Panama City. The University Club and the Strangers’ Club in Colon, do not confine their membership to Government employes. { 109 ] THE DAND DIVIDED —~—CTAE WORLD [JNITED employes who entered the service in the year 1904. Another is called the Society of the Chagres, and is composed of men who have seen six years of service. A third society has recently been organized, known as the Association of Panama Canal Builders, to which any gold employe may belong. A lunch hour scene at Gorgona shops, before they were destroyed to avoid inundation by the rise of Gatun lake. All gold employes who have served two years under the Canal Commission are entitled to a medal. This souvenir is the outcome of the thoughtfulness of ex-President Roosevelt, who, just before he sailed from the Isthmus on November 17, 1906, said: ‘I shall see if it is not possible to provide for some little memorial, some mark, some badge, which will always distinguish the man who, for a certain space of time, has done his work well on the Isthmus, just as the button of the Grand Army distinguishes the man who did his work well in the Civil War.” The medal is of bronze, one and one-half inches in diameter, and is made from brass, copper, and tin taken from old French scrap. On the reverse side is a bust portrait of ex-president Roosevelt, with Labor train arriving at dry dock, Cristobal. A great many employes live at a distance from their work, and are transported to and from their homes in labor trains. [ 110 ] cTHE_DAND DIVIDED —CT"HE WORLD, [JNITED space underneath for the service record, and around the rim the words *For two years’ continuous service on the Panama Canal.” On the obverse is a picture of Culebra Cut with ships passing through, the Seal of the Canal Zone, a name plate, and the words ‘presented by the President of the United States,” Interior of Mount Hope printing plant. The majority of the Canal Commission’s printing, including The Canal Record, is done here. cut into the rim. A bar is awarded for each two years’ additional service, and there are employes who have earned not only the medal, but three bars as well. The medals are made at the Philadelphia mint, and are distributed yearly. No duplicates are issued. z The Canal Record, published weekly under the supervision of the Canal Commission, contains a résumé of the progress of canal work, official circulars, social and church notes, ete. It is distributed free to all gold employes of the Commission and the Panama railroad; in fact, so widely has it become known that its circulation, between 16,000 and 17,000 weekly, extends to people inter- General storehouse at Mount Hope, near Colon, from which supplies are drawn by smaller store houses established in all the principal Canal Zone settlements. A large amount of material is required to be kept constantly on hand. j 111 } a AN aan / 1 Rm ARE" rn 7 fs, BE CREW VEER sims a ap enle eT : ili the Isthmus. It is The Hotel Tivoli at Ancon, a picture familiar to anyone who has been on 1 the principal stopping place for tourists, and is owned and managed by the United States Government. Lobby of the Hotel Tivoli. One of the hotel's first guests was ex-President Roosevelt, and the suite he occupied is known as the President’s suite. [112] THE LAND DIVIDED —~ CST AE WORLD, [JNITED ested in the construction of the canal in all parts of the globe. Tt is printed at the Canal Commission’s printing plant at Mount Hope, and is under the direction of the Secretary of the Commission, Mr. Joseph Bucklin Bishop. FEEDING AND CLOTHING THE CANAL ARMY It is estimated that with employes and their dependents there were about 65,000 persons depending upon the Canal and Panama railroad work for their source of income during the height of activity, and these people had to be supplied daily with food, clothing and other necessaries. It was early realized that the demand for food and clothing could not be satisfactorily filled from local sources, for prices advanced steadily as the demand increased, so the Subsistence Depart- ment was created. This department is divided into two branches, commissary Commissary at Cristobal, oldest and largest on the Isthmus. This was operated by the Pan- ama railroad for the benefit of its employes before the United States acquired the road. A com- missary train makes an early morning daily run across the Isthmus distributing supplies to the branch commissaries. and hotel. The first commissary store was at Colon and was maintained by the Panama Railroad Company for the benefit of its employes. The com- missary division does a general merchandising business, while the subsistence end has in charge the hotels or mess halls for the American employes and messes for the laborers. It also maintains the Hotel Tivoli at Ancon, patronized chiefly by transients. About 85 per cent. of the supplies for the commissary and subsistence departments are purchased in the United States, 10 per cent. in Europe, and five per cent. in Panama. In addition to the store at Cristobal each canal village has a branch com- missary. Everything that an employe or his family usually requires, such as household goods, men’s and women’s clothing, groceries, meats, vegetables and fruits are supplied. In addition to the retail stores, cold storage, ice making, coffee [ 113] i f the Zone towns, where i ket at Culebra. These markets are located in many of Poblicmarke the tropical fruits and vegetables may be obtained. JG e is sold at 40 cents per 100 pounds, and cold storag Ts country from which they are im- , in the case of meats, to the Ice and cold storage plant, Cristobal. gedg articles are cheaper, in many instances, than they are in this ported. This is largely due to the system of buying in bulk and placing of contracts. [114] THE DAND DIVIDED —~CT"HRE WORDD, [NITED roasting, ice cream and laundry plants, and a bakery are operated at Cristobal. From this point a supply train, partly composed of refrigerator cars, crosses the Isthmus each morning, stopping at the different stations along the line where ice, meats, and other perishable articles are delivered. These goods are then distributed to the houses of employes and to the mess halls and branch “commissaries by the Quartermaster’s Department. No cash sales are made, all payments being made by the employes in the form of coupons ranging in value from one cent to 25 cents from books issued ranging in value from $2.50 to $15. The same method of payment is used in the hotels. These books are obtained by the employes for cash at stated places, or are supplied by the time- keepers, and the amount deducted from the employes’ salary at the end of the month. They are not transferable, and in order that the privilege will not be PUGH. 4 SPTR—— 4 P / i i ol lh a The Government hotel at Corozal, the first one erected by the Americans. These Govern- ment hotels are established in all of the Zone settlements. In them a white employe is served a bet- ter meal for 30 cents than he can usually procure for that price in this country. In one part of the Sisiing room, employes are permitted to eat without their coats; in the other they must keep em on. ; abused, infractions of this rule is punishable by confiscation of the book and ten days’ suspension for the first offense, and discharge for a second offense. Due to the fact that the commissaries are not run for a profit, except to cover in the cost of the various plants, improvements, ete., and to the fact that the Government buys in large quantities under favorable contracts, the con- sumers on the Isthmus have not felt the high cost of living to the extent of people elsewhere. This is especially true of beef, the price of which during 1912 reached a point never before equalled in the United States. With but a few exceptions, the price of beef at the commissaries during this period was kept down to the previous price. During a single year, 6,453,138 pounds of fresh [115 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORLD, [JNITED meat and 976,445 pounds of cured and pickled meats were brought to the Isthmus. . ; + 1 By printing 333,658 pounds of a total of 427,683 pounds of butter bought, RE En the commissary was able to save in the price and also present it for sale in a TOW VEN } much better condition than when purchased in the United States already 2 § B.A ; printed. The price of coffee was also saved by the commissary operating its Li Sh Cy own roasting plant. In this plant 341,780 pounds of green coffee, producing 280,909 pounds of roasted coffee have been turned out in a year. The ice plant, with a capacity of 100 tons a day, delivers ice for 40 cents a hundredweight, or 20 pounds of ice delivered at the employes’ door for eight cents. Another instance of effective manufacture and distribution was the operation of the bakery which during a single year used 20,233 barrels of flour producing 6,014,- The Commission laundry at Cristobal. Itis equipped with up-to-date machinery and presents a busy appearance at all times. The principal street in Gorgona. This was one of the largest towns in the Canal Zone, but the buildings have all been removed as the waters of Gatun Lake will cover the original site. 667 loaves of bread, 651,844 rolls, and 114,134 pounds of cake. Each loaf of bread weighs 16 ounces and costs the consumer three cents. In addition, the bakery enables the employe to purchase strictly fresh bread, cakes and rolls which he would otherwise not be able to obtain. The Americans on the Zone are great ice cream eaters, for a total of 138,551 gallons valued at $110,993.68 were consumed in a single year. The ice cream which is sold for 25 cents a ant is as good as can be obtained, fresh milk and cream being imported from the United States, in refrigeration, for its manufacture. In the industrial and experimental laboratory maintained by the com- missary, extracts, talcum powder, soap, witch hazel, hydrogen peroxide, bay rum, tooth powder, and toilet preparations of various kinds are manufactured The Commission bakers at Cristobal. During a single year the bakery used 20,233 barrels of and sold to the employes at a considerable saving in cost. The experimental flour, producing 6,014,667 loaves of bread, 651,844 rolls and 114,134 pounds of cake. Each loaf 0 : bread weighs 16 ounces and costs the consumer three cents. [ 117 ] [ 116 ] THE DHAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORDD, [UNITED department is maintained to insure the quality of all the goods sold in the stores. There are three classes of hotels and messes maintained where the labor force is fed, one for the white American employes where meals are served at 30 cents each, one in which Spanish laborers are served three meals for 40 cents, and one where negro laborers are served three meals for 27 cents. The food in all three cases is good and wholesome. The meals served in the American hotels, or mess halls, are substantial rather than dainty, but could hardly be duplicated in the United States for double the price charged. Although the laborers’ messes serve wholesome food very cheaply, the greater part of the Spaniards prefer to eat at the little restaurants maintained near the construction camps by their fellow countrymen. The same has been true of the negroes Tennis court, Ancon. Tennis is a favorite pastime and tournaments are held frequently. i si i it i | bd pod ST tii Eton —— jy TON a Opening game Athletic Park, Empire. The national game has held sway each dry season with at least one league made up of four or more clubs. Field meets are also held occasionally. pipes i lf The residence section at Gatun. The three great twin locks near the Atlantic entrance of the Canal are located here. who had much rather live in the ‘‘bush” or in the cities of Panama and Colon where they are less restricted. During a single year the total number of meals served in the hotels was 2,075,335; the total number of rations served in European laborers’ messes was 1,108,175 and the total number of rations served in the negro messes was 584,457. ee PLY ET TR TR % an oN m:n BE os ome - ve y PT A At (e THE CANAL ZONE The Canal Zone does not come under the Constitution of the United States, but is governed by orders made by the President or the Secretary of War, and laws especially enacted by Congress. Its official seal bears the motto, “The Land Divided—The World United,” and consists of a shield, showing in There are several excellent bathing places on each side of the Isthmus. A large pavilion has base a Spanish galleon of the fifteenth century under full sail coming head on recently been erected fronting the beach Pena Prieta, Panama Bay, to which the street cars run. : 2 po carl : . Sea bathing is enjoyed at Xmas time the same as on the Fourth of July. etween two high banks, all purpure, the sky yellow with the glow of sunset; [ 118] [119] > i i d several years ago. The i town of Culebra from Mount Zion as it appeare 2 WE ili a along the edge of the Canal, have all been removed on account of the slides at this point. A group of four-family houses for American married employes, Empire. Large verandas are built on each side of the houses and all are screened. [ 120 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CTHE WORLD, [NITED in the chief are the colors of the arms of the United States. Under the shield is the motto. It was adopted in 1906 after a design of Tiffany & Co. Up to September 1, 1904, the six municipal districts in which the Canal Zone was divided were governed under the laws of Panama. On the latter date, the Canal Commission by law created five municipal districts, each with a mayor, municipal council, secretary, and treasurer. These five municipal districts were abolished April 15, 1907, and four administrative districts were created. On November 17, 1906, the Department of Sanitation was separated from the Government of the Canal Zone, and the latter then became the De- partment of Law and Government of the Canal Zone under Mr. Richard The Isthmian Canal Commission Chapel, Ancon. Nearly all the principal religious denomina- tions are represented in the Canal Zone, and there are upwards of 40 places of worship. The Commission employs several Chaplains. Reid Rodgers, General Counsel. This department was abolished on April 2, 1907, and the authority of the chief executive of the Canal Zone was vested in the Chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission. The Chairman, on May 9, 1907, delegated that authority to a member of the Commission, and the Presi- dent, by an Executive Order dated January 6, 1906, created the Department of Civil Administration. The work of the Department of Civil Administration, in addition to the diplomatic correspondence between the Commission and the Republic of Panama and the representatives of foreign governments in Panama, is par- titioned, as follows: Posts, customs and revenues; police and prisons; fire protection, schools and the office of the treasurer of the Canal Zone. The [ 121] School for white children at Empire. Twelve white and fifteen colored schools are main- tained. The white schools are in charge of women teachers from the United States; the colored schools are taught by male West Indians. There are two high schools for advanced scholars. [122] Ancon high school class, term of 1912-13. THE _DAND DIVIDED ~CS["HE WORLD, JNITED judicial branch includes a Supreme Court, three Circuit Courts we . os 1 s, and f District Courts. Up to July 16, 1913, the Division of Public Works, which on in charge the maintenance of streets, roads, trails, water works and sewers in the Canal Zone and in the cities of Panama and Colon, and also the public harks in the Zone os made a part of this department. On the latter date it became merged with the newly created Division of I ici i Ing. under the office of the Chief Engineer. of Municipal Engineering, THE POSTAL SERVICE oe Dalen of Posts, Customs and Revenues, as its name implies, has , has charge of all post-offices in the Canal Zone, the customs service at the ports of Post Office at Ancon Seventeen P i . ost Offices handle the C i i Banks are established in all but ied CI08) Zong nail, PosmiSevings ge ana ersnbul, and the collection of taxes and license fees. It also looks 1¢ administration of the estates of deceased and insane employes of th a and Panama Railroad Company bey : 1e postal service was inaugurated on J : o gura une 24, 1904, under the , Psion or t te Treasurer of the Zone, with Panama railroad station agents eo pos masters in nine offices. There are now 20 offices in charge of regul 2 posmnstens appomted by the Director of Posts. 5 oh Cin J ine aul J ny by, dont, Panama postage stamps (which were Combian stamps surcharged “‘Panama’), having the words “Canal Zone” printed with a rubber stamp were used. The use of this rubber ma _ 3 poy Salloniom 8 the lookout for mistakes in the surcharging which 0 make the stamps valuable. On July 17, a suppl 1 st . . of Unit States stamps, surcharged ‘‘Canal Zone,” was put 4 use and, 5 i el [123 ] RRS wg CTHE DHAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORDD, [UNITED 1904, these were replaced by the Panamanian stamp surcharged ‘Canal Zone,” in use at the present time. Domestic rates of postage have always applied between the Canal Zone and the United States, and for this reason the postage stamps are purchased from Panama at 40 per cent of their face value Zone penitentiary. This was formerly located at Culebra, but was removed, along with many other buildings, on account of the slides. The offenders in the Canal Zone are kept busy build- ing roads. to make up the difference in the rates of the two countries, those in Panama being slightly higher. POSTAL SAVINGS BANK A POPULAR INSTITUTION A postal savings bank was authorized by Executive Order on September 8, 1911, and became effective on November 8, 1911. At the beginning of the fiscal year there were 2,402 open accounts with deposits aggregating $356,947. The depositors include citizens or subjects of 45 different nations and depen- dencies. The total amount of the deposits during this period was $1,601,616, and the total amount of withdrawals $1,312,873, an increase during the year of $288,743, which, together with the amount of deposits on July 1, 1912, of $356,947, shows a total savings deposit at the close of the fiscal year of $645,690, an approximate average of $203.11 for each of the 3,179 depositors. These accounts are practically held by employes of the Commission, the Panama Railroad Company, and the various contractors. In addition to the postal savings accounts, the money orders issued and drawn on Canal Zone post- offices payable to the remitter aggregated on June 30, 1913, $156,916.20, so that the total savings deposit during the fiscal year was really $802,606.20. In August, 1905, a registry system was established and, in June, 1906, a money order system was inaugurated. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 238,316 money orders were issued for a total of $4,883,624.13. The average amount of each order was $20.49. Of the total amount of orders sold, [ 124] THE HAND DIVIDED ~CI'HE WORDD, [JNITED $3,917,899.30 was payable in the United States and foreign countries, and orders amounting to $965,724.83 were payable in the Canal Zone. j Parcels post has not yet been introduced, and there are no letter carriers and in these respects only, 1s the Canal Zone system behind the service in the United States. A count of the mail matter received and dispatched or handled in transit on the Canal Zone during the month of August, 1912, showed that 30 per cent of the total was official matter. ZONE CUSTOMS SERVICE The customs service of the Zone includes the entry and clearance of ships at the two ports, Ancon and Cristobal, the signing on and discharge of seamen the enforcement of the Panama Chinese, Syrian and Turkish exclusion law. No customs duties are collected, as no goods are allowed to be imported at Ancon and Cristobal, except those necessary and convenient for the construction of the Canal and for the use of employes of the Commission, fuel for sale to vessels, and goods in transit. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 281 vessels entered the port of Ancon, representing a total tonnage of 553,767 and 283 vessels cleared with a total tonnage of 556,306. At Cristobal, 280 vessels entered representing a tonnage of 849,702, and 283 vessels cleared with a total tonnage of 858,703. €¢ ba THE ZONE DRY Up to July 1, 1918, saloon licenses formed a large part of the internal revenues of the Zone. On that date the Canal Zone went “dry” in accordance with an order of the Commission, and 385 saloons went out of business. The A squad of Zone policemen. The officers i i ) 0 . and first class policemen are Americans, most whom have seen service in the Spanish-American war. The ordinary policemen are Wear Indians, [ 125 ] : . EE NTT I Sg Tr ana AA. Central fire station at Cristobal. Fire stations are maintained at all important points, their size and equipment depending on the amount of property to be protected. al all Canal Zone automobile fire engine. The department is equipped with two, one stationed at Cristobal, and the other at Ancon. [ 126 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [NITED license fee was $1,200. On January 1, 1913, the distillation of liquor and the manufacture of rum upon which taxes had been levied was prohibited in the Canal Zone by Executive Order. The taxes now include a real estate rental tax, and miscellaneous license fees. Fines and costs also constitute a source of revenue. During the year, all leases for agricultural land and building lots not covered by revocable licenses were cancelled. As the depopulation of the Canal Zone has been carried on during the past year, the amount derived from license fees has naturally decreased. The total revenues for the year ending June 30, 1913, amounted to $283,846.31. All funds thus collected are expended for local purposes. The revenues received from the postal service are applied to the maintenance of that service, and other funds are used for the support of A typical pay day scene. Pay days occur once a month and the dates range from the first to the twelfth. White American employes are known as Gold Employes, and all others as Silver Employes. - All are identified by the numbers on their metal checks. the public school system, and for the construction and maintenance of public works. KEEPING ORDER The Division of Police and Prisons was organized on June 2, 1904. Its work has been entirely successful and the Canal Zone in which representatives of nearly every nation live and are employed is remarkably free from crime, One thing which has helped to make it a moral community is the strict enforce- ment of the liquor laws and regulations, the prohibition of gambling, and public prostitution. “All of these vices, however, exist in the neighboring cities of Colon and Panama, with one exception of gambling. In addition to the district jails, there is also maintained a, penitentiary. Police stations are located in most of the Canal Zone villages and the force is made up of white ex-army and navy men and colored police officers who have seen service in the Jamaican constabulary. All convicts as well as district prisoners work on the public roads. The work performed by the convicts in the penitentiary nearly paid the cost of guarding, subsisting and clothing them. GUARDING AGAINST FIRES The Division of Fire Protection was organized in October, 1905, and on December 1, a fire chief was appointed. His work consisted in organizing [ 127 ] CTHE DAND DIVIDED —~CT'AE WORLD :[JNITED volunteer companies composed of Commission and Panama railroad employes. In November, 1906, the first paid company, composed of experienced firemen from the States, was established at Cristobal. The organization consists of 37 firemen in addition to a chief, assistant chief, six captains, six lieutenants, m— ree i—— 4 i ; PE | J a First United States Court held on the Canal Zone at Ancon. and 15 volunteer companies with a total membership of 252. The equipment includes two modern automobile fire engines, one stationed at Cristobal, and the other at Ancon. The department answers alarms in Panama and Colon when property belonging to the Panama railroad or to the United States Government is in danger, or upon the request of the Panama authorities. The Canal Zone has been remarkably free from fires, but a well organized fire system is necessary, as the Government and the Panama Railroad Company do not carry insurance on their property. The largest and most expensive fire in the Canal Zone was that when the storehouse at Mount Hope burned in 1907, with a total loss of $417,548.09. EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES The Zone public school system was organized in 1904, but no action was taken until December, 1905, when a census of children of school age, six years and over, was taken. The first school was opened at Corozal on June 2, 1906. There were 29 schools on June 30, 1913, fourteen for white children and 15 for colored children. The school year covers the period October 1 to June 30. A total of 1,369 white children and 1,580 colored children were enrolled in the schools at the close of the 1913 term. In the high school maintained for white pupils there were 93 students, seven of whom graduated. Children living in towns where there are no schools are provided with free railroad or wagon transportation to the nearest school town. At the close of the school year there [ 128] THE DAND DIVIDED ~ GST HE WORLD, JNUTED were 47 teachers employed in the sch i : . for colored children. Te ans i White children and 3¢ in the schools $90 or $110, according to their length of i ig monthly salaries of either THE LAW DEPARTMENT The Department of Law of the C issi _, The] anal Commission h i civil cases, as well as the government of the Canal on “I gah, prosecution of all crimes and misdem i ia of the Zone, and lore eanors in the Supreme and Circuit Courts Land matters of the Co diction of the departm department head looks ati > Joi fajion of be Jes La : on, artment has represented the Poros het Bier Simos the adjustment of claims. Judge Frank Feuille €r of 1mportant posts in the legal d : Rico, and who was connected with the Doparimaens of Eyal Ji and by Judge C. E. Cuba during the ad i I Magoon, issi ag mission railroad. His assistants are W. K. Jackson, Prosecuting oad baa Williams, Assistant Prosecuting Attorney. PAYING THE CANAL FORCE The Department of Disbursements has charge of the dishu funds in connection with the Canal work on the Isthmus einen ES al Ss Present Court Hous. i e at Empire. The United States E h possesses all i Zone, policing the territory and holding complete Rory over £eCacal [ 129 ] THE LAND DIVIDED —~—CST"HE WORLD, JNITED In 1904, when only the fluctuating Colombian silver currency was available for the payment of silver employes, it was customary to advertise for this money in such sums as were required. The bid which gave the best return was accepted. The premuim paid varied from 117 on May 23, 1904, the date of the first sale, to 110 in August, 1904, and rose from then to 115 in January, v 1905, the time the last sale was made under this plan. This made the old Colombian peso vary from $.4606 (expressed in United States values), to $.4755, it being worth $.464 at the time of the last sale. The requirements of the Dis- bursing Office at that time were much more limited than now, a total of $523,000 sufficing for expenditure from May 23, 1904, up to the time Panama money was introduced in March, 1905, an amount less than one-third of the total of one month’s pay roll in 1913. During this period American employes exchanged a part of their gold for Colombian currency and paid their local obligations in that money, in that way netting a profit of about $7.50 gold on each $100 in gold exchanged. In other words he would get $215 silver for $100 in gold, and as local prices, board, etc., were based on silver, he was the gainer in the transac- tion. The situation was much simplified when the United States minted the money for the national currency of Panama, by fixing the value of the Panama peso at the ratio of two for one, but the profits on exchange were at once lost, for local prices immediately reverted to the gold basis, and employes who were formerly paying $50 silver for board, less the profit on exchange, then paid $25 gold flat. The gold payments were first made in United States paper, but this was found to be both expensive and inconvenient, for the reason that the local merchants and others shipped these bills out of the country as fast as they were brought in, as they made a cheap means of exchange. On May 1, 1905, an agreement, which had previously been made by the Secretary of War with bankers in Panama City, commonly spoken of as the ‘Bankers’ Agreement,” became effective. Under this arrangement, the Commission secured from four banking firms in Panama all the United States money necessary for the work on the Isthmus upon the payment of a premium of § of one per cent. This agree- ment expired by limitation on April 30, 1906, and was not renewed. Shipment of gold coin from the United States was then begun. On account of the export Offices of the Disbursing Officer, and of the Examiner of Accounts, Empire. [130 1 THE HAND DIVIDED ~ CST HE WORLD, UNITED tax imposed by the Republic of P i money could not be shipped out to ev ie he bankers finally announced their willin checks on the New York sub-treasury at pa » either gold or silver, this ge as was done in the case of bills. guess to receive disbursing officer’s r, in exchange for gold and silver, so n> Sommission brake, used in carrying children to and from scho 1 ery aid to the cause of education in the Canal Z passes are given the pupils. oe The Canal Commission When necessary to use the railroad, Polis of 20d Shon the United States to the Isthmus grew less and less is ne Ji d altogether. Fora long time American employes were paid usr snlnrles, olely in gold, but with the increase in circulation of paper on us due m part to the increase in tourist trade, and in part to or HSI tion of hi . in Wil id shipments from the United States, they are now frequently paid Silver employes were paid semi-monthly up to and including September 1907, as they were unable to get credit from the they made their purchases, for more than two we ng of the commissaries and laborers’ kitchens ers of procuring commissary books and meal t lime, the necessity for a double pay day each then there has been but one pay day monthly one at Ancon, and the other at Cristobal, and, arts of the work ae of the work each month. The pay day Ho he Nise ne oie, Seyelopedioner the lapse of time between the the n € pay day for employes. This led i igati o whhingy son 1 2 ploy 1S led to an Investigation gue in making payments by lar, } ) ts by large employers of labor. P: FC elope moihe was found impracticable, ows thr i og ’ ough this system was tried for a month in 1903, The system [131] hinese merchants. from whom eks at a time. With the open- and the privilege accorded labor- ickets to be charged against their month ceased to exist, and since Two pay offices are maintained, ‘In addition, a pay car visits all period ranges from the 1st to the THE LAND DIVIDED —CcTTHE WORDD, [JNITED finally adopted and still in use, consists of certificates made out for each indi- vidual payment, duly checked and authenticated. This certificate when properly signed by the payee and witnessed by an employe who is bonded for that purpose, and presented by the payee on the pay car, or at one of the pay offices, is immediately paid the amount called for thereon. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, a total of $20,524,705.75 was disbursed on the Isthmus for salaries and wages, $9,228,633.99 to gold employes of the Commission, and $11,296,071.76 to the silver employes, an average of $1,710,392.14 a month. Public bills and reimbursement vouchers paid on the Isthmus aggregated $9,035,630.18, making a grand total of $29,560,335.93 disbursed. During the same period, miscellaneous collections were deposited with the Treasurer of the United States at Washington to the amount of $3,940.- 102.82. The value of the hotel books issued by this department during the fiscal year 1912-13, was $1,305,405 in $4.80 and $15 denominations. The first disbursing officer was Lieut. Mark Brooke, who temporarily disbursed funds from an amount borrowed from the director Rel of the 4 ~y French Canal Company, as when the Americans took charge on May. 4, 1904, 35 SANG there was not a cent with which to pay bills. He was succeeded by Paymaster A ) Lodkine LLL Eugene C. Tobey of the United States Navy, who was later relieved by Pay- Ta \ Rt WLLL oo master Gebrge C. Schafer, also of the Navy. On November 23, 1905, Mr. i i Ne : “dward J. Williams was appointed to the position, and under him the present organization was largely perfected. Mr. Williams resigned on August 30, 1913, and was succeeded by Mr. James H. McLean. ACCOUNTS The Department of Examination of Accounts is charged with the handling of the general accounting, pay rolls, vouchers, coupon books and meal tickets, files and bonds, injury claims, contract laborers, time inspection, timekeeping, Canal Zone accounts, and inspection of accountable officers. The major portion of the funds of the Canal Zone are on deposit in Washington, with the exception of $100,000 deposited with a local bank, and on June 30, 1913, amounted to $2,168,339.62. Consideration of injury claims is one of the most important items of the department’s work. A total of 7,270 claims for compen- sation for death or injury were handled from August 1, 1908 to June 30, 1913. Of the 1.850 cases disposed of during the last fiscal year (1912-13), 1,452 claims for injury, and 21 death claims, were granted. The total value of these claims, inclusive of grants made on account of meritorious sick leave, aggregated $224,071.72. The average duration of disability of cases for which injury compensation claims have been filed is 58 days, and the average estimated duration of cases in which meritorious sick leave has been granted is five days. During the period from August 1, 1908 to June 30, 1913, a total of $915,824.79 has been paid on account of injuries received by employes in course of employ- ment. NO GRAFT One of the first questions a visitor to the Isthmus asks is, “How much graft has there been?” A good many are inclined to be skeptical when told that there have been no cases of graft on this job, and that the would-be grafter has had but little opportunity to exercise his gift during the greater part of the canal ight of ab. period. It is to be supposed that the word is referred to in its larger sense The Trail which leads up the hill. ear day. The author is standing on [132] NE lh bt Rb ay tes OT mir. I RE Balboa Hill is three hours’ journey from Gorgona over a well-marked trail. out 1,000 feet, both oceans may be seen on a cl From its top, a { 133) 4 THE HAND DIVIDED ~CTHE WORLD, UNITED when it is said there has been no graft. There have been instances where silver foremen were charged with using their power of place by discharging some laborer who refused to give him money. In many of these cases, the charges proved to be unfounded, and, as it developed, were actuated by pis There is no authenticated case, however, in the nearly ten years of canal work, where a case of graft with the hope of great gain in view, has been disclosed. The work is too open and above board. It would not be accurate to say that in the early days of the work, when there were no time inspectors on the job, or other safeguards impasse, there were no opportunities. But as far as the Commission employes then ers concerned, they, for the greater part, regarded themselves as being placed on their honor, and the idea held. As the force was enlarged, it became more diversified in character and temperament, and elements were introduced that required watching, not for any big forms of graft, but for the milder forms, neh as malingering, or more plainly speaking, loafing on the Government's time. Thus was ushered in the era of the ‘‘gumshoes,” as the Commission time inspectors are generally known. po Ametiean visitor, however, when he alludes to graft refers to the pulling off of some big deal in which the Government has been “‘worked” to a frazzle. The Government, represented on the Isthmus by the Canal Com- mission, has never been successfully ‘‘worked,” or have there been any big “rake-offs.” Of course, there have been plenty of cases of plain thievery, and other forms of petty crime aimed at cheating or robbing the Government, but these have been dealt with by the law, and usually the offenders have been punished severely, for to steal from Uncle Sam is almost equivalent to murder in the second degree. : ot Stories have been told, although the writer does not vouch for their authenticity, how some collectors on the Panama railroad during the beginning of canal construction made immense sums and were able to retire to a life of independence and ease, a state that their length of service and previous salary would scarcely warrant. The strings have been drawn much closer since then, and the opportunities for mulcting the railroad have grown beautifully less. As concerns the canal work, however, the amount of grafting has always been a negligible quantity, and this fact will forever be one of the biggest things about this big undertaking. HE idea of a lock and lake level canal was not a new one, for it was || first suggested in the engineering congress convened in Paris in 1879, at which the French adopted the sea level plan. At this congress, Godin de Lepinay outlined the essential features of the canal as jt is today, a lake level with a dam across the Chagres at Gatun. Again, when it became evident in 1887 that the sea level canal could not be completed by the old French Canal Company, a temporary lock plan was adopted. When the United States took over the ‘work in 1904 no plan had been determined upon. To decide this question, ex-President Roosevelt, under date of June 24, 1905, created an International Board of Consulting Engineers, consistin of 13 members as follows: Gen. George W. Davis, Chairman, Alfred Noble, one of the constructing engineers of the Soo canal; William Barclay Parsons, engineer of the New York underground system; William H. Burr, professor of engineering in Columbia college; Gen. Henry L. Abbott, army engineer, whose observations on the topography and characteristics of the canal territory were valuable; Frederic P. Stearns, hydraulic engineer of Boston; Joseph Ripley, at one time chief engineer of the Soo canal, and afterwards employed by the Isthmian Canal Commission as lock expert; Herman Schussler, Isham Ran- dolph of Chicago Drainage Canal fame; W. Henry Hunter, chief engineer of the Manchester ship canal, representing the British Government; Eugen Tincauzer, chief engineer of the canal at Kiel, representing the German Gov- ernment; Adolphe ile civil engineer, representing the French Govern- ment; Edouard Quellennec, consulting engineer of the Suez Canal, and J. W. Welcker, engineer and constructor of the North Sea canal, representing the Holland Government. This board, on January 10, 1906, submitted two reports, a majority report, signed by eight members of whom five were the representatives of foreign governments, favoring a sea level canal, and a mi- nority report, signed by five members, all of whom were Americans, and in [ 135] ‘THE LAND DIVIDED ~ CT HE WORDD, [NITED favor of a lock canal. These reports were submitted to the Isthmian Canal Commission for consideration and the latter made a report to the Secretary of War on February 5, 1906, in which all of its members with the exception of Civil Engineer Endicott, U. S. N., favored the lock plan. Mr. Stevens, at that time chief engineer, submitted a statement in favor of the lock plan, and the Secretary of War in his letter of transmittal of the reports to the President also favored it. On F ebruary 19, 1906, President Roosevelt submitted these various reports to Congress, together with a letter of recommendation in which he said: lying It is The top of the Dam is 105 feet , and 100 feet wide at the top. er. quired for the operation of the Canal from Gatun to which, excepting at this one point, encircle the low- e at the 85-foot lake level the base, 400 feet wid ength is subjected to the full head of 85 feet of wat g link in the range of hills, The Dam is one-half mile wide at ut only one-fifteenth of its 1 2 $e Q = 3 o = bt BD < £ 3 ° & E 5 So = B g = Qa 5 gE < Qo &@ nnectin The hydraulic core, or water-tight portion of the Dam, together with the two outer walls, or toes. The toes are 1,200 feet apart at the base, and the space between is filled with an impervious mixture of sand and clay sucked up and pumped in by dredges from the old bed of the Chagres i The toes were brought together at the top where they cap the fill. The entire Dam con- tains about 21,000,000 cubic yards of material, equally divided between dry and wet fill. The up- stream side is riprapped above the water level to minimize wave action. e features of the work i s so constructed as to form the co g, b “A careful study of the reports seems to establish a strong probability that the following are the facts: The sea level canal would be slightly less exposed to damage in the event of war, the running expenses, apart from the heavy cost of interest on the amount employed to build 1t, would be less, and for small ships the time of transit would probably be less. On the other hand, the lock canal at a level of 80 feet, or thereabouts, would not cost much more than half as much to build and could be built in about half the time, while there would be very much less risk connected with building it, and for large ships the transit would be quicker; while, taking into account the interest on the amount saved in building, the actual cost of maintenance would be less. After being built it would be easier to enlarge the lock canal than the sea level canal. Moreover, [ 137 ] 1v . One of the impress 1 Pedro Miguel. It above sea level, or 20 feet above the normal lake level. valley of the Chagres River. one and one-half miles lon THE LAND DIVIDED — 5 = = = 12 o- 9 A concrete dam, semi- , concrete piers, spaced 45 feet 4 wr LTR L,, a WU Baa Va ”~ a Gr ae Water from the lake flowing over the spillway, during the rainy season, before it was completed. The spillway will control the rise and fall of Gatun Lake. wv » % 4 : x gh pe -- however, with a lock canal, the Chagres is the key to the situation. By placing a dam across the lower end of its valley, its water and that of its tributaries have been impounded to form Gatun Lake. The dam is, in reality, a low ridge of carth connecting the hills on either side of the valley, and looks as though it had been placed there by nature rather than by the efforts of man. It is 1} miles long, 105 feet above mean sea level, or 20 feet above the normal level of the lake, and tapers from nearly 1 a mile wide at its base, to about 100 feet wide [ 140 ] - The spillway from the down stream side. its crest at 69 feet above sea level closed to control the lake level. Sri DAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORDLD, [JNITED at the top. It was constructed of material taken from the Canal amounting to about 21,000,000 cubic yards. The method of construction consisted in building up two parallel ridges or toes of earth riprapped with rock. Between these two ridges, suction dredges pumped sand and clay mixed with water from the bed of the Chagres river. As the water drained out of this interior fill, the clay mixture dried and hardened and formed an impervious core. In November, 1908, a portion of one of the rock toes sank into the silt and soft mud deposited in the bottom of the old French Canal Channel which passed through the site of the dam. This had been anticipated by the engin- eers on the Isthmus, but at the time it led to sensational stories in the news- papers in the United States, to the effect that the dam had sunk and that the The overflow from the spillway passing out through the old bed of the Chagres River into the Atlantic Ocean. With the lake at its maximum elevation of 87 feet, the regulating gates in the spillway will permit of the discharge of a greater volume of water than the known maximum discharge of the Chagres River during a flood. foundation was unsuitable for such a massive structure. To allay the fears aroused, President Roosevelt sent a special board of consulting engineers to the Isthmus to make an examination of the work in progress, and particularly of Gatun Dam. This engineering board, consisting of Frederic P. Stearns, Arthur P. Davis, Henry A. Allen, James D. Schuyler, Isham Randolph, John R. Freeman, and Allen Hazen, reported on February 16, 1909, that: “The design upon which work on the dam is now being prosecuted abundantly fulfills the required degree of stability and goes far beyond the limits of what would be regarded as sufficient and safe in any less important structure.” It also recom- mended that the height of the dam as originally proposed be reduced 20 feet. [ 142] Miraflores spillway, completed September 1, 1913. Lies betwaen Miraflores Lock: s and rising ground to the east, and forms Miraflores Lake. It also regulates the level of the lake. es EERE TT oh AY EE i CEE SE Hydroelectric station, Gatun spillway, under construction, [ 143 ] showing location of penstocks. THE LAND DIVIDED —CSTHE_ WORLD, JNITED The completed dam has demonstrated the fact that it is as effective a water barrier as the age-old hills upon which it abuts. GATUN SPILLWAY In order that the lake will not rise above 87 feet and reach the point where it would flow over the crest and endanger the dam, a spillway has been con- structed through a rock hill nearly in its center. This is a concrete-lined channel 1,200 feet long and 285 feet wide, 10 feet above sea level at the lake end and sloping to sea level at the foot. At the lake end a concrete dam has been built in the form of a crescent 808 feet long, closing the 285-foot channel. This dam is 69 feet above sea level, or 16 feet below the normal level of the lake, and at its top there are 13 concrete piers between which there are mounted 14 electrically operated gates to control the flow of water. The piers and the gates bring the height of the spillway dam to 115.5 feet above sea level, or 30.5 feet above the lake level. With these gates open the spillway will be able to discharge as high as 140,000 cubic feet of water per second, a larger amount than the maximum known discharge of the Chagres during a flood. GATUN LAKE The lake which covers an area of 163.38 square miles and contains about 183 billion cubic feet of water, saved excavating a 24-mile channel to the beginning of the cut through the continental divide at Bas Obispo. It also [ The penstocks at the new hydroelectric station at Gatun spillway, which, by furnishing the water to the turbines from Gatun Lake, will drive the machinery at all the locks. ; makes the Chagres River a most important factor in the success of the project, rather than a torrential stream that would otherwise be a menace to the Canal. The lake has a coast line of about 1,016 miles, and only about 90 square miles [ 144 ] View of Gatun Lake The lake i Ri . e is formed by Gatun Dam, and recei Raver nd several smaller streams. At its maximum height of 87 feet it he fow of the g fries lies of 01 iin part is which lies in the Canal Zone, and part in the Republic of Pan: A Roi lnsve a coast ine oO: Al miles, and will be the largest artificial body of water in Jha: 1d LE broad ¥panss. TOI Gatun fo Dias pire, thence is confined to the 300-foot eal > Calsbra Ou on io Palio gue E uring the dry season—December to May—the lake i 3 iny season, there will acres of trees and jungle growth are being inundated by the rising in, I housandsor Floating islands in Gatun Lak e. These are reall i Sv nd ; Y masses of vegetation Wanps by the rising waters and carried out by winds into the open a ilstaene ose acre in extent, and have given considerable trouble by obstructing the lock Sar Cover [ 145 ] THE LAND DIVIDED —~—CT HE WORLD, UNITED of its total area is within the Canal Zone. In the rainy seasons the lake will be allowed to rise to 87 feet above sea level, and thus provide a surplus for the three or four months of the dry season when the run-off of water in the Chagres basin is low. Allowance has also been made for evaporation, seepage, leakage at the lock gates, and power consumption. With the lake at 87 feet there will be stored a little over five feet of water. That is, the lake could be lowered five feet without reducing the depth through Culebra Cut below that in the approach channel on the Atlantic side. Extensive studies over a period of many vears of the rainfall and the amount of water that will flow into the lake from the Chagres River and its tributaries during the rainy seasons indicate that there will always be a sufficient supply for navigation of the Canal. The Chagres River rises in the mountains east of the Canal, is about 160 miles long, and drains a watershed 1,320 square miles in extent. Above Bas Obispo its rise is very rapid and, as it ascends, it flows through deep and narrow gorges causing a very rapid run-off of the rains, and the river has been known to rise a little over 25 feet in 24 hours. As it winds in and out of the hills in its upper reaches rapids become more numerous and difficult for the passage of the native cayucos or canoes, the only means of navigation. Going up the The spillway Gatun with the sluice gates closed. Locks and village of Gatun in the distance. river only the native boatmen, adept from long practice in poling their boats, can successfully negotiate the rapids. Above Alhajuela, the river is bordered by limestone cliffs into which the water has for ages been eating its way, forming caves and underground water courses. The towering cliffs are covered with a mass of vines and creepers wound about the trees, which have in some way found room for their roots, all covered with bright and vari-colored blossoms. [ 146 ] Oo i Lai 2800 i bens in 4 hs upper Chagres River. The Chagres is the dst mtem Juniaing of Jiesior Panama and drains 1,300 square mil i Dig hes DS aSon It 1s a i iy flowing Siream, but in the rainy months it is pots Bin . 4 ] ume of wat i i a nd one half the volume of water that will be COs Jick: Surg the yoer 1018, Sanaledions principal feeder of Gatun =: - - 5 < gf &E - sk one of three maintained o i ] n th his aie fall. The Isthmus i 3, e Isthmus for 24 hours is 10.86 inches; e small picture above shows the river Excavating for lock site, Pedro Miguel. illi i i be excavated i ite, Miraflores. Millions of cubic yards of material had to kXeavarngifoniockisite before the locks were built. [ 148 ] THE DAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [JNITED The swift moving river, the brilliant tropic foliage, and the towering cliffs, all tend to belie the Isthmian poet Gilbert’s lines that: “Beyond the Chagres River But ’tis my firm conviction, "Tis said (the story’s old), . Whate’er the tales they tell, Are paths that lead to mountains ~~ That beyond the Chagres River, Of purest virgin gold; All paths lead straight to hell.” The Chagres has two principal branches, one (the larger), known as the Pequeni, rising in the San Blas mountains, very close to the Atlantic coast, and It was necessary to go 17 miles along the Atlantic coast to get the proper grade of rock for the concrete used in Gatun locks. Large rock for the Colon breakwater was also obtained here. This shows the rock quarry, crushing plant, and the American settlement established there on account of quarry operations. The crushed rock was loaded in barges and towed to Gatun. S#énd for the concrete used at Gatun locks was obtained at Nombre de Dios, about 35 miles along the coast from Colon, and was also towed to Gatun in barges. Porto Bello, signifying ‘‘Beautiful Port,” is the best haven on the Atlantic Coast of Panama. the other the Indio River. Between Bas Obispo and Gatun, it has 26 branches, the largest of which are the Gatun and Trinidad rivers. In the dry season these tributaries may be regarded as negligible, but during the rainy months they, like the main river, become tropic torrents, with a volume not to be ignored. owever, such floods or freshets, which are of frequent occurrence in the rainy season, would have but slight apparent effect on the lake, for it would take the greatest known flood of the Chagres nine hours to raise the level of the lake one foot. The smallest run-off of water in the basin during the past 22 years, as [ 149 ] THE LAND DIVIDED —CT'RE WORDLD, JNITED measured at Gatun, was that of the fiscal year 1912, which was about 132 billion cubic feet. In 1910, the run-off was 360 billion cubic feet, or a sufficient quantity to fill the lake one and a half times. The rainy season is from May to December, and during that time showers are of frequent occurrence. The average yearly rainfall on the Atlantic coast at Cristobal during 40 years of record, has been about 118 inches and at Porto Bello during four years’ record, about 149 inches; at Culebra, during 20 years of record, about 83 inches, and at Ancon on the Pacific coast during a period of 13 years, about 66 inches. The maximum rainfall for 24 hours was 10.86 inches: for one hour 5.86 inches, and for three minutes, 2.46 inches. DAMS ON THE PACIFIC SIDE Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks occupy the ancient valley of the Rio Grande. Here it was necessary to construct two small earth dams, one on the i / 4 SE bi” = 4 iE IS 1 — [} FH ANE L) The concrete operations at Gatun locks required modern handling machinery. These are the unloading cableways at Gatun docks. Rock and sand are picked up from the barges by clamshell buckets and conveyed to storage piles. west side of Pedro Miguel lock, about 1,700 feet long and 105 feet high at its crest: and the other, west of Miraflores locks, about 2,700 feet long, and 70 feet high at its crest. The Miraflores barrier consists of earth and rock toes, with an impervious core fill, and dams the Cocoli River, forming Cocoli Lake, now a part of Panama’s water supply system. To the east, both Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks approach close to the hills, so it was only necessary to join locks and hills by concrete walls. THE LOCKS Under the original plans, the flight of two locks at Miraflores was to have been located at Sosa Hill near the Pacific entrance. The change was made upon the recommendation of the Isthmian Canal Commission, approved on December 20, 1907, by the President, because suitable lock and dam founda- tions could not be found. In addition, the site at Miraflores is six miles [ 150 ] Sand bins and unloading cranes at Balboa. Sand for the c ed from Punt: Balboa. It was towed to Balboa in Sager 2 Chame, needed was dumped from the bins into cars and Miraflores locks was obtain SOTA x /[\ 0) ve = K dE : al ) Sire a S 3 / ~N bR (INC D3 a; 7, ” C IDETN / ES by cr / Ne \ 15 Xz TAN oncrete used in the Pedro ‘Miguel about 25 miles along the Pacific coast from lifted into the bins by the unloading crane and hauled to the lock storage — Sandwien Ancon rock crusher plant and « quarry. rock was obtained for the concrete used i literally eaten away to secure the large amo between Panama City and Balboa, where the h n the Pacific locks. The side of the hill ortgued unt of rock required. [ 151 ] i i ixi ks, which houses a battery view of the main concrete mixing plant at Gatun Loc , s atter of Liga ol mixers. Rock and sand were carried to the mixers by an electric FEItoy running underground to a point beneath the storage piles. The finished product was carried to the lock site by a surface electric railroad. A closer view of the same plant, which has produced as high as 3,434 cubic yards of concrete in a day of 12 hours, working 6-hour shifts. [ 152] THE _DHAND DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORLD, [JNITED inland behind hills which will effectively protect them from the fire of a hostile fleet. The locks under the original plans were to have a usable length of 900 feet, width of 95 feet, and a depth over the gate sills of 41} feet. These dimensions were increased on January 15, 1908, in compliance with the wishes of the N avy Department, to a usable length of 1,000 feet and a width of 110 feet in order to allow the passage of larger battleships at that time contemplated. The height of the lock walls is about the same as that of a six-story building. The largest of the present-day ships, the Imperator, 919 feet long, can be locked through the canal. However, most of the ships that will use the Isthmian trade route, or Eight of these cableways, four on each bank, were us walls. They consisted of steel towers, 85 feet high, operatin cables, which carried the concrete buckets back and forth. ed to place the concrete in the lock g on their own tracks, and supported that are likely to use it for many years to come, are less than 600 feet lone. In fact, 95 per cent. of the vessels navigating the high seas are less than 600 feet long. For this reason, each lock is divided by intermediate gates into two’ chambers 400 and 600 feet long, respectively. "This does not mean that the full length of 1,000 feet cannot be used if necessary, but with this division a saving in both water and time can be made in the locking of small ships. There are six double locks in the Canal, three flights of twin locks on each side of the Isthmus to lift ships from sea level to the lake level, and vice versa. They are made in pairs, in order that ships can be locked both up and down at the same time, and, in case of accident to one set, there will be no delay to traffic as the duplicate flight can be used. The usable dimensions of all are the same. Each lock is a concrete chamber with steel mitering gates at each end, and with the gates closed, ships are raised and lowered by simply admitting or withdraw- Ing water. The side walls are 45 to 50 feet wide at the surface of the floor, [ 153 ] is at This view shows the dumping of concrete at Gatun Locks. ye Oh eee is 84 i he man stationed in the cableway tower, w 0, in dur . t I 3 howl of thes the operation. As fast as the concrete is deposited, men, standing knee deep the mixture, spread it out evenly. [ 154 ] THE HAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORLD, [NITED erpendicular to the face, and narrow from a point 241 feet above the floor until they are eight feet wide at the top. The center walls are 60 feet wide, approximately 81 feet high, and each face is vertical. In the six pairs of locks there have been placed approximately 4,500,000 cubic yards of concrete, re- quiring about the same number of barrels of cement. In the center wall of each set of locks, 421 feet above the floor, there is a space 19 feet wide at the bottom and 44 feet wide at the top in which there is a tunnel divided into three galleries. The lowest gallery 1s for drainage; the middle, for the wires for the electric current to operate the lock machinery Soe Sunday scene on south approach wall at Gatun Locks. In order to finish a piece of work within a given time, it was frequently necessary to work the men the full seven days. installed in the center wall, and the upper is a passageway for the operators. To fill and empty the locks there are culverts extending the entire length of the center and side walls. These culverts are 18 feet in diameter and are large enough to permit the passage of a railroad train. From these large culverts there are several smaller culverts, 33 to 44 square feet in area, which extend laterally under the floor of the locks and open into them through wells. These smaller culverts would Porn of the passage of a two-horse cart. The water is conveyed from the lake level through the large culverts, and thence through the small lateral culverts to the lock chamber, thus insuring an even distribution of the water over the entire area of the chamber. This reduces the disturbance when the lock is being filled or emptied, so that ships are lifted or lowered without undergoing any strain or es pitching. The flow of water through the culverts is controlled by valves. The large culvert in the center wall com- municates with the chamber of each of the twin locks, so that water may be passed from one lock to the other of the pair, thereby effecting a saving. The average time required to fill and empty a lock is about 15 minutes, and the time [ 155 ] 2 x < o inni i d installing the lateral The beginning of concrete work at Gatun Locks. Laying the floor an Ls “The A holes in the floor are to admit the water to the locks, and to empty them. The floor varies in thickness from 13 to 20 feet of solid concrete, according to the character of material underlying it, and is anchored by steel rail to a depth of 10 feet. ~ i i i i d out of the locks. Installing the cylindrical valves for the control of the flow of water in an e > The water ei system of the locks consists of rising stem or Stony gate valves, and Eviindrieal valves. The rising stem valves govern the flow of water in the side wall culverts, an cylindrical valves govern the flow of water in the center wall culverts. [ 156 ] THE DAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORLD, [NITED of passage of a vessel through the entire canal ranges from 10 to 12 hours, according to the size of the ship, and the rate of speed at which it can travel. The lock gates are of the miter type, built of steel frame covered with steel plate, 65 feet long and from 47 to 82 feet high, according to their position in the locks. In all there are 41 gates of two leaves each. These gates weigh from 390 to 730 tons each, and, in order to reduce this weight as much as possible from the bearings and hinges upon which they swing, they are divided hori- zontally into two separate compartments. The lower compartment is water- tight, sufficiently buoyant to practically float in the water. The upper half, however, has an opening and, as the water rises in the chamber it flows into the upper half and adds sufficiently to the weight of the gate to offset the increased pressure of the water in the lock chamber. The machinery for opening and closing the gates, operated by electricity, was invented by Mr. Edward Schildhauer, Electrical and Mechanical Engineer of the canal commission. It consists of a large “bull” wheel, mounted in a horizontal position on the lock wall, to the rim of which is fastened a steel strut or arm; this arm is also attached to the top of each gate leaf. The wheel rotates through an arc of 197 degrees, and closes or opens the gate leaf, according to the direction in which it is turned. This operation can be performed in two minutes, and it is similar to the action of a person who reaches out an arm to open or close a door. GUARDS AGAINST ACCIDENTS To guard against accident, the gates at the entrances to all the locks and at the lower end of the upper lock in each flight are placed in pairs, thus eliminating the chances of a ship ramming the gate which is holding back the water of the level above. These guard gates miter outward to give them added power to resist any blow which might be given to them. They are also available for use in case the gates proper become damaged, or for any reason cannot be operated. Steel forms in position for side and center wall construction. They are made of sheet steel, carried on movable towers and operated on tracks. Each tower and form weighs almost four and one-half million pounds. [ 157 ] THE HAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE WORLD, [NITED Ships will not be allowed to enter the locks under their own steam, but will be towed through by electric locomotives operating on the lock walls. A ship about to enter the locks will first come to a standstill alongside the a proach walls where the towing locomotives, two on each wall, two forward iy} two aft, can attach their lines. Before the ship can enter a lock chamber it encounters a The handling equipment used at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was entirely different from that at Gatun. At Pedro Miguel, Berm cranes, containing the mixing machinery, were stationed at the head of the lock, with arms extending on either side, from which ab b . ’ ’ uckets lowered to pick up sand and rock, as the case might be. Br Were Method of constructing the 18-foot side wall culverts. Collapsible steel forms were used and after the concrete had set, were taken down in sections. fender chain which has been placed on the upstream side of all the gates of the upper locks, and in front of the guard gates at the lower end of each flight of locks, to prevent the gates from being rammed by a ship separated from the towing locomotives, or approaching the gates under its own steam. In opera- tion the chain is stretched across the lock chamber from the top of the opposing walls; when it is desired to allow a ship to pass, the chain 1s lowered into a groove in the lock floor, and is raised again after the ship passes. It is worked by a hydraulically operated system of cylinders, and is capable of bringing to a stop a 10,000-ton ship, running at four knots an hour, within 73 feet, which is less than the distance between the chain and the gate. In case these precautions to prevent accident to the gates fail, or in case it should be necessary to make repairs which would necessitate the shutting off of all water from the lake levels, an emergency dam of the movable type has been placed above each flight of locks. This dam is a steel truss bridge of the canti- ever type, pivoted on the side wall of the lock approach. When not in use it The firtiieed brodici.w tod BY 2 a rests upon the side wall parallel to the channel. When required for use it is DoS oartied by Tess ams imo she lock iT Many of the old [ 158 ] [ 159 ] NAAR LL i orted Chamber cranes, shown here, lifted the buckets of coment from the IN 31d anspon is dors the point desired. The method of Swmping by ithe = amber SS i imar eration being contr S hat of the Gan ig open on tracks, were self-propelling, and were used to trolley : C : ee also in handling heavy pieces of lock machinery SRW IPR | LRA Cr? 2 An i ork at Pedro B ranes at Miraflores Locks. With the completion of the A nD af Patio i gh ranes ‘were moved to Miraflores Locks. The ming ed eo Miges), ¢ a on the banks of the locks, ingiend of 2: the 3934, dumping ¢ 2CHy nto 1h, a d solely for center w. . i Is, while the chamber cranes were used sc i gts, the necessity of concrete carrying trains to a large extent [ 160 ] THE LAND. DIVIDED ~~CTHE WORLD, JNITED swung across the channel, with its end resting on the center wall of the lock. A ~ series of wicket girders hinged to it are then lowered with their ends resting in pockets embedded in the lock floor. The action of these girders might be compared to the dropping of the tines on a, sulky rake, with the exception that the girders are hung on individual pivots. After these girders have heen lowered into place, they afford runways for gates which ar time, closing the space between them. The first row of plates lowered close the channel to a height of 10 feet; another series of panels lowered brings this height to 20 feet, and so on until the channel js completely closed. With the main flow of water checked, the remainder, due to the clearance between the lates, is checked by driving steel pipes fa the sides of the adjacent panels. When 1t is desired to gain access in the dry to the sills of these emergency dams, or to repair the lower guard gates of the locks, and the gates of the spillway dam, mm floating caisson gates of the molded ship This gives an idea of the height of a type are available. When their use js Side wall of the locks, as compared with required they are towed into position in &,[U, building. The main operating culverts will permit of the passage of a the forebay of the Apper lock, above the Standard size locomotive and train of cars, . i t emergency dam, or between the piers of loc 2 team and wagon could travel A . through the lateral culverts. the spillway, and sunk. They are equip- ped with electric motor driven pumps for the purpose of pumping out the caissons and for unwatering the locks. The gates, fender chains, emergency dams, towing locomotives, and cul- vert valves are operated by electricity, and all but the towing locomotives will be controlled by operators stationed m a control house on the center wall from which all parts of the locks can be seen. These houses are equipped with a double control board duplicated to conform to the duplication in locks. It contains a representation, part model and part diagrammatic of the flight of locks controlled by the respective series of switches. As the operator throws the switches he can see before him, in model or diagram, the progress of the fender chains, the movement of the gates, the opening and closing of the gate [yoy LIN [SY Sli | [CS CS INL i LLY I NSN.) ] NY | sag LINN (I (eb \ (J LIN hadnt IL HCN NTN TINNY WL [wis i" ed Pl ok A il, 1 N a -=) Z ied la X777777 \ L777. ———— rh i dd, - : me rN CROSS SECTION OF LOCK CHAMBERS AND WALLS OF LOCKS A—Passageway for operators. B—Gallery for electric wires. —Drainage gallery. —Culvert in center walls. E—These culverts run under the F—Walls o lock floor and alternate with those from side walls, pening from lateral culverts into lock chamber, G—Culverts in sidewalls. H—Lateral culverts. [ 161 ] PP P € Iv erts. S W W water is 1 tin and out of the cu I he u er icture shows the intake mn the alls here The center picture gives a view of Gatun locks under construction. In the lower picture the rete building in the distance 18 the control house from which all of the lock oper squar € conc ating machinery will be manipulated. [ 162 ] THE DAND DIVIDED ~— CT HE WORLD, [NITED ralves, and the rise and fall of the water in the lock chambers. The system is interlocking so that certain motors can not be started in a certain direction until other motors are operated in a proper manner. HOW THE LOCKS WERE BUILT One of the most interesting sights to the canal visitor during the time construction work was in progress on the locks was the working of the concrete mixers and the cableways and cranes, now dismantled, which carried the ma. terial to the point where it was to be poured. At Gatun locks, where 2,043,763 cubic yards of concrete were placed, the assembling and the distribution of the material was done by means of industrial The first monolith completed at Gatun Locks early in 1910. These monoliths are huge blocks of concrete, which joined together, make a continuous wall almost a mile long. This is one of the outside walls, and the space has been filled in with earth and rock level with the top, Where you now see the steps. [163 ] : IR TIMES i Miguel Lock i i Miraflores Locks. Pedro pgs i a view looking north from \ Se ro Mid ee i li pr ge ss Lake in between. Spillway Jo Ihe fight, 161 pot ry Ih the Gaaes tors to the left of picture. The center pictu NS 8 leW Joking a fou Pogue on Ancon Hill in the distance. The lower picture p e same ’ t from i the gates were under construction. [ 164 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORLD, [JNITED electric railways and overhead cableways. From the docks in Cristobal, the cement was carried in barges up the old French canal, which had been deepened for the purpose, to a cement storage dock at Gatun. Rock quarried and crushed at Porto Bello, about 17 miles east of Colon, and sand dredged at Nombre de Dios, about 35 miles east of Colon, was towed in barges to Gatun docks. This material was unloaded by overhead cableways, upon which grab buckets were hung, and carried to storage piles. The material was then assembled in the mixers by cars operated under the cement shed and under the sand and rock storage piles. Another electric railway carried the buckets of concrete to the bank above the lock sites. At this point the full buckets were lifted from the cars by cableways stretched across the lock site and lowered into the lock chamber where desired. There were eight of the cableways arranged in pairs, The lock walls as a whole give the visitor an idea of massive construction only. The arched sections, shown in the picture, connecting the main walls with the wing and guide walls, effect a saving in concrete and also give a symmetrical touch to the structures. each pair stretching from a steel tower 85 feet high to a similar tower on the opposite side of the locks, a distance of 800 feet. These towers were.placed on trucks on which they could be moved along tracks parallel to the locks to the point desired. Besides the concrete, the cableways also handled heavy con- struction material, such as steel forms and lumber. Their capacity was six tons each, and the greatest lift 170 feet for a distance of 670 feet. For the locks at the Pacific end a distinctly different system was employed. Placement at Pedro Miguel was made by means of four cantilever cranes, two resting on tracks on the floor of each lock chamber, and two berm cranes equip- ped with two 2-cubic yard mixers in the upper forebay. Each of the chamber cranes was 95 feet high with cantilever arms, which extended to both sides from the center. Placement in the approach and wing walls was made by means of [ 165 ] +1001} H20] dy} uo Buipue)s uewr Ay} Je SUINOO] Aq PAUILIQO SI uosredwod Burjis vy “Jeo[je sdiys 1s931e[ 9) )EPOWWOIIE [[1Ar sw juasaid ayy Je pue ‘Yipim ur 3395 (ff pue Y)BU3] Ur 339) (00‘] JO suoisUIWIP I[qesn Buiaey ‘plIOM 3} UI SYSNOI) 3)9IOUO0D IsaBie| dy) Aa SIIqWIBYD OO] YJ, ‘SHOOT SIAIO[JRNN ‘JOqUIBYD SIM ‘}O0[ I2A10] 9) IpISur MITA at AAA le. iit YBIY 199) [8 PUB IPIM 1D) (9 SI [[EAM O[PpIw ou.L, PUL ClleM Judd e Aq pareredas sioquieyd [dered om) SUIEIUOD 300] yoey yoroadde yjiou ay) jo uondooxo AY) PIM ‘rom Liuosewr KAedY [IV "do) OY) JE 3199) 8 JO YIPIM EB 0) MOLIVU PUR ‘[dAd] 100[} 943} JE OPI 199} (G O) Gf DIE S[[es IPI ‘dopmusew JI9Y) JO BIPI UE SIALS MIA SIY) pue ‘pajojdwod sem nea TI6I ‘I 19q01d(Q pasedadde Lay) se sYO0] unjes) Jo MIA [BIdUIS yy S'HE DAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE, WORLD, [UNITED derricks, which lifted the buckets from concrete trains which ran between the mixer and chamber cranes. When the heavy masonry work at Pedro Miguel was finished the chamber cranes were transferred to Miraflores, and operated in the same manner. The berm cranes were modified in order that they might be operated on the sides of the locks, instead of at the head. The crushed stone for the concrete of both Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was supplied by rail from a large quarry and crusher plant on the west side of Ancon hill near Panama. Sand was dredged at Punta Chame, on Pana- ma Bay, 23 miles west of Panama. It was hauled in barges to Balboa and there unloaded by special machinery and hauled by rail to the storage piles at the locks. ras MAKING THE DIRT FLY The work of excavation in the canal prism was divided into two classes, “wet” and ‘““dry,” that taken out by means of dredges, and that by steam shovels, respectively. The wet excavation, up to October 5, 1913, when water was admitted into Culebra Cut, was practically confined to the sea level AY TE ER Section of the north guide wall at Gatun Locks under construction. This was one of the most difficult pieces of masonry work in the whole job. The greater part of its length of 1,000 feet rests upon piles driven to solid rock. To the right is seen the east wing wall of the locks. approaches to the Canal, that at the Atlantic entrance seven miles to the locks at Gatun, and that at the Pacific entrance 81 miles to the locks at Miraflores. The largest part of the excavation, however, was accomplished by steam shovels in Culebra Cut prior to the letting in of the water of Gatun Lake and in the Chagres section. here remained on September 1, about 9,153,000 cubic yards of spoil in Culebra Cut, out of a total of 95,869,000 cubic yards. The total excavation, “wet” and ‘‘dry‘* for the entire canal, as originally estimated by the minority members of the Board of Consulting Engineers, was 103,795,000 cubic yards, in addition to the amount excavated by the French companies, [ 168 ] Entrance to Gatun Locks from the lake. Gatun Dam i on the left and approach li foreground. : Approach walls 1,000 feet long, have been built at each end of all the ad Sie the name indicates, they serveasa guide to ships coming up the approach channel. Ships must come to a stop at the i i : 09 iy se walls, until the locomotives which tow them through the locks make fast i ER RS » View of the upper gates at Miraflores L pleted and partly swung open to ful Operated by electricity and may be op ¢ ocks under construction. The first of these is com- 1 view giving an idea of their thickness. The gates are ened or closed in one minute and 47 seconds. [ 169 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~ CHE WORLD, [JNITED who accomplished 29,708,000 cubic yards useful under the present plans. This estimate has been increased several times on account of changes in the canal plans, to silting in the canal entrances and in the Chagres section, to slides in Culebra Cut, for the terminals at both entrances, and for the dry docks at Balboa. The last estimate made on July 1, 1913, places the grand total at 232,353,000 cubic yards, conside ably more than double the amount originally estimated. When the canal is entirely completed, the excavated material would make a line of 63 pyramids, each equal in size to the Great Pyramid of Egypt. DREDGING Most of the work in the Atlantic entrance, about 53,167,000 cubic yards, was accomplished by two elevator dredges left by the French, and overhauled by the Americans, a dipper dredge of American make, and a sea-going 20-inch : “= CAEN a” re — Completed sills from the lock gates. These sills, built of steel and concrete, form foundations on which the gates rest. suction dredge, also made in the United States. Where the channel ran inside the shore line two small hills were dug out by steam shovels to a depth of 41 feet, and the remainder then accomplished by the dredges. In the Pacific entrance about 61,489,000 cubic yards was accomplished by two elevator dredges of the Belgian type and two Scotch elevator dredges left by the French and overhauled by the Americans, a modern elevator dredge built in Scotland in 1911, and a sea-going 20-inch suction dredge. This latter dredge was floated into Culebra Cut in October, 1913, and is now at work taking out the remaining spoil in that section. In the Pacific entrance a large quantity of rock was encountered which was too hard for the dredges to handle. [ 170 ] The gates under construction at Pedro Miguel. The lock gates, 46 in number, two leaves to each gate, constitute one of the spectacular features of Canal construction. ‘I'hey are 7 feet thick, from 47 to 82 feet high, and each leaf or half gate weighs from 300 to 700 tons. They are built up of great horizontal girders weighing from 12 to 18 tons each, with vertical frame work in between, sheathed with steel plates on each side. Near view of the massive lock gates showing riveting gang on scaffold. The lower part of each gate is an air chamber, so that in using it, the gate is buoyed up by the surrounding water, reducing the weight on its hinges, and making it easier to move. To overcome the lifting effect when the lock chamber is full of water, the upper half has openings on the up-stream side which allows it to automatically fill or empty, thus equalizing the weight. [ 171} SI'HE HAND DIVIDED ~CTHE WORLD, [JNITED To break up this material, in addition to subaqueous blasting, a Lobnitz sul. aqueous rock breaker was used. CUTTING THROUGH THE DIVIDE The part of the canal on which the most work has been done, and which was the last to be completed, is Culebra Cut, the 9-mile section through the continental divide. Work has been nearly continuous in this section since the French started operations in 1882. It is also one of the most important and in- teresting portions of the Canal project on account of the deep cutting necessary, and the difficulties encountered on account of slides and the disposal of spoil. When the Americans took over the work in May, 1904, they found the French engaged in taking out just sufficient material to hold their concession. This Close view of completed gates at Gatun Locks. There are 46 gates in the locks which aggregate 58,000 tons in weight, and if placed end on end would make a tower about one and one-fifth miles high. The author was standing on the lock floor between the partly closed gates when this photograph was taken. they were doing with a few obsolete side excavators, served by small Decauville dump cars and Belgian engines. Work was continued with the equipment left by the French until it could be gradually replaced with modern steam shovels, cars and engines. The first steam shovel was placed in operation on November 11, 1904, and the last of the French excavators was discontinued on June 16, 1905. On August 1, 1905, there were 11 steam shovels at work, but they were greatly handicapped in their output as they were served by old French cars operated on lines which, as Chief Engineer Stevens said: “By the utmost stretch of the imagination could not be called railroad tracks.” ‘Work was practically stopped until proper prepa- rations could be made for handling the spoil and effecting an organization which would obtain the greatest possible he from the use of modern methods of [172 ] This illustrates the size to which even the smaller features of gate construction attain, as well as the care taken in their manufacture. This steel yoke, made of vanadium, is used to connect the tops of the gates with the anchors in the walls, It weighs 14,000 pounds, and was subjected to a stress of 3,300,000 pounds before it broke. The operating mechanism of a lock turns through an arc, giving the connectin a door. It is 19 feet i n diameter, and weighs over 35,000 [ 173 ] gate. The wheel is a bull wheel, which, in operating, g rod the movement of an arm in opening and shutting pounds. RNA THE LAND DIVIDED ~CTHE WORLD, NITED excavation. Tracks were properly laid, a proper transportation system in- augurated, and proper dumping places located before the work was resumed on a large scale in 1907. In that year 9,177,130 cubic yards were taken out, and from that time to when the maximum of 16,596,891 cubic yards was reached in 1911, there was a steady increase in the amount of material excavated as new Side view of emergency dam on east wall at Gatun Locks. In case an accident occurred to the gates, allowing a free passage of water from the 85-foot lake level, to the sea level, the dam would be swung across the lock chamber and a series of wicket girders hinged to it would be lowered with their ends resting in pockets in the lock floor. Steel gates would then be let down, one at a time, which would close the lock chamber and check the flow of water. equipment was installed. Trains of flat and dump cars, 20 to a train, drawn by 100-ton locomotives carried the spoil to be used in the dam at Gatun, the breakwater at the Pacific entrance, fills, or to dumps where it was merely wasted. As the Cut neared completion, the work became concentrated in a short section at Culebra where the deepest cutting, 272 feet, was necessary, and the number of steam shovels had to be gradually reduced. To prevent the flooding of the Cut, the canal channel was paralleled on each side’ from Gold Hill north to Bas Obispo, a distance of five miles, by small canals or diversions, which carried into the Chagres River the water from streams that otherwise would have flowed into the Cut and interrupted the work. To prevent the water in Gatun Lake from backing up into the cut the earthen dike which was blown up on October 10, 1913, was built. To the south of Gold Hill the water which would have flooded the Cut was carried off by the Rio Grande and an old French diversion channel. Rain water that collected in the Cut flowed north and south. At Gamboa, on the north, it was pumped through the dike, and at Pedro Miguel, to the south, it drained off through the lock wall culverts. All steam shovel work in the Cut was discontinued on September 15, and between that date, and October 5, 1913, when water was admitted, all equip- ment and other material, including over 36 miles of construction track, was removed. At that time there were about 30 steam shovels at work. The following table of material excavated in the Cut and for the whole canal, indi- cates the period of preparatory work, the time when the highest point of effi- [ 174 ] retard the vessel's progress if our, but a second or return t Towing locomotive in operation at G atun Locks. Vessels through the locks. There will be two locomot required. In towing, they will not move faster rack » permits them to go back at greater speed. [175 ] These machines are designed to tow ives ahead towing, and two astern to than two miles an THE DAND DIVIDED —~CT"HE, WORLD, [JNITED ciency was reached, and when the work became concentrated in the short section of Culebra Cut as the other sections neared completion: CULEBRA CUT. ENTIRE CANAL. Year Cubie Yards Year Cubic Yards 1904 243,472 1904 243,472 1905 1,167,628 1905 1,799,227 1906 2,702,991 1906 4,948,497 1907 9,177,130 1907 15,765,290 1908 13,912,453 1908 37,116,735 1909 14,557,034 1909 35,096,166 1910 15,398,599 1910 31,437,677 1911 16,596,891 1911 31,603,899 1912 15,028,413 1912 30,269,349 1913 (to Sept. 10)......... 8,348,190 20,937,718 Totals 97,132,801 209,218,030 nm . - I'wo makes of steam shovels were used in the excavation work, the Bucyrus and Marion, of 45, 66, 70, 90 and 105 tons, equipped with dippers ranging in apacity from 1§ cubic yards to 5 cubic yards. In Culebra Cut, shovels with These models of Pedro Miguel Lock give a good idea of how ships will enter and pass through the locks. [ 176 ] OTT SAIO[FRNN JO JajeMm 241 yam paqqy Mou st 8300] omy ay udamiaq adeds ay, ‘SOO oy} jo 3391 oy jv punoasdaioy ayy wm IIqISIA SI d om} ojur [9N3IN 0Ipag jo umoy ayy SOPIAIP Yorym ‘proajiey EWEUE] 9) JO ul] Pajesofax A1mou ay 1, '9DUEISIP 3Y) UI UII Aq Aew II'H uoduy pue [euen ayy oy OULU dHIdE Ay, “1930 youd 03 uoneaa 11943 JO vapr ue soAI13 mora dkaspaiq siy 1 -aede Sd[Iur jrey-suo p Ipod UE 3UO 3noqe due s)007 sasopyeapy PUe [9n3ip o : - . - -~ © P - 1 Suriomol DUI AIUL JO xe qe pi J 1 1 219} YIM DUDIDS DY) IDAO 3unonIsuod dav Lo YON S[[eAA JUDD IY) AOE PIPUIIXD SULIE HIOAMUOII-PIDL[IDNU 1 Auuedun jsouuje J19Y} Yim sduerd Jaquieyn) pue WIDE SNOourLIoOu? aYyj—3jJ0M 24) jo ALduigyoewr SNOpPpUIWIAI) IY) Aq PRI2PIIA2Q Jsouwje si 20 nmng I 1 yl 2J9ym TononNIIsuod Jpun jeue; ) 2Uy3 J HOO] jeoa yl jo QUO jo MITA DAISUIYI.X wWI0d Vv sy 3 . ud9q 2AEY Pliom ay) ul JOUOoOUI 932.J0U0D }Sd48JI€] 2 1. OS 3 d LAND DIVIDED —CST"HE WORDD, [JNITED CTHE : I i and a shovel thus equipped verined Sp ae aire, Lue pr eke ey aE dig a canal 55 feet wide and 10 feet deep i, to the denping a of gues _ a ad o Western a dump ears, lange i ean compose : y g ts of 17 and 10 cubic yards, res ; * id ho Whose] of a Hip RE Re a Re Tr Ph . mall Boat landing at Gatun I he structure on concrete le Oo T ht isa harf here S t p1 Ss t the 1g W WwW when the lake is to its full height. y land the Tr cargoes, boats that ply the lake ma 1 1 The nloading plow. II . of what was known pan tive, while yasnceomplished Ye ented by compressed air from the HE in unload- _ Gp tra operated by hand, and the time con the sma u : r ; tes. . de necessary es Sarl ininonibe ns i» ec . truction tracks. Railroad, o i f changing the cons t t of the Panama Railroad, a quick method o Bierd, formerly superintendent o xtending from invention by W. G. Bierd, i hine consists of a boom, e ackle itu hine. This mach vhich a block and tac a track shifting mac nad of the car, to whic din track in advance ¢ Another boom extending a flat car out over the k is lifted from its bed. no side or the i i 0 hich fhe i the main boom pulls the track to one rom the ca g i id hand- ee To ada on to the unloading plow and the track shifter for the rapid ha n addition over Culebra Cut. Em in foreground. A rare picture. the current was turned on. In addition to the use of a stron Io ar were placed closer together, in order that the detonation A a De oy os would explode those which would otherwise have failed to go off De : Be rules and regulations for the handling, storage and use of Tots hy eee a So to minimize the danger. But no ee as event all accidents without cooperation of the work. This impossibility was forcibly demonstrated in bri aon | sibili he case i hares i becoming impatient at the slowness of a negro a Wh nock the cover off of a box of blasting caps with a machete It i h v necessary to say that he did not complete the work assigned % him ay et smear ve In dredging operations, subaqueous or under water blas like the one in the picture, sink the holes in ® anny i ooniogs, Day Boas, ection with this work. In making the necessary holes for the charges, tri 2 ] , tripo 1 fain Woke power from a SOT air ET — Gi al CO yor ORY a 87 7 of these drills at work in the Cut, and they were operated I gi J feom ony to 12 drills. The usual depth of the hole drilled was about gfe % pl % 2 on 14 feet pam, and if all the drill holes necessary for the a of P 2 2 to end, they would equal the length of the earth’s diam- a PJ oto Dol oh 7500 miles adde . iter be holes had been drilled : . sprung, a sm 1 mm them. After sufficient time had eas he de a Joins Doi Die g took place after the men had left the work for those times a naval engagement could be easily ¢ t Porto Bello, where much ing of rock a series of blasts took place at one was passing close to the entrance of the harbor e the discharge of an Admiral’s salute, the cruiser [ 183 ] THE LAND DIVIDED —CTHE WORLD, UNITED In the Pacific entrance dynamite was employed in subaqueous blasting, two drill barges being used to make the necessary holes. In addition to break- ing up hard material for the dredges in this section, the use of dynamite under water kept many of those employed in the vicinity supplied with fresh fish for some time. Those whose employment necessitated their going out in boats considered themselves particularly fortunate. On one occasion, a private mess of Canal employes was kept supplied with fish as long as such a diet could be endured by its members. SLIDES—ELOQUENT ARGUMENT AGAINST SEA LEVEL PROJECT The greatest difficulty in the excavation of Culebra Cut has been caused by slides which have from time to time precipitated great masses of earth and rock into the Canal prism burying steam shovels and dirt trains, tearing up dirt train tracks, and closing up the drainage ditch. There have been 22 slides and breaks at different times covering from one to 75 acres. These have added Towing dynamite to the drill boat Teredo. about 25,000,000 cubic yards, or about one-quarter of the estimated total of excavation necessary in the Cut. The largest and most troublesome of these is the Cucaracha slide on the east bank of the Cut at Culebra, which started in 1887 when the French were at work. When the Americans started operations in 1905, this slide again became active and, as the Cut deepened at this point, it continued to develop. Gold Hill presents a solid rock face 482 feet above the Canal bottom between AACE slide and a slide immediately north. These two slides have broken so far back that the slope on their outer edges is away from the Canal. This has led to the introduction of hydraulic monitors which are engaged in sluicing the material from the top of the slides into the valley in the rear of Gold Hill, in order to reduce the pressure from above. Another serious slide occurred on the west bank of the Canal at Culebra covering an area of 75 acres, and necessitating the removal of about 10,000,000 cubic yards of material. This slide made necessary the removal of many buildings of the village of Culebra which were situated near the edge of the Cut. There are two classes of slides. One, similar to Cucaracha, is caused by the slipping of clay and earth on a smooth sloping surface of a harder material. The other, commonly called a ‘‘break,” similar to the one which involved the [ 184 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORLD, [JNITED village at Culebra, is caused by the steepness of the slope and the great pressure of the superincumbent material upon the underlying layers of softer material. Besides sluicing, steam shovels excavated a great amount of material from the tops to relieve the pressure, and the Cut was terraced to prevent a part of the material in the slides from going over into the Canal prism. Many schemes were proposed to prevent slides, one, the use of a cement gun to spray the sides of the Cut where the mass of stone became brittle and crumbled on exposure to the air, but, as Colonel Gaillard said in November, 1912: “The only successful method of treating the slides or breaks, once the material is in motion, is to dig § A subaqueous blast in progress in the Pacific entrance to the Canal. As high as 10,000 pounds of dynamite are shot off in a single blast of this kind. it out and haul it away until the slide comes to rest upon reaching the angle of repose for the particular material then in motion.” ~ No difficulty is antici- pated with slides now that water has been let into the Cut as the back pressure of the water is expected to result in greater stability. What material remains in the slides in the prism will be handled by the dredges, which will continue their work until the ‘“‘angle of repose” has been reached. The slides have caused an immense amount of extra excavation and many delays in the work, but they have demonstrated the fact that a sea level Canal requiring a Cut 85 feet deeper than it now is would be nearly impossible to accomplish. It is believed that the slides would have prevented the carrying out of a sea level project, except at an enormous expense. gh Suction dredge No. 82, removing silt from the channel north of Gamboa dike. This was the first dredge put to work in the Gatun Lake section. A dipper dredge at work in the Canal. The material is dumped into the barge along side the redge, and when full the barge is towed out to sea and emptied. The sea going suction dredge Culebra, shown above, with its sister vessel, the Caribbean, constitute the most expensive units in the Commission’s dredging fleet. These vessels move up and down the channel, sucking up the mud and loose material, conveying it into their own hoppers. When the hoppers are filled, the vessels go out to sea and empty. The suction dredges were used to advantage in the fill at Gatun Dam. Several of the old French dredges were repaired and used by the Americans. The Corozal, the newest and most modern ladder dredge in the Canal service. Itis equipped with five yard buckets and can dig to 45 feet below mean sea level. [ 186 ] [ 187 ] Part of Miraflores lock site and the Canal channel to the south of it were excavated hydraulically. This view shows one of the hydraulic pumps forcing the water through pipes, fitted with monitors, with a pressure of 130 pounds per square inch at the nozzle, which washes the material into pits or sumps. £ _ The upper picture shows a view of the Canal looking north from Paraiso bridge toward Gold Hill, Tee g a ow pa showing work progressing in the Canal, August, 1908. The center picture is a view looking south from the same point, 1908, Ancon Hill in the distance. In the lower picture taken the same year, the Canal is shown near Empire. The suspension bridge near Empire may be seen in the distance. After the material has been loosened and washed into the sumps, centrifu shown here, force the material to the desired destination. Corozal by utilizing this excavated material. gal dredging pumps, Many acres have been reclaimed near [188] [ 189 ] Paraiso in the French days. This was the site of one of the locks in the 10-lock Canal scheme when the French were at work. On April 23, 1904, the United States made the memorable purchase at $40,000,000, and on May 4, 1904, the property was turned over to the Americans. The Cut at Bas Obispo looking south June 30, 1910. The greater part of the excavating in this section had to be done through solid rock, and thousands of pounds of dynamite were used. It was in this section that the premature explosion occurred in 1908. Paraiso in the days of American occupancy, showing Ancon Hill in the distance. The cranes which are also visible, show the beginning of the work at Pedro Miguel Lock. The French had Steam shovel 218 buried under fall of rock, west side of Canal, near Las Cascadas. This shovel none of the big tools, up-to-date machinery, steam shovels, cranes, etc., but with the equipment was working on the bottom of the canal when destroyed, May 31, 1912. Several steam shovels Which fey hae they took out 78,000,000 cubic yards of spoil, of which 30,000,000 cubic yards was have been destroyed in this manner and a number of men injured and killed. useful to the Americans. [ 190 ] [ 191] the only ire year, ho inhabit them. IVES W. A close view of the suspension bridge across the Canal near Empire. This bridge is used for vehicles and foot passengers, but will be taken down when the Canal is completed. There will be no bridge aross the Canal, except the pontoon bridge near Paraiso, which will be swung over against the east side of the Canal when not in use. to the nat on — es ° o <= —- = ‘® > o Fu =) oI = = 3 2) — = E —— Q o Ed o = a = a g «< Q > % @D Si Q d Lo] 3 9 2 Q Ed «< £ - Q & = illage at Chorera, Panama. On account of the mild cl on needed is from the sun and torrential rains. A typical street scene in the native v protecti Ninety-five ton steam shovel at work in Culebra Cut. One hundred steam shovels have been used in the Canal work. Culebra Cut is a term officially applied to that part of the Canal between Bas Obispo on the north and Pedro Miguel on the south, a distance of about nine miles. The width of the Cut is 300 feet at the bottom. [ 192 ] \LBOA "Y "1907 A great many difficulties have been encountered and overcome in building the Canal. The ‘greatest difficulty in the excavating, was due to slides and breaks, which closed the drainage ditches, upset the steam shovels, and covered the tracks. The water that was not carried off by the diversion channels, entered the Cut, necessitating pumping. [ 193] ng the inst the slides. ill note in the picture the manner of terrac ive measure agains You w This was done as a prevent . ~ v— > y— — Su @ 2 © Rl o © h o oe = a a « b - = oO Q oS — hd © @ 0 ° . 1 Si TD FE W > ad we. ; Moga i Soli Pe + Be Culebra Cut near Culebra village, as The side of the Cut at Gold Hill, where the deepest cutting was done. When this photograph was taken the steam shovels had 30 feet further to go at this point. [ 194 ] [195] Loaded work train crossin In the rainy season, two streams of considerable size originally crossed the route of the Canal No. 57%, 1 in the Culebra Cut section, one of which was the Camacho River, now called the Camacho diversion. To prevent these streams from flooding the Cut, new channels were dug, paralleling the banks of the Canal, through which their flows were diverted. In this case it was necessary to dig a tunnel, which is shown above, to conduct the water through the hill. g the high trestle over the Canal at Parai is to be taken down as soon as the pontoon brid i i as it obstructs navigation of the Canal. p Resalidloahoves This bridge, known as his point is constructed, Section of Culebra Cut in the vicini i i Culebra Cut looking south from Gold and Contractor’s Hills taken at a time when the Cut was By a Bry, "ons smal slides have o i i ing south from Gold and Contractor's Hills taken at a th ccurred all along the banks in this part of the Canal. Sp [ 197 ] Culebra Cut, south of Cucaracha slide, after the channel began to fill. ailroad crossing at Paraiso in the distance. Completed section of Culebra Cut looking north from Cunette. Steam shovels are excavating in slide material. Bottom is to grade. Close view of high rock bank of Culebra Cut after the water was let in. about midway up the bank to the right marks the ultimate water level. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] The thin white line Culebra Cut between Gold and Contractor’s Hills after the removal of construction tracks. ‘UWI PAIPUNY [EIIAIS JO HIOM IY) SOP SUIYDLWI SI “OPIS JUO 0] 3133) dUIU 0} IY} WOT) JI SMOIY) “JIYIOUE AQ PUL ‘UOHOW UO YIM ‘san ay} 3urpnpou; ‘your ay jo os € S31] or aL ‘aurydoew 3unjiys Joes) ay) SI ‘YI0M [eur)) oY) Aq paonpul SUOHUIAUL [BIDAIS AY) Buowy ‘paedjuevien3 slainjdoejnuew JdY) uey) way) Wolj pauIeIqo ud9q sey AOUIIDIFIO JO 3139p J2Y31y ® Jey) JNSdI ay) Ym ‘oseydand J93je saulydoevw snolieA 0) pardde U29q sey s192ui3ud jeuen) ay) Jo aBpajmouy [eonorad ay) sased Aupw Ul ‘FIOM [BUE)) JY} UO PIsn uddq sey ‘Anq Aduow JO ‘YUdAUI PINOD suleiq jeyy Alduryoew uIdpowr jsowr ay J, tled several isman iguel and Las Cascadas. This yard was d iso in 1906. ds. A very busy scene was presented in the morning were leaving the yard to begin their daily work of ing groun and yards were established at Pedro M e dump years ago, Engine house and yard at Las Cascadas. en a hundred or more of the engines General view of engine house and yard at Para pulling dirt trains out of the Cut to th wh Men shifting track. The old way before the track shifting machine was invented, and put into use. Revolving steam shovel. ones were used for the heavy A few of these machines were used to advantage, but larger work. Rock channeler at work. These machines were u natural foundation was hard trap rock. They cut grooves into this rock the installation of the floor culverts, after which the mat to disturb the rock between the culvert trenches. sed in Pedro Miguel Lock, where the erial was blasted loose, the aim being not d 1 They were also used in the Canal near Bas Obispo where the excavation was through solid rock. [ 202 ] Locomotive cranes were a useful adjunct to the Canal work. This one is operating a clamshell bucket, so named from its resemblance to the bivalve. | | ] The American machine which moves mountains. One of the 100 steam shovels engaged in the Canal work, holding in its dipper a rock of many tons’ weight. With the advent of these machines King Yardage became a household word in the Canal Zone. The American operators take a personal pride in their work, and the world’s record for steam shovel excavation is said to be held on the Isthmus. [ 203) Excavated material is transported in several kinds of cars, one of which is the Western Dump Car, shown in the picture. In some of the cars, the body is held upright by a chain grip, which, when released, allows the body to tip, emptying the contents. Others are dumped by air. An unloading machine at work on a train of Lidgerwood flat cars. by steam from the locomotive, pulls the plow by a steel cable which coils rides the plow, and signals the movements with a flag. [ 204 ] The unloader, actuated around adrum. A man An earth spreader at work. After the cars have been unloaded, an earth spreader comes along and levels off the ground. In order to dispose of the material from the Cut, large dumps had to be established. The site of this one, known as Miraflores dump, was formerly a swamp, but it has now been built up to a height of more than 40 feet. A large amount of the excavated material was used in building the Dam at Gatun and the Naos Island breakwater on the Pacific side. The spoil from Culebra Cut has been carried all the way from five to twenty-four miles. [ 205 ] A loaded train of Lidgerwood flat cars comin latter part of the excavation, the Cut was at such inclines had to be built, up which the dirt trains g out of the Cut at Pedro Miguel. During the a depth below the surrounding levels that long were pulled by two and three locomotives, Power stations are situated at various points along the Canal to furnish power to the electrically-operated machinery, as well as to light the Canal Zone settlements. The building shown in the picture is the Miraflores station which supplied power to the construction machinery at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks. It is an oil-burning plant but can be converted to a steam plant at any time. Many of the industrial plants and all passenger locomotives are equipped with oil burners. 85 Two wrecking cranes picking up a steam shovel These m: i i i re way King ceanes nicking Lauer. The achines range in capacity from 15 to The corral at Ancon. Corrals are located at all of the Zone settlements, and there are about service. Or any emergency in the transportation 650 animals in the Canal service, including 377 mules. The majority of them were brought from the United States, and all hay and feed comes from the States. [ 206 ] [ 207 ] The immense amount of machinery used on the Canal Work, redhired SXuspronally complens i iliti is i hops, the largest on the Canal, where re repair facilities. This is the Gorgona s » Ee re Cle Mule 0 y i uipment, except steam shovels, from clocks ; es. Sveryiang oret it moved as the waters of the Gatun Lake will cover this site. The permanent repair shops will be located at Balboa. i i i i i i . All major repairs to air shops at Empire, showing the native village in the background ; J ca haip shy Lin —_r. at these shops. Steam shovels were inspected daily and the minor repairs were done in the field. [ 208 ] Many slides have developed during the latter part of the Canal work which have caused a great deal of damage and the excavation of much more material than was formerly estimated. This view shows a break on the west bank at Culebra which encroached on the village of Culebra to such an extent that it was necessary to move a large number of buildings, including the hotel and Y. M. C. A. Clubhouse. A break in the east bank of the Canal near Bas Obispo. This was caused by high water in the diversion channel, which broke through the separation wall, carrying into the Canal over 100,000 cubic yards of material, and flooding it for some distance. The disastrous effect on the railroad is clearly shown. [209 | ted ‘slides; others igna . into the Cut are des avity slide. nts of material the normal or gr This shows where the slides on either bank have encroached upon the prism of the Canal to such an extent as to almost effect a closure. 1€8 o E o > © g Q a Q <= bt St © 0 g Q «\ ike. The one at Cucaracha typif are called breaks. Cucaracha slide before the destruction of Gamboa d Telling effects of the slide in the west bank at Culebra. Most of this has now been cleared away, and the danger of similar trouble at this point has largely passed, because of the method adopted of terracing the upper levels to relieve the weight on the banks. [ 210 ] > Rt A - BS No Steam shovels working in the slide at Cucaracha. This slide showed evidence of activity as far back as 1887, when the French were at work on the Canal, and has been a source of trouble ever since. This graphically portrays the result of a slide which has nearly buried a steam shovel. Colonel Gaillard, the Division Engineer, in charge of operations in Culebra Cut said: “I know of no single thing that has done so much to complicate the engineering problems of our work or to hinder and curtail the yardage output as the slides.” Colonel George W. Goethals, Chairman and Chief Engineer, said: “The only way to overcome the slides is by unremitting excavation,” [ 212 ] JHE Panama Canal Act, which was signed by ex-President Taft on P| August 24, 1912, provides for the opening, maintenance, protection, 24] and operation of the Canal, and the sanitation and government of = the Canal Zone. Authority is invested in the President to carry out its provisions at such time as conditions warrant. While the law provides for the future of the Canal insofar as its needs are now apparent, it is probable that situations will eventually arise requiring its modification in some respects, but the main object, that of transferring the great enterprise from the construction to the operating stage will be attained. ACQUISITION OF PRIVATE LANDS Ex-President Taft, by Executive Order dated December 5, 1912, declared that all land and land under water within the limits of the Canal Zone were necessary for the construction, maintenance, operation, protection, and sanita- tion of the Panama Canal, and authorized Colonel Goethals to take possession of such land on behalf of the United States. In the hearings before the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals, prior to the passage, by the Senate, of the Act of August 24, 1912, Colonel Goethals went on record in favor of the de- population of the Canal Zone, and the acquisition of all private lands therein, as follows: Senator Bristow: “What would you do with the people you have got there (meaning Canal Zone), now?” Colonel Goethals: “I would drive them all out of there.” Senator Bristow: “Drive them off?’ Colonel Goethals: “Yes, sir; the bulk of the people that are there now are incident to the Canal, and as the Canal work is completed I would return them to their native islands, or to Europe, wherever they came from originally.” Senator Bristow: «Now, would you let this 10-mile strip grow up into jungle?” Colonel Goethals: “Yes, sir, it is the greatest safeguard the Canal can have.” Senator Bristow: “You think that it would not be practicable for an enemy to secrete himself in the jungle and approach the vital parts of the Canal [ 213 ] SIHE HAND DIVIDED ~CTHE WORLD, [JNITED through the jungle more easily than through an inhabited country.” Colonel Goethals: “I am assuming that the Canal is properly defended by the American troops, and that the necessary safeguards have been provided to prevent any such attack; under those conditions it would be impossible.” Senator Bristow: “Well, if that is impossible, then why should the in- habitants on the Zone be a menace 7” Colonel Goethals: «In that they can give information. They will clear the land and leave open spaces and enable larger forces to concentrate against us than is possible with the jungle.” Article 6 of the Canal Tr aty of February 26, 1904, provides that all damages caused to the owners of private lands or property of any kind shall be appraised and settled by a joint commission appointed by the Governments Joint Land Commission as organized on March 1, 1913. Left to right—Hon. Samuel Lewis, Dr, Roland P. Falkner, Mr. J. C. Luitwieler, Secretary (standing), Dr. Federico Boyd, Dr. Leo S. Rowe. of the United States and Panama, whose decisions as to such damages shall be final, and whose awards shall be paid solely by the United States. Under this rovision there have been four different commissions, but the most important 1s the last to which was delegated the delicate task of ad judicating the remainder of the private lands in the Canal Zone in accordance with the Executive Order of December 5, 1912. The American members of this commission, Dr. Roland P. Falkner of Washington, D. C., and Dr. L. S. Rowe of the University of Pennsylvania, were appointed by ex-President Taft on January 24, 1913. The Panamanian members, appointed by President Porras of Panama, were Mr. Samuel Lewis, and Dr. Federico Boyd, both prominent in local affairs. The commission met on March 1, 1913, adopted rules of procedure, and began its hearings, which will probably not be concluded until some time in 1914. [ 214 ] Visitors inspecting the work on the locks at Pedro Miguel. Thousands of tourists have visited the Canal during the last few years, including people in every walk of life from the States, as well as committees from almost every nation on the globe. “Big Tree,” a well-known landmark formerly on the banks of the Chagres River at Gorgona. Was dynamited in August, 1913, so as not to become an obstruction to navigation. [ 215] THE LAND DIVIDED —~CTHE WORLD, [JNITED At the outset, the commission was confronted with the precedent estah- lished by former commissions, which did not recognize the rights of occupiers on lands, but dealt only with the owners. This position was abandoned by the present commission, which has made awards to the occupiers as well as to the owners. The awards appear to be uniformly satisfactory to claimants, although there has been some complaint of the delay in making settlement. Opinions have been handed down from time to time, and in the main have been favorable to the claimants. The rise of Gatun Lake made it necessary to take up the claims of private residents in that section first. This part of the work was practically completed in August, 1913, although payments of some of the awards have been held up, due to protests from the Counsel of the United States, who i Nf = J i A ASS v % Ye A group of East Indian laborers in the Canal service. Those sitting, are directly in front of an elbow in one of the great lock wall culverts. claimed that in these particular cases the commission acted without jurisdiction. The point at issue has been referred to the Attorney General of the United States for decision. It is impossible to arrive at a close estimate of the total amount to be award- ed in damages, but it may be as much as several million dollars in case all private land is purchased. * The work of the commission also covers the adjudi- cation of land inundated by Gatun Lake outside the boundaries of the Canal Zone within the 100-foot contour line. Dr. Rowe resigned in September, 1913, to resume his work at the University of Pennsylvania. TOLLS In accordance with the power conferred upon him by the Canal Act of August 24, 1912, President Taft, on November 14, 1912, anticipating the [ 216 ] Pe A sightseeing, or ‘“‘rubber neck’ train, which is taken over the Canal work three times each week. Every facility has been given tourists to view the operations. About 75,000 people have visited the Canal since January 1, 1910 Isthmian Elks taking a trip through the Canal April 20, 1913. [ 217 ] Note the striking background. SI'HE HAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [JNITED arly opening of the Canal, proclaimed the following rates of tolls to be paid by vessels using it: I. On merchant vessels carrying possiigers or cargo, $1.20 per net vessel ton—each 100 cubic feet—of actual earning capacity. 2. On vessels in ballast, without passengers or cargo, 40 per cent. less than the rate of tolls for vessels with passengers or cargo. 3. Upon naval vessels, other than transports, colliers, hospital ships and supply ships, 50 cents per displacement ton. 4. Upon Army and Navy transports, colliers, hospital ships and supply ships, $1.20 per net ton, the vessels to be measured by the same rules as are employed in determining the net tonnage of merchant vessels. The provision exempting American vessels in the coastwise trade from the payment of tolls brought forth a protest from the British Government on the ground that it was a violation of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, which provides “That the Canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war i of all nations on terms of entire equality, so that there shall be no discrimination against any nation in respect to the condition or charges of traffic.” To many, the granting of free tolls to American ships in the coastwise trade would not seem to be discriminating against ships of foreign nations, which are not allowed by law to engage in that trade. Great Britian, however, points out that cargo intended for United States ports beyond the Canal, either from east or west, shipped on a foreign raat could be sent to its destination more cheaply, through the operation of this exemption, by landing it at a United States port before reaching the Canal, and then sending it on as coastwise traffic. T en, too, goods might be shipped from a port in the United States, either from east ——_——_—_ee LM SET APT i CE. ZS vo I \\ . "nw, Dh i NINES 2 K | LD i ry nN RC i Showing group of Hindoos in khaki, puttees, and turbans, waiting to greet the visiting 4 Shriners from the United States. [ 218 ] THE LAND DIVIDED —~CTHE WORLD, [JNITED or west, through the Canal, and then re-shipped to a foreign port. The British view, therefore, is that if it were possible to regulate the coastwise traffic so that cases similar to the above might be avoided; in other words, that only bona fide coastwise trade be benefited by the exemption, the objection would be removed. Procession of Nobles of Mystic Shrine after disembarking at Colon. A delegation of about 150 Shriners from the United States visited the Isthmus and on Sept. 1, 1913, initiated a class of 170 candidates in the locks at Miraflores. On March 5, 1914, President Wilson in a special message to congress de- manded the repeal of the objectionable clause and a bill for repeal was imme- diately introduced. After one of the hardest fought battles, noted for its lively and often acrimonious debates, the repeal act was finally passed on June 12, 1914, the text being as follows: . Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in congress assembled, That the second sentence, in section 5 of the act entitled, “An act to provide for the opening, maintenance, protec- tion and operation of the Panama Canal and the sanitation and government of the Canal zone,” approved August 24, 1912, which reads as follows: “No tolls shall be levied upon vessels engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States,” be and the same is hereby repealed. Sec. 2. That the third sentence of the third paragraph of said section of said act, be so amended as to read as follows: “When based upon net registered tonnage for ships of commerce, the tolls shall not exceed $1.25 per net regis- tered ton, nor be less than 75 cents per net registered ton, subject, however, to the provisions of article 19 of the convention between the United States and the republic of Panama, entered into November 18, 1903.” Provided, That the passage of this act shall not be construed or held as a [219] ob THE DAND DIVIDED —~CTHE WORDD, [JNITED waiver of any right the United States may have under the treaty with Great Britain, ratified February 21, 1902, or the treaty with the republic of Pan- ama, ratified February 26, 1904, or otherwise to discriminate in favor of its vessels by exempting the vessels of the United States or its citizens from the payment of tolls for passage through said Canal, or as in any way waiving, impairing or affecting any right of the United States under said treaty,-or otherwise with respect to the sovereignty over or the ownership, control and management of said canal and the regulation of the conditions or charges of traffic through the same. (Approved June 15, 1914.) The Author at Slifer Park, Colon. PROTECTING THE CANAL One of the principal objections to Canal fortifications when Congress first took action was that the United States might be violating its treaties with Great Britain. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 gave the United States the right to construct the Canal, but provided that the completed waterway should be Cristobal Point looking out over the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. The building to the left is one of the old DeLesseps houses, now used for offices by the Canal Commission. [ 220 ] CTHE LAND DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORLD,‘ [JNITED unfortified and forever remain neutral, free and open to vessels of commerce and of war of all nations on terms of equality. This treaty was abrogated in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, now in force. This treaty also provides for the neutralization of the Canal, but no word is said as to fortifying it. The objection, if there was any, is no longer sustainable, inasmuch as Great Britain, the only nation that had any right to object, has acquiesced in the erection of forts. The other great powers have constantly recognized the right and necessity of the United States to fortify. Under the existing treaty it is necessary that the Canal be kept neutral and open on terms of equality to vessels of all nations. It has been contended that this could be accomplished much more effectively by means of an international treaty between the nations interested who would guarantee its safety in time of war as in time of peace. Such a treaty, backed by England’s enormous naval power and her control of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, is the protection of the Suez Canal. A similar treaty might avail for the United States under conditions of universal peace, but universal peace has not yet been attained. Nations continue to go to war in spite of treaties, and, in the heat of conflict, frequently ignore all laws both of usage and humanity. Treaties are effective when there 1s power to enforce them. To maintain neutrality then, it is argued that the United States must have the power to do so, and in no better place can that power be exercised than in forts on the Canal. One of the greatest benefits the United States expects to get from the Canal is increased naval effectiveness. The Canal would naturally be the first place an enemy would endeavor to control, treaty or no treaty; and the other powers to a treaty, if there were any, would either stand aloof, or take sides in the international struggle which might result. The Canal is being built by Ameri- cans with American money and skill. If it is to remain to America, it must be protected; strength to resist is the best form of protection. To maintain neutrality is the first object of the fortifications; the second is to retain to the United States what has been accomplished by its citizens. Keeping the Canal neutral does not mean that the United States will be com- Wall scaling contest between men of the U. S. Marine Corps and the Tenth Infantry, U.S. A Fourth of July event. [ 221] STHE HAND DIVIDED ~CT-HE_ WORLD, [JNITED pelled to keep it open to a foe in sn of her own ships, or allow hostile ships to pass through on their way to blockade or bombard an American city. These questions have been settled to the extent that Congress has appropri- ated, up to Fo 23, 1913, a total of $10,676,950 for the protection of the Canal The Government has already constructed two immense forts—one at each end of the Canal. On each of these forts is mounted one 16-inch gun—the largest guns ever built in the world—and they were made in America. In addition there are 14-inch guns and a substantial battery of 12-inch howitzers. The 16- inch guns throw a shell weighing 2400 pounds a distance of 17 miles and will pierce any armor plate at a distance of over 11 miles. On the Pacific side the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco are being fortified and form one reservation, while, on the mainland at Balboa, a second reservation will be A military force has been maintained in the Canal Zone ever since American occupancy. This is Camp Elliott, which occupies a commanding site near Bas Obispo, the headquarters for the local detachment of the United States Marine Corps. established. On the Atlantic side there will be a fort on Margarita Point, about a mile north of Manzanillo Island, on which Colon is situated; another on Toro Point across the bay from Colon, and one on the mainland at Colon. In the neighborhood of the locks, those at Gatun, seven miles inland, and those at Miraflores and Pedro Miguel, inland nine and eleven miles, respectively, there will be located field defenses to provide against attack by landing forces. This work is being done under the direction of Lieut. George R. Goethals, the elder son of Col. George W. Goethals, the builder of the Canal. It is planned to keep on the Isthmus 12 companies of coast artillery, one battery of field artillery, four regiments of infantry, one squadron of cavalry, and one batallion of marines. The forts, and batteries comprising them, have been named, as follows: At the Pacific terminus—Fort Grant and Fort Amador, the first located on [ 222] SHE DAND DIVIDED ~CSTHE WORDD, [JNITED the group of islands in the bay, in honor of Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, U. S. A., who died on July 23, 1885, and the second, located on the mainland at Balboa, in honor of Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, first president of the Republic of Panama, who died on May 2, 1909. At the Atlantic terminus—Fort Sherman, Fort Randolph, and Fort De Lesseps, the first, in honor of Gen. William T. Sherman, U. S. A., who died on February 14, 1881, the second, in honor of Maj. Gen. Geo. Wallace F. Randol ph, U. S. A., who died September 9, 1910, and the third, in honor of Count Ferdi- nand de Lesseps, promoter of the Panama Canal, who died December 7, 1894. A street in the marine camp showing the barracks. Much work has been done by the men in beautifying the grounds, and this picture shows the result of their efforts. Fort Sherman will be located on Toro Point, Fort Randolph on Margarita Point, and Fort De Lesseps on the mainland at Colon. FORT GRANT MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Newton, in honor of Maj. Gen. John Newton, U. S. Volunteers (Brigadier General, Chief of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died May 1, 1895. Battery Merritt, in honor of Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt, U. S. A., who died December 3, 1910. Battery Carr, in honor of Brevt. Maj. Gen. Jos. Bradford Carr, (Brig. Gen. U. S. Vols.), who died Feb. 24, 1895. Battery Prince, in honor of Brig. Gen. Harry Prince, U. S. Vols. (Lieut. Col. U. S. A)), who died August 19, 1892. Battery Warren, in honor of Maj. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, U. S. Vols. (Lieutenant Colonel, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died August 8, 1882. [ 223 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORLD, [JNITED A Battery Buell, in honor of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, U. S. Vols. (Colonel TE Assistant Adjutant General, U. S. A.), who died November 19, 1898. if ws os + RS Battery Burnside, in honor of Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside, U. S. Vols. | oi RE AE (First Lieutenant, Third U. S. Artillery), who died September 13, 1881. Ly 1 1 TILE, «RE Aad P Ei = = Br 5 i Battery Parke, in honor of Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, U. S. Vols. (Colonel, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died December 16, 1900. \ FORT AMADOR MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Smith, in honor of Maj. Gen. Charles F. Smith, U. S. Vols. (Colonel, Third U. S. Infantry), who died April 25, 1862. FORT SHERMAN MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Howard, in honor of Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, U. S. A., who died October 26, 1909. In 1911 the War Department decided to send a regiment of infantry to the Isthmus. This is their camp, known as Camp Otis, near Las Cascadas. Naos Island, one of the islands in Panama Bay belonging to the United States, which is being fortified. The island is connected to the mainland by a breakwater. Battery Baird, in honor of Brig. Gen. Absalom Baird, who died June 14, 1905. Battery Stanley, in honor of Maj. Gen. David S. Stanley, U. S. Vols. (Brigadier General, U. S. A.), who died March 13, 1902. Battery Mower, in honor of Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Mower, U. S. Vols. (Colonel, Twenty-fifth Infantry), who died January 6, 1870. Battery Kilpatrick, in honor of Maj. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick, U. S. Vols. (Captain, First Artillery), who died December 2, 1881. FORT RANDOLPH MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Tidball, in honor of Brig. Gen. John C. Tidball, U. S. A., who died May 15, 1906. Battery Zalinski, in honor of Maj. Gen. Edward Lewis Zalinski, (5th U. S. Artillery), who died March 10, 1909. Ftd oe ES : SE Battery Webb, in honor of Brevet Maj. Gen. Alexander S. Webb, U. S. A. —— (Lieutenant Colonel, 44th U. S. Infantry), who died February 12, 1911. Camp life at Camp Otis. [ 225 ] [ 224 ] Era — THE HAND DIVIDED ~CST'HE WORLD, [JNITED Battery Weed, in honor of Brig. Gen. Stephen H. Weed, U. S. Volunteers (Captain, 5th U. S. Artillery), who was killed in action, July 2, 1863, at Gettys- i burg, Pa. Rs s carried a FORT DE LESSEPS MILITARY RESERVATION ~~ Battery Morgan, in honor of Brig. Gen. Charles H. Morgan, U. S. Volun- teers (Major, 4th Artillery), who died December 20, 1875. Ro ——_ BREAKWATERS — A To protect Colon harbor from the violent northers which occasionally occur during the winter months, and which often made it unsafe for vessels to lie at anchor while they were in progress, and also to reduce to a minimum the amount of silt that may be washed into the Canal channel, a breakwater extending in a northeasterly direction from Toro Point has been built out into the bay. Including its shore connections it is 11,700 feet, or a little over two miles long. It is a trestle fill, and contains about 2,840,000 cubic yards ———— eT = 4 acres had been reclaimed from the ocean at this point It is designed to cut off a cross current, which ha e as a causeway connecting the islands, and the fortifications Pt ET ta g out from the mainland. A total of 47 ill came from Culebra Cut. In addition, it will serv h ge ! | Toro Point, at the Atlantic entrance to the Canal, which is being fortified. 552 | 583 of rock. An embankment was first built up to within 15 feet of the surface of ZE3 | | the water and the piles for the trestle were driven through this fill. From the 220 i trestle, which was double tracked for nearly its entire length, rock quarried at 3 oe Toro Point and excavated from the Canal prism was dumped to form a core. 2E This core was then armored with hard rock brought from the quarries at Porto cE Bello. The breakwater is 15 feet wide on the top, and is about 10 feet above CE mean sea level. It is proposed to build an east breakwater, about 7,000 Zs 85 feet long, on the opposite side of Limon Bay extending out from Coco 3 gs Solo Point. x8 H | On the Pacific side, a breakwater extends from Balboa to Naos Island, §%2 % | y nearly parallel to the Canal channel, for a distance of about 17,000 feet, or a little 5 £5 : 4 more than three miles. Like the Toro Point breakwater, it is a trestle fill. It S g 2 3 1 is practically a continuation of the Balboa dumps, and contains about 18,000,000 zs os i cubic yards of earth and rock taken from Culebra Cut. It varies from 20 to 40 of3 [ 226 ] [227] HE _DAND DIVIDED —C['RE WORDLD JNITED feet in height above mean sea level, and is from 50 to 3,000 feet wide at the top. A breakwater is not necessary at this point as a protection against storms to the harbor at Balboa, but it serves to divert a swift cross-current that would carry soft material from the shallow harbor of Panama into the Canal channel. It Toro Point breakwater. In order to protect the Cristobal docks and the Atlantic entrance to the Canal from heavy seas, a breakwater has been built out from Toro Point, on the opposite side of Limon Bay. It is over two miles long, and is armored with large rock brought from Porto Bello. also forms a rail connection between the mainland and the islands where work on the fortifications required the transfer of much construction material. Under the concession from Colombia under which the Panama Railroad oper- ated, and which was transferred to the Republic of Panama, it was stipulated that the group of islands, of which Naos is one, should be connected by rail with the mainland, and the completion of the breakwater has served to fulfill this condition. LIGHTING THE CANAL Due to the complete system of aids to navigation, which is being installed throughout its entire length, ships will be able to pass through the Canal as well by night as by day. In the whole Canal there are 22 angles, eight of which are in Culebra Cut, and in order that ships can make the proper turns at these tangents, range lights, beacons, and lighted buoys are being placed. The range light towers are located on the longer tangents, and consist of two lights placed one behind the other, in order to prolong the sailing line until the proper moment for making the turn. They are situated on land, and it is necessary to keep trochas cleared of jungle growth, which, if left alone, would soon obscure the lights. The towers are of reinforced concrete and of several different designs; the more elaborate structures will be used on the Gatun locks, and in the Atlantic ; Yip ag : : I aili nes of 1] tse) One of the lighting towers under _con- Lighthouse at Toro Point which is main- and Pacific sections, where they are closer to the sailing lines of the vessels. struction, These towers will be equipped tained by the Panamanian Government. In Culebra Cut, where range lights cannot be used to advantage on account of Hh poweriy Vig. the height of the banks, beacons have been placed, three at each angle; between [ 228 ] [ 220 ] An avenue of lamp posts on Gatun Locks. Close view of lighthouse on Gatun Locks. Lighting tower in the distance. The Locks will be brilliantly lighted at night. The signal tower at Colon, by moonlight. ’ [ 230 ] ‘THE LAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [NITED these there are intermediate beacons in pairs, one on each side of the Canal. The beacons are also built of concrete. Throughout the Canal entrances, and Gatun and Miraflores Lakes, lighted buoys are placed about one mile apart to mark each side of the channel. At the Atlantic entrance there is a light and fog signal station at the end of the west breakwater, and there will be another lighthouse on the east breakwater when that is completed. : Acetylene gas and electricity are used in all lights, the latter where the lights are conveniently accessible. The candlepower of the range lights will vary, according to the length of the range, from about 12,000 to 300,000 candle- power. The most powerful lights will be those marking the Atlantic and Pacific entrances, visible from 12 to 18 statute miles. Mr. W. F. Beyer, assis- The site of the proposed harbor and terminal works at Balboa. Here, immense shops, and a dry dock capable of accommodating any ship that can use the Canal locks will be built. The work on shops and harbor has been begun. tant engineer in the office of the Assistant Chief Engineer, is in charge of the work of the Lighthouse Subdivision. PORT FACILITIES The amount of traffic that will require terminal facilities after the opening of the Canal is problematical. The Canal Commission, however, has based its plans on a liberal estimate, and work is in progress on new docks at Cristobal and Balboa. The facilities at Cristobal consist of three new piers, Nos. 15, 16 and 17, with a total water frontage of 3,890 feet, in addition to 378 feet frontage at the head of the slip for small boats, and are of sufficient size to pro- vide berthage for five vessels of 10,000 tons each at one time. Dock 15, 426 feet long, is the smallest of the three, and is virtually an extension of Dock 11, built several years ago. Dock 16, 1,073 feet in length, parallels the water front [231] THE HAND DIVIDED —~CT"’HE WORLD, NITED at Cristobal, and is now used when the old wharves at Colon are crowded. Dock 17, 1,042 feet long, is the only one to have water frontage on both sides. Room has been left for two additional piers, but their construction will be deferred until the necessity therefor develops. All the docks are protected by a Dredges excavating in the Pacific Channel from Miraflores to the sea. mole or breakwater extending out from shore on the seaward side, marking the boundary line between Canal Zone and Panamanian waters. In Colon, the Panama railroad owns several old wharves, while the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company has its own wharf which it plans to enlarge. In addition, there are Docks 13 and 14 on the French Canal, midway between Cristobal and Mount Hope, now used principally in unloading Canal supplies, and which will probably be continued in service. At Balboa, the piers for commercial use will be placed at right angles to the axis of the Canal, with their ends about 2,650 feet from the center of the 500-foot channel. They will be about 1,000 feet long and 200 feet wide, with 300-foot Excavation in the immediate foreground is for the new Balboa dry dock. Buildings under Sonstraction are the permanent shops. Beyond where the dredge is working will be the Balboa ship basin. [ 232 ] THE LAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORLD, UNITED slips between. The construction of one pier only will be undertaken at first, but room has been provided for four more. The old French steel wharf, 1,000 feet in length, and from 2,000 to 3,000 feet of berthing space in front of the permanent shops will be available when required. : : The superstructure of the piers at Cristobal and Balboa will consist of one- story steel sheds, having a clear height of 25 feet. They will cover the entire space, with the exception of about 18 feet along each side and the outer ends. The wharves adjacent to the repair shops at Balboa will not be provided with any sheds. The total enclosed floor space at the new Cristobal docks is about 218,700 square feet. The track arrangement consists of a track along each Ta ££ Handling cargo at Balboa. Balboa is a busy place and promises to be busier, as the pern anen. administration headquarters, dry docks, repair shops, coaling station, etc., will be located here. edge of the piers, and two depressed tracks through the center of the sheds, bringing the car floors level with the floors of the sheds. In view of the uncertainty as to the amount of freight that may be handled, it was decided to forego the installation of expensive cargo-handling machinery at the docks. At Cristobal, with a range of tide of scarcely a foot, freight requiring transfer can be handled by ships’ booms, supplemented by blocks attached to elevated girders along the sides of the pier sheds. At Balboa, where the average range of tides is close to 13 feet, electric cranes will be used, in addition to a floating crane for heavy cargo. DRY DOCKS The main dry dock will be at Balboa, in accordance with the wish of the Navy Department. It will be able to accommodate any vessel that is able to [ 233] STHE DAND DIVIDED —~CTHE WORLD, UNITED pass through the Canal locks, with a usable length of 1,000 feet, an entrance width of 110 feet, and a depth over the keel blocks of 35 feet. The entrance wil] be closed by miter gates similar to those used on the locks. The dock will be served by a 40-ton traveling crane with a travel along both sides. For smaller vessels, an auxiliary dry dock will be provided, with a usable length of 350 feet, an entrance width of 71 feet, and a depth over the keel blocks of 13} feet. On the Atlantic side, the old French dry dock, which has a usable length of 300 feet, width of 50 feet, and a depth over the sill of 13 feet, will be continued in use. PERMANENT REPAIR SHOPS The permanent repair shops will be at Balboa, situated in the area between the dry dock and repair berth, and are designed to maintain the following Heavy repairs to the Canal marine equipment have been handled in this dry dock on the Atlantic side, and by shipways on the Pacific side at Balboa. A large dry dock is being built which will accommodate any vessel that may use the Canal. equipment: Lock, spillway, and power plant machinery; water and land equipment retained for the maintenance and operation of the Canal; rolling stock and equipment of the Panama railroad ; mechanical apparatus connected with the coaling plants; fortifications: cold storage plant; wireless stations, etc.; making of repairs required by individuals and companies on the Isthmus; making of repairs required by commercial vessels, and making of such repairs as may be required hy vessels of the United States Navy and vessels belonging to other governments. Work on the new shops was begun early in 1913, and will be completed about January 1, 1914. The transfer of the Gorgona shop [ 234 THE LAND DIVIDED ~CT'HE WORLD, [NITED work and equipment to Balboa and other points, made necessary on account of the abandonment of the town of Gorgona consequent upon the rise in Gatun Lake, was effected and the old shops demolished during July and August, 1913. The new shop buildings are constructed of steel frames with roofs of heavy tile, made on the Isthmus. The sides and ends were left open for ventilation and light, protection from sun and rain being afforded by wide, overhanging eaves. \ All shop machinery will be electrically driven. Until future requirements are known, the marine shops at Mount Hope will be continued in service, and as Paraiso has been made dredging headquarters for the next few years, the old Floor of the new concrete lumber dock at Balboa. shop buildings at that point will be fitted up and used in making repairs to dredging equipment only. GOVERNMENT COAL AND FUEL OIL BUSINESS The main government coaling plant will be situated on the north end of an island, opposite Dock 11, at Cristobal, near the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. It will be from 1,700 to 2,000 feet in length, 300 feet wide, and will be capable of handling and storing 300,000 tons of coal. Subaqueous storage will be provided, as it has been determined that coal disintegrates less rapidly when under water than when lying exposed to the air. This plant will have railroad connection with the mainland by means of a bridge of the vertical lift type crossing the French Canal at a point between Cristobal and Mount Hope. The coalinig plant on the Pacific side will be at Balboa. and will have a length of 500 feet, width of 340 feet, and water frontage of 1,300 feet. It will be capable of handling and storing 210,000 tons of coal, including 100,000 tons subaqueously. The coal-handling equipment for both plants was purchased in August, 1913, and at Cristobal consists of a system of unloading towers, stocking and re- claiming bridges, reloaders, and 10-ton automatic electric cars for conveying. [ 235] SHE DAND DIVIDED —~—CT"HE WORDLD, NITED At Balboa, the equipment is much the same, with the exception that four of the double cantilever cranes used in building Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks were substituted for the stocking and reclaiming bridges. The cost of this equipment is $1,833,127, and deliveries are to be made in periods ranging from six to 30 months. Facilities will also be provided at Cristobal and Balboa for supplying shipping and the Canal with fuel oil. To this end two steel tanks have heen erected at each terminal with a combined storage capacity of 160,000 barrels. PRIVATE COAL AND FUEL OIL STORAGE There has been a lively interest shown on the part of dealers in coal and fuel oil in the United States and Europe in the selling possibilities of these two Oil storage tanks in the foreground. Ancon Hill in the distance. commodities on the Isthmus after the completion of the Canal. This display of interest induced the Government to make known its policy toward these enterprises in the early part of 1913. The plan announced is to keep complete control of the terminals, water frontage, and transportation by land and water across the Isthmus, and to that end, no land nor land under water that may be needed later by the United States will be leased. It will not be the policy of the Government, however, to monopolize the fuel business, and every means will be taken to encourage the establishment of private coal and fuel oil depots on the Isthmus under proper conditions. It is believed that the duplication of coal-handling machinery would be undesirable, and the Government, there- fore, will install modern machinery ample for private, as well as for its own purposes. Acting under this theory, the Canal Commission in July, 1913, announced its readiness to assign space for fuel oil depots at either end of the [ 236 | CTHE_DAND DIVIDED —CST"HE WORLD, [JNITED Canal under revocable leases or licenses. Coal storage Pace will be similarly assigned. Private dealers, both in the U nited States anc abroad, made some objection against the revocable lease plan, and in one or two instances ex ressed a preference to attend to their own coal-handling, but as evidence that the Government’s plan is not discouraging these enterprises, applications had been received up to September 1, 1913, for 169,000 tons of private coal storage prea at Cristobal, and 6,500 tons at Balboa. A number of applications had also been received for space for fuel oil tanks. BONDED WAREHOUSES The Canal Commission has not yet taken up the matter of bonded ware- houses, and is probably reluctant to do so from the fact that the control of Telpher plant, which has handled practically all of the coal used in the Canal work. customs at the Canal Zone ports of Ancon and Cristobal is vested in the Panama Government. With the approaching completion of the Canal, the question has been agitated to some extent, and in the 1913 session of the Panama National Assembly, a law was passed that would permit bonded warehouses on Pana- manian territory. Opposition to allowing private persons to erect warehouses developed, and Panama is now considering the advisability of building its own warehouses, with a view of leasing space therein. NEW FLOATING EQUIPMENT In order to insure the expeditious handling of the massive lock gate leaves, when repairs become necessary, as well as for commercial and other [ 237 | SHE LAND DIVIDED —~—CT"AE WORLD, JNITED Canal needs and general wrecking purposes, the contract for the erection of two floating cranes of the revolving type has been made to the Deutsche Maschinen- fabrik A. G. of Duisburg, Germany, satisfactory proposals not having been received from American firms. Each crane is of 250 tons capacity, and consists of a steel pontoon 150 feet long, 88 feet wide, and of a depth of 15 feet nine inches at the sides, and 16 feet eight inches at the center, supporting a super- structure in three parts; first, a fixed mast; second, a revolving “*bell,” and third, an arm or jib, the latter provided with a main and an auxiliary hoist. The cranes will not be self-propelling, but will contain a power generating installa- tion for the operation of the crane mechanism. For handling vessels of the largest size at Cristobal and Balboa two powerful harbor tugs will be purchased. Two colliers, to cost not to exceed $1,000,000 each, and to have a cargo capacity of 12,000 tons each, have been authorized by Congress for use at the Canal termini. PERMANENT VILLAGES AND BUILDINGS + Much study has been given the type of construction of the permanent buildings of the Canal. In view of the depopulation of the Canal Zone, the number of permanent towns will be limited. Balboa will be the seat of govern- ment, and the headquarters for most of the employes in the administrative branch of the permanent organization. The operating force at Gatun Locks will live in the present villages of Gatun and New Gatun, and the force at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks will reside in the new town which will be laid out on the fill at Pedro Miguel. The settlements at Ancon and Cristobal will be continued indefinitely. Bas ow Las Cascadas, Empire, Culebra, and Corozal, together with a few smaller villages still existent, will eventually be [ | i if 4 if Permanent administration building on west side of Ancon Hill under construction. Overlooks the site on which the permanent town at Balboa will be laid out. [ 238 ] THE LAND DIVIDED —~CT HE WORLD, NITED abandoned, leaving Pedro Miguel, Paraiso (temporary dredging headquarters), and Gatun as the only inland towns of the Zone. The villages in the lake area, Bohio, old Frijoles, Buenavista, Ahorca Lagarto, Tabernilla, San Pablo, and Mamei disappeared in 1911, when the lake first began to rise. With them Dredges at work removing the last barrier in Atlantic entrance. vanished a number of old and familiar landmarks, such as Stephens’ Tree, which encroached on the old Panama Railroad right-of-way near Ahorca Lagarto, and, although not a fact, was popularly supposed to mark the grave of John L. Stephens, one of the founders of the railroad. The villages of Gorgona and Matachin shared the same fate in July and August, 1913, and Miraflores was razed in September, 1913. Gorgona was one of the oldest and most populous settlements in the Zone, and as F. N. Otis narrates in his History of the Panama Railroad, published in 1867, was ‘noted in the earlier days of Chagres River travel as a place where the wet and jaded traveler was ac- customed to worry out the night on a raw hide, exposed to the insects and the rain, and in the morning, if he was fortunate, regale himself on jerked beef and plantains.” Gen. U. S. Grant, then Captain Grant, spent the night there while crossing the Isthmus prior to the advent of the railroad. For the purpose of procuring a modern and permanent type of architecture, special architects have been employed, and to them has been committed the work of preparing designs for all permanent structures, including machinery control houses at the locks, water works, hydroelectric station, public buildings, and quarters for employes. A new administration building to cost about $475,- 000 is under erection on the west side of Ancon Hill, overlooking from a knoll the new Balboa townsite. It will be constructed of structural steel and hollow concrete blocks. The remainder of the permanent buildings will probably [ 239 ] STHE LAND DIVIDED ~CT-HE WORLD, [NITED be of concrete construction. The Balboa townsite will be laid off in accordance with the most approved ideas, and with the view of making it a model town, including the beautification of its surroundings, as well as the grounds about the locks, the services of a landscape architect were engaged in July, 1913. The Docks at Cristobal under construction. With the Canal practically completed, the attention of the Canal Commission is being concentrated on the permanent terminal facilities. The present plans include extensive plants at Balboa on the Pacific, and at Cristobal near the Atlantic entrance. Commission of Fine Arts was delegated by Congress to supervise the permanent building work, and it has made suggestions from time to time. PERMANENT ORGANIZATION The Act of Congress of August 24, 1912, provides for the appointment of a governor of the Panama Canal, when in the judgment of the President, the work of construction shall be sufficiently advanced toward completion as to render the further services of the Isthmian Canal Commission unnecessary. The appointment is to be made by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and is effective for a period of four years. The salary 1s $10,000 per annum. President Taft, previous to the expiration of his term of office, allowed the fact to become public that he intended to dissolve the Commission and appoint a governor. Some Members of Congress opposed the plan, one declaring that it was not the pas of the Act to abolish the Com- mission until it had completed its work. President Taft’s term expired without any further move in this direction. With the advent of the Democratic administration, it was the general opinion that President Wilson would give the matter thorough study before taking any steps toward abolishing the Commission. This has JrovA to be the case, and it seems to be the common understanding that the President has formed the opinion that the status of the Commission should remain unchanged until the great work is entirely finished and the Canal ready to be officially [ 240 ] SHE HAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORLD, UNITED opened. The health of one of the members of the Commission, Lieut.-Col. D. D. Gaillard became undermined in July, 1913, and he was obliged to return to the United States, at least temporarily. While no definite plans for the permanent organization have yet been announced, Colonel Goethals has stated m hearings before the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals that the esti- mated number of employes required for the operation of the Canal, exclusive of \ civil administration and sanitation, and of the military establishment, would be 2,500. The permanent organization of the Canal administration went into effect April 1, 1914; Col. George W. Goethals being appointed first governor. Colonel Goethals, as governor, will in connection with the operation of the Canal, have control and jurisdiction over the Canal Zone, and will perform all duties in connection with the civil government of the Zone, which is to be held, treated, and governed as an adjunct of the Canal. The law provides for one district court with two divisions, one including Balboa, and the other including Cristobal, each court to have jurisdiction in felony cases, and in all causes at equity, admiralty, and all cases at law involving sums exceeding $300. In addition to a district judge, there will be a marshal and district attorney, each holding office for four years. The Circuit Court of Appeals of the Fifth Circuit of the United States at New Orleans, will have jurisdiction in all appeal cases. The provision of the law requiring trial by jury has already been made operative by the President’s Executive Order of July 4, 1913. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION The Darien naval radio station to be built at Caimito, a point in the Canal Zone about midway between Colon and Panama, will be one of the most power- ll Eau. : « gS Fat New dock No. 16 at Colon under construction. Part of the Cristobal terminal system. [ 241 ] STARE _DAND DIVIDED ~CT"HE WORLD, [NITED ful in the world, and will establish direct communication between ig and Washington. In power it will be the same as be Cr DLR | Arlington, but in the size of its towers, it will exceed t hs atter. So ding and receiving radius will be nominally 3,000 miles, so t i conus oti vy y be held direct with the Arlington station, instead of via Key a o , ] ih 7 It will be able to send messages as far as Valdivia, Chile, ¥ hi 0s Soh of Valparaiso; to reach a vessel anywhere along the Susie coast o Qe Yi) States, or midway between New York and Gibraltar; an bo ging ih the island of St. Vincent, 500 miles west of Africa. There Sei ree he wireless stations on the Isthmus, not including one at Bones C g ny a! tained by the United Fruit Company. These are at Porto Bello, Co 3 : a Balboa, and all are in charge of the Navy Department. One, * ig 3 plants will probably be dismantled when the new high pow 3 S 2 10 Nop available. In 1912, President Taft signed an Executive : rc or P iit the establishment of wireless stations on the Isthmus by other parties the radius of 15 miles of any Government station. ‘ BEAUTIFYING THE CANAL The Panama Canal Act of August 24, 1912 contained the following pro- vision: x vein : Ais sie “Before the completion of the Canal, the Commission of Fine Dm 2s make report to the President of their recommendation regarding t e oF j 2 : character of the structures of the Canal, such report to be transmitted to Congress.” : ov Yn accordance with the above, the chairman of the commission, Mr. is pi ivi he pretty scenery that greets the oad. This picture vividly portrays t Alongaeouniy pr in traveling over some of the Canal Zone roads. [ 242 ] STHE LAND DIVIDED ~ CT HE WORLD, UNITED Daniel C. F rench, sculptor, and the vice-chairman, Mr. F rederick Law Olmsted, landscape architect, spent a part of the month of F ebruary, 1913, on the Isthmus. Their report submitted to Congress on July 26, 19183, states in part: “The Canal itself, and all the structures connected with it impress one with A pretty scene in the outskirts of Culebra Village. a sense of their having been built with a view strictly to their utility. There is an entire absence of ornament and no evidence that the aesthetic has been considered, except in a few cases as a secondary consideration. this very fact there is little to find fault with from the artist’s point of view. The Canal, like the pyramids, or some imposing object in natural scenery, is impressive from its scale and simplicity and directness. One feels that any- thing done merely for the przDoe of beautifying it would not only fail to ac- complish the purpose, but would be an impertinence. In such a work the most that the artist could hope to do would be to aid in selecting, as between alter- native forms of substantially equal value from the engineering point of view, those which are likely to prove most agreeable and appropriate in appearance.” The report, however, made a number of suggestions calculated to improve the appearance at the Canal entrances, at the locks, in the permanent towns, and the marine and army reservations. It also strongly recommended that a memorial record of the building of the Canal be made in the form of an im- pressive inscription upon a great monumental surface on the east bank of Culebra Cut, at the point of deepest cutting, 492 feet. It favored a space 100 feet in height and somewhat more in width, severely simple in design, with lettering in Roman V-shaped letters large enough to be easily read by normal [ 243] Because of 3 3 Re 3 |=" g o 0 =] o = 2 « o a Qu a 3 >» o = - @n 5 a Q s x] ga Ed «© Su o 2 = 3 £ $e o ce 5 ° < a 9 Q - Q = Ed 9 ce ® = s =] O © = Se Q - o 9 & E a o v & 0 « Ba © = Re 80 E 3 Q = @ i Q = THE LAND DIVIDED ~CST"HE WORLD, [JNITED eyes across the Canal, and that the material should be concrete applied as a massive facing to the irregularly fractured trap rock of the cliff. It also suggested marking the highest point of Canal excavation on Gold Hill, immedi- ately over the proposed inscription with some form of monument. The Southern Commercial Congress. made formal application of the Secretary of War, in October, 1918, for permission to place at some prominent Model showing the Atlantic entrance to the Canal and the docks will appear when completed. at Cristobal, as they point along the Canal a bronze tablet, four by six feet in size, carrying a medal- lion life size bust of the late Senator John T. Morgan of Alabama, and legend reciting his relations to the Canal idea. Permission was accorded, and the tablet was placed near the north end of Culebra Cut in November, 1913. PERMANENT ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, BALBOA The permanent Administration Building of the Canal Zone now under construction in accordance with the design made by Austin W. Lord of New York City, formerly architect to the Commission, and Mario J. Schia- voni, former assistant architect, Culbera, under w elevations, details, and specifications hav efforts to obtain a building Chairman, and the very im sun and rain. hose direction the entire plans, e been developed, is the result of many suitable to the requirements as stipulated by the portant requirements in providing protection against The architecture of Italian renaissance design, with a s colonnade, and a second-story balcony treatment around the three exterior elevations of the building and surmounted by a somber red tile roof, will present a character very much to be desired in this climate: viz. : wide projecting eaves and deep recessed colonnades, affording excellent protection against sun and rain. uare column t [ 245 ] SHE LAND DIVIDED ~CI'HE WORLD, [JNITED The court side, facing northeast, enclosed by the two side wings, will have plain wall surfaces, treated with pilasters and window openings of same pro- portions as on the exterior elevations, and a central wing housing the main stair motive and porte cochere entrance, the entire plan having the form of the letter E with the first floor situated 100 feet above sea level. The office areas are to be treated in a very simple manner with the walls and ceilings treated in white plaster, the floors in yellow pine, and mahogany for all woodwork. The rotunda motive, the focal point of interest, entered from both front and rear elevations, and situated between the front entrance and the main stair hall, facing the court, will be treated in a very dignified but somber renaissance style with a coffered dome, surmounting decorative paintings illustrating the various periods of canal construction in a continuous frieze and in four large panels. The rotunda will be illuminated by a dome light under a skylight, thereby producing on a minor scale the Pantheon at Rome. The walls, floor, and staircases, will be treated in a simple marble and Caen stone treatment in harmony with the balance of the work. The building will have an area of 60,000 square feet of clear office space for the three floors, plus the required areas for the rotunda motive, halls, stair- cases, toilets, exterior colonnades, and balconies. The basement, with an area of 32,000 square feet, will be used as a vault for the filing of records, maps, archives, etc. The total floor area in the building taken at grade will amount to 37,772 square feet, and the total (mean) cubic content of the entire building, 2,153,000 cubic feet. : A very flexible system of electric lighting, telephone, and buzzer system has been provided for, including the permanent telephone exchange, which will be located on the third floor in one of the rear wings. Every convenience of reasonable necessity has been provided for in this building, such as fire protection, vacuum system, etc., thereby setting an example for future buildings by making this the most extensive and up-to-date steel frame and hollow concrete tile block structure that is being built on the Isthmus as a keynote for future work. COST OF THE CANAL The estimate of October, 1908, placed the cost of the Canal at $375,201,000 divided, as follows: Construction and engineering, $297,766,000; sanitation, $20,053,000; civil administration, $7,382,000; paid to the New French Canal Company, $40,000,000; paid to the Republic of Panama, $10,000,000. The appropriations made by Congress to date aggregate $338,828,273.14 for the Canal work, and $10,767,950 for fortifications. The actual expenditures to June 30, 1913 were as follows: Construction and engineering, $185,316,- 095.75; sanitation, $16,250,164.93; civil administration, $6,393,308.73; law, $44,982.27; general items, $87,866,903.70; fortifications, $3,114,357.52. Total $298,985,812.90. Since 1908, the force has increased so much in efficiency, with a corresponding decrease in unit costs, that it seems probable that $360,- 000,000 will cover not only the cost of the Canal work, but of the fortifications as well. [ 246 ] FUTURE (ANAL TRAFFIC HE volume of traffic that will pass through the Panama Canal after it Ill has been thrown open to commerce of the world is largely a matter of speculation. The importance of the new waterway from a military standpoint is easily recognizable, and in the minds of American Army and Navy experts, the probable fact that the efficiency of Uncle Sam’s Navy will be about doubled, alone warrants the enormous cost which the project has entailed. In commercial circles, however, the question of the hour is “Can the Canal be made to pay?” To ascertain the probable amount of tonnage that will use the Canal during the next few years, the United States Government, on September 1, 1911, 4 engaged the services of the highest American authority in this line, Dr. Emory R. Johnson, professor of transportation and commerce in the University of Pennsylvania. As special commissioner on traffic and tolls, Dr. Johnson has made an exhaustive investigation of the subject from all points of view, the results of which have been incorporated in a printed volume of 500 pages. His conclusions may be briefly summed up, as follows: “The shipping using the Panama Canal annually during the first year or two of its operation, that is, in 1915 and 1916, will amount to about 10,500,000 tons. At the end of 10 years, the tonnage will doubtless have reached 17,- 000,000 tons. The prospect is, therefore, that the Panama Canal will start with less than half the tonnage which will then be making use of the Suez Canal. Moreover, it will be a long time before the Panama Canal catches up with the Suez waterway in volume of traffic. Should the Suez tonnage continue to increase at the present rate, the volume of shipping served by the Suez route in 1925 will be double that passing through the Panama Canal. It is hardly probable that the Suez tonnage will increase at its present high rate, while 1t may well happen that the stimulating effect of the Panama Canal upon industry and trade has been underestimated. Eventually, at the end of two or three decades, let us say, the traffic at Panama may equal or exceed that at Suez.” [ 247 ] THE DAND DIVIDED ~CI"HE WORLD, [JNITED TESTI v TT ; 0 Dr. Johnson gave publicity to the above forecast in 1912, and his frank admission that his figures may be underestimated indicates that it is not in the power of man to closely foretell the volume of traffic the Canal will attract. It is only within the past twelvemonth that steamship companies, and firms engaged in the wholesale coal and fuel oil trade, have awakened to the possi- bilities evoked by the Canal. If reports that are constantly noted in the daily press are true, nearly every company engaged in ocean transportation in this part of the world is perfecting plans for building additional ships in anticipation of the increased business the Canal will create. Since fuel oil and coal-handling facilities at the Canal termini were planned, and the policy of the Government in respect to the sale of these two commodities by individuals and companies, the matter into prominence ven first place for the official ay it; > m— 1 Sa] Ih =—3 p18 , in 1898, to join the squadron before Se | yy v8 , it brought hp Ph . py , at least , that the Oregon be gi the famous trip of the Oregon around South America iment in favor of an American Canal t is being made, and public sentiment may demand Undoubtedly, ng public sent The tourist steamer Evangeline, the first vessel to dock at Pier 16, Cristobal, January, 1913. on the Isthmus, was outlined, there has been an unexpected amount of interest shown in this feature by firms in the United States and Europe. Applications for coal storage space had, prior to the awarding of the coal-handling ma- chinery, been so much greater than anticipated, that enlargements of the pro- posed layout in some of its essentials became imperative. Close observers of the trend of the times say that Dr. Johnson's figures are sufficiently conserva- tive. Latin-America, particularly the west coast of South America. is con- fidently counted on to contribute largely to the tonnage of the Canal. Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, all originate a large freight traffic. The nitrate fields of Northern Chile yield an annual product of more than 2,500,000 tons. four-fifths of which goes to Europe, and the remainder to the United States: copper shipments from Peru and Bolivia are increasing annually in importance with the opening of additional mines and the construction of railroads. Rail- [ 249 ) iago, had much to do toward crystallizi The United States Battleship Oregon. m a military point of view. An effor trip through the Canal. Sant fro a 4 ov QO A - « o = 5 ~ «< E «© s ~ a o <= — — « 30 £ a & <= 1] 0 £ 2 o <= «a = a « O <= —- Q E. Q Q = « I~ Ed = o 2 2 a o - < road building in those countries, south of the Equator, has enjoyed a tre- mendous expansion in the last few years. Argentina has been brought in touch with Valparaiso by the Andean tunnel, and the products of the western part of that republic will, in all probability, be shipped through the Canal. The port of Valparaiso, which was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1906, has fully recovered from its effects, and has contracted for port works costing millions of dollars in anticipation of the opening of the Canal. At present, American commerce plays but a minor role in the west coast trade, although, owing to the increasing number of American investments, the trade is improving. Germany and Great Britain have long had the lion's — The Polar Ship Fram, lying at anchor in Cristobal Harbor. This boat left Buenos Aires on August 14, 1913, and reached Colon on October 3, for the purpose of passing through the Canal on its way to San Francisco. It will be one of the first vessels to make the passage. share, and it will be many years before their hold can be broken. The fault is our own. European emigrants, and representatives of European firms, went to those countries in an early day; they intermarried with the native residents, and many became citizens who afterward rose to prominence in public life. On the other hand, prior to the Spanish-American War, these countries knew few Americans, with the exception of tourists. We kept to our own borders, and established neither social nor business relations, and as for going there to live, it was not to be thought of. Moreover, the American manufacturer has in the past shown scant desire to cultivate business relations with his Latin-American neighbor; they have elected to ignore his requirements, and scoffed at his busi- ness customs. The European never commits this faux pas. [ 251 ] THE DAND DIVIDED —~CTHE WORLD, [NITED The Spanish-American War was the entering wedge; the Panama Canal and other large projects in Central and South America requiring American brain and brawn has widened the opening, until today one will find plenty of Americans scattered all over Latin-America. A large percentage of those who Moonlight on Limon Bay. When the rose and mauve and green have faded, the tropical moon appears, which is nowhere more effulgent than on the Isthmus. Native town at Culebra. Negro village of Golden Green in middle distance. These villages will be abandoned in course of time. enlisted in the Philippine, Cuban, or Porto Rican campaigns, those who have seen service on the Panama Canal, or those who have engaged in railroad and mining work in Brazil, Peru, or Chile, never go back to the United States to reside permanently. Some of them leave the tropics with the avowed intention of never returning, but sooner or later, one will find them at a st camship office engaging passage southward bound. The lure of the tropics is not easily overcome. | Fo NS REE SSE B14 Tl] i | The Americanizing of Latin-America has only just begun; it would not - Wve TET 1! IN I have been begun yet but for those prime factors, the War and the Canal. As : " =I os Lat yN Americans locate in Central and South America, the call grows more and more insistent for conveniences to which they have been accustomed—American banks, clubs, newspapers, stores, and merchandise. The influence of the Latinized American is seen in the gradual improvement of conditions, all of which, while minute in detail in connection with the trade of the Canal, has a direct bearing on its future so far as it concerns traffic with South America. The Panama Canal will place the United States and Europe about on a ira Sevelt Aventie, Hie Jrottiest Jizsecin Cristobal, Sverooking Limon Bay 3nd the Sanne par so far as it concerns the commerce of Australia and New Zealand. The of the docks at this point. same 1s true of Japan, China, and the Philippines. The short route from [ 252 ] [ 253] CTHE LAND DIVIDED ~ CAE WORLD, JNITED Europe to the Orient is by way of Suez; the short course from the Atlantic coast of the United States to Japan and most of China will be by way of Panama. A 10-knot freight steamer will be able to make the voyage from New York to Yokohama by way of Panama in 15 days’ less time than it now takes by way of Suez. Hong Kong and Manila will be equally distant from New York by way of Panama or Suez. The'tonnage through the Suez Canal has shown a steady growth. In 1910, it was 16,500,000 tons; in 1912, it had increased to 20,275,000 tons, representing the passage of 5,373 vessels. The Suez C ompany in commenting on the approaching opening of the Panama Canal said, “It does not seem likely that any considerable amount of freight between Europe and ports beyond Suez will be diverted by the Panama Canal. It is to be feared, though, that one of the results of the opening of the new route will be the attendant competition, and possibly a newborn trade between the eastern states of America, and the Far East and Oceanica.” The increase in Canal traffic is not confined to the Suez, for, in July, 1913, 3,670 vessels carrying 12,278,000 tons of freight passed through the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, a larger volume than Dr. Johnson predicts for the Panama Canal during the first year or two of operation. While much has been printed to show how the freight business will be advantaged by the Panama Canal, there has been but little mention of the pas- senger traffic. It is quite certain that travelers to South America, or to the Orient, will prefer the Panama route to the long and usually tempestuous voyage around South America, or to the terrific heat of the Red Sea. The passage A street in the American settlement at Empire, showing family quarters. The landscape in and about Empire is justly considered the most effective in the Canal Zone. The short palms grow here in great profusion. [ 254 ) SI'HE HAND DIVIDED ~ CST HE WORLD, [JNUTED through the Panama Canal will afford an opportunity for the tired traveler to land, and if he so de- sires, to cross the Isthmus by rail. The Isthmus, therefore, will be a sort of clearing house for pas- senger traffic. People coming from Europe and eastern or southern United States will change there for the Orient, western United States, and western South America. The closing years of the con- struction period of the Canal has attracted a growing number of tourists, until at the present time, it is just as much a booking point for the tourist agencies as any other place of interest the world has to offer. Statistics compiled to July 1, 1913, show that about 75,000 people have visited the Canal since January 1, 1910, over one-half of that number within the past 18 months. The following table of com- parative distances will show some of the shortening of routes the Panama Canal will effect: Main entrance to the new Hotel Washington, Colon. RL IE Ame "LIA PITA A typical street in Cristobal. 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