, _ UBRAR‘! unimsm 0F CAL! Temperature Parameters of Humid to Mesic Forests of EaStern Asia and Relation to Forests of Other Regions of the Northern Hemisphere and Australasia By JACK A. WOLFE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1106 Analysis of temperature data from more than 400 stations in eastern Asia UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1979 v UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wolfe, Jack A. 1936- Temperature parameters of humid to mesic forests of Eastern Asia and relation to forests of other regions of the Northern Hemisphere and Australasia. (Geological Survey professional paper ; 1106) Bibliography: p. 36-37. Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16:1106 l. Atmospheric temperature. 2. Forest meteorology. 3. Forests‘ and forestry. 4. Atmospheric temperature—Asia. 5. Forest meteorology—Asia. 6. Forests and forestry—Asia. I. Title. II. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 1106. SD390.7T44W64 574.5’264 79-20233 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 ' Stock Number 024-001-03232-5 CONTENTS Page Page Abstract .— ___________________________________________________ 1 Forests of western North America—Continued Introduction ________________________________________________ 1 Broad-leaved forests ____________________________________ 19 Forests and climate of eastern Asia __________________________ 3 Coniferous forests ______________________________________ 19 Vegetational data ______________________________________ 3 Mixed Coniferous forest ____________________________ 19 Climatic date __________________________________________ 3 Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest ____________ 19 Tropical Rain forest ____________________________________ 6 High Montane Mixed Coniferous forest __________ 21 Paratropical Rain forest ________________________________ 7 Low Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest ____________ 21 Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest ____________ 9 High Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest ____________ 22 Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest ______________ 10 Taiga __________________________________________ 22 Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Deciduous forest ______ 11 Comparison to eastern Asia ____________________________ 23 Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest ______ 12 Forests of eastern North America, the Caribbean, Mixed Mesophytic forest ________________________________ 13 Central America, and northern South America ____________ 23 Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest ____________________ 14 Forests of Europe ______________________________ -_ ___________ 26 Mixed Coniferous forest ________________________________ 15 Discussion ________________________________________________ 28 Mixed Northern Hardwood forest ________________________ 16 A classification of forest climates ________________________ 28 Taiga __________________________________________________ 17 Altitudinal zonation of forests in eastern Asia ____________ 30 Simple Broad-leaved Deciduous forest ____________________ 17 Applications to paleobotany ____________________________ 32 Forests of Australasia ______________________________________ 18 Problems ______________________________________________ 35 Forests of western North America -_'_ _______________________ 18 References cited ____________________________________________ 36 ILLUSTRATIONS [Plates are in pocket] PLATE 1. Map showing distribution of humid to mesic forests of eastern Asia. 2. Graph showing temperature data and classification of humid to mesic forests of eastern Asia. 3. Graphs showing temperature data and classification of forests for parts of the Western Hemisphere, Europe, and Australasia. Page FIGURES 1. Vegetational classification of coniferous forests of eastern Asia ______________________________________________________ 24 2 —8. Graphs showing: 2. Temperature data for Taiga and non—Taiga forests __________________________________________________________ 28 3. Proposed classification of forest climates based primarily on forests of eastern Asia ____________________________ 29 4. Altitudinal zonation of forests on major islands of the western Pacific __________________________________________ 30 5. Altitudinal zonation of forests along coastal mainland of China ______________________________________________ 31 6. Altitudinal zonation of forests in the interior of China ________________________________________________________ 31 7. Idealized altitudinal and latitudinal zonation of forests in the Northern Hemisphere ____________________________ 32 8. Correlation of percentages of entire-margined species with temperature ________________________________________ 35 TABLES Page TABLE 1. Location of stations and sources for temperature data used in compilation of plate 2 __________________________________ 4 2. Comparison of proposed classification of coniferous forests with some previous classifications __________________________ 19 3. Comparison of physiognomy of vegetation in quadrats in northernmost California ____________________________________ 22 III TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF HUMID TO MESIC FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO F ORESTS OF OTHER REGIONS OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE AND AUSTRALASIA BY JACK A. WOLFE ABSTRACT Compilation of temperature data from more than 400 stations in the humid to mesic forests of Asia indicates that the boundaries of physiognomic units of vegetation approximately coincide with cer- tain major temperature parameters. Most. boundaries between broad-leaved forests coincide with mean annual temperature values; a mean temperature of the cold month of 1°C delineates dominantly broad-leaved deciduous forests from broad-leaved evergreen forests. Forests in which conifers are either dominant or a major emergent element typically are separated from broad-leaved forests by sum- mer heat. Based on the approximate coincidence of certain mean annual temperature values with vegetational boundaries, a sixfold division of forest climates is proposed: tropical (more than 25°C), paratropical (20—25°C), subtropical (13—20°C), temperate (10— 13°C), paratemperate (3—10°C), and subtemperate (less than 3°C). Examination of latitudinal and altitudinal zonation of vegetation indicates that the concept of a given vegetational belt descending to lower altitudes in a poleward direction is at best a gross generaliza- tion and is in some respects invalid. Mesic broad-leaved deciduous forests do not live in areas in which the mean annual range of tem- perature is less than 19—20°C; hence such vegetation cannot be rep- resented on tropical mountains. Mesic regions of Australasia have a low mean annual range and therefore have no broad-leaved decidu- ous forests. Comparison of the climatic data from Asia with data from other areas of the Northern Hemisphere indicates: (1) A large area of east- ern North America that might be expected to have broad-leaved evergreen forests has a broad-leaved deciduous forest similar to the secondary vegetation of some broad-leaved evergreen forest regions of Asia, probably as a result of geologically abnormal cold waves. (2) The “Mixed Mesophytic forest” of eastern United States is largely not the temperature analog of the Mixed Mesophytic forest of eastern Asia. (3) A large area of western Europe that might be expected to have a coniferous forest has a broad-leaved deciduous forest, prob- ably as a result of historical factors associated with repeated glacia- tion. (4) Western United States has no temperature-vegetation anomalies based on the temperature parameters of eastern Asian vegetation. Comparison of the climatic data from western Europe and eastern North America indicate that the “nemoral” zones of the two areas are largely not temperature analogs. The vegetation of New Zealand, which has been problematic in forest classification, is largely the vegetation expected in such tem- perature regimes. In certain given temperature parameters, mesic vegetation tends to be a microphyllous broad-leaved evergreen forest _ with an emergent stratum of conifers. Such forests can be observed in the Himalayas, as well as in New Zealand. INTRODUCTION For well over a century botanists and climatologists have attempted to relate the areal distribution of vege- tation to climatic parameters. Some vegetational types have been successfully related to precipitation regimes and evapotranspiration rates, but areal distribution of principal forest types as a function of the temperature regime remains elusive. A correlation between forest— types and temperature has been assumed to exist, and indeed the most commonly accepted definitions of the terms “tropical” and “subtropical” are based on the supposed limitation of “tropical” and “subtropical” forests by the 18°C and 6°C cold-month means. Some botanists, among them Beadle (1951), main- tain that given the same fundamental climatic regime in two Widely separated areas, the vegetation (physiognomic type) may not necessarily be the same. These workers consider the physiognomy to be colored more by available plant materials than by environ- mental factors; that is, the presence or absence of certain physiognomic features is due mainly to the availability of plants having such features. While this concept may have some validity for geologically short periods of time, as, for example, in the development during the Holocene of broad-leaved deciduous forest ' in western Europe (see section “Forests of Europe”), when viewed over tens of thousands of years or mil- lions of years, the concept must be considered invalid. Environmental factors are continually affecting ' lineages to select individuals and populations that are physiognomically best adapted to that particular envi- ronment. As this work indicates, physiognomically similar forest types typically do appear in widely sepa- j‘ ‘ rated areas that have similar major climatic parame- ters, irrespective of the lineages involved It 13 realized that some workers (for example, Kiich- ler, 1967b) consider “vegetation” a general term that covers not only the physiognomy but also the phytosociology. In this paper the usage of “vegetation” 1 t “1209 2 is in the restricted sense of physiognomy rather than flora and floristic associations, a usage followed by many workers (see, for example, Richards, 1952; Webb, 1959; Beard, 1944; Dansereau, 1951; Fosberg and others, 1961). Some workers consider the phytosociological associations to be subdivisions of the physiognomic formations. Logically, however, such an approach is invalid; the formations and their subdivi- sions are an attempt to order the plant world strictly in terms of its physiognomy. Phytosociology attempts to order the same world in terms of associations of kinds (taxa) of plants. Vegetational groupings can be made in large part because of convergent evolution, whereas associations are by definition groupings based on the occurrence of two or more unlike plants produced by divergent evolution. Subdivisions of plant formations must, like the formations themselves, be based on physiognomic criteria. Webb’s study (1959) of Austral- ian rain forests provides an admirable example of such physiognomic subdivisions. The structure and physiognomy of vegetation are the aspects by which analogous vegetation that is floristi- cally distinct can be most readily recognized. The characters most commonly used are: the presence or absence of an emergent stratum (widely spaced trees that rise above the highest closed-tree stratum); number of closed-tree strata; presence (and density) or absence of a shrub stratum; presence (and density) or absence of lianes (woody climbers that reach the upper can0py) and other woody climbers; characters of tree trunks such as buttressing, height of stem relative to thickness, cauliflory; foliar characters (for example, evergreen, sclerophyllous, presence of drip tips, entire or nonentire margins, distribution of leaf-size classes); and diversity. Diversity is not a strictly physiognomic character except in the sense that a forest composed of a single tree species is apt to be far more monotonous in appearance than a forest composed of many tree species. The average height of the canopy is a physiognomic character of limited value in distinguishing most forest types, as it is clearly dependent on a wide array of environmental factors, including soil type and expo- sure to strong winds. Broad-leaved forests tend to have the canopy about 20 to 30 m above the ground. Three exceptions are the short-statured Montane Rain forest, the tall Tropical Rain forest (about 50 m or higher), and the intermediate Paratropical Rain forest (about 35—40 m). Particular attention is given here to physiognomic features of foliage.pMany botanists have used such fea- tures as major defining characteristics of physiognomic units. Richards (1952, p. 77) states: "‘Many of these features m are of considerable diagnostic value in the Kb .‘. “3"“. f. L I? , 2.3. 2 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS definition of tropical rain forest‘" and in distinguishing it from other plant formations.” And they are critical to the interpretation of fossil-leaf assemblages in relation to ancient vegetation and climate. Some vegetational units that are validly physio- gnomic have been called by names of taxonomic categories. The term "oak-laurel forest,” for example, actually is not an associational term (oaks and laurels are associated in a variety of vegetational types) but rather is used because of the dominance of these plants in a physiognomically distinctive forest, the N otophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. It is best to discard such a term as oak-laurel forest in prefer- ence for the physiognomic term. The purpose of this study is (1) to delineate as accu- rately as possible the major physiognomic types of humid to mesic forests in eastern Asia; (2) to determine if the forest boundaries are related to any major tem- perature factors; and (3) to determine if the physio- gnomic groupings can be recognized in the same tem- perature parameters elsewhere in the world. A part of this study was presented in preliminary version in an earlier paper (Wolfe, 1971). Some of the temperature parameters suggested then are now modified as a result of accumulation of more data, vegetational and climatic. The emphasis here on temperature factors should not be construed to mean that precipitational factors are not critical to delimitation of vegetational types, for clearly precipitation is critical. But as significant (precipitational deficits during the growing season gen- erally do not exist in the study area chosen, the physiognomic differences recognized are expected to be the result of temperature factors. This study is in a sense an experiment in which one of the two major variables (precipitational and related factors) is taken ‘ to be constant in order to study the second major vari- able (temperature factors). If it is more clearly under- stood what physiognomic changes are primarily tem- perature related, then by additional studies it will be more clearly understood what physiognomic changes are primarily precipitation related. For many fruitful discussions of the data and conclu- sions presented here, I thank H. D. MacGinitie and H. E. Schorn, both of the University of California (Berke- ley). C. W. Wang, University of Idaho, has offered several comments on the vegetational types near specific Chinese stations; T. Tanai, Hokkaido Univer- sity, has been of similar assistance in regard to Japanese vegetation. The personnel of the Environ- mental Science Services Administration Library have been particularly helpful in the search for climatic data. I also wish to thank F. R. Fosberg (Smithsonian Institution), W. H. Hatheway (University of Washing- I FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA 3 ton), and C. W. Wang for reading the manuscript and offering suggestions for improvement. FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA VEGETATIONAL DATA The delineation of forest types can at best be approx- imate. The various physiognomic units are concepts based on the physical characteristics of vegetation. Two workers may give different weight to two different characteristics, and consequently the physiognomic units and the areas occupied may not be equal. Nonetheless workers in eastern Asia have generally been able to recognize the same basic units in the same areas. Disagreements that do exist generally revolve around (1) reconstruction of the original vegetation in heavily cultivated areas, (2) the lumping or splitting of two or more vegetational types in a continuum (a prob- lem inherent in any system of classification), and (3) whether a transitional vegetational type should be ac- corded a status distinct from adjacent types. Most botanical mapping of the forests of eastern Asia has been reconnaissance. This has a distinct advan- tage, because reconnaissance mapping is generally concerned with the distribution of major physiognomic categories rather than phytosociological categories. The vegetational map compilation presented as plate 1 is based primarily on the work of Champion (1936), Richards (1952), Wang (1961), Lee (1964), Vidal (1956), Honda (1928), Miyawaki (1967), and Suslov (1961). Modifications of published maps fall into two main categories: , Modifications to accord with topography. For exam- ple, Champion (1936) shows broad belts of "sub- tropical” forest in mountainous areas of north- eastern Burma, whereas Wang (1961) indicates that major valleys in China that extend into Burma are in fact occupied by “rain forest.” Champion’s data (1936) have been modified ac- cordingly for incorporation into plate 1. Modifications to accord with published statements. For example, Wang’s map (1961) shows a broad belt of the Yangtze River valley and adjacent areas as Mixed Mesophytic forest, whereas his text makes clear that the Mixed Mesophytic forest is confined to altitudes greater than 500 to 1,000 m. Plate 1 has been modified to reflect Wang’s statements rather than his map. Simi- larly, the distribution of physiognomic units proposed in this report (for example, Paratropi- cal Rain forest) is based largely on information contained in textual statements rather than on published vegetational maps. The reasons for selecting eastern Asia as a study area are several: Except for alpine glaciation, the region was appar- ently unglaciated during the Quaternary; for this reason, historical factors associated with gla- ciation had a minimal impact on the vegetation. The vegetation in general is more diverse than in any other area of the Northern Hemisphere; that is, more physiognomic units are repre- sented in a continuum than in any other area. This stems in part from the size of the Asian continent and concomitantly the great tempera- ture extremes in some areas. _ In eastern Asia, unlike eastern North America, a 7 series of east-west mountain ranges protect most of the forested area from frequent and intense outbreaks of low-altitude polar air. Such cold waves are probably atypical for most of geologic, time. 2‘ ” The selection of eastern Asia as a study area does, however, have some problems: In many areas, the vegetation has been profoundly altered by intensive agriculture. Consequently, the physiognomy has been interpreted from forest remnants; there are few areas of the Northern Hemisphere, however, where man has not significantly altered the vegetation. Climatic data are few in eastern Asia relative to other regions, for example, eastern North America or Europe. This is particularly true for upland areas of Asia. CLIMATIC DATA Mean annual temperature and mean annual range of temperature have long been recognized as two of the most critical temperature parameters in describing climates. When the two values for a specific station are plotted against one another, the approximate warm and cold month means can be inferred, and the warm and cold month means, along with mean annual tem- perature, are generally thought to be the main values most likely to limit forest types. One of the main prob- lems with the classification of vegetation and its rela- tion to climate, suggested by Holdridge (1947) for example, is that mean annual range, and hence the means of the cold and warm months, are disregarded. Climatic data for eastern Asia are widely scattered in the literature (table 1). Particularly useful sources are the various annotated bibliographies on specific areas of Asia produced by the Environmental Science Services Administration; nearly all the data on the temperature chart for eastern Asia, plate 2, have been taken from sources listed in those bibliographies. 4 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS TABLE 1.—Locatwn of statwns and sources for temperature data used TABLE 1.—Locatzon of stations and sources for temperature data used in compilation of plate 2 m compzlatzon of plate 2—Cont1nued Station name in Name in source Latitude Longitude Altitude Years Source Station name in Name in source Latitude Longitude Altitude Years Source plate 2 (if different (in) of (see plate 2 (if different (m) of (see name used) record end of name used) record end of table) table) A-306 ________________________________ 37°52' N. 127°43' E. 78 4 10 ._.-47‘26' N. 126°58' E. 240 9 2 Abashiri -- ______ _44°01' N. 144°17' E. 37 30 5 Haka _-__ _22°39’ N. 93°37' E. 1,860 10 4 All)“1 ____________ _24°36’ N. 72°43' E. 1,203 60 4 Hakoneyama ________ .35°11' N. 139°01' E. 936 19 14 A-erh-shan ______ -47°13’ N. 119°58' E. 1,027 3 2 Ha-kuei-miao __ _ _ 113°24' E. 1,000 3 6 Ai-hui __ _ ______ -50°15' N. l27"29' E. 131 6 2 120°12' E. 10 44 6 Aikawa ___- ...... -38°01’ N. 138°l5’ E 34 41 14 Han- ’ou 114°17’ E. 37 44 6 2111") ____________ _35°03' N. 139°06’ E 67 14 14 Hanoi _____________ 105°51’ E. 14 22 4 "ta ____________ _39°43’ N. 140°06' E 10 30 5 Han-yuan _ 108°05' E. 765 5 2 Anpu __ .25°11’ N. 121°31’ E 836 7 8 Hatinh _ 105°54' E. 4 4 10 An-ta __ __46°24' N. 125°21’ E 151 20 2 Heho _____________ 96°47’ E. 1,260 25 10 An-tlmfi _______ _40°05’ N. 124°07' E 6 15 2 Heng—chun 120°45' E. 22 56 8 An-yue .. __30°09’ N. 105°18’ E --- 4 1 Hang Shan -. ________ 112°52’ E. 1,270 3 1 Aomon __ _40°49' N. 140°47’ E 5 30 5 Heng- a 112°36’ E. 95 12 2 Arkara 7... ...... .49°Z5' N. 130°03' E. 142 4 3 Hense1fi1¥B 108°03' E. 771 7 10 Asahikawa -43°46' N. 142°22' E. 111 64 14 Hikone 136°15' E. 87 59 14 Ashio ____ 36°39' N. 139°27 E 674 54 14 Hiroshima ________ 132°26’ E. 30 30 5 Asosan ___. ______ _32°53' N. 131°05' E. 1,143 20 14 Ho—ch’iu____ 116°15’ E. 44 6 AyanL... ______ _56°28’ N. 138°17 E. 10 9 a Hoengsung 127°58’ E. 100 12 10 Baguio 1... 16°25' N. 120°35 E 1,550 26 3, 10 Hon-b8 "A 108°45' E. 1,484 12 3 Banmethuot 12°41' N. 108°05 E ... 11 Hongkong 114°10’ E. 33 30 5 B30- A ______ _11°20' N. 107°48' E 850 --- 11 Hsia-men ,- 118°04’ E. 41 25 2 Benng Island‘ ______ -55°12' N. 165°59’ 6 30 5 Hsi-an ___. 108°55' E. 395 24 2 amo ______________ _24°15' N. 97°15 E 118 50 4 HsiaHhin 102°22' E- 2.465 4 2 Blak/Mokmer‘ ...... -01°11’ S. 136°07 E 10 30 5 Hsi-ch’ ang 102°18' E. 2,000 13 2 Blkin ________________ _46°49’ N. 134°16’ E. 73 12 3 Hsien-hsien 116°07' E. 14 44 6 Blagovescensk" ______ _50°16’ N. 127°30’ E. 137 30 5 Hsing-jen __ 105°15’ E. 1,412 5 2 Bolshaya Yelan _46°55’ N. 142°44' E. 31 8 5 Hsin -tzu ____ 116 6° 03' E. --- 7 1 Bykov ........ --47°20’ N. 142°44’ E. 15 16 3 Hsin- ao Shan 120°57' E. 3,850 8 8 Cao Bang __ _________ .22“40' N. 106°15' E. 270 8 10 Haun-ko ___. 128°28’ E. 90 3 2 Chai-aha .. ' ' __24°20' N. 10919 E. , 5 1 Huai-jen__ 113°07’ E. 5 1 Chakrata ___. ______ _30°47' N. 76°48' E. 2,150 ... 7 Huai-te ,_ 124°49' E. 203 10 6 Chan—chian ______ _21°02’ N. 110°23’ E. 26 5 2 Hua-shan __ 109°57’ E. 2,074 4 2 Chang-chia- ’ou __40°50' N. 115°11’ E. 760 9 2 Hua-tien 126°45' E. 76 2 6 Ch’ang-chih ____ ........... _36°10' N. 113°07' E. 814 4 2 Hue .. 107°42' E. 15 42 10 Ch’ang-ch’un _ __43°52' N. 125°20’ E. 216 36 2 Hui-11.. 102°15' E. 1,920 3 2 Ch’ang-sha _ Ch -128°12’ N. 112°47' E. 60 14 l Hun-ch’un 130°25' E. 104 44 6 Ch'ang-te ___ _ _ “28°55 N. 111°31’ E. 55 5 1 Hungnam -_ 127°32’ E. --- 16 3 Chang-fling A ' __25°45' N. 116°20’ E. 200 5 1 Ibukiyama 136°24' E. 1,376 34 14 Ch‘ang-tu -_ _ 31°11' N 96°50' E 3200 4 2 I—ch'ang 111°05' E. 133 14 2 Chan-i ___- 25°35' N. 103°50’ E. 1,898 7 5 2 Iida__ 137°50' E. 481 55 14 Chao—p’ing“ "23°31' N. 120°48' E. 2,406 19 8 I-lan 121°45' E. 7 5 14’ Chao—t’ung __ ______ -27°10' N. 103°45’ E 1,930 4 2 Han 129°34' E- 100 12 6 Chamyang ______ 41°33' N. 120°27' E 167 3 2 Il’inskly _ 142°12’ E. 18 12 13 14 ______ _22°22' N. 103°52' E 1,640 10 3 I-mien-p’o 128°05' E. 222 26 14 Che~lang Chiao __22°40' N. 115°40’ E 28 44 6 Inchon .. A 126°38' E. 69 40 14 Ch eng- ................ .41°58' N. 117°45' E 850 8 2 Inje ___, 128°09’ E. 200 10 13 Ch’e -tu _30°40' N. 104°04’ E 498 21 2 Irkutsk , , 104°21' E. 485 30 5 Chen- Bi _ _ 29°53' N. 121°33' E 4 --- 6 Ishinomaki ________ 141°18' E. 45 30 5 Che'rnavo __ 1 52°47' N. 126°00’ E 212 16 3 Iwamizawa ,,,,,,,, 141°47’ E. 33 6 14 Cherrapumi __ __________ 25°15’ N. 91°44’ E 1,314 35 4 Jefman/Sorong‘ ,.__ 131°07’ E. 3 30 5 Chia-mu-ssuu ______ -46°43’ N. 130°17’ E 31 7 2 Juzno-sahalinsk ___- 42°43’ E. 25 30 5 ’an ____________ 27°05' N. 114°55’ E 78 4 2 Kagoshima ________ 130°33' E. 5 30 5 Chlan ______ _ 19°53' N. 99°49' E 375 8 10 K’ai-feng __________ 114°20' E. 75 9 2 Chichi 11 1V. ...... _35°59' N. 139°05' E. 218 27 14 Kalimpong ,,,,,,,, 88°28' E. 1,209 20 4 Ch’i—ch’i -ha-erh - “47°20’ N. 123°56’ E. 147 20 2 Kanazawa 11111111 136°39’ E. 29 30 5 Chieh-hsiu _ ' ' -_37°00' N. 111°55’ E. --- 5 1 Kan-Chou ________ 114°50' E. 109 5 2 Ch’ih—feng-_ _42°16' N. 118°54’ E 571 11 2 Kang'nung ,,,,,, 128°54' E. 26 30 5 Chi-hsl ___. .45°17’ N. 130°57’ E 219 3 2 K’ang-ting ___. 101°57' E. 2,358 9 2 Chi-nan ______ _-36°41' N. 116°58’ E 55 31 2 Kan-men~chen .- 121°16’ E. 60 6 1 Chi Chuan _24°16’ N. 120°36’ E 210 13 10 Kanpetlet ____________ 94°02' E. 1,927 10 4 Chi ae ________ _35°08’ N. 128°42’ E 11 10 KanAtzu ...... 99°59' E. 3,320 5 2 Chin-men __24°10' N. 118°30' E 55 44 6 Kao-hsiung 120°16' E. 29 12 14 Chipo-rL- ________ 38°09' N. 127°19' E 156 13 10 apsan ______ 128°19’ E. 810 10 13 Chile ______ 52°01’ N. 113°20' E 685 30 5 Kamizawa .. 138°36' E. 934 20 14 Chin-Chang _ - __29°45’ N. 116°08' E 55 44 6 Katmandu 85°20' E. 1,324 10 5 Chin-kan-y‘li - y' __34°53' N. 119°10’ E. .1. 2 1 Kengtung H 99°37 E. 850 7 10 Ch iung-shan __20°01’ N. 110°16' E. 3 14 1 Kholmsk 142°03' E. 27 38 14 Cho u ________________ _35°49’ N. 127°09' E. 51 26 14 Kirensk' ___ 108°07’ E. 261 30 5 Chos .. -35°43’ N. 140°51’ E. 28 30 5 Kitamiesashi .. 142°35’ E. 6 10 14 Chugushi __ _36°44’ N. 139°30' E. 1,335 9 14 Kochi __________ 133°33’ E. 30 5 Chungang'im _ ' __41°47’ N. 126°53’ E. 312 31 14 Kodaikanal'____ 77°28’ E. 2,344 40 4 Ch’ung—ching ' “29°30’ N. 106°33’ E. 261 28 2 Kontum ________ 108°00’ E. 536 --- 11 Ch'ung-li -__ _ ' -_ __40°58’ N. 115°18’ E. 1,165 44 6 Korf‘ __________ 166°00’ E. --< 30 5 Chuniu (West) ........ _36°58' N. 127°55’ E. 82 12 10 Krasno arsk' ,, 92°53' E. 194 30 5 Chum hu __ _25°10’ N. 121°32' E 600 6 8 Kuala umpur' 101°33' E. 17 30 5 Ch’u-wuu" ”35°39 N. 111°33' E --- 5 1 Kuang-chou ,___ 113°13' E. 18 26 2 Colombo‘ 1 6°54’ N. 79°52' E 7 30 5 Kuan -hua , 111°29‘ E. 91 5 2 Con SOD—___ ______ _ 8°42’ N. 106°35’ E 12 10 Kuei- in 110°10' E 168 9 2 Coonor‘ ______ _ 11°21’ N. 76"48' E 1 747 10 4 Kelli-yang" 106°43' E 1,057 30 2 Dalat 1 __ ______ _ 11°44' N. 108°22' E 2 11 10 Kumsan,.,_ 127°30’ E. 163 10 13 Dalat 2 “a ...... -11°44' N. 108°22’ E. 1,500 --- 11 K’un-ming 1 102°43' E. 1,834 16 2 Dal'nyaya __ _ ' ' _ ._45°54' N. 142°05' E. 46 10 13 Kun-ming 2 .. 102°54' E. 1,893 33 3 Da Nang __ ______ _ 16°02’ N. 108°12’ E. 10 12 10 Kunsan ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 126°37' E. 10 12 10 Daljeeling 1 __ ______ .27°OEY N. 88°16' E. 2,128 30 5 Kuo- ch len- -ch’i 124°58' E. 135 3 2 Darjeeling 2 ” ' --27°03’ N. 88°16’ E. 2,266 50 4 K uo hsien 112°47' E. 838 3 2 D01 msk A-.. ...... .47°20’ N. 142°47' E. 37 37 14 Kuril’sk ____ 147°53' E. 38 10 13 Don 1101.- ________ _ 17°29’ N. 106°36' E. 7 22 3, 10 Kurseong _ 88°17' E. 1,500 ~-- 7 En-s ih __ ________ _30°16' N. 109°22' E. 437 5 2 Kurskaya ., ,,,,,, 134°18’ E. 60 9 3 Esashi ___. _______ _41°52' N. 140°08' E. 30 12 14 Kushiro,_.- ______ 144°24' E. 33 43 14 Fen —ch'eng _ __40°26’ N. 124°02' E. 73 32 4 Kutchan 140°45' E. 174 9 14 Fu-c ou ___. __26°05’ N. 119“18' E. 88 19 2 Kwangju __ 126°48' E. --- 8 10 Fukushima ______ _37°45' N. 140°28' E. 67 63 14 Lai Chau .. 103°09’ E. 160 6 10 Funatsuuu ...... .35°30’ N. 138°46' E. 860 20 14 Lang Son ,,,,,, 106°46' E. 259 22 3 ............ _5l°24' N. 129°12' E. 213 7 3 Lao Kay ,.,.,, 103°57’ E. --~ 33 10 Habarovsk _. ______ .48°31’ N. 135°10' E. 72 30 5 Laruce ,,,, ,,,,,, 107°50' E. 715 --- 11 Hach'bjima d .33°06' N. 139°47' E. 81 30 5 Lashio .1 ........ 97°45' E. 854 45 4 Ha-er -pin . ' -_45°45’ N. 126°38' E. 145 35 2 Lab ______________ . 77°34' E. 3,515 60 4 Hai-la-erh ______________________________ 49°13’ N. 119°45' E. 677 31 2 Lei- -po ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 28°18 N. 103°31' E. 650 9 2 FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA TABLE 1. —Location of stations and sources for temperature data used in compilatzon of plate 2—Continued 5 TABLE 1. —-Location of statLons and sources for temperature data used in comleation of plate 2—Continued Station name in Name in source Latitude Longitude Altitude Years Source Station name in Name in source Latitude Longitude Altitude Years Source plate 2 (if different (In) of (see plate 2 (if dierrent (m) 01" (59° name used) record end of name used) record end of table) table) Lesogorsk __________ Kitanayosi ,,,,,,,, 49°27' N. 142°08’ E. 7 10 13 Pi-chieh ________________________________ 27°18' N. 105“14’ E. 1,511 12 2 Li- chiang -.. ,,,,,,,,,,,, .26°57' N. 100°18’ E. 2,415 6 2 119°56' E. ... 6 6 Lien—hsien . .24°44' N. 112°l4' E. 100 3 2 120°28' E. 29 10 10 Lien- hua feng C 1ao Breaker Pt. ---22°56' N. 116°30’ E. 17 44 6 108°02' E. 750 12 10 Li- shui ,,,,,,,,,,,, Lishui.- ..-28°28’ N. 119°55’ E. 50 3 1 90°00' E 60 30 5 Loakan . ________ .16°22' N. 120°37' E. 1,310 10 10 121°55' E 739 18 2 Loikaw . ,,,,,, .19°41' N. 97"13' E. --- 10 12 . 121°33’ E. 317 8 3 Lo-tien ... ,,,,,, _ 25°27’ N. 106“46’ E. 443 5 2 Poluostrov Gamova Gamov L1ghthouse .-42°33‘ N. 131°13’ E. 50 8 3 Lung-ching . ______ .22°22’ N. 106°45’ E. 128 15 2 Poronaysk _________________________ -49°13' N. 143°06’ E. 4 37 14 Lung-yen . ........ .25°06’ N. 117°01’ E. 41 5 2 Pus 129°05’ E 13 30 5- Lu Shari ..Lus_han .--29°35’ N. 115“59’ E. --- 4 1 97°25' E 432 7 10 Li‘i-ta .. ..-38°54’ N. 121°38’ E. 96 40 14 122°44' E 310 25 2 Madang‘ ........ .05°13' S. 145°48' E. 6 10 5 125°49’ E 27 38 14 Maebashi .-- ...... .36°24' N. 139°04’ E. 113 30 5 107°11’ E 7 22 3 Mahabalfshwar‘ ...... .17°56’ N. 73°40’ E. 1,382 10 4 109°13' E 6 21 10 Malayb al a .. .......... . 13°09 N. 125°05’ E. 660 15 10 128°41’ E 2 11 10 Mari- Chou-11 Manchouli -49°35’ N. 117°26’ E. 646 27 2 129°25' E 21 7 10 Man -t1ng. .......... .23°33’ N. 99°07' E. 500 3 2 128°04’ E 7 12 10 Mam 1a ..... .14°35’ N. 120°59’ E. 5 30 5 133°20' E 26 13 14 Manokwari/Rendan . 0°53’ S. 134°03’ E. 3 30 5 139“50’ E 2 16 14 Mat- -su ............ Middle Dog .25°58’ N. 119°59’ E. 59 24 3 105°04’ E --- 10 1 Matsumoto . .......... .36°15’ N. 137°58’ E. 611 30 5 119°45’ E 4 2 l Maymyo .22°01' N. 96°28’ E. 1,081 40 4 141°20’ E 18 30 5 Mazanovo . .......... 51°39’ N. 129°02’ E. 164 8 3 130°22' E 1,053 7 l4 Mei-hsien ' -34°15' N. ‘ 107°40' E. 710 4 1 140°54' E 33 27 14 Meng-hai .Fuhai -... .21°55’ N. 100°25’ E. --- 3 1 126°58' E 86 37 14 Meng-tzu . ..Mongtseu -23°30’ N. 103°30’ E. 1,305 22 3 121°26' E 5 81 2 Mercara' .-. .............. 12°25’ N. 75°44' E. 1,153 50 4 120°10' E -— 44 6 Mien-tu-ho ..Mientuho .. -49°06’ N. 121°03’ E. 700 20 6 116°40‘ E 4 17 2 Min-hsien .. _.Minhsien ._ .34°29' N. 104°01’ E. 2,246 4 1 123°36’ E 42 40 2 Minusinsk .......... 53°42’ N. 91°42’ E. 251 30 5 91°53’ E 1,500 35 4 Mi- shan.. ...... 45°33’ N. 131°45’ E. 134 4 2 130°56‘ E 48 30 5 Miw -.. ...... 36°23’ N. 140°28’ E. 29 56 14 135°46’ E 75 30 5 Miyako --. ........ 39°39’ N. 141°58’ E. 42 69 14 123°30' E 116 12 1 Miyazaki . 31“55’ N. 131°25’ E. 8 30 5 92°48’ E 29 40 4 Mokpo -.. ...... 34°47’ N. 126°23' E. 31 30 5 77°10’ E 2,202 45 4 Mo-mien ._M051mien .. -29°45’ N. 101°45’ E. --- 2 4 151°52' E 26 30 5 Mori ............... 140°34’ E. 11 15 14 103°51' E 5 30 5 Morioka-.. ........ 141°10’ E. 155 29 14 129°12' E 31 39 14 Mosulpo ................. 126°13’ E. 11 12 10 103“54’ E 670 4 10 Mukteswar/Kumaun . ........ . 79°41’ E. 2,311 30 5 Ssu-p'ing ...... . 124°20’ E. 163 14 2 Muroran ............... 42°19’ N. 140°59’ E. 43 30 14 Stantsiya Reynovo -.Reinovo _ . 123°54‘ E. 276 10 3 Murotomisaki . ...... 33°15‘ N. 134°11’ E. 185 32 14 Su-hsiem--- Suhsien -- _ . 117°02' E. -—- l5 1 Mussooree ........... . 7805’ E. 2,116 10 4 Sui-fen-ho __ ............... . 131°09’ E. 512 8 2 Mu-tan-chiang. ...... 44°35’ N. 129°30’ E. 234 38 2 Sui-ning---. ' ‘ - . 105°31’ E. 307 4 1 Myitkina ..... 25°23’ N. 97"24’ E. 145 35 4 Sung-p’an __ - . 103°34' E. 2,883 10 2 Mys Vasileva . .50“OO’ N. 155°23’ E. 16 10 7 Suttsu ........ . 140°14’ E. 16 64 14 Nagano ............. .36°40' N. 138°12’ E. 418 64 14 138'O7' E. 760 8 14 Nagatsuro.-- ...... -34°36’ N. 138°51’ E. 55 13 14 101°02’ E. 1,319 4 2 Na oya ........... .35°10’ N. 136°58’ E. 56 30 5 128°37’ E. 58 37 14 Na 3 ............... .26°12’ N. 127°39’ E. 28 54 14 127°23’ E. 37 11 10 Namponmao. ._25°21’ N. 97°17’ E. 140 17 10 112°59' E. --- 5 l Namwon -35°25’ N. 127°21’ E. 96 10 13 130°41’ E. 561 20 1 Nan- ch’ mg ..Nan ing .. .32°04’ N. 118°47’ E. 62 16 2 121°3l’ E. 8 30 5 Nan-ho-tien ..- ..-Nanhotsien -41°05’ N. 113°53’ E. 1,684 44 6 21°09’ E. 9 44 14 Nan- -p 'eng Chun- tao Lamocks Is. ._ ._23°16’ N. 117°19’ E. 58 44 6 112°34’ E. 782 13 2 NanAp'ing ........................ ' . 118°10’ E. 127 9 2 138°15' E. 13 31 14 Nan-yang ....... 112°32' E. 125 3 2 137°15' E. 560 53 14 Nan-yueh ....... 112°45’ E. 1,309 8 2 100°11’ E. 2,010 11 2 Nape ........... 105°04’ E. 600 5 10 141°13’ E l2 l4 Naze ........... 129°30' E. 3 52 14 115°18' E --- 44 6 Nemuro ......... 145°35' E. 26 73 14 T’ang-ku ______ -_Tangku . 117°40’ E 3 44 6 Nen-chiang ....... . 125°13' E. 222 10 2 Ta-mng ............ Tamng 110°44’ E -—< 5 1 Nerchinskiy Zavod ..Nertchinsky Zavod. -51°19’ N. 119°37' E. 620 35 3 Tan Son _Nhut ---. 106°39' E 31 10 Nevel‘ sk ............ Hon .............. 46°40’ N. 141°52' E. 4 25 14 _ _ - 97°03' E 1,470 25 10 .. 124°21' E. 9 6 hhwe . 125°43' E. 178 14 1 139°03’ E. 4 30 5 T’eng-ch’ Tengchung ________ 25°00' N. 98°49' E. 1, 634 24 2 139°15’ E. 9 7 14 T’eng-ch'ung 2 ______ Tengyueh __________ 24°45’ N. 98°14’ E. 1, 633 10 3 140°42’ E. 47 30 5 Than-boa ............................ 19°48’ N. 105°52’ E. 4 22 3' 102°18’ E. --- 12 3 T’ien- mu-shan- _ Tienmushan ........ 30°20’ N. 119°27’ E. 1,060 2 l Nuwara Eliya‘ . 80°46' E. 1,881 12 4 T’ ien-t’ai Shan ...... Tientaishan ________ 29°18‘ N. 121°05’ E. 960 2 1 Obihiro ......... 2°55 N. 143°13’ E. 39 30 14 Ti '1' .............. 'I‘ig'il _.. _____ 57°45’ N. 158°19’ E. 22 3 3 Odaigaharayama ... ...... 34°11’ N. 136°06’ E. 1,566 22 14 To yo ............... 35°41’ N. 139°46’ E. 6 30 5 Oita—handa ............... 33°09' N. 131°14' E. 850 21 14 To-lun ................... 42°15' N. 116°13' E. 1,211 4 2 O-mei Shan ............... 29°28’ N. 103°21' E. 3,137 11 2 Tomakomai ............. 42°38' N. 141°36' E. 5 20 14 Onahama ................. 36°57' N. 140°54’ E. 5 42 14 Tomie ................... 32°37’ N. 128°46' E. 27 28 14 Ootacamund‘ ............... 11°24' N. 76°44' E. 2,245 27 4 Tonaru ___________ 33°52' N. 133°19' E. 784 13 14 Osaka ............. 4°39’ N. 135°32’ E. 6 30 5 Toyama ._ ...... ._-36°42’ N. 137°12' E. 9 14 14 Oshima ................. ..34°46’ N. 139°23' E. 191 13 14 T’si-shan _. ...... .--36°09’ N. 117°18’ E. 1,359 5 2 Ostrov Baydukov ..Langr ........ . -53°18’ N. 141°28’ E. 4 7 3 Tsukubasan _. 36°13’ N 140°06’ E. 869 51 14 Ostrov Skrypl'éva _.Skryplevsky ........ 43°02' N. 131°57’ E. 46 17 3 Tsuruga ............ ---35°39’ N 136°04’ E l 55 14 L1ghthouse Tsurugiyama ._ -. -33°51’ N. 134°06’ E. 1,944 6 l4 ........ 34°04’ N. 136°12’ E. 5 20 14 'I"u-men-tzu -__-.-_.Tumentzo _. .43°l2’ N. 131°02’ E. 210 4 l4 ........ ._37°59 N. 124°40’ E. 178 12 10 Tu-mo—t’ e-yu—chi ----Salachi _-- -.-40°33’ N. 110°30’ E. 1025 44 6 Pa ' .-21°29’ N. 109°05' E. 5 44 6 'I‘ung-ch’uan ........ 'I‘ungchwan .--26°30’ N. 102°50’ E. --- 11 3 Pak Song -._ ........ .-15°11' N. 106°12' E. 1,200 11 10 T’ung-hua“ .............. --_41°43' N. 12555 E. 491 4 2 Panasan‘ ............. ._ 7°31’ S. 110°45’ E. 110 14 10 T’ung- en ...... -._27°35' N. 109°04' E. 602 6 2 P an-hs1en .. .PanhSIen . .25°47’ N. 104°39' E. --- 2 1 T’ ung- -1i_1-10 122°15’ E 178 8 2 Pao-shan ... ........ .-25°13’ N. 9915’ E. 1,693 4 2 116°l7‘ E 67 6 l Pavlinovka . ........ .-43°45' N 131°52' E 61 7 3 120°18' E. 6.3 18 2 Pel-p’ei ....... .Pehpel 29°49’ N 106°20' E 298 6 1 108°49' E. --- ll 2 Pel-p’mg ..... .Peipmg ............ 39°57’ N. 116°19' E 52 78 2 120°30' E. 110 14 1 Pei-shan-k'eng... -Joyutang 23°53' N. 120°51' E. 1,015 10 8 112°54' E. --- 5 1 Pei yii- -shan ........ Peiyushan 28°53’ N 122°16’ E. 82 44 6 107°32’ E. --- 3 1 Petropavlosk Kamchatskiy . 158°39’ E. 28 10 5 105°12’ E. --- 1 9 Phu-lien ....................... . 106°37’ E. 116 23 3 136°09’ E. 159 15 14 Piao Chiao 116°48' E. 46 44 6 130°54' E. 221 15 14 130°24’ E. 88 30 14 6 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS TABLE 1.—Location of stations and sources for temperature data used m compllatlon of plate 2—Continued Station name in Name in source Latitude Longitude Altitude Years Source plate 2 (if different (m) of (see name used) record end of table) Unmndake ____________________________ 32°44’ N. 130°15' E. 849 28 14 Unzen-koen __ 130°16’ E. 668 10 14 Urakawa 142°47’ E. 34 30 5 Ussunysk - 131°57’ E. 25 27 3 Ust-Apuka' 169°35’ E. 8 30 5 U‘ _,, 132°33’ E. 42 30 14 V1nh ________ _- . 105°40‘ E. 6 22 3 Vladivostok -_ “Vladivostock ________ 43°07’ N. 131°55’ E. 29 35 3 Vzrnor’ye _-Higasisiraura ______ 47°51’ N. 142°31‘ E. 4 10 13 Wauma ___ 136°54’ E. 7 30 5 Wakkanm a 141°4l' E. 3 30 5 Wamena‘ _ 158°57’ E. 1,660 4 5 Wei-ch’ang 1 17°34’ E. 850 5 2 Wel-ning _ 104°14’ E. --- 4 2 Wellington‘ 76°47’ E. 1,890 --~ 7 Wen‘chou _ 120°49’ E. 5 17 2 127°26' E. 35 40 14 Wu-ch'iu Hsu 119"27’ E. 62 44 6 Wu-chou ___________________ . 111°25’ E. 119 19 2 W_u-hu __________________ _._-31°20’ N. 113°21’ E. 13 11 2 -_-_19°30’ N. 103°30' E. 1,060 10 9, 10 3_0°00’ N 103°03’ E. 650 12 5 __30°27’ N 130°30’ E. 15 30 5 . _ 38°15’ N 140°21' E. 151 63 14 " .-Yangchu _ 37°52' N 112°35’ E. 805 5 6 a-tung ___- ____Yatung _-_- .__ 27°29’ N 88°55’ E. --- 45 4 Yentchi ______ __Yenchi V ____42°55’ N 129°30’ E. 168 15 6 ___________ 92°09’ E. 78 30 5 ______ 122°12' E. 4 42 2 124°22' E. 13 26 14 139°39’ E. 40 30 14 _______ 102°37' E. 1,671 5 2 113°10’ E. --- 14 1 109°32’ E. 2 5 2 i 110°55' E. 371 5 2 108°03’ E. 122 44 6 Yu-yang ________________________________ 28°48‘ N 108°46’ E. 629 11 2 ‘ Station not shown on plate 1. Sources: 1. Climatolgzical Data, v. 2, Air temperature. Academia Sinica, Natl Research Inst eteorology 2. An Atlas of Chinese Clgimatology (Chung- kuo Ch 1-hou T’u), Office Central Meteorol. Bureau: Map Pub ishing Soc, Peiping, 1960. English transla- tion JPRS: 16, 321. 3. Ghelni, Ernest. Climatological Atlas of East Asia: Tousewe Press, Shanghai, 944. Climatological Tables of Observatories in India: India Meteorol. Dept. 1953 World Meteorological Organization. World Weather Records, 1951—60, v. 4 Asia: U. S. Environ. Sc: Services Admin, 1967. Monthly Climatic Data for the World: U. S. Environ. Data Service, issued monthly. Weather and Climate of China. US. Army Air Force, Air Weather Service, Technical Report No. 105—34,1945. Cham ion, H.G. A prelimina survey of the forest types of India and Burma: In ian Forest RecordaN (N .). v. 1, no. 1, 1936. Summary Report of Meteorological Data in Taiwan: Taiwan Weather Bureau, 5-"? EDS-”HP l . Bruzon, E., and Carton, P., Le Climat de l’Indochine Francaise, Sect. des Sciences, Observ. centr. de l’Indochine, 1930. 10. World-wide Airfield Summaries, v. I, Southeast Asia, v. III Far East: US. Naval Weather Service, 1967. 11. Yeafly Weather Summary, 1967: Rep. Vietnam, Directorate of Meteorology, 12. Climatological data of selected meteorological stations in Burma (1950— 1 v 1: Burma Meteorol. Dept., 1962. 13. TheTtel‘mpeil'ggulre of Japan, 1916—1925, v. 1, pt. 1: Central Meteorol. Obs. o o, . 14. Climatfe records of Japan and the Far East area: Central Meteorol. Obs. Tokyo, 1954. The climatic data used vary in quality. Although most data are based on long-term (30 years or more) records, many are based on short-term observations. More significant is the fact that even the long-term data are, in the life of a forest, short term; that is, climatic fluctuations could conceivably occur over a period of a century, but the forest boundaries would take centuries to adjust to such climatic changes. Some sets of data cannot be accurately compared with other sets; the daily readings, the basis for the data plotted, may have been taken at different times at different stations. Some short-term observations moreover are based on different intervals of years than other short- term (or even long-term) observations. The term “mesic” is here used in a general sense to mean a climatic regime in which precipitation is well distributed throughout the growing season; in no more than 2 months of the growing season is precipitation less than 10mm. In this definition of mesic, some areas are included that have marked monsoonal climates; most have a dry season occurring between growing seasons. I have purposely excluded areas occupied by what Champion (1936) considered “semi-evergreen” or “deciduous” tropical forests; the forests in these areas display obvious modifications attributable to marked, lengthy dry seasons. Four main factors are probably responsible for the slight anomalies that appear on plate 2: (1) The vegeta- tional boundaries are conceptual and, to varying de- grees, imprecise; (2) the apparent parameters may be only approximations of the actual temperature limi- tations; (3) some of the data are short term; and (4) during periods of climatic change such as we are defin- itely in, a forest may take a few centuries to adapt to the climate in which it lives; that is, the dominant trees in a forest may be several centuries old and may have assumed dominance under a somewhat different climate than now prevails in that area. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST SYNONYMS Southern tropical wet evergreen forests (Champion, 1936), Northern tropical wet evergreen forests in part (Champion, 1936), Dipterocarp forest (Brown, 1919), Rain forest in part (Wang, 1961), Tropical Rain forest in part (Richards, 1952). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY The Tropical Rain forest is broad-leaved evergreen and multistratal, always with three main closed canopies and typically an emergent stratum. Buttress- ing and cauliflory are common. Lianes are both di- verse and profuse and are typically best developed along water courses and other openings. The shrub stratum is not well developed. Species diversity is high; stands dominated by a single species are uncommon. Leaves typically fall into the restricted mesophyll size class of Webb (1959); macrophylls are present, but typ- ically in the shrub stratum. Drip tips are common, par- ticularly on leaves of young trees of the upper canopy and trees of the lower canopies. Leaves are sclerophyll- ous; 75 percent or more of the species have entire mar- gins; deeply dissected (lobed) leaves are rare (probably 5 percent or less of the species). FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA 7 DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The distribution of Tropical Rain forest in southeast- ern Asia shown on the map is modified from Richards (1952). Exceptions to the distribution shown by Richards are: (1) The rain forest in upper Assam and northeastern Burma is excluded (see discussion of “Paratropical Rain forest”); and (2) the rain forest of southern Hainan is provisionally included, more on the basis of climate than on available physiognomic data. FLORISTICS The floristics of the Tropical Rain forest in south- eastern Asia have been treated by a number of workers (for example, Brown, 1919; Champion, 1936; Richards, 1952; van Steenis, 1957). The most prominent group is Dipterocarpaceae, which typically forms the emergent stratum and upper canopy. Mixed with the dip- terocarps, however, are a number of other groups, not- ably Meliaceae, Myristicaceae, Burseraceae, Lauraceae, Anacardiaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Gut- tiferae, Ebenaceae, and Magnoliaceae. Holarctic groups are almost totally absent, except for Fagaceae. The lianes are members of families such as An- nonaceae, Menispermaceae, Icacinaceae, Anar- cadiaceae, Vitaceae, and Apocynaceae. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) Much of the Tropical Rain forest in southeastern Asia is bounded by semievergreen forests, and hence the boundary there is determined more by precipita- tion than by temperature. In four areas, however, rain forest extends in an unbroken expanse from Tropical to Paratropical Rain forests: near Chittagong (eastern Bangladesh), in northeastern Burma, along the coast of Viet Nam, and in the uplands of the Philippine Is- lands. As discussed in the following section, the north- ern part of the Chittagong tract (Silchar) has physiog- nomic characteristics of Paratropical Rain forest, as does the forest in northeastern Burma (Bhamo, Lashio, Myitkina, Kengtung). In these areas, the mean annual temperature approaches, but does not reach, 25°C. Along the coast of Viet Nam, Tropical Rain forest reaches its northern .limit south of Hatinh (mean an- nual temperature = 24.4°C) and north of Donghoi (mean annual temperature = 250°C). Along the flanks of the Vietnamese plateau country, stations such as Kontum and Banmethuot are outside the Tropical Rain forest. On Luzon, Tropical Rain forest gives way to Paratropical Rain forest between altitudes of 450 to 700 m, that is, between a mean annual temperature of 24.0 and 258°C (Brown, 1919). Whether the mean an- nual range of temperature is low, as on Mount Maquil- ing on Luzon, or moderate, as along coastal Viet Nam, or intermediate, as in northeastern Burma, the transi- tion from Tropical to Paratropical Rain forest takes place in areas where mean annual temperature is ap- proximately 25°C. PARATROPICAL RAIN FOREST SYNONYMS Northern tropical west evergreen forests in part (Champion, 1936), Mid-mountain forest (Brown, 1919), extratropical rain forest in part (Wang, 1961), Tropical Rain forest in part (Richards, 1952), Subtropical Rain forest (Richards, 1952), Submontane Rain forest (Richards, 1952). The term “Paratropical Rain forest” was first pro- posed by Wolfe (1969a) as a substitute for Richards’ (1952) "Subtropical Rain forest.” As studies pro- gressed, it became apparent that Richards’ “Sub- montane Rain forest” ( 1952) was not formationally dis- tinct. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY Paratropical Rain forest has a confused history of nomenclature, being sometimes grouped with Tropical Rain forest and sometimes excluded. The Paratropical Rain forest is preponderantly broad-leaved evergreen, but broad-leaved deciduous trees and conifers may be ' minor elements (particularly in secondary vegetation). To the casual observer, Paratropical Rain forest might resemble Tropical Rain forest. The most critical dis- tinction is in the number of closed canopies. Wang (1961, p. 156) and Brown (1919) note that this forest is fundamentally composed of two closed canopies (in con- trast to three in Tropical Rain forest), "with spreading crowns of large trees and palms protruding above the general canopy (Wang, 1961, p. 155),” that is, an emer- gent stratum. On Mount Maquiling, Brown (1919) shows that the emergent stratum of Tropical Rain forest gradually disappears, and the upper closed canopy gradually dissolves into the emergent stratum of Paratropical Rain forest. Champion (1936) has noted a similar breaking-up of the high canopy and irregu- larity of the emergent stratum in the rain forest on the upper part of the Chittagong tract, upper Assam, and northeastern Burma. In other physiognomic features, Paratropical and Tropical Rain forest are closely similar. The leaves of Paratropical Rain forest may be slightly smaller than those of the Tropical Rain forest (Brown, 1919), but this needs verification because of the small sample size. Species that have entire-margined leaves, ranging from about 60 to 75 percent, are fewer in Paratropical than in Tropical Rain forest. The recognition of Paratropical Rain forest as a 8 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS 0F EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS major forest type is necessary, for this forest differs from other nontropical broad-leaved evergreen forests in a number of major physiognomic criteria: (1) The height of the canopy is greater than in any forest ex- cept the Tropical Rain forest; (2) an emergent stratum of broad-leaved evergreens is present; (3) the leaf size is very close to that of Tropical Rain forest and differs considerably from the smaller leaved Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest; (4) the percentage of species that have entire-margined leaves is high; (5) the diversity of families, genera, and species is sur- passed only by Tropical Rain forest (the notophyllous forest tends to be dominated by four families— Fagaceae, Magnoliaceae, Lauraceae, and Theaceae— whereas the Paratropical Rain forest has a wide array of families that may dominate); (6) buttressing and cauliflory are prominent; (7) lianes are prominent and very diverse. In general, the Paratropical Rain forest is much more closely allied to Tropical Rain forest than to any other forest type, a view supported by the work of Beard (1944) and Webb (1959). To label Paratropical Rain forest as another “subtropical” forest type obscures the close physiognomic relation between Tropical and Paratropical Rain forests and would seem to indicate a close relation between Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen and Paratropical Rain forests, a relation that is in fact not close, either physiognomi- cally or floristically. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The Paratropical Rain forest largely occupies low- land Taiwan (up to 500 m; Li, 1963), most of lowland Hainan, lowland southern China (up to 1000 m; Wang, 1961) and adjacent areas of Burma, Laos, and Viet Nam. As noted in the discussion of Tropical Rain forest, in northeastern Burma "Giant trees tend to be fewer and more grouped‘”” and “the bulk of the main canopym is perhaps less continuous and even'"” (Champion, 1936, p. 42). The upper Assam rain forest is “Practically identical in form with the North Burma tropical evergreen forest""’ (Champion, 1936, p. 47), whereas most of the Chittagong tract is three storied (Champion, 1936, p. 40, 49). On the larger islands of the Philippines, Paratropical Rain forest is confined to middle altitudes. Lowland areas of the Ryukyu Islands are pro- visionally shown as Paratropical Rain forest. These lowland areas are almost entirely denuded of their original vegetation. The flora that is known, however, is composed primarily of species (Hara, 1959) that typi- cally occupy coastal or disturbed sites in paratropical areas. The forest remnants in the uplands are part of the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest, judged by Walker’s data (1957). FLORISTICS Part of the problem in the recognition of Paratropical Rain forest as a distinct vegetational unit is that it is very closely related to the Tropical Rain forest, having many families in common with it. Characteristic families include Meliaceae, Myristicaceae, Burse- raceae, Lauraceae, Anacardiaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Guttiferae, Ebenacea'é, Magnoliaceae, Sterculi- aceae, and Araliaceae (Wang, 1961). Dipterocarpaceae are represented, but much less abundantly than in Tropical Rain forest. Considering that the dipterocarps primarily occupy the emergent stratum and upper canopy of the Tropical Rain forest, their decrease in importance and diversity in the Paratropical Rain forest is expected. The Paratropical Rain forest includes members of some genera typically thought of as “temperate”: Acer, Alnus, Berchemia, Ampelopsis, Celastrus, Celtis, Euonymus, Hydrangea, Koelreuteria, Myrica, Par- thenocissus, Photinia, Pyracantha, Rhamnus, Rhododendron, Rhus, Rosa, Rubus, Salix, Styrax, Ul- mus, Viburnum, Vitis, and Zelkova. These “temperate” genera are better represented in areas geographically close to temperate regions than in the isolated occur- rences of upland Paratropical Rain forest in equatorial regions. Most of these “temperate” genera are more typical of disturbed vegetation (particularly along streams) than of the primary forest (see habitats listed in Li, 1963). Some conifers—Amentotaxus, Pinus, Podocarpus, and the endemic Glyptostrobus—form a minor element in Paratropical Rain forest. As winter cold increases in Paratropical Rain forest, the physiognomy appears from available data to re- main unchanged, but floristically some changes do ap- pear. Diversity does tend to lessen, as taxa sensitive to winter cold disappear. For example, Wang (1961) has noted that several Dipterocarpaceae present in the Paratropical Rain forest of Yunnan and adjacent Burma are lacking or rare in the rain forest in south- eastern China. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) The Paratropical and Tropical Rain forests are de- lineated approximately by the 25°C mean annual tem- perature, as discussed under Tropical Rain forest. The upper altitudinal limit (where not affected by light fac- tors on equatorial mountains) and the northern latitudinal limit appear to be similarly limited by mean annual temperature. Along the coast of China, Paratropical Rain forest extends to the latitude of Fu- chou and south of San-tuoao (Wang, 1961), a boundary approximating a mean annual temperature of 20°C. In regions of low mean annual range of temperature such FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA 9 as Viet Nam and peninsular India, the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest extends into areas that have a mean annual temperature of approximately 20°C, whereas the Paratropical Rain forest altitudi- nally below extends upward to areas having a mean annual temperature of 21°C. The slight inconsistencies (for example, Abu, Che-lang Chiao) only reinforce the conclusion that some aspect of overall heat accumula- tion, which can be only approximately expressed by mean annual temperature, delineates Paratropical Rain forest from subtropical forests. Some of the data, moreover, are short term (for example, for Xien Khouang and Pak Song). De Candolle’s suggestion (1874) of the significance of the 20°C mean annual temperature in delimiting “megatherms” from "mesotherms" is remarkably in- tuitive, considering the lack of climatological data available at the time of his work. The concept of the significance of the 20°C mean annual temperature has persisted in the literature (for example, Beard, 1944) despite the lack of corroborating meteorological data. The data presented here, however, substantiate the significance of this mean annual temperature in de- limiting two major forest types. Indeed, de Candolle’s megatherms are largely restricted to areas in which the mean annual temperature is approximately 20°C or higher, because the megatherms are largely charac- teristic of the Tropical and Paratropical Rain forests. Garnier (in Fosberg and others, 1961) suggested cer- tain purely meteorological criteria for the recognition of the “humid tropics,” including as primary that at least 8 months of the year have a mean temperature of 20°C or greater. This parameter, like the 20°C mean annual temperature, is an overall expression of warmth, and indeed it closely parallels the parameter suggested here and has the same exceptions (for exam- ple, Abu, Xien Khouang). The occurrence or lack of freezing temperatures does not appear to have any significance in delimiting forest types in eastern Asia. Temperatures below —1°C have been recorded at many stations in the Paratropical Rain forest in Burma, Viet Nam, mainland China, and Taiwan. Temperatures as low as —2°C have been re- corded in northern Hainan (Zaychikov and Panfilov, 1964, p. 508 of English translation). Other stations have not recorded subzero temperatures in this forest type. Freezing temperatures typically occur in cooler forest types, but stations such as Chapa (0°C), Haka (06°C), Kanpetlet (06°C), Cherrapunji (06°C), and Mahabaleshwar (67°C) in the Notophyllous Broad- leaved Evergreen forest and even Coonoor (22°C) and Kodaikanal (28°C) in the Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest have not recorded subzero tempera- tures. Considering the fact that the N otophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest occupies areas that regularly receive freezing temperatures (T’eng—ch’ung and most other Chinese stations, as well as all stations on Kyushu, Honshu, and Shikoku) or that have never experienced freezing temperatures, the occurrence of freezing temperatures—occasional or regular—has no significance to the physiognomy. The value of 18°C for the mean temperature of the coldest month has traditionally been used for delineat- ing tropical from subtropical climates. As can be seen from plate 2, this value bears no relation to the bound- aries between major vegetational units. Perhaps one reason that this value seemed important to some climatologists is that the lowland boundary between the Tropical and Paratropical Rain forests does indeed come close to that cold month isotherm, and data pre- viously available were largely on the lowlands. Only within the past several decades have upland data be- come available to indicate that the 18°C cold month mean is not critical to vegetational boundaries. MICROPHYLLOUS BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN FOREST SYNONYMS Southern wet temperate forest (Champion, 1936), Northern wet temperate forest (Champion, 1936), Himalayan moist temperate forest (Champion, 1936), Broad-leaved Evergreen Sclerophyllous forest in part (Wang, 1961), Montane Rain forest in part (Richards, 1952). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY Few data are available on the structure of the Mi- crophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. The bulk of the forest is broad-leaved evergreen, although Cham- pion (1936) notes that in the upper part broad-leaved deciduous trees form a minor element. In areas that receive only moderate precipitation, conifers are pres- ent. Stratification is not clearly evident, and em- ergents—except for conifers—are absent. Large woody climbers are present but, according to Champion (1936, p. 218), are not conspicuous. The leaves are sclerophyllous. The full range of the percentage of species that have entire-margined leaves is not known; data from Simla based on Collett (1921) indicate a range centering around 45 percent. Structural and physiognomic data are more complete on this forest as it occurs in New Zealand (see “Forests of Australasia”). The absence of conifers in the Microphyllous Broad- leaved Evergreen forest in the isolated patches grow- ing in peninsular India may be due to historical fac- tors, that is, the isolation from sources of conifers—the Mixed Coniferous forest—to become an emergent stratum. 10 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS The Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest could conceivably be confused With the bulk of Richard’s Montane Rain forest (1952). Data presented by Brown (1919) and concurred in by Richards (1952) indicate that, at least in part, the scrubby Montane Rain forest results from a lack of light on many equato- rial mountains. The true Montane Rain forest (Elfin woodland of some authors) is characterized by gnarled trees and shrubs, unlike the typically straight-holed Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. Because the distribution of the Montane Rain forest is con- trolled more by light conditions than by temperature, this forest is found in climates that on temperature alone are suitable for Paratropical Rain forest, Mi- crophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest, or Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. Because this report is concerned primarily with mesic forest distribution under “normal” light conditions, the Montane Rain forest is not discussed further. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest is primarily confined to high altitudes in the Himalayas and peninsular India (Champion, 1936). The type has not previously been recognized in China, but Wang (1961, p. 148) notes that the forest altitudinally above typical Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest in Yunnan is dominated by “A species of small-leaved evergreen oak‘”” that forms a dense crown. The shrub layer includes broad-leaved deciduous species, and a few woody climbers are present; that is, this forest is an eastern extension of the Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest of the Himalayas. If the delimiting temperature parameters suggested ‘ here are valid, the temperature data for upland Taiwan indicate that altitudinally between the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen and Mixed Con- iferous forests should be a narrow belt of Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. No vegetational studies have been made of this ecotonal region (1,800—2,000 m), but the microphyllous forest may in- deed be recognizable. On Taiwan, the notophyllous forest is, as elsewhere in southeastern Asia, dominated by evergreen members of Fagaceae, Lauraceae, and Theaceae. From the lists and altitudinal ranges for members of these families given by Li (1963), about 60 percent of the members that occur between 1,800 and 2,000 m are, on ,the average, microphyllous. Wang (1961, p. 66), moreover, notes that the lower part of the coniferous forest contains “a considerable propor- tion” of broad-leaved evergreens; it also contains woody climbers and epiphytic forms. These features are more typical of broad-leaved than of coniferous forests. FLORISTICS This forest is floristically related to the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. The broad-leaved ever- greens are primarily members of Fagaceae and Lauraceae, although Theaceae, Magnoliaceae, and Ericaceae may be prominent. The coniferous element, which is not diverse, is composed of species that are also members of the Mixed Coniferous forest. The broad-leaved deciduous trees and shrubs are primarily of holarctic affinity (for example, Deutzia, Rosa, Rubus, Euptelea, Viburnum, Carpinus, Acer, Alnus, Betula). TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) The boundary between the Microphyllous and Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forests reflects some aspect of summer heat that approximates a warm month mean of 20°C. This may be the same factor that delineates broad-leaved deciduous from coniferous forests; in one sense, the microphyll leaf size of the plants may be analogous to the microphyll and nanophyll size of the conifers, which tend to be favored in areas of low summer heat accumulation. The bound- ary between the Microphyllous Broad-leaved Ever- green and Coniferous forests is not well controlled; more climatic data are needed from the upland forests of equatorial regions, where dominantly coniferous forests occur above dominantly broad leaved evergreen forests (van Steenis, 1935). It is tempting to suggest that a mean annual temperature of 13°C approximates the vegetational boundary. NOTOPHYLLOUS BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN FOREST SYNONYMS Southern subtropical wet hill forests (Champion, 1936); Northern subtropical wet hill forests (Cham- pion, 1936); Evergreen Sclerophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest in part (Wang, 1961); "oak-laurel forest” of various workers. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY The primary forest is broad-leaved evergreen, but with minor admixtures of broad-leaved deciduous trees (but not typically in the crown) and shrubs and, less typically, conifers. Stratification is not clearly defined. Boles are thin and straight; buttressing and cauliflory are almost totally absent. Woody climbers may be pro- fuse but are of far less diversity than in the Paratropi- cal Rain forest. The leaves are typically sclerophyllous but without well-defined drip tips. The leaf size is the “small mesophyll” class of Sato (1946), that is, the notophyll size class of Webb (1959). The percentage of FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA species that have entire-margined leaves varies from about 40 to 60 percent. In individual stands of primary forest, broad-leaved evergreens are overwhelmingly dominant; Yoshino (1968) records that almost 95 percent of the basal area represents broad-leaved evergreens, while broad- leaved deciduous trees are less than one percent. From Sato’s data (1946), the broad-leaved deciduous trees are typically not members of the crown. Wang (1961), however, notes that the secondary vegetation may be dominantly coniferous (primarily Pinus) or broad- leaved deciduous or mixtures of both. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest covers large upland areas of Burma, Laos, and Viet Nam, but the most extensive development is in central and southern China and southern Japan. The northern boundary in China is uncertain because of the exten- sive cultivation, but most workers (for example Grubov and Fedorov, 1964; Lee, 1964) consider that all the Yangtze River valley and the coastal area to about lat 35° N. was originally broad-leaved evergreen. Cer- tainly the 8 members of evergreen Fagaceae and 15 members of Lauraceae Steward (1958) records from the lower Yangtze prOvinces of Kiangsu and Anhwei are indicative of notophyllous, sclerophyllous forest. In J a- pan, this forest cloaks the lower slopes of Kyushu, Shikoku, and southern and central Honshu. I The forests of Anhwei and Kiangsu are further in- terpreted to have a high proportion of deciduous species resulting from the same factor that affects the forests of eastern United States (see p. 25), that is, the intense winter outbreaks of polar air. In maritime areas of eastern Asia that have a cold month mean of 1° to 2°C (for example, coastal Korea and Japan), the proximity of the ocean probably yields a lower diurnal range of temperature than would continental areas of the same cold month mean. Wang’s map (1961) is, unfortunately, highly mis- leading. He shows most of the Yangtze River valley occupied by Mixed Mesophytic forest but makes clear in the text that Mixed Mesophytic forest actually has a lower altitudinal limit of 500— 1,000 m (compare Wolfe, 1971). FLORISTICS The term “oak-laurel forest” has been applied to the notophyllous forest. Several genera of evergreen Fagaceae and Lauraceae accompanied by Theaceae and Magnoliaceae make up the bulk of the forest. Al- though broad-leaved evergreen species are the vegeta- tional dominants, broad-leaved deciduous trees and 11 shrubs make up 14 percent of the species (based on Yoshino, 1968). Holarctic elements are conspicuous; they include Salicaceae, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, de- ciduous Fagaceae, Liquidambar, Rosaceae, and Aceraceae, elements particularly notable in disturbed or secondary vegetation. Thus while the dominants have tropical affinities, a considerable proportion of the species has temperate affinities. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) According to Wang (1961) and Cheng (1939), domi- ' nantly broad-leaved evergreen forest extends up to about 2,200 m in western Szechuan, making stations such as Pi-chieh and Mo-mien (about 2,000 m) a part of the notophyllous forest; vegetation above this altitude tends to be an admixture including conifers and broad- leaved deciduous trees. Consequently, a mean annual temperature of 13°C approximates the upper boundary of the notophyllous forest. In Korea, stations such as Pusan and Mokpo—both slightly higher than 13°C— fall near the northern margin of the forest. The work of Yoshino (1968) indicates that stations such as Mito, Utsonimiya, and Maebashi are in an area in whichthe notophyllous forest is in ecotone with the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest, whereas Tokyo and Yokohama are in a definite notophyllous forest. Again, a mean annual tempera- ture of about 13°C appears to approximate the boundary between the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen and Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forests. The boundary between the notophyllous forest and the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Deciduous forest is very uncertain because of the extensive dis- turbance of vegetation in central and northern China. The available data, however, indicate that possibly the same factor controlling the boundary between the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous and Mixed Mesophytic forests is operative in limiting the notophyllous forest, that is, a cold month mean of about 1°C. The traditional lower boundary of subtropical cli- mate has typically been placed along a cold month mean of 6°C (Landsberg, 1964). Such a boundary has no apparent relation to vegetational boundaries. The reason for selecting this value as a climatic boundary is not apparent. MIXED BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN AND DECIDUOUS FOREST SYNONYMS Lower oak forest in part (Wang, 1961). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY Almost nothing is known of the original structure and physiognomy of the Mixed Broad-leaved Ever- green and Deciduous forest, because most of the areal extent is in a region that has been heavily cultivated for centuries. Wang (1961) is of the opinion that the forest was dominantly broad-leaved deciduous, and certainly the cultivated trees and secondary vegetation are preponderantly broad-leaved deciduous; a few species of broad-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs are known. As the secondary forest in the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest region also is mainly deciduous, the physiognomy of a secondary forest may have little bearing on the physiognomy of the original forest. In Korea, areas with basically the same temper- ature parameters as Mei-hsien must occur in the transect from Sachon to Kwangu; the forest in this area is considered to have a large proportion of broad- leaved evergreens. The physiognomy of this original vegetation may, therefore, have been primarily broad-leaved evergreen or, more probably, a mixture of broad-leaved evergreen and deciduous plants. If, as the temperature parame- ters of the Mixed Mesophytic forest indicate, most notophyllous broad-leaved evergreens do not live in re- gions where the mean of the cold month is less than 1°C, then the forest would have been depauperate in regard to this element. Similarly, broad-leaved decidu— ous plants decrease significantly in diversity if the mean annual temperature is greater than 13°C, and consequently this element also would be depauperate. The forest might reasonably be expected to have re— sembled structurally the Mixed Mesophytic forest ex- cept for a higher proportion of broad-leaved evergreens and a more monotonous appearance resulting from lower diversity. Physiognomic characteristics of the foliage are equally hypothetical. Bailey and Sinnot (1916) suggest that the cultivated flora in an area has about the same leaf margin characteristics as the native flora. If this is so, the short list given by 'Wang (1961, p. 92—92) indi- cates that the percentage of species that have entire- margined leaves is 41 for the area near Hsi-an. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) Presumably most of the Mixed Broad-leaved Ever- green and Deciduous forest occupied a broad area cen- tering in the valley of the Yellow River. Presumably this forest is present in a thin belt in southern Korea; investigations of this area should provide much data on the structure and physiognomy of the forest. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS FLORISTICS Some of the plants listed by Wang (1961) are clearly escapees from cultivation. Others he considers as na- tive to the region. There is a notable occurrence of ele- ments in the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and De- ciduous forest that also occur in the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest: Quercus, Gleditsia, Paulownia, Hovenia, Pistacia, Broussonetia, Catalpa, Firmiana, Toona, Lindera, Machilus, Cocculus, Callicarpa. Less prominent are elements that also occur in the Mixed Mesophytic forest: Pterocarya, Kalopanax, Pteroceltis, U lmus, Zelkova, Sophora. Nat- uralized genera include: Albizzia, Melia, Castanea, Juglans. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) This vegetation occupies the area not certainly occ- upied by contiguous forest types; the suggested param- eters are therefore discussed under those forest types. MIXED BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN AND CONIFEROUS FOREST SYNONYMS Evergreen oak and deciduous hardwood forest (Wang, 1961); Evergreen Sclerophyllous Broad-leaved forest in part (Wang, 1961); Cyclobalanopsis type (Yoshino, 1968); Cornus kousa-Acer crataegifolium- Bobua myrtacea—Association (Sato, 1946); Deciduous broad-leaved tree mixed with evergreen broad-leaved tree formation (Sato, 1946); Tsuga sieboldii- Association (Sato, 1946). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY Broad-leaved evergreens and needle-leaved ever- greens are dominant in the Mixed Broad-leaved Ever- green and Coniferous forest; typically the broad—leaved evergreens predominate. In some parts of the range of this forest, conifers (except for pines) are lacking; whether this is a result of selective cutting or historical factors is uncertain. Broad-leaved deciduous trees may share in the dominance of the lower (second) tree stratum. Typically, woody climbers are present. Sato (1946) indicates that approximately 50 percent of the species are microphyllous. In basal area, Yoshino’s (1968) data indicate that about 70 percent of the stands are broad-leaved evergreen, 27 percent coniferous, and 3 percent broad-leaved deciduous. The percentage of species that have entire-margined leaves ranges from about 30 to 35 percent (data based on lists from Wang, 1961; Sato, 1946; Yoshino, 1968). FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA 13 DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) Extensive areas on the flanks of the southwestern plateau of China are occupied by Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest. The narrow ecotonal region between the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Ever- green and Mixed Mesophytic forests in the Yangtze River valley probably represents Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest; the forest below Mixed Mesophytic forest on T’ien-mu Shan, for exam- ple, contains a mixture of broad~leaved evergreens and conifers, with broad-leaved deciduous trees a minor element. Yoshino (1968) recognized that her Cy- clobalanopsis type contained a higher proportion of broad-leaved deciduous and particularly coniferous trees than the Castanopsis type (=Notophyllus Broad- leaved Evergreen forest); these two vegetational types form a mosaic in the hills rising from the Kanto Plain, the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest occupying cooler sites. This forest occupies cer- tain belts in the altitudinal series of vegetation in Kyushu and Shikoku. Hara (1959) recognized the peculiar admixture of conifers and broad-leaved ever- greens about 300—600 In above Izuhara (Tsushima Is- lands); on Ullungdo the vegetation is mixed broad- leaved evergreen and deciduous. Hara (1959, p. 56) considered remarkable the mixture of temperate coni- fers and broad-leaved deciduous trees in the domi- nantly broad-leaved evergreen forest of the Oki Islands in the Japan Sea. The climatic data for Saigo (almost at sea level) approach those for the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous Forest; a slight decrease in mean annual temperature (O.7°C), moving upslope on the Oki Islands, should in fact produce the climatic parameters under which the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest lives. Presumably the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest is developed on the Sea of 'J apan margin of Honshu in forests that have traditionally been interpreted as broad-leaved evergreen (similarly, the Cyclobalanopsis type has been traditionally interpreted as broad-leaved evergreen.) FLORISTICS The elements of the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest are drawn primarily from the adjacent vegetational types. Although the vegetation is broad-leaved evergreen and coniferous, Yoshino’s data indicate that 28 percent of the species are broad- leaved deciduous and are species characteristically found in the Mixed Mesophytic forest. These include species of genera such as Acer and Carpinus. It was probably the high percentage of broad-leaved decidu- ous species characteristic of the Mixed Mesophytic forest that led Wang (1961) to include the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest in the Mixed Mesophytic forest. Typically, the broad-leaved evergreen elements are shared with the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest, and the coniferous elements are shared largely with the Mixed Coniferous forest. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) Stations that are certainly in this forest type have one temperature factor in common, a mean of the cold month 1°C or higher. Stations in the Mixed Mesophytic forest all have a cold month mean less than 1°C. This cold month mean is apparently related to the factor that, delimits most broad-leaved evergreens; indeed, the only main physiognomic feature that distinguishes Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous from Mixed Mesophytic forest is the greatly reduced broad- leaved evergreen element in the Mixed Mesophytic. MIXED MESOPHYTIC FOREST SYNONYMS Mixed Mesophytic forest in part (Wang, 1961); Cas- tanea zone (Hara, 1959); Acer sieboldianum-Carpinus tschnoskii-Ilex crenata-Association (Sato, 1946); Hamamelis japonica-Acer sieboldianum-Association (Sato, 1946). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY Below the canopy in the Mixed Mesophytic forest smaller trees occur with poorly defined stratification (Wang, 1961). The dominant trees of the canopy are broad-leaved deciduous. Broad-leaved evergreen trees are a minor element, but broad-leaved evergreens are more prominent as small trees or shrubs. Conifers are typically a minor, though diverse, element in this forest. Woody climbers are present. From Sato’s data, the leaf size is about evenly divided between notophylls and smaller size classes; nanophylls make up as much as 10 percent. It is emphasized, however, that Sato in- cluded all plants in his figures; many of the broad- leaved evergreens are microphylls, particularly among the larger trees. The percentage of species that have entire-margined leaves ranges from about 28 to 38 per- cent. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The distribution of the Mixed Mesophytic forest is modified from Wang (1961) to accord with his text statements regarding altitudinal range in China. The 14 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS patch of this forest shown on the Shantung Peninsula is hypothetical, but this area has the temperature pa- rameters occupied by Mixed Mesophytic forest elsewhere in Asia. Floristically, the Shantung Penin- sula does have species common in the Mixed Mesophy- tic forest (Kazakova, 1964, p. 470 of English transla- tion). The distribution shown for Korea is after Wang (1961). In Japan, the distribution shown is primarily after Wang (1961), but the southern boundary is in accord with Miyawaki (1967). FLORISTICS The floristic elements of Mixed Mesophytic forest have been exhaustively analyzed by Wang (1961). This forest is the richest of all broad-leaved deciduous forests, containing a diverstiy of members of Ace- raceae, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, Rosaceae, Fagaceae, and many other families. Wang has em- phasized that no species or family is dominant in this forest. Other conspicuous elements are the many re- licts, among them, Cercidiphyllum, Euptelea, and Davidia, although most of these are also present in the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) The Mixed Mesophytic forest occupies a very limited range of temperatures. Stations near the northern or upper altitudinal limit all have a mean cold month temperature of —2°C or somewhat higher, whereas sta- tions that are in Mixed Northern Hardwood or Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest all have a cold month mean below this value. As the Mixed Mesophytic forest differs from these forest types primarily by the pres- ence of notophyllous broad-leaved evergreens, a limit- ing factor of winter cold is reasonable. The hypothesis that the Mixed Mesophytic forest in central China lives under more equable conditions than the same forest type in eastern China, Korea, and Japan has apparently developed from extrapolating from climatic data for low altitudes and applying the precarious generality that mean annual range de- creases upslope. In actuality, the climatic data from central and eastern China indicate little change in equability going upslope. Compare, for example, the pairs of data for T’ien-mu—shan and Han-k’ou, T’ien-t’ai Shan and Han-k’ou, Lu Shan and Chiu-chang, Heng Shan and Ch’ang-sha, Ya-an and Mo-mien, and Mo- mien and K’ang—ting, which show either a slight de- crease or increase in equability. Moreover, the hazard of inferring from "normal” lapse rates the mean annual temperature of vegetation at higher altitudes is shown by data for Chinese stations, where lapse rates vary from about 0.4 to 06°C, that is, :20 percent variation from the normal 0.5°C/100 m. Extrapolating from the available climatic data, pri- mary mesic broad-leaved deciduous forest could exist under a mean annual range of 19°C. The altitudinal range of a mean annual temperature of about 10°C, however, would be extremely limited, and con- sequently broad-leaved deciduous forest in an area of mean annual range of 19°C would be extremely limited areally. Indeed, it is probable that broad-leaved de- ciduous forest would not be recognized as a distinct formation in such an area but rather would form a mosaic with neighboring forest types. MIXED BROAD-LEAVED DECIDUOUS FOREST SYNONYMS Lower oak forest in part (Wang, 1961); Upper oak forest (Wang, 1961); Temperate Broad-leaved Decidu- ous forest in part (Wang, 1961). PHYSIOGNOMY Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest is two storied and has in addition a shrubby layer. All the broad- leaved trees are deciduous; broad-leaved evergreens are represented as shrubs by microphyllous species. Conifers are not typical of the mesic sites but rather are typically confined to secondary areas (pine forests) or to dry slopes. Woody climbers are present but not diverse. The percentage of species that have entire- margined leaves ranges from 27 to at least 33. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest probably once covered the great plain surrounding Pei-p’ing and ad- jacent foothills (Wang, 1961). The forest is present in Korea, where it narrows from west to east. The Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest has not been recognized by Japanese botanists as a physiognomic unit. In northern Honshu, Hara (1959) noted that topographi- cally below the “Fagus zone” (= Mixed Northern Hardwood forest), deciduous oaks predominate; tem- perature data would be intermediate between those for Aomori and Fukaura. In central Honshu, Hara (1959) observed that the upper part of his "Castanea zone” (= Mixed Mesophytic forest) is characterized by deciduous oaks; stations such as Suwa and Takayama are near or in this oak-dominated zone. The prevalence of decidu- ous oaks in the Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest in China suggests that this forest may be present to a limited extent on Honshu. Perhaps the reason the FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA 15 Japanese have not recognized a distinct forest type is that in central Honshu, for example, the zone would cover only an altitudinal interval of about 100 m and would therefore be insignificant. FLORISTICS Several species of oak form the bulk of the Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest. Many other genera not represented in the Mixed Northern Hardwood forest are present, native or introduced: Broussonetia, Toona, Euodia, Pistacia, Schizandra, Catalpa, Dio- spyros, Gleditsia, Sophora, Albizza, Ailanthus, Koel- reuteria, Hemiptelea, Paulownia, Zizyphus, and Hovenia. The dominance of oaks in the Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest and their lack of dominance (except on drier sites) in the Mixed Northern Hardwood forest is indeed curious. The same phenomenon, however, ap- parently occurs in the broad-leaved deciduous forests of eastern North'America. The vegetation dominated by oaks (specifically, the Appalachian oak and oak- hickory forests of Kiichler, 1967a) extends northward into areas that have a mean annual temperature of about 10°C. In the cooler areas to the north of the oak forests, the vegetation tends to be dominated by Acer, Tilia, Fraxinus, Ulmus, and Betula—a combination of tree genera highly reminiscent of the Mixed Northern Hardwood forest of eastern Asia. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) All stations in the Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest have mean annual temperatures approximately 10°C or higher. Stations in the Mixed Northern Hardwood forest consistently have a mean annual temperature of 10°C or lower, whether in areas of high mean annual range (Shansi and Hopeh) or low mean annual range (southern Hokkaido). The narrowing of the area occupied by the Mixed Broad-leaved Decidu- ous forest in an easterly direction is understandable; mean annual range decreases in an easterly direction at middle latitudes in Asia. The distinction between the Mixed Broad-leaved De- ciduous and Mixed Northern Hardwood forests is not entirely satisfactory on a physiognomic basis. The structural similarities between the two forest types are great, and, except for the higher percentage of entire- margined species in the Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest (largely a reflection of the higher mean annual temperature), no physiognomic differences are appar- ent. Wang (1961) considers that conifers are typically not present in the primary vegetation (they are present in the secondary forests) of the region occupied by the Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest. Why this is so is not clear; presumably conifers respond more to sum- mer warmth than to mean annual temperature, and the boundary between Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest and Mixed Northern Hardwood forest almost certainly does not approximate any warm month mean. The floristic differences between the two forests are considerable, and the Mixed Broad-leaved Decidu- ous forest tends to be less diverse; this diversity, how- ever, may be a reflection of the lack of extensive natu- ral forests of this type at the present day. Certainly more fieldwork is needed, particularly in Honshu and Korea, to determine if the distinction between the Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous and Mixed Northern Hardwood forests is physiognomically valid. MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST SYNONYMS Montane-Boreal Coniferous forest in part (Wang, 1961); Himalayan Moist Temperate forests in part (Champion, 1936). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY The Mixed Coniferous forest is dominated almost ex- clusively by needle-leaved evergreen species that form a closed canopy. Smaller broad-leaved trees are typi- cally present, although they may not form a continuous stratum. No attempt has been made to subdivide the Mixed Coniferous forest in eastern Asia, largely because climatic data and detailed physiognomic analyses are not available. At least one subdivision should be possi- ble, however, when analyses are available. Both Wang (1961) and Champion (1936) note that the broad-leaved accessories of the coniferous forests in the Himalayas and Yunnan are typically evergreen and, based on Li’s (1963) data, so also are the broad-leaved accessories in the coniferous forest of Taiwan, whereas the coniferous forests of northern China (excluding Taiga) and Japan have broad-leaved deciduous accessories. The tempera- ture parameter dividing a coniferous forest with domi- nantly broad-leaved evergreen accessories from a con- iferous forest with dominantly broad-leaved deciduous accessories would probably approximate a cold month mean between 1° and —2°C. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The occurrences of this forest are taken from Cham- pion (1936), Wang (1961), Honda (1928), Miyawaki (1967), and Suslov (1961). The forest occurs at Chu- gushi and Tsurugiyama (Hara, 1959) and O-mei Shan (Cheng, 1939) in areas too small to show on the map. 16 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS FLORISTICS The floristics of the conifer dominants have been thoroughly discussed by Wang (1961). Most of the members of this forest are Pinaceae: Abies, Picea, Pseudotsuga, and Tsuga. In the Himalayas and the southwestern plateau of China, conifers, in particular Pinaceae, attain their greatest diversity. Associated with the conifers are evergreen shrubs such as Rhododendron and Berberis. Deciduous trees are uncommon and generally re- stricted to streamsides or to lower elevations in the forest. In some areas broad-leaved evergreen trees form a discontinuous lower tree stratum; these include Quercus and Rhododendron. The Mixed Coniferous forest on Taiwan contains a number of broad-leaved adjuncts. These include de- ciduous Betulaceae, Ulmaceae, and Aceraceae, as well as evergreen Fagaceae and Lauraceae. The climb- ers include some of subtropical relation (Schisandra and Akebia) and some of temperate relation (Hydran- gea and Rubus). In Manchuria and Japan, the Mixed Coniferous forest typically includes a number of broad-leaved de- ciduous trees that are present in the Mixed Northern Hardwood forest. These include members of Be- tulaceae, Ulmaceae, Aceraceae, and Tiliaceae. Conifers can be found throughout the broad-leaved spectrum. Their occurrence in forested regions that have high heat levels during the growing seasion is largely in secondary vegetation or in special edaphic situations, in particular for various species of Pinus. Other members of Pinaceae are primarily restricted to dominantly coniferous forests, although some species participate regularly as a minor element in broad- leaved forests such as the Mixed Northern Hardwood, Mixed Mesophytic, and Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forests. The Cupressaceae show diver- gent adaptations. Some genera, for example, Chamaecyparis, are largely members of coniferous forests; other genera, for example, Fokienia, are largely restricted to broad-leaved forests of at least moderate heat levels. The Taxodiaceae, in contrast, tend to be members of broad-leaved forests. Glypto- strobus is today restricted to Paratropical Rain forest. Although Metasequoia appears to be endemic to Mixed Mesophytic forest, the lists of Chu and Cooper (1950) include a sufficient number of broad-leaved evergreen trees to indicate that this genus may ac- tually be endemic to Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forests. Cunninghamia is found in both Mixed Mesophytic and particularly in Notophyll- ous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest, and Cryptomeria occurs in both forests. The present range of Taxodium is largely in a region that, on major temperature pa- rameters, is suitable for Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. In Asia, only Taiwania of all Taxodiaceae is restricted primarily to coniferous forests. In western North America, both Sequoia and Sequoiadendron are members of coniferous forests. The specific diversity of conifers, however, is not great in dominantly broad-leaved forests. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) The boundary between Mixed Coniferous forest and Taiga appears to involve overall heat accumulation as approximately expressed by mean annual tempera- ture. Hara (1959, p. 10—11) notes that in the Kurile Islands the boundary between the coniferous forest similar to that of Hokkaido (= Mixed Coniferous forest) and the depauperate Siberian vegetation lies along Miyabe’s Line, which is south of Simusir. O-mei Shan, on the other hand, is by Wang’s (1961) and Cheng’s (1939) descriptions in a mosaic of Mixed Con- iferous forest and meadows. These two stations, one of which is the most equable for Taiga, indicate that a mean annual temperature of approximately 3°C sepa- rates Taiga from Mixed Coniferous forest. Hara (1959, p. 12) notes that in areas of high mean annual range such as Sakhalin, Schmidt’s Line is analogous to Miyabe’s Line. If stations such as Kholmsk in Mixed Coniferous forest are compared with stations such as Bolshaya Yelan and Juzno-sahalinsk in Taiga, it is again apparent that a mean annual temperature of 3°C approximates the boundary between the two forests. The climatic boundary between coniferous forests and the broad-leaved deciduous forests is shown as ap- proximating a mean temperature of 20°C for the warmest month. This indicates that some aspect of high summer heat favors broad-leaved trees than con— ifers. MIXED NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST SYNONYMS Fagus zone of Hara (1959); Mixed Northern Hardwood forest of Wang (1961); Upper oak forest in part (Wang, 1961); Quercus mongolica forest (Wang, 1961). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY The Mixed Northern Hardwood forest is two storied and has a shrub layer. All trees are broad-leaved de- ciduous; a few shrubs'are microphyllous broad-leaved evergreen. Woody climbers are present but not diverse. Overall, diversity is lower in this forest than in all but one other broad-leaved forest. The percentage of species that have entire-margined leaves has a range of about 9 to 24. Nearly 20 percent of the species have FORESTS AND CLIMATE OF EASTERN ASIA 17 lobed, palmately veined leaves, whereas this element constitutes only about 5 percent in the Mixed Broad- leaved Deciduous forest. Conifers are an important element in the Mixed Northern Hardwood forest, al- though accurate data are not available. On dry sites, the forest is dominated by one particular deciduous oak that forms a bushy open forest (Wang, 1961). DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The forest occupies large areas of Manchuria and adjacent USSR. and Korea. Northemmost Honshu and most of lowland Hokkaido are occupied by this forest (Hara, 1959), which extends southward along mountains at moderate to high elevations. FLORISTICS The dominants in this forest are members of Quer- cus, Acer, Tilia, Betula, and Ulmus. The forest con- tains other “northern” genera such as Fraxinus, Sor- bus, and Alnus, and a few “southern” elements such as Schizandar, Magnolia, Kalopanax, and Actinidia. In Japan, the forest is dominated by Fagus (absent from the forest in mainland Asia) but is otherwise ge- nerically similar. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) All stations in the Mixed Northern Hardwood forest have a mean annual temperature of 2.5°C or higher. The data for nearly all the stations near the boundary with the Simple Broad-leaved Deciduous forest, how- ever, are short term. A mean annual temperature be- tween 2.5 and 3.0°C appears to most closely approxi- mate the boundary. TAIGA SYNONYMS Montane-Boreal Coniferous forest in part (Wang, 1961). STRUCTURE Taiga is typically dominated by either a needle- leaved deciduous conifer or a needle-leaved evergreen conifer. There is but one tree stratum, and shrubs are sparse or absent. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) The bulk of the Taiga forest is in the USSR. and adjacent parts of China. Taiga may be present on high mountains in Szechuan, but physiognomic analyses are lacking; Cheng (1939) notes that in various areas above Mixed Coniferous forest, the forest is composed entirely of a single species, and the species varies from one area to the next. Taiga is apparently not present on Taiwan; there, at least six species of conifers extend in mixtures up to the timberline of 3,000 m. FLORISTICS The two main Taiga species are members of Larix and Pinus. 'South of the main expanse of the Taiga along mountain ranges, it is probable that Taiga is formed by the most cold-tolerant local conifer. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) See discussion, Temperature parameters, for Mixed Coniferous forest. SIMPLE BROAD-LEAVED DECIDUOUS FOREST SYNONYMS Mixed Northern hardwood forest predominated by birch (Wang, 1961). STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGNOMY The canopy of the Simple Broad-leaved Deciduous forest is typically formed by one or two species of broad-leaved deciduous trees. Lower tree strata are ab- sent. Shrubs are scarce or absent. None of the species are entire margined. DISTRIBUTION (PLATE 1) Restricted to Manchuria in general, this forest may appear at high elevations farther south. The distribu- tion of part of the birch forest is somewhat uncertain because birch dominates the secondary growth in con- iferous regions. FLORISTICS The only tree species in the primary forest belong to Betula. Along streams, however, both Populus and Salix occur. TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS (PLATE 2) The temperature data used are confined to the main area of the Simple Broad-leaved Deciduous forest in Manchuria so that the analysis is not complicated by possible secondary forests. Birch forests or groves can also be found in regions that are coniferous; apparently birch can be a secondary tree in such regions after fire or clearing. And it is possible that the occurrence of birch forest at high altitudes above Taiga in Man- churia (Wang, 1961) results from the strong wind there, unfavorable to conifers at such altitudes. Birch 18 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS forest clearly lives under the most severe and extreme temperature conditions of any broad-leaved forest; at Hai-la-erh, the mean January temperature is —28.3°C, the mean July temperature, 20.8°C. As no other mesic forested area of the world has such extremes, the Sim- ple Broad-leaved Deciduous forest is present only in Asia. FORESTS OF AUSTRALASIA The most notable work on classifying the forests of Australasia on a purely physiognomic basis is that of Webb (1959) on the forests of eastern Australia (pl. 3). Webb recognized several rain forest types and noted their altitudinal distribution at selected latitudes. From comparison of Webb’s physiognomic criteria with those used in this report, it is apparent that his Com- plex Mesophyll Vine forest, which he classifies as “tropical,” is the same unit that I call “Paratropical Rain forest.” Similarly, the smaller leaved Complex Notophyll Vine and Simple Notophyll Vine forests are physiognomically analogous to the Notophyllous Broad—leaved Evergreen forest. That overall heat ac- cumulation delimits the Australasian Paratropical 'Rain forest from the notophyllous forests as in eastern Asia is indicated by comparing data for Gladstone to the data for Eagle Farm and Brisbane. As in Asia, the transition takes place between a 20° to 21°C mean an- nual temperature (pl. 3). The Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest has been studied in detail in one area of New Zealand by Dawson and Sneddon (1969). Although they con- sider the forest to be multistratal, the diagrams of Robbins (1962) indicate that the forest is probably fun- damentally two storied (although stratification is poorly defined) and has an emergent stratum of coni- fers (primarily podocarps). Woody climbers are profuse in the New Zealand microphyllous forest. In leaf size, 68 percent are microphyllous (Dawson and Sneddon, 1969). Entire-margined species constitute 60 percent, a considerably higher proportion than in the Microphyll- ous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest of Asia. The higher percentage in Australasia (this is true for all forest types in Australasia) than in analogous Asian vegeta- tion is apparently the result of historical factors (Bailey and Sinnot, 1916; Wolfe, 1971), that is, the ab- sence of climates favorable to the development of broad-leaved deciduous forests (most species of which are nonentire). Consequently, a separate scale of leaf-margin percentages should be used for analyzing Australasian vegetation and probably that of other areas of the Southern Hemisphere. As a map of the physiognomic categories of New Zealand vegetation is not available, the temperature parameters of the Mi- crophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest in New Zealand are not known. The one station (Kaitaia; pl.3) that applies to Dawson and Sneddon’s study area has temperature parameters that fall Within the limit of the forest type in eastern Asia. The forests of much of South Island and North Island of New Zealand have been the subject of much discus- sion (see Holloway, 1954; Robbins, 1962; Dawson and Sneddon, 1969). The problematic forests are those in which podocarps, which were apparently dominant, are giving way to broad-leaved forests dominated by the southern beech Nothofagus. As Dawson and Sneddon suggest, however, part of the problem may result from edaphic factors; that is, some areas are occupied by beech forest because of poor soils unfavorable to growth of "normal” forests. More significant is that most of lowland New Zealand has temperature parameters near the boundary between Microphyllous Broad- leaved Evergreen and Mixed Coniferous forests in Asia. The overall warming since the last major glacia- tion would tend to displace the coniferous forests in favor of the broad-leaved forests. The presence of co- niferous emergents in a dominantly broad-leaved forest is not unique to New Zealand but rather charac- terizes the forests that occur in a similar climatic re- gime in Asia. Many of the montane forests of Melanesia appear to be microphyllous broad—leaved evergreen, with an emergent stratum of conifers (Sachet, 1957, p. 45). A1- titudinally below these forests, on mesic undisturbed sites, the forest appears to be Paratropical Rain forest from Sachet’s brief descriptions (1957). The reason for the close floristic relation between the montane rain forests of tropical South Pacific Islands and the lowland rain forests of extratropical Australia and New Zealand noted by several phytogeographers is clear. Both types of forests are Microphyllous Broad- leaved Evergreen forest, a forest type poorly devel— oped in southeastern Asia south of the Himalayas ex- cept for isolated patches in peninsular India. FORESTS OF WESTERN NORTH AMERICA Western North America clearly has the greatest ex- panse of Mixed Coniferous forest of any region on the ’ Earth. Despite the greatly reduced growing season precipitation in comparison with eastern Asia, most of the windward part of the Pacific Coast States from the northern Sierra Nevada north to Alaska can be classed as humid, even in dry years (Visher, 1966). This region can therefore provide information for interpreting physiognomic changes in relation to temperature changes in dominantly coniferous forests. As well, western North America has some broad-leaved forests, ‘ although none are dominantly deciduous. FORESTS OF WESTERN NORTH AMERICA 19 Temperature data are numerous in western North America (pl. 3), although data for montane areas are, as usual, not as numerous as for lowland. All the data are from various publications of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. BROAD-LEAVED FORESTS Most of the broad-leaved vegetation of western North America appears in California as oak woodlands (Munz and Keck, 1950; Griffin and Critchfield, 1972). Temperature data (pl. 3) for stations in these wood- lands indicate that the woodlands occupy the same temperatures as the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Ever- green forest of eastern Asia (“oak-laurel forest”). The oaks occurring in these woodlands include both ever- green and deciduous species. On more mesic sites, the oak woodlands give way to what has been termed the Mixed Evergreen forest (Munz and Keck, 1950). This forest is dominated by notophyllous species of broad-leaved evergreens (for example, tanoak and California-laurel) but has some admixtures of conifers. The Mixed Evergreen forest of California could readily be classed with the Notophyll- ous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest of eastern Asia. As in eastern Asia, this forest or the derived woodland in western North America contains an “arcto-tertiary” element: Aesculus, Cercis, Crataegus, Juglans, Ptelea, Staphylea, Styrax, and Vitis. Griffin and Critchfield (1972) note that in some areas of the southern Coast Ranges Coulter pine is a minor element in their Mixed Evergreen forest. In the Sierra Nevada, in areas altitudinally above the oak wood- lands or the Mixed Evergreen forest (for example, near Placerville), conifers similarly play an increasingly important role, as they do in the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest of eastern Asia. All the stations that apply to Coulter pine, for example, have temperature parameters within the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest. In Ore- gon some of the stations (for example, Medford and Ashland) within the Interior valley zone of Franklin and Dyrness (1969) have a mixture of broad-leaved evergreens and some conifers, as well as broad-leaved deciduous trees. Kiichler (1946) was puzzled by the disappearance of broad-leaved deciduous forests from western North America. Except in isolated, small interior valleys (for example, Canyon City and Yreka), temperature pa- rameters suitable for such forests are lacking in the Pacific Coast States. The lowered temperatures during glacial intervals must have had a profound effect on eliminating any surviving patches of broad-leaved de- ciduous forest in western North America. CONIFEROUS FORESTS MIXED CON I FEROUS FOREST The subdivisions that have been previously proposed for the Mixed Coniferous forest in western North America have been based primarily on the dominance of one or two species (for example, Franklin and Dyr- ness, 1969; see pl. 3). The physiognomy of the various dominant conifers is, of course, monotonous, and it is in the broad-leaved adjuncts to the coniferous forest that physiognomic differences appear and allow subdivi- sions to be made. As noted below, some of these sub- divisions apparently correspond very well with some of Franklin and Dyrness’ (1969) phytosociological group- ings (table 2). LOW MONTANE MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST The Mixed Conifer forest of Griffin and Critchfield (1972) (pl.3) was defined on the basis of the admixture of several coniferous species, which occur together at middle altitudes in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range of California. This conifer forest occupies areas that have approximately the same temperature regime as the Mixed Coniferous forest in Szechuan (p12). As in Szechuan, the forest in California is dominantly co- niferous but with some broad-leaved trees. Both the Mixed Conifer forest and the Tsuga heterophylla zone (p. 3; table 2) represent the same basic physiognomic unit, which is here termed the Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest. Although domi- nated typically by a closed canopy of high conifers, the forest includes a diverse woody broad-leaved element, both evergreen and deciduous. In terms of diversity, the broad-leaved element is far greater than the con- iferous element, and quadrat studies (table 3) indicate that the broad-leaved plants are about four times as diverse as the conifers. Conifers typical of the Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest include: Pseudotsuga menziesii, Tsuga heterophylla, Pinus lambertiana, Thuja plicata, Abies concolor. Broad-leaved trees and TABLE 2,—Comparison of proposed classification of coniferous forests with some previous classifications for the western United States Munz and Keck (1950),Griffin and Cn' L‘ "' (1972) Low Coastal Mixed North Coastal Coniferous forest. Coniferous forest. Hi h Coastal Mixed Subalpine and Franklin and This report Dyrness (1969) Kiichler (1967a) Picea sitchensis zone. . Tsuga mertensiana Spruce—oedar-hemlock forest. Fir-hemlock and oniferous forest. Lodgepole forests. zone. Lodgepole ine- subalpine orests. Low Montane Mixed Mixed Conifer, Red- Abies concolor and Cedar-hemlock- Coniferous forest. wood, and Doug- Tsuga heterophylla fir. Mixed conifer. las-fir forests. zones. Douglas fir. Hi h Montane Mixed Red Fir forest Abies grandis Silver fir-Douglas onifercus forest. zone fir, Red fir, and Grand fir-Douglas fir forests. Taiga _______________ Bristlecone Pine forest. ‘ 20 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS shrubs are evergreen (Arbutus, Quercus, Lithocarpus, Castanopsis, U mbellularia, Garrya) or deciduous (Acer, Cornus, Rhamnus, Quercus, Fraxinus, Alnus). The lowest shrubby groundcover, when present, is typ- ically broad-leaved evergreen (Gaultheria, Mahonia, Ceanothus, Arctostaphylos). In California, the Mixed Conifer forest of the south- ern part of the Coast Ranges is shown on plate 3 as including temperatures typical of the Mixed Broad- leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest of eastern Asia. California stations such as Cuyamaca (alt. 1,417 m) are in fact located in areas in which the vegetation is a mosaic of broad-leaved evergreen and coniferous trees (pl. 3) (Critchfield, 1971, p. 33). In central California, other stations (for example, Mount Hamilton, Hetch Hetchy, Yosemite National Park) are also within temperatures typical for the Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest of eastern Asia. The vegetation near these stations is in fact a strong mixture of broad-leaved and coniferous trees (Critchfield, 1971, p. 27, 36). This vegetation is physiognomically Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest. One floristic feature of this vegeta- tion is that white fir (Abies concolor) is absent, but white fir is present in the adjacent Mixed Coniferous forest. Franklin and Dyrness’ (1969) Tsuga heterophylla zone in the Pacific Northwest occupies approximately the same part of the temperature spectrum as the Mixed Conifer forest of Griffin and Critchfield in California. Tsuga heterophylla itself has a very limited distribution in California and is confined to moderate altitudes in the coastal region of northernmost California where precipitation is high. In northwestern North America the Tsuga heterophylla zone, except in southwestern Oregon, lacks most of the broad-leaved evergreen adjuncts that are typical of the Mixed Con- ifer forest of California. As discussed elsewhere (p. 34), the lack of these broad-leaved evergreens in the Pacific Northwest may be primarily a function of light conditions at more northerly latitudes. The Interior Valley zone of Franklin and Dyrness (1969) (pl. 3), as they emphasized, contains divergent vegetational types in Oregon. In the Willamette Valley (stations such as Portland, Salem, Eugene), the oak- dominated vegetation is thought to be subclimax and will eventually be replaced by a climax forest of coni- fers. This concept is consistent with the temperature parameters for these stations. Although data are sparse, in the Umpqua Valley (a station such as Roseburg) also the climax is thought to be coniferous, again consistent with the temperature data. In the Rogue River valley (stations such as Medford, Ashland, ‘ Grants Pass), data are few, but apparently the climax is a mixed forest of conifers and broad-leaved trees (and possibly Chaparral on some sites). The possible climax in the Rogue River valley would be consistent with the temperature parameters, which are suitable for . a Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous forest. The redwood forest, particularly in the northern third of California, has a crown distinctly higher than that of Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest; because of this distinction, the redwood forest could be recog- nized as a distinct physiognomic type. In the southern areas of the distribution of redwood, however, the forest has a physiognomy more characteristic of nor- mal Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest, with ad- mixtures of small broad-leaved evergreen and decidu- ous trees. The redwood forest is therefore considered a variant of Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest. The temperature parameters of the redwood forest appear to be anomalously high in regard to mean an- nual temperature for Mixed Coniferous forest in east- ern Asia. This anomaly is, however, probably an ar- tifact of the meteorological stations being in clearings rather than in the forest proper. That is, the conditions in the forest proper are probably cooler than in adja- cent clearings in the forest. Redwood forest (pl. 3) appears to be limited, in part, by a cold month mean of about 7°C and by a warm month mean of about 15°C. Numerous workers have suggested that the absence of coastal fogs and their attendant moisture limit the distribution of redwood, but this may be only grossly coincidental. Redwood, for example, does not typically extend to the coast, where fog is abundant but the summer temperatures are low. Fog is not a notable feature of the climate at stations such as Ben Lomond, where redwood thrives, but fog is prevalent on the windward side of the Coast Ranges of northern California altitudinally well above the upper limit of redwood. Although fog may contribute to the high moisture regime in which redwood thrives, fog itself is not a limiting factor on the distribution of red- wood. The Closed-cone Pine forest of Munz and Keck (1950) (pl. 3) in California is not a satisfactory physiognomic unit. This forest is rather composed of “disjunct stands of closely related closed-cone pines and closed-cone cypresses” (Griffin and Critchfield, 1972, p. 9). Throughout much of its range, Closed-cone Pine forest has a lower tree story of broad-leaved evergreens. The Closed-cone Pine forest would probably be best classified as a variant of Mixed Coniferous forest. Some of the stations plotted (for example, Bet- teravia, Pismo Beach, Lompoc, Santa Maria) are al- titudinally below the Closed-cone Pine forest. Even the data for Monterey were collected below the forest. The closed-cone pines are not successfully cultivated in the FORESTS OF WESTERN NORTH AMERICA 21 Pacific Northwest, apparently because of the low tem- peratures. The limiting factor on the natural distribu- tion of these pines may prove to approximate a cold month mean of about 8°C. HIGH MONTANE MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST Griffin and Critchfield (1972) suggest that the Red Fir forest of California (pl. 3) is not readily separable from their Mixed Conifer forest (= Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest). As they note, both forests are characterized by tall conifers. As shown in plate 3, the two forest types have a common boundary that approx- imately coincides with a cold month mean of —2°C. A similar boundary-temperature relation is shown in northwestern North America (pl. 3) by the Tsuga heterophylla zone (= Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest) and the Abies grandis zone of Franklin and Dyrness (1969). In the broad-leaved forests of eastern Asia, the —2°C cold month isotherm approximately demarcates forests that contain some notophyllous broad-leaved ever- greens from forests that lack these evergreens. A simi- lar relation is apparent in transects in the Sierra Nevada (J . A. Wolfe, unpub. data; see also Critchfield, 1971); there, the Red Fir forest lacks notophyllous broad-leaved evergreens (some microphylls, for exam- ple Quercus vaccinifolia, may be present) in contrast to their presence in the lower altitude coniferous forest. The primary distinction between the Mixed Conifer forest of Griffin and Critchfield (1972) and the Red Fir forest is in the lack of notophyllous broad-leaved ever- greens in the Red Fir forest. Coniferous forests in Hok- kaido, which occupy the same temperature spectrum as the Red Fir forest, also lack notophyllous broad-leaved evergreens. Such physiognomic differences are funda- mental and merit the recognition of the Red Fir forest (and its temperature analog in Hokkaido) as the High Montane Mixed Coniferous forest. The Northern hardwoods-spruce forest of Kuchler (1967a) of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada, as well as other related "forests” (for example, those with large amounts of Tsuga and Abies), occupy areas that have approximately the same major tem- perature parameters as the areas occupied by the High Montane Mixed Coniferous forest of western North America. This vegetation in eastern North America, however, has a higher proportion and diversity of broad-leaved trees than in western North America, where, except for two species of Populus, the broad- leaved woody plants are almost exclusively shrubby. In eastern North America, the coniferous forest contains species of Populus, Quercus, Fagus, Ulmus, Betula, Os- trya, Acer, Tilia, and F raxinus. Most of these genera are represented in the conifer forest of northeastern China and Hokkaido areas (Wang, 1961, p. 39). I sug- gest that the poor representation of broad-leaved trees in the High Montane Mixed Coniferous forest in west- ern North America is the result of historical factors: in both eastern Asia and eastern North America, the con- ifer forest is contiguous with large areas of climate favorable to broad-leaved deciduous forest, and this re- lation has prevailed in these areas throughout the Neogene. In western North America, in contrast, tem- peratures favorable to the development of broad-leaved deciduous forest disappeared in the mesic areas about 8 to 10 million years ago, so there has been no ready source for broad-leaved deciduous trees. Dry stations in forested areas to the east of the crest of the southern part of the Sierra Nevada of California have generally not been included on plate 3. Stations at lower altitudes have temperatures as in the Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest; the vegetation in such areas is typically dominated by yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa). At higher altitudes, where temper- atures are as in the High Montane Mixed Coniferous forest, the vegetation is typically dominated by limber pine (P. flexilis). LOW COASTAL MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST The coastal region of northernmost California, the Pacific Northwest, British Columbia, and southern Alaska is occupied by a forest that has been termed the Picea sitchensis zone (pl. 3; table 2) (Franklin and Dyrness, 1969) or the Spruce-cedar-hemlock forest (table 2) (Kuchler, 1967a). Although broad-leaved trees and shrubs are present in this forest, they are of very low diversity. Small-scale range maps typically show many species of broad-leaved plants extending to the coast in the Pacific Northwest, but detailed range maps (for example, Griffin and Critchfield, 1972) for northern California show that many species of broad- leaved trees are actually not found within a few kilometers of the coast. The broad-leaved trees and shrubs that occur in this vegetation include both notophyllous evergreen (Arbutus, Rhododendron) and deciduous (Acer, Alnus) types. Because broad-leaved trees and shrubs are greatly reduced both in diversity and abundance in this vegetational type relative to the Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest, this coastal forest is recognized as a distinct unit under the term Low Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest. Notophyllous broad-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs (except for Gaultheria) are not known in the Low Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest north of southern British Columbia. As discussed below, the general ab- sence of the notophyllous evergreens to the north is almost certainly a function of the light factor. Quadrat studies in the lower part of the Smith River 22 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS valley (Whitaker, unpub. data) and the adjacent Sis- kiyou Mountains (Wolfe and Schorn, unpub. data) of northernmost California indicate both (1) the physiog- nomic differences between the Low Coastal Mixed Co- niferous forest and contiguous forest types (table 3) and (2) the fact that in a temperature regime similar to that at high-latitude localities, notophyllous broad- leaved evergreens occur in Low Coastal Mixed Co- niferous forest. Although no temperature data are available from sites near the quadrats, the tempera- tures can be estimated from Elk River about 10 km from Whitaker’s quadrats and about 70 In higher. The Smith River quadrats are clearly Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest. In the classification of vegetation suggested here, the forest above Smith River is ex- pected to be Low Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest and, even higher, High Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest. The Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest, as noted above, is a dominantly coniferous forest that has a significant element of broad-leaved deciduous and notophyllous evergreen trees and shrubs (table 3). In the lowest quadrats along Smith River, the conifers are dominant in terms of coverage, but in terms of species the broad-leaved are dominant by about 5:1. The next highest quadrats at about 1,000 m and extending up to just under 1,500 m on the Middle Fork of the Smith River also represent coniferous forest and have many of the species (including notophyllous broad-leaves) that occur in the Smith River quadrats. This higher vegetation, however, differs markedly in that conifers have a significantly higher coverage (approaching 100 percent) in the canopy, and in terms of species the broad leaves are only slightly more diverse than the conifers. The vegetation of these quadrats between 1,000 and 1,500 m is Low Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest. This vegetation, moreover, contains several notophyllous broad-leaved evergreens (Arbutus, Cas- tanopsis, Lithocarpus, Umbellularia), despite the fact TABLE 3.—Comparison of physiognomy of vegetation in quadrats in northernmost California Location ________________________ Smith River Middle Fork Sanger Lake and Smith River Youn Peak. Sis ‘you Mountains Ve stations] c assification ________________ Low Montane Low Coastal High Coastal Mixed Mixed Mixed Coniferous Coniferous Coniferous forest forest forest Altitude (m) ________________________ 335—455 1,005— 1,465 1,495— 1,770 Number quadrats ______________________ 6 10 8 Conifers: Percent basal area ________________ 79 99+ 100 Number species ____________________ 4 10 8 Number species/quadrat ____________ 2 5 5 Broad-leaved evergreen: Percent basal area ______ _ . 18 >1 0 Number species __________ 10 9 2 Number 5 ies/quadratfi 6 4 .5 Broad-leaved eciduous: Percent basal area ________________ 3 0 0 Number species ____________________ 10 12 11 Num r . ' ‘1 ‘ at 5 3 3 that the mean of the cold month is probably lower than in areas of southeastern Alaska where notophyllous broad-leaved evergreens are not native. At about 1,500 m and higher near Sanger Lake and on Youngs Peak (Siskiyou Mountains), the notophyll- ous broad-leaved evergreens disappear (microphyllous species such as Quercus vaccinifolia and Mahonia pumila extend higher). These highest forests are dom- inated by Abies procera and Picea breweriana, but other conifers occur: Abies concolor, Pinus jeffreyi, P. monticola, Calocedrus decurrens, and Tsuga merten- siana. All the woody broad-leaved plants are shrubs. This vegetation is discussed immediately below. HIGH COASTAL MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST Franklin and Dyrness (1969) segregated a zone dom- inated by Tsuga mertensiana in the Pacific North- west. As Griffin and Critchfield (1972) noted, this zone appears to be the analog of Munz and Keck’s (1950) Subalpine forest in California. The data presented in table 3 indicate that this vegetation is a dominantly coniferous forest that has broad-leaved deciduous or microphyllous evergreen shrubs. The vegetation is here termed the High Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest because the greatest expanse of this forest is present in the coastal area of southern Alaska. In both eastern Asia and eastern North America, the High Montane Mixed Coniferous forest has a number of broad-leaved deciduous tree genera as adjuncts, in- cluding Quercus, F agus, and Ulmus (p. 21). In east- ern North America (for example, on Newfoundland), the broad-leaved deciduous trees typically disappear except for some species of Betula and Populus, and the temperature parameters on Newfoundland are ap- proximately the same as those at localities in the High Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest in western North America. TAIGA Taiga has been uniformly recognized as the Alaskan and northern Canadian forest typically dominated by Picea glauca and (or) P. mariana. In structure, this forest conforms closely with Taiga in Asia, with a single tree stratum and shrubs typically few. In coastal southern Alaska, one area near Valdez has a forest that is typically considered to be Picea sitchensis zone (that is, Mixed Coniferous forest) rather than Taiga, although the mean annual temperature indicates a climate similar to that of Taiga. This vegetational as- signment, however, is based more on the fact that the forest near Valdez is dominated by Picea sitchensis rather than the Taiga spruces. Whether the forest near Valdez is physiognomically more similar to Taiga than to Mixed Coniferous forest is not known. FORESTS 0F EASTERN NORTH AMERICA AND NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA . 23 Taiga is probably found on high mountains of British Columbia and conterminous United States. Franklin and Dyrness’ summaries (1969) indicate that on some mountains the coniferous forest becomes depauperate near timberline, where the forest is composed of a single species of conifer (although the species differs from one area to another) and almost no shrubby growth in the forest. In California, however, Taiga-like vegetation is formed by pure stands of Pinus contorta, P. albicaulis, or, east of the southern part of the Sierra Nevada, P. aristata. Such vegetation was included by Griffin and Critchfield (1972) in Subalpine forest. In other words, in areas isolated from the bulk of the Taiga, a Taiga-like climate produces a forest that is physiognomically Taiga but differs floristically from the bulk of the forest. Indeed, the primary Taiga spruces of the Holocene are known to occur abundantly in Mixed Coniferous forest in the Pliocene of Alaska (Hopkins and others, 1971). This again emphasizes that floristic composition may not be a valid basis for segregating one vegetational type from another. COMPARISON TO EASTERN ASIA The profiles of altitudinal distribution of forest belts in China given by Wang (1961, figs. 23—25) support the delineation of coniferous forests proposed here. In Szechuan, for example, the descending order of vegeta- tional types is: Wang (1961) This report (fig. 1) Coniferous forest of Abies and High Coastal Mixed Tsuga. Coniferous forest, Deciduous and coniferous forest _-_- Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest. Evergreen and deciduous broad- Mixed Broad-leaved Ever- leaved forest and coniferous green and Coniferous trees. forest. Evergreen broad-leaved forest ...... Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. In Shensi, the descending order is: Wang (1961) Larix forest ______________________ Taiga. Coniferous forest mixed with _ High Montane Mixed deciduous trees (Picea-Abies Coniferous forest. This report (fig. 1) forest). Mixed deciduous and coniferous Mixed Northern Hardwood forest. forest. Deciduous forest __________________ Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous forest. On Taiwan, the zonation is: Wang (1961); Li (1963) This report (fig. 1) ________________ Low Coastal Mixed Coniferous forest. Low Montane Mixed Coniferous forest. Abies-Picea forest Coniferous forest (Chamaecyparis) with evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved trees. Lower part of above with woody Microphyllous Broad- climbers and epiphytes. leaved Evergreen forest. Oak and laurel forest ______________ Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. In Japan, as noted above, the coniferous forest of Hokkaido is accompanied by broad-leaved deciduous or microphyllous broad-leaved evergreen adjuncts, and the broad-leaved deciduous trees and shrubs are di- verse. This vegetation is thereby High Montane Mixed Coniferous forest. FORESTS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA, THE CARIBBEAN, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA Considerable confusion exists in the classification of forests in the Caribbean area (pl. 3). Lauer (1959) and Knapp (1965) recognize a broad-leaved evergreen low- land forest and a montane rain or cloud forest; Lauer (1959) suggests that the boundary between the two forests coincides with a mean annual temperature of 22°C. Knapp (1965) generally follows the treatment of Lauer (1959), considering the forest near Xilitla, Mexico, to represent the montane rain forest of the Tierra Templada. Rzedowski (1963), however, has demonstrated that the forest near Xilitla is physi- ognomically as well as floristically allied to the low- land rain forest (his tropical evergreen forest) of south- ern Mexico; Rzedowski apparently did not distinguish a forest with two closed-tree strata (such as that near Xilitla) from the three-layered forest characteristic of what is considered as Tropical Rain forest in this re- port. Consequently, the temperature data from Xilitla (pl. 3)) apply to Paratropical Rain forest. Rzedowski makes the distinction between the rain forest (= Tropi- cal and Paratropical) and the montane broad-leaved sclerophyllous forest of the Tierra Templada and sug- gests that the two are delimited approximately by a mean annual temperature of 20°C. This temperature boundary is not supported by much the climatic data from the Americas but finds strong support in the Asian data. Perhaps the most exhaustive treatment of the classification of primarily lowland vegetation in the Caribbean region is that of Beard (1944). Some of the units Beard recognizes are, as he suggests, produced by seasonality of precipitation. Critical to this discussion is Beard’s Lower Montane forest, which Richards (1952) has subsequently included in his Tropical Rain forest (pl. 3). From Beard’s description, the Lower Montane Rain forest is fundamentally two storied but is otherwise similar to Tropical Rain forest in struc- ture; the Lower Montane Rain forest is therefore prob- ably Paratropical Rain forest of this report. Above the 24 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS I | I l I | I l I I I I l I l I | | I l T I | I I I | I ,— Ya-an — +Pao-shan w _ _ 3 m NOTOPHVLLOUS BROAD-LEAVED -J 15 — MICROPHYLLOUS EVERGREEN FOREST MIXED BROAD-LEAVED °Ca _ Lu BROAD-LEAVED \ \ ./ U \ EVERGREEN AND DECIDUOUS / _ _ EVERGREEN \\ FOREST . +Hs,_anq 3 FOREST \\\ \K g x . / I 13°C I O ‘\\ e ‘\\ MIXED BROAD-LEAVED °9I/ LU _ ‘\ g \ EVERGREEN AND CONIFEROUS . ,1. _ \ \ / / D \\ g \\ FOREST /~ MIXED . Z \\ & \\ /- MESOPHYTIC ,/MIXED BROAD; T _ . :-\~ LOW MONTANE MIXED \ - FOREST .4EAVED DECIDUOUS Chao ping \ \ / I: \\ CONIFEROUS FOREST \x\ ./ FORESTI 10°C 10 < \\ Z x , a x s / I \ . < — \\ \\ 12' \fi/ '— 0: \\ \\ L) / \\ MIXED NORTHERN I Lu \\ \\ S /' \\ HARDWOOD FOREST l _ \\\ \\ m /. \\ El _ E \ \\ . Urakawa \\ z E _ ‘\ \ Low COASTAL MIxED \\\ ./ ..'+"~ ~. \\\ :I _ . J \\\ CONIFERouS FOREST \>< .‘HokkaidJ’n. \\., ml < \ x , .,' an Wakkanagggo D — \\ ,/ \\ \ Nemuro I Sakhalin -I'-Ab.ashiri \QLS — z ‘\\ / ./ \\\ 4:. +Kushiro -J(itamiesa hi\ Z 5 — Hsin-kao Shan \ . \ HIGH MQNTANE ‘._ , ‘ < + \\\ ./ :fm::;:z::g‘;::$ \\\MIXED C‘QNIFEROUS FOREST film/8| 5“ \ \ o I <2: — EXPLANATION \\ . \Js, ”EST, ............... ,u - LLl Mean annual temperature \ \\ O'me' 5““ \\C‘\ 3 "ya” Kholmsk I 3°C 2 _ ------- Warm month mean temperature (theoretical) \\ I \ _ — - —- - -— Cold month mean temperature (theoretical) \\\ TA'GA I — ‘\70° \ C‘ n I I I | I I I I I l I I I I I \ l I | I I I I I I I I I 'I 0 5 1O 15 20 25 30 MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS FIGURE 1.——Vegetational classification of the coniferous forests in parts of eastern Asia. Stations from plate 2; dashed lines indicate inferred temperatures; dotted line indicates temperature parameters around Hoikkaido and Sakhalin. Lower Montane Rain forest is Beard’s Montane Rain forest, presumably the same unit as Rzedowski (1963) recognizes above Xilitla. Like Rzedowski, Beard sug- gests that a mean annual temperature of about 20°C delimits the Lower Montane and Montane Rain forests. The temperature parameters that delimit Tropical from Paratropical Rain forest in Central America and South America are not clear, largely because of the lack of physiognomic vegetation maps and climatic data. The Paratropical Rain forest on Trinidad (Beard’s Lower Montane Rain forest) occurs about 30 m above the lowlands, where the mean annual temperature is about 25°C. Along the southern Brazilian coast, the emergent stratum (composed in part of Hymenaea cor- baril) of the Tropical Rain forest disappears north of the latitude of Rio de Janiero, where mean annual temperature is 25—26°C. Tropical Rain forest there ap- proaches a mean annual temperature of 25°C (for example, at Uaupes, Brazil) and Paratropical Rain forest approaches the same value (for example, the forests above Piarco, Trinidad). The studies of Cain and others (1956) indicate that the distinction between Tropical and Paratropical Rain forests can also be made on a purely structural basis in South America. The Amazonian rain forest is unques- tionably Tropical Rain forest. The main canopy is about 35 m high, with an emergent stratum extending about 10 In higher; two lower tree strata, one at 15—20 m and a second at 5——8 m, are recognizable. This forest has three closed stories plus an emergent stratum. Temperature data for the lowland Amazonian basin indicate a mean annual temperature above 25°C. At lat 26° 8., the rain forest is of lower stature, and Cain and others (1956) note that probably only a few species would be megaphanerophytes (that is, would be suffi- ciently large to appear as emergents). Lianes are di- verse and abundant in this rain forest, and the leaf size is dominantly mesophyllous (Cain and others, 1956, did not distinguish a notophyll size). This rain forest apparently fits the characteristics of Paratropical Rain forest. The mean annual temperature in this area of rain forest is about 20° to 22°C. Farther south at lat 32° 8., the rain forest is of even shorter stature, and the leaf size is dominantly microphyllous. This type forest would be assignable to Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest, and indeed the temperature parame- ters from a station somewhat farther south indicate that this forest should be microphyllous. Not recog- nized by Cain, Castro, Fires, and Da Silva (1956) is Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest, but pre- sumably this would be intermediate latitudinally be- tween their two most southerly areas investigated. FORESTS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA AND NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA 25 The Holdridge (1947) system of vegetation classifica- tion has been extensively applied to the vegetation of Central America, particularly by Holdridge and co- workers (for example, Holdridge and others, 1971). From the descriptions of the physiognomies of the units recognized, the following are suggested as equivalents: Holdridge and others (1971) This neport Tropical Moist and Wet Forests __-_Tropical Rain forest. Premontane Moist and Wet Forests ___________________ Paratropical Rain forest. Tropical Lower Montane Microphyllous Broad- Moist and Wet Forests. __________ leaved Evergreen Forest. Tropical Montane Rain Forest ______ Montane Rain Forest. The meager (nine stations) temperature data given by Holdridge and others (1971) would suggest that the Tropical Moist Forest lives under mean annual tem- peratures as low as 22.4° and 236°C (Turralba-IICA and Quebrada Grande, respectively). The weather sta- tion at Quebrada Grande is at a higher altitude and some 25 km distant from the sites described. The Tur- ralba station does apply to the site described (Hold- ridge and others, 1971), but there is considerable doubt as to whether the vegetation at this site is Tropical or Paratropical Rain forest. The vegetation here was in- terpreted as four storied, but “The separation of the lower-middle and lower level was not definite, and pos- sibly these formed one stratumm” (Holdridge and others, 1971, p. 177). Further, the discontinuity de- scribed for the upper canopy could be readily inter- preted as the emergent stratum above two closed canopies. The data from the station at Turralba place this site in the Premontane zone of Holdridge and others (1971, fig. 8, p. 41). If the forest at Turralba is in fact Tropical Moist forest, then the data are anomalous in either Holdridge’s system or the system proposed in this re- port. The Holdridge system has yet to be applied to physiognomy of vegetation in humid to mesic forested regions outside Central America. Whether this system obtains on a worldwide scale has yet to be determined. Indeed, one of the fundamental concepts of the Hold- ridge system is that of biotemperature, and, as Hold- ridge and others (1971, p. 41) noted, the data from which biotemperatures must be calculated are rarely available. One parameter of the Holdridge system that merits discussion is the so-called frostline or critical tempera- ture line, which divides the premontane from the lower montane forests. Although Holdridge and others (1971, p. 13—14) state that this line has no significance for species diversity, their data contradict this statement. Average species diversity is clearly lower in the lower montane forests than in the premontane forests, as might be expected, because the lower montane forests typically have one less tree stratum than the pre- montane forests. The same factor probably results in lower diversity in the premontane forests relative to the tropical forests. 7 The subdivisions of the northern Andean forests by Cuatrecasas (1957) appear to be based on both physiognomic and floristic criteria. The Neotropical Rain Forest of Cuatrecasas (1957) is apparently a com- bination of the Tropical and Paratropical Rain forests. His (1957) Subandean Rain Forest apparently corre- sponds to the Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest. Whether Notophyllus Broad-leaved Evergreen forest is represented is unknown; this vegetational type, floristically difficult to distinguishfrom adjacent units, would be confined to very narrow altitudinal limits in the northern Andes. Coniferous forests appear to be absent in the northern Andes (although these are present in Central America according to Holdridge, 1957). It is possible that the Andean Rain Forest of Cuatrecasas (1957), which is composed of broad-leaved evergreens, occupies the Mixed Coniferous forest tem- peratures because of a deficiency of light in the almost continuously mist-shrouded northern Andes. By this criterion, the Subandean Forest of Cuatrecasas (1957) is Montane Rain forest of various authors. The sclerophyllous oak forests of the Tierra Tem- plada (variously termed “Cloud forest,” “Montane forest”) are structurally the same forest as the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest of Asia. The forest in Mexico is two storied, dominantly broad- leaved evergreen, and has woody climbers. In leaf size, the species are dominantly notophyllous (Martin and others, 1962). Computation from lists given by Miranda and Sharp (1950) indicate that the percentage of entire-margined leaves is between 40 and 55 percent for various areas in the forest. The mixture of broad- leaved deciduous “arcto-tertiary” trees and shrubs, in- cluding Liquidambar, is not anomalous as some have thought (Hernandez and others, 1951); in eastern Asia, the notophyllous forest has representatives of many “arcto-tertiary” genera, and Liquidambar is more typi- cal of the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest than of the broad-leaved deciduous forests. The anomalous situation in eastern North America is not the mixture of broad-leaved evergreen and de- ciduous trees in upland Mexico but is rather in the almost exclusively broad-leaved deciduous (in some in- stances pines are dominants) forests of eastern United States. In eastern Asia, western North America, and southern Europe, areas that have major temperature parameters similar to those of the bulk of southeastern North America have dominantly broad-leaved ever- 26 green forest or woodland. Eastern North America, un- like these areas comparatively shielded by mountain chains, is subjected to continuing, intense cold waves from the Arctic. Thus, despite the fact that the Potomac River floodplain has about the same cold month mean as the Kanto Plain of Japan, the absolute lows that can be expected in Washington, D.C., are lower than those that can be expected in Tokyo. It is probably this factor of prolonged cold spells in eastern United States that accounts for the existence there of broad-leaved deciduous forests rather than broad- leaved evergreen forests. Indeed, from available rec- ords, Washington, D.C., has recorded lower tempera- tures than many stations in the Mixed Mesophytic forest in Asia. Until development of extensive ice sheets and an ice-covered Arctic Ocean in the late Cenozoic, cold waves from the Arctic probably would not have been as intense as at present. If this probability is valid, then it follows that Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest occupied much of southeastern North America during the middle Cenozoic. Indeed, the flora of the Brandon lignitic beds of Vermont (Traverse, 1955) may well represent this forest, dominated by pollen of prob- able broad-leaved evergreens (Cyrilla, Sapotaceae); a subdominant, though diverse, element is probable broad-leaved deciduous (Carya, Fagus, Liquidambar). The development of many of the broad-leaved de- ciduous forests in southeastern North America prob- ably involves the gradual elimination of broad-leaved evergreens during the late Cenozoic, leaving the broad-leaved deciduous element, formerly subordinate, as dominant. By analogy, the secondary forest in the Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen forest of Asia is composed primarily of broad-leaved deciduous trees along with pines. In this sense, the climax forests of much of eastern North America are, when discussed in terms of geologic history and vegetation in other areas of the world, secondary in nature. Certainly these forests are of little value in interpreting the vegetation of the Cenozoic prior to the development of intensive cold waves emanating from the Arctic. Not only is the overall physiognomy of the vegeta- tion of eastern United States not that typical for the major climatic parameters, but even detailed features , are atypical. Only about 25 percent of the species in the flora of Washington, D.C., have entire-margined leaves; in areas of similar temperature parameters in eastern Asia, the proportion is about 40 percent. In Bailey and Sinnott’s (1915, 1916) original compilation of leaf-margin percentages, the values obtained for eastern United States were thought to be directly ap- plicable to fossil assemblages. It is clear, however, that figures based on what is basically secondary vegetation TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS have little, if any, relevancy to interpretations of fossil assemblages. Edaphic factors complicate the vegetational picture in eastern North America. For example, Braun’s (1947) and Kuchler’s (1967a) Mixed Mesophytic forest is re- stricted to moist inceptisols. On the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where highly similar if not identical climates occur but inceptisols do not, the forest is classed as oak-pine. The use of the term “Mixed Mesophytic forest” for Asian vegetation is in one sense unjustified. This term is applied in eastern North America to forests occupy- ing the plateau country west of the Appalachian Mountains (see Kuchler, 1967a). These forests are characterized by being dominantly broad-leaved de- ciduous with a minor element of conifers, primarily Tsuga. Broad-leaved evergreens are extremely minor and are not present in the tree stratum. In contrast, the Mixed Mesophytic forest of Asia (Wang, 1961), though similarly characterized by the dominance of broad- leaved deciduous trees, has a strong admixture of broad-leaved evergreen trees (Fagaceae, Lauraceae) and a diverse coniferous element. Physiognomically, then, the Mixed Mesophytic forest of Asia is not the same as the Mixed Mesophytic forest of eastern North America. The lack of broad-leaved evergreen trees in the American forest is almost certainly a function of the same factor as the lack of dominance of these trees in southeastern North America: the lesser diversity of broad-leaved deciduous trees and conifers in the Amer- ican relative to the Asian forest can be attributed to the fact that the temperature parameters occupied by the American forest are unfavorable to most trees of these elements. ~ The fact that the American and Asian Mixed Mesophytic forests occupy different temperature pa- rameters and that the two forests are not physiognomic analogs should make doubtful the widely accepted theory that the two forests are the lineal descendants of the same widespread, early Tertiary forest ("Arcto- Tertiary Geoflora”) that purportedly occupied high latitudes. This is clearly impossible, for the lineages of the American and the Asian forest have had to adapt to different temperature parameters. It is not surprising, therefore, that extensive paleobotnical data indicate that the overall concept of an "Arcto-Tertiary Geoflora” is invalid (Wolfe, 1969a, 1972). FORESTS OF EUROPE In Europe, three major categories of forests are typi- cally recognized: Mediterranean woodlands, Mid- latitude mixed forests (that is, broad-leaved deciduous forests typically dominated by oak and (or) beech), and FORES'I‘S OF EUROPE 27 boreal forest or Taiga (pl. 3). Physiognomically, the boreal forest is clearly the equivalent of the Taiga of Siberia and northern North America. Similarly, the Mediterranean woodlands are analogous to the domi- , nantly broad-leaved evergreen Notophyllous Broad- leaved Evergreen forest of eastern Asia and the California woodlands. The Mid-latitude mixed forests, which are placed in the “nemoral zone” by some work- ers, appear as anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere. In areas of the same temperature regimes as the nemoral zone of Europe (pl. 3), the forests are prepon- derantly coniferous. This is true in eastern Asia (com- pare Berlin toK’ang-ting; pl. 2, 3) and eastern North America (compare Duedde, Denmark, to Sable Island, Canada; pl. 3), where the regions receive more summer precipitation than in Europe, as well as in western North America (compare Berlin to Parkdale, Oreg; pl. 3), where the region receives less summer precipitation than in Europe. Clearly, no present temperature or precipitation factor (or combinations of both) is respon- sible for the development of broad-leaved deciduous forest in much of Europe. The vegetation preceding continental glaciation of the Quaternary in northern and cent‘l‘al Europe was dominantly coniferous (Thomson, 1948; Szafer, 1954) as evident in pollen spectra. The same conclusion can be derived by the great diversity (16 genera, more than 30 species) of conifers, including many species of Abies, Picea, and Tsuga, in the megafossil assemblages. This forest had a number of broad-leaved adjuncts now re- stricted to eastern Asia, and many of these do occur as adjuncts to the Mixed Coniferous forest. In other areas of the world, the vegetation immediately preceding glacial advances was similar to the present vegetation in the same area; Europe appears to be the major ex- ception. Not only is the present vegetation of Europe anomalous in terms of major temperature parameters, the vegetation is anomalous relative to preglacial vegetation. If European interglacial pollen profiles and megafos- sil assemblages are perused (for example, Szafer, 1954), the decline of the Mixed Coniferous forest is clearly seen. Taking the known records, each succeed- ing'inte'rglacial has three or four fewer genera of coni- fers than the preceding interglacial. The coniferous lineages available became progressively fewer and presumably the collective tolerances of the remaining lineages more restricted. It is conceivable that the rapid migrations necessitated by glacial advances, con- commitant with the narrowing of the Mixed Coniferous forest between the dry Mediterranean climate and the Taiga climates, created great stresses for the conifer- ous lineages. Following the last glaciation, the number of ecotypes remaining was apparently so limited (or nonexistent) that opportunistic broad-leaved deciduous trees were able to dominate. . It is reasonable to predict, however, that if the Earth is truly in a postglacial rather than an interglacial period, the coniferous lineages still represented in Europe will diversify ecologically. Most of the Euro- pean beech and oak forests are doomed to eventual ex- tinction as widespread vegetational types and will ul- timately be supplanted by a Mixed Coniferous forest. The term “nemoral” is used in Europe to indicate the broadJeaved deciduous forests (Sjors, 1963), and Sjors has applied the epithet to the broad-leaved deciduous forests of eastern North America and temperate east- ern Asia. Sjors (1963) was well aware that the broad- leaved deciduous forests of eastern North America and eastern Asia did not live under temperature regimes similar to those of the nemoral zone of Europe. What has not been evident before is that the bulk of the broad-leaved deciduous forests of eastern North America live under a mean annual temperature and mean annual range of temperature typical for broad- leaved evergreen forest regions and that fundamen- tally much of the broad-leaved deciduous forest of North America is an analog of the secondary vegeta- tion of the Asian Notophyllous Broad-leaved Ever- green forest region. It has not been emphasized previously that the nemoral zone of Europe has a tem- perature regime best suited for a Mixed Coniferous forest; were it not for historical factors associated with glaciation, the nemoral of Europe almost certainly would have a Mixed Coniferous forest. The axiom that the temperate flora of Asia is num- bered in thousands of species, that of eastern North America in hundreds, and that of Europe in tens be- comes readily understandable. Although the historical factors have undoubtedly contributed to the extinction of many lineages in Europe and North America, the difference in diversity of the deciduous floras of the three main “nemoral” regions is largely due to climate. Only the Asian region has a large area suitable for broad-leaved deciduous forests. Eastern North America has a smaller area (and range of climates) suitable for such forests. Europe has almost no mesic areas primarily suited for broad-leaved deciduous forests. The various boreal zone and subzones recognized by Sjors (1963) were conceptualized as a mixture of physiognomic and phytosociological categories. Al- though his boreal zone is in large part equivalent to the Russian Taiga, some problems remain. On physiog- nomic criteria, the boreal zone developed along the Norwegian coast may not belong in that zone. Consid- ering that most of Scandanavia was glaciated, might not the dominance of the typical boreal conifers along 28 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS the Norwegian coast be a function of the geographic proximity of this area to the sources of repopulation? Had the Norwegian coast a ready access to the nemoral populations during the Holocene, might not the typical nemoral zone be found as a thin strip (or in discontinu- ous patches)? As in the reverse case in Alaska (Valdez), where species of the Mixed Coniferous forest may well form the Taiga locally, the Norwegian coast may best be suited for Mixed Coniferous forest but is, because of geographic factors, populated by species of the Taiga. Because of the problems associated with the Norwe- gian coast, only stations east of the Norwegian mountains have been used in plotting the data for Europe (pl. 3). The Taiga-nemoral boundary as com- monly represented in various Russian atlases does in- deed approximate a mean annual temperature of 3°C, as in Asia and North America (fig. 2). The survival of several mixed mesophytic relicts in the Caucasus Mountains has long been recognized. I have found no climatic data for the specific area. of this relictual forest, but altitudinally below the forest, data are available for Tbilis (pl. 3); it is reasonable to expect the temperature parameters for Mixed Mesophytic forest to be developed upslope from Tbilis. Certain other areas of eastern Europe have the temperature parameters for Mixed Mesophytic forest; in these areas, the Roumanian Plain, for example, precipita- tional deficits result in grassland vegetation. DISCUSSION A CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST CLIMATES 1 Some climatologists (for example, B. J . Garnier, in Fosberg and others, 1961) have argued that a classification of climates should be totally independent of other concepts such as the distribution of organisms. While such a philosophy is clearly valid, equally valid is the traditional approach championed by Koppen, Thornwaite, and other climatologists wherein climatic parameters selected for a climatic classification are the parameters that appear to delimit vegetational types. The advantage of the traditional approach is that areas for which little or no climatological data are known can be classified climatologically on the basis of the known or inferred natural vegetation. Several major temperature parameters that have been suggested as coinciding with vegetational bound- aries are, from the data presented here, invalid. These parameters include the 18°C cold month mean, which has been used to distinguish “tropical’ from “subtropi— cal” climates, and the 6°C cold month mean, which has been used to distinguish “subtropical” from “temper- ate” climates. More recently, Bailey (1960, 1964) has suggested a new classification of climates based on the significance of equability and certain characteristics of warmth during the warm season; comparison of Bailey’s classification with plate 2 indicates that neither equability (“temperateness”) nor the suggested characteristics of warmth (“effective temperature”) are of significance in the distribution of vegetational types. The data presented indicate that the boundaries be- tween the major mesic forest types of eastern Asia ap- proximately coincide with certain major temperature parameters, although in some instances the bounda- ries and hence the parameters are obscured by primar- _ ily human disturbance. It is emphasized here that the vegetation and climatic parameters investigated are in humid to mesic climates; the critical factor of precipita- tion in delimiting forest and other vegetational types has been ignored by restricting the discussion to mesic “temperate” or humid “tropical” climates. Nonetheless, 8 T I | | I I I I | I I | I | I I I I | I I Lu 7 — EXPLANATION _ g. x Taiga I— w 6 — + Non—Taiga - < D I (73 NON-TAIGA E d 5 _ + + + + _ E + E 8 ++ + + + +1L + ++ + + + _l 31-. 4 — + + + + + 4+ + \+ — < u: + + + + + +\ 3 8 3 l I i <2: o X x x x <21: E 2 — X +7 X x)< 2: X Xx z LU TAIGA X X E 1 — x x x xx _ X X x 0 | I l | I | I L l I >25°C) 2) Singapore (7) a 25 M- . - O + laml+ <0 “0 ‘19 ”mm" + PAHATROPICAL (20—25°C) LU San Salvador HOHE KOHE Lu + ”Ca g Bermuda 8/0 / LLI 20 "V5,”, ‘ _ O +Katmandu 070,7 Sao Paulo Chunzkins SUBTROPICAL (Ia-20°C) ”7 s 2 + A —. +Sydney +Athens 30°C) LU CE Mexico City + Genoa ,2 15 — + TOky°+ St. Louis+ _ < San Francisco Canberra [4, Bogota 4,9 0: + 44 m (In, CL Wellington er,” Peking o E + ”’0th + TEMPERATE (10-13 c) E 10 Bucarest T 20000 _ _l C‘) < ~ 0 3 Dublm+ 004 PARATEMPERATEi3-10°Cl 2 Montreal Mukden+ 2 p S' + ,9] rtka < 0,0 2 5 — (we, _ _ < '77 ,7, Moscow+ +Vlad1vostok V70°C +Anchorage / M k Habarovsk+ SUBTEMPERATE (<3°C) urmans 0 I l l ‘H I I I r 0 5 10 15 2O 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS FIGURE 3,—Proposed classification of forest climates based primarily on the forests of eastern Asia. Data points show relation of classification to temperatures of major cities. 30 TEMPERATURE PARAMETERS OF FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA AND RELATION TO OTHER FORESTS also falls between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, whereas the lowland subtropical climate is extra-tropical in a geographic sense. The use of “subtropical” here is different from any previously used definition. Areas are included that have been called “temperate” (for example, lowland areas of southern Honshu, Honan, and Shantung), and many upland areas of the tropics are excluded. Note that if the 6°C cold month mean is used to differentiate “subtropical” from “temperate” climates, treeless areas on tropical mountains (much of the Andean paramos, for example) must be classed as “subtropical.” “Temperate” has different connotations. Probably the most basic of these is the connotation of the climate being neither hot year round nor cold year round. Some workers, however, use “temperate” to connote climates of moderate heat but high equability. Bailey (1964) has argued for judging the “temperateness” of climates on the basis of their departure from a mean annual tem- perature of 14°C and a mean annual range of tempera— ture of 0°C. The reason for selecting 14°C as a centrum is that this is approximately the mean temperature of the Earth at the present time. Considering, however, that the mean temperature of the Earth almost cer- tainly has been higher than 14°C throughout most of geologic time, the selection of 14°C is of questionable value. As used here, “temperate” connotes only cli- mates of a particular mean annual temperature and lacks any connotation of equability. ALTITUDINAL ZONATION OF FORESTS IN EASTERN ASIA An old concept of vegetational zonation holds that vegetational types or belts ascend altitudinally in an equatorward direction (Humboldt, 1817; Good, 1953, p. 22; Axelrod, 1966, p. 167). As Richards (1942, p. 372) has pointed out, the conclusions of Lam (1945), and particularly the conclusions of Troll (1948), are at strong variance with this older concept. The altitudinal zonation of vegetation relative to latitude in Asia is complex. Considerable differences exist between the zonation in the major oceanic islands of the western Pacific, the zonation along the coastal mainland of China, and the zonation in the interior of China (fig. 4—6). The schematic zonation of figures 4—6 was constructed by using actual data at specific base stations (pl. 2)) and extrapolating the altitudinal zona- tion. The normal lapse rate of 0.5°C/100 m was used except between lat 20° and 30° in the interior of China (fig. 6), where an actual lapse rate of O.4°C/100 m was used. The altitudinal zonation suggested (figs. 4—6) is close to observed zonation. In regions of a high mean annual range (fig. 6), some vegetational types—Mixed Mesophytic, Mixed Conif- 5000 I I | I 4000 - R U) D: LIJ I— MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST L” 3000 E — E 2 u; MICROPHYLLOUS Q BROAD-LEAVEO D EVERGREEN '_ 2000 - FOREST 4 I: MIXED < NOTOPHYLLOUS MESOPHVT'C BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN 1000 _ PARATROPICAL FOREST _ RAIN FOREST BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN AND TROPICAL RAIN FOREST CON'FEHOUS I I FOREST 0 10 20 30 40 50°N. I l I L I I I I PHILLIPPINES ' TAIWAN JAPAN SAKHALIN LATITUDE, IN DEGREES FIGURE 4.—A1titudinal zonation of forests on major islands of the western Pacific. ALTITUDE, IN METERS ALTITUDE, IN METERS 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 6000 5000 40007 3000 2000 1000 DISCUSSION 3 1 MICROPHYLLOUS BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN FOREST TROPICAL RAIN FOREST AND DECIDUOUS MIXED CONIFEROUS FOREST MIXED BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN AND CONIFEROUS FOREST NOTOPHV LLOUS BROAD- - TSURO ’ \ IIJIMR 9 <21: 0 \9”, \\/ 1 RIGRHRRQYHMR '\ _ K ,,,,,,, INHSE YELLOW SEA ~ ‘ WW , ,, 4'51 3 ’ : ”6‘1” . HIONOMISRKI C/H , .q 0 ' ‘1 “:0 ‘ TSUSHIMA 10 o IU—K N—Y * \ MUROT MISRKI 30 1 :- ~ ISLANDS . ‘1 MR SHIKOKU OQULPO ,‘ ‘. , EJNZEND' TOMIE 30° KYUSHU1' IYRZSKI o\\ I '1 7 1110 QCH‘RNG—TU 2“ t ‘3 . $0 SHIMR .Ur ' $101 _ ‘2 A “T m SHRN 2‘: (”an OPEI—YU—SHRN 1 EAST .a 2‘ RYUK‘YU RIVER HN'MEN"CHEN CHINA ISL%NDS s “ BRAHMAPUTRA m..—_ ‘_\ 250 . a 1 . m SEA a z . i Q ‘7 ..-\ -1 40-00 } qu ‘ OTUNG—YUNG dMRT—SU TZEHU ~ OWU—CH‘IU HS I—F’EI —LnN 5 d .HfilR—MEN @CHIN—MEN RN—K‘ENG “190'? 4100 SHRN 1‘ I. ‘ __ \\ “ ONANP ENG CHUN-TAO TAI “)AN 1 I 2 A uLIEN—HUR—FENG 0111110 1 P A :1 C I F I C 200 uCHE-LHNG CHIHO KHO-HSIUNG 1 1 O ENG-LQHUN 1 140° ' \‘x‘ , , » ' ' RN—CHIRNG 0 J D BAY OF BENGAL H9N_Hgg N0 SHRN ‘ O ‘ <3 0 a 9 15° INH ' RTINH 1 ‘ —LIN—KRNG SOUTH CHINA SEA ‘ IONGHOI 15o $RNGATR1 ‘b ‘3 IR NRNG 09 a NHON 10° B 10° 0 f U _ l O " ‘ o 1 ’) o G ‘j f I o C D a r‘ 1 ‘ 2 ‘3'? 961 ‘ / ‘ ‘_ {113/ A OCON SUN meILHYBRLm ~1 3/ 0 ° 0 105° 110° 115° 120° 125° 130° 135° 85 90 95 1:} Interior—Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—1979—G785 37 , SCALE 1:8 000000 . . . i . . Base computer generated from Compilatlon of vegetation based pnmarlly on Champion World Data Bank2 "L 9 L00 29° 39° 49° 59° 6‘30_7‘?° 89° 99° BOOK'LOMETERS (1936), Richards(1952), Wang (1961), Lee (1964),Vidal (1956), Honda (1928), Miyawaki (1967), and Suslov (1961) 190 0 100 290 390 490 590 MILES LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREA PROJECTION MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF HUMID TO MESIC FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA 5 10 15 25 \\ 3, 25 "1 Cairns, Australia 0 \x\ 3 _ ’00 \T\\ /" / \‘E’ l \‘x\ ,/ Townsville, Australia *1“ “ “ Koumac, New Caledonia . Noumea New Caledonia I"‘ COMPLEX MESOPHYLL ‘ VINE FOREST ./‘ /./'/ . Gladstone, Australia .’I’ ,z ,/ ’_/" Eagle Farm, Australia 0 . 3 3 "‘ Brisbane, Amberle , Austral" 3 g 3/./” / Australia y M 200C EXPLANATION a 20 /_/ 3 \ 20 UUJ \ ’3,-’ COMPLEX NOTOPHY LL Mean annual temperature (,3 \\ ,.w’ VINE FOREST ‘ \ "’ ‘ _ ______ _ 3 / . ‘ a 3’>\\\ D‘aIby, Australia ,. _ Warm month mean temperature (theoretical) D: ./'// \\\\ ' 8 ,/ \\\ / — ------------ Cold month mean temperature (theoretical) o ‘x 3 E ‘x\ Sydney, Australia Wiljamtown, Australia \ . O Lu \‘\\ I \\\ ) ' - O D \\ lort Macquarie, Australia I— \ <( ‘x\ D: \\\ LU \ 3 D. \\\ 3 I E ‘x\ _ . Auckland, NeWZealandi, ,, LlJ \ 1 . )— ‘\\ ‘ 1 _1 \ SIMPLE NOTOPHYLL K t N Z l d ‘ g 111 dld ew ea an . \\\3 V3INE FOREST 15 \x , , 7777777 1- .._, 15 Z 1 i Z Melbourne, Australik—I’Ol < \g 3 Ca3nberra, AL stralia .Z 3 I l :33: Whenuapai, New Zealand . . Napier, 3 L , x I E New Plymouth, New Zealand . \ New Zealand \\\ (iisborne, New Zealand 3 “1\ 3 \ 13' ° 3 \\\\3 13 C 3 1~\\\ . Ballarat, Ne\ Zealand °\‘ . Hobart, Australia C . Hokitika, New Zealandi -» oNelSQfl Newalsalang, Wellingt.0n, New Zealand ‘ .Christcl urch, Nevr Zealand 0 West Junction, New Zealand .Christchurch Airport, . Dunedin, New Zealand New Zealand 10 10 . Invercargill, New Zealand \\ 700 ‘ \\\g‘ 5 10 15 MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS I38 stations Source of data: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Phytosociological zones largely after Franklin and Dyrness (I969) \\ Illahe\_<+ ./ 3\0 9,1" ,f C,.« ‘ \ MIXED EVERGREEN ZONE ,1" .3” a" " Brooki g POWCIS» . -——_- Grant—SpPa—bS—u7 Medford ’3’.” "z" ng l ROS‘ebur K Oak3rid 1 I W 7 L 7 z‘ I -" 3 <\ Eugfne 3 x g ‘/)4N§TERIOR /ALLEY 1 ,x‘ If" + I ' ' ' — l 3 3 9" . ‘ L 0:1 Beach + Reedsport + +Tideyvate): S 31 \\+ Portland 3 3 ZONE ’3’,/, ’3’ 1 Port Orford North Bend + , _ +Sitku11128‘v'y’ eat3t e Salem \I-—- "' 3; _ 33 3 ,z ’3’3/ Canary + Cloverdale 3 3Hillsb0ro , 1" "I + Bandon A .1 + x +Sitkum 1W Trail f ‘MIXEE CONIFER ZONE "I storia 1 ,z‘ Cape Blanco Newport + Willapa Harbor/ Castle IROCk + lThree LY 1X 1 \ _/’ ‘ Tillamook + Otis+ ‘ . . _ ‘I‘Clatskanie 3 + ' 1 . ‘x C C‘ x" 100C 10 \ " VIC'FOHB 4 Vais’et’2'""" 3F.1‘1t1.1c2idil'+3"’ , " 3+\ I, ' ”0-03; <\ + my“ “Y1 ,.4 3 Elwha Raln er 1 3 . S 1" x Point Greenville Clearwater + Bellinghzim +Vcrnon‘3lia Stationg " 3 /' Prolsect 2 SW River \\\3\ ’3’./ x . 3 1 3 3 3 , . ‘\\ Tatoosil 15' x ‘ 1 ilver Creek‘, Falls x l" ‘I' 13‘3““ \‘\ /" 3 3 . 3 , \\\\ . . . {Port Angeles’" 7' ,,.,’ L; dl‘l’ 8'1“} “-- Statinn suga h. terophyllarzone ;>:‘\~ \\\ P/cea s/tchensm zone Clallam Bay 1 NNE x 3 ton 7Winj River 3 .I' R Avery Ranger Station \\\\ imit xGaciei Ranger Parkdale g \\\ Saridspit Station I ‘ W. , W- » rrrrrrrrrrrrr Mt.-Adams Ranger Station (7-) \‘\\ Port' Hardy O Ketchikgn/e’ / Marior For -' ‘\ Langara o 1 -" GTeenl‘ater ,3 ‘ Ll'l \\\ Prince Rupert ."1’ EB Wrangell * 1’” l Metallne Falls X \ Libby 1 NE Ranger Station 0 \ : 3 69 Anne te . 1 1 ‘ 3x Bella Coiola x . U) \\ 1 Rainier _ 3 3 3 ® Plain \ UJ \\\ """ ' ' 1’6 ’W‘an'ace Woo’dtand Park'" ' j ' ' ‘\\ LIJ ‘x\ I X Rimrock Tieton Dam \\\\ CC \\ ‘_/‘ I _ . 3 1 x ./ - 3 1 o a d Pr' lrie Dam : 'l’ ‘ \ 8 \‘\\\ (3’49 Cape Decision 3 $Sltka w r d 3 Meacham ‘\\\ D \ Littl’e’Port Watt‘er’gm C63,é’3333;;{3’,'¢£&3p” 5-31.! .t LT “ ‘ x Lake'KEecmus \\ 1 3 ‘ in a e 3 1 . . Z~ \V," 613 Cape Spencer ’1," 1 ~—-:&. lmie pass Ab/es grand/s zone \\\\ g \\\ Cape Hinchinbrolok 63 3 ’3’_/3 3 Elred Rock + Austin 3+ \x\\ \\ ...: ... . .. \\ 32 5 ‘\\\ """ .’éKOdiak lg; Angoo'l Parkw:y 6 ‘\ + \ ‘ +Seneca \‘\\ <1: ‘ 3 Odell Lake\ umping Lake ‘\ E Adak 63 \\ ’I.Mt Dakel‘ vYakutat 3 $131336” 63 Axnnex Creek 1 3 ® Burke 2 NNE \\\\ D. 3’ StW'dl'd xStampe3de Pass \ Granite 4 WSW 3 \\\\ E ' """ eCordova'” 1 "+ " ‘ """ + 3’ \\ L“ l 1 1 1 \x I— 69 Sher-nya \; Rainier Paradisej Crate r Lake Na3t. Ik. 3 \ ‘\\\ i 3Cold Bay‘ ®\\R:ng3er Station 5‘— \______‘3— 3 \ 8’ Big Creek \\\\ 3. C D '—'iikin 1* 3 ‘ 3\ 1 \ 1 —'— —.__ \ \“ Z 3 \\ \ 3 *—® Mullan Pass \\ Z \\ m téns‘ana zone ‘ < KEY TO STATIONS 6 St. George \\\ Homer Tsuga er I Anchorage \\\go 2 \\ m \\ <1: 69 Alaska . 5~'<\ """ P ValdeZ" " Matanuska 99 i L“ 3 ~ 3 2 o British Columbia 1 3 ‘ \‘3; 3 63 mm, 9 St. Paul 3 3 ‘\ 3 ® Idaho ‘ i 7 ‘ "‘55; EB King Salmon O Montana 3 ‘~\\ 1 @Talkeetna \ \l ; + Oregon 3\\ 3 . TUN DRA 9 Cape Newenham EB Kenai 3 0 X Washington , """ ~‘\\ 69 Laswell 3 x 3 L HILL] ‘\\1 BOREAL FOREST (TAIGA) i.i 3\\\ 3 \\ Nunivak e33 @McKinley {9 (mapper River Chltlna EB R f (13 \ 3 3; Bethel Park Holy Cross . C3PS.‘.9TTIZO.J \\\ 93 Sheep Mountain """" ‘ 3 \ ‘\\ EDAniak ‘ ‘ Big Delta 0‘ 5 10 15 20 25 30 3E MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 73 stations Source of data: World Meteorological Organization Data in parentheses are coastal Norway 25 30 35 5 10 15 230‘ 20 20 l \\\ \\~ 3 \ \\\\\ 1 ‘\\\ \\\ Canary Is. . - -- W- ~ , 1‘1“" ‘\ 13 Seville Spain \\ ‘\\ Madeira, Spain . 3 v \\ \ ‘1 3 \ \\\ , I f \\ \\\ \‘\ satIIIo For 117571777777” 2 I 7 ill “\ \\ O ’ g l \\ \\\ \\\\ \\\\ \\\ 3 \ \\ \ - . _,.. ....,. ... W". \\\\ MEDITERRANEAN WOODLANDS \‘\\ \ 3 \\ \x ‘ I 3 \ \‘\\ . . Oporto3, Portugal 0 Larisa, Greece \‘\\ \\ ‘. .. \‘ \‘~\ cio, Corsica \‘\\ \\ 3 \ \\ l 3 3 3 [\O C) /').\\ \ ‘ 1 I ‘ ‘ \ \‘\ ice, Francle l1 TitOgrad, Yugoslavia . I x” \\\ ‘~ , Genoa,tltaly. 3 , . ,v’ ‘\ 15 x O 3 1 IE \\ ‘/ \\\ \\ /" \\ TR \ 1 z"‘ \\\ x - I ‘z‘ \ \\\ \. R ze, Turke . Marseille, France 3’3, 0 C3 \7)\ , ,s<,,.,.. . .z _/ \\ \\\ 3 ’3’ z/_/ \\ ~ 1 _/- 3/ a R‘ \\ \. Istanbul, Turkey , /1’ ,i’ R \\3 0C O 3 3 , . \ g \\ 3 3 Tbilisi, U.S.S.R. 1/1’ ,z’ 13 C (7) . 1 3 . "v—fi—W 1 .,- / ' ‘\ _J .3 ‘x\ 3 Mllar, Italy 1 // // \\ Lu 3 \\\ i /./. 1 ."I \ 0 ~\ 3 ,x‘ 1 1 ,1’ (:0 ~\ 1 Plovd v, Bulgaria ’./ .’ 1.1.1 3 ’ .21 3 ,1’ L” l C: \\\ a" Belgrade Yugoslavia "- N ‘ a u g \ 3 "’_/ . 3 O 3 k 3") LU \\ 3 L : [3 I. . Ankara, Tur ey ./ Q ~-\ 3 . YO", rance _/ Zagreb, YugoslaVIa 3 B l 3 _3 ,. Z \‘l \\ l L ‘ .Vratza, u gd“:/. BuCarest, Rumania —_ . Paris, France R . Sofia, Bulgaria /_,~’ ' g . Valentia, Spain E No", Franbe . ./‘/’ 100C 3 10 l -(‘amhr dge anl nd l A" 10 +— v < .Uccle Belgium 3 . [I \ 3 Ias1, Rumanla LU \\ 3 O o. \\\ 3 LE“ \‘\ 1 1 F- ‘x\\ 3 3 MID-LATITUDE MIXE D FORES rs (= NE:MORALI33 Brno, Czech —J \\\ .Dublin, Ireland 3 Berlin, Germany 0 ‘ 3': \‘\\~ ‘ I 3 Copei hagen, Denmark . 3 33 \ E \‘\\ (.)Brrgen, Norway Duedde, Denmark 0 . Munich, Germany < \\\ ' ‘ i x . Kiev, U.S S R Z \\\ \\~ 3 \\\\ ,,,,,,,,, . .Kaliniigrad, U.S.S.R. E \\\\ \ 1 \ l \‘x\ 3 JOnkOping, Swederi . 3 3 \\ 3 z 6 Stockholm Sweden ,, \\\\ (0) Orland, Norway \ 3 \\\ l I \ \\\ 3 \ l l 5 \\ , (o) » .Bryansk,U.S.S.R. 5 ~\ 3 1 . ‘\\1\ (‘3)Bodo, N rway Trondheim .Leningrad, U.S.S.R. 1 ‘\ 1 . . Helsinki, Finland \\\ 1 Oslo, Norway .Moscow, U.S.S.R. _. 3‘ 33 ,,,,,,,, _ , ‘ ‘\ O Velikiya Luki, U.S.S.R. \ \\ 3 3 1 1 O 1 RR‘\ (0) TrOmSOi NOFWB Vaasa, Sweden _ . Bologoe, U‘S‘S'R‘ Lukoyanov, U.S.S.R.. \ 20°C ‘\1 1 1 3Valdai, U.S.S.R. , \ 3 C \‘ i 3 3 ‘ ) O . :\ , Kazan, U.S.S.R. \\ \st 31 1 05‘8““‘1’ sweat“ Luonetjarvi. Finland / .VOlogd‘“ U'S‘S'R- ‘\ N ‘ 3 Makkaur Fyr Norylvz:;\‘\ 1 i3 Sortavala, U'S'S'R' . Petrozavodsk, U.S.S.R. 3 (fcrested) 3 (0) 3\\‘\ TA 36A 0 Kaiaani, U.S.S.R. . Km”, U.S.S.R. o 1 - ( 3) Var—do, Norway R~3\\ .Archangel, U.S.S.R. (tund3ra) ‘3 ‘~\ 3 , . . , ‘ S \ 3 3 .Gridmo, U.S.S.R. . ‘ Nyandoma, U.S.S.R. 1 x 1 I R b l U. .S.R. \‘G‘ Stensele, U.S.S.R.. e 0 y, S \‘\70003 M 1 1k U s S R \\ . urmans, I \ O 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AUSTRALASIA 31 stations Source ofdata: World Meteorological Organization Forest classification after Webb (1959) MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS CALIFORNIA 139 stations Source of data: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Vegetational and phytosociological zones largely after Munz and Keck (1950) and Griffin and Critchfield (1972) PLATE 3 PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1 106 200 5 10 15 20 25 30 \ \\\ 20 \\ \\\ \ \ \ \\\\ I “~. 3 \\\ AEI Capitan Dam \ ' 3 \\\ Lemon Cove 3 \ \ , \‘\\ Ash Mountain i \\ 0 fR dd' ‘ ' , ‘1 ' ‘ - e in ‘\ ”m“ "f “1‘“ CALIFORNIA WOODLANDS Serlterwu g x \ at LA. Orange Cov Avalon K \‘\\\ 0 Laguna Beach . Ola] 3 ° C .3 i ‘ Cloverdale 3 SSE 3 \I,’ San Lu1s ObiSpo Poly 0 Stony Gorge. 3 3/. Santa Barbara , Camp Pardee Sonora Ran er Station ./l‘/ 15 ‘x\ King City Pinnacles Nat. Mom. . Ukwh . .Chico CA” erry -"’ .3)" ‘ -" '3 15 Los Gatos . Healdsbuig Chma F1811. $313st Colfax /3’ 3 CLOSED-CONE __——————— Betteravia O MIXED EVERGREEN FOREST AId P _ Orleans Aubur 3 (9’ PINE FOREST Pismo Beach . 0 er 0”” ' /- Santa S' 3 3 Kentfleld . 3. 1/. anta CI'UL . WoodSide N F 3 . . Maria. ( raton 1W. Angwin. orth orkLglgéllggrtStation. 3 7/3,: ~ 1 . . ’ , , , . . Lompoc .Carmel Valley Upper B L SM”: ROSd \\\ China Flat 2. .Tiger Creek Big Bar 3 /,/" Morro Ba ADIOS Mattole.‘ en omon \\ R h 3 Q, _ Covel< ‘ 3/‘ ‘ t Y I. \ ~ 1c ardson r:;,\ lle . 13/ 13°C Shelter Cove I ‘x / \ HHPPY Camp ' 1 .’ Mt. Hamilton I .’ o D , . -. __—--.. MIXED CONI ER FOREST (PART) .’ z ‘ o 05‘0“ REDWOOD FOREST C3ennville\ ———‘ “~/z r , 1 3 3 2 ’ Point Piedras Blancas COASTAL Port ROSS Half M00“ Bay " \\\ ;¢”. . BEESEeSSZI: “$225: 1 1 ,."l‘ l i i z‘/-’ SCRUB 3 , 1 . Wynola \ 0 - 1 - -‘ 1 8 F 3 B Kl h, (,rescent City Bun” Valley. . Branscomb I Nevada \ ~ Cuyamaca. 0 Weaverville‘yontague/ /3,” _ ‘or rag . amat .1 . _/ . (ii) Point Reyes ‘~. Point Arena . I (”y Dudley mmrLake .Strawberry (.1 ' ./‘/ LU Fort Bragg. \ I W 3 ¢ rrowhead Valley 3’ Yos mite Nat. Park /,/ ., . 3 es - - __ / , t ,,,,,, 0 Aviation . Eureka .Orick Prairie I Branch Downlevnle. \\ -___-.‘../ NORTHERN OAK WOODLAND /,/ (0 Forest Glen. ‘x\ . Yreka ." a Horse s/tchens/s I I Calaveras 0 >(N’: \ .Mnes ’/"3’ 0: 10 zone Seven Oaks' Yose ite IHSkip Inn, < Lake \ Hat Creek Power House 1 _/‘/ ‘ 10°C 8 \\\ ‘ South trance. ' \ leanor \ I,’ 10 \\ \ , , 3 Deer Creek. "0 Canyon \\ / ‘ ‘ D \ Elk Valle) _ \\ . Z \‘x 3 \ /-’ Quincy . \\ /./ — \\ >/ /‘ , Mt‘ Shasta Odfords‘ /‘ . \\\ MIXED CONIFER FOREST OF \ _ ' 3 Brbwmar TableMountai Rx". "” \ SOUTHERN COAST RANGES \ " Ldk? “'m . x 1 g \\\ _’ ’\ SPRU‘dlfl.g Dinkey Chester .z' \\\ I- \\\\ / / \\ Meadows. 7 .Burney ,/ \3\\ g \\\ 3,-’ . Edmanton II 0 Canyon Dam LU \\\ ."" \ . / o. \x .’ Giant /. Westwood E \\\ /'/ {crest . II/ Sierraville Ran er Station fl \\\\ "_/‘ Grant Grov §\&nery/ r/tola g _3 \x\ ’1’A.La P/ortty/ < \\\ /"‘ Big Bear Lake 0 M3“ It'd Lake 3 ‘x\ .z' MIXED CONIFER FOREST (PART), NORTHERN /Cisco 2 \ 1’ COAST RANGES AND SIERRA NEVADA -’ ‘ Truckee Ranger Station 2 \‘\\ ,r" 3," Huntington .Donner Mem. < ‘x\ ,/‘/ /-/ Lake State Park 2 \\ ,/ /’ RED FIR FOREST ’ .O <( \\< .’ /_/ Squaw Valle Lake Tahoe UEJ ‘x\ 3/‘ .Summit Boca / 5 \\\\ /3/‘ Soda \\\ /,/‘ Spring . l’ \ , \\\\\ /3/.’ Alum Lodgepole 3 \\\~('/. Tamarack]. Lake \ , \‘\\ Twin Lake. SUBALPINE FOREST \\\\ N \\ 3°C ‘\ \\ Ellery Lake \. Bodie \\\ \ \\\\ \\\ ‘\\ SUBALPINE FOREST; \ \ \ \ \ ‘\\ .Whlte Mountain 1 \ \ \\\\ \\ \ \ o \\ 0 \\\ \\\ \\ \\\ ‘ \\\\ 3 , \ 3 10 . s.\, \\\ ‘\ 1 . White Mountain 2 \\ 7001 3 \\ C N 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 5 EASTERN NORTH AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA 136 stations Sources of data: National Oceallic and Atmospheric Administration and World Meteorological Organization 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 30 \ ;-' 3 30 \\\ O C / " l ‘\ \‘Bw’ I \ - 3 \\\ 3’.’ \\\ "_z \x a” \\ 3’. ‘x . H Recreo, Nicaragua 3’-’ i ‘z'/ / TROPICAL MOIST FOREST OF HOLDRIDGE (1957) 3// , Georgetown, / TROPICAL RAIN FOREST OF RICHARDS 1952) /."’ Guyana / (3 3 jd.\ \\\ z". iual a ' \ i ’ Bell7e British Honduras .’ Honduras 0 /<\ /3/’ \ . 0 O /Manaus. Bra/1| \ \‘~\ 3’" x _/ / O FIST“) Cabe7as, \ / San Pedro Sula, \x\ ./ o__-'_°.a”.‘ii _o/ H d ,. \\ l/ , l’iarco Bluet‘ields, Nicari ua on uras ‘\ ." l’ampanito, 3 , lg 3 \\ ’3’ Venezuela. 1“”‘ddd' NEOTROPICAL RAIN FOREST \\ _,-" 1111qu I\ \\ OF CUATRECASAS (1957) o\\ .z" Brazil +T.\ /<\ 25 C \\ ’-’ 25 o RVN. >\ /_/ 25 I Guayaquil, Ecuador \x\ 3/‘ i . .z i 2:333:33;- o ciiiiicamus, TROPICAL EVERGREEN (RAIN) FOREST ~ 3,/ 1 3/‘ Honduras OF RZEDOWSKI (1963) \\ .x’ o Palmira, Colombia . Miami, l1‘Ia.. ,n<\ 3 -_ , I ()jo de Agua, A Tamazunchale, Mexico. x‘IV’ \x\ 3 I Argentina /‘ l \ ‘ \O ‘ . Rio dc Janciro, Alajuela, / - Brayil ( osta Rica San Salvador, El Salvaddr I 920 In . I \\ _ O lSebaco Nicaragua \\ I o AIaJuela, i , \\ , in ' ./ Santa Elena, \ Costa Rica / 15‘1"“) I \\\\ LL Venezluela 952 m omingo .Tegulcigalpi, Honduras \\ . Ecuador / \\\ . x \ I . .z‘ 3. Bermuda \ listeban .1aramillo,\./Mcrl 33333333313” / 3," lguape, Bran] . \\\\ C i b; / ‘ / ,, ’ . i \ olom HY San Jose ./\'\\ , O Xilltla Mex1co New Orleans La \\\ | / o \ C05,, Rm, SUBTROPICAL WET AND MOIST FORESTS OF HOLDRIDOE (1957) \\ 0/ .~._./. Santa’Rosa de Copan, Honduras .B 3 l .Apalachicola, Fla. 0 ‘~ I hini,1 Lolombia / rusque, BM“ p. u . 1. Fl' 20 C \x 20 I (L “DC . ensaco a, . \ 3 20 I “ 36‘ \ \\\\ / .Blonael, Colombia ’ \. homasville, Ga. \\\\ \ Tibacuy,‘{\ \ 0 ~, b M -.\ \\\ Colombia] ‘\ ’ SUBANDEAN RAIN FOREST 0 “‘3 3’ em" .. \\ '0 ;_>§/ OF CUATRECASAS (1957) SOUTHERN MIXED FOREST OF KUCHLER (319678) Montgomery, Vicksburg, M3583 \\\ ,,,,, o o , \ 3 Ala.\ z. \\ 3 / \Merid; Guatemala ()bs 3.; \ ‘ Vene/ueIIIR (iuateinaP/a Sao Paulo, Brazil. \ ‘x\ 3 'T F I I \\\\ Charleston SC \ \S l ,v’ ()spina Perez, \\ C I/alapa, Mexico / ’ ‘ ‘ \\ ' I Colombia CLOUD FOREST OF VARIOUS AUTHORS . \ " ‘\\ \ ‘ I I Libano, Colombia \\. \‘\\ \Augélsta, \\ \\\\ ‘La Ilorida, Colombia \‘1 ) d \ ‘ ‘\\ I O_ ‘.m”ce Tres Rios ~\ OAK—HICKORY—PINE FOREST \ ‘\\\ ‘§ 3 OF KUCHLER11967a) Atlant Ga. ‘ ‘ ‘~\. Banos, Ecuador 0 “\ Memphis, Tenn. ‘\\\~3 Clemson College, Ga. 0 G (D \ \ \\\ 2 _ \ \ .\ , (I) \ \x _, TROPICAL LOWER MONTANE WET AND MOIST \ . Huachinango MeXIco hattano,oga, Texk Nashville, \\\\ L“ FORESTS OF HOLDRIDGE'(1957) \\ ‘s Tenn, 00 >\ U x l N . ,\ ’. x U) \\\ Norfolk, Va. .1 n. Cairo, Ill. . x" ‘~\\ LU 15 \\ MIXED MESOPHYTIC FOREST ' " ' ‘AW 15 UJ \\ .. \\ cc \\ OF KUCHLER (1967a) ‘\ (D . \x ‘ \\ LiJ . Sanatorio Duran ‘\\\ APPALACHIAN OAK FOREST 3 ' \ \\ a ‘\\\ g \\ OF KUCHLER (1967a) Ag'liland 1% ,.‘Ky 1111111 00;7,.\ _‘ . Bogota, Colombia \‘\\ Blairsville, Ga_ 3 :Snow Hill .__*\_ 3’21" ‘\\‘ LLI ‘\\ Ashev1lle, N.C.. ' Md. ’ ’ \\\ 0C o g ! \‘\\ Crossville, Tenn... Charleston, W Va\.\ .\ .I" \\\ 13 C '— I ‘ \ \\ ‘ ’ ’t \\\ < I \ \x a ’ \‘ m \\ \ u.) I \ \\\ Coweeta, N.C.. 3 i I; A/ANDEAN FOREST OF CUATRECASAS (1957) \\\ 3 QAK1H.I,CKO,RY3 FOREST _ (3 lJJ l \ \\ . OF KUCHLER (1967a) I- x 3 . —J I \ \\\\ Boone, N.C. ~—-I_. f" Hannibal, MO‘ < I . \ dianapolis). " j Kirksville, M0.. 3 .____o Cotopax1, Ecuador ’_ ’\ 3 , 3 3 77777 3 E Mucuchics, Villa Mills ‘ \,‘\ ° Tarkioi M0~ 1 I 1 , 1 Pauld n , 1 ‘3 I <1 Vene‘u‘l“ TROPICAL MONTANE RAIN FOREST on mi, g \ Dixon m ,3 10°C <2: 10 ~ OF HOLDRIDGE (1957) Banner Elk, N c o , \‘x \ '3‘ j 10 lg \\ ;‘Alt0 2:, Pa. 1‘§{oledo, Ohio \\'i \‘1 \ .1. \ T \ 1 1 \\\ \Scranton, :\ ‘ i 1‘ \ 3_ Ct \\\\ NORTHERN HARDWOODS \ \ Pa ‘ ‘\ ‘South Bend “III \\ \ 3fiS10ux i y \\ OF KUCHLER (19673) \t’ | \ iBEECH- MAPLE FOREST ' \\\\ Big Meadows, Va. ..\ Bayard W.Va. \ Buffalo‘N. Y“ Grand Rapids, Mich\ Dubuqueis {3F KUC3HLER (193673) ‘\ \\~ \‘40 14" h. X/‘ \‘ . \P‘ T gflw’°£&/Iilwaukee‘\ ‘ P st OD =OREST \\ Springs 1 sw, Pa. \ ML P000“, pa 3 1 s. _~ 353 1. \\ s MA LE BA O \\ Sable 15., Nova Scotia \\ \ Toronto 1 '1 K‘ K‘OF KUQHLER (1967a) \\ O x‘ 3 . 3‘ \~ ‘ x 0‘ Ontario ~ ~. \\\ \\ . O’Gla‘dwin, ~. ‘3‘" Ogdensburg, N‘C‘ \‘ . i "7‘ Montreal,.QLmbeC iiiiii . . . W,“ \ Mich. , .~ 3 \\ 3 Burlington,Vt. 0 3 3 ~ ‘_ \\ ELM-ASH FOREST OF 1 \\\ KUCHLER (1967a), \‘x\ . Mt. Mitchell, N.C. Sydney, Nova Scotia \‘\\ Charlottetown, Prince Edward Is.’ \\ . . ‘ - \ . itt‘igleeltyessij. ‘\\\ NORTHERN HAR DWOODS-SPRUCE \ Wis , \ St- C130 ‘ld’ Minn. " \ . 5 \\ FOREST OF KUCHLER (1967a) , , \1 ,,,,,,‘?‘__‘?W’iz9“F?KI9,,,-, , 5 x 1 \‘x Chatham, New Brunswick .3 \ 3 x i 3 \‘\\ Cape Race, Newfoundland. . Gander, Newfoundland 1 3 3 \ 1 \\\\ North Bay,‘Ontario.3 . 3‘ l \\ ‘3 QuelN \\\\ Ouebeic \\\\ Chidoutimi, Q1 ebec .\\ 3°C ~\\\ Anticosti. Quebec \ O 3 1 : , \\\\ Father Pt.,Quebec 3 3 3 3 Bagotv Ile, Quebec- \\ 3 ‘1 I I \ \ ,,,,,, . South Georgia Is. \\\ (treeless) \\\ \ . Sept Iles, Quebec BOREAL FOREST OF VARIOUS AUTHORS I: TAIGA) Belle 15., Labrador . 3 .White R.,3 Ontario 0 0 0 5 IO 15 25 30 5 firlnterior—Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—1979—G78537 MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS TEMPERATURE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS FOR PARTS OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE, EUROPE, AND AUSTRALASIA m D m _1 LL! 0 m LU LLl cc 0 Lu 0 2 LL! CC I) I— < c: U.| D. 2 LU '— _1 < D Z Z < Z < Lu 2 O 30 25 —\ 01 10 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 10 15 2O 25 30 35 40 PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1 106 PLATE 2 '50 30 Pa Mercara : . Donghoi 25°C /' /Vinh ‘z‘ Than-hoa j," ' Hatinh \ Li-chiang‘ ' Darjeeling 2 ." \ Chakrata \ \ x \\ \\\\ WeLning Bering Island. Mys Vasileva O V Ch’ang-dha Hsing-tzu IA J Sachon u/I /. Ta-mng 1" 1 Mokpo Mei-hsien c "3m3-/l 3 A amwon f‘Niigatal ‘.,/§.R- ‘ L ./ ./ ’ -_. I » Nan-yueh ' ./ Funa Hakoneyama ‘ i T lsi-sh ant . Nlevel’sk Kholmsk R‘\\ i \‘POlo r ‘ . \ ‘ Hsren-hswn \g \ _ I ‘ 1 13°C I / T’ang-ku Shan-hou ‘lrl J T’ai-yu'a‘n Feng—ch’eng 10 15 25 30 MEAN ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 20 35 O 10 C 40 EXPLANATION Humid to mesic forests Tropical Rain Paratropical Rain Microphyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen Notophyllous Broad-leaved Evergreen Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Deciduous Mixed Broad-leaved Evergreen and Coniferous Mixed Mesophytic Mixed Broad-leaved Deciduous Mixed Coniferous Mixed Northern Hardwood '—l n: H. 0Q A: Simple Broad-leaved Deciduous Mean annual temperature ———— Warm month mean temperature (actual) ——————— Warm month mean temperature (theoretical) —-—-— Cold month mean temperature (actual) - -------- Cold month mean temperature (theoretical) Length of records, in years + <5 or not stated in source A 5 - 9 10-14 0 69 15-19 0 20~24 A 25—29 0 >29 See plate 1 and table 1 for location of stations and sources of data ngangiin 173°C "i—ha—erh ' -‘ An-ta 45 25 20 15 1O 50 filnterior—Geological Survey, Reston, Va.—1979—G78537 TEMPERATURE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION OF HUMID TO MESIC FORESTS OF EASTERN ASIA, 427 STATIONS _ wwh CONTENTS Page Page Metric conversion table ____________________________ v Watershed and channel morphology—Continued . Definition of tEI'mS _______________________________ vi Overland flow length __________________________ 26 Abstract _________________________________________ 1 ErOSion and sediment discharge ____________________ 28 Introduction ______________________________________ 1 Description of environmental factors ____________ 28 Acknowledgments _____________________________ 1 Land use ________________________________ 28 Description of the problem ____________________ 1 Soils and topography ______________________ 30 Units of measurement _________________________ 2 Erosion “T ___________________________________ :3 Description of study area __________________________ 2 Sedigient :figagginent """""""""""" 51 ' us e ______________________ Efiiii’fr‘i‘??i_“i‘iI‘i‘i‘iiiai‘ii::::::::::::::::: i pnvanaaa annual suspended-sediment dia 52 Land use and vegetation _______________________ 6 charge ""“'"""""T""""": ------------------------ g 14:22:“?:1?ijiifiifi‘ii‘irfiirff‘f.fff‘f‘: 55 Geolé‘gflaiii :33???_:::::::::::::::::::::::::: 9 Unneaannadana bad sediment ------------- 58 Network description __________________________ 10 Description and source ——————————————— 53 ' . Computation _________________________ 59 Collectlen and analysis of water data ________________ 10 Transport curves _____________________ 59 Water-data statlons ---------------------- 10 Average annual discharge _____________ 63 Water-quahty data ............................ 11 Delivery ratios ___________________________________ 66 Streamflow data ---------------------------- 12 Management implications of erosion and sediment dis- The stream system ________________________________ 12 charge data ___________________I _________________ 68 Channel characteristics ________________________ 12 Contribution of suspended sediment to stream quality 72 Flow characteristics ___________________________ 13 Turbidity ____________________________________ 72 Streamflow hydrographs ___________________ 13 Chemical quality _____________________________ 75 Flow durations ___________________________ 13 Management implications of chemical-quality data __ 80 Watershed and channel morphology ________________ 18 Summary ________________________________________ 82 Stream-order analySis _________________________ 18 Selected references ______________________________ 84 ILLUSTRATIONS Page FIGURE 1. Map Showing area and location of water-data stations ________________________________________ 3 2- Map ShOWing long-term average annual precipitation ___________________________________________ 6 3- Map Showing long-term average annual air temperature ______________________________________ 7 4. Generalized geology of study area ___________________________________________________________ 9 5. Channel characteristics at: A. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _______________________________________________________ 14 B. Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________________________________________________ 14 C. Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ________________________________________________________ 14 D. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________________________________________________ 15 E. Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ____________________________________________________ 15 6. Graphs showing mean daily streamflow and daily precipitation at: A. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _______________________________________________________ 16 B. Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________________________________________________ 16 C. Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ________________________________________________________ 17 D. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________________________________________________ 17 7. Flow duration curves at: A. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _______________________________________________________ 20 B. Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________________________________________________ 20 C. Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ________________________________________________________ 21 D. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________________________________________________ 21 III IV 8—1 5. 16. 17. 18—23. 24. 25—30. 31—35. 36—40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45—46. CONTENTS Page Graphs showing: 8. Relation of number of channels to stream order _____________________________________ 23 9. Relation of average drainage area to stream order ___________________________________ 23 10. Relation of average channel length to stream order __________________________________ 23 11. Relation of cumulative average channel length to stream order _________________________ 23 12. Relation of average channel drop to stream order ___________________________________ 23 13. Relation of cumulative average channel drop to stream order __________________________ 24 14. Relation of average channel slope to stream order ___________________________________ 24 15. Relation of average drainage area to cumulative average channel length _________________ 25 Relation of cumulative average channel length to true stream order ____________________________ 26 Relation of number of channels to true stream order ____________________________________________ 27 Maps showing land use in watersheds draining to: 18. Chattahoochee River near Leaf _______________________________________________________ 31 19. Soque River near Clarkesville _______________________________________________________ 32 20. Chestatee River near Dahlonega ______________________________________________________ 33 21. Big Creek near Alpharetta __________________________________________________________ 34 22. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta, Nancy Creek at Atlanta, and Woodall Creek at Atlanta ____ 35 23. Snake Creek near Whitesburg _______________________________________________________ 36 Photographs showing typical basin land uses ______________________________________ 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 Maps showing soil associations in watersheds draining to: 25. Chattahoochee River near Leaf ______________________________________________________ 43 26. Soque River near Clarkesville _______________________________________________________ 44 27. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _____________________________________________________ 45 28. Big Creek near Alpharetta _________________________________________________________ 46 29. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta, Nancy Creek at Atlanta, and Woodall Creek at Atlanta ____ 47 30. Snake Creek near Whitesburg _______________________________________________________ 48 Graphs showing relation of suspended-sediment concentrations to stream discharge at: 31. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _____________________________________________________ 51 32. Big Creek near Alpharetta ___________________________________________________________ 52 33. Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ______________________________________________________ 53 34. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta __________________________________________________________ 54 35. Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ________________________________________________ 54 Graphs showing lateral distributions of suspended-sediment concentration, flow velocity, flow depth, and size of bed material at: 36. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _____________________________________________________ 56 37. Big Creek near Alpharetta ___________________________________________________________ 57 38. North Fork of Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ___________________________________________ 58 39. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ________________________________________________________ 60,61 40. Snake Creek near Whitesburg _______________________________________________________ 62 Graphs showing storm loading of suspended sediment at: A. Chestatee River near Dahlonega ______________________________________________________ 64 3. Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________________________________________________ 64 C. Snake Creek near Whitesburg _________________________________________________________ 65 D. Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg _________________________________________________ 65 Photographs of typical streambeds and stream channels on the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus _________________________________________________________________________ 66, 67, 68, 69 Graphs showing relation of unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharge to stream discharge at: A. Chattahoochee River near Leaf _______________________________________________________ 70 B. Chestatee River near Dahlonega ______________________________________________________ 70 C Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________________________________________________ ‘71 D. Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ________________________________________________________ 71 E. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________________________________________________ 71 F. Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg _________________________________________________ 71 Graphs showing relation of turbidity to suspended silt D1115 clay concentrations at: A. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _______________________________________________________ 73 B. Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________________________________________________ 73 C. Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _______________________________________________________ 73 D. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________________________________________________ 73 Graphs showing relation of suspended—constituent concentrations to concentrations of suspended silt plus clay at: 45. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _____________________________________________________ 74, 75 46. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta __________________________________________________________ 76, 77 Erosion, Sediment Discharge, and Channel Morphology in the Upper Chattahoochee River Basin, Georgia With a discussion of the Contribution of Suspended Sediment to Stream Quality By R. E. FAYE, W. P. CAREY,J. K. STAMER, and R. L. KLECKNER GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1107 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1980 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Erosion, sediment discharge, and channel morphology in the Upper Chattahoochee River Basin, Georgia, with a discussion of the contribution of suspended sediment to stream quality. (Geological Survey professional paper ; 1107) “Open—file report 78—576.” Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs. no.: I 1916:1107 1. Erosion—Chattahoochee River watershed. 2. Sediment transport—Chattahoochee River watershed. 3. Chattahoochee River—Channel. I. Faye, R. E. II. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Profes- sional paper ; 1107. QE571.E783 551.3 78—27110 For sale by the Su}_)erintendent of Documents, U .8. Government Printing Office \Vashington, DC. 20402 Stock Number 024-001—3305-4 TABLE ,_. 535957"?1 11 —19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. PP‘FPJN’E" CONTENTS V TABLES Page Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for Dahlonega, 1928—1957 _________________ 5 Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for Cornelia, 1941—1970 _____________________ 5 Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for Atlanta, 1941—1970 ______________________ 5 Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for West Point, 1941—1970 ___________________ 8 Station number, name, and watershed area of principal and miscellaneous water-data stations _____ 11 Summary of regression data relating daily discharge at urban partial-record stations to daily dis- charge at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________________________________________ 14 Summary of flow duration data ______________________________________________________________ 18,19 Summary of geomorphic characteristics _______________________________________________________ 24 Summary of overland-flow length computation using Strahler stream-order data _________________ 27 Summary of land-use data by category ________________________________________________________ 28, 29 Summary of soil and topographic data for watersheds draining to: 11. Chattahoochee River near Leaf ______________________________________________________ 30 12. Soque River near Clarkesville ________________________________________________________ 3O 13. Chestatee River near Dahlonega _____________________________________________________ 37 14. Big Creek near Alpharetta ___________________________________________________________ 37 15. North Fork of Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ___________________________________________ 38 16. South Fork of Peachtree Creek at Atlanta _____________________________________________ 38 17. Peachtree Creek at Atlanta __________________________________________________________ 39 18. Nancy Creek at Atlanta _____________________________________________________________ 39 19. Snake Creek near White‘sburg ________________________________________________________ 40 Sheet erosion and erosion yields computed by the Universal Soil Loss Equation __________________ 49 Summary of regression data relating suspended-sediment concentrations to stream discharge _____ 50 Average annual suspended-sediment discharge and yield ________________________________________ 55 Summary of unmeasured— and bed-sediment discharge computations _____________________________ 63 Summary of regression data relating unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharges to stream discharge 66 Average annual total-, unmeasured-, and bed-sediment discharges ________________________________ 67 Summary of regression data relating turbidity to concentrations of suspended silt plus clay ______ 72 Summary of regression data relating suspended-constituent concentrations to concentrations of sus- pended silt plus clay ___________________________________________________________________ 78, 79 Mean concentrations of dissolved constituents used to COHIPUte average annual dissolved-constituent discharges ____________________________________________________________________________ 80, 81 Summary of regression data relating dissolved—constituent concentrations to stream discharge -___ 82 Annual yields of suspended constituents from representative land-use watersheds ________________ 83,84 Summary of average annual suspended- and total-constituent discharges ________________________ 84 CONVERSION FACTORS Factors for converting inch-pound units to metric units are shown to four significant figures. However, in the text the metric equivalents are shown only to the number of significant figures consistent with the values for the inch-pound. Inch-pound Multiply by Metric ft (foot) 3.048x10“1 m (meter) ft (foot) 3.048x10" mm (millimeter) ft/s (foot per second) 3.048)<10‘1 m/s (meter per second) fti/s (cubic foot per second) 2.832x10'” m"/s (cubic meter per second) in. (inch) 2.540x10‘i m (meter) in. (inch) 2.540)<10JL mm (millimeter) mi (mile) 1.609 km (kilometer) mi2 (square mile) 2.590 km2 (square kilometer) tons (tons, short) 9.072x10‘l t (metric tons) tons/d (tons per day) 9.072x10‘1 t/d (metric tons per day) tons/ft3 (tons per cubic foot) 3.204><101 t/m“ (metric tons per cubic meter) tons/yr (tons per year) 9.072><10“1 t/yr (metric tons per year) °F:9/5 (°C) +32 °C:5/9(°F—-32) VI CONTENTS DEFINITION OF TERMS Terms used in this text to describe hydrology, sediment, the erosion and transport of sediment, and the collection and analysis of water-quality data are defined below. ALLUVIUM: A general term for all detrital deposits result— ing directly or indirectly from the sediment transport of (modern) streams, thus including the sediments laid down in river beds, floodplains, lakes, fans, and estuaries. BED LOAD: Material moving on or near the streambed by rolling, sliding, and sometimes making brief excursions into the flow a few diameters above the bed. It is not synonymous with discharge of bed material. BEDLOAD DISCHARGE: The quantity of bedload passing a transect in a unit of time. BED MATERIAL: The sediment mixture of which the bed is composed. Bed material particles may or may not be moved momentarily or during some future flow condition. CHANNEL EROSION: Includes the processes of stream- bank erosion, streambed scour, and degradation. COLLUVIUM: A general term applied to loose and inco- herent deposits at the foot (of a slope or cliff and brought there chiefly by gravity. DRAINAGE AREA OF STREAM AT SPECIFIED LOCA- TION: That area, projected to and measured on a hori— zontal plane, enclosed by a topographic divide from which direct surface runoff from precipitation normally drains by gravity upstream from a specified point; synonymous with watershed. EROSION: The detachment and movement of soil and rock fragments by water and other geological agents which re- sults in the wearing away of the land. When water is the eroding agent, erosional processes include sheet and rill erosion, gully erosion, and channel erosion. EROSION YIELD: The rate of erosion. per unit area; gen- erally expressed in units of tons per year per square mile (t/yr/mifl). GEOMORPHOLOGY: The observation and description of land forms and the changes that occur during land form evolution. GROSS EROSION: The total of all sheet, gully, and channel erosion in a catchment, usually expressed in mass (tonnes), but sometimes expressed volumetrically. GULLY EROSION: The formation of relatively deep chan- nels that cannot be readily crossed during normal cultiva- tion. OVERLAND FLOW: Thin sheetlike, lateral flow across the land surface. Occurs subsequent to the beginning of sur- face runofl‘ and prior to the entrance of flow into well-de- fined stream channels. The distance of overland flow is the true slope length of the local landscape. PARTICLE-SIZE CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENT: Class Name Size (mm) Boulders __________________________ >256 Cobbles ___________________________ 64—256 Gravel ____________________________ 2.0—64 Sand ______________________________ 0.062—2.0 Silt _-_____________-_________; ______ 0.0‘04—0.062 Clay ______________________________ 0.00024—0.004 RILL EROSION: Land erosion forming small but well-de— fined incisions in the land surface, generally less than 30 cm in width and depth. RUNOFF (Surface): The flow of water across the land sur- face and in stream channels. Occurs only after the local storage capacity of the landscape has been exceeded and includes both overland flow and streamfiow. RECURRENCE INTERVAL: The average number of years within which a given event will be equaled or exceeded. SEDIMENT: (1) Particles derived from rocks or biological materials that have been transported by a fluid, (2) solid material (sludges) suspended in or settled from water. SEDIMENT DISCHARGE: The average quantity of sedi- ments, mass or volume, but usually mass passing a sec- tion in a unit of time. The term may be qualified as, for example, suspended-sediment discharge, bedload discharge, or total-sediment discharge; expressed in units of tons per day or tons per year (t/d or t/yr). SEDIMENT LOAD: The sediment that is in transport. (Load is a general term that refers to material in suspension and (or) in transport. It is not synonymous with discharge.) SEDIMENT TRANSPORT CURVE: A graph relating water discharge and sediment discharge. SEDIMENT YIELD: The rate of sediment outflow per unit of catchment (watershed) area; expressed in tons per year per square mile [t/yr/)mi2]. SHEET EROSION: The more or less uniform removal of soil from an area without the development of water channels. Included with sheet erosion, however, are the numerous but conspicuous small rills that are caused by minor concen- trations of runoff. SLOUGHING OR SLUMPING: The downward slipping and displacement of masses of bank material. SUSPENDED SEDIMENT: Sediment that is carried in sus- pension by the turbulent components of the fluid or by Brownian movement. UNMEASURED LOAD: The sum of bedload and unmeasured suspended-sediment load. UNMEASURED SEDIMENT DISCHARGE: The difference between total-sediment discharge and measured suspended- sediment discharge. WATERSHED: All land enclosed by a continuous hydrologic drainage divide and lying upslope from a specified point on a stream; synonymous with drainage area. EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, AND CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY IN THE UPPER CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN, GEORGIA By R. E. FAY-E, W. P. CAREY, .l- K. STAMER, and R. L. KLECKNER ABSTRACT The 3,550 square miles of the Upper Chattahoochee River basin is an area of diverse physiographic and land-use char- acteristics. The headwater areas are mountainous with steep, relatively narrow channels. Land in the headwater areas is heavily forested, but small towns and farms are common in the valleys of large streams. Downstream, the basin is char- acterized by low hills and wider stream channels. Land in this part of the basin is also predominantly forested; how- ever, large agricultural and urban areas are common. Urban land use is particularly intensive within the Atlanta Metro- politan Area. Rates of sheet erosion were computed in nine watersheds using the Universal Soil Loss Equation. The dominant land use in each watershed ranged from forested to mostly urban. Computed average annual erosion yields ranged from 900 to 6,000 [(t/yr)/mi'-’]. Erosion yields were greatest in watersheds with the largest percentages of agricultural and transitional land uses. The lowest yields occurred in highly urbanized watersheds. The sensitivity of average annual sheet erosion to timber harvesting was also evaluated with the Universal Soil Loss Equation. In general, post-harvest emsion yields were several orders of magnitude greater than computed pre-harvest yields in the same areas. Average annual suspended-sediment yields were calculated from measurements of sediment discharge from the same mine watersheds and ranged from about 300 to 800 [(t/ yr)/mi”]. Seodiment-discharges were greatest in urban water sheds and least in forested watersheds. A large part of the sediment discharged in urban streams was considered to be derived from stream-channel erosion. Unmeasured sediment discharge computed for four watersheds ranged from about 6 to 30 percent of the total annual sediment discharge. The impact of suspended sediment on the quality of stream- f‘lOWS was evaluated for 14 watersheds. In general, 60 per- cent or more of the total annual discharge of trace metals and phosphorus was contributed by suspended sediment. Corresponding discharges of suspended nitrogen and organic carbon ranged from about 10‘ to 70 percent of total. Yields of suspended trace metals and nutrients from urban water- sheds were consistently greater than corresponding yields from forested watersheds. Turbidity in basin streams in- creased with increasing concentrations of suspended sedi- ment. Such increases, in turn, decreased the aesthetic quality of the watercourse and the depth of light penetration into the water column. INTRODUCTION This investigation is one part of the US. Geologi- cal Survey’s intensive river quality assessment of the Upper Chattahoocheee River basin in Georgia (Cherry and others, 1976). In contrast to similiar studies in the Southeastern United States, this in- vestigation examines erosion and sediment trans- port in large watersheds. Relations are developed, albeit imperfectly, between rates of erosion and sediment discharge and characteristic land-use, soil, topographic, and climatic parameters. Such re- lations, in turn, can be used by resource managers, hydrologists, and other earth scientists to better understand and accommodate the processes of ero- sion and sediment discharge in the study area. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Much of the collection and analysis of data for this study was accomplished by field observers and hydrologic field assistants employed by the US Geological Survey. The field observers were partic- ularly dedicated. and helpful, and our thanks and acknowledgements are herein extended to Charles T. Satterfield of Dahlonega, Ga., and the Steven Wells family of Whitesburg, Ga. Equally notable were the efforts of our hydrologic field assistants; especially the contributions of Douglas F. duMas, Reid C. Webb, Michael D. Holcomb, David G. Pinholster, and Ronald Boyd. The help of these personnel and others is gratefully acknowledged. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM The periodic occurrence of large quantities of sediment in the Chattahoochee River and its tribu- taries confronts the water-resource manager with a complex set of problems. Large-scale sedimentation aggrades stream channels, causing inundation of valuable bottom lands and increasing peak eleva- tions of floods. Sediment deposition in reservoirs reduces their efficiency and useful life, and in some 2 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL situations destroys the aesthetic and recreation potential of the impoundment. The sorbing capacity of sediments, especially clays and silts, provides a mechanism whereby nutrients, trace metals, and other chemical compounds are carried with the sedi— ment into streams and reservoirs. High concentra- tions of suspended sediment in a water supply in- crease treatment costs and often restrict use of the water in certain industrial processes. Faced with these and a host of related problems the resource manager must decide on reasonable methods to control or accommodate erosion and the discharge of sediment to basin streams. Decisions to implement control methods should be based on in- formation of sufficient quality and quantity to per- mit such methods to be successful as well as eco— nomically and environmentally feasible. Unfortu- nately, comprehensive data relative to the processes of erosion and sediment discharge in the Upper Chattahoochee River basin have never been col- lected. To collect and interpret such data and to determine causal relationships between sediment discharge and the source environment are the over- all objectives of this study. To accomplish these ob- jectives, data-collection sites were established on the Chattahoochee River and on selected tributary streams. Selection of each site was based, for the most part, on physiographic location, dominant watershed land use, and availability of streamflow record. Specific study objectives at each data-collec- tion site included: (1) A description of sediment and sediment trans- port characteristics in the stream channel. (2) A determination of average annual sediment discharge. (3) A determination of the chemical nature of suspended sediment and its contribution to stream quality. Study Objectives relative to watersheds draining to selected data-collection sites included: (1) An evaluation of channel and watershed morphology using Strahler (1957) stream- order analyses. (2) A determination of average annual sheet ero- sion using the Universal Soil Loss Equation. (3) The development of causal relations between stream quality, sediment discharge, land use, and other environmental factors. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Data describing streamflow, lengths, and areas are defined or dimensioned in inch-pound units. Con- MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN centrations of suspended and dissolved constituents are defined in metric units and given in milligrams per liter (mg/L). Suspended— and dissolved-con- stituent discharges are expressed in terms of tons per year (t/yr). A list of inch-pound to metric con- versions follows the “Contents” section of the re- port. Symbols used in this report are defined where they first appear in the text. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA The Upper Chattahoochee River basin comprises the area drained by the Chattahoochee River from its headwaters to West‘Point Dam (fig. 1)—a total of 3,550 square miles. The basin extends from the southern periphery of the Blue Ridge Mountains southwestward to the Alabama border, a distance of about 230 river miles. The basin is narrow com- pared with its length, with widths ranging from 2 to 30 miles. The width of the flood plain, in general, parallels that of the basin but seldom extends to more than 1 mile. The stream channel is well-incised within the flood plain and is characterized by steep banks and generally uniform sections. At several points in the basin, most notably downstream of Morgan Falls Dam (fig. 1), the flood plain is vir- tually nonexistent and channel incisement is rela— tively extreme. Two similar sites are occupied presently by West Point Dam and Buford Dam which impound, respectively, West Point Lake and Lake Sidney Lanier (fig. 1). Since 1955, flow in the Chattahoochee River be- tween Lake Lanier and West Point Lake has been regulated and, to a large extent, dominated by hy- dropower releases from Buford Dam. Waves gener- ated by such releases can be observed at gaging sta- tions along the entire reach of the river between the reservoirs. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND TO‘POGRAPHY As described by Fenneman (1938), the Upper Chattahoochee River basin is entirely contained within the Southern Piedmont physiographic prov- ince. Within this general province, the basin oc- cupies parts of two smaller physiographic entities—— the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus (fig. 1). The Dahlonega Plateau includes most of the basin up- stream from Lake Sidney Lanier and contains the headwaters of the Chattahoochee River and two of its larger tributaries, the Chestatee and Soque Rivers. The area is characterized by mountains separated by deep, generally narrow valleys. Moun- DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA 83° 85° 84° 0 35 I I fiawlgwfifiégfiafiflgfiow l I I 2:29. _ 0 20 40 so l [<2 Cheshire; River ? l tfi' ' WORD DAM ‘ .‘ XMOUNT .YOEIIAI: ill I. .I -~' ATLANTA ar esv e gHAg'RTAHOOCHEE 3’ N I \ Clevdand o 6}} Chattahoochee River RIVER BASIN ._ Dahlonegao 'AHL J Q 4%}. / ._ I. '04- fiO/VEG k/O‘ opornelia I Air-J ‘2 l . ,, . . L . I I / ' ‘\ : LlNT RIVER ‘ .' IIe -- ( * ALABAMAiLkV -- . QGainsville ‘ FLORIDA " ' #WGE‘OREIA MOQJ‘AIGNI'EIIEN Lake Sidney Lanier : ‘ ' FLORIDA Cg;o ‘ '. ‘ . ummmg \ u . ' I RD DAM 1 pm}; 4 5 Bufgm I , , L“, 7 In f9” 5 ‘ a0 Alphanetta' one INDEX MAP 0 0’ ,. KENNBAW . / 6‘ 8 7 6‘) 34° _ MOUNTAIILJ °Pulut — {\ III/ORGAN FAaLS DAM e ' Marietta 14 Ch be . Q’s-e 2‘- ‘ JO algeacfitree Creek (340! E 15 9 NancyCr' ./ e‘c‘é 13 NFO‘kIO ) KER,” Q . Octorg ) S Fork Peachtree Creek " O C Oluama EXPLANATION 89 17 “”00 C, / 11 . 4:8 . A Water-data station '. l —--— H drol ic bounda (1?; 90‘ Fairbuxq. y Cg ry . j 18 so 02k —~—- — Physiographic boundary Whmburgo CW ' .. .. / 19 / 01 Cen Valhaee Cr 06% .' 66‘ J v° l O . Franklin /b // 'I : 33° _ - Base from US. Geological Survey, Greater Atlanta Region 11100000, 1974; Phenix City, 1963; Greenville, 1954; Rome, 1972, 12250000 1 l 0 10 20 3O 40 50 60 70 80 KlLOMETEHS l l l l I l | l l l l l l I l 0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES FIGURE 1.—Study area and location of water-data stations. tain peaks in this part of the basin generally exceed 2,000 feet in altitude and at least three exceed 2,500 feet. The highest of these is Mount Yonah with a summit altitude of 3,166 feet. The stream channel network draining the Dah- lonega Plateau is generally rectangular and, for the most part, is structurally controlled. Flood plains for most streams are narrow or nonexistent. Small 4 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN alluvial valleys have been formed by larger streams, however, most notably by the Chattahoochee River, south of Helen, and by the Soque River, in the vicinity of Clarkesville (fig. 1). Land and channel slopes are steep in this part of the basin. The Chat- tahoocheee River, in flowing across the Dahlonega Plateau, falls from altitude 2,980 feet to altitude 1,220 feet in approximately 28 river miles. Aerial definition of the Dahlonega Plateau by Fenneman (1938) is less than precise; he places the plateau at the “high inner edge of the Piedmont in Georgia.” McCallie and others (1925) provide a brief, verbal description of the plateau’s boundaries and list several cities and towns located on the plateau. A small scale map delimiting the physi- ographic divisions of north Georgia also is provided by McCallie, but includes virtually no topographic control. By combining information from both sources, the authors have approximately defined that part of the Dahlonega Plateau drained by the Chat- tahoochee River and its tributaries (fig. 1). The area drained equals about 450 square miles or about 13 percent of the upper basin. The Atlanta Plateau is discussed only briefly by Fenneman (1938) and is described as a southwest- ward extension of the Dahlonega Plateau. McCallie and others (1925) discuss the area in more detail and describe its major river systems. Within the Atlanta Plateau, the Chattahoochee River basin is characterized by low hills separated by narrow val- leys. Alluvial bottomlands are prominant along the Chattahoochee River and its major tributaries, but generally are less than 1 mile in width. Small moun- tains do occur, most notably along the northern divide, and include Sawnee Mountain, northwest of Cummings, and Kennesaw Mountain, northwest of Marietta. Summit altitudes of these mountains are 1,920 feet and 1,800 feet, respectively. The stream channel network that drains the Atlanta Plateau to the Chattahoochee River is slightly more dendritic than its counterpart on the Dahlonega Plateau. The channel of the Chattahoochee River is severely con- trolled by structure in this part of the basin and occupies or directly parallels the trend of the Brev- ard Fault along most of its reach (Higgins, 1968). Major tributary streams on the Atlanta Plateau include Big, Peachtree, and Sweetwater Creeks in the vicinity of Atlanta and Snake Creek near Whitesburg (fig. 1). Land and channel slopes on the Atlanta Plateau are generally not as steep as those on the Dahlonega Plateau. The Chattahoochee River, in flowing across the Atlanta Plateau, falls from altitude 1,220 feet to altitude 635 feet in approximately 200 river miles. The Chattahoochee River drains about 3,100 square miles of the Atlanta Plateau, which accounts for 87 percent of the study area. CLIMATE Climate in the study area is influenced, for the most part, by the mountainous terrain and the basin’s proximity to the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 1). The higher mountains, most notably those along the northern perimeter of the basin, affect the climate most directly by serving as partial barriers to the flow of air masses. During the winter, these moun- tains inhibit the southerly flow of polar air into the basin, resulting in moderate winter temperatures with relatively few periods of excessively cold weather. During the summer, these same mountains serve as a barrier to north-flowing, moisture-laden winds from the Gulf. Consequently, summer con— vective storms are common and summertime rainfall is relatively high. Summers on the Dahlonega Plateau are generally mild. Daytime temperatures from June through August are highest, but rarely exceed 100°F. Sum- mer nights are cool but are seldom less than 60°F. Winters are moderately cold. Daytime temperatures are lowest from December through February and rarely exceed 55°F. Subfreezing temperatures (<32°F) occur frequently, but subzero temper- atures (<0.0°F) are rare. Average annual precipitation in this part of the basin is in excess of 60 inches. Most rainfall occurs in the winter and early spring months, but rainfall in excess of 10 inches has occurred in every month. Frozen precipitation in the form of sleet and snow is common during the winter; however, accumula- tions on the ground remain only a short time. Dur- ing the summer, convective storms having short periods of intense rainfall are common. A summary of precipitation and air temperature data for the city of Dahlonega is shown in table 1. Maps showing lines of equal average annual precipi- tation and temperature for the period 1941—70 are shown for the entire study area in figures 2 and 3, respectively. Climatic conditions on the Atlanta Plateau are similar in most respects to those described for the Dahlonega Plateau. By comparison, the effects of altitude on rainfall and temperature are less pro- nounced, whereas the closer proximity to the Gulf of Mexico provides for a warmer, more humid cli- mate. Temperature and precipitation are generally DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA 5 TABLE 1.—Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for Dahlonega, 1928—1957 Temperature Precipitation Totals <°F) (in.) Month Means Extremes . Mean Greatest Daily Daily Record Record daily maximum minimum high ,low January __________ 52.5 33.9 76 —1 6.8 4.30 February _________ 55.3 34.4 76 5 6.03 3.90 March ____________ 62.3 39.4 87 9 6.71 4.50 April _____________ 72.1 47.4 92 24 5.00 4.10 May ______________ 79.9 54.6 96 34 4.38 2.67 June _____________ 86.2 62.3 100 43 3.91 2.98 July ______________ 87.9 65.6 103 50 5.78 4.18 August ___________ 86.6 64.8 100 49 5.00 4.73 September ________ 81.5 59.9 100 36 3.89 5.44 October ___________ 71.8 49.0 92 23 3.15 4.12 November ________ 60.4 38.9 83 3 4.37 3.51 December _________ 52.7 33.6 74 5 6.18 3.89 Year ___________ 70.8 48.7 103 —1 60.48 5.44 a function of location. Rainfall generally decreases Summaries of precipitation and air temperature from the northeast to the southwest as the temper- data for the cities of Cornelia, Atlanta, and West ature increases (figs. 2 and 3). Point are shown in tables 2 through 4, respectively. TABLE 2.—Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for Cornelia, 1941—1970 Temperature Precipitation Totals ( °F) (in.) Mouth Means Extremes . _ Mean Greatest Daily Daily Record Record daily maximum minimum high low January __________ 51.6 31.2 80 —6 5.57 4.85 February _________ 54.3 32.3 78 -—4 5.50 3.99 March ____________ 61.2 37.8 83 7 6.44 4.70 April _____________ 71.9 46.9 90 24 5.26 3.42 May ______________ 78.8 54.1 96 30 3.85 2.65 June _____________ 84.3 61.3 100 40 4.85 4.45 July ______________ 86.4 64.3 102 50 5.71 3.64 August ___________ 86.1 63.9 99 46 4.58 3.98 September ________ 80.0 58.4 98 30 4.02 4.55 October ___________ 71.6 47.7 92 24 3.37 4.28 November _________ 60.9 37.7 82 7 4.01 4.54 December _________ 52.2 31.5 76 1 5.18 2.95 Year ___________ 69.9 47.3 102 —6 58.34 4.85 TABLE 3.—Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for Atlanta, 1941—1970 Temperature Precipitation Totals ( “F) (in.) Month Means Extremes . . Mean Greatest Daily Daily Record Record daily maximum minimum high low January __________ 51.4 33.4 72 —3 4.34 3.91 February _________ 54.5 35.5 85 8 4.41 5.67 March ____________ 61.1 41.1 85 21 5.84 5.08 April _____________ 71.4 50.7 88 26 4.61 4.26 May ______________ 79.0 59.2 93 37 3.71 5.13 June _____________ 84.6 66.6 98 48 3.67 3.41 July ______________ 86.5 69.4 98 53 4.90 5.44 August ___________ 86.4 68.6 98 56 3.54 5.05 September ________ 81.2 63.4 93 36 3.15 5.46 October ___________ 72.5 52.3 88 29 2.50 3.27 November ________ 61.9 40.8 84 14 3.43 4.11 December _________ 52.7 34.3 77 1 4.25 3.85 Year ___________ 70.3 51.3 98 —3 48.34 5.67 6 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 350 815 Bill 83 34° — — coy XMMBO EXPLANATION j Viv/2% " Gee . .' u; ' —50— Line of equal average annual precipitation. / 3&0 .. Contour interval, 5 inches 0 l 3 / ' \Whlesburg: 6‘ch“ —°'— Hydrologic boundary f \A .- 1 “* ( °. Franklin ,.° 5 y 2 \0 3° M 3 S / ., . . V . 33° ~ \ /.' — K" Base from us Geological Survey, Greater Atlanta Region 12100000, 1974; Phenix City, 1963; Greenville, 1984; Home, 1972, 1:250,000 l l U 10 20 30 40 50 60 7E] 80 KILOMETERS | l l , l l l l 4] l i l l I 0 10 20 40 50 MILES FIGURE 2,—L0ng-term average annual precipitation. LAND USE AND VEGETATION DAHLONEGA PLATEAU The basin area Within the Dahlonega Plateau is not densely populated nor is the land actively used on a large scale. In 1970, the population of the area was estimated to be about 16,000 persons (US. Bureau of Census, 1971) , or a population density of one person per 16 acres. Ownership of land in this part of the basin is about equally divided between the Federal Government and private individuals. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA 7 85" 84° 83° 35° I l <‘ "'0 H I at 2 00 Sow“ -' 34° m -' —— EXPLANATION 4 he ' —58— Line of equal average annual air temperature. / a2: , r Contour interval, 2 degrees Fahrenheit 0 n I ) 3 ' \wnmbwg: ch‘ez“ ./ —--— Hydrologic boundary / H \, : 33° — . _ Base from US. Geological Survey, Greater Atlanta Region 12100000, 1974; Phenix City, 1983; Greenville, 1984: Rome, 1972, 1250.000 L I U 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 KILOMETERS } l ¥ l lI i I1 I | l 0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES FIGURE 3.—Long-term average annual air temperature. About 200 square miles of the basin south of the northern divide is administered by the Federal Gov- ernment as part of the Chattahoochee National Forest. Except for several small State parks and some county and municipal properties, all lands south of the National Forest are held in private ownership. At the present time (1976), active use of basin land within the Dahlonega Plateau is confined to the valleys of larger streams and is principally agricul- 8 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN TABLE 4.—Summary of precipitation and air temperature data for West Point, 1941—1970 Temperature Precipitation Totals °F (in.) Month Means Extremes . . Mean Greatest. Dally Dally Record Record daily maximum minimum high low January __________ 58.2 34.1 80 1 4.47 2.98 February _________ 61.2 36.1 84 8 5.16 7.18 March ____________ 67.9 41.6 88 11 6.34 5.71 April _____________ 77.6 50.1 94 27 4.89 4.75 May ______________ 84.4 57.7 99 35 3.82 3.76 June _____________ 89.5 65.5 104 43 3.81 4.69 July ______________ 90.6 68.6 105 53 5.76 3.87 August ___________ 90.3 67.8 102 52 4.08 5.02 September ________ 85.4 62.1 101 35 3.60 6.00 October ___________ 77.3 50.1 97 24 2.47 3.00 November ________ 66.9 39.8 87 8 3.51 7.26 December _________ 58.9 34.2 79 1 5.08 4.60 Year ___________ 75.7 50.6 105 1 52.99 7.26 tural in nature. Grazing, row cropping, and poultry feeding account for most agricultural activities and occupy about 9 percent of the total land area. Urban and residential land use is minor and is confined to the immediate vicinities of such small towns as Helen, Cleveland, and Clarkesville. Most basin land (90 percent) within the Dah- lonega Plateau is occupied by forests and woodlands. Forested areas are characterized by mixed stands of conifer and deciduous trees dominated by pine and oak, respectively. Dominant pines include the Vir- ginia and shortleaf varieties; common deciduous trees include white oak, red oak, and black oak. Forest undergrowth is dominated by dogwood, greenbriar, and blackberry briars. Abandoned fields are naturally seeded with broom sedge and other grasses, but are gradually overgrown by small pines, sassafras, and hardwoods. Yellow poplar is common in most areas and white pine is found at higher ele- vations. Commercial logging was an important industry in this area at one time, and most forested areas have been logged at least twice. Timber is not presently logged on a large scale. Commercial stands of timber are available, however, and the potential for exten- sive future logging is great. ATLANTA PLATEAU Population density in that part of the Atlanta Plateau drained by the Chattahoochee River is much higher than in corresponding areas on the Dahlon- ega Plateau and active use of the land is more wide- spread and varied. In 1970, the population of the area was estimated to be about 1,500,000 persons (US. Bureau of Census, 1971), or a population den- sity of one person per 1.3 acres. Active use of the land is characterized, for the most part, by the urbanization of forests and agricultural areas. At the present time (1976), about 12 percent of basin land on the Atlanta Plateau is urban or suburban. Corresponding percentages for agricultural lands and forests are 17 percent and 67 percent, respec- tively. The remaining area (4 percent) is mostly wetlands and reservoirs. Major urban centers in this part of the basin in- clude Atlanta, Gainesville, Marietta, Cornelia, and Alpharetta (fig. 1). Urban areas are characterized by extensive residential communities separated by commercial, industrial, and transportation centers. Agricultural lands are located generally within the flood plains of the Chattahoochee River and its major tributaries. Grazing, row cropping, poultry feeding, and orchards constitute most of the agricul- tural land use. Row crops are mostly corn and hay. Apples and peaches are the most common orchard crops. Pasture lands generally are of poor quality and contain grasses such as broom sedge, crabgrass, lespedeza, and bermuda grass. Forests in this part of the basin consist mostly of oak, pine, and hickory. Common varieties of pine are the shortleaf and loblolly. Dominant oak species are the red, black, blackjack, and white oaks. Com- mon plants in the forest undergrowth include dog- wood, greenbriar, sassafras, and blackberry briars. Basin land on the Atlanta Plateau is nearly all privately owned. Lands administered by the Federal Government constitute the bulk of public properties and include several military reservations as well as lands adjacent to West Point Lake and Lake Lanier. The total area of public lands does not exceed 200 square miles. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA Other land uses Within the Atlanta Plateau in- clude recreation, commercial logging, and sand dredging. Such activities are not areally extensive, and their impact on water quality at the present time (1977) is considered minor. GEOLOGY AND SOILS Metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks under- lie most of the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus. A generalized geologic map designating major rock groups and formations is shown in figure 4. For 0 85° 84° 83° 35 | l HPLANATION '\r .. "\ [:l Undifferentiated metamorphic rocks .- fi/ >.. z“ , a '. m Granites . / . . 4 . . Mafic and ultramafic rocks ( ./. V O “ m Brevard zone of cataclasis ' $33, .. s 3' — Geological contact 8 ‘4 V" «JV Shear zone ' , ; ’ ,/ . I anvil! Fault / . {\ke Sidney Lanier — -- — Hydrologic boundary ('- “o a; t» 34° '— —- 33° — _ Base from US. Geological Survey, Greater Atlanta Region 1:100,000, 1974; Phenix City. 1963; Greenville, 1964; Rome, 1972, 1:250,000 l | 60 | l 40 7IO 80 KlLOMETEHS l j 50 MILES FIGURE 4.—Generalized geology of study area. Geology modified from Georgia Department of Natural Resources (1976). 10 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL the most part, the metamorphic rocks include slate, mica schist, gneiss, and quartzite. Intrusive igneous rocks include granites and ultramafics. The age of both the metamorphic and intrusive rocks is uncer- tain; however, Precambrian is most often cited in the literature (Crickmay, 1952; Hatcher, 1971). Structural features of the basin include the Brevard Fault Zone and several minor faults and shear zones (fig. 4). The structure and orientation of the Brevard Fault dominate the physiographic character of the Atlanta Plateau including much of the southern half of the Upper Chattahoochee River basin. Soils in the basin are derived from the disintegra— tion of underlying rocks and range in texture from gravelly sandy loam to clay loam. Similar soil types occur on both the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus. NETWORK DESCRIPTION The total drainage of the Chattahoochee River basin is about 8,650 square miles; the most up- stream part of which is the 3,550 square miles of study area. The Chattahoochee River is joined by the Flint River near the Georgia—Florida State line, where the combined rivers form the Appalachicola River, which, in turn, flows to the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 1). On occasion in this section, points on the Chatta- hoochee River will be designated by river mile (RM). Zero river mile (RM 000.00) is defined as the confluence of the Flint and Chattahoochee Rivers. The Chattahoochee River rises in the upland areas of the Dahlonega Plateau and flows, initially, in a southeasterly direction. About 10 miles down- stream of the headwaters, the river flows through the small urban center of Helen and enters the Nacoochee Valley. Here the Chattahoochee is joined by two large tributaries, Sautee Creek at river mile 415.95 and Dukes Creek at river mile 418.08. The Chattahoochee river enters the Atlanta Plateau at about river mile 405.50 and continues on a south- easterly course to its confluence with the Soque River (RM 402.50); here the channel abruptly turns to the southwest. Several miles downstream of the Soque confluence the Chattahoochee enters the headwaters of Lake Sidney Lanier—a multi- purpose reservoir impounded behind Buford Dam (RM 348.32). The Chestatee River joins the Chatta- hoochee within Lake Lanier at river mile 362.98. Between Buford Dam (RM 348.32) and Morgan Falls Dam (RM 312.62), the Chattahoochee river is joined by many tributaries, most notably Su- MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN wanee Creek (RM 338.12) and Big Creek (RM 317.37). Downstream of Morgan Falls Dam the Chatta- hoochee River enters the Atlanta metropolitan area and continues to flow through mostly urban areas to its confluence with Camp Creek (RM 281.79). Major tributaries in this reach include Peachtree Creek (RM 300.54), Proctor Creek (RM 297.50), Nickajack Creek (RM 295.13), Sweetwater Creek (RM 288.56), and Camp Creek (RM 283.53). Downstream of the Atlanta metropolitan area, the Chattahoochee River continues to flow in a southwesterly direction toward West Point Lake. Major tributaries along this reach include Dog River (RM 273.50), snake Creek (RM 261.72), Cedar Creek (RM 261.25), and Centralhatchee Creek (RM 236.52). In the vicinity of Franklin, Ga. (RM 235.46), the Chattahoochee River flows into West Point Lake and continues as West Point Lake to the terminal point of the study area at West Point Dam (RM 201.40). COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF WATER DATA WATER-DATA STATIONS Study objectives and the paucity of relevant data required that a comprehensive water-data collection effort be established and maintained during the first year of study (Sept. 1975 to Sept. 1976). To this end, 12 locations in the basin were chosen as prin- cipal stations for periodic water-data collection and three locations were selected for miscellaneous or less-intense data collection. Primary criteria used to locate each station were land use, physiography, and length of at-site or correlative streamflow record. Continuity of data and data interpretation relative to downstream stations were also con- sidered. Figure 1 shows the location of all water- data stations referenced in this report. Table 5 lists the stations in downstream order and keys their location to figure 1. Principal data-collection sites on the Atlanta Plateau were located at Big Creek near Alpharetta, Peachtree Creek at Atlanta, and Snake Creek near Whitesburg. Land use within these watersheds was classified as rural, urban, and forest, respectively. In order to provide more data relative to an urban environment, several other principal data-collection sites were located within the Peachtree Creek watershed. These stations include Nancy Creek at Randall Mill Road at Atlanta, North Fork of Peach- tree Creek at Buford Highway near Atlanta, and COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF WATER DATA 11 TABLE 5.—Station number, name, and watershed area of principal and miscellaneous water-data stations [C, Continuous Stage Record; P, Partial Stage Record] U.S. Geological Drainage Stage P‘eriod ' e ( fig. 1) statiglnri‘iiinber (811:1?) record retail-d Station nam 1 ____________ 02331000 150 C 1940—71 Chattahoochee RiVer near Leaf. 2 ____________ 02331250 96.0 None Soque River near Clarkesville. 3 ____________ 02331500 156 C 1906—09, Soque River near Demorest. 1931, 1941—45 4 ____________ 02333500 153 C 1930—71 Chestatee River near Dahlonega. 5 ____________ 02334430 1040 C 1971—76 Chattahoochee River at Buford Dam near Buford. 6 ____________ 02334500 _____ C 1942—71 Chattahoochee River near Buford. 7 ____________ 02334590 _____ None _______ Chattahoochee River at State Route 120 near Duluth. 8 ____________ 02335700 72.0 C 1961—76 Big Creek near Alpharetta. 9 ____________ 02336000 1450 C 1930—76 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta. 10 ____________ 02336120 34.1 P 1976 North Fork Peachtree Creek at Buford Highway near Atlanta. 11 ____________ 02336250 29.6 P 1970 South Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. 12 ____________ 02336300 86.8 C 1959—76 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. 13 ____________ 02336313 3.1 P 1976 Woodall Creek at DeFoors Ferry Road at Atlanta. 14 ____________ 02336339 3.2 P 1976 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee. 15 ____________ 02336380 34.8 P 1976 Nancy Creek at Randall Mill Road at Atlanta. 16 ____________ 02336526 15.5 P 1976 Proctor Creek at State Route 280 at Atlanta. 17 ____________ 02337170 2060 C 1965—76 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn. 18 ____________ 02337500 37.0 C 1955—76 Snake Creek near Whitesburg'. 19 ____________ 02338000 2430 C 1939—53, Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg. 1965—76 South Fork of Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. The location of three principal data-collection stations on the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta, near Fair- burn, and near Whitesburg provided an opportunity to compare tributary and main stream data. Miscellaneous stations on the Atlanta Plateau were located on Proctor Creek at State Route 280 at Atlanta, on Woodall Creek at DeFoors Ferry Road at Atlanta, and on a tributary to Nancy Creek near Chamblee. Principal data-collection stations on the Dah- lonega Plateau were located on the Chattahoochee River near Leaf, on the Chestatee River near Dah- lonega, and on the Soque River near Clarksville. The total flow passing these three stations includes most of the runoff from the Dahlonega Plateau. Site selection criteria in this part of the basin em- phasized physiographic location and available streamflow record rather than land use. In addition to the data-collection sites listed above, water data from several other stations were used in this study. These stations are listed in table 5 as the Soque River near Demorest, the Chatta- hoochee River at Buford Dam near Buford, the Chattahoochee River near Buford, and the Chatta— hoochee River at State Route 120 near Duluth. For the most part, subsequent illustrations in this text refer to only a few selected water-data stations. These stations were chosen to illustrate unusual sediment-transport conditions and the range of transport and related conditions observed in the basin. WATER-QUALITY DATA Collection of sediment and water-quality data rel- ative to seasonal low flows and storm runoff began in September 1975 and continued for a period of 1 year. Sampling frequency was mostly determined by the occurrence and duration of runoff events. Water data collected at each sampling site included measurements of streamflow or stage, water tem- perature, and water samples for chemical and sus- pended-sediment analyses. In addition, data used to compute bedload transport were collected at selected sites. All water samples were collected using depth-integrating techniques, as described by Guy and Norman (1970). Concentrations of sus- pended sand and suspended silt plus clay were determined for each water sample. Chemical analy- 12 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN ses of each sample determined concentrations of nutrients and trace metals in both the dissolved and total phases as well as fecal contamination, pH, and specific conductance. All water-quality data collect- ed during this study will be published by the Georgia District of the Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey. Suspended-constituent concentrations within a stream cross section commonly exhibit a high de- gree of spatial variation. To account for this varia- tion, depth-integrated water samples were collected at several verticals at each cross section and com- posited. The suspended—constituent concentrations used in this study were derived from the composited samples. Suspended-constituent concentrations also vary with discharge and should be considered as in- stantaneous values and representative only of the discharge at the given time and location. Data were collected for this study over the rela- tively short period of one year. Therefore, the data and interpretations presented in this report are in- fluenced, to some degree, by prevailing climatic and land-use conditions and may not represent the true, long-term water quality of basin streams. STREAMFLOW DATA Direct measurement of streamflow and stage over a wide range of values defines a generally unique relation between stage (water-surface altitude) and discharge. This relation (rating) can be used to esti- mate instantaneous discharges when only stage values are known. Such discharges, in turn, can be used, in conjunction with other data, to compute instantaneous sediment or other water-quality con- stituent discharges. In addition, stage-discharge rat- ings permit the computation of daily mean discharge from continuous stage records. A plot of daily mean discharge against time provides the typical stream- flow hydrograph. The tabulation and statistical anal- ysis of long-term records of daily mean discharge provides standard streamflow characteristics such as flood frequency and flow duration. During the period of data collection for this study, water-data stations described in table 5 as con- tinuous-recording (C) and partial-record (P) were located proximate to automatic stage recorders that were routinely operated and maintained by the U.S. Geological Survey. Information such as current stage-discharge ratings and long-term daily dis- charge records were available for most continuous- record stations. Streamflow data for the partial- record stations consisted of a few flood-peak meas- urements and little or no historical record. Conse- quently, project efforts to collect streamfiow data were concentrated at the partial-record stations and were sufficient to define valid stage-discharge rela- tions at each site. These ratings, in turn, were used with recorded stage data to compute daily mean dis- charges at each partial-record station for the period January to September 1976. THE STREAM SYSTEM In general, a stream system is defined in terms of channel and streamflow characteristics. Channel characteristics include size and shape as well as hydraulic descriptors such as slope and channel roughness. Streamfl-ow characteristics describe the quantity, occurrence, and temporal distribution of discharge and commonly include hydrographs, flood and drought recurrence intervals, and flow durations. Stream system characteristics pertinent to this study include channel slope, stream-bed character- istics, streamflow hydrographs, and flow durations. Channel characteristics are presented to demon- strate the variety of channel slope, channel geome- try, and streambed conditions occurring at the water-data stations. Streamfiow hydrographs are presented to demonstrate the sensitivity of stream- fiow to rainfall and the variety of streamflow con- ditions that occurred during the period of data collection. Flow duration data are required to com- pute average annual discharges of sediment and other suspended water—quality constituents. CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS Channel characteristics are described for selected water—data stations in figure 5. Each illustration shows a profile of the channel section at the station and lists the channel slope and a description of the streambed. Slope data in the vicinity of the stations were obtained by measuring the length and fall of the stream surface as depicted on 124,000 scale topographic maps. Stream channel cross sections in the basin tend to be mostly rectangular to trapezoidal in shape (fig. 5). Streambeds on the Dahlonega Plateau consist of boulders, cobbles, gravel, and sand that frequently lie directly on bedrock. Streambeds on the Atlanta Plateau are similar but generally contain thicker, more extensive deposits of sand and gravel. Stream- bed scour and fill may be common on the Atlanta Plateau, especially where bridges or other local con- trols constrict the streamflow. Streambed altitudes at various discharges are shown for Big Creek near Alpharetta and Peachtree Creek at Atlanta (figs. THE STREAM SYSTEM 13 58 and 5D) and indicate the magnitude of scour oc- curring at these stations. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS STREAMFLOW HYDROGRAPHS Streamflow hydrographs at selected water-data stations are shown in figure 6 for the period Janu- ary through September 1976. Vertical lines at the top of each graph indicate total daily rainfall meas- ured at a nearby rain gage. The sensitivity of streamflow to rainfall is apparent at most stations. Those streamflows showing the least sensitivity to rainfall occur at the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta. Discharge at this station and at the stations near Fairburn and Whitesburg is regulated by Buford and Morgan Falls Dams, which dampen the normal response of streamflow to all but the largest, most areally extensive rainfall events. The recurrence of peak discharges during water year 1976 varied according to station location and rainfall distribution. For example, the three largest peaks on the Chestatee River near Dahlonega had recurrence intervals of about 5 years, 2 years, and 1.5 years, respectively. Corresponding values for Snake Creek near Whitesburg were 4 years, 3 years, and 1.3 years. Flood peaks of 4 and 5 years recur- rence are not particularly rare events. Their occur- rence, however, did permit the collection of sediment and other water-quality data over a greater than average range of discharges. FLOW DURATION‘S Flow-duration data are computed from long-term streamfiow records by arranging daily discharge values in order of magnitude and noting the number of days of occurrance of each value. The cumulative frequency of occurrence of each discharge defines its duration, or the percentage of time the discharge is equaled or exceeded. Duration data are generally presented in the form of a curve. Such curves repre sent the flow characteristics of a stream throughout a given period of record without regard to the se- quence of flow events. The area defined by the dura- tion curve equals the average daily stream discharge at the station for the given period of record. As suggested above, flow durations can be directly computed only at stations where long—term, continu- ous discharge records are available. Duration data for stations where streamfiow records are short— term or nonexistent can be extended to longer peri- ods or estimated entirely from long-term records at nearby stations. Such extrapolations are generally based on the correlation of concurrent daily dis- charge records or the adjustment of computed dura~ tions by ratios of drainage areas. Duration data at all principal and miscellaneous water-data stations were required for this study and were computed directly for stations with periods of record of 10 years or more (table 5). Duration data for stations with less than 10 years of record were obtained by extrapolation. Flow durations for par- tial-record stations in the Atlanta urban area were based on the extrapolation of durations computed from the long-term record at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. Daily discharge values at each partial- record station were paired with concurrent values at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta and correlated by linear regression. In general, several months of these data pairs for the period January to September 1976 were used for each regression. The class discharge rela- tive to each directly computed percentage duration at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta was then combined with the regression equations to compute corre- sponding discharges at the same percentage duration for the partial-record stations. Because of the large differences in drainage area between the smaller urban watersheds and Peachtree Creek at Atlanta, the extrapolated duration data for Woodall Creek and a tributary to Nancy Creek are less representative of long-term flow conditions than are corresponding data from the larger drain- ages. Consequently, average daily discharges and other information based on duration data at these stations are also less representative of long-term conditions and should be treated accordingly. The regression equations used to correlate the concurrent discharge data have the general form QI': b0 + lep where Q,.=the daily discharge at the partial-record station in cubic feet per second, Q,,=the daily discharge at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta in cubic feet per second, and b.. and b. :regression constants. A summary of regression data along with computed average daily discharge values at each station is listed in table 6. Use of the regression data in table 6 should be limited to the range of daily flows observed at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta during water year 1976 (16 to 8,660 cubic feet per second). Duration data for the station on the Soque River near Clarkesville were determined by the extrapola- tion of durations computed from the long-term record at the Soque River near Demorest. Adjust- ment of the computed durations was based on the 14 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 1150 STREAM BED: Cobbles, gravel and sand on bedrock STREAM BED:Sand and gravel “45 T — CHANNEL SLOPE f ,_ CHANNEL SLOPE: =o,oo109feet/foot ' 7000128 Get/mm E 974 L _ ”- 1140 I— Z _ g 972 — _ E 1135 — _ 0 March 16, 1976, discharge:2785 ft3/s .: AJ , y ' = 3 T 3' .— 970 __ an 271976,d|scharge 1548fl /s _ 1130 — E m LL Z 968 ~- 1125 4| I | g WING WALL WING WALL o 50 100 150 200 .2 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET E 966 _ — A < I March 19, 1976 discharge=224 ft3/s 964 F v 775 962 H _ ‘ STREAM BED: Sand and gravel on bedrock 770 A 960 — _ E 765 CHANNEL SLOPE: =0.00096 feet/foot _ LL 953 | | I I | I Z O 10 20 30 4O 50 60 70 u; 760 — _ CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET a g B I: < 755 — — 750 — — 745 | l l L O 100 200 300 400 500 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET C FIGURE 5.—Channel characteristics at (A) Chestatee River near Dahlonega, (B) Big Creek near Alpharetta, and (C) Chattahoochee River at Atlanta. TABLE 6.—Summary of regression data relating daily dis- charge at urban partial-record stations to daily discharge at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta Number Average . of \ daily Station name b 0 121 data discharge pairs (ft‘Vs) N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta _________ —1.36 0.37 119 50 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta- —3.12 .40 122 53 Woodall Creek at Atlanta ______ 6.18 .092 52 19 Nancy Creek Tributary near Chamblee _______ 1.83 .021 95 4.7 Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______ 13.7 .377 122 67 Proctor Creek at Atlanta ______ 10.6 .023 104 14 ratio of watershed areas drained by the two stations. The durations of both regulated flows and inter— vening runoff were required for those stations on the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta, near Fairburn, and near Whitesburg. Both sets of duration data were computed using streamflow records for the period 1965—76, the longest common period of record (table 5). The occurrence of regulated flow in the reach of interest (Atlanta to near Whites- burg) is the result of hydropower production at Buford and Morgan Falls Dams. Morgan Falls Dam is a “run of the river” facility and provides only minimal regulation. Consequently, the computed streamflow durations at Buford Dam are considered equal to the durations of regulated flow at the three downstream stations. The computation of regulated flow durations used the combined streamflow THE STREAM SYSTEM STREAM BED: Sand and gravel CHANNEL SLOPE: =0.00078 feet/foot 790 7 __ 785 — OMARCH 16, 1976 discharge=8510 ft3/s — T 'XMARCH 19, 1970 discharge=4130 ft3/s f 780 *— I.IJ _ E Z 775 "I OCT. 20, 1970 discharge=1940 ft3/s / T “5‘ D 770 — L I: '— _l < 765 — — 750 x 1 T T l T o 20 4o 60 80 100 120 140 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET D 750 740 — STREAM BED: Sand and gravel _ CHANNEL SLOPE: =0.000154 feet/foot E LL] Ll. Z Lu: 730 — A D 3 '— r. _l < 720 — — 710 1 | | T T o 100 200 300 400 500 600 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET E FIGURE 5.——Continued. Channel characteristics at (D) Peachtrese Creek at Atlanta, and (E) Chattahoochee River near Fairburn. 15 16 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 1.0— DAILY PRECIPITATION, DAILY PRECIPITATION, MEAN DAILY STEAMFLOW, IN THOUSANDS MEAN DAILY STEAMFLOW, IN THOUSANDS IN INCHES OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND IN INCHES OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.2 6.4 5.6 4.8 4.0 3.2 2.4 1.6 0.8 1.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.4 I I I | I Jan Feb Apr May June July TIME, IN MONTHS A Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec I" “”1 -I I 1||1|r|| " ”I" “‘1' l'l‘ll‘ . ‘ ll II ,1 I .I.‘ .L May June July TIME, IN MONTHS B Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec FIGURE 6.—Mean daily streamflow and daily precipitation at (A) Chestatee River near Dahlonega and (B) Big Creek near Alpharetta. DAILY PRECIPITATION, DAILY PRECIPITATION, THE STREAM SYSTEM 2.0 l 1.8 I'" I "‘I"I'I"""I'I ' ' ' IN INCHES 4.0 - 18 | I I I I I s I I II I I 16— 14— 12— MEAN DAILY STEAMFLOW, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0 I I | l I I | I I I I Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov TIME, IN MONTHS C Dec 1.0 2.0 *- 3.0 — 4.0 — 0j'"1|'I""I"I|'I|| "II'H'II'II I'I'I |I 'I'II' 1“ I IN INCHES 3.6 I I I I I I I I I l I 3.2 — 2.8 - 2.4 — MEAN DAILY STEAMFLOW, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 4L .—L I | I Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov TIME, IN MONTHS D FIGURE 6,—Continued. Mean daily streamflow and daily precipitation at (C) Chattahoochee River at Atlanta, and (D) Snake Creek near Whitesburg. Dec 17 18 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN TABLE 7.—Summary of flow duration data: discharge that is equaled or exceeded during percentage of time indicated [Superscript a indicates extrapolated data] Station number Percentage °f “m" 1000 a 1250 1500 3500 £38 5700 01 5990 3000 5100 5700 8400 2100 5 2630 1720 2800 2500 7400 1300 10 1780 1200 2090 1700 6700 880 2 1320 860 1320 1250 6200 550 4 970 600 900 900 5700 380 6 830 490 710 800 5500 300 8 750 400 620 650 5400 260 10 630 360 590 610 5100 240 14 600 310 500 550 4600 190 18 550 290 460 500 4100 160 22 530 270 420 450 3700 140 26 460 250 390 400 3300 120 30 440 230 370 390 3000 110 35 400 210 350 360 2600 100 40 380 200 300 330 2300 90 45 340 190 280 300 2000 85 50 310 170 250 280 1700 75 55 290 160 230 270 1500 70 60 270 150 220 250 1300 65 65 250 130 215 220 1200 55 70 230 120 190 200 1100 50 75 200 110 180 190 850 45 80 190 100 170 160 800 40 85 170 95 160 140 630 35 90 150 80 140 125 590 30 95 130 75 120 105 540 26 98 110 60 90 92 530 21 99 96 50 75 79 520 18 995 85 45 70 70 500 16 999 60 32 52 60 450 14 records of stations on the Chattahoochee River at Buford Dam and near Buford. A combination of records was necessary because of the termination of one station after 1971 and the subsequent begin- ning of the other (table 5). Average daily flow at the two stations is nearly equivalent, however. The durations of intervening runoff at the Chat- tahoochee River at Atlanta, near Fairburn, and near Whitesburg could not be computed directly from streamflow records because both runoff and regulated flows had been recorded. Division of each station’s record into regulated flow and runoff was accomplished by subtracting the regulated flow re- corded for a particular day at Buford Dam from the corresponding recorded daily flow at the down- stream station. Adjustments for celerity were made on a whole-day basis. The difference between the daily discharge at each station and the concurrent discharge at Buford Dam was attributed to the daily runoff entering the river between the dam and the station. The sets of these differences for the period of record were used to compute the dura- tion of intervening runoff. A summary of flow durations for each water- data station, whether extrapolated or computed, is listed in table 7. Flow duration curves for selected water-data stations are shown in figure 7. The low- discharge parts of the runoff duration curves for the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta, near Fairburn, and near Whitesburg are poorly defined and are re- ported only to the limits of accuracy permitted by the data and the computation procedure discussed previously. With the exception of stations on the Chatta- hoochee River downstream from Buford Dam, com- puted duration data were based on the entire period of record available at the station. Thus, no attempt was made to select or adjust station records rela- tive to a common period of time. Such use of records is consistent with the treatment of daily discharge values as random-sample data and provides a better description of long-term flow expectancy in the basin. WATERSHED AND CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY STREAM-ORDER ANALYSIS The existing network of stream channels in the study area is the end product of all processes of erosion and sediment transport that have occurred in the basin throughout its geomorphic history. A WATERSHED AND CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY TABLE 7.—Summary of flow duration data: discharge that is equaled or exceeded during percentage of time' indicated —Continued 19 Station number Perceptage 0f “me (wé‘f‘g’ow) ”323% "6120 4' 6250 6300 a 6313 "-6339 0.1 13200 12000 1200 1300 3200 300 68 .5 9200 5700 700 770 1950 210 42 1.0 8100 4600 500 550 1400 135 31 2 7100 3300 360 380 970 95 22 4 6500 2300 210 230 600 61 14 6 6200 1900 150 170 430 46 11 8 5800 1700 120 125 340 36 8.9 10 5600 1500 100 106 280 31 7.5 14 5000 1200 70 75 200 25 6.2 18 4600 1000 55 58 155 20 5.0 22 4200 900 50 48 130 18 4.6 26 3800 800 41 43 115 16 4.3 30 3400 700 37 39 105 15 3.8 35 3100 625 32 33 90 14 3.7 40 2700 590 29 29 82 13 3.5 45 2500 450 26 26 74 13 3.4 50 2300 400 24 23 68 12 3.3 55 2100 350 22 21 64 12 3.1 60 1900 300 19 19 57 12 3.0 65 1800 300 15 17 52 11 2.9 70 1600 300 14 15 46 11 2.7 75 1500 300 13 14 41 10.0 2.6 80 1400 300 11 11 37 9.6 2.5 85 1300 300 10 9.6 32 9.0 2.4 90 1250 300 8.6 7.6 27 8.6 2.4 95 1100 300 6.9 5.6 22 8.0 2.3 98 980 300 5.0 3.8 18 7.9 2.2 99 960 300 4.3 2.9 15 7.7 2.1 99.5 940 300‘ 3.4 1.9 13 7.4 2.1 99.9 920 300 2.2 .7 9.8 7.1 2.0 @6380 n 6526 (totl117gow) (1311117001?) 7500 (totiqoffow) (r3831?) 0.1 1200 83 27000 24000 1300 32500 32500 .5 750 54 18500 15000 610 23000 20000 1.0 540 42 12000 12000 420 19000 16000 2 375 32 11000 8900 250 14000 11000 4 238 23 9200 6200 150 10500 7500 6 176 20 8200 5000 130 9100 6200 8 145 18 7600 4100 110 8500 5000 10 120 17 7100 3900 100 7700 4400‘ 14 89 15 6400 3000 84 6900 3600 18 72 14 5700 2500 79 6200 3200 22 62 13 5300 2300 72 5800 2700 26 57 13 4900 2000 67 5400 2500 30 52 13 4500 1800 62 5000 2300 35 49 13 4100 1400 59 4500 2000 40 46 13 3700 1300 54 4100 1800 45 43 13 3500 1200 49 3700 1600 50 40 13 3200 1100 45 3500 1400 55 38 12 2800 1000 42 3200 1300 60 35 12 2600 800 40 3000 1150 65 33 12 2500 750 38 2700 1000 70 30 12 2300 600 33 2500 750 75 29 12 2100 500‘ 30 2400 600 80 28 12 1900 300 28 2200 450 85 26 12 1700 300 25 2000 300 90 24 11 1600 300 23 1900 300 95 22 11 1500 300 20 1700 300 98 20 11 1400 300 16 1400 300 99 19 11 1300 300 13 1200 300 99.5 18 11 1200 300 11 1100 300 99.9 17 11 1000 300 11 1050 300 20 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN DISCHARGE, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0 1 I I I 1 I . 0.01 0.1 1 5 20 50 90 99 99.99 PERCENT OF TIME DISCHARGE EOUALED OR EXCEEDED A 3 I I 2 m 3 U LL 0 D _ _ :3 z 2 z 0 < 0 (D 1.11 3 (I) O c: I uJ }- n. z I; . Lu Lu u. 1 — - L9 0: < I O ‘2 D 0 L I I I | I I 0.01 0.1 1 5 20 50 90 99 99.99 PERCENT OF TIME DISCHARGE EQUALED OR EXCEEDED B FIGURE 7.—Flow durations at (A) Chestatee River near Dahlonega and (B) Big Creek near Alpharetta. WATERSHED AND CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 18 II I II III DISCHARGE, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND Total row QJUIated flQIM 0.01 0.2 ‘I 5 20 50 90 98 99 99.99 PERCENT OF TIME DISCHARGE EOUALED OR EXCEEDED C o 4 I z O 0 LL] :0 0: Lu (1. E 3 —- _ LU LL 2 In D 0 LL 0 2 _ _ m a z <( co 3 O :I: I— _._. z 1— uj (D n: < I 8 0.01 0.1 ‘I 5 3O 50 90 99 99.99 PERCENT OF TIME DISCHARGE EOUALED OR EXCEEDED D FIGURE 7.—Continued. Flow durations at (C) Chattahoochee River at Atlanta and (D) Peach- tree Creek at Atlanta. 22 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN comprehensive treatment of erosion and sediment transport should, therefore, include a description of the channel network and its relation to basin mor- phology. To provide this description, stream-order analyses of the Soque River and Big Creek water- sheds are presented below. Stream-order data de- veloped for the Soque River watershed are con- sidered representative of the channel network and channel morphology on the Dahlonega Plateau; cor- responding data for the Big Creek watershed are considered typical of channels on the Atlanta Plateau. Once compiled, basic stream-order data are used to compute morphometric parameters such as drain- age density and overland-flow lengths for each watershed. Drainage density is a measure of the watershed’s ability to deliver the products of up- land erosion to the channel network. Overland-flow length is a function of drainage density and is used later in the report in conjunction with the Uni- versal Soil Loss Equation. Stream—order data were computed using tech- niques described by Strahler (1957). A Strahler analysis considers streams with no tributaries as first-order streams. The confluence of two first— order streams marks the beginning of a second- order stream. Likewise the confluence of two second-order streams initiates a third-order stream. This process of stream order numbering continues to the most downstream point of the watershed. A Strahler analysis thus provides geomorphic data relative to channel segments of a given stream order. As shown below, the Stahler analysis differs slightly from the classical Horton (1945) analysis HORTON in which each successively higher order stream is considered to extend headward to the tip of its longest tributary. All measured stream-order data Were developed from 1224,000-sca1e topographic maps (Emmett, 1975) and are summarized for both watersheds in table 8. Data for stream orders one through four represent stream-channel characteristics upstream from water-data stations 2 and 8 (table 5, fig. 1). Data for the main (order five) stream of both watersheds pertain to the entire watershed down to the main streams’ confluence with the Chatta- hoochee River. The exponential relations of stream order to the number of channels, drainage area, average channel length, cumulative average channel length, average channel drop, cumulative average channel drop, and average channel slope are shown in figures 8 through 14. Average channel length is defined as the sum of the individual channel lengths of a given (stream) order divided by the total number of channels of that order. Average channel drop and average channel slope are similarly defined. Cumu- lative average channel length and cumulative aver- age channel drop are computed by summing the respective quantities of each succeeding stream order. This cumulative process numerically dupli- cates the Horton methodology of extending the highest order stream to the head of its longest tributary. The ratio of average channel drop to average channel length for each stream order defines aver- age channel slope (fig. 14). A progressive decrease in channel slope occurs in both watersheds as STRAHLER WATERSHED AND CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 23 4 0 Soque watershed I I Big Creek watershed 0: Lu 2 3 — O E E 2 — D: +— u: 1 _ | I I 0.1 1 10 100 NUMBER OF CHANNELS FIGURE 8.—Re1ation of number of channels to stream order. 5 I 4 O Soque watershed _ I Big Creek watershed n: In” a: 3 — — O E E z 2 — __ .— U) 1 - I O _ I I I 0.1 1 10 100 AVERAGE DRAINAGE AREA, IN SQUARE MILES FIGURE 9.——Relation of average drainage area to stream order. 5 | 4 O Soque watershed _ [Big Creek watershed n: 3 n: 3 — — O E E m 2 — L I— u: 1 _ L I I 0.1 1 10 100 AVERAGE CHANNEL LENGTH, IN MILES FIGURE 10.——Relation of average channel length to stream order. 5 | 4 o Soque watershed I Big Creek watershed n: E n: 3 — — O E E m 2 — _ '— m 1 — _ I I 0.1 1 10 100 CUMULATIVE AVERAGE CHANNEL LENGTH, IN MILES FIGURE 11.—Relation of cumulative average channel length to stream order. 5 - o Soque watershed I Big Creek watershed 4 _ __ / / / I / / / E 3 (I . _ o _ \ a: \\ O \ 2 < \ “J \ E 2 — o — (I) 1 — _ I 10 100 1000 AVERAGE CHANNEL DROP, IN FEET FIGURE 12.—Relation of average channel drop to stream order. stream order increases. The rate of slope decrease for Big Creek channels is constant for the first four orders but decreases abruptly for the fifth-order stream. A similar break in the slope line for the Soque watershed occurs at the second-order level and indicates significant topographic differences be- tween those parts of the watershed containing first- and second-order streams and those parts contain- ing longer and flatter higher order streams. 24 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 5 l ‘ O Soque watershed TABLE 8.—Summa7'y of geomorphic characteristics I Big Creek watershed Average Average 4 — 1 Stttttnntmt 53:32:.“ 0:22;: “21.21:" 12:23:“ ("Ii”) (Mi) Big Creek near Alpharetta ___ 1 173 0.24 0.61 E 3 _ _ 2 38 1.14 .85 g 3 12 3.51 1.28 O 4 2 11.4 3.50 5 . 5 1 103 20.2 < Soque River near E 2 Clarketsville _- 1 122 .46 .93 U, _ ‘- 2 27 1.86 1.18 3 7 6.42 2.66 4 3 29.8 7.71 5 1 157 12.2 1 _ _ Cumula- Cumula- tive Aver- tive Aver- ave1-- age aver- age Stream age chan- age chan- oi'der chan- nel chan- nel nel drop nel slope length (ft) drop (ft/ft) I (mi) (ft) 10 100 1000 Big Creek near CUM ATI A UL VE VERAGE CHANNEL DROP, IN FEET Alpharetta ___ 1 0.61 68 68 0021 FIGURE 13.——Relation of cumulative average channel drop to 3 $472 391 1%,; 8&8 ts'tream order. 4 6.24 52 204 .0028 5 26.4 70 274 .00066 _ _ _ _ Soque River near Topographic distinctlons between the plateaus Clarkesville __ 1 .93 224 224 .046 are graphically pointed out by the plots of cumula- g 421% $3 2111 '33 tive average channel drop against stream order 4 12.5 136 677 .0033 (fig. 13). These graphs show that the rate of change 5 24'7 180 857 '0028 of cumulative channel drop in both the Big Creek 5 l O Soque watershed I Big Creek watershed 4 _ _ 3‘1 3 r- . _ Q n: O E < 3:" 2 '— — __ (I) 1 _ __ l 1 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 AVERAGE CHANNEL SLOPE, IN FEET PER FOOT FIGURE 14.——Relation of average channel slope to stream order. WATERSHED AND CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 25 100 I 0 Soque watershed I Big Creek watershed CUMULATIVE AVERAGE CHANNEL LENGTH, IN MILES 0.1 I I L 0.1 1 10 100 1000 AVERAGE DRAINAGE AREA, IN SQUARE MILES FIGURE 15.—Relation of average drainage area to cumulative average channel length. and Soque watersheds changes abruptly from low to higher order streams. This point of change is a reflection of watershed relief and concavity and occurs at third-order streams in the Soque water- shed and at second-order streams in the Big Creek watershed. The higher the order of the point of change, the greater is the watershed relief. Thus, stream-order analyses indicate greater relief and concavity for watersheds on the Dahlonega Plateau. The relation between average drainage area and cumulative average channel length for each stream order for both the Soque and Big Creek watersheds is shown in figure 15. Geometric regression of these data resulted in the following function L = 1.45DA”-’*~" where DA =drainage area in square miles, and L=cumulative average channel length in miles. The exponent in this equation is indicative of the geometric development of the watershed. An ex- ponent of 0.50 indicates that the length of the watershed has developed in the same proportion to its width. The computed exponent of 0.58 indicates that both the Big Creek and Soque River watersheds are increasing in length faster than they are in- creasing in width. Examination of figures 19 and 21 shows that both watersheds are indeed elongate. Studies similar to this one in different regions of the United States have yielded exponent values ranging from 0.6 to 0.7 (Leopold and others, 1964). The coefficient of the regression equation (1.45) indicates the average length of principal stream channel supported by one square mile of watershed area. Thus, 1 square mile of land surface in either the Soque or Big Creek watersheds will support, on the average, 1.45 miles of principal channel. Leo- 26 pold and others (1964) state that the coefficient of similar equations for watersheds in the Northeast- ern United States averages about 1.40. A similar analysis of watersheds in the Upper Salmon River basin of Idaho (Emmett, 1975) produced a coeffi- cient of 1.50. Drainage density is defined as the total channel length in the watershed divided by the total drain- age area and indicates the average total channel length supported by each square mile of watershed. Computed drainage densities for the Soque and Big Creek watersheds are 2.07 and 2.38, respectively. These values should not be confused with the co- efficient of the regression equation described pre- viously. This coefficient refers solely to the length of the principal channel and cannot be compared to drainage density. Emmett (1975) considers drain- age density to be the most useful parameter for comparing stream-channel networks of different watersheds. Horton (1945) reported that the Hi- wassee River basin above Hiwassee, Ga., has a drainage density of 2.06. The Hiwassee basin is located just north of the Soque basin, which implies that there is regional consistency to drainage densities. OVERLAND FLOW LENGTH Representative values of overland flow lengths for both the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus were required for the computation of sheet erosion using the Universal Soil Loss Equation. A method to com- pute such values using Strahler stream-order data is described below for those parts of the Soque and EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN Big Creek watersheds draining to the water-data stations near Clarkesville and Alpharetta, respec- tively. The length of overland flow is defined as the average distance traveled by surface runoff to the point where it enters a well-defined channel. Thus, by definition, overland-flow lengths pertain mostly to stream channels occurring on the local or micro— topography and are synonomous with true field slope lengths. Stream channels relative to the micro- topography are mostly true first-order streams that are rigorously defined as the shortest, unbranched channels occurring on the landscape. True first- order and other low-order streams are too small to be shown on 1:24,000-scale maps and (generally) are ignored. True—order streams are quantitatively related to overland flow length, however, through drainage density, which is defined by Leopold and others (1964) as one-half the reciprocal of the length of overland flow. Thus, data required to com- pute overland-flow length for a particular water- shed include total drainage area along with the total number of streams and the average stream length for each stream order beginning with true order one streams. Field observations in the Soque and Big Creek watersheds indicate that first-order streams on 1:24,000—scale maps are true fifth-order streams. Consequently, data from the Strahler analyses of stream number and cumulative average channel length (figs. 8 and 11) were replotted with adjusted ordinates beginning at the fifth—order level. The re- lations were then linearly extended to predict values 9 r“ o Soque watershed _ 5 L I Big Creek watershed 8 ,1 _ 4 ’5 E 7 _ — 3 8 D

=I 3 U E (g j 2 U) E U) 0 g 10 l I 10 I l 10 100 500 1000 10 100 500 1000 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SECOND 2 A B 9 F. g 1000 1 l >_ 100° I I *- 1: S 33 Z 1.11 "J 1: ° — E 24 83m 8 E e 1: E p— “- I— g (D 5 g 100 — — 3 E E 100 — — 2 <1: 0 8 c: 5 a: 1.1.1 2 ‘2 u.1 ‘2 Q 0 .1 m -I z o .—.I o' d Lu 2 1.1.1 2 a. a ‘1’ z 2 Z a ._ E 1 1 I 1 g 10 100 1000 10,000 10 100 1000 10,000 m DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SECOND C D EXPLANATION l Rise A Peak 0 Recession FIGURE 32.—Relation of suspended-sediment concentrations to stream discharge at Big Creek near Alpharetta. station, the relations were not sensitive to river- stage direction. At the excepted station, Big Creek near Alpharetta, the concentrations of suspended sediment transported during periods of rising stage were significantly higher than corresponding con- centration transported at the same discharge dur- ing periods of peak stage or recession. At the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta, the con- centration of suspended sediment was observed to be sensitive to the source of water in the channel. The concentrations of suspended sediment trans.- ported by regulated flOWS were significantly lower than sediment concentrations related to intervening runoff at the same discharge (fig. 33). The concen- tration versus discharge relations pertaining to reg- ulated flOWS were developed from data collected dur- ing the late spring and summer of 1976 when tribu- tary contributions to the Chattahoochee River between Buford Dam and Atlanta were minimal. Sediment data relative to runoff were collected dur- ing basin-wide rainfall events when river flows at Atlanta were comprised mostly of surface runofi‘. Similar, though less pronounced, concentration differences were observed at the Chattahoochee River near Fairburn and near Whitesburg. Sus- pended-sediment data listed for these two stations, however, were collected mostly during runoff events and are not representative of regulated flows (fig. 35). AVERAGE ANNUAL SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT DISCHARGE Average annual suspended-sediment discharges were computed by a modified version of the sedi- mentetransport, flow-duration curve method de- scribed. by Colby (1956) and Miller (1951). For each water-data station this method combines discharges and corresponding percentages of time from the flow-duration curve with corresponding suspended- sediment concentrations from the concentration- discharge curve. Instantaneous suspended-sediment discharges for each river discharge at each flow duration are computed and weighted by the corre— sponding percentage of time. The sum of the SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION. S USPENDED—SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 1000 100 — — o I Rise 0 Recession I 10 I 1000 5000 1000 ‘ 100 EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND A 10,000 I Rise A Peak 0 Recession I 1 I 1000 5000 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND C 10,000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 1000 100 - I Rise 0 Recession 10 J 1000 5000 10,000 100 _| O 1 1000 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND B I Rise A Peak 0 Recession 5000 10,000 FEET PER SECOND D FIGURE 33.—Relation of suspended-sediment concentrations to stream discharge at the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta. 53 54 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 10,000 2 O F— 1000 — — < E z E a ': 6 2 U E .— m _ _ LIZJ 3 100 g c: m a “9 =1 8 2 E 2 Ed 10 — - g I Rise u: A Peak 0 Recession 1 l l 10 100 1000 10,000 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND A 1000 | u m I 0‘ 2‘ Lu 3 o E o. ,2: I: < '2 E E (I) Z (I) S ‘5 E 100 — — o g g E U a I Rise u: >' =1 A Peak 3 g E 0 Recession Z 10 l I 10 100 1000 10,000 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND B FIGURE 34.—Relation of suspended-sediment concentrations to stream discharge at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. weighted values is the average annual suspended- sediment discharge at the station. The flow duration and concentration-discharge relations used in these computations are considered representative of long- term conditions in the basin. Average annual dis- charges of suspended sediment and suspended silt plus clay were computed at each water-data station and are listed in table 22. 1000 I— E E z t 2 <2 2 8 E E "P E u, 8 E 2 100 — — e o s g E 9 I Rise _I 8 U =J .Recession m E Z 10 I 1000 10,000 100,000 DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND A 1000 l S a: E E *3 E " a z E o 3 ‘L a) ‘3 S 2 100 — — Z 0 < E > I <3 3 E24 I Rise a) 0 d 0 Recession m 2 D _l .2. a 10 l 1000 10,000 100,000 DISCHARGE, lN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND B FIGURE 35.—-Re1ation of suspended-sediment con- centrations to stream discharge at the Chatta- hoochee River near Whitesburg. Suspended-sediment discharges for Big Creek near Alpharetta were computed using the concen- tration-discharge curves for both rising stage and peak and receding stages. These discharges were then weighted according to the amount of time the daily streamflow at the station was reported to be rising (25 percent) and receding (75 percent) dur- ing the period of record. The sums of the weighted discharges are the values listed in table 22. Annual suspendedasediment discharge at the Chat- tahoochee River at Atlanta was computed for both regulated flows and intervening runofi. Computed annual suspended-sediment discharges at the Chat- EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE 55 TABLE 22.—Avemge annual suspended-sediment discharge and yield Suspended- Suspended- Suspended .Suspended smumm sass: rag"? . flaw (tons/yr) (tons/yr/mi") (tons/yr) (tons/yr/miz) Chattahoochee River near Leaf _______________________ 43,000 287 18,800 125 Soque River near Clarkesville _________________________ 43,200 450 17,900 186 Chestatee River near Dahlonega _______________________ 52,300 342 24,700 161 Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________________ 24,000 333 17,800 247 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _______________________ 108,000 415 75,300 283 1 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ______________________ 62,300 __- 41,000 ___ N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta _________________ 15,100 443 8,820 259 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ 25,400 858 12,200 412 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________________ 65,500 755 32,500 374 Woodall Creek at Atlanta ____________________________ 1,230 397 960 310 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee ________________ 275 86 224 70 Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______________________________ 19,800 569 16,000 460 Proctor Creek at Atlanta _____________________________ 1,540 99 1,040 67 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ___________________ 311,000 366 220,000 256 “Chattahoochee River near Fairburn __________________ 62,300 ___ 41,000 ___ Snake Creek near Whitesburg _________________________ 13,300 359 10,000 270 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg _________________ 449,000 368 340,000 274 2 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ________________ 62,300 ___ 41,000 ___ 1 Discharge attributed to regulated flow. 2Discharge attributed to regulated flow. Equals computed discharge at the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta. tahoochee River near Fairburn and near Whites- burg pertain only to intervening runoff. The suse pended-sediment discharges contributed by regulated flow to the stations near Fairburn and Whitesburg were considered equal to the annual discharge com- puted for the upstream station at Atlanta. Yields of suspended sediment for stations on the Chatta- hloochee River downstream of Buford Dam were computed for intervening runoff only using the drainage area between the dam and the particular station rather than the total drainage area at the station. Sediment transported by regulated flows was considered to be derived entirely from the river channel. MECHANICS OF SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT TRANSPORT Although stream discharge has been shown to be the primary determinant of suspended-sediment con- centrations at the various water-data stations, other factors such as channel and stream-bed characteris- tics, stream velocity, and depth of flow also influence the quantity and distribution of sediment carried in suspension, especially with respect to the sand-size particles. Typical channel and streambed characteristics in the basin have been summarized previously in figure 5. In general, suspended-sediment concentrations are most sensitive to those channel characteristics that tend to produce or increase turbulence. Conse— quently, streamflow along rock beds or beds con- taining large rocks and boulders tends to transport larger quantities of suspended sediment per unit volume of water than streamflow across a sand and gravel bed. Similarly, channel constrictions such as debris or bridge piers also tend to increase sus- pended-sediment concentrations. A major constric- tion of the channel can cause scour of the stream- bed as noted at Big Creek near Alphar‘etta and Peachtree Creek at Atlanta (figs. 58 and 5D). Lateral distributions of suspended-sediment con- centration, mean velocity, and depth of flow are shown for several water-data stations in figures 36 to 40. Also shown are sediment sizes indicating the size (D...) which was larger than 50 percent, by weight, of the sampled bed material. The date and discharge relative to the measurements are also listed. These data represent measurements made at a limited number of discrete, vertical lines and should not be construed as a complete description of lateral parameter distribution across the various sections. The sensitivity of suspended-sediment concentra- tion to flow parameters is shown to vary not only with the station but with different flow conditions at the same station. For example, lateral distribution of suspended sediment at the North Fork of Peach- tree Creek and at Snake Creek near Whitesburg were, respectively, directly and inversely related to corresponding distributions of flow velocity and depth (figs. 38 and 40). At the Chestatee River near Dahlonega (fig. 36), the lateral distribution of sus- pended sediment varied directly with velocity and depth at a discharge of 3,200 cubic feet per second and varied inversely with velocity at a discharge of 7,280 cubic feet per second. 56 3000 I I I I March 16, 1976 discharge =3200 ft3/s 0 May 15, 1976 discharge =7280 ft3/s ‘ 2500 — — z 9 I— 3‘: n: l.— 2 E 2000 ~ — 8 _I z o: 8 e m E E 1500 — — 2 E E ‘2 (”A i o’ 2 g z 1000 — Z _ LIJ n. tn 3 U’ 500 — — ( 0 I I I 100 125 150 175 200 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET A O 8.0 _ Z t O — a 8 w _J u; {I > E 60 Z I— < m E E I March 16, 1976 discharge =3200 ft3/s Z 0 May 115, 1976 discharge =7280 ft3/s — 4.0 I 100 125 150 175 200 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET B EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 14.0 I I March 16, 1976 discharge =3200 fth 12.0 _ 0 May 15, 1976 discharge =7280 ft3/s — ’— LlJ Lu LL L A A —-0 3 10.0 — — I I- 0. LL! 0 8.0 — ‘ 100 125 150 175 200 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET C 2.0 I o 1.5 — — m 0: LU '— Lu 2 2’ 1.0 — — E g I 08 ' .5 — — I March 16, 1976 discharge =3200 ft3/s I May 15, 1976 discharge =7280 ft3/s 0| 0 I | | 100 125 150 175 200 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET D FIGURE 36,—Lateral distributions of suspended-sediment concentration, flow velocity, flow depth, and size of bed material at the Chestatee River near Dahlonega. The effect of suspended-sediment concentration and flow parameters on bed-sediment size can be illustrated with data from Big Creek near Alpha- retta (fig. 37). At a discharge of 576 cubic feet per second the size of bed material across the channel varied directly with suspended-sediment concentra- tion, velocity, and depth. An inverse relation be- tween the same parameters occurred at a discharge of 1,330 cubic feet per second. Such examples il- lustrate the uncertainty experienced in relating flow parameters to sediment transport. In general, how- ever, the data presented (figs. 36—40) indicate that concentrations of suspended sediment in basin streams are proportional to stream velocities. Sedi- EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE 57 0 January 26, 1976 discharge :576 ft3/s . January 25, 1976 discharge =576 ftS/S z I January 27, 1976 discharge :1330 ft3/s I January 27, 1976 discharge =1330 ft3/s I9 A January 29, 1976 discharge :227 ft3/s D A January 29, 1976 discharge = 227 ft3/s E 0 March 16, 1976 discharge =2180 fia/s Z 0 March 16, 1976 discharge :2180 {13/5 '- 33 O 6 o — — z ,_ 1500- — 8 . Lu _ o -' V9 2 o 33 E o D- n. 5 0 _ __ 1— m I— ’ z 2 1000— — E LIJ < LL E {'5 z 8 3 - 4.0 — u: =1 ~ 92 _ E D Z 500 —— 8 E d 3.0 — __ (% > z a I ‘W < 0 u.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 2 20‘... — HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET A 1 0 I I I I ' 0 10 20 3O 40 50 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET OJanuary 26, 1976 discharge =576 ft3/s B IJanuary 27, 1976 discharge =1330 ft3/si AJanuary 29, 1976 discharge =227 fla/s 140 0 March 16, 1976 discharge =2180 ft3/i ' 0January 26, 1976 discharge =576 ft3/s I January 27, 1976 discharge =1330 ft3/s AJanuary 29, 1976 discharge =227 ft3/s ,_ 12‘0 T _ oMarch 16, 1976 discharge =2180 ft3/s LL! ”L3 2’2 . LU E 10.0 — — E g a _l E s 8.0 — ' E as 6.0 _ 4.0 — A O I I I \ 10 20 3o 40 50 2.0— — HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET 1.0 I I I D 10 20 30 40 50 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET C FIGURE 37.—Latera1 distributions of suspended—sediment concentration, flow velocity, flow depth, and size of bed material at Big Creek near Alphanetta. ment-transport relations to depth and sediment size illustrated in figure 41. Values of instantaneous sus- could not be determined With available data. pended-sediment discharge and river stage were The quantity and temporal distribution of sus- plotted against time for selected runoff periods. A pended sediment discharged during runoff events is suspended-sediment discharge hydrograph for the 58 2000 | I I | I I 0 March 12, 1976 discharge=1300 ft3/s 1500 — — 1000 — __ 500 ~ H SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 0 I I I I I I 0 1O 20 30 40 50 60 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET A 70 I I I I 0 March 12, 1976 discharge=1300 ft3/s 8.0 ~ _ .0" o | I DEPTH, IN FEET P O I | I" o I I 0 I I I I I I 0 1O 20 3O 4O 50 60 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET C 70 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 511 o I I .5 o | | 9’ o | I N o | | 0 March 12, 1976 discharge=1300 ft3/s MEAN VELOCITY,IN FEET PER SECOND 1.0 — _ 0 ‘ | I l I 0 1O 20 3O 4O 50 60 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET B 2 I I I Lu 1.0 ~ I: o g o _l :' E 0.5 _ Z 0 March 12, 1976 discharge=1300 ft3/s Os 0 I I I l I 0 10 20 3O 40 5O 60 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET D FIGURE 38.—Latevral distributions of suspended-sediment concentration, flow velocity, flow depth, and size of bed material at North Fork of Peachtree Creek near Atlanta. storm was developed by interpolating between the instantaneous discharge measurements. At most stations, the sediment-discharge and stream hydro- graph were in phase or nearly in phase and peaked at approximately the same time. At Big Creek near Alpharetta, however, most of the sediment load significantly preceded the water load from the storm. Integration of the sediment-discharge hydro- graphs provided the storm discharge of suspended sediment. The computed storm load is listed on each figure and, in most cases, amounts to a sig- nificant part of the average annual suspended-sedi- ment discharge (table 22). UNMEASURED AND BED SEDIMENT DESCRIPTION AND SOURCE Streams in the Upper Chattahoochee River basin transport a variety of sediment from several sources. Silts and clays are supplied mostly by over- land flows; sand and gravel are generally available from the streambed and bank storage. During transport, the coarser materials (sand and gravel) are transported along or just above the bed and constitute most of the unmeasured load. Sediment concentrations and particle-size distributions in the unmeasured zone, therefore, are governed by the EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE 59 amount and size of material available for transport and by the capacity of the stream to transport this material. Streambeds on the Dahlonega Plateau consist of discontinuous deposits of sand, gravel, and boulders on a bedrock base. Sand deposits occur in isolated patches or in stringers of varying thickness and area. Coarse gravels and cobbles occur sporadically and do not form a continuous gradation with the finer sediments. Bed material samples collected on the Dahlonega Plateau indicate that coarser ma- terials (large gravel and cobbles) are transported only when flow velocities are extremely high and that sand and fine gravel constitute the vast ma- jority of unmeasured loads. In addition, a consid- erable quantity of sand is stored on the sides and banks of stream channels during low-flow periods and becomes available for transport as stream stage increases. Streambeds on the Atlanta Plateau consist mostly of sand and fine gravel; however, bedrock sections are not uncommon. Channel deposits are generally a foot thick or more and are continuous throughout the bed. Such channels are by definition alluvial be- cause their beds consist of material that is readily available for transport (Einstein, 1950, p. 6; Vanoni ed., 1975, p. 114). Deposits of sand on channel banks in the Atlanta Plateau are common and frequently large and may contribute to un- measured loads at high flows. Other sources of ma- terial that could be transported as unmeasured load are derived from channel or gully erosion and, as such, may be of local importance. Photographs of typical streambed and stream- channel conditions on the Dahlonega (A and B) and Atlanta (0 and D) Plateaus are shown in figure 42. COMPUTATION Instantaneous unmeasured and bed-sediment dis- charges were computed using the modified Einstein method developed by Colby and Hembree (1955). The computation of sediment discharge using the modified Einstein method requires data describing the particle-size distribution of both suspended sediments in transport and bed sediments assumed to be available for transport at the time of sam— pling. Other data required include instantaneous suspended-sediment concentrations, stream dis- charge, stream top width, water temperature, and average flow depth. Results of the modified Ein- stein computations are listed in table 23. Computa- tion of unmeasured discharge using the modified Einstein procedure is terminated when computed bed discharge is zero. Such occurrences are noted by a dash in the unmeasured discharge column of table 23 and indicate that the discharge of course sediments in the unmeasured zone is considered nil. Unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharges listed for the Chattahoochee River stations at Atlanta and near Whitesburg relate, for the most part, to regu- lated flow. TRANSPORT CURVES Instantaneous sediment-discharge data in table 23 were sufficiently complete at several water-data stations to permit the development of transport curves (fig. 43). Regression relations based on these curves were computed using the general geo- metric equations Q... or Q31, = W? where Q," and Q,b=unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharge, respectively, Qi=instantaneous stream discharge in cubic feet per second, and a and b=regression constants. A summary of the regression analyses is listed in table 24. The sensitivity of unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharges to stream discharge points out some in- teresting aspects of sediment transport in the study area. Examination of the unmeasured-sediment dis- charge data for the Chestatee River near Dahlonega (table 23 and fig. 438) indicates that the quantity of unmeasured and bed loads in the river is limited by the supply of coarse sediments. Notice in table 23 that unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharges always occurred on the receding limb of the hydro- graph. If the occurrence of such discharges is gov- erned solely by the stream’s transporting ability, then computations based on sample data collected on the rising limb should also indicate the presence of unmeasured and bed sediments in transport. In- stead, computed total-sediment discharge equaled measured suspended-sediment discharge. Such an occurrence does not indicate an absence of sediment in the unmeasured zone. It does indicate, however, that bed-sediment discharge was minimal during the initial part of the runofi event and that the river’s capacity to transport course material equaled or exceeded its supply. Typically, then, as the stream continues to rise, more and more course sediment is supplied to it, particularly from bank storage. Eventually the supply exceeds the trans- 60 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 1500 2 g I September 12, 1975 discharge=76 ft3/s 2:: 0 January 27, 1976 discharge=580 ft3/s 5% A March 16, 1976 discharge=8590 ft3/s 3’5 1000 — — z 0% on. '2; u; 2 E 59 $3 500 —— — o E Lu 0 Z z _ LL! 0. U) D m 0 I l I | I | I l I 0 10 20 30 40 50 50 7O 80 90 100 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET A I September 12, 1975 discharge=76 ft3/s 0 January 27, 1976 discharge=580 fta/s 6 0 _ A March 16, 1976 discharge=8590 ft3/s a Z O 8 (I) 5.0 ~ _ n: UJ I; ’— LL] E 4.0 ~ —- Z 5 0 rd > 3.0 — — z <( Lu 2 2.0 — _ 1.0 I I I I I I I 0 10 20 3O 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET B FIGURE 39.—Lateral distributions of suspended-sediment concentration, flow velocity, flow depth, and size of bed material at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. DEPTH, IN FEET 25 20 _| 0'1 .- O EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE 61 I September 12, 1975 0 January 27, 1976 A March 16, 1976 discharge=76 ft3/s discha rge=580 ft3/s I a?“ discharge=8590 ft3/s 050, IN MILLIMETERS 1.5 1.0 0 30 20 30 40 50 60 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET C 70 80 I September 12, 1975 0 January 27, 1976 A March 16, 1976 I discharge=76 fta/ I I S discharge=580 ft3/s discharge=8590 ft3/s 40 50 60 70 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET D FIGURE 39.——Continued. 80 90 100 90 100 62 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 200 I I I I I 0 September 4, 1975 discharge =37 ft3/s I May 14, 1976 discharge =131 ft3/s 150 — /' ' — 100— — 8 I q SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 0 I I I I I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET A 2.5 r I 2.0 — '— LU LIJ LI. E 1.5 — I +— D. LIJ CI 1.0 — 0 September 4, 1975 discharge =37 ft3/s I May 14, 1976 discharge =131 ft3/s .5 | I | I | 10 20 3O 4O 50 60 7O HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET C 2.0 I5 — 0 September 4, 1975 I May 14, 1976 discharge =37 ft3/s T discharge =131 ft3/s MEAN VELOCITY, IN FEET PER SECOND 1.0 — .5 — 0 I I I I I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET B 2-5 I I I I 0 September 4, 1975 discharge =37 ft3/s I May 14, 1976 discharge =131 fth I 2.0 — _ (I) a: L” o E 1.5 e _ E .J g E Z T. 1-0 — I _ am I .5 — — O 0 I I I I 10 20 30 40 50 60 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, IN FEET D FIGURE 40.~Latera1 distributions of suspended-sediment concentration, flow velocity, flow depth, and size of bed material at Snake Creek near Whitesburg. port capacity of the stream and course sediments begin to settle to the bottom and move as bedload. During recession, supplies of course sediment from outside the channel are progressively reduced and sediment deposition on the channel banks takes place. Material previously deposited on the bed now serves as the major supply of bedload and suspend- able sands. The stream always attempts to trans- port as much suspended sediment as it can. Con- sequently, the bed-sediment transport rate declines TABLE 23.—Summary of unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharge computations EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE 63 Unmeas- . Shieam 313;! “5"“ 1301:? Sta 9 Station name Date Time dig-g1; (23:56 chdali-ge ugfifiigeed direcgion (fax/s) day) (210:5 (percent) Chattahoochee River near Leaf ___ 9—23—75 1355 880 0.17 65.5 0.26 Falling 3—16~76 1335 2800 460 1810 5 Fallmg 5—28—76 1405 4440 614 5690 11 Rising Soque River near Clarkesville _-__ 9—22—75 1620 163 0.0 — — R}S}ng 3—16—76 1015 2380 221 1280 17 Rlslng 5—15—76 1650 3180 158 428 7 Falling Chestatee River near Dahlonega __ 92145 0910 825 3.84 154 2.5 Falling 3—16—76 1610 3200 101 1250 8.1 Falling 3—16—76 2300 1700 27.8 415 6.7 Falling 5—15-76 1230 8180 1290 5280 24 Falling 5—28—76 1105 970 0.0 —— — Rising Chattahoochee River near Buford _ 7—22—76 1400 530 0.0 — -— Rising 7—22—76 1505 8900 248 984 25 Rislng 7—22—76 1640 11700 114 474 24 Peak 7—22-76 2000 4300 22.6 156 14 Fallmg Chattahoochee River near Duluth _ 7—22—76 1650 700 0.0 — —— Rising- 7—22—76 1809 1800 0.0 — — Rising 7—22—76 1859 54010 131.0 716 18 R}S}ng 7—22—76 2151 7300 191 872 22 RISIIlg Big Creek near Alpharetta ______ 9—22—75 1030 42 0.0 — —— Falling 12—31—75 1400 672 5.1 43.3 12 Peak 1—26—76 0920 498 1.31 139 .94 Rising 1—26—76 1405 764 6.11 76.5 8.0 Rismg 1—27—76 1440 1320 43.4 253 17 Peak 1—29—76 1420 227 0.45 6.40 7.0 Falling 3—16—76 1915 2180 80.8 494 16 R1s1ng 3—18—76 1445 393 0.0 — — Falling Chattahoochee River at Atlanta __ 5—27—76 0850 8120 123 635 19 Falling 4—14—77 1400 7970 126 766 16 Peak 4—25—77 1200 6060 41 226 18 Falling 5—28—77 10130 1200 3.7 3.7 ~100 Falling N. Fork Peachtree Creek near ‘ . Atlanta ______________________ 3—12—76 2245 1410 395 1580 25 Falling 5—11—76 1000 30 0.0 — — Steady S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______________________ 5—11—76 1100 25 0.0 — —— Steady 3— 9—76 1048 212 3.18 43.2 7.4 Falling 3—13—76 0035 1200 75.7 768 9.9 Rising Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______ 9—12—75 1130 69 0.67 6.9 9.7 Falling 1—27—76 1000 580 1.86 46.3 4.0 Falling 3~16—76 1145 8510 375 2280 16 Peak Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee ____________________ 5—27—76 2125 89 148 352 42 Rising Nancy Creek at Atlanta _________ 5—12—76 1130 30 0.0 — — Steady Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ____________________ 4—14—77 1255 9900 96.0 703 14 Rising Snake Creek near Whitesburg ___ 9— 4—75 1120 37 0.0 — — Steady 4—14—76 1850 145 .53 .53 ~100 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg __________________ 5—14—76 1530 4080 59.9 59.9 ~100 Falling 4—14—77 1125 9605 113 368 31 Peak 6— 2—77 1300 1880 18.3 18.3 ~10‘0 Steady rapidly as the bed-sediment supply goes into sus- pension. Such a decline is manifest in the slope of the bed-sediment transport curve shown in figure 43B. Streambed deposits continue to supply sedi- ment to bedload and suspension until they are de- pleted. Field observations indicate that similar bed-transport processes occur at the other water- data stations on the Dahlonega Plateau. Unmeasured- and bed-sediment transport curves for Big Creek near Alpharetta are shown in figure 43c. Notice that these curves are not as divergent at ‘ the lower discharges as those developed for the Chestatee River near Dahlonega. Big Creek is largely an alluvial-channel stream, and it is ex- pected that sufficient bed material is available most of the time to satisfy the stream’s transport capac— ity. Thus, the nature of the unmeasured- and bed- sediment transport curves should be governed more by the stream’s ability to transport sediment than by the amount of sediment in supply. AVERAGE ANNUAL DISCHARGE The average annual discharge of bed and un— measured sediments was computed using each trans- EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 1600 I I I 1146 1400 — 0 Suspended—sediment discharge — 1144 I Water-surface altitude Storm suspended-sediment |oad=12,300 tons 1200— May 14—18, 1976 ‘1142 1000 —1140 800 —1138 600 — 1136 400 1134 WATER-SURFACE ALTITUDE, IN FEET SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, IN TONS PER HOUR 200 1132 0‘ t 1130 15 16 17 18 TIME, IN DAYS A S): — 970 o: O Suspended—sediment discharge 3f 50 — I Water-surface altitude — 969 E Q Storm suspended—sediment |oad=3380 tons E 9 Jan. 26—30, 1976 Z 9‘ 9 g r: < —<967 '3 5 30 < 9 8 D < E —966 E D E 20 U? — cc 8 —965 1:4 "v’ E o E 10 — E — 964 a) D m 0 963 27 28 29 30 TIME, IN DAYS B FIGURE 41.—Stor‘m loading of suspended sediment at (A) Chestatee River near Dahloneg‘a and (8) Big Creek near Alpharetta. 1400 1200 1000 8( 600 400 200 SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, IN TONS PER HOUR EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE 30 I g 0 Suspended-sediment discharge % I Water-surface altitude E 25 — Storm suspended—sediment load=234 tons ——3,2 “- May 1445,1976 a) S *— —3.1 E g E ui z (D . II I— “ 3.0 I i <2 9 % o ,_ —2.9 :3 Z < Lu (3 E B — 2.8 "P D Lu 0 E — 2.7 o. m :> U) 2.6 16 TIME, IN DAYS C I O Suspended-sediment discharge I Water-surface altitude I | Storm suspended-sediment load=39,400 tons March 13—15, 1976 13 812 808 804 800 796 792 788 14 15 16 TIME, IN DAYS D WATER-SURFACE ALTITUDE, IN FEET FIGURE AIL—Continued. Stoirm loading of suspended sediment at (C) Snake Creek near Whitesburg and (D) Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg. 65 66 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN FIGURE 42.——Typical streambeds and stream channels on the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus—(A) Chattahoochee River upstream of Helen. TABLE 24.——Summary of regression data relating unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharges to stream discharge Station name Discharge a b Chattahoochee River near Leaf _________ Unmeasured 4.42x10‘7 2.78 Chestatee River near Dahlonega _________ Unmeasured 4.29 x 1 0‘” 1.56 bed .02 ><10‘7 2.50 Big Creek near Alpharetta ________ unmeasured 1.25 x 10" 1.99 d 4.54x10'7 2.49 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _________ Bed 1.11 x 10’5 1.78 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________ Unmeasured 3.14X10‘2 1.22 bed 1.18)<10‘3 1.34 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ___ Bed 4.89x10‘3 1.11 port relation listed in table 24 and the basic dis- charge computation techniques described previously for suspended sediment. Computed annual dis- charges are listed in table 25. Average annual total- sediment discharge was computed as the sum of the average annual unmeasured-sediment and pended-sediment discharges. SUS- DELIVERY RATIOS The quantity of sediment transported at a stream station depends on the rate of gross erosion in the watershed and on the various factors that affect the routing, deposition, and transport of sediment. Only a part of the material eroded from upland areas is transported to streams and out of the watershed. The remaining material is deposited wherever the entraining characteristics of runoff waters are no longer sufficient to maintain transport. Conse- quently, the magnitude of sediment discharge is highly variable with respect to location. A measure of this variability is the delivery ratio, which is de- fined as the ratio of the quantity of sediment de- livered to a stream station to the total amount of material in transport in the watershed (gross ero- sion). This relation is presented below as DELIVERY RATIOS FIGURE 42.—Continued. Typical streambeds and stream channels on Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus—(B) Soque River upstream of Clarkesville. (Continued on p. 68.) TABLE 25.—Average annual total-, unmeasured— and bed-sediment discharge Average Average Average Ratio of Ratio of annual annual annual unmeasured bed Station name total unmeasured bed to total to total discharge discharge discharge discharge discharge (tons/yr) (tons/yr) (tons/yr) (percent) (Percent) Chattahoochee River near Leaf ________________ 64,200 21,200 _ _ _ _ 33 _ _ _ Chestatee River near Dahlonega ______________ 73,600 21,300 945 29 1.3 Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________ 25,600 1,630 160 6.4 .62 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _________________________ 5,630 ___ ___ Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ 71,400 5,890 464 8.2 .62 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ___________________ 9,960 ___ ___ Where D=delivery ratio, St=total average annual sediment discharge at a stream station, and EG=average annual gross erosion in the water- shed draining to the station. For this study, total-sediment discharge at a station is the sum of the average annual suspended- and unmeasured-sediment discharges (table 25). Gross erosion in the watershed is considered equivalent to the sheet erosion computed by the Universal Soil Loss Equation. Delivery ratios at four water-data stations can be computed and are listed below. 68 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN FIGURE 42.—-Continued. Typical streambeds and stream channels on the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus—(C) Tributary to the Chattahoochee River downstream of Buford Dam. Station name Digziiry Chattahoochee River near Leaf 0.21 Chestatee River near Dahlonega .15 Big Creek near Alpharetta .13 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta .89 The high delivery ratio for the Peachtree Creek station may indicate that a large part of the sedi- ment delivered to that station originated within the channel. With the exception of the high ratio noted above, the delivery ratios computed for this study compare favorably with ratios developed by Roehl (1962) from field investigations of reservoir sedi- mentation in the southeastern Piedmont. Roehl’s ratio data range from 0.037 to 0.594 and were col- lected from watersheds ranging in area from 0.61 to 166 square miles. The reader should note that both the erosion and unmeasured-sediment discharge data used to com- pute the delivery ratios are somewhat subjective and should use the ratios accordingly. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE DATA Information of importance to water resource man- agers includes the definition of background or nat- ural sediment and erosion yields and changes in these yields caused by land use. Data from water- sheds where land cover has been totally unaffected by man were not available from this study. Of the drainages studied, however, those contributing to the Chattahoochee River near Leaf and Snake Creek near Whitesburg were the least affected by man’s activities. Sediment-yield data from these water- sheds indicate a background rate of sediment yield in the basin in excess of 200 tons per year per square mile. Computed sheet erosion data indicate background erosion yields are about 2,000 tons per year per square mile. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE DATA 69 FIGURE 42.—Continued. Typical streambeds and channels on the Dahlonega and Atlanta Plateaus—(D) Snake Creek near Whitesburg. The effect of land use on erosion and sediment yield is most apparent for watersheds on the Dah- lonega Plateau. Man’s influence, though small, is most pronounced in the drainage of the Soque River near Clarkesville and decreases progressively in the watersheds of the Chestatee and Chattahoochee Rivers (figs. 18—20). Computed erosion and sedi— ment yields follow this trend exactly, being greatest in the Soque drainage and least in the watershed of the Chattahoochee River near Leaf. On the Dahlonega Plateau, the effect of changes in land use on erosion is best demonstrated by use of the Universal Soil Loss Equation. As discussed previously, computed average annual sheet erosion in the watershed of the Chattahoochee River near Leaf increased from 305,000 tons per year to 536,000 tons per year after a hypothetical timber harvest covering 2 square miles. Thus, a disturbance of the land cover over 1.3 percent of the total drainage area caused a 76—percent increase in computed an- nual sheet erosion for the entire watershed. The effect of large-scale urbanization on erosion and sediment yields is not clearly defined by the data presented in this report. On the one hand, com- puted sheet-erosion yields for those areas draining to Peachtree Creek and its tributaries are the lowest in the basin (table 20). Conversely, the greatest yields of stream sediment are recorded for several of the same watersheds (table 22). One explanation for this apparent dichotomy lies in the nature of urban land cover. Typical use of land in the Atlanta urban area includes large tracts covered with build- ings, homes, streets, roads, parking lots, and run- ways. Even open areas such as yards, parks, and golf courses are generally landscaped and planted with grass. The net effect of such land cover is to reduce both the opportunity and occurrence of sheet erosion. At the same time, however, rates of storm runoff to urban streams have increased in propor- tion to increases in impervious areas. Such increases frequently overload the channel capacity of Peach- tree Creek and its tributaries causing channel ero- 70 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 100,000 A Unmeasured-sediment discharge 0 Bed—sedimentdischarge 10,000 — SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, IN TONS PER DAY 10,000 A Unmeasured-sediment discharge 0 Bed-sediment discharge _| O O O I I SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, IN TONS PER DAY 1000 — 100 _ O O 10 — 100 — _ 1 I 100 1000 10,000 STREAM DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND B 10 I 100 1000 10,000 STREAM DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND A FIGURE 43.—Relation of unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharge to stream discharge at (A) Chattahoochee River near Leaf and (B) Chestatee River near Dahlonega. sion which, in turn, is measured as sediment discharge. Thus, sheet erosion in the Peachtree Creek drainage can be relatively low, While, at the same time, the sediment yield from Peachtree Creek and its tributaries, supplemented by channel ero- sion, is high. When urbanization in a particular watershed is complete, the dimensions of channels draining the watershed Will eventually enlarge to accomodate the greater runoff rates. After this adjustment, erosion of the channels will diminish and sediment yields from the channels will reflect the lower rates MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE DATA 10,000 A Unmeasured-sediment discharge 0 Bed-sediment discharge 2 1000 — T 2 1000 o o a 33 D: A Unmeasured-sediment LLI . n. a. discharge A (n (n . . Z Z O Bed-sediment discharge ,9 100 — ~ 9 100 — — g z r o T. LU LL] (3 (D E a 5 I ‘2 10 H — 8 10 _ _ o E I— I- z 2 Lu LU 2 2 D D o $ 1 — — G 1 1 I 100 1000 10,000 100,000 STREAM DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND D 0.1 | l 10 100 1000 10,000 STREAM DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND C 10,000 A Unmeasured-sediment discharge 0 Bed-sediment discharge A >. 1000 — < o 1000 E . m AUnmeasured-sediment discharge “- E OBed—sediment discharge v: I- z z ‘ ,9 100 — I} z i A g : I.LI < D . (D I 100 — n: U n: g "5’ a . g 10 — ,_ D E '2 2 Lu 0 2 o ('7‘) o LU 1 _ 10 I (D . 1000 10,000 100,000 STREAM DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND F 0.1 I I 10 100 1000 10,000 STREAM DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND E FIGURE 43.—Continued. Relation of unmeasured- and bed-sediment discharge to stream discharge at (C) Big Creek near Alpharetta, (D) Chattahoochee River at Atlanta, (E) Peachtree Creek at At- lanta, and (F) Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg. 72 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN of sheet erosion caused by urbanization. The areas draining to Proctor Creek and tributary to Nancy Creek are probably indicative of urban watersheds in which urbanization is nearly complete and chan- nel dimensions have adjusted to increased runoff. The annual sediment yields from these watersheds Were the lowest recorded of any watershed in this study (table 22). CONTRIBUTION OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TO STREAM QUALITY The impact of suspended sediment on stream qual- ity is both aesthetic and chemical. For this study, the aesthetic consequences are measured in terms of turbidity; chemical consequences are evaluated by comparing average annual suspended and total discharges of chemical constituents and by noting the relation of suspended-constituent concentrations to corresponding concentrations of suspended sediment. TURBIDITY Turbidity is generally defined as a reduction in the transparency of water caused by suspended par- ticulate matter. The particulate matter may consist of sediment particles as well as organic matter or microscopic organisms. In general, an increase in stream turbidity reduces the visual appeal of the water, the aesthetic value of the water course, and decreases the depth to which light can penetrate the water column. The unit of turbidity measure- ment used in this report is defined by Brown and others (1970) as the Jackson Turbidity Unit (JTU). Curves of sample turbidity plotted against cor- responding concentrations of suspended silt plus clay are shown for selected water-data stations in figure 44. Regression relations based on these curves were computed using the general geometric equation T = 11$” 84' where T=turbidity in J TU’s, S...=suspended silt plus clay concentration in milligrams per liter, and a and b=regression constants. A summary of regression data relating suspended silt plus clay concentration to turbidity at most water-data stations is listed in table 26. Correlation coefficients for the 14 stations ranged from 0.80 to 0.99 with coefficients for 12 stations at 0.90 or higher. Note that two regression equations are listed for the station at Big Creek near Alpharetta. The silt plus clay concentration versus turbidity relation is distinctly different at this station de- pending on the stage direction at the time of samp- ling (fig. 445). The turbidity - suspended-sediment relation for the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta in- cludes data from samples collected during regulated flow and intervening runoff. The turbidity data plotted along the lower part of the curve are rela- tive to regulated flow and are not as sensitive to silt plus clay concentrations as the higher turbidity values that relate to samples collected during storm runofi'. The regressions listed for the Chattahoochee River near Fairburn and near Whitesburg relate only to intervening runoff. At each water-data station, increases in sus- pended-sediment concentration resulted in corre- sponding increases in turbidity. Such increases, in turn, decreased the aesthetic appeal of the water- TABLE 26,—Summary of regression data relating turbidity to concentrations of suspended silt plus clay Station name a b (1211;181:212? 0?: £13225; Chattahoochee River near Leaf ____________________________ 0.783 0.907 0.96 14 Soque River near Clarkesville _____________________________ .217 1.14 .93 18 Chestatee River near Dahlonega ___________________________ .686 .915 .95 42 1 Big Creek near Alpharetta. _______________________________ .029 1.80 .95 10 2 Big Creek near Alpharetta _______________________________ .882 .902 .89 11 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ___________________________ 1.41 .746 .84 40 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta _____________________ 2.50 .714 .90 17 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta _______________________ .933 .868 .96 17 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta _______________________________ .825 .906 .99 29 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _________________________________ 1.87 .739 .95 14 Nancy Creek Tributary near Chamblee _____________________ 2.60 .739 .96 15 Nancy Creek at Atlanta __________________________________ .990 .849 .95 21 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn _______________________ 1.34 .830 .93 21 Snake Creek near Whitesburg ____________________________ 1.42 .835 .94 36 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg _____________________ 3.19 .699 .80 19 1 Recession samples. 2 Rise and peak samples. CONTRIBUTION OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TO STREAM QUALITY 1000 100 — 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER B 73 1000 1 U) I: Z 3 g E D (D a 100 — 5 ‘5’ g < z I— " 3 5 Z t w t 9 x — on 22 9 E -'> gl- 2 E 10 — ’— é a: I D I— 1 i I 1 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER A 1000 1000 E’ e Z _ D E E t D _ a 100 ~ g 100 — g a: I- 3 Z 0 c2: ‘0 (n >4 x g o a i Z —. 10 — 3 1O _ t >- — I: Q Q g 32 +- I2 1 I 1 1 10 100 1000 1 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLGRAMS PER LITER C 10 100 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER D 1000 FIGURE 44.—Re1ation of turbidity to suspended silt plus clay concentration at (A) Chestatee River near Dahlonega, (B) Big Creek near Alpharetta, (C) Chattahoochee River at Atlanta, and (D) Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. 74 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 0.1 — SUSPENDED-PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER .01 I Rise A Peak 0 Recession I 10 100 1 0,00 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, 100 IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER A l a o | SUSPENDED-ORGANIC CARBON CONCENTRATION IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER I 0.1‘ 10 I Rise A Peak 0 Recession I 100 0.1 SUSPENDED—NITROGEN CONCENTRATION AS N. IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 01 _o I I Rise A Peak 0 Recession "10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER B SUSPENDED-LEAD CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER '2 I I Rise A Peak 0 Recession I 1000 001, SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER C 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER .LITER D FIGURE 45.—Relation of suspended-constituent concentrations to concentrations of suspended silt plus clay at the Chestatee River near Dahlonega. CONTRIBUTION OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TO STREAM QUALITY 75 10 I Rise I Rise A Peak 2 A Peak I Recession S I Recession g E ‘ I— L- 2 Z _J 2 5 35 < Z n- o: I O I— ‘“ 1~ — U ‘0 z I: E 1— _ m _I Q <( E a: E n: g "3 <2 8 m a g 5 E E E e a? E z o g <0 _ 9 j 3 Q _ E E .01— — i z z ‘01 E — 10 100 1000 m t?) SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER F .001 i I 1 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER E .01 2 I Rise 0 I: A Peak g 0 Recession '— E E I: U _I z I 0 CC 5 . o, 3* — , _ m h _ 2 I" D: I Rise 2 E .001 _ Lu I-I-I < 2 E S A Peak g as g E ~05 0 Recession — < E: .5: 0| _I E 2 E Lu — U 9 Q E an” 22 Lu < E E _ Q I: < (I) I- n: E z o :> n. L“ i m m U -01 .0001 I a 10 100 1000 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER G SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER H FIGURE 45.——Continued. course and the depth of light-penetration into the water. The reader should note that the measurement of turbidity is, by definition, somewhat subjective. Consequently, turbidity values should not be used to quantitatively determine suspended-sediment con- centrations. CHEMICAL QUALITY The effect of suspended sediment on the chemical quality of a stream is mostly a function of (1) the water-quality constituents of interest, (2) the rela- tion of the concentration of these constituents to the concentrations of suspended sediment, and (3) the constituent loads transported by the stream. The 76 EROSION, SEDIMENT ' Rise A Peak 0 Recession $3 _. .01 I 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER A SUSPENDED-PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 100 I Rise A Peak 0 Recession 10 IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER SUSPENDED-LEAD CONCENTRATION. 1 I 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION. IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER C SUSPENDED-ORGANIC CARBON CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN 2 (n < 10 z 9 I—u: lRise EE APeak I A '24 .Recession LL10: 0m 20. 003 (.321— Z< mo: (30 O: ‘05:: 2: CI); Lu :1 z E 01 o I ‘D ' 100 1000 3 10 m SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER B I Rise A Peak 0 0 Recession l 0.1 .01 I I 1 10 100 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION. IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER D 1000 FIGURE Ala—Relation of suspended—constitutent concentrations to concentrations of suspended silt plus clay at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. chemical constituents of interest to this study were phosphorus, nitrogen, organic carbon, lead, zinc, copper, chromium, and arsenic. Curves relating the concentrations of these constituents in the sus- pended phase to the corresponding concentrations of suspended silt plus clay have been established at most water-data stations. Curves for selected sta- tions are shown in figures 45 and 46, and represent, respectively, relations at the Chestatee River near Dahlonega and at Peachtree Creek at Atlanta. Such curves indicate that the various constituent-sedi- ment concentrations are generally related by the geometric function as = ass, where Cx=chemical constituent concentration in the suspended phase in milligrams per liter, Sw=concentration of suspended silt plus clay in milligrams per liter, and a and b=regression constants. CONTRIBUTION OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TO STREAM QUALITY 77 g I Rise E A Peak E PIT-J 0 Recession I .A E 3 o.1~ o z D: o E U m a: E E < LL 0: O 0 U I: o' =. g E .01 — z 2 Lu _ n. w 3 m 0.001 1 l 1 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER E 0.1 2‘ AA A 8 . I Rise 3 E =. g: A Peak 2 E g 0 Recession E z —' a —_.: I g E .01 — ~ 9 -,: o) a g e o ,_ I E E 0 m o D m 0.001 1 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER G 2 9 :1 E I Rise E E A Peak E n: 0 Recession . 0 Lu 2 a. 8 m E 0.1 — 0 < Z n: 'N‘ ‘2 0' j 8 2 E 2 fi _ 8 0.01 I I 1 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER F 10 z' 8 j I Rise 0 g E A Peak 2 E 0 Recession uJ z i Z _ _ it o “- 1 . 01: w E < E A. z E < LL! 2 5 a w ' D o m 0.1 l I 10 100 1000 SUSPENDED SILT PLUS CLAY CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER H FIGURE 46.—Continued. A summary of the regression equations relating sus- pended-constituent concentrations to silt plus clay concentrations at most Water-data stations is listed in table 27. Also listed are correlation coefficients and the number of data pairs used in each regres- sion. The omission of regression information for a particular constituent indicates that a functional re- lation could not be established. In general, suspended concentrations of the con- stituents of interest correlate well with concentra- tions of suspended silt plus clay (table 27). Of the nutrients studied, the degree of correlation was highest for phosphorus and lowest for organic carbon. Average annual suspended-constituent discharges were computed using the regression data in table 27 and the flow-duration data in table 7. For each water-data station, the flow duration of a suspended- ‘ constituent concentration was determined by relat- ing the corresponding concentration of suspended 78 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN TABLE 27.—Summary of regression data relating suspended-constituent concentrations to concentrations of suspended silt plus clay Suspended phosphorus as P Suspended nitrogen as N Station name a b Correlation Number 0. b Correlation Number coefficient of samples coefficient of samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf- 0.00274 0.746 0.97 8 0.0137 0.714 0.98 7 Soque River near Clarkesville _ .00248 .834 1.0 9 .000493 1.27 .91 8 Chestatee River near Dahlo‘nega .00132 .942 .99 11 .00167 .988 .87 10 Big Creek near Alpharetta ____ .00681 .639 .96 12 .0290 .528 .93 7 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta .0103 .500 .91 15 .00116 1.06 .87 9 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta _______________ .00161 .504 .96 12 .000600 1.21 .66 9 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ .00330 .781 .99 12 .00203 .983 .90 11 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___ .00703 .646 .98 12 .000454 1.23 .93 12 Woodall Creek at Atlanta ___- .0665 .372 .91 7 .0163 .641 .96 6 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee __________________ .0185 .391 .90 7 ________ ___- ___ __ Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______ .00116 .909 .99 13 0000691 1.49 .89 11 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn __________________ .0413 .379 .61 16 _______ ___- ___ __ Snake Creek near Whitersburg _ .000911 .920 .99 7 .00530 .827 .96 6 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ________________ .0198 .484 .85 11 _______ ___- ___ __ Suspended organic carbon Suspended lead a 5 Correlation Number (1. b Correlation Number coefficient of samples coefficient of samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf- 0.0359 0.944 0.92 9 _______ ___- ___ __ Soque River near Clarkesville _ .818 .441 .99 5 _______ ___- ___ __ Chestatee River near Dahlonega .00255 1.51 .93 10 0.00200 0.539 0.82 12 Big Creek near Alpharetta ___- 0157 1.09 .69 10 .000964 .639 .82 9 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _______ ____ __- _ .00205 .550 .67 11 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ______________________ ___- ___ __ .00217 .638 .94 7 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta __________________________ ___- ___ _- .00586 .591 .94 9 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___ _______ ___- ___ __ .00349 .655 .93 12 Woodall Creek at Atlanta ___- .155 .705 .93 9 .00134 .463 .95 7 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee‘ __________________ .00247 1.24 .94 7 .000346 .890 .87 4 Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______ .201 .585 .83 9 .000‘836 .789 .89 8 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn __________________ 00377 1.37 .82 12 00208 .625 .77 9 Snake Creek near Whitesburg _ 0446 .755 .90 5 _______ ____ ___ __ Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ________________ 00324 1.34 .95 13 00260 .610 .90 7 silt plus clay to a stream discharge (tables 27 to 21 to 7). The average annual discharge of the chemical constituent was then computed using the technique described previously for the computation of sus- pended-sediment discharges. Computed suspended- constituent discharges are listed by water-data station in table 30. Computed suspended-constituent discharges contributed by regulated flow to the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta are considered transported, without loss, to the stations near Fair- burn and near Whitesburg. Average annual dissolved constituent discharges were computed on the basis of the relation of the constituent concentration to stream discharge. At those stations where the dissolved constituent con- centrations did not significantly change with stream discharge, the average annual constituent discharge was computed using the relation Yd = 0.0027 x Q” X Cm X 365 where Y,,=the average annual dissolved-constituent discharge in tons per year, Qa=the mean daily stream discharge in cubic feet per second, and Cd," =the mean dissolved-constituent concentra- tion in milligrams per liter for all samples at a station. CONTRIBUTION OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TO STREAM QUALITY TABLE 27.—Sumrnary of regression data relating suspended-constituent concentrations to 79 concentrations of suspended silt plus clay——Continued Suspended zinc Suspended copper Station name a b Correlation Number 0, b Correlation Number coefficient of samples coefficient of samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf- 0.00387 0.477 0.91 8 _______ ___- ___ __ Soque River near Clarkesville _ .00285 .525 .93 6 0.000306 0.802 0.96 7 Chestatee River near Dahlonega .00112 .701 .87 8 .000447 .900 .96 9 Big Creek near Alpharetta ___- _______ ___- ___ __ _______ ___- ___ __ Chattahoochee River at Atlanta 00389 443 .95 8 .000253 .872 .92 12 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta _______________ 00224 .608 .80 8 _______ ____ ___ __ S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ .00115 .767 .97 8 .00639 .343 .85 8 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___ .00546 .544 .91 13 .000594 .761 .82 15 Woodall Creek at Atlanta ___- .0461 .290 .88 7 .000953 .699 .95 7 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee __________________ .00319 .545 .87 4 _______ ___- ___ __ Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______ 000122 1.07 .92 10 .000103 .911 .97 10 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn __________________ 00519 .488 .70 10 .00665 .300 .66 10‘ Snake Creek near Whitesburg _ _______ ___- ___ __ .000313 .366 .91 5 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ________________ 00140 .728 .90 10 .00106 .622 .81 10 Suspended chromium Suspended arsenic a b Correlation Number (1 b Correlation Number coefficient of samples coefficient of samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf- 0.00330 0.388 0.88 5 _______ ___- ___ __ Soque River near Clarkesville _ 2.9)(10‘G 1.57 .97 6 _______ ___- ___ __ Chestatee River near Dahlonega .00579 .295 .96 5 7.24><10“7 1.34 0.97 5 Big Creek near Alpharetta ___- _______ ___- ___ __ 6.85x10" 1.39 .85 4 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta .000654 .705 .88 5 6.58xl0‘“ .654 .99 7 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ______________________ ___- ___ __ 3.02><10'5 .775 .92 5 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ .00242 .403 .93 8 2.10x10'“ 1.22 .94 5 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___ .000198 .796 .85 11 4.81x10‘” 1.12 .86 10 Woodall Creek at Atlanta ____ .000475 .643 .93 6 0.000145 .666 .93 6 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee __________________ 00137 .352 .78 5 _______ ____ ___ __ Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______ 3 57x10"3 1.37 .96 4 5.40x10‘” 1.10 .98 10 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn _________________________ ___- ___ __ 4.48x10" .747 .89 10 Snake Creek near Whitelsbur‘g _ _______ ___- ___ __ 3.53x10'5 .728 .98 4 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg _______________________ ____ -__ __ 6.19><10'5 .679 .84 11 The mean concentrations used for these computa- tions are listed in table 28 along with the average daily stream discharge. Mean concentrations are listed only for those parameters for which average annual suspended-constituent discharges were cal- culated (table 27). At those stations where dissolved-constituent con- centrations changed significantly with stream dis- charge, the concentration-discharge relation was best described by the geometric function Cd = 0Q? Where 0.; = the instantaneous dissolved-constituent con- centration in milligrams per liter, Qi=the instantaneous stream discharge in cubic feet per second, and a and b = regression constants. A summary of regression equations relating dis- solved-constituent concentrations to stream dis- charge is listed in table 29. Of particular interest are the positive relations between dissolved-nutrient concentrations and stream discharge noted at water- data stations on the Dahlonega Plateau and at Snake Creek near Whitesburg. Such relations indicate that dissolved nutrient concentrations increase with in- creases in stream discharge and that substantial 80 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN TABLE 28.—Mean concentrations of dissolved constituents used to compute average annual dissolved-constituent discharges [a, regression relation (see table 29)] Dissolved phosphorus as P Dissolved nitrogen as N Mean daily Station name discharge Mean Number Mean Number (ftR/s) concentration of concentration of (mg/L) samples (mg/L) samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf __________________ 402 0.0044 9 a __ Soque River near Clarkesville ____________________ 219 .019 10 a __ Chestatee River near Dahlonega __________________ 370 .0086 21 0.45 19 Big Creek near Alpharetta ______________________ 119 .0090 21 .97 21 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta __________________ 2890 .011 24 .54 21 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ____________ 50.1 .023 12 1.1 13 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______________ 52.6 a __ .94 13 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______________________ 137 .025 23 1.0 23 Woodall Creek at Atlanta ________________________ 19.1 .83 10 2.3 10 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee ____________ 4.74 .030 7 ___ __ Nancy Creek at Atlanta _________________________ 66.7 .022 14 .74 14 Chattahoochee River near Fairbu‘rn ______________ 3930 a __ ___ __ Snake Creek near Whitesburg ___________________ 58.2 .0053 19 a __ Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ____________ 4419 a __ ___ __ Dissolved organic carbon Dissolved lead Mean Number Mean Number concentration of concentration of (mg/L) samples (mg/L) samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf ________________ 1.9 9 _____ __ Soque River near Clarkesville _________________ 3.5 10 _____ __ Ch'estatee River near Dahlonega ______________ a __ 0.0023 9 Big Creek near Alpharetta ____________________ 6.4 12 trace 9 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ____________________ __ .0034 12 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ______________ __ .0090 9 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ________________ __ .0057 9 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ________________________ __ .011 18 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _____________________ 10 10 .016 9 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee ______________ __ .014 5 Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______________________ 6.2 14 .014 11 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ___________ 3.9 24 .0095 13 Snake Creek near Whitesburg _________________ a __ _____ __ Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg __________ a __ 0072 11 quantities of dissolved nutrients are contributed to basin streams by runoff from forested areas. The average annual discharge of dissolved constituents whose concentrations varied with stream discharge was computed using the procedure described previ- ously for computing the annual discharge of sus- pended sediment. The sum of the suspended- and dissolved-consti- tuent discharges is considered the total average an- nual constituent discharge at the station. The total and suspended discharges computed for the con- stituents of interest at each station are listed in table 30 along with the percentage of total con- stituent discharge contributed by suspended sedi- ment. Of the nutrients studied, the contribution of suspended phosphorus at all stations ranged from about 31 to 95 percent of total annual phosphorus discharge and averaged about 76 percent. Corre- sponding ranges for suspended nitrogen and organic carbon were 7 to 53 percent and 18 to 71 percent, respectively. The average contribution of suspended nitrogen and organic carbon to total annual con- stituent discharge at all stations was 29 and 43 per- cent, respectively. Trace metal discharges con- tributed by suspended sediment constitute a large percentage of the total annual metal discharge at every station. Suspended lead, for example, con- tributed about 38 to 100 percent of total lead dis— charge and averaged 84 percent for all stations. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL QUALITY DATA With respect to the impact of sediment on stream quality, water resource managers are concerned MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL-QUALITY DATA 81 TABLE 28.—Mean concentrations of dissolved constituents used to compute average annual dissolved-constituent discharges —Continued Dissolved zinc Dissolved copper Station name Mean Number Mean Number concentration of concentration of (mg/L) samples (mg/L) samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf ________________ trace 9 _____ __ Soque River near Clarkesville _________________ 0.0050 8 0.0023 8 Chestatee River near Dahlonega ______________ .0054 11 .0032 11 Big Creek near Alpharetta _________________________ __ _____ __ Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _______________ trace 12 .0021 12 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta _________ .0089 9 _____ __ S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________ .014 9 a __ Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ .021 18 0039 14 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _____________________ .037 9 0050 9 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee _________ 0060 5 _____ __ Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______________________ .0073 11 .0034 11 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ___________ .012 13 .0041 13 Snake Creek near Whitesburg ______________________ __ .0030 10 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg __________ .0075 12 .0035 12 Dissolved chromium Dissolved arsenic Mean Number Mean Number concentration of concentration of (mg/L) samples (mg/L) samples Chattahoochee River near Leaf ________________ trace 9 _____ __ Soque River near Clarkesville _________________ 0.004 8 _____ __ Chestatee River near Dahlonega ______________ trace 11 trace 11 Big Creek near Alpharetta _________________________ __ trace 9 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _______________ 0.0002 11 trace 12 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ______________ -_. trace 9 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________ trace 9 trace 9 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ .00083 18 0.00061 18 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _____________________ .0015 8 .040 9 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee _________ trace 5 _____ __ Nancy Creek at Atlanta ______________________ trace 11 .00054 11 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ________________ __ .00031 13 Snake Creek near Whitesburg ______________________ __ none 10 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg _______________ __ .00025 12 with the response of stream quality to increasing concentrations of sediment. The relative contribu- tion of sediment to nonpoint pollution and the effect of land use on suspended-constituent discharges are also cause for concern. The effects of sediment concentration on the chemical quality of basin streams has been demon- strated (figs. 45 and 46, table 27). At every station, the suspended concentration of nutrients and trace metals increased with increasing concentrations of suspended silt plus clay. Similar relations between turbidity and suspended sediment (fig. 44, table 26) indicate a progressive decrease in the aesthetic and light-transmitting quality of streams with increas- ing concentrations of suspended sediment. Sediment is commonly considered a nonpoint pol- lutant. As such, computed suspended-constituent discharges indicate the minimum nonpoint contribu- tion to stream quality at stream stations receiving loads from both point and non-point sources. Five large municipal wastewater-treatment facilities dis- charge treated efl‘luents to the Chattahoochee River between the stations at Atlanta and near Fairburn. Comparison of suspended and total nutrient dis- charges at the Fairburn station (table 28) indicates that at least 32 percent of the phosphorus trans- ported in the Chattahoochee River downstream of the wastewater-treatment facilities is non-point in origin. The effect of land use on suspended-constituent discharges can be determined by comparing sus- pended-constituent yields from watersheds with dif- ferent land-use characteristics. Table 30 lists the yields of suspended constituents from watersheds TABLE 30.—Annual yields of suspended constituents from representative land use watersheds Suspended-constituent yield, in tons/y1'/mi‘-' Phosphorus Nitrogen 2:51:13: Lead Zinc Copper Chromium Arsenic Forest _________________ 0.15 0.36 7.4 0.033 0.048 0.034 0.027 0.0011 Urban _________________ .33 .71 8.1 .16 .13 .050 .023 .0038 Rural __________________ .19 .43 6.9 .028 ____ ____ ____ .0028 82 EROSION, SEDIMENT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, C‘HAT‘TAHOOCHEE RIVER BASIN TABLE 29.—Summary of regression data relating dissolved-constituent concentrations to stream discharge Dissolved phosphorous as P Dissolved nitrogen as N Station name Chattahoochee River near Leaf- Soque River near Clarkesville- Chestatee River near Dahlonega S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___ Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee Chattahoochee River near Faimburn __________________ Snake Creek near Whitesburg _ Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ________________ Chattahoochee River near Leaf- a b 0.00350 0.361 —0.923 —0.972 Dissolved organic carbon at b Correlation coeflicient .91 Correlation coefficient Number of samples Number of samples (1 0.00428 .0336 (2 Correlation coefficient 0.92 .83 0.551 .385 ii?— Dissolved copper b Correlation coefficient Number of samples 15 10 Number of samples Soque River near Clarkesville_ Chestatee River near Dahlonega S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta Peachtree Creek at Atlanta -__ Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee Chattahoochee River near Fairburn __________________________ _ _ _ _ _ Snake Creek near Whitesburg _ .0853 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ________________ .140 where land use is predominantly forest, urban, or rural. Yield data were computed as the sum of aver- age annual suspended-constituent discharges from representative watersheds divided by the sum of the watershed drainage areas. Representative forested watersheds were selected as areas draining to the Chattahoochee River near Leaf, the Chestatee River near Dahlonega, the Soque River near Clarkesville, and Snake Creek near Whitesburg. Corresponding urban watersheds included the areas draining to Peachtree Creek at Atlanta, North Fork of Peach- tree Creek near Atlanta, South Fork of Peachtree Creek at Atlanta, Woodall Creek at Atlanta, tribu- tary to Nancy Creek near Chamblee, and Nancy Creek at Atlanta. The area draining to Big Creek near Alpharetta was considered most representative of a rural watershed. Note that annual suspended- constituent discharges were not available for every constituent of interest at every watershed listed above (table 31). Thus average yield data were computed, for the most part, with different numbers of watersheds. The impact of urban land use on average annual suspended-constituent yields is clearly indicated. The yields of suspended phosphorus and nitrogen —0.466 0.0368 0.76 8 19 ________ __-- _e_ __ from urban watersheds, for example, are greater by a factor of two than corresponding yields from forested watersheds. Similarly, the average yields of suspended lead and zinc from urban areas exceed corresponding yields from forested areas by an or- der of magnitude. These differences in yield between urban and forested areas indicate that sediments in urban watersheds contact nutrients and most trace metals with greater frequency than sediments found in mostly forested watersheds. These data further indicate that sediments act as sinks for nutrients and some trace metals, thus reducing the dissolved concentrations of these constituents in urban streams. Suspended-constituent yields from the designated rural watershed were slightly greater or about equal to corresponding yields from the forested watersheds. SUMMARY Land-use, soils and other environmental data were used in conjunction with the Universal Soil Loss Equation to compute sheet erosion in nine large watersheds of the Upper Chattahoochee River basin. SUMMARY TABLE 31.—Summa7‘y of average annual suspended- and total-constituent discharges 83 Phosphorus as P Nitrogen as N Ratio of Ratio of Total Suspended suspended Total Suspended suspended Station name discharge discharge to total discharge discharge to total (tons/yr) (tons/yr) discharge (tons/yr) (tons/yr) discharge (percent) (percent) Chattahoochee River near Leaf __________ 18 16 88.9 130 69 53.1 Soque River near Clarkesville ___________ 25 21 84.0 100 32 32.0 Chestatee River near Dahlonega _________ 27 24 88.8 200 39 19.5 Big Creek near Alpharetta ______________ 15 14 93.3 140 31 22.1 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta __________ 180 56 31.1 1,700 120 7.1 ‘Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _________________ 96 53.3 _________ 56 3.3 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ____ 11 8.6 78.2 75 19 25.3 S. Fork Peac-htree Creek at Atlanta ______ 11 10 90.9 71 22 30.9 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______________ 32 29 90.6 200 62 31 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _______________ 16 5.3 33.1 46 3 7 8.0 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee ____ .44 .30 68.2 __________________ ____ Nancy Creek at Atlanta _________________ 11 10 90.9 77 28 36.4 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ______ 1,300 410 31.5 __________________ ___- Z Chattahoochee River near Fairburn _______________ 96 7.4 __________________ ___- Snake Creek near Whitesburg ___________ 6.0 5.7 95.0 41 19 46.3 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg _-__ 1.300 410 31.5 __________________ ___- 2Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ___ _________ 96 7.4 __________________ ___- Organic carbon Chromium Ratio of Ratio of Total Suspended suspended Total Suspended suspended discharge discharge to total discharge discharge to total (tons/yr) (tons/yr) discharge (tons/yr) (tons/yr) discharge (percent) (percent) Chattahoochee River near Leaf __________ 960 510‘ 53.1 4.6 4.6 100 Soque River near Clarkesville ___________ 1,700 1,200 70.6 .74 .65 88 Chestatee River near Dahlonega _________ 2,000 1,400 70.0 5.6 5.6 100 Big Creek near Alpharetta ______________ 1,300 500 38.5 __________________ ___- Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ____________________________ ___- 21 10 47.6 lChattahoochee River at Atlanta __________________________ ___- _________ 11 52.4 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ___- __________________ ____ __________________ ___- S. Fork Peac-htree Creek at Atlanta ________________________ ___- .9 .9 100 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ________________________________ ___- 2.0 1.9 95 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _______________ 250 46 18.4 .14 .11 78.6 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee -___ 38 1.9 4.8 __________________ ___- Nancy Creek at Atlanta _________________ 670 260 38.8 .64 64 100 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ______ 28,000 5,800 20.7 __________________ ____ '3 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn _______________ 2,500 8.9 __________________ ___- Snake Creek near Whitesburg ___________ 290 110 37.9 __________________ ___- Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ____ 36,000 8,000 22.2 __________________ ___- ”Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ___ _________ 2,500 6.9 __________________ ___- See footnotes at end of table. Average annual erosion yields ranged from about 900 to 6,000 tons per square mile per year. Erosion yields were large in those watersheds with relatively high percentages of agricultural and transitional land uses and were lowest in predominantly urban watersheds. The Universal Soil Loss Equation was also used to determine the sensitivity of annual sheet erosion to timber harvesting. Computed post- harvest erosion yields were several orders of mag- nitude greater than pre-harvest yields in the same areas. Average yields of suspended sediment from the same nine watersheds ranged from about 300 to 800 tons per square mile per year. Yields of sediment were greatest from predominantly urban watersheds and least from mostly forested watersheds. A large part of the sediment discharged from urban streams was considered to be derived from channel erosion. Average annual unmeasured-sediment discharge computed at four stations ranged from about 6 to 30 percent of the total annual sediment discharge. The contribution of suspended sediment to stream quality was evaluated by comparing annual sus- pended and total constituent discharges at 14 sta- tions. In general, 60 percent or more of the annual discharge of phosphorus and trace metals was con- tributed by suspended sediment. Suspended dis— charges of nitrogen and organic carbon ranged from about 10 to 70 percent of total, respectively. Yields of nutrients and trace metals in suspension were greater from urban watersheds than from forested drainages. 84 EROSION, SED‘IMEINT DISCHARGE, CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY, CiHAT‘TAHOO‘CiHEE RIVER BASIN TABLE 31.—Summary of average annual suspended- and total-constituent discharges—Continued Zinc Copper Ratio of Ratio of Total Suspended suspended Total Suspended suspended Station name discharge discharge to total discharge diSChBI‘Ee 1’0 total (tons/yr) (tons/yr) discharge (tons/yr) (tOnS/yl‘) discharge (percent) (percent) Chattahoochee River near Leaf __________ 7.5 7.5 100 __________________ ___- Soque River near Clarke‘sville ___________ 7.0 5.9 84.3 2.7 2.2 81.5 Chestatee River near Dahlonega _________ 7.8 5.8 74.4 7.6 6.4 84.2 Big Creek near Alpharetta ________________________________ ____ __________________ ___- Chattahoochee River at Atlanta __________ 47 16 34.0 22 9.3 42.3 ‘Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _________________ 31 66.0 _________ 7.0 31.8 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ____ 2.5 2.1 84.0 __________________ ____ S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______ 4.2 3.4 81.0 2.0 1.7 85.0 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta _______________ 16 13 81.3 5.1 4.6 90.2 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _______________ 3.4 2.7 79.4 .36 .27 75.0 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee ____ .12 .096 80.0 __________________ ___- Nancy Creek at Atlanta _________________ 3.6 3.1 86.1 1.1 .94 85 5 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ______ 200 86 43.0 73 45 61.6 " Chattahoochee River near Fairburn _______________ 31 15.5 _________ 7.0 9.6 Snake Creek near Whitesburg _____________________________ ____ 1.2 1.0 83.3 Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ___- 220 110 50.0 78 46 59.0 2Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ___ _________ 31 8.3 _________ 7.0 9.0 Arsenic Lead Ratio of Ratio of Total Suspended suspended Total Suspended suspended discharge discharge to total discharge discharge to total (tons/yr) (tons/yr) discharge (tons/yr) (tons/yr) discharge (percent) Chattahoochee River near Leaf ____________________________ ____ __________________ ____ Soque River near Clarkesville ______________________________ ____ __________________ ___- Chestatee River near Dahlonega _________ 0.14 0.14 100 5.8 5.0 86.2 Big Creek near Alpharetta ______________ .20 .20 100 2 2 100 Chattahoochee River at Atlanta ; _________ 1.70 .77 44.5 36 14 38.9 ‘Chattahoochee River at Atlanta _________________ .96 55.5 _________ 22 61.1 N. Fork Peachtree Creek near Atlanta ___- .071 .071 100 4.9 4.5 91.8 S. Fork Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______ .10 .10 100 6.4 6.1 95.3 Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ______________ .33 33 100 16 15 93.7 Woodall Creek at Atlanta _______________ .79 037 4.7 1.8 1.5 83 Nancy Creek tributary near Chamblee ____ __________________ ____ .11 .046 38.3 Nancy Creek at Atlanta _________________ .20 .16 80.0 4.5 3.6 80.0 Chattahoochee River near Fairburn ______ 4.1 2.7 65.9 140 68 48.6 "’ Chattahoochee River near Fairburn _______________ .96 23.4 _________ 22 15.7 Snake Creek near Whitesburg ___________ .074 .074 100 __________________ ____ Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ____ 5.0 3.6 72.0 170 100 58.8 2Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg ___ _________ .96 19.2 _________ 22 12.9 '1 Discharge attributed to regulated flow. 2Discharge attributed to regulated flow. Equals computed discharge at the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta. SELECTED REF EREN CES Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., Roach, J. 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F., 1945, Erosional developments of streams and their drainage basins; hydrophysical approach to quan- titative morphology: Geological Society of America Bul- letin, v. 56, p. 275—370. Inman, E. J., 1971, Flow characteristics of Georgia streams: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, 262 p. Leopold, L. B., Wolman, M. G., Miller, J. P., 1964, Fluvial processes in geomorphology: W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 522 p. McCallie, S. W., LaForge, L., Cooke, W., Keith, A., and Campbell, M. R., 1925, Physical geography of Georgia: Geological Survey of Georgia Bulletin 42, 189 p. McIntyre, C. L., 1972, Soil survey of Dawson, Lumpkin, and White Counties, Georgia: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service, 105 p. Miller, C. R., 1951, Analysis of flow-duration, sediment-rat- ing curve method of computing sediment yield: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Hydrology Branch, 55 p. Robertson, S .M., McIntyre, C. L., Ritchie, F. T., and Wilson, G. 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E. FAYE, H. E. JOBSON, and L. F. LAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1108 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1979 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Faye, Robert E Impact of flow regulation and powerplant effluents on the flow and temperature regimes of the Chattahoochee River, Atlanta to Whitesburg, Georgia. (Geological Survey professional paper 1108) Supt. of Docs. no. : I 1916:1108 “Open-file report 78—528.” Bibliography: p. 1. Thermal pollution of rivers, lakes, etc.—Chattahoochee River. 2. Chattahoochee River—Regulation. 1. Job- son, Harvey 15., joint author. 11. Land, Larry F., joint author. III. Title. IV. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper 1108. TD225.C35F39 614.7’72 78—27042 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 Stock Number 024-001-03244-9 FIGURE 1. 4—6. CONTENTS Page Metric conversion table ___________________________________________________ v Abstract _________________________________________________________________ 1 Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 1 Description of the problem ____________________________________________ 1 Scope of the study ____________________________________________________ 3 Description of the study area ______________________________________________ 4 Stream network and channel description ___________________________________ 5 Streamflow and temperature characteristics ________________________________ 5 Flow and temperature models _____________________________________________ 16 Calibration and verification _______________________________________________ 17 Flow model __________________________________________________________ 17 Temperature model ___________________________________________________ 18 Impact of powerplant efl'luents on river temperatures—August 1—8, 1976 ______ 25 Computation of natural river temperatures _________________________________ 26 Computed river temperatures using year 2000 and critical drought flow conditions 35 Summary and conclusions _________________________________________________ ' 37 Selected references _______________________________________________________ 45 Tables summarizing data _________________________________________________ 47 ILLUSTRATIONS Map of study area showing data-col- lection sites __________________ Diagrams showing selected channel cross sections of the Chata- hoochee River from Atlanta to Whitesburg. A, River mile 302.97. B, River mile 259.87. C, River mile 281.79. D, River mile 293.92. E, River mile 268.34. F, River mile 298.77 ___________________ Graph showing thalweg and low-flow profile of the Chattahoochee River—Atlanta to Whitesburg__ Graphs showing mean daily stream- flow in the Chattahoochee River during water year 1976: . 4. At Atlanta ________________ 5. Near Fairburn ____________ 6. Near Whitesburg __________ Flow duration characteristics of the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta prior to and subsequent to the construction of Buford Dam ___ Page 10 10 11 8—12. Graphs showing observed mean daily temperature of the Chatta— hoochee River and mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta during water year 1976: 8. At Buford Dam ___________ 9. At Atlanta ________________ 10. At the Plant McDonough intake ____________________ 11. At Georgia Highway 280 _- 12. Near Fairburn ____________ 13. Graph showing observed mean daily temperature of the Chatta- hoochee River and mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta, July 1937—May 1938 _______________ 14. Graphs showing observed and com— puted stages of the Chattahoo- chee River during the period July 12—19, 1976. A, At Atlanta. B, At the Atlanta water-supply facility. C, At the Plant Mc- Donough outfall. D, Near Fair- burn. E, Near Whitesburg _-__ III Page 12 12 13 13 14 15 19 IV FIGURE 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Graph showing rated and computed discharge at the Chattahoochee River near Fairburn, July 12— 18, 1976 _____________________ Diagram showing computed stage- discharge relations for the Chat- tahoochee River near Fairbum, July 13, 1976 _________________ Graph showing rated and computed discharge at the Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg, July 12— 19, 1976 _____________________ Diagram showing computed stage- discharge relation for the Chat- tahooehee River near Whites- burg, July 13—14, 1976 ________ Graphs showing observed and com- puted stages of the Chattahoo- chee River during the period August 1—8, 1976. A, At Atlanta. B, At the Atlanta water-supply facility. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg _____________ Graphs showing observed and com- puted temperatures of the Chat- tahoochee River during the peri- od August 1—8, 1976. A, At At- lanta. B, At the Plant Mc- Donough intake. C, At Georgia Highway 280. D, Near Fairburn E, Near Whitesburg __________ Graphs showing observed and com- puted temperatures of the Chat- tahoochee River during the peri- od July 12—19, 1976. A, At At- lanta. B, At the Plant Mc- Donough intake. C, At Georgia Highway 280. D, Near Fairburn E, Near Whitesburg __________ Graph showing heat added to the Chattahoochee River from Plants Atkinson-McDonough, August 1— 8, 1976 ______________________ Graphs showing temperature of the Chattahoochee River with and without heat loads from Plants Atkinson-McDonough during the period August 1—8, 1976. A, At Georgia Highway 280. B, Near Fairburn. C, Near Whitesburg__ Graph showing computed longitudinal temperature profiles in the study reach with and without heat loads from Plants Atkinson-Mc- Donough, 0000 e.s.t., August 8, 1976 _________________________ CONTENTS Page 21 22 22 22 24 26 30 32 33 34 FIGURE 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Graph showing observed temperature of the Chattahoochee River at Georgia Highway 280 and the ob- served temperature of the same water upon arrival at the Fair- burn gage ____________________ Graph showing 8-day mean natural and thermally altered tempera- tures of the Chattahoochee River from Atlanta to Whitesburg, August 1—8, 1976 _____________ Graph showing computed natural and observed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River, August 1— 8, 1976 ______________________ Graphs showing computed tempera- tures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 peak water-supply demands, year 2000 average wastewater returns, and August 1976 tribu- tary flows. A, At the Plant Mc- Donough intake. B, At Georgia Highway 280. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg __________ Graphs showing computed tempera- tures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 peak water-supply demands, year 2000 average wastewater returns, and 1954 drought tribu- tary flows. A, At the Plant Mc- Donough intake. B, At Georgia Highway 280. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg __________ Graphs showing computed tempera- tures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 average water-supply de- mands, year 2000 average waste— water returns, and August 1976 tributary flows, A, At the Plant McDonough intake. B, At Georgia Highway 280. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg __________ Graphs showing computed tempera- tures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 average water—supply de— mands, year 2000 average waste- water returns, and 1954 drought tributary flows. A, At the Plant McDonough intake. B, At Geor- gia Highway 280. C, Near Fair— burn. D, Near Whitesburg _____ Page 34 35 36 38 40 42 44 TABLE CONTENTS TABLES Page Periodic data-collection sites ______ 3 TABLE 6. Estimated water-supply demands and Summary of climatologic data for wastewater flows for the year 2000 Atlanta, 1941'70 ——————————————— 5 7. Estimated discharge at the Atlanta Tributary network and‘daily mean and Whitesburg gages using se- discharges during specified periods 5 lected tributary and year 2000 Mean monthly air temperatures at Water_supply demands and waste- Atlanta for the period of record water flows ____________________ and for specified months during Cross section coordinates __________ 1937—38 and 1975—76, in degrees , Celsius ________________________ 14 9. Channel roughness coefficients and Mean monthly water temperatures barrier heights """"""""" during 1937—38 and 1975—76, in de 10. Summary of meteorologic data July grees Celsius ___________________ 15 12-19 and August 1—8, 1976 _____ CONVERSION FACTORS [Factors for converting inch-pound units to metric units are shown to four significant figures. However, in the text, the metric equivalents are shown only to the number of significant figures consistent with the value for the inch-pound] Inch-pound units Multiply by Mctric ft (foot) 3.048)<10‘l m (meter) ft (foot) 3.048)<102 mm (millimeter) ft/s (foot per second) 3.048><10‘1 m/s (meter per second) ft”/s (cubic foot per second) 2.832x10'2 m=‘/s (cubic meter per second) in. (inch) 2.540x10‘” m (meter) in. (inch) 2.540><101 mm (millimeter) mi (mile) 1.609 km (kilometer) mi2 (square mile) 2.590 km'J (square kilometer) tons (tons, short) 9.072x10'1 t (metric tons) tons/d (tons per day) 9.072x10’1 t/d (metric tons per day) tons/ft3 (tons per cubic foot) 3.2049(10‘1 t/m” (metric tons per cubic meter) tons/yr (tons per year) 9.072x10‘1 t/yr (metric tons per years) °F (degrees Fahrenheit) 5/9 (F—32) °C (degrees Celsius) Page 35 37 48 50 IMPACT OF FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS ON THE FLOW AND TEMPERATURE REGIMES OF THE CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER— ATLANTA TO WHITESBURG, GEORGIA By R. E. FAYE, H. E. JOBS N, and L. F. LAND ABSTRACT A calibrated and verified transient flow-temperature model was used to evaluate the effects of flow regulation and power- plant loadings on the natural temperature. regime of the Chattahoochee River in northeast Georgia. Estimates were made of both instantaneous and average natural tempera- tures in the river during an 8-day period in August 1976. Differences between the computed average natural tempera- ture and an independent estimate of natural temperature based on observed equilibrium temperatures were less than 0.5“C. Downstream of the powerplants, the combined thermal effects of flow regulation and powerplant effluents resulted in mean daily river temperatures about equal to or less than computed mean natural temperatures. Thus the thermal impact of heated effluents was offset by the cooling effects of structural regulation. An independent analysis of historical river- and air-temperature data, although considerably less accurate than model computations, provided substantially the same result. The range and rates of change of com- puted natural diurnal temperature fluctuations were con- siderably less than those in the river at the time of this study in 1976. The models also were used to simulate sum- mer river temperatures using estimated year 2000 flow con- ditions and meteorologic data collected during 1976. Except during periods of peak water-supply demand, differences be- tween computed year 2000 river temperatures and observed 1976 temperatures were less than 2°C. INTRODUCTION This study is one part of the US. Geological Sur- vey’s Intensive River-Quality Assessment of the upper Chattahoochee River basin (Cherry and others, 1976). The upper Chattahoochee River (fig. 1) drains an area of 3,550 mi2 and extends from the northern basin divide to West Point Dam, a distance of about 250 river miles. The specific reach of in- terest to this study is about 40 mi long and is bounded on the upstream and downstream ends by the Atlantic and Whitesburg gages, respectively (table 1, fig. 1). About 980 mi2 of the upper basin drain to this reach, including a large part of the Atlanta metropolitan area. River flow and river perature in the reach of interest are influenced m stly by tributary inflows, by effluents from waste- water-treratment facilities (WTF’s) and thermal powerplants, by water-supply demands, and by regu- lation of the Chattahoochee River at Buford Dam (fig. 1). On occasion in this text points on the Chattahoo- chee River will be designated by river mile (RM). Zero river mile (RM 000.00) is defined as the con- fluence of the Flint and Chattahoochee Rivers near the Georgia—Florida border (fig. 1). Study results summarized in this report include an evaluation of the impact of flow regulation and heated effluents on the flow and temperature regimes of the Chattahoochee River. The methods of evalua- tion include the comparison of 1976 river tempera- tures with historical data as well as the use of tran- sient, flow-temperature models. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM Since 1956, flow in the Chattahoochee River be- tween Lake Sidney Lanier and West Point Lake (fig. 1) has been regulated and, to a large extent, dominated by hydropower releases from Buford Dam (fig. 1). Waves generated by such releases can be observed at gaging stations along the entire reach of the river between the reservoirs, a distance of more than 100 river miles. In the reach of interest (Atlanta gage to Whitesburg gage), regulated flows have fundamentally altered the “natural” flow and temperature regimes of the river. Examples of flow alteration include a general reduction in annual peak discharges and the enhancement of minimum low flows. Stream-temperature alterations occur because the turbine intake structures at Buford Dam use water from the hypIo-limnion and metalimnion zones of Lake Sidney Lanier. Consequently, winter stream temperatures downstream of the dam are warmer, 1 2 FLOW REGULATION AND P’OWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 35° 05° 04° 03° 1 l E “\DG fV’Ou ’ EXPLANATION ‘5 "v \ 4/," '5‘ A10 Water-data station "._\ / ( —-'— Hydrologic boundary (' .- 34° /1X Lake Sidney Lanier r" “/30 - GAN mus DAM . c; ‘- ' r .. fits; , or \J /. I 0‘ 18 6 0 095’”! . ' NA eton‘ v. TENNESSEE I OH .- ow - ~ 3 V “-»—---—,——.__..+NQR£QA“ ’- Wfluugtgp' 1’ A . AWN . GEORGIA 5/ \ Maw. 20 11 “bfdfl'lANTA , ).- E 21 4; (4% t’k $4, a vazowtososoro names ‘| . loo, q °"’ ry“ UPPER l ,. f} gag. " A°°o 3°24". CHATTAHOOCHEE" _. CAPPS £7ng BRDGE ' J} ‘3 ’9e "anlrbum R'VER BAS'N \_ Whitesbuila . ¢ 5 WEsr Palm DAM ' FLINT RIVER . '9 cve': . f -' 19cm / BASIN R7. \ / = -’ (fl \ f '. 9'... / ' ) FLORIDA‘ATX. ,/ / '. 4 - ' 95%!6 '- ( : FLORIDA‘ 33° * L ' West Point Lake") / — .. \ 0'1... M9“ INDEX MAP 1 3:33.35: (32133”1‘1'135333. 1974 0 10 20 30 40 so so 70 so KILOMETERS Pheonix cw 1:2w000, 1963 l | l I l l | I 1 Greenville 1.250000. 1964 I ' l I l l I Home 11509001972 0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES FIGURE 1.—Study area showing data-collection sites. and summer temepratures are cooler than corre- sponding “natura ” temperatures. Morgan Falls Dam and Georgia POWer’s Plants Atkinson-McDonough (table 1, fig. 1) also effect river flows and river temperatures in the study reach. Morgan Falls Dam, located about 40 mi down- stream vof Buford Dam, is a “run-of-the-river” hydropower facility that partially regulates river flows. The impact of such regulation on flow and stream temperatures in the study reach, however, is minimal. The Plants Atkinson-McDonough are thermal electric power facilities, that utilize river INTRODUCTION 3 water in their operations. Heated efl‘luents from boilers at the plants can raise stream temperatures by as much as 8°C immediately downstream of their outfalls. In addition, quantities of river water are consumed in plant operation. The amounts con- sumed, however, are small and river flows down- stream of the plants are not noticably effected. Water-resource managers and regulatory agencies are concerned with stream temperatures under present (1976) and future conditions of water-sup- ply and waste-load allocations and the impact of such temperatures on stream quality. Of particular interest to resource managers are stream tempera- tures during the late spring and summer months when tributary flows are low and ambient air tem- peratures are highest. Any negative impact of high stream temperatures on stream quality would be most evident during such periods. Also of interest are stream temperatures during a critical drought period when tributary contributions to the Chatta— hoochee River would be extremely low and the pro- portion of waste discharges. in the total streamflow correspondingly high. Of interest to regulatory agencies are comparisons of 1976 stream temperatures with “natural” tem- peratures; that is, temperatures occurring prior to construction of the powerplants and Buford Dam. 0n the one hand, the combined effects of stream regulation and powerplant heat loads may presently produce lower than “natural” stream temperatures; even during the critical spring and summer months. On the other hand, heated effluents fro-m the power- plants could be increasing stream temperatures ex- cessively above “natura ” conditions. The degree of future [regulation of po-werplant effluents may de- pend on which situation prevails. The objectives of this study are to provide some insight into these problems and to investigate the relationship between transient flows and stream temperatures in the Chattahoochee River. Specific study objectives apply only to the reach between the Atlanta and Whitesburg gages and include: 1. The calibration and verification of deterministic, transient, flow and temperature models. 2. Use of the transient models to determine the im- pact of flow regulation and powerplant heat loadings on river temperatures using present (197 6) , future, and critical drought flow condi- tions. 3. A comparison of 1976 and computed “natural” stream temperatures. SCOPE OF THE STUDY Most of the data used in this study were collected by the US. Geological Survey and other agencies as part of routine data-collection programs. Such TABLE 1.——Period2’c data-collection sites Ma ref rence smgigsl‘lo. Station name p No.e River mile Data (fig. 1) 02334430 ______ Chattahoochee River at Buford Dam __________ 1_-__ 348.10--__ Temperature 02336000 ______ Chattahoochee River at Atlanta (Atlanta gage)- 2__-- 302.97---_ Stage, temperature 02336020 ------ Chattahoochee River at the Atlanta water- 3__-- 300.62__-- Stage, mean daily withdrawal supply facility. 02336021 ------ Chattahoochee River at the Cobb County 4_--_ 300.56---- Mean daily discharge wastewater-treatment facility outfall. 02336300 ------ Peachtree Creek at Atlanta ___________________ 5__-- _________ Mean daily discharge 02336380 ______ Nancy Creek at Atlanta ---------------------- 6__-_ --------- Mean daily discharge 02336450 ------ Chattahoochee River at the R. M. Clayton 7-___ 300.24__-_ Mean daily discharge wastewater-treat‘ment facility outfall. 02336479 ------ Chattahoochee River at the Plant McDonough 8--__ 299.23-_-- Temperature inta e. 02336480 ______ Chatttiahltlmchee River at the Plant McDonough 9__-_ 299.15___- Stage on a . 02336490 ------ Chattahoochee River at Georgia Highway 280 _- 10____ 298.77_--_ Temperature 02336526 ------ Proctor Creek at Atlanta _____________________ 11--_- _________ Mean daily discharge 02336610 ______ Nickajack Creek near Mableton _______________ 12---- --------- Mean daily discharge 02336651 ------ Chattahoochee River at the South Cobb County 13---- 294.28___- Mean daily discharge wastewater-treatment facility outfall. 02336653 ______ Chattahoochee River at the Utoy Creek waste— 14-__- 291.48_--- Mean daily discharge water-treatment facility outfall. 02337070 ------ Sweetwater Creek near Austell _______________ 15_-_- --------- Mean daily discharge 02337073 ------ Chattahoochee River at the Camp Creek waste- 16-___ 283.78_-__ Mean daily discharge water-treatment facility outfall. 02337170 ------ Chattahoochee River near Fairburn (Fair- 17___- 281.79---_ Stage, temperature burn gage). 02337500 ------ Snake Creek near Whitesburg ---------------- 18____ --------- Mean daily discharge 02338000 ------ Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg 19-_-- 259.85--_- Stage (Whitesburg gage) . 4 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA data are listed ‘by type and station in table 1. Time series data were obtained for two 8-day periods in July and August 1976. These data include: (1) Hourly stage and stream temperatures at several stations on the Chattahoochee River; (2) hourly meteorologic data at one station; (3) mean daily effluent discharges at five wastewater-treatment facilities; (4) mean daily discharge at several gaged tributary streams; and (5) mean daily withdrawals from the Chattahoochee River at the Atlanta water- supply facility. Hourly meteorlogic data were col- lected at the R. M. Clayton WTF (table 1 and fig. 1) and include wet and dry bulb air temperatures, long and short wave radiation, wind speed and direc- tion, and rainfall. Meteorologic data used in this study are listed by parameter in the Summary of Data Section at the end of this report (table 10). Mean daily flows at the various WTF outfalls and at the water-supply facility were treated as tribu- tary contributions and diversions, respectively. Measurements of streamflow in the larger tribu- taries draining to the study reach were made on July 12, 1976. River cross-section and bed-elevation data at 36 locations were obtained originally from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1973). Channel Widths and bed elevations at most of these locations were corrected using data collected during a field recon- naissance in May 1977 when flow conditions were low and generally steady. Cross~section data at five additional locations were collected during this recon- naissance along with the shading or barrier heights of the river banks and the trees lining the banks. Coordinates and barrier heights for all cross sections used in this study are listed in the Summary of Data Section at the end of this publication. In general, data used in this report are dimen- sioned according to the units in which the data were reported or collected. Thus, river temperatures and most meteorologic data are expressed in metric units, and channel, stages, and discharge data are given in inch-pound units. A list of metric to inch- pound conversion factors is provided at the front of this report. Symbols in this report are defined where they first appear in the text. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA The area of interest to this study is the water- shed draining to the Chattahoochee between the At- lanta and Whitesburg gages (fig. 1). Fenneman (1938) places this entire area within the southern Piedmont physiographic province and, more specif- ically, within the Atlanta Plateau. The topography of the study area is characterized by low hills sepa- rated by narrow valleys. Small mountains do occur along the northern divide, but summit elevations do not exceed 2,000 ft. The stream channel network draining to the Chattahoochee River is slightly den- dritic and is not particularly influenced by basin geology. The channel of the Chattahoochee River, however, is extensively controlled by geologic struc- tures and occupies or directly parallels the Brevard Fault through most of the study reach (Higgins, 1968). Alluvial “bottomlands” are common along the Chattahoochee River and its major tributaries but generally are less than 1 mi in width. Total basin area drained by the study reach is 980 miz. Climate on the Atlanta Plateau is significantly influenced by the proximity of the area to the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 1) and to a lesser degree by the Blue Ridge Mountains northeast of the study area (fig. 1). In general, the Gulf of Mexico is a mode- rating influence on area temperatures and is a source of moisture-laden winds that provide rainfall to the basin. The mountains affect the climate most directly by serving as partial barriers to the flow of air masses. Summer temperatures on the Atlanta Plateau are generally mild. Daytime temperatures are highest from June through August but rarely exceed 100°F. Summer nights are cool with minimum temperatures seldom below 65°F. During the winter, the mountain barriers inhibit the southerly flow of polar air masses into the Chattahoochee River basin. Thus winter temperatures are moderate and extended periods of excessively cold weather are rare. Day— time temperatures are lowest from November through January and rarely exceed 60°F. Subfreez- ing temperatures (<32°F) occur frequently but sub- zero (<0°F) temperatures are rare. Average annual precipitation in the study area is in excess of 45 in. Most rainfall occurs in the winter and early spring months. Frozen precipitation in the form of sleet and snow is rare. During the summer, convective stems with short periods of intense rainfall are common. A summary of climato- logic data for Atlanta is listed in table 2. Land use in the study area is presently (1976) characterized by the urbanization of forests and agricultural lands. Urban, agricultural, and forest lands occupy 25, 13, and 59 percent of the land area, respectively. The remaining 3 percent of the area consists of wetlands and reservoirs. Major urban DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA 5 TABLE 2.—Summary of climatologic data for Atlanta, 1941—70 Temperature Precipitation (°F) (in) Mean Mean Aver- , Month daily daily Record Record age Rdessid maxi- mini- high low daily hi 1‘" mum mum mean ’1 January ........... 51.4-"- 33.4---- 72-"- —3---_ 4.34"" 3.91____ February ___________ 54.5.-" 35.5.--- 79---- __-_ 4.41_-__ 5.67__._ March ______ . . 21_--_ 5.84---_ 5.08-_-_ April -------- 26____ 4.61__-_ 426---- May ----- 37__-_ 3.71-___ 5.13"“ June ______ 48-"- 3.6L--- 3.41__-_ July ________________ 53-_-- 4.90_-_- 5.44.-“- August _____________ 56---_ 3.54_-__ 5.05“-- September 36" _ 3.15____ 5.46_-__ October _______ 29---_ 2.50__-- 3.27"-- November . . 14-_-_ 3.43-___ 4.11--” December ----------- 52.7---- 34.3-___ 77___- 1-_-_ 4.24--" 3.85____ Record totals _ ______________ 98____ ~3.--- 48.34"-- 5.67-"- Yearly Averages. 70.3 _____ 51.3 ______________________________ centers include Atlanta and Marietta (fig. 1) and are characterized by extensive residential communi- ties separated by commercial, industrial, and trans— portation centers. Agricultural lands are generally located within the flood plains of the Chattahoochee River and its major tributaries. Grazing, row crop- ping, poultry feeding, and orcharding comprise the majority of agricultural activities. Forests consist mostly of oak, pine, and hickory. Forest under- growth is extensive and includes dogwood, green- briar, sassafras, and blackberry briars. STREAM NETWORK AND CHANNEL DESCRIPTION Through the study reach, the Chattahoochee River channel is oriented to the southwest and is con- tained mostly within the zone of cataclasis of the Brevard Fault (Higgins, 1968). The channel be- tween the gages at Atlanta and near Fairburn (table 1, fig. 1) drains most of the Atlanta metro- politan area and receives inflows from tributaries and wastewater-treatment facilities. Diversions from this reach occur at the Atlanta water-supply facility and at the Atkinson-McDonough power- plants. Between the Fairburn and Whitesburg gages the Chattahoochee River drains mostly forests and farmlands and receives only tributary inflows. Each significant tributary and municipal and power fa- cility in the study reach plus the locations of each respective confluence, outfall, or intake are listed in table 3. Channel cross sections are rectangular to trape- zoidal in shape and are characterized by high, steep banks and, sand beds. Shoals and rock beds do occur, however, and are common in the vicinity of the TABLE 3.——Tributary network and mean discharges during specified periods Dis- Dis- charge charge GEE; e N River July August 1954 ““9 mile 12—19, 1—8, Drought 1978 197 (ftfi/s) (“a/s) (flfi/s) Atlanta water-supply facility -- 300.62-"- ~141_-__ —141 __________ Cobb County wastewater-treat- 300.56--" 12-__- 12 ---------- ment facility. Peachtree Creek ______________ 300.52"-- 65---- 24--" 8 _____ R. M. Clayton wastewater treat- 300.24____ 76-..-- 124 __________ ment facility. Plant Atkinson intake _________ 299.46 ____________________________ Plant McDonough intake ------ 299.23 ---------------------------- Plant Atkinson outfall ________ 299.19 _________________ Plant McDonough outfall ______ 299.15 ______________________ Proctor Creek ---------------- 297.50---- 8---- Nickajack Creek ______________ 295.13_--- 26--" South Cobb County wastewater- 294.28_--_ 11_--_ treatment facility. Utoy Creek wastewater-treat- 291.60___- 22_ _ ment facility. Utoy Creek ___________________ 291.57__-- 20____ 13 --------- Sweetwater Creek _____________ 288.58--__ 299-_-_ 100___- 2 ----- Camp Creek wastewater-treat- 283.78.." '7___- 'i' ---------- merit facility. Camp Creek __________________ 283.54.-__ 20____ 15__-_ l ----- Deep Creek ___________________ 283.27--._ 24____ 17____ 2 ----- Annewakee Creek _______ 281.48---_ 29___ 23--_- 6 _____ Pea Creek ______________ 277.70__-- 15 ___ 10-___ 1 ----- Bear Creek (right bank) _- 275.95_--- 23“-- l7____ 3 ..... Bear Creek (left bank) ___ 274.49 ___ 25-.“ 16____ 1 _____ Dog River _________ 273.46____ 100_- - 70___- 1 _____ Wolf Creek ___ 267.34 22___- 16---- 1 ----- Snake Creek - 261.72-_-- 67___- 33__-_ 3 ----- Cedar Creek __________________ 261.25,.-- 40__-- 27---- 3 _____ Atlanta gage, downstream of the confluence with Nickajack Creek, and between Capps Ferry Bridge and the Whitesburg gage (fig. 1). Typical channel cross sections are shown in figure 2. Pro-files of the channel thalweg and the water-surface altitude dur- ing steady, low flow are shown in figure 3. Several discontinuities occur in the profile—in particular at RM 300.62 and RM 299.10. At these locations, weirs have been constructed to create pumping pools for the intake structures of the Atlanta water-supply facility and the Atkinson-McDonough powerplants. Other discontinuities are the result of bedrock con- trols or the rapid decline of channel altitudes across a shoal or series of shoals. STREAMFLOW AND TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS Streamflow through the study reach is» greatly influenced by regulation at Buford Dam. During a typical week, hydropower is produced at the dam for several hours each weekday and infrequently on weekends. Each period of hydropower production is accompanied by the movement of water downstream in the form of a wave or pulse. The flow character- istics of each wave are directly related to the quan- tity of power produced and the length of the power- production period. Hydrographs of mean daily discharge in the Chat- tahoochee River at Atlanta, near Fairburn, and near 6 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 770 -— 760 '— 750 — BED ALTITUDE, IN FEET 740 700 — 690 680 — BED ALTITUDE, IN FEET e70 — RM 302.97 Atlanta Gage I I I 100 200 300 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET A RM 259.87 Whitesburg Gage | I I 100 200 300 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET B FIGURE 2.—Selected channel cross sections of the Chattahoochee River from Atlanta to Whitesburg. A, RM 302.97. 8, RM 259.87. Whites‘burg are shown in figures 4 through 6. The ' 7. Since regulation, peak flows are smaller in both cyclic nature of the flows is apparent and reflects the weekly (7-day) period characterized by 5 days ‘ larger. of power production at Buford Dam followed by 2 magnitude and duration, and minimum flows are Mean daily river temperatures at several stations days with little or no production. Anomalously high on the Chattahoochee River are shown in figures 8 peaks on the hydrographs correspond to periods of through 12. Each graph represents mean daily river high rainfall runoff. The long term effects of regulation on streamflow are indicated by the flow duration curves in figure temperature computed from hourly measurements recorded during water year 1976. At most stations, the annual variation of river temperatures generally STREAMFLOW AND TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS 7 740 # RM 281.79 Fairburn Gage f.- LU Lu ”- 730 - Z ui D D |: P— _l < 720 — 0 Lu m 710 1 I I ’ 100 200' 305," CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET C 750 — RM 293.92 ,_ (Channelized Section) til ”- l740'— E u? D D t f— 2’ 730‘— 0 Lu m 100 200 300 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET, D FIGURE 2.—Continued. C, RM 281.79. D, RM 293.92. conforms to the monthly air-temperature trends in- dicated in table 2 and ranges from a low of about 4°C in January to a high of about 24°C in July or August. Those temperatures showing the least varia- tion (7 to 13°C) are at Buford Dam (fig. 8) and are most influenced by the metali‘mnion and hypolim- nion temperatures of Lake Sidney Lanier. River temperatures at Georgia Highway 280 show the largest annual variation (7° to 28°C) and are in- fluenced to a great extent by heat loads from the Atkinson-McDonough polwerplants. At any station, short term variations in river temperature can be large and are caused mostly by flow regulation, the occurrence of storm runoff, cloud cover, and day-to- day changes in air temperature. Changes in mean daily river temperature between stations can also be large and are influenced pri- marily by exchanges of thermal energy between the river and the atmosphere. Temperatures of the Chattahoochee River at the Atlanta gage during the period July 1937 to May 1938 were reported by Lamar (1944) and are shown in figure 13. A total of 294 daily temperature meas- urements were recorded. Each measurement was reportedly made between 1300 and 1930 h. Hourly temperature data collected at the Atlanta gage dur- 8 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 720 - l— RM 268.34 LU w L E 710 uI Q 3 |: ’3 < 700 0 Lu m 690 I I l l 100 200 300 400 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET E 760 _ RM 298.77 .— Lu w u. 750 Z LII D D t .— _1 < 740 0 Lu m 730 — I l l 100 CHANNEL WIDTH, IN FEET F 200 '300 FIGURE 2.—Continued. E, RM 268.14. F, RM 298.77. ‘ing water year 1976 indicate that stream tempera- tures during the afternoon and early evening depart from mean daily stream temeprature by 15°C or less. The same criterion applied to the 1937—38 temperatures indicates that these data are represen- tative of mean daily stream temperature within an error of 1.5°C and, for comparative purposes, are treated accordingly in this text. The comparision of river-temperature data at the Atlanta gage collected before (fig. 13) and after (fig. 9) the construction of Buford Dam provides some insight into the impact of flow regulation on river temperatures. During water years 1937-38, annual variations in river temperature at Atlanta were considerably greater than those measured in water year 1976—ranging from 1.5 to 31°C com- pared to 4.5 to 215°C. Also, annual extremes oc- curred at different times of the year. During water year 1976, the annual low and high temperatures occurred in January and August, respectively; cor- responding months for the 1937—38 temperature ex- tremes were December and July. Some of the variability in river temperature at- tributed to flow regulation could also be caused by differences in meteorologic conditions. The actual meteorologic contribution to river temperatures can- not be determined; however, estimates can be made by comparing mean monthly air temperatures at At- VMEAN DAILY STREAMFLOW, ALTITUDE, IN FEET IN THOUSANDS OF STREAMFLOW AND TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS 76° I I I I I I I I Steady, low flow, water surface 750 — 0 Thalweg _ 740 - - d) U) 'U ‘C a: m a g o 730 — DB .3 _ (D (B ‘1 = g- < o L g 720 F . o _ 8 E > '5 g a g: -: 710— a US; _ § 1‘?“ s o 8 a 9 ‘9 g 3 :2 700 — § § 5 — 'E o E 3 E 3 E 690 — LE — 680 —— _. I I I I I I I l I 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 305 RIVER MILE FIGURE 3.——Thalweg and low-flow profile of the Chattahoochee River—Atlanta to Whitesburg. o 16 I I I I I I I I I z 8 a 12 — fl 0: Lu 1:. 3 _ _ p. [U E 2 4 E g o 0 I I L I l l I I Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept 1975 1976 FIGURE 4.—Mean daily streamflow in the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta during water year 1976. ‘ MEAN DAILY STREAMFLOW, IN THOUSANDS MEAN DAILY STREAMFLOW, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 0F CUB|C_ FEET PER SECOND FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA (A) N S a; 8 § § 1 I | I I I | I I I (I) T l O I I I I I L I I I I I Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept 1975 1976 FIGURE 5.——Mean daily streamflow in the Chattahoochee River near Fairburn during water year 1976. 42 I T I I I I I I I I I 36* — 28 — H 24 — ' a 20— 16— Oct Nov Dec Jan _ Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept 1975 1976 FIGURE 6.———Mean daily streamflow in the Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg during water year 1976. STREAMFLOW AND TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS 36 r311?l'[1!111 32 \ A 28 _. \ —— Prior to construction of Buford Dam \ — Subsequent to construction of Buford Dam DISCHARGE, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND \ o : J 1 a 1 M ‘ | \‘T‘—’T‘_ 0.1 1 5 20 50 90 99 99.99 PERCENTAGE OF TIME FLOW EQUALED OR EXCEEDED FIGURE 7.—Flow duration characteristics of the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta prior to and subse— quent to the construction of Buford Dam. 11 12 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 27 I I I I I I I I I I I ——-‘ Mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta ————————— l L 24 21— ———————— —- 18— """"" — 15— ~ MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept 1975 1976 FIGURE 8.—Observed mean daily temperature of the Chattahoochee River at Buford Dam and mean monthly air tempera- ture at Atlanta during water year 1976. 30 l l I T "m T ' if" T ‘ l 77”,,1, l ,tr__, 27 ------ Mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta _ 24— ““““““ — MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS o . L I I | I I I ‘ I I I Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar ' Apr May June July Aug Sept 1975 ‘ 1976 FIGURE 9.—Observed mean daily temperature of the Chattahoochee River at Atlanta and mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta during water year 1976. STREAMFLOW AND TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS 13 30 I I I I I I I I T 27~ 21— 18- 15 12 - "' ' MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS Mar Apr May June 1976 July 1975 Aug Sept FIGURE 10.—0bserved mean daily temperature of the Chattahoochee River at the Plant McDonough intake and mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta during water year 1976. 3° I I I I I I I I I 27 ----- Mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta 24~ 18 15— MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS Oct Mar Apr May June 1976 Nov 1975 July Aug Sept / i FIGURE 11.—Observed mean daily temperature of the Chattahoochee River at Georgia Highway 280 and mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta during water year 1976. 14 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 30 1 I I I l 27 _ ----- Mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta 24 — 21 18 15 MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE,|N DEGREES CELSIUS 12 _ 9 -- _ 6 __ __________ _ 3 e __________ _ 0 | I l I I I I l I I I Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept 1975 1976 l FIGURE 12.—Observed mean daily temperature of the Chattahoochee River near Fairburn and mean monthly air tempera- ture at Atlanta during water year 1976. l-anta for the periods 1937—38 and 1975—7 6 (N 0AA, 1976). These data are listed in table 4 for the coin- cident months of river-temperature record. Winter air temperatures during 197 5—7 6 were generally colder than corresponding temperatures for the period 1937—38 and summer and fall air tempera- tures were about the same or warmer. River temper- atures at the Atlanta gage, however, show nearly op- posite trends—being warmer during the winter of 1975—76 and cooler during the summer and early fall. Thus, observed differences in river temperature at Atlanta during the periods 1937—38 and 1975—7 6 would at best have been dampened or minimized by the prevailing meteorologic conditions and have for the most part been correctly attributed to flow regu- lation at Buford Dam. For purposes of this study, “natural” river tem- peratures at a station are defined as those tempera- tures resulting from the combined thermal effect of atmospheric exchange and tributary inflow on stream waters between the headwaters and the sta- tion. Thus, by definition, “natural” temperatures cannot be significantly affected by upstream arti- ficial heat sources or sinks. Application of this defini- tion to the observed river-temperature data de- scribed previously (figs. 8—13) indicates that the 1937—38 stream temepratures at the Atlanta gage (fig. 13) probably closely approximate natural tem- peratures and are considered as such in this text. Mean monthly air temperatures at Atlanta are listed in table 4 and are shown graphically by hori- zontal lines on figures 8 to 13. Corresponding mean TABLE 4.—Mean monthly air temperatures at Atlanta for the period of record and for specified months during 1937—38 and 1975—76‘, in degrees Celsius Y Month ear . Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. 1937 ________ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___. 26.4 26.4 21.8 14.9 8.6 6.2 1938 ________ 61 10.8 14.7 16.3 ___ ___ ___ ___ _-_ ___ ___ ___ 1975 ________ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 17.4 12.2 6.3 1976 ________ 3.6 10.8 13.6 16.5 18.6 23.2 24.7 24.4 21 0 ___ ___ ___ 1879-1975 ___ 6.3 7.6 11.4 16.3 20.8 24.6 25.8 25.4 22.8 17.1 11.1 7.0 STREAMFLOW AND TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS 15 35 I T I 33 — ————— Mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS I I J l I I | 41 I l I Sept Oct 1937 July Aug Mar Apr May June 1938 FIGURE 13.———Observed mean daily temperature of the Chattahoochee River and mean monthly air temperature at Atlanta— July 1937 to May 1938. TABLE 5,—Mean monthly water temperatures during 1937— 38 and 1975-76, in degrees Celsius e a - Month 5; "a? ”3 g: 31$ 3 g? at S? 2t :2 E; mv BP at aw 8x2 CppA 0,,pA where T=stream temperature, t=time, U=stream velocity, as =-distance along the channel, Dz=a disper- sion coefficient, ¢T=the flux of thermal energy from the atmosphere to the water, C, =the specific heat of water, p=the density of water, W=the top width of flow, A =the flow area, P=the wetted perimeter, and ¢R=the flux of thermal energy from the bed to the water. The solution technique used to solve this equation is a slight variation of the six-point implicit scheme of Stone and Brian (196-3). Data input from the flow model to the tem- perature model included top width, velocity, cross sectional area and tributary inflow at each section for each time step. The solution scheme of the temperature model re- quires subreaches of equal length. In order to make the output of the flow model compatible with the temperature model, the flow data were interpolated to an equal grid spacing by use of a processor pro— (1) CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION 17 gram. The logic of this program assured that the total instantaneous volume of water within any subreach was the same for both models. Observed river temperatures at the Atlanta gage served as the necessary boundary condition for the temperature model. Temperatures of the tributary inflows were unavailable but were estimated by re- gression from the equation: T15: 1.82 (waiis) _ 12'25 (2) where T,=instan~taneous tributary temperature, wa=instantaneous wet bulb temperature, and i is a time step indicator. Development of this equation was based on 41 instantaneous. tributary tempera- ture measurements made in the study area during the summer of 1976. Standard error of estimate of this regression is 32°C. The flux of thermal energy between the bed and the water is small compared to other heat flux and was computed using the procedure outlined by Jobson and Keefer (1979). The flux of thermal energy from the atmosphere to the water, m, is the result of several processes and is generally described by the relation: ¢T=¢N—¢b_¢r—¢h+¢l:+¢q (3) where ¢N=net heat flux caused by incoming radia- tion from the sun and atmosphere, ¢b=heat flux caused by lo-ngwave radiation emitted by the water, ¢c=heat utilized by evaporation, 43,, =heat conducted from the water as sensible heat, (pk-=heat added by rain falling directly on the surface, and ¢q=heat added to the river by tributary inflow. Only the flux of incoming solar radiation could be measured directly by meteorologic instruments. The flux of in- coming atmospheric radiation was computed using the procedure outlined by Koberg (1964). The radi- ation flux emitted by the water surface (m) was computed using the Steffan-Boltzman equation (J ob- son and Keefer, 1979). Three percent of the incom- ing atmospheric radiation was assumed to be re- flected while the percentage of solar radiation re— flected was estimated from a complex relation be- tween the azimuth and height of the sun, the azi- muth of the subreach, width of the subreach, and the effective shading height of the rivenbanks and trees along the banks (Jobson and Keefer, 1979). The heat flux caused by evaporation and conduction was computed using meteorologic data, Dalton’s Law, and the analog of mass and heat transfer as explained by Bowen’s ratio (Jobson and Keefer, 1979). The Wind function used in Dalton’s Law is proportional to the wind function derived by Jobson (1977a and b) from thermal data collected on the San Diego Aqueduct in southern California. The combined heat load from the Atkinson-Mc- Donough powerplants to the Chattahoochee River was not measured directly. Computation of instan- taneous loads was originally accomplished using the observed temperature differential across the outfalls (Plant McDonough intake and Georgia Highway 280) and corresponding “instantaneous river flows computed by the flow model. Unfortunately, at low flow, it was determined that the recorded tempera- tures at the Plant McDonough intake were affected, to some extent, by the hot water discharges. The heat loads applied to the temperature model, there— fore, were computed using the difference between the observed temepratures at Georgia Highway 280 and the model computed temperatures at the Plant Mc- Donough intake. CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION Flow, temperature, and meteorologic data col- lected during two 8-day periods beginning July 12, 1976, and August 1, 1976, respectfully, were used to calibrate and verify the flow and temperature models. FLOW MODEL Calibration of the flow model was accomplished in two steps using stage data for the period July 12—19, 1976, and discharge and flow-depth data col- lected during the May 1977 reconnaissance. The first step utilized the discharge and flow-depth data col- lected during the reconnaissance. The maximum measured depth at each cross section was added to the “known” thalweg altitude (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973) to form an “observed” water- surface profile. A smooth curve was then drawn through the plotted points matching the observed water-surface altitudes at bridges and gages where accurate altitude measurements were available. The measured depths were then subtracted from the smoothed profile to determine corrected bed alti- tudes. Starting at the downstream end of the study reach, individual Manning’s roughness coefficients were selected on a trial and error basis at each cross section such that the flow model, run to steady state, accurately reproduced the observed depths and the “smoothed” water-surface profile. The roughness co- efficients obtained in this way insured that the model computed realistic depths and velocities at low flow and provided a basis for computing corresponding coefficients during transient flow. 18 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA The second step of the calibration process was the development of a linear rate of change of roughness with stage at each cross section, which would allow the model to best predict the observed July 12-19 stages in the river. Such rates were determined by trial and error. The range of computed Manning’s n values for each cross section is listed in Table 9 in the Summary of data. The results of the flow-model calibration are illus- trated in figure 14. Computed and observed stages are plotted at the Atlanta gage, the Atlanta water- supply facility, the Plant McDonough outfall, the Fairburn gage, and the Whitesburg gage. Phase dif- ferences between computed and observed stages are minimal and stage values are closely matched at both high and low flow. The model consistently overpre- dicts intermediate stage values at all stations, which suggests that the rate of change of roughness with stage is not linear as originally assumed. This error is largest at the Atlanta water-supply facility (0.5 ft) and progressively decreases downstream to the Fairburn gage (0.2 ft). Both rated (and computed discharges at the Fair- burn gage are shown in figure 15. In general, the agreement is good but the two discharges appear to be out of phase by about 2 h. In evaluating this ap- parent phase shift, it is well to remember that a rated discharge is dependent on an assumed unique relation between stage and discharge. For unsteady flow, such relation-s do not generally exist. For ex— ample, figure 16 shows the rating curve and the simulated stagedischarge relation at the Fairburn gage for the hydropu-lse of July 13, 1976. The model predicts greater discharges than the rating curve on the rising limb and small-er discharges on, the falling limb, just as one would expect. The phase shift be- tween rated and computed discharge at the river gage near Whitesburg is shown in figure 17. A shift of about 5 h is noted and at a given instant, can re- sult in discharge differences of nearly 20 percent. Arbitrary manipulation of geometry and Manning’s 72. data at several sections upstream of the Whites- burg gage indicated that the size-o‘f the phase shift is insensitive to changes in both channel volume and roughness. The simulated stagedischarge relation for flow at the Whitesburg gage during July 13—14, 1976, is shown on figure 18. Tributary inflows during the calibration period are listed in table 3 and were based on measured discharges obtained on July 12, 197 6, adjusted to a weekly average using records at gaged streams. The calibrated flow model was verified using meas- ured stage data for the period August 1—8, 1976. Simulated and observed stages are shown on figure 19. Flow variations were less extreme in August than in July, and no stage data were available at the Plant McDonough outfall. A maximum error of 0.7 ft between computed and observed stages oc- curred at the Atlanta water-supply facility on August 7. Differences between observed and com- puted stages at the Atlanta and Fairburn gages were less than 0.4 ft. Plots of simulated and rated discharge for the verification period were similar to those presented for model calibration and are not shown in this text. A phase shift of about 2 h was observed at the Fairburn gage with a maximum difference between simulated and rated discharge of about 8 percent. The phase shift at Whitesburg was also about 2 h with a corresponding maximum difference between discharge of about 13 percent. The reduction in phase shift between the calibration and verification periods is not unexpected because the hysteretic na- ture of the stage-discharge relation usually decreases in proportion to the dynamic nature of the flow. Although phase shifts occurred between compari— sons of instantaneous computed and rated discharge at both the Fairburn and Whitesburg gages, compu— tation of the total volume of water passing by each station using both the model and the rating curve produced nearly equal values for both the calibra- tion and verification periods. Roughness relations, bed elevations, and channel geometry data at each cross section were exactly the same for the calibration and verification of the flow model. Tributary inflows during the verification period (table 3) were based on average daily dis- charges at the gaged streams and extrapolated dis- charges at ungaged streams. Overall, the results of the calibration and verifica- tion of the flow model are considered to be good, and the flow model is considered an adequate predic- tive tool. TEMPERATURE MODEL The only parameter in the temperature model which could reasonably be varied for calibration purposes is the empirical wind function. The wind function is used in conjunction with the quasi-em- pirical Dalton’s Law to compute heat flux due to evaporation (Jobson and Keefer, 1979). The effect of the wind function is highly variable but generally is largest for high river temperatures and low dis- charges. Consequently, river-temperature and mete- orologic data collected for the period August 1—8, 1976, were used to calibrate the temperature model, CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION 760 I I I I I I I —— Observed _ B D —-— Computed 755 WATER-SURFACE ALTITUDE, IN FEET I— _ 750 I I I I I I I 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 JULY 1976 A 755 I I I I —- Observed _ —— Computed _ 750 WATER-SURFACE ALTITUDE, IN FEET 745 I I I I I I I 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 JULY 1976 B FIGURE 14.—0bserved and computed stages of the Chattahoochee River during the period July 12—19, 1976. A, At Atlanta. B, At Atlanta water-supply facility. C, At the Plant McDonough outfall. D, Near Fair- bum. E, Near Whitesburg. Points A—F on each graph represent water particles traced through the study reach (see p. 24). 20 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 73° I I I I I I I —— Observed _ ——— Computed ’— I.“ LII IL — z u: D _4 E .— _l < 725 _ W 0 < IL _ I D (D a: 1“-‘ _ < 3 \ ........ 720 I I I L I I I 12 13 14 15 1e 17 1s 19 JULY 1976 C 75° I I I I I I I _ —— Observed - — —-— Computed — WATER-SURFACE ALTITUDE, IN FEET 740 12 13 14 ‘15 1'6 17 18 19 JULY 1976 D FIGURE 14.—Continued. DISCHARGE, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION 21 A B C D —Observed _E F I.— LU I.“ LI. Z uI o D I: t: <685 __ Lu 0 < u. n: D "P I: Lu '2 3 680 l l I I l I I 12 13 . 14 15 16 17 18 19 JULY 1976 ‘ E FIGURE 14.—-Continued. 7 | I l I | | l I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I lil I I l I l I 6— _ —— Rated 5 —— Computed» _ 4 _ 3 _ 2 E 1—- _ 0.1.I...I.1.1...1..1I1.III..I..I. 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 JULY 1976 FIGURE 15.—Rated and computed discharge at the Chattahoochee River near Fairburn, July 12—19, 1976. 22 7’7 I I I I T I I 726 H - I; 725 — — E E g a 724— — F d W 3 723 — -— a: D V.’ I: E 722 _ Rating curve _ 3 721 - _ 720 I 1 l l L L l o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 DISCHARGE, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND FIGURE 16.——Computed stage—discharge relation for the Chat- tahoochee River near Fairburn, July 13, 1976. and corresponding data for the period July 12—19, 1976, were used for model verification. A wind function derived fro-m thermal data col- lected on the San Diego Aqueduct in southern Cali- fornia has been shown to be satisfactory for model- FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 59° I I I I I I I WATER-SURFACE ALTITUDE. IN FEET Rating cum l l I l ' L l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 DISCHARGE, IN THOUSANDS OF CUBIC FEET PER SECOND FIGURE 18.—Computed stage—discharge relation for the Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg, July 13—14, 1976. mg river temperatures in the Chattahoochee River upstream of Atlanta (Jobson and Keefer, 1979). Optimum calibration of the temperature model for DISCHARGE, IN THOUSANDS , 0F CUBIC FEET PER SECOND _ Rated __ Computed I | I | I I I l I | | I I l I l I L L l I i J_ JULY 1976 FIGURE 17.——-Rabed and computed discharge at the Chattahoochee River near Whitesburg, July 12—19, 1976. CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION 23 this study was achieved by reducing this wind func- tion by 30 percent. The measured and computed temperatures for the calibration period are shown on figure 20. The com- puted and observed temperatures at Georgia High- way 280 are identical because the model used the observed temperature at this point to determine the heat loading from the Atkinson-McDonough power- plants. Unfortunately, no acceptable observed-tem— perature record was available at Whitesburg, and only the computed record is shown. The first comparison of interest is at the Plant McDonough intake (fig. 203). Comparing the com- puted temperature at the intake to the observed temperature at the Atlanta gage (fig. 20A) indicates that a maximum warming of about 1°C occurs around noon, but little cooling occurs at night. These results are expected because of the short travel times associated with the 3.8-mi reach between the intake and the Atlanta gage. On the other hand, a relatively large difference exists between the observed and com- puted temperatures at the intake. The observed values tend to be larger than expected, especially at night when, {because of diminished surface exchange, the model results should be most accurate. A com- parison of these occurrences with the stage data on figure 19A indicates that the maximum differences almost always occur at low flow. As discussed previ- ously, both powerplant intakes and outfalls are lo- cated in a reach of the river ponded during low flow by a control structure (fig. 3, table 3). It was con- cluded, therefore, that some recirculation of heated river water occurs at low flow and that this recir- culation influences the observed river temperatures at the plant McDonough intake. For this reason, the computed rather than the measured temperatures upstream of the powerplants were used to determine the instantaneous powerplant heat loads. Comparison of the observed river temperatures at Georgia Highway 280 and the computed intake tem- peratures indicates the powerplants increased rive-r temperatures by as much as 8.4°C during the cali- bration period (fig. 20). The only independent measure of the adequacy of the temperature model is the difference between observed and computed river temperatures at the Fairburn gage. Comparison of these temperatures (fig. 20D) indicates the model consistently predicts lower then observed temperatures throughout the calibration period with the greatest differences oc- curring at the lower temperatures. The mean com- putation error for the 8-day period was 035°C with a standard deviation of 0.65°C. Phase differences be- tween observed and computed temperatures were minimal. In assessing the accuracy of the tempera- ture model the following points should be kept in mind: 1. Instrumentation error in measuring river tem- peratures was 105°C. 2. Only hourly meterological data were available. Thus, on partly cloudy days, the measured solar radiation may not have been representa- tive of actual conditions. 3. No measured tributary temperatures were avail- able and, at low flow, tributary inflows between Georgia Highway 280 and the Fairburn gage amounted to 39 percent of the flow at Georgia Highway 280. The tempera-ture model was verified using river- temperature and meteorologic data collected during the period July 12—19, 1976. Observed and computed river temperatures during the verification period are shown in figure 21. Diurnal variations in flow and temperature were more regular during July than in August. Low flows at the Atlanta gage, for example, always occurred between 2000 and 2400 h. At the Plant McDonough intake, the tendency for the o - served temperatures to be larger than computed temperatures during low flow (0100 h or 0500 h) is obvious (fig. 213). It again appears that recircula- tion occurred at low flow and that heated effluent water affected the observed temperatures. Heated effluents from the Atkinson-McDonough powerplants increased river temperatures by as much as 6°C during the verification period. A comparison of observed and computed tempera- tures at the Fairburn gage again serves as the model verification. The poorest comparisons at Fairburn occurred at 0300 h on July 17, 1976, and at midnight between July 17 and 18 (fig. 21D). Maximum dif- ferences between computed and observed tempera- tures during these periods were -1.34°C and — 1.77°C, respectively. Inspection of the meteorologic and flow-transport data relating to the water at Fairburn at the given times provides no satisfactory explanation for these large temperature differences. During the remainder of the calibration. period com- puted river temperatures closely resemble observed temperatures. The mean computation error at the Fairburn gage during the verification period was -0.36°C with a standard deviation of 0.72°C. Phase differences between observed and computed tempera- tures were minimal. Simulation of various river temperature anomalies during the verification period serves as an indirect verification of the flow model. Consider the rapid re- 24 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 755 — 754— 753 — 752 —- WATER-SURFACE ALTITUDE IN FEET‘ — Observed —— Computed | l | | 4 5 6 ‘ 7 8 AUGUST 1976 A \l A \l l WATER—SURFACE ALTITUDE, IN FEET u 8 l 745 ‘ —- Observed —— Computed l I ._ Ni— 4 5 6 7 8 AUGUST 1976 B FIGURE 19.—-Observed and computed stages of the Chattahoochee River during the period August 1—8, 1976. A, At Atlanta. B, At the Atlanta water-supply facility. ductions in temperature that occurred at the Atlanta gage on July 13—15, 1976, and that are noted on figure 21A by points A—B, C—D, and E—F. These temperature anomalies were traced through the study reach by analytically “tagging” individual fluid particles (points A, B, C, D, E, and F) and by noting the time of arrival of each particle at the various downstream stations. For example, the water that passed the Atlanta gage at 0100 h on July 13 is identified as “A” on figure 21A, and its arrival time at each downstream station (figs. 21A—~E‘) is similarly identified. The spatial distribution of each particle relative to the given anomaly at the Atlanta gage is shown to be maintained throughout the study reach. Thus travel times are being closely simulated, and velocities computed by the flow model are close to the actual values. For reference purposes, the temporal locations of these water particles are also noted on figure 14. Note that water particles repre- sented by points A, B, C, and D traversed the reach under relatively high flow conditions and that water particles represented by points E and F traversed IMPACT OF POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS ON RIVER TEMPERATURES 25 725 | l I I I I I g 724 — —— Observed fl ,2 —— Computed ’3 < E 723 — — Lu 5; ”u.“ LL a: Z 722 /‘ _ m . A \. \ g f3 / I; 721 h — 3 / \J I l | 720 5 6 7 8 AUGUST 19.76 C m- 588 I I I I o a —— Observed g 687 - m E o u; < u. k z D _ V.’ 9: Lu 2 g 684 I I I I I I I 4 5 6 7 8 AUGUST 1976 D FIGURE 19.—Continued. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg. the reach when discharge was intermediate and nearly steady. Given the temperature comparisons discussed previously and the limitations of the flow, meteoro- logic and river temperature data, the temperature model is considered calibrated and verified and suit- able for use as a predictive tool. IMPACT OF POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS ON RIVER TEMPERATURES—AUGUST 1—8, 1976 Heatloads from the Atkinson-McDonough power- plants were determined using computed flows and temperatures from the models and the observed river temperatures at Georgia Highway 280. Figure 22 shows computed, instantaneous powerplant heat loads for the period August 1—8, 1976. Larger heat loads correspond to periods of greater electrical power demand, which for the period of interest in- cludes most of the afternoon and evening hours when peak air-conditioning demands occurred. River temperatures without heat loads from the powerplants were computed for the period August 1— 8, 1976, using the flow-temperature models. Figure 23 shows computed, instantaneous river temperatures, with and without :po-werplant heat loads, at Georgia Highway 280 and at the Fair-burn and Whitesburg gage-s. As expected, the impact of the heat loads was most severe at Georgia Highway 280 and progres- sively decreased downstream with increasing dis- tance from the heat source. At Georgia Highway 280, the maximum temperature difference between heated and unheated water was 8°C. Corresponding values at the Fair'burn and Whitesburg gages were about 6°C and 2°C, respectively. A reach profile of computed river temperatures, with and without powerp-la-nt heat loads, is shown in figure 24 for August 8, 197 6, at 0000 h. Temperature differences 26 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 24 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS I l | I I l | I I' I I I I l I I — Observed 16 — — 14 I l l I I I l I l l I I | l I l I I I l l I I | l I I I I I 1 g 3 4 5 e 7 8 AUGUST 1976 A 24 I I | I I | I I I I I I I I 22 20 18 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 14 I l I | I l I I I I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ——- Observed l Computed‘ AUGUST 1976 B FIGURE 20.—Observed and computed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River during the period August 1-8, 1976. A, At Atlanta. B, At the Plant McDonough intake. between the curves represent the distribution of residual heat in the river at the given time due to powerplant effluents. COMPUTATION OF NATURAL RIVER TEMPERATURES Before discussing the computation, of natural tem- perature conditions in the Chattahoochee River, some general relations and concepts important to the interpretation of forthcoming information will be re- viewed. Once a particle of water obtains a given temperature by whatever process, it Will remain at that temperature unless energy is transferred to or away from it. The major process by which thermal energy in river water can be gained or lost is through heat exchange with the atmosphere. Several physical processes are involved in this exchange, but the combined effect of all these processes can be ap- proximated by the expression: HT=—K (T~TE) (4) COMPUTATION OF NATURAL RIVER TEMPERATURES 27 32 I I I I | I I I l 1 I I l T I 30— 26— 22—- TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 1 8 I l l l l I l I 1 l I I | 1 l — Observed —— 30 I r I l I I I I I I I I 1’ 28—- 24 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS N G: I L) -—- Observed l Computed 20 1 | | I I I J I L I l I | l 1 AUGUST 1976 D FIGURE 20.—Continued. C, At Georgia Highway 280. D, Near Fairburn. Where H T=tota1 heat transfer from the atmosphere to the water; K=a positive surface exchange co- efficient, T=the observed water temperature, and TE=the equilibrium temperature of the water. The surface exchange coefficient (K) is dependent on the temperature of the water as well as several meteoro— logic variables. The equilibrium temperature is the temperature toward which the observed water tem- perature will always move. It is also highly de- pendent on meteorologic conditions but independent of flow variables such as depth. Conversely, the ob- served water temperature is sensitive to flow depth N 00 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA N W fi' 1 T w r v V v y 26 N A ITEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS N N l v ' I v I Computed N C 4 5 6 7 8 AUGUST 1976 E FIGURE 20.—Continued. E. Near Whitesburg. as well as meteorologic conditions. Consequently, equilibrium and observed river temperatures at any instant can be quite different. Where the stream system is not subject to artifi- cial thermal alteration, observed water temperatures equal natural river temperatures. Under these con- ditions, mean daily observed and mean daily equilib- rium temperatures are nearly equal. Where a river system is influenced by artificial heat sources or sinks, observed and natural river temperatures differ by some amount that will be called the excess temperature. Under such condi- tions, total heat exchange between the water and the atmosphere is a function of the natural heat ex- change and the excess temperature. The magnitude of excess temperature at a particular station is a function of the magnitude of the artificial altera- tion and the distance to its source. Just as the ob- served river temperature always seeks the equilib- rium temperature, artifically altered water tempera- tures tend to return to natural temperatures. This process is conveniently expressed by the relation: He: —K(T—T,,) where H e=heat exchange between the water and the atmosphere due to. excess temperature and Tn=the natural river temperature. Natural river temperatures tend to decrease with increasing altitude and latitude so it is probable that the long term natural river temperature at Whites- burg is slightly higher than at Atlanta. The model depends on meteorologic data collected at Atlanta, however, and all meteorologic conditions throughout the study reach are assumed to be uniform. It is also assumed that any variation in natural temperature with distance from Atlanta is negligible. Direct measurements of natural river tempera- tures during the calibration period of August 1—8, 1976, were impossible to obtain. On the other hand, information about natural temperatures can be obtained from available temperature data. Figure 25 shows a plot of the observed river temperatures at Georgia Highway 280. Superimposed on these temperatures are the observed temperatures of the same water particles when they arrived at the Fair- burn gage. Estimates of time of travel between the two stations were obtained from the flow mod-e1. The difference between the two curves represents the observed temperature change experienced by a water particle as it traveled the 17.0 mi from Georgia High- way 280 to the Fairburn gage. In the 8 days of record, 18 time periods occurred during which the water experienced no net temperature change as it traversed this reach of the river. These points are circled on figure 25. Because no net surface exchange occurred during these periods, the river tempera- ture and the equilibrium temperature must have been equal. In other words, each time the curves intersect on figure 25, a direct measurement of the equilibrium temperature is available, averaged over the time of passage through the reach. The mean time of travel for the water particles represented by these intersections was 14.91 h with a standard deviation of 1.83 h. The mean of the equilibrium temperatures was 248°C with a standard deviation of 137°C. Except for times of travel, these equilibrium tem- peratures were obtained independently of the flow and temperature models. The 18 points of intersec- tion (fig. 25) are also more or less randomly distrib- uted in time. Thus, the mean of these 18 tempera- COMPUTATION OF‘ NATURAL RIVER TEMPERATURES 29 tures (248°C) is considered a reasonably good esti- mate of the mean natural temperature of the Chatta- hoochee River between Atlanta and Whitesburg dur- ing the period August 1—8, 1976. The average impact of flow regulation and power- plant effluents on river temperatures during the period August 1—8, 1976, is shown on figure 26. The short-dashed line connects the mean observed tem- peratures during the 8—day period. The Seday mean computed river temperatures, which would have occurred without powerplant heat loads, are repre- sented by the longer dashes and were computed from data presented in figure 23. The horizontal solid line at the top of the figure represents the mean natural temperature of 248°C, estimated from the 18 measurements of equilibrium temperature. Dur- ing the given 8-day period, mean observed rive-r temperatures downstream of the powerplants are shown to nearly equal natural temperatures. Thus, on the average, the heat added by the Atkinson-Mc- Donough powerplants almost balanced the cooling effect of flow regulation. The average warming effect of the plants is estimated to have been 0.5°C at the Plant McDonough intake, 42°C at Georgia Highway 280, 2.9°C at the Fairburn gage, and 1.6°C at the Whitesburg gage. Likewise, the average cooling that resulted from flow regulation at Buford Dam is esti- mated to have been 4.8°C at the Atlanta gage, 4.4°C at the McDonough intake, 43°C at Georgia High- way 280, 2.9°C at the Fairburn gage, and 1.9°C at the Whitesburg gage. Note, that excess temperatures resulting from both a heat sink (Lake Sidney Lanier) and a heat source (powerplants) are shown to approach natural temperatures with increasing distance from the point of thermal alteration. The average combined thermal impact of flow regulation and po-werplant effluents on river tem- peratures has been shown to be small when com- pared to natural temperatures. Equally important, however, are the instantaneous effects. One way to estimate the natural instantaneous temperature through the study reach is by use of the flow and temperature models. Computation of natural tem- peratures is complicated, however, by the fact that the upstream boundary condition is unknown and must also be simulated. Simulation of this boundary is accomplished by solving the thermal energy equa- tion (equation 1) for a channel of infinite length upstream of the station of interest. Such a solution effectively removes the spatial derivatives from con- sideration and computes river temperatures only as a function of depth and surface exchange. Such temperatures are by definition natural temperatures. These assumptions were used in conjunction with the flow and temperature models to solve the thermal energy equation for a long channel where geometry, flow, and meteorologic conditions at each cross sec- tion were identical and equal to observed conditions at the Atlanta gage during the period August 1-8, 197 6. Computed instantaneous river temperatures at the downstream end of this long reach were con— sidered equal to natural temperatures at the Atlanta gage during the given period. The set of computed natural river temperatures at the Atlanta gage was used to drive the temperature model and compute instantaneous natural river tem- peratures through the study reach for the period August 1—8, 1976. Graph-s of natural and observed temperatures at the Atlanta gage, at the Plant Mc- Donough intake, at Georgia Highway 280, and at the Fairburn gage are shown in figure 27. Only com- puted temperatures are shown for the Whitesburg gage. The computed mean natural temperature for the entire reach during the 8-day period was 24.9°C and is considered to be in excellent agreement with the previously determined estimate of 24.8°C. This close agreement between two independently determined mean natural temperatures indicates that the total surface exchange was accurately modeled and that the computed instantaneous temperature values are reasonably accurate. Based on these comparisons, flow regulation up- stream of Atlanta lowered the temperature of the Chattahoochee River by an average 4.8°C during the first 8 days of August 1976. Heated efiiuents from the Atkinson-McDonough powerplants raised the mean river temperature about 42°C during the same period. Thus, the net average combined effect of flow regulation and heat loads was small. On the other hand, dirurnal variations and associated rates of change for both natural and artifically altered water temperatures were large and quite different. In general, the large-r variations and rates were as- sociated with the altered temperatures and decreased downstream. These result-s and conclusions based on model studies compare favorably with the conclusions drawn from previous comparisons of historical river— and air-temperature data. In both cases, sig- nificant cooling effects due to flow regulation at Bu- ford Dam were noted at the Atlanta gage and the Plant McDonough intake during August 1976 (figs. 9, 10, 27). Also noted, in both cases, was the close approximation of mean natural to mean observed temperatures at Georgia Highway 280 (figs. 11, 27) . 30 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 24 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I j I I l I —“ Observed TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 12 lIIIllIIIIIIIIII|l|I||IIlIIILJL 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 JULY 1976 ‘ [A 26 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I T i I I I I I I 24 — a Observed A I Computed TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 1 2 l I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I I J I I I I I I I I I I L l 12 13‘ 14 15 16 17 18 19 JULY 1976 13 FIGURE 21.—Observed and computed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River during the period July 12—19, 1976. A, At Atlanta, B, At the Plant McDonough intake. C, At Georgia Highway 280. D, Near Fairburn. E, Near Whitesburg.‘ Points A—F on each graph represent water particles traced through the study reach (see p. 24). TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 30 28 12 24. 22 20 18 16 14 COMPUTATION OF NATURAL RIVER TEMPERATURES — Observed 14 15 19 ~— Observed l Computed 14 15 JULY 1976 D, FIGURE 21.—Continued. 31 32 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS_ HEAT FLOW, IN MILLIONS OF CALORIES PER SECOND 28 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 26— I Computed 16 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 JULY 1976 ' V E FIGURE 21.—-Continued. 300 I I I I I I 1 l I I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I I l I 1 l I I 250‘— 200 150 100 — 50 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 | I 1 J 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 2 3 4 ' 5 6 7 AUGUST 1976‘ FIGURE 22.—Heat added to the Chattahoochee River from Plants Atkinson—McDonough, August 1—8, 1976. COMPUTATION OF NATURAL RIVER TEMPERATURES 34 I I I I I T T I I I I I I I I I I I I I I fr ‘I T 1 I I I I I 32 _ With powerplant Ioads’ I I Without powerplant loads 30— . 2,8— _ TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS With powerplant loads 28 — I Without powerplant loads 26:— - 24 _ 22— 20‘ ~ ._ TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 18 l I i I l l 1 l l l l 28,..l.,.l.,,[,,,l,,1,,..[,,.I.,, With powerplant loads I Without powerplant loads 26 24. 22' 20IllllIIILJIlllllllllll|llillIIl TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS AUGUST 1976 FIGURE 23.—Temperature of the Chattahoochee River with and without heat loads from Plants Atkinson- McDonough during the period August 1—8, 1976. A, At Georgia Highway 280. B, Near Fairburn. C, Near Whitesburg. 34 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 26 I I I I v T T 7 W I T ‘ ID .I 2 i ‘3 24» in U m E m 22 . <3 i Lu . D Z “I 20’ , ‘5 With powerplant loads I; I Without powerpl'ant loads a: a 18 E T Lu ; i— I I 16‘ i W, I”, I ”If- I , I a? i, I 0 10 20 30 40 50 DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM, IN MILES FIGURE 24.——-Computed longitudinal temperature profiles in the study reach with and Without heat loads from Plants Atkin- son-McDonough, 0000 e.s.t., August 8, 1976. 32 l I I I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I | I l I I I | I l Observed water temperature 30 at Georgia Highway 280 _ —— Temperature upon arrival at q) Fairburn Gage “2, O Equilibrium temperature —I 28 — L” U ——~ a / \ \ E _/ \ _ 8 26 \ _/ . ’ o \J I \ f \ \, Z \ /\_, ui 24 — /\/ / _ a: D j A j '2 / F “‘ / E 22 — _ 2 LLI I— 20 — _ 18 | I I I I I | I I | l I | I I I I I | I I l I I I I l I I l | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 AUGUST 1976 FIGURE 25.——Observed temperature of the Chattahoochee River at Georgia Highway 280 and the observed temperature of the same water upon arrival at the Fairburn gage. COMPUTED RIVER TEMPERATURES AND CRITICAL DROUGHT FLOW CONDITIONS 35 26 25 _ Natural temperature _ r— —————————— -. a .' a 24 — l _ 5 ll\ Average temperature for August 1—8, 1976 U: l “u!" l a: 23 — o l -//A u] / 0 l /// z I /// _ / 3:“ 22 ‘ 1' /o/ — / a ll // g l // Temperature without powerplant 3f 21 _ * /// . loads, August 1—8, 1976 _ a / / '— / / . 20 L/ I Observed temperature _ O Computed temperature 19 A 0 G) O (D (I) O) 3‘ m O) O) to g N m to o 5 >. 0 t9 2 .c ‘g" e a c m .c 3 3 g 3 2’ E a < I: I '5 93 8 .9 I... E o 9 3 2 o ,- a: c (D N E FIGURE 26.—Eight—day mean natural and thermally altered temperatures of the Chattahoochee River from At- lanta to Whitesburg, August 1—8, 1976. Thus, both the analysis of historical data and the TABLE 6-—E8timated wath-supplgoggd wastewater flows for model studies, albeit grossly different in accuracy 6 year and sophistication, provided similar conclusions re- c; garding the impact of flow regulation and power- f .5 in: 4% . . . u t: 3 a plant loadings on stream temperatures in the study , 5 a; a; 35 Station .2 g 3 a B a) 33 reach. g 3A g-e at: g3 '~~ >3 r a :0 “$72? E25 g};- COMPUTED RIVER TEMPERATURES USING h': :5 as": <33 <33 YEAR 2000 AND CRITICAL DROUGHT FLOW d D Al t -_ _____________ s40--- 500-" 36.0 CONDITIONS Elfin weaTerfguprlgnfaacilgizge" 300.62--- 3--- 164-" 10 --- ---- Cobb Countyfwaslitfwater- 300.56--- 4-_- ____________ 3 . t t 1: non y. The flow-temperature models were used to predict R. $313011 wastewater- 300.56--- 7_-- ............ 162 . . treatment facility. future I‘lver temperatures us1ng year 2000 and South Cobb County waste— 294.28." 13--_ ------------ 49 . . . . . water-treatment facility. cmtlcal drought flow condltlons. R-epresentatlve Utoy Creek wastewater- 291.4s--- 14--- ------------ 44 treatment facility. future water-supply demands and wastewater flows Sweetwaber Creek waste- 288.57--- 20.-- ------------ 2.6 . - . . water-treatment facility. were obtam-ed from the Atlanta Regional Commis- CatmptCreelé tyre-altecwaber- 283.78.-- 16--- ------------ 27 sion (1976) and are [listed in table 6. Additional 1011:2333; 21:31:: Emile; 281.46--- 21___ ------------ 6.0 . . . te-t ‘ ' . wastewater treatment fac1l'1t1es to be added to the gevgviaoréalal ZEIeTfe'LerE-l-I ------ 23:01:03?" ------------ 4:18 _ ear :- wa tew r- . --- ___ ------------ . network by the year 2000 include Sweetwater Creek treatmefnt agility? e 36 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 28'I'rlllllllIll’lllIl‘l'Vll'V‘Tll >— \ ,\ _ 26 1/ \ / ’\ \ ’\ /A\ -/\ /‘ - \ l \' ‘ - 24\ /r \JI \\< \V/ \/ \\\/ >4.9°c\~’/ \ ll _ Atlanta Gage \. I \ 1/ \ ./ \ I, \ ' /’\\ .li\\\ .f‘\ I‘\ ' \ / \ I ' \ \ f I' 26 A I \J V V \k \JI \24,9°c\' \/ - Plant McDonough Intake 24 ' 22 28 Georgia Highway 280 26 Tl‘\'/\‘\/‘\ [Y ‘ l/A\{' 2 J24.9°c V J \ \ J 22— FairbuRGage [X /\ A /’\fi 1A\A [\“ij IV \‘I W W ‘ 22- _. 5 l / \ l TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS L ’\ Whitesburg Gage 26 ‘— , ’\ f\ ’\ N A - [Ax \\ / \. ,1 [\m //\\\ / \ r \. 24x / — V 249°C —-—0bse~ed 22— -— Natural 2°lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 AUGUST 1976 FIGURE 27.—Computed natural and observed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River, August 1—8, 1976. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 37 WTF, Annewakee Creek WTF, Bear Creek WTF, and a regional interceptor (fig. 1, table 6). Tribu- tary flows used to predict future conditions are those listed in table 3 for the 1954 drought and for the period August 1-8, 1976. Observed tributary dis- charges during the 1954 drought were obtained from Thompson and Carter (1955). The various flow con- ditions used to simulate year 2000 temperatures in the Chattahoochee River are listed below. The letter designation for each condition is used later in this text to define various flow combinations The average projected wastewater flow for the year 2000 (table 6) was used in each simulation. The letter designa- tions are as follows: Letter Flow condition designation 1954 drought tributary flows A August 1—8, 1976, tributary flows B Year 2000 peak water-supply demand C Year 2000 average water-supply demand D Boundary conditions used to compute future flow conditions are listed in table 7. Estimated discharges at the Atlanta gage were based on a minimum regu- lated discharge from Buford Dam of 1,717 ft“/s pro— posed for the year 2000 (Atlanta Regional Commis- sion, 1976). Tributary inflows between the dam and the Atlantic gage of 0 and 25 ft3/s were used and represent 1954 drought and August 1976 fio-w con- ditions, respectively. Discharge at the Whitesburg gage for the various flow combinations (table 7) was based on the given Atlanta gage discharge and a mass balance of tributary and flow diversion data listed in tables 3 and 6. A11 simulations of year 2000 flows and river temperatures are. based on steady- state flow conditions. Such conditions are repre- sented, for the most part, by the discharge data in tables 3, 6, and 7 and by the water-surface profile in figure 3. All future river temperatures were pre- dicted using temperature and meteorologic data ob- served during the period August 1—8, 1976. Year 2000 river temperatures computed with the various flow combination-s listed above are shown in figures 28 to 31. Temperatures at Georgia Highway 280 and at the Fairburn and Whitesburg gages are shown with and Without heat loads from Plants Atkinson-McDonough (fig. 22). Heat loadings from TABLE 7.——Estimated discharge at the Atlanta and Whites- burg gages using selected tributary and year 2000 water- supply demands and wastewater flows Discharge (ft3/s) Flow combination ____ C—B C—A D—B D—A Locations: Atlanta gage ____ 940 910 1,220 1,190 Whitesburg gage _ 1,590 1,150 1,920 1,490 the powerplants impact river temperatures most sig- nificantly when river flows are lowest. Maximum temperature at Georgia Highway 280 is nearly 34°C using power-plant loads, peak water-supply demands, and 1954 drought flow conditions. Temperatures at the same station using the same flow conditions with- out powerplant loads are about 10°C cooler. River temperatures computed using August 1976 tributary inflows, and average water-supply demands are not significantly different from those observed during the period August 1—8, 197 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Transient flow-temperature models and independ- ent comparisons of historical river- and air-tempera- ture data were used to evaluate some of the effects of flow regulation and powerplan-t efi‘luents on Chat- tahoochee River temperatures between Atlanta and Whites'burg, Ga. The flow-temperature models were used to estimate instantaneous and mean natural temperatures in the river during an 8—day period in August. 1976. These, in turn, were compared to ob- served, thermally altered river temperatures. Such comparisons indicated that the combined thermal effects of flow regulation and powerplant effluents resulted in mean daily river temperatures down— stream of the powerplants about equal to or less than computed natural temperatures. An independ- ent analysis of historical river and air-temperature data provided the same basic conclusion. The models were also used to simulate river tem- peratures using estimated year 2000 flow conditions and temperature and meteorologic data collected during 197 6. Except for periods of peak water-sup- ply demand, simulated year 2000 river temperatures were little changed from observed 1976 tempera- tures. 38 FLOW REGULATION AND ROWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 26 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I | I I I | N h N N N O a 00 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 16 I I I I I I I I I I I | I I I I I I I | I I I I I I I I I I J 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS A 34 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I | I 32 — . A With powerplant loads I Without powerplant loads 30 — /I / 28 *- 26 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS TIME, IN DAYS B FIGURE 28.—Computed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 peak water-sup- ply demands, year 2000 average wastewater returns, and August 1976 tributary flows. A, At the Plant McDonough intake. B, At Georgia Highway 280. TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 28 26 24 22 20 18 28 26 ‘24 22 20 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS —— With powerplant loads I Without powerplant loads —— With powerplant |oads I Without powerplant |oads TIME, IN. DAYS D FIGURE 28.—Continued. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg. 39 40 FLOW REGULATION AND PIOWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 26 I l I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I I 1 I I I l I I I I I l TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 16 I I l .l l I l I I | l I I | I I l | I I | l I I I I l I | | L With powerplant loads — I Without powerplant loads TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS TIM E, IN DAYS B FIGURE 29.—Computed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 peak water-sup- ply demands, year 2000 average Wastewater returns, and 1954 drought tributary flows. A, At the Plant McDonough intake. B, At Georgia Highway 280. TEMPERATURE. IN DEGREES CELSIUS TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 41 30 . 28— 26—- 22— 20— 18 ' 28 u 26— 24—- 20 ' SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS I I l I T T I I I I I l l l l | l l — With powerplant loads l Without powerplant |oads_ I I I l J I I I I I I I I I I L J 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS C I l I I I l I I I I I I I l I | I —— With powerplant loads I Without powerplant loads .4 l I l l I I I I l I l I l I I I I 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS D FIGURE 29,—Continu‘ed. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg. 42 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 26 I I I I I | I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I | l | I ' I I I TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 16 I I I I I I I I I I I I l - I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS A 32 I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I T I I I I I I I I l I 30 _ With powerplant loagécfl I Without powerplantl ‘ loads 28 — — 26 - — TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 16 I I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I I l l I I I I I I I I J TIME, IN DAYS ~B FIGURE 30.—Computed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 average water-sup- ply demands, year 2000 average wastewater returns, and August 1976 tributary flows. A, At the Plant McDonough intake. B, At Georgia Highway 280. TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 28 26 24 22 20 0 28 26 24 22 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 43 — With powerplant loads I Without powerplant loads 20 —- With powerplant loads I Without powerplant loads TIME, IN DAYS D FIGURE 30.——Continued. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg. 44 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA 26 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 16 l I I I I I l l I I I 1 I I I I I L I I I I I I I I I I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS A 34 T I I l I T I I I l I ‘I I I l l I I l I I I I ‘ I T I I I l l 32 +— With powerpIant loads - I Without powerplant loads 30 — — 28 — — 26 — — 16 14 I l I I I I I I I I I L l I I I I I l I I I L I I I I I I I I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS B FIGURE 31.—Computed temperatures of the Chattahoochee River using flows representing year 2000 average water- supply demands, year 2000 average wastewater returns, and 1954 drought tributary flows. A, At the Plant Mc- Donough intake. B, At Georgia Highway 280. SELECTED REFERENCES 45 TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 28 | I I l l l I l l | I I l | I I I l I I I I I I I I | m — With powerplant loads a I Without powerplant loads 3 26 U U) LL] Lu 5 24 Lu 0 E u? 22 n: D '— <2 I: E 20 2 LL! I.— 18 I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS C 28 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I — With powerplant loads l Without powerplant loads 26 24‘ 22 20 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME, IN DAYS D FIGURE 31.—Continued. C, Near Fairburn. D, Near Whitesburg. SELECTED REFERENCES Amein, M. M., and Fang, C. S., 1970, Implicit flood routing in natural channels: Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, v. 96, no. HY12. Atlanta Regional Commission, 1976, Metropolitan Atlanta area water-supply review supplement, Appendix M, Water-supply plan for the Atlanta region; Part 1, Needs, sources and policies. Cherry, R. N., Faye, R. E., Stamer, J. K., McGinty, H. K., 1976, Plan for river quality assessment, upper Chatta- hoochee River basin, Georgia: American Water Works Association River Water Quality Assessment Seminar, proceedings, no. 20133. Dyar, T. R., and Stokes, W. R., 1973, Water temperatures of Georgia streams: Atlanta, Ga., Georgia Department of Natural Resources 317 p. Fenneman, N. M., 1938, Physiography of the eastern United States: New York, McGraw-Hill, 714 p. Higgins, M. W., 1968, Geologic map of the Brevard Fault zone near Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Map I—511. Jobson, Harvey E., 1973, The dissipation of excess heat from water systems: Journal of the Power Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, v. 99, no. Pol, p. 89-103. 1977a, Bed conduction computation for thermal models: Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, v. 103, no. HY10, p. 1213—1217. 1977b, Thermal model for evaporation from open chan- nels: Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, 17th, Baden-Baden, Germany, August 14—19, 1977, proceedings, p. 95—102. Jobson, H. E., 1975, Canal evaporation determined by thermal modeling: American Society of Civil Engineers, San Francisco, Calif., proceedings, p. 729—43. Jobson, H. E., and Keefer, T. N., 1977, Thermal modeling of highly transient flows in the Chattahoochee River near Atlanta, Georgia: Special Symposium on River Quality 46 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA Assessments, American Water Works Association, Tucson, Ariz., proceedings. 1979, Modeling highly transient flow, mass and heat transport in the Chattahoochee River near Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Geological Survey Open—File Report 79— 270, 139 p. Koberg, G. E., 1964, Methods to compute long-wave radia- tion from the atmosphere and reflected solar- radiation from a water surface: U.S. Geological Survey Profes— sional Paper 272—F, p. 107—136. Kothandaraman, V., and Evans, R. L., 1972, Use of air- water relationships for predicting water temperature: Illinois State Water Survey Investigation no. 69, p. 10. Lamar, W. L., 1944, Chemical character of surface waters of Georgia: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 889—E, 327 p. Land, L. F., 1978, Unsteady streamflow simulation using a linear-implicit, finite-difference» model: U.S. Geological Survey program documentation J879, 69 p. Langford, T. E., 1970, The temperature of a British river up- stream and downstream of a heated discharge from a power station: Hydrolbiologia, Vol. 35, p. 353—375. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 1976, Local climatological data, Atlanta, Georgia: 5 p. Stone, H. L., and Brian, P. L. T., 1963, Numerical solution of covective transport problems: Journal of the Ameri- can Institute of Chemical Engineers, v. 9, no. 3, p. 681— 688. Thomson, M. T., and Carter R. F., 1955, Surface-water re- sources of Georgia during the drought of 1954, Part I, Streamflow: Georgia Department of Mines and Geology Information Circular 17, 79 p. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973, Flood plain informa- tion—Chattahoochee River, Buford Dam to Whitesburg, Georgia: Alabama, Mobile District, 16 p., 50 plates. SUMMARY OF DATA—TABLES 8—10 48 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA TABLE 8.—C'ross section coordinates [Measurements in feet] “35133;? Altitude 1112332251 Altitude “$1313?! Altitude “$233? Altitude RM 302.97 RM 300.62 RM 299.20—Continued RM 297.86—Cont1'nued 20.0 767.0 g 760 ~ 15 735.9 33 73%.: 40 762.0 4 755 55 733.1 . 55 760.5 62 750 105 733.9 100 736.9 70 755.3 82 748 125 735.6 150 736.0 35) 751.9 123 7:2 175 729.6 31112 333.3 1 750.7 . 7 185 730.8 . 1:13 750.9 $33 72g 210 755.5 222 752.2 1 749.7 145 749.5 240 745 RM 29.9.10 RM 297.73 160 749.6 280 745 0 754 74 757.7 170 748.1 320 746 20 744 130 751.3 180 748.4 340 748 35 740 145 741.6 190 747.4 360 750 60 739 160 735.7 200 747.4 373 755 100 739 180 733.7 $3 743.8 386 760 $33 740 333 731.9 74 .4 741 . 230 750.3 RM 300-44 214 744 300 733.8 240 749.7 364 762.6 233 755 ’ 315 736.5 250 747.9 381 760.2 326 741.7 260 747.7 409 748.9 RM 293.99 347 755.2 $33 “7'9 13,3 323'? 23 75“ 367 75” 749.0 . 745.5 290 750.8 459 740.8 35 738.5 RM 297-06 300 751.3 510 740.8 45 733.0 0 754.0 310 753.1 559 739.3 60 736.3 15 745.8 320 756.8 610 739.0 100 735.2 16 739.3 23 333‘ 33 :23 . 7 6.4 - RM 902.93 705 761.8 214 744.5 77 734.5 0 766 RM 900 29 233 756") 133 3333 $3 ggé 23 776.0 RM 2.98.77 150 734.1 22 752 66 763.0 85 756.7 165 736.0 30 748 82 761.2 130 736.2 182 739.3 103 750.9 183 746.2 50 750 140 741.1 100 747 118 743.3 150 7393 195 751.2 200 748 169 ‘741'0 160 73“ RM 296 60 300 748 216 I735. 170 734.3 ‘ 400 751 365 735.2 180 733.4 140 750.3 430 752 309 750.9 190 734.1 152 742.9 500 753 325 760.2 200 734_4 165 735.9 520 756 405 764.2 $3 7354 $23 73% 540 761 RM 299.99 230 333.7; 290 735.5 560 766 210 756.8 240 734.4 340 7352 240 742.2 250 735.1 355 7360 RM ”2'05 260 734.0 260 735.3 368 743-8 12 gig 280 731.2 270 737.1 388 751-2 . 300 731.2 280 737.1 40 746.5 320 734.7 290 738.3 RM 295“” 100 743.4 340 734.9 300 737.7 0 752-3 140 747.1 . 360 734.5 310 739_1 25 740.5 333 $2475.; 233 735.7 333.6 741.1 133 7313 . 734.1 744.2 - 244 752.6 410 740.2 373 754.7 150 732.0 264 762.3 430 760.3 R M 299 10 :23 7123-3 RM 300.98 RM 299.56 __40 762.5 Egg: 223.3 14‘ 752.0 . . 21 747 1 125 733.7 50 731.8 RM 29”" ' 175 733 5 107 733 4 0 769-5 29 747.0 ' ‘ 45 755.9 50 746 0 225 733.9 139 733.3 100 0 ' 256 738.5 200 735.4 752.0 80 741.0 325 754.9 223 740.5 $33 7333 100 739.0 425 753.9 260 760.1 248 735-8 150 739.6 460 762.4 290 764.4 299 727'0 190 7420 367 7338 200 744.4 RM 999.20 RM 397.36 398 755-3 236 752.0 _20 754.5 0 753.6 423 757.8 255 762.7 0 741.4 15 743.9 450 768.7 TABLES SUMMARIZING DATA TABLE 8.—Cross section coordinates—Continued [Measurements in feet] 1132:0531 Altitude Hg; 3:31 Altitude “£332“ Altitude Hg: 1:11?! Altitude RM 293.92 RM 286.96—Cont1'nued RM 279.99—Continued RM 270.86—Cont7'nued 55 753.5 50 722.3 23 714.3 40 708.0 86 742.0 100 721.9 35 711.7 60 709.5 100 731.6 150 722.1 60 714.7 80 710.0 197 729.0 200 721.8 100 715.5 100 710.0 300 730.9 245 727.1 200 715.6 120 710.0 311 742.0 255 729.8 210 716.2 140 710.5 238 “3'2 27° “1'2 333 335% 128 3653 75 . . . RM 286.07 200 7073 RM 293-10 220 739.9 RM ”7'95 220 709.5 0 751.9 248 718.0 0 734-0 240 710.0 15 - 739.3 270 719.9 $8 3&3: 260 710.0 16 733.3 320 720.8 -3 280 710.5 30 731.1 370 721.1 33 7238 286 711.0 36 727.8 420 720.0 0 77108 291 716.5 50 729.2 435 721.0 $5130 711-7 RM 100 728.1 482 738.9 235 711.8 270-43 33 mm -83 73:2 2 . 0 735.1 245 71 .7 10 707.8 13(7) 723.3 5 720.7 254 720-8 25 701.5 199 733.2 30 717.8 264 727.8 76 702.4 200 739.3 3(5) 7137 354 729-3 125 701.5 215 750.3 . 165 700.9 121 718.5 RM 27417232 0 240 700.4 RM 292.19 150 719.2 fig 728-5 246 707.8 400 751.6 160 719.2 — 0 725-4 253 716.6 420 7379 190 720.7 20 71337 437 7293 195 739.4 100 713-3 RM 268.34 ' 20 743.9 200 712.7 - 3% 332'? 50 738.2 260 7112 322 33115 560 7274 80 737-4 2‘66 719-9 975 7016 ' 110 736.3 271 726.8 .' 575 723.7 14 300 732 2 1,000 700.6 586 729.5 0 734-6 ~ 1,050 698.3 606 737.9 $70 734-3 RM 272.20 1,100 698.6 659 755.6 238 33-2 _10 7272 1,150 699.7 RM 290.54 245 715.0 g 7135 £113 332:: —20 746.4 270 714-1 30 712:1 1,235 708.2 0 741.7 290 716-5 80 710.9 1,275 712.7 10 737.0 310 715.3 120 7.11.1 20 730_5 330 714.7 140 710.8 RM 266.02 30 724.7 333 gig-g 180 711.3 0 702.5 50 727-1 340 716's 200 712.5 14 698-1 100 725.5 ~ 230 712.8 30 692.1 153 728.0 33(5) 2&6-3 250 7132 80 692.7 170 722.7 6- 260 727.5 120 693.1 180 730.5 390 716.8 170 693.4 195 744.1 :33 715(1) RM 271.22 210 692.9 . 222 . RM 287.30 450 722.3 33 ggg-g 244 $32}; _9 7445 470 730.4 44 728:3 2 7415 500 736.5 50 718.3 RM 263.62 16 732.0 530 739-2 51 713.5 0 700.2 28 725.1 565 741-3 69 710.7 10 690.2 58 721.8 580 743-8 80 710.5 33 684.9 7 4-6 RM 231.07 100 709.7 110 687.2 128 333% 0 737-9 15° 71” 332 2325 - 12 7202 200 712.4 - 200 724.1 20 722 5 250 711.0 229 686.4 210 723.8 40 710-2 300 7102 250 690.1 216 725.9 ' 330 709 3 264 697.6 233 732-0 133 3&2; 352 71335 249 741.9 - 353 718 3 RM 25.9.87 270 744 2 150 714-8 ' —20 699 6 - 200 713.1 39% 334513 0 692-6 0 RM 286-9342 1 3%; 332.2 406 73935 38 33:71) 15 729:8 RM 279.99 RM 270.86 57 684.4 20 727.1 0 733.6 0 716.5 61 681.6 30 725.3 5 722.1 20 712.5 80 683.8 50 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA TABLE 8.—C’ross section coordinates—Continued [Measurements in feet] Ham? Altitude Hfifi‘figl “time “gm? Altitude “3.1.1332? Altitude RM 259.87—Continued RM 259.87—Continued RM 259.87—Ctmtinued RM 259.87—Cmtinuéd 100 681.8 161 676.5 240 679.6 300 689.1 120 679.6 180 680.1 257 679.6 310 691.6 140 678.6 200 680.6 261 682.6 330 699.6 15.7 677.1 220 680.1 I 280 684.0 TABLE 9,—Chtmnel roughness and barrier heights Effective _ . ' _.__Manninz.’§_n___ barrier Rwex mule Mammum (s/ftl/S) Mmlmnm “fig“ 302.79 0.057 0.032 50 302.38 .055 .040 ' 45 302.05 .066 .029 40 300.98 .050 .034 30 300.62 .080 .056 60 300.44 .051 .040 20 300.29 .039 .039 15 299.94 .039 .021 15 299.56 .040 .040 15 299.20 .042 .024 10‘ 299.10 .050 .021 20 298.93 .038 .031 25 298.77 .038 .030 15 298.10 .033 .024 25 297.86 .033 .026 25 297.73 .031 .024 25 297.06 .034 .028 20 296.60 .034 .025 20 295.30 .035 .026 15 294.70 .035 .028 15 293.92 .034 .023 10 293.10 .039 .039 15 292.19 .042 .021 30 290.54 .047 .038 25 287.86 .041 .026 20 286.96 .038 .038 15 286.07 .025 .025 30 284.32 .027 .020 50 281.79 .030 .025 40 281.07 .025 .021 40 279.99 .027 .024 40 277.95 .025 .021 50 274.12 .033 .026 60 272.20 .028 .014 40 271.22 .028 .026 40 270.86 .058 .049 40 270.43 .052 .037 40 268.34 .080 .058 60 266.02 .080 .060 50 263.62 .040 .034 40 259.85 .040 .030 25 TABLES SUMMARIZING DATA TABLE 10.—-Summary of meteorologic data, July 12—19 and August 1—8, 1976' [Precipitation=0.0 mm for entire period] Wind Short wave Long wave Air temperature Vapor Time speed radiation radiation dry bulb wet bulb pressure (m/s) (W/mfl) (W/m') ('0) (°C) (KPn) July 12, 1976 0000 0.28 0 0 372.5 22.6 21.0 2.46 0100 .30 0 0 372.5 21.8 20.9 2.45 0200 .30 0.0 372.5 21.8 20.5 2.39 0300 .30 0.0 372.5 20.5 19.7 2.28 0400 1.33 0.0 372.5 20.8 19.7 2.27 0500 1.89 24.2 372.5 21.0 19.9 2.30 0600 .52 141.8 372.5 22.0 20.4 2.37 0700 3.47 344.0 375.5 23.3 21.0 2.45 0800 1.47 558.2 372.5 25.7 21.7 2.53 0900 - 4.57 727.5 372.5 26.8 22.3 2.62 1000 6.47 860.4 372.5 28.1 22.3 2.60 1100 3.70 1,023.1 372.5 29.3 22.3 2.58 1200 6.34 906.6 372.5 29.5 21.2 2.38 1300 4.40 905.5 372.5 29.9 21.4 2.41 1400 3.00 769.2 372.5 31.1 22.4 2.57 1500 3.93 647.3 372.5 29.6 21.3 2.40 1600 5.93 438.5 372.5 29.4 22.1 2.54 1700 4.11 224.2 372.5 29.4 22.4 2.59 1800 3.39 67.0 372.5 28.7 22.2 2.57 1900 2.44 0.0 372.5 27.1 22.0 2.56 2000 .81 0.0 372.5 25.8 22.0 2.58 2100 2.48 0.0 372.5 25.0 21.9 2.57 2200 2.17 0 0 372.5 23.7 21.1 2.46 2300 2.52 O 0 372.5 23.2 21.0 2.45 July 13, 1976 0000 2.19 0 0 371.8 22.3 20.4 2.36 0100 1.04 0 0 371.8 21.8 19.8 2.27 0200 1.12 0.0 371.8 21.2 19.9 2.30 0300 1.62 0.0 371.8 21.0 20.0 2.32 0400 .30 0.0 371.8 20.6 19.7 2.28 0500 .28 26.4 371.8 20.5 19.3 2.21 0600 .67 98.9 371.8 21.9 19.9 2.29 0700 3.60 302.2 371.8 23.5 21.2 2.48 0800 2.81 526.4 371.8 25.2 21.4 2.48 0900 4.59 738.5 371.8 26.6 21.7 2.51 1000 4.73 913.2 371.8 27.3 21.6 2.48 1100 3.00 951.6 371.8 28.0 22.1 2.56 1200 3.41 989.0 371.8 29.2 22.2 2.56 1300 2.19 286.8 371.8 29.8 21.3 2.39 1400 4.73 253.8 371.8 30.1 21.0 2.34 1500 5.89 611.0 371.8 29.6 21.5 2.43 1600 3.74 415.4 371.8 30.4 21.0 2.33 1700 2.75 254.9 371.8 30.3 20.5 2.25 1800 .50 83.5 371.8 29.4 20.3 2.23 1900 .57 0.0 371.8 25.4 19.6 2.18 2000 .73 0.0 371.8 24.1 18.4 2.02 2100 .28 0.0 371.8 22.0 18.4 2.05 2200 .28 0.0 371.8 21.0 17.6 1.95 2300 .59 0 0 371.8 19.1 16.7 1.89 July 14, 1976 0000 0.30 0.0 349.6 18.1 16.5 1.85 0100 .90 0.0 349.6 17.8 15.7 1.75 0200 .71 0.0 349.6 17.4 15.2 1.69 0300 1.18 0.01 349.6 16.5 15.2 1.70 0400 .79 0.0 349.6 16.4 14.5 1.62 0500 .28 9.9 349.6 15.9 14.2 1.59 0600 1.04 201.1 349.6 17.3 15.2 1.69 0700 .96 301.1 349.6 20.2 15.1 1.63 0800 .28 558.2 349.6 24.0 16.2 1.71 0900 .59 693.4 349.6 24.1 16.0 1.69 1000 .30 853.8 349.6 27.6 16.8 1.74 1100 2.83 934.1 349.6 26.7 16.7 1.74 1200 2.57 964.8 349.6 28.4 17.3 1.80 1300 1.80 925.3 349.6 30.8 17.0 1.72 1400 .90 786.8 349.6 30.7 17.8 1.83 1500 4.65 649.5 349.6 30.1 17.7 1.83 1600 1.04 453.8 349.6 30.6 18.3 1.90 1700 2.61 258.2 349.6 30.4 18.5 1.94 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA TABLE 10.—Summary of meteorologic data, July 12—19 and August 1—8, 1976—C0ntinued [Precipitation=0.0 mm for entire period] Wind Short wave Long wave Air temperature Vapor Time speed radiation radiation dry bulb wet bulb pressure (m/s) (W/m") (W/mg) (°C) (°C) (KPa) July 14, 1976—Continued 1800 .36 70.3 349.6 29.3 19.9 2.17 1900 .54 0 0 349.6 25.5 19.7 2.20 2000 .28 0.0 349.6 23.4 19.7 2.23 2100 .28 0.0 349.6 22.3 19.8 2.26 2200 .28 0 0 349.6 22.0 19.3 2.19 2300 .28 0 0 349.6 20.4 18.9 2.15 July 15, 1976 0000 0.28 0 0 371.8 20.3 18.6 2.11 0100 .28 0.0 371.8 ‘ 20.7 19.0 2.16 0200 .28 0.0 371.8 19.5 . 18.0 2.03 0300 .28 0.0 371.8 18.7 18.0 2.05 0400 .28 0.0 371.8 18.1 17.5 1.98 0500 .57 16.5 371.8 18.3 17.8 2.02 0600 .28 149.5 371.8 20.4 18.8 2.14 0700 .92 325.3 371.8 24.1 21.0 2.43 0800 2.13 500.0 371.8 26.0 21.9 2.56 0900 .59 579.1 371.8 27.5 22.4 2.62 1000 3.10 769.2 371.8 29.2 23.1 2.72 1100 1.91 880.2 371.8 29.6 22.6' 2.63 1200 2.79 893.4 371.8 30.1 22.6 2.62 1300 1.20 627.5 371.8 31.1 22.4 2.57 1400 4.03 407.7 371.8 30.1 22.5 2.60 1500 6.96 656.0 371.8 29.8 21.5 2.43 1600 2.28 235.2 371.8 29.5 22.0 2.52 1700 2.83 146.2 371.8 28.3 21.3 2.42 1800 1.91 111.0 371.8 28.9 21.9 2.51 1900 1.37 0.0 371.8 25.7 22.3 2.63 2000 .63 0.0 371.8 24.9 21.9 2.57 2100 1.78 0.0 371.8 24.9 20.7 2.37 2200 1.20 0.0 371.8 23.8 20.1 2.29 2300 .87 0 0 371.8 22.9 19.6 2.22 July 16, 1976 0000 1.93 0.0 363.5 22.4 19.6 2.23 0100 .54 0.0 363.5 21.7 19.9 2.29 0200 .28 0.0 363.5 20.8 19.8 2.29 0300 1.56 0.0 363.5 20.7 19.5 2.24 0400 1.49 0.0 363.5 20.6 19.6 2.26 0500 1.39 7.7 363.5 20.3 19.5 2.25 0600 1.45 157.1 363.5 21.3 19.8 2.28 0700 2.61 350.5 363.5 23.8 21.0 2.44 0800 2.92 549.5 363.5 25.0 20.6 2.35 0900 4.11 709.9 363.5 26.5 21.0 2.39 1000 6.49 868.1 363.5 27.7 21.2 2.41 1100 5.89 307.7 363.5 28.3 21.3 2.42 1200 5.76 1,003.3 363.5 29.5 20.9 2.33 1300 5.04 985.7 363.5 29.6 20.6 2.28 1400 3.14 844.0 363.5 29.7 21.5 2.43 1500 5.43 237.4 363.5 30.1 21.0 2.34 1600 3.62 182.4 363.5 20.7 18.2 2.05 1700 1.99 130.8 363.5 22.4 19.3 2.18 1800 .30 23.1 363.5 22.4 19.4 2.20 1900 2.81 0.0 363.5 20.9 18.2 2.04 2.000 .30 0.0 363.5 20.3 18.2 2.05 2100 2.48 0.0 363.5 19.6 18.3 2.08 2200 1.51 0.0 363.5 19.3 18.2 2.07 2300 1.08 0 0 363.5 19.6 18.4 2.09 July 17, 1976 0000 1.29 0.0 361.4 19.8 18.4 2.09 0100 .85 0.0 361.4 19.1 18.0 2.04 0200 .30 0.0 361.4 19.4 18.5 2.11 0300 1.86 0.0 361.4 18.8 17.9 2.03 0400 1.35 0.0 361.4 19.7 18.6 2.12 0500 .28 6.6 361.4 19.6 19.0 2.18 0600 1.08 83.5 361.4 19.7 19.0 2.18 0700 .34 127.5 361.4 20.2 19.4 2.23 0800 2.34 311.0 361.4 21.9 19.6 2.24 TABLES SUMMARIZING DATA TABLE 10.—Summary of meteorologic data, July 12—19 and August 1—8, 1976—Continued [Precipitation=0.0 mm for entire period] Wind Short wave Long wave Air temperature Vapor Time speed radiation radiation dry bulb wet bulb pressure (m/S) (W/mg) (W/m”) (°C) (°C) (KPa) July 17, 1976—Continued 0900 1.27 319.8 361.4 23.9 21.0 2.44 1000 .28 764.8 361.4 25.7 21.1 2.42 1100 2.85 912.1 361.4 26.9 20.7 2.34 1200 1.00 236.3 361.4 30.1 21.3 2.39 1300 - 4.03 760.4 361.4 28.9 19.9 2.18 1400 4.05 427.5 361.4 27.8 19.6 2.15 1500 1.35 565.9 361.4 30.5 21.4 2.40 1600 4.86 214.3 361.4 27.5 20.3 2.26 1700 2.40 42.9 361.4 25.8 19.7 2.19 1800 .28 24.2 361.4 24.6 19.6 2.20 1900 .28 1 1 361.4 23.1 19.9 2.27 2000 .28 0.0 361.4 22.2 19.5 2.22 2100 .28 0.0 361.4 20.4 18.7 2.12 2200 .30 0.0 361.4 19.8 18.7 2.13 2300 .30 0 0 361.4 19.1 18.2 2.07 July 18, 1976 0000 0.32 0.0 377.0 18.4 17.7 2.01 0100 .28 0.0 377.0 18.7 17.2 1.93 0200 .28 0.0 377.0 18.2 17.1 1.93 0300 .73 0.0 377.0 17.5 16.4 1.84 0400 .28 0.0 377.0 17.3 16.3 1.83 0500 .28 6.6 377.0 17.1 16.2 1.82 0600 .30 74.7 377.0 17.6 16.9 1.91 0700 .83 290.1 377.0 20.0 17.5 1.96 0800 .75 380.2 377.0 23.1 18.5 2.05 0900 1.00 475.8 377.0 26.1 19.6 2.17 1000 .38 827.5 377.0 28.3 19.9 2.19 1100 .28 887.9 377.0 31.7 20.7 2.26 1200 .67 926.4 377.0 33.4 21.6 2.39 1300 .87 924.2 377.0 35.1 22.4 2.50 1400 2.05 823.1 377.0 31.3 20.7 2.27 1500 .52 330.8 377.0 34.3 22.4 2.52 1600 1.06 469.2 377.0 33.2 22.4 2.53 1700 1.41 137.4 377.0 31.0 22.0 2.50 1800 1.12 63.7 377.0 27.8 21.0 2.37 1900 .61 0.0 377.0 25.1 21.1 2.43 2000 .28 0.0 377.0 23.5 20.2 2.31 2100 .46 0.0 377.0 21.9 19.8 2.27 2200 .28 0.0 377.0 20.9 19.3 2.21 2300 .28 0.0 377.0 20.4 19.3 2.22 July 19, 1976 0000 0.28 0.0 373.2 20.1 18.9 2.16 0100 .28 0.0 373.2 19.6 18.1 2.05 0200 .79 0 0 373.2 18.7 18.1 2.06 0300 .40 0.0 373.2 17.9 17.0 1.92 0400 .67 0.0 373.2 18.3 17.0 1.91 0500 .30 12.1 373.2 18.5 17.2 1.94 0600 .90 130.8 373.2 19.4 18.1 2.05 0700 .28 301.1 373.2 22.9 19.6 2.22 0800 .38 494.5 373.2 25.3 21.0 2.41 0900 1.37 667.0 373.2 27.9 21.4 2.44 1000 1.16 818.7 373.2 30.4 22.1 2.52 1100 .36 906.6 373.21 31.4 21.9 2.47 1200 .96 970.3 373.2 32.9 22.4 2.54 1300 1.43 960.4 373.2 31.6 21.2 2.35 1400 4.53 803.3 373.2 32.3 21.4 2.37 1500 3.72 275.8 373.2 32.8 21.4 2.36 1600 1.68 419.8 373.2 32.0 21.8 2.45 1700 .54 250.5 373.2 32.7 23.2 2.69 1800 1.72 18.7 373.2 28.5 22.1 2.55 1900 .81 0 0 373.2 26.9 211.5 2.47 2000 .67 0.0 373.2 25.2 21.7 2.57 2100 .54 0.0 373.2 23.5 20.6 2.38 2200 .28 0 0 373.2 22.2 20.2 2.33 2300 .28 0 0 373.2 21.8 20.1 2.32 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA TABLE 10.—Summary of meteorologic data, July 12—19 and August 1—8, 1976—Continued [Precipitation:0.0 mm for entire period] Wind Short wave Long wave Ail" temperature Vapor Time speed radiation radiation dry bulb wet bulb pressure (m/S) (W/mg) - (W/m") (°C) (°C) (KPa) August 1, 1976 0000 1.22 0.0 463.0 21.1 20.0 2.32 0100 2.63 0.0 463.0 21.0 , 20.2 2.35 0200 4.01 0.0 463.0 21.4 20.7 2.42 0300 .73 0.0 463.0 21.1 20.5 2.40 0400 1.10 0.0 463.0 20.7 20.3 2.37 0500 .28 0.0 463.0 21.0 20.2 2.35 0600 1.45 5.5 463.0 20.6 19.9 2.31 0700 1.49 54.9 463.0 21.0 20.4 2.38 0800 1.64 153.8 463.0 . 22.5 21.0 2.46 0900 1.35 452.7 463.0 24.4 21.6 2.53 1000 2.25 738.5 463.0 25.9 22.5 2.67 1100 3.12 824.2 463.0 27.7 22.3 2.60 1200 1.35 338.5 463.0 , 29.0 22.5 2.62 1300 4.21 928.6 463.0 29.6 _ 22.6 2.62 1400 3.51 911.0 463.0 29.8 22.7 2.64 1500 1.97 341.8 463.0 30.9 23.2 2.71 1600 2.11 339.6 463.0 31.2 22.4 2.56 1700 .29 49.5 463.0 29.5 22.4 2.59 1800 .90 202.2 463.0 24.3 22.8 2.74 1900 .46 42.9 463.0 25.0 22.9 2.75 2000 .48 0.0 463.0 23.6 22.2 2.65 2100 .44 0.0 463.0 22.7 22.0 2.63 2200 .48 0.0 463.0 22.4 21.6 - 2.56 2300 .77 0 0 463.0 22.3 21.4 2.53 August 2, 1976 0000 0.36 0.0 456.0 21.9 20.6 2.40 0100 .28 0.0 456.0 21.2 20.0 2.31 0200 .28 0.0 456.0 20.1 19.7 2.28 0300 .28 0.0 456.0 19.9 19.5 2.26 0400 1.82 0.0 456.0 19.6 19.2 2.21 0500 .38 0.0 456.0 19.5 18.7 2.14 0600 .28 7.69 456.0 19.2 18.6 2.13 0700 .48 106.6 456.0 19.5 18.9 2.17 0800 .38 270.3 456.0 21.6 19.9 2.29 0900 2.40 439.6 456.0 22.8 20.4 2.35 1000 2.21 667.0 456.0 24.8 20.4 2.32 1100 .81 731.9 456.0 28.2 22.1 2.56 1200 .28 974.7 456.0 29.8 22.2 2.55 1300 1.68 633.0 456.0 28.4 20.9 2.35 1400 .40 816.5 456.0 28.4 21.8 2.50 1500 3.86 549.5 456.0 27.4 20.6 2.31 1600 2.03 617.6 456.0 30.0 21.9 2.49 1700 1.74 144.0 456.0 26.8 21.0 2.39 1800 2.89 202.2 456.0 26.6 20.3 2.28 1900 1.47 0.0 456.0 25.6 19.8 2.21 2000 1.47 0.0 456.0 23.8 18.7 2.07 2100 .50‘ 0.0 456.0 22.7 18.2 2.01 2200 .52 0.0 456.0 21.9 18.0 2.00 2300 2.36 0 0 456.0 21.0 17.9 2.00 August 3, 1976 0000 3.10 0 0 448.0 21.5 19.1 2.17 0100 .28 0 0 448.0 22.3 18.3 2.03 0200 .28 0.0 448.0 21.8 17.7 1.95 0300 2.17 0.0 448.0 21.7 16.4 1.78 0400 3.74 0.0 448.0 21.0 17.2 1.90 0500 1.31 0 0 448.0 21.1 15.7 1.69 0600 .85 0.0 448.0 20.2 16.5 1.81 0700 .83 104.4 448.0 20.8 16.9 1.86 0800 .28 242.9 448.0 21.3 17.3 1.91 0900 .28 522.0 448.0 21.8 17.6 1.94 1000 .28 772.5 448.0 23.1 18.2 2.01 1100 1.26 660.4 448.0 24.3 19.1 2.12 1200 1.53 993.4 448.0 26.1 19.4 2.14 1300 1.47 484.6 448.0 29.5 20.8 2.31 1400 1.62 865.9 448.0 27.3 18.9 2.04 1500 1.76 753.8 448.0 29.4 21.0 2.35 1600 1.51 600.0 448.0 28.4 20.5 2.28 1700 .83 405.5 448.0 29.5 20.9 2.33 TABLES SUMMARIZING DATA TABLE 10.—Summary of meteorologic data, July 12—19 and August 1—8, 1976—Continued [Precipitation=0.0 mm for entire period] Wind Short wave Long wave Air temperature Vapor Time speed radiation radiation dry bulb wet bulb pressure (m/S) (W/m”) (W/mg) (°C) (°C) (KPB) August 3, 1976—Continued 1800 .77 198.9 448.0 28.6 21.2 2.39 1900 .34 38.5 448.0 26.9 20.4 2.29 2000 1.78 0.0 448.0 23.8 19.6 2.21 2100 1.00 0.0 448.0 21.3 19.4 2.22 2200 1.90 0.0 448.0 19.9 18.5 2.10 2300 1.45 0.0 448.0 19.2 18.0 2.04 August 4, 1976 0000 0.73 0 0 448.0 19.2 18.0 2.04 0100 .36 0 0 448.0 20.0 17.9 2.01 0200 1.70 0.0 448.0 19.5 17.4 1.95 0300 .28 0.0 448.0 18.6 17.3 1.95 0400 .40 0.0 448.0 16.7 16.2 1.83 0500 1.47 0 0 448.0 16.6 16.0 1.80 0600 .32 3.3 448.0 16.0 15.8 1.79 0700 2.03 256.0 448.0 17.2 16.4 1.85 0800 1.06 327.5 448.0 20.9 17.9 2.00 0900 .98 536.3 448.0 22.4 18.4 2.05 1000 1.47 727.5 448.0 24.2 18.7 2.06 1100 .28 824.2 448.0 26.4 19.5 2.15 1200 .87 920.9 448.0 28.0 19.5 2.13 1300 .67 930.8 448.0 29.9 20.2 2.21 1400 1.16 513.2 448.0 29.3 19.8 2.15 ‘ 1500 2.17 796.7 448.0 28.8 19.2 2.07 1600 .95 650.5 448.0 32.1 20.7 2.26 1700 1.72 169.2 448.0 28.8 20.0 2.19 1800 2.77 94.5 448.0 28.1 19.8 2.17 1900 1.78 15.4 448.0 26.4 19.7 2.18 2000 1.57 0.0 448.0 22.8 18.6 2.07 2100 .50 0.0 448.0 20.1 18.0 2.03 2200 .56 0.0 448.0 19.0 17.5 1.97 2300 1.74 0 0 448.0 17.8 17.0 1.92 August 5, 1976 0000 1.72 0 0 450.0 17.3 16.4 1.84 0100 .32 0 0 450.0 16.6 16.1 1.82 0200 2.09 0.0 450.0 16.2 15.8 1.78 0300 1.00 0.0 450.0 15.8 15.3 1.72 0400 .28 0.0 450.0 15.8 15.2 1.71. 0500 1.41 0 0 450.0 15.0 14.9 1.69 0600 1.16 1.1 450.0 14.9 14.9 1.69 0700 1.78 109.9 450.0 16.8 15.7 1.76 0800 .83 198.9 450.0 18.9 17.2 1.93 0900 1.37 252.7 450.0 21.9 18.9 2.13 1000 1.16 680.7 450.0 25.2 20.6 2.35 1100 .28 923.1 450.0 28.8 21.8 2.49 1200 .75 1,034.1 450.0 30.6 21.1 2.35 1300 .28 1,034.1 450.0 33.3 21.8 2.42 1400 1.70 286.8 450.0 29.8 18.8 1.99 1500 1.16 825.3 450.0 29.4 18.6 1.97 1600 .32 184.6 450.0 31.7 20.5 2.23 1700 .28 418.7 450.0 33.1 20.9 2.27 1800 .28 195.6 450.0 31.5 21.0 2.32 1900 .28 29.7 450.0 29.0 20.5 2.27 2000 1.68 0.0 450.0 24.3 19.6 2.20 2100 .28 0.0 450.0 21.3 19.1 2.17 2200 1.35 0.0 450.0 20.5 18.4 2.08 2300 .75 0.0 450.0 19.8 18.5 2.10 August 6, 1976 0000 1.20 0 0 456.0 19.7 18.2 2.06 0100 .28 0 0 456.0 18.4 17.6 1.99 0200 .71 0 0 456.0 18.2 ' 17.2 1.94 0300 .28 0.0 456.0 17.5 16.8 1.90 0400 1.51 0.0 456.0 17.4 17.0 1.93 0500 .28 0.0 456.0 17.1 16.5 1.86 0600 .28 2.19 456.0 17.8 17.0 1.92 0700 .28 109.9 456.0 17.9 17.2 1.94 0800 .28 284.6 456.0 23.0 19.1 2.14 0900 2.24 494.5 456.0 25.5 20.2 2.28 56 FLOW REGULATION AND POWERPLANT EFFLUENTS—CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER, GEORGIA TABLE 10.—-Summary of meteorologic data, July 12—19 and August 1—8, 1976—Continued [P1'ecipitation=0.0 mm for entire period] Wind Short wave Long wave Air temperature Vapor Time speed radiation radiation dry bulb wet bulb pressure (m/s) (W/m?) (W/m”) (°C) ("0) (KPa) August 6, 1976—Continued 1000 1.10 671.4 456.0 28.7 20.8 2.37 1100 .75 854.9 456.0 28.7 22.8 2.68 1200 1.51 854.9 456.0 28.6 21.6 2.46 1300 .28 917.6 456.0 29.3 22.0 2.52 1400 2.25 733.0 456.0 30.4 22.0 2.51 1500 .73 413.2 456.0 29.5 21.3 2.40 1600 .73 596.7 456.0 30.0 21.4 2.41 1700 1.00 376.9 456.0 30.3 21.3 2.38 1800 .90 188.5 456.0 26.5 20.8 2.37 1900 .79 0.0 456.0 22.7 20.3 2.34 2000 .48 0.0 456.0 ‘ 19.5 18.4 2.09 2100 1.43 0.0 456.0 20.5 19.4 2.23 2200 1.55 0.0 456.0 20.5 19.7 2.28 2300 1.55 0.0 456.0 20.6 19.8 2.29 August 7, 1976 0000 1.51 0.0 444.0 20.8 19.7 2.27 0100 .95 0.0 444.0 19.9 19.3 2.22 0200 1.41 0.0 444.0 20.0 19.4 2.24 0300 1.12 0.0 444.0 19.6 19.1 2.20 0400 .28 0.0 444.0 19.7 19.4 2.24 0500 .28 0.0 444.0 19.1 18.8 2.16 0600 .28 0.0 444.0 19.0 18.6 2.13 0700 .90 109.9 444.0 20.2 19.6 2.26 0800 .28 271.4 444.0 20.5 19.6 2.26 0900 .77 285.7 444.0 20.7 19.9 2.30 1000 .29 281.3 444.0 21.7 20.3 2.35 1100 .29 216.5 444.0 22.9 21.1 2.47 1200 1.66 458.2 444.0 23.2 21.4 2.51 1300 2.11 735.2 444.0 24.1 21.8 2.57 1400 1.41 390.1 444.0 25.5 21.9 2.56 1500 2.09 780.2 444.0 27.6 22.2 2.58 1600 .87 609.9 444.0 28.5 22.1 2.55 1700 .36 397.8 444.0 27.3 21.6 2.48 1800 .28 159.3 444.0 27.3 21.8 2.52 1900 .50 40.7 444.0 27.7 22.3 2.60 2000 1.41 0.0 444.0 24.8 22.1 2.61 2100 1.80 0.0 444.0 23.1 21.7 2.57 2200 .59 0.0 444.0 22.1 20.2 2.33 2300 1.66 0.0 444.0 21.0 20.1 2.33 August 8, 1976 0000 0.81 0.0 445.0 20.4 19.5 2.25 0100 .71 0.0 445.0 19.8 19.0 2.18 0200 .90 0.0 445.0 19.8 18.9 2.16 0300 1.00 0.0 445.0 19.3 18.2 2.07 0400 .32 0.0 445.0 19.2 18.5 2.11 0500 1.28 0.0 445.0 18.5 18.1 2.06 0600 .52 0.0 445.0 18.1 17.7 2.01 0700 1.78 105.5 445.0 19.2 18.4 2.10 0800 .28 291.2 445.0 19.6 18.6 2.12 0900 2.07 487.9 445.0 21.7 19.4 2.21 1000 .65 702.2 445.0 22.9 19.5 2.21 1100 1.86 856.0 445.0 23.5 19.0 2.12 1200 .32 942.9 445.0 26.0 19.9 2.22 1300 1.97 749.5 445.0 27.2 19.5 2.14 1400 .28 224.2 445.0 26.4 19.2 2.10 1500 1.70 872.5 445.0 26.9 18.7 2.02 1600 .69 660.4 445.0 26.9 19.4 2.13 1700 .28 409.9 445.0 26.2 18.5 2.00 1800 .67 205.5 445.0 26.6 19.2 2.10 1900 .85 29.7 445.0 24.9 18.7 2.05 2000 1.04 0.0 445.0 23.1 17.9 1.96 2100 .67 0.0 445.0 21.4 17.4 1.92 2200 1.12 0.0 445.0 21.0 16.9 1.85 2300 1.68 0.0 445.0 20.1 17.1 1.90 {.7 US. Government Printing Office: 1979—311—344/ 135 Geology of the Round Bay Quadrangle, Anne Arundel County, Maryland By JAMES P. MINARD With a section on DINOFLAGELLATE-ACRITARCH PALYNOLOGY By FRED E. MAY and a section on CRETACEOUS POLLEN By RAYMOND A. CHRISTOPHER GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1109 Description of Coastal Plain formations on the west side of Chesapeake Bay and their relations with correlative units to the northeast UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1980 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. William Menard, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Minard, James P. Geology of the Round Bay Quadrangle, Anne Arundel County, Maryland. (Geological Survey professional paper ; 1109) Bibliography: p. 28-30. Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.1621109 1. Geology—Maryland~Anne Arundel Co. I. May, Fred 13., joint author. 11. Christopher, Raymond A.,joint author. 111. Title, IV. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 1109. QE122.A5M56 557.52’55 79-607138 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office Washington, DC. 20402 Stock number 024-001-03279-1 CONTENTS Page Page Abstract _____________________________ 1 Stratigraphy of the Round Bay quadrangle—Continued Introduction ___________________________ 1 Tertiary sedimentary rocks—Continued Location and extent of area ————————————————— 1 Tertiary (?) alluvium __________________ 16 Purpose and history of investigation _____________ 1 Quaternary sediments ____________________ 17 Acknowledgments ______________________ 1 Structure _____________________________ 17 Previous investigations ____________________ 1 Economic aspects ________________________ 17 Physiography ___________________________ 4 Dinoflagellate-acritarch palynology, by Fred E. May ______ 17 Stratigraphy of the Round Bay quadrangle ___________ 4 Brightseat Formation ____________________ 17 Lower and Upper Cretaceous sedimentary rocks ______ 4 Severn Formation ______________________ 18 Potomac Group ______________________ 4 Marine units underlying the Severn Formation ________ 19 Magothy Formation ___________________ 7 Cretaceous pollen, by Raymond A. Christopher _________ 20 Matawan Formation ___________________ 8 Previous palynologic investigations _____________ 22 Severn Formation—reintroduction of name _______ 9 Stratigraphic palynology at Round Bay ___________ 22 Tertiary sedimentary rocks __________________ 13 The Magothy microflora _________________ 22 Brightseat Formation __________________ 13 Post-Magothy Late Cretaceous microflora ________ 25 Aquia Formation _____________________ 14 Summary _____________________________ 28 Calvert Formation ____________________ 15 References cited _________________________ 28 ILLUSTRATIONS [Plate 1 in pocket; plates 2r4 follow references] PLATE 1. Geologic map of the Round Bay quadrangle, Anne Arundel County, Maryland. 2. Pollen from the Magothy and Matawan Formations. 3. Pollen from the Matawan and Severn Formations. 4. Pollen from the Matawan and Severn Formations. Page FIGURE 1. Index map of the Coastal Plain ________________________________________________ 2 2. Chart showing ages of the Potomac Group and Raritan Formation based on palynology ___________________ 6 3-8. Photographs showing: 3. Cemented sandstone block in the Potomac Group _____________________________________ 7 4. Bedding and lithology in the Magothy Formation _____________________________________ 7 5. Conspicuous cross stratification in the Magothy Formation ________________________________ 8 6. Exposure of the Magothy and Matawan Formations near Mathiers Point _________________________ 8 7. Glauconite bed near the top of the Matawan ________________________________________ 9 8. Type section of the Severn Formation ___________________________________________ 10 9. Diagrammatic cross section, New Jersey to Maryland ____________________________________ 11 10-14. Photographs showing: 10. Exposure of the Brightseat Formation at Arnold Point __________________________________ 14 11. Ironstone layers in the Aquia Formation _________________________________________ 15 12. High bluff of the Aquia Formation __________________________________________ 15 13. Contact between the Aquia and Calvert Formations ___________________________________ 16 14. Large sandpit in the Potomac Group southeast from Elvaton ______________________________ 17 15. Profiles of bluffs showing Round Bay locations 6 and 11 ___________________________________ 18 16. Correlation of formations based on dinoflagellates and acritarchs ______________________________ 20 17. Stratigraphic distribution of the pollen species from the Magothy Formation ________________________ 23 18. Stratigraphic distribution of the pollen from the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous formations ________________ 24 III IV CONTENTS TABLES Page TABLE 1. Modern correlations of Coastal Plain formations in Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey __________________ 3 2. Approximate thicknesses of formations and equivalents in outcrop in areas along strike from northeastern New Jersey to southwestern Maryland _________________________________________ 5 3. Occurrence of the biostratigraphically diagnostic pollen species in the samples from the Magothy Formation 25 at Round Bay _______________________________________________________ 4. Occurrence of the biostratigraphically diagnostic pollen species in the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous formations at Round Bay _______________________________________________________ 26 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY, MARYLAND By JAMES P. MINARD ABSTRACT Six Coastal Plain formations and one group crop out in the Round Bay quadrangle near the inner edge of the Atlantic Coastal Plain physiographic province. The quadrangle lies astride the Severn River, in Anne Arundel County, near Annapolis, Md. The seven stratigraphic units aggregate as much as 128 m in outcrop. In ascending order, the units are: the upper part of the Potomac Group and the Magothy, Matawan, and Severn Formations, all of Cretaceous age; the Brightseat and Aquia Formations of Paleocene age and the Calvert Formation of Miocene age. Quaternary deposits are thin and cover only small areas; they are all mapped under one unit. Several small, thin deposits of Tertiary alluvium are mapped separately. The largely unconsolidated Cretaceous and Tertiary formations con- sist chiefly of quartz, glauconite, clays, muscovite, chlorite, lignite, feldspar, and pyrite. Quaternary sediments are mostly locally derived sands, silts, and clays with some gravel and, in the finer sediments, considerable amounts of organic matter. The Cretaceous and Tertiary units strike generally northeast; the younger the formation, the more easterly it strikes. Dips are gentle, 3.6 to 15 m per kilometer toward the southeast, and decrease upward through the section. The Round Bay quadrangle is near the southern limit of several for- mations that thin progressively toward the southwest from New Jersey. Some pinch out between Betterton, on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, and Round Bay, on the western shore, whereas others are present only as thin remnants 1—2 m thick. Resources of the quadrangle include abundant ground water, sand, and high land values near water. INTRODUCTION LOCATION AND EXTENT OF AREA The Round bay quadrangle encompasses about 150 km2 astride the Severn River, just northwest of the out- skirts of Annapolis in Anne Arundel County on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay. PURPOSE AND HISTORY OF INVESTIGATION Geologic mapping of the Round Bay quadrangle (pl. 1) was undertaken as a southwestern continuation of the detailed (1:24,000 scale) quadrangle mapping and geologic studies by Minard, Owens, Sohl, May, and Christopher along the inner edge of the Coastal Plain in New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland done as part of the Chesapeake Bay Project begun in 1965 to meet the need for detailed mapping along strike toward the southwest, primarily to correlate the formations that persist and to recognize areas of facies changes, overlaps, and pinchouts. The mapping has progressed from northeast to southwest on an every-third-to-fifth- quadrangle basis, as described in more detail in the Bet- terton report (Minard, 1974, p. 1—4). The last quadrangle mapped was the Betterton, 54 km to the northeast on the Eastern Shore of Chesapeake Bay (fig. 1). Because the noncontiguous mapping has left gaps, considerable geologic reconnaissance and topical study has been done between mapped quadrangles. A discus- sion of the regional stratigraphy from Betterton, Md. to Raritan Bay, N.J., is given in the Betterton report (Minard, 1974). Most of this discussion will not be repeated here. The main focus in this report is the stratigraphy in the Round Bay quadrangle as compared with that in the Betterton area. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For their contributions to the works of the report, I should like to thank Norman F. Sohl, James P. Owens, Melodie Hess, and Jack A. Wolfe, of the US. Geological Survey, and Don G. Benson, Jr., formerly at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Benson identified dinoflagellates from beds of Cretaceous and Tertiary age and corre- lated ages; Wolfe identified pollen and spores from beds of Cretaceous age and assigned ages; Hess X-rayed clay size fractions and separated heavy minerals; Sohl iden- tified megafossils, and Owens identified heavy minerals. I should like to thank John Glaser, of the Maryland Geological Survey, for his visits and discussions in the field. I thank my brother Bud for his assistance in the difficult sampling of steep bluffs and the many property owners who generously granted permission to cross their land. I particularly thank the people of the com- munity of Sherwood Forest for permission to operate a boat from their docking facilities on the Severn River. Fieldwork was done mostly during short periods in the fall of 1974, spring and fall of 1975, and spring of 1976. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS Early investigations in the Round Bay quadrangle and adjacent areas were climaxed by the fairly detailed work of Clark (1916), who mapped the geologic formations in 1 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND L_.___J—J_I_J 77° 76° 75° 74° T T T T RARITAN // / // [Sandy Hook // quadrangle //’ (Minard, 1969) / / PEN Y ’ NS LVANIA / ‘Tl‘enton D Q\‘b'“>/ 0 “9/430" . Roosevelt quadrangle 40 + K(\Jo‘bs,’ V" Columbus (Minard, 1964) 0 I 66%:4116‘6 .2} / ‘0- Wilmington gog// 9" ‘ __ // Mount Holly quadrangle Chesapeake and / (M‘n rd nd other 1964) —-———§__ Delaware Canal ’ Saint /” I a a 5, §_- , —— __ /Georges/ J Y Susquehanna Bonemia Mills / // NEW ERSE River E'k Nuk/ ’T I /’ _, ‘ Woodstown MARYLAND / Summit quadrangle / Brid e . //’ 0 .g (Mmard, 1965) / /// Grove I Odessa \ a // N k . // r ‘fiec, \ Atlantic d BaltimoreA/ Gregg Neck \ City vg // l \ 2+ , \ ‘3’ Round/Bay quadrangle / I . ' B tt \ ’ m e "‘0" ‘ DOV" DELAWARE BA Y e 3 o // / ’49 quadrangle y \ 39 + / Jud. (Minard, 1974) 6" fl ,/ - nnapolis. I 0 \\ {Washington | CI , N Bowie E ‘ é quadrangle w a I Q)? I, (Glaser, 1973) E: 3, | y. ‘ g; DELAWARE ’ is / m I / ‘3'; | h< L_\—— /\ \—‘ \_.——/ / 0 0 \ #0 ‘ ’Okzqo Q \fi‘ Ril’er Z} l 0 O 30 60 KILOMETERS \ Q 380+ \ O \\ Q 0. VIRGINIA \\//9>1__/\ T" FIGURE 1.—Index map of the Coastal Plain from the Potomac River northeastward to Raritan Bay, showing selected mapped quadrangles. Anne Arundel County at a scale of 1:62,500. Since then, the sand and gravel deposits of Eastern Maryland and many topical studies have been completed and reports the Round Bay quadrangle, is that by John Glaser (1973) published. The only systematic detailed mapping since in the Bowie quadrangle adjacent to the southwest (fig. 1916 other than Darton’s (1938—39) map and reports on 1). INTRODUCTION In mapping the Betterton quadrangle, Minard (1974), was able to subdivide the Matawan Formation and substitute the Mount Laurel Sand for the Monmouth Formation for the first time in that area (table 1). For reasons explained in the section on stratigraphy in this report, these groups are not divided in the Round Bay quadrangle. Although Glaser (1973) substituted the for- mation name Merchantville for the Matawan Group in 3 the Bowie quadrangle, he did not subdivide the strati- graphic interval. Later (1976), in Anne Arundel County, he grouped the Matawan and Monmouth together. The history of geologic investigations of the forma- tions of Cretaceous and Tertiary age in the coastal Plain of Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey is discussed in detail by Clark (1916, p. 34—50), Greacen (1941, p. 8—19), and Groot, Organist, and Richards (1954). TABLE l.—-Modern correlations of Coastal Plain formations in Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey B tt t d Ie Round Bay quadrangle, n Y n New Jersey Delaware Maryland e ero qua a g ' Anne Arundel Kent County, Md. County, Md. Owens and Minard, U.S. Geol. 1960, and Minard, Jordan, 1962 Survey, CLeaves1agrgdS Minard, 1974 Age This report 1964, 1969 1967 °t e"' i? E g ‘35 o c ‘U I: Cohansey 8 w c ‘3 o g m 8 Sand : 2— 5. : Chesapeake Chesapeake Chesapeake 5 Group Group Group 2 a, (in part) (in part) (in part) 2 8 Kirkwood g a) Calvert U . .9 Formation g 2 Formation E 2- 2 (lower part) >. is ‘2 8 q) a; .o q: Piney Point .0 8 Piney Point ’— 2 a t F r t‘ J t F t‘ 3 g. Manasquan U) 3. 0 ma ion (I) 3 orma Ion '3 8 Formation Q , o 3 Nanjemoy 3 9 Formation 8 0 g g Vincentown Rancocas Vincentown g Aquia Vincentown 5 Aquia 0 m Formation Formation Formation 4: Formation Formation 4‘ Q Formation 8 0: c c g 3 _ 3 L % Hornerstown Hornerstown E Brightseat Hornerstown E O Brightseat 9. Sand Sand 9‘? Formation Sand A.“ Formation a Tinton Sand 3 Redbank c 5 Red Bank Formation .9 0 Sand E 5 Monmouth ,9 Severn 3 Navesink F - " . ormat on 3 Formation Mount Laurelr ' E Formation C Navesink ' —————————————— g 5 Mount Laurel Formation Mount Laurel Mount Laurel Sand Sand Sand v, P 1‘ g Wenonah Wenonah 8 Formation Formation a ______________________ m E a. Marshalltown Marshalltown Marshalltown a U 3 Formation Formation Formation c o a “ . m ,3; g 2 Englishtown Englishtown Matawan Englishtown 'E Matawan 8 3 g Formation -_F_o_rr:iiti_o_n__ Formation Formation g Formation 3 Woodbury m in U 2 Clay Merchantville Merchantville Merchantville Merchantville Formation Formation Formation Formation Magothy Magothy Fm. Magothy Fm. Magotny Fm. Magothy'Fm. Magothy Formation Formation U) —————————————— U ’4’”— ‘Raritan _ 8 Formation mg) 8 Potomac Potomac Potomac Potomac Potomac Group 0 .9 Potomac Formation Group Group Group (upper part) —' 2 Group U ‘ C—S = Coniacian and Santonian 4 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND PHYSIOGRAPHY The Round Bay quadrangle area is a somewhat dis- sected to well-dissected sandy plain typical of the Atlan- tic Coastal Plain. Elevations range from sea level to 63.3 m. Two flooded river valleys, the Severn and Magothy, extend northwestward through the quadrangle, dividing the land unit into three areas. The north half of the quadrangle is less dissected and has less relief than the south half; the north part is large- ly underlain by loose sands of the Potomac Group and Magothy Formation, whereas the south half is largely underlain by the more compact and finer material of the Matawan and Severn Formations, and resistant beds in the Aquia Formation. Several broad, flat-topped inter— fluves in the west-central and east—central parts of the quadrangle owe their distinctive landforms to layers of iron oxide—cemented sandstone, mostly in the top of the Magothy Formation. Many hills in the northern part of the quadrangle owe their relief to this iron-oxide cemen- tation, mostly in the Magothy Formation but some in sands of the Potomac Group. In the southern part of the quadrangle, the presence of iron-oxide cemented layers, which are common in the sands of the Aquia Formation, partly explain the steep slopes and prominent hills characteristic of this part of the quadrangle. The southeast-flowing Severn and Magothy Rivers and their tributaries drain most of the quadrangle. The southwest part of the quadrangle drains southward into South River. A small area in the extreme northwest part drains northward, entering the Patapsco River south of Baltimore. Another small area, in the extreme northeast part, drains into Chesapeake Bay. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE The stratigraphic units exposed in the Round Bay quadrangle consist mainly of a succession of one group and six sedimentary formations of Cretaceous and Ter- tiary age that range in individual thickness in outcrop from 1 to 33 m and aggregate as much as 128 m. Small deposits of Pleistocene and Holocene age and older alluvium of Pliocene age range in thickness from 1 to 6 m. The thicknesses of the units in the quadrangle and at several locations to the northeast are shown in table 2. The pre-Quaternary sediments are mostly continental clays to gravels at the base and marine silts and sands in the upper part of the section. Locally beds within the formations are cemented by iron oxide into resistant layers and ledges. The Quaternary deposits mostly range in grain size from clay to sand. Gravel is sparse and cobbles and boulders rare: these sediments are largely of locally derived alluvial material but include narrow strips of beach sand and tidal marsh deposits. The exposed units of Cretaceous age are, in ascending order, the upper part of the Potomac Group, the Ma- gothy Formation, the Matawan Formation, and the Severn Formation, a name reintroduced to replace the Monmouth in Maryland. These units are overlain by the Brightseat and Aquia Formations of Paleocene age and by the lower part of the Calvert Formation of Miocene age. LOWER AND UPPER CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS POTOMAC GROUP The Potomac Group consists mostly of continental deposits of gravelly sand, silt, and clay. The name Potomac was first used by McGee in 1886, when he assigned the name Potomac Formation to the sequence of unconsolidated nonmarine sediments along the inner edge of the Coastal Plain in Maryland and Virginia. A few years later the name was raised to group rank by Clark and Bibbens (1897, p. 481) and the stratigraphic sequence making up the Potomac Group was divided in- to four formations: Patuxent, Arundel, Patapsco, and Raritan (oldest to youngest). As studies of plant remains and pollen evolved, ages were assigned by Berry (1910; 1911), Dorf (1952, p. 2169), and Brenner (1963, p. 33). Brenner zoned the Potomac Group, assigning the Patux- ent and Arundel t0 Zone I and the Patapsco to Zone 11 with subdivisions A and B (in ascending order). This was the first attempt at subdividing and refining since Berry established ages based on leaf imprints and plant re- mains in 1911. According to these studies and those by Owens (1969, p. 86—91) and Hansen (1969, p. 1923—1924) in the Maryland area, the accepted ages up to that time seemed to be Early Cretaceous for the Patuxent, Arun- del, and Patapsco stratigraphic units, Late Cretaceous for the Raritan or its equivalent(?) in the Maryland area. As recent definitive palynological studies continued, they led to further refinement of the ages of the Cretaceous section, particularly the lower formations in the northern Atlantic Coastal Plain (fig. 2). Palynology has been a boon in dating these largely continental deposits. In 1969, Doyle (1969, p.9) suggested a younger age (possibly middle Cretaceous) for the Patuxent and Arundel. Wolfe and Pakiser (1971, p. B37) agreed with this age, at least for all except possibly the lower part of the Patuxent. Doyle believed (p. 12, 13) the Patapsco to be almost certainly no older than early Albian, and that it may in fact be younger. Wolfe and Pakiser (p. B37) considered the lower part of the Patapsco to be somewhere in the later half of the Al- bian. The Raritan has been, in part, dated as middle or late Cenomanian (Doyle, 1969, p. 14), which is significantly younger than the typical Patapsco of STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE 5 TABLE 2. —Approm'mate thicknesses of formations and equivalents in outcrop in areas along strike from northeastern New Jersey to southwestern Maryland [See Figure 1 ] Location or Area Saint Lithologic Round Georges Raritan unit Bay Betterton to Odessa Woodstown Columbus Bay Meters Cohansey ________________________________________ —— —— —— 30—40 30—40 20 Kirkwood or Calvert ________________ 15 —— —— 15—25 15—20 1—2 Vincentown or Aq uia _______________ 30-33 25—30 30 10—12 12—15 1 1 Hornerstown-Brightseat ...................... 3—6 0—4 6 6—8 6—9 5 Tinton ____________________________________________ —-—— —— —— —— —— 6 Red Bank .................... 12 6 —— —— 0—15 36 Navesink ____________________ } Severn —— 21—43 52 2—5 8—9 8 Mount Laurel ................................... ‘l —— —— 15—25 7—12 8 Wenonah ........ -- 1—2 —— —— 5—8 8—20 8 Marshalltown "} —-—— 5 5 3—5 3—5 3-4 Englishtown . 0—2 5 5 7 —8 25 43 Woodbury ....................................... 1 6-12 14 8—9 1 5 15 Merchantville ................................... } —— —— —— 15 15 15 Magoth y ......................................... 6—12 9—10 8—10 10 10 60—90 .......................................... —— —— —-— —— ~— 45 Potomac ......................................... 350 225—275 210 70—100 60 —— Maryland. “Older beds [than the Raritan] which pro- mise to close the gap [from lower Albian to Middle Cenomanian] between the Patapsco and Raritan, are becoming known to the south of Raritan Bay and in the subsurface, as are younger beds of presumed Turonian age (South Amboy Fire Clay Member) in the Raritan Bay area” (Doyle, 1969, p. 14). This interval between the Potomac and Raritan, first designated informally as Zone III by Doyle (oral commun., Aug. 4, 1971), is now formally Zone III (Doyle and others, 1975, p. 441. See fig. 3). This places it above Brenner’s Zone II (Doyle, 1969, p. 3). Wolfe and Pakiser (1971, p B38) suggested that the “so-called Raritan of Maryland probably represents the uppermost part of the Patapsco Formation.” It appears that the age of the Potomac Group in the Round Bay quadrangle ranges from late Early Cretaceous to early Late Cretaceous. The Potomac Group crops out over about one-half of the northern half of the Round Bay quadrangle. The thickness of the total section, surface and sub- surface, in the quadrangle is something of the order of 330—350 m. This thickness is based on data from a well drilled in February 1976 on the hill north of Union Church near Herald Harbor (Fred Mack, U.S. Geol. Survey WRD, oral commun., Dec. 7, 1976). Of this section, about the upper 30 m is exposed in the quadrangle. This part of the section consists of alter- nating beds of clay, silt, sand, and gravel, (mostly fine 4—10 mm; sparse pebbles to 40 mm are present locally). It is predominantly light gray to very light gray and yellowish gray but contains a number of yellowish- brown layers and zones of iron-oxide staining. Some moderate reddish-brown to moderate-red clay beds and ironstone layers are present, and some coarse—grained beds contain fragments of clay. Conspicuous bedding, both horizontal and cross, is typical, indicating the fluvial nature of much of the formation. The maturity of the sediments suggests either advanced weathering in the source area or a high-energy depositional environ- ment, or both. Sand constitutes most of that part of the Potomac Group cropping out in the quadrangle. The sands are nearly pure quartz and are mostly loose or weakly ce- mented. Locally some layers are cemented by iron ox— ide. The sands constitute a mature sediment as borne out by the mature suite of heavy minerals, mostly zircon, tourmaline, and rutile. Thorough studies of the heavy minerals have been done by Anderson (1948), Bennett and Meyer (1952), and Groot (1955). Locally, as at El- vaton in the northern part of the quadrangle and Lipins Corner a short distance (1.6 km) to the northeast in the southern part of the Curtis Bay quadrangle, the Poto- mac contains large blocks of cemented sand and fine gravel (fig. 3). Many of the blocks, particularly in the up- per part, are opaline cemented quartz sands. Glaser (1976) favors considering these as relict blocks of the Magothy. Clays are mostly light-gray kaolinite and illite, a rather mature assemblage compatible with the sands. Sparse pyrite concretions are present. The gravels are mature, consisting mostly of rounded quartz and quart- zite pebbles, with a trace of hard chert. The sediments of the Potomac Group were probably deposited by a com- plex river system of channels, flood plains, and cutoff meander swamps. Sparse borings resembling Ophio- morpha nodosa, present near the top, may represent a transition to estuarine or marine environments near the close of Potomac deposition. In the northern part of the quadrangle, Potomac Group sand and clay underlie a gently rolling land sur- 6 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND Berry Brenner Doyle Wolfe and Doyle, Van Campo, (1911) (1963) (1969) Pakiser (1971) and Lugardon (1975) c 1: 1: .2 g .9 g .5 g 9 A t; g o f; g o 1; 1: . A g g ‘5 9e E Age '3 .3 E Age [3 .3 E Age ormatuon ge '8 g E 3 3 o o o 0 LL :0 LL ‘0 u_ :0 LL Turonian A. A, w ". Z 2 m V m m V A, J 1: 3 3 1: 2. 8 g § § :3 , o ._ 1 v 3 g 2 a g c o o o 3 :5 ‘7‘ <3 — 6 ‘— ,_ W L 1. L . l“ 111 (n q) a: a. o. o. n a 11 IV D D D Raritan Cenomanian ‘.—‘ (N.J.) h: a u 0‘ '~ I III E“ N H l '3‘ E W I {fit 'Rarltan : —— ? 7— —--— . ’7 B C ‘1’ 2 o g 8 Patapsco o 8 A B—§ “ 3 ‘ 11 B 8 . "' H 3 0. Alma" g ”___— “ 1 g A 1;.“ Arundel t " ’1) g ‘ 1\. :i.“ _> a“? A °' 1. ,1 a “I ‘1 n w A 3 1 _____ ___ _?__ __ Patuxent ___ 5‘ g; 3 a E 8 3‘ u g o '5 C p "’ 53 E 3 o A ‘ a _ 3 3 W < a ptlan .E g o < ‘ I 1: .. m~ 1,. 3 o :1 3 g 3 8 8 o —1 _a 8 8 ' I 0" H k _____ o ._ w ___ L 1. U U . . Q q, u a is _ is: a a E v 'U 9 x _l _1 3‘ 1“ Barremian g a: I a .5 1. 2 CE 1.1. < n. ——?—— L,, /7- ~ _____ H — ___ E 0 X 1 3 '. .4 .4 m 1: n. w Neocomian ._ § ‘6 m , FIGURE 2 —Ages and stratigraphic positions of units of the Potomac Group and Raritan Fermation as assigned and refined by various palynologists ‘ face, largely occupying the long gentle Slopes from the along the Sévern River from Reund Bay upstream. hilltop capping Magothy down to stream valley bottoms Steep outcrops, 3— 7 m high, are common, particularly below. It‘is best seen in pits, roadcuts, and the cut-banks Where the sand IS cemented by 1ron- -oxide or amorphous STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE 7 FIGURE 3.—Cemented block of sandstone in the Potomac Group near Elvaton. silica or is surface case-hardened. At this time, it is probably best exposed in the 12-m-high cut along the north side of Highway 100, 1.6 km east of ’Elvaton, where alternating beds of fine to coarse sand with pea— size gravel and clay—silt layers crop out in the cut and erosion gullies in its face. MAGOTHY FORMATION _ \The Magothy Formation consists of interbedded sand and lignitic clay, originally named and described by Dar- ton (1893) for the excellent exposures along the Magothy River in the Round Bay quadrangle. The type section probably is at North Ferry Point. The formation has been traced and mapped to the northeast across Delaware and New Jersey to Long Island, N.Y., (fig. 1). The Magothy is much thicker in the Raritan Bay area than in the Round Bay quadrangle. For a more detailed regional discussion of the stratigraphy to the northeast, refer to Owens, Minard, and Sohl (1968), Minard (1974, p. 15—19), Perry and others (1975), and Minard, Owens, and Sohl (1976, p. 15—17;f1gs. 11 and 12). Although the Magothy is much thicker (90 m) at Raritan Bay, it maintains a much thinner and fairly uniform thickness of about 6—12 min outcrop for most of its extent from the vicinity of Columbus, N.J., southwest to the Round Bay quadrangle (table 2). It thins west of the quadrangle and is completely overlapped in outcrop, first by the Matawan, then by the Severn a few miles the subsurface in many wells 1n eastern Maryland but apparently 1s absent 1n the subsurface of southern Vir- ginia(Robbinsand others, 1975, fig. 4; p. 43— 44). w , In age, the Magothy in the Round Bay quadrangle seems to be coeval with the apparently stratigraphically equivalent Cliffwood beds [ohfmthe upper part of the a..-» , Wolfe and Pakiser (1971. p. B43) to be of early Campa— nian Age. Wolfe later (1976, p. 4—5) correlates the Magothy at Severn River with beds in New Jersey below the “Cliffwood beds” (Santonian?) The Magothy typically consists of alternating beds of very fine to fine and medium to coarse, light-gray quartz sand and thin papery to thick blocky layers of medium- gray to generally dark—gray to black clay with much lig- nite and mica concentrated in thin layers and also scat- tered throughout. Thicker clay layers typically have thin partings of fine to very fine white quartz sand. Typically, cross and horizontal stratifications are well developed (figs. 5 and 6). Most of the section is conspicuously bedded sand, with or without thin layers of clay; locally it contains thick (1 m) lenses of clay (fig. 5), pockets or lenses of peaty muck, and many pieces of lignitized wood. Some flattened logs are as much as 10—25 cm across and 1—2 m long. Pyrite crystals and clusters of crystals are common in the lig- nitic material. Much of the sand is cemented by iron 0x- ide into thin and thick resistant layers; some contain branching burrows filled by coarse to very coarse sand. Internal structures such as thin horizontal and cross stratification, the abundance of lignite and peaty material, and the fauna] content suggests both a high- energy depositional environment such as a beach com- plex and tidal-fluvial interface, and a low-energy lagoonal type environment. Tidal flat bedding is of several types, flaser, wavy, and thinly interlayered (rythmites) (Reineck and Singh, 1973, p. 101—108). These types of bedding werezwell exposed in vertical FIGURE 4. —Thick to thin beds and laminae 1n the Magothy Formation. “Thick basal bed of very light gray, cross- stratified, fine to medium sand grades upward into alternating thin beds and laminae of very light gray and yellowish-brown sand, clay, and peat, overlain by dark-gray to grayish-black peaty clay with thin partings of very light gray, very fine to fine sand. Considerable fine- grained ilmenite is present 1n the sand. West shore of the Severn River just northwest of Kyle Point 8 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND FIGURE 5.—Conspicuous cross stratification in the upper part of the Magothy Formation. Grain size ranges from medium to very coarse. Brownish-black material in the cross beds is peat and lignite. Sand is overlain by a layer of dark-gray to grayish-black lignitic clay about 1 m thick. The clay contains much pyrite and thin, very light gray, fine and very fine sand partings. Wall of a pit between Sunrise Beach Road and Gumbottom Branch in the west-central part of the quadrangle. cuts along the shoreline along the west shore of Round Bay about 450 m north of Mathiers Point (fig. 6). A tidal, lagoonal, or estuarine influence is further sug— gested by the presence of certain dinoflagellates. Pollen contained in beds north of Mathiers Point indicate a mixture of Magothy and Englishtown assemblages, sug- gesting that thin erosional remnants of the Englishtown may be locally present in the area. In internal structure and mineralogy, these beds are reminiscent of English- town outcrops in New Jersey. No fossils were found in the Magothy in the quad- rangle, but Glaser (oral commun., April 1976) found mollusks in the formation about 1.6 km southwest of Pigeon House Corner in the Bowie quadrangle, adjacent to the southwest corner of the Round Bay quadrangle. The Magothy underlies the upper land surface of much of the broad interfluves in the northern part of the quadrangle; toward the latitudinal middle, it underlies middle slopes. The formation is best exposed along the northern part of Round Bay and the lower part of Magothy River, where the formation crops out in steep to vertical cuts at and above water level. It can be seen at this time in pits near the headwaters of Branch Creek, where the thickest (8 m) single exposed section crops out as a well-bedded sand (predominantly cross- bedded) containing lenses of dark-gray clay (fig. 5). It is well exposed at North Ferry Point on Magothy River, the west side of Sullivan Cove, and the shore just north- west of Kyle Point (fig. 4) along the northern part of Round Bay. In many places, the broad flat interfluves expose surface layers of thick ironstone. FIGURE 6.—Outcrop of the upper part of the Magothy and lower part of the Matawan Formations north of Mathiers Point. Top of the Magothy Formation is about 0.3 m above the top of the shovel han- dle. Dark clay beds are intercalated with thin beds and laminae of fine to very fine white quartz sand. MATAWAN FORMATION The Matawan Formation consists of firm dark—gray clayey glauconitic quartz sand. This is the earliest ap- pearance of glauconite in the Coastal Plain section. The formation was named for the locality in the north- eastern part of the Coastal Plain in New Jersey (Clark, 1894). The unit was later raised to group rank and divided into five formations — in ascending order: Mer- chantville, Woodbury, Englishtown, Marshalltown, and Wenonah (table 1). Type localities for the five forma- tions are designated at places along nearly the entire ex— tent of the inner Coastal Plain outcrop belt in New Jersey from the northeast to the southwest. The five formations of the Matawan Group in New Jersey aggregate 85 In (table 2) in combined thickness and are easily defined and mapped because they retain their individual identity nearly all the way southwest along the inner Coastal Plain in New Jersey. The total thickness, however, becomes progressively less toward the southwest; from 85 min New Jersey the stratigraph- ic interval occupied by the formations in Delaware has decreased to 23 m (table 2). Thinning continues toward the southwest into Maryland; the total thickness of the Matawan in the Betterton quadrangle, on the Eastern b Shore of Chesapeake Bay, ranges between 16 and 22 m. Prior to 1974 the Maryland Geological Survey did not recognize subdivisions of the Matawan, but Minard (1974) subdivided the Matawan in the Betterton quad- rangle into three formations, Merchantville, English- town, and Marshalltown (table 1). Where traced another 56 km southwest across Chesapeake Bay into Round Bay, it is found to be only 2.4—2.7 m thick, yet thin layers STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE 9 representative of lithologies of several units are still pre- sent. The age of the Matawan in the Round Bay quadrangle is Campanian; it ranges from early Campanian to late Campanian (table 1). The basal 1—2 m of the Matawan is compact dark-gray, very silty and clayey, poorly sorted quartz sand contain- ing sparse glauconite, lignite, and colorless fine mica. Quartz grains range from very fine to very coarse; gran- ules and small pebbles (30—50 mm) are abundant in the basal 30 cm and in borings in the upper part of this sec- tion. These borings typically contain a high percentage of glauconite from overlying beds. Pyrite and selenite crystals are common in unweathered material. Glauco- nite grains are mostly dusky green fine to medium grained, and botryoidal; a few accordian forms are pre- sent. Characteristic heavy minerals include chloritoid, rutile, ilmenite, tourmaline, staurolite, and garnet. This lower 1—2 m—thick section of the Matawan is lith- ologically similar to the sparsely glauconitic facies of the Marshalltown Formation in eastern Maryland and both pollen and dinoflagellates strongly suggest correlation with Marshalltown species and suites. Lying disconformably on the basal 1—1.8 m of Mata- wan is a 0.6—1.2-m thick section of thin-bedded to massive, dark-greenish-gray to greenish-black, highly glauconitic (20—40 percent) quartz sand facies of the Marshalltown Formation (fig. 7). Grain size is mostly fine to medium, but sparse coarse to very coarse grains and granules are present. Both colorless and green mica are common in the upper part of this glauconite-rich sec- tion. Glauconite is mostly fine to medium grained, green, and botryoidal with some accordian forms. Above the glauconite-rich layer is a 0.6—1.2-m sections of the Matawan Formation, which consists of clayey, silty, compact carbonaceous, micaceous quartz sand with sparse glauconite. These upper beds are lithologically similar to the Wenonah Formation. Dinoflagellates in the glauconite bed and overlying beds are mostly the assemblages characteristic of both the Marshalltown and Wenonah Formations in New Jersey. Pollen indicates close correlation of the less glauconitic beds, in the interval with the Wenonah, whereas the more glauconitic beds, lithologically more characteristic of the Marshalltown, contain little pollen, indicating an environment of deposition farther out on the shelf than the probable inner shelf sediments of the Wenonah. Sparse, nondiagnostic pelecypod casts were found in the Matawan beds. Ray Christopher (U.S. Geol. Survey, written commun., January 6, 1977) reported that the pollen content in the basal beds of the Matawan sug- gests basal Merchantville reworked into probable Mar- shalltown. He also states (this report) that beds near Mathiers Point are equivalent to the Englishtown For- FIGURE 7.—Matawan and Severn Formations; shovel spans greenish- black glauconite-rich bed near the top of the Matawan Formation (note irregular basal contact). Beneath the glauconite bed is about 1.8 m of dark-brownish-gray clayey sand at the base of the Matawan. The top of the Magothy (covered) is 0.3 m above high— water level. Northwest side of Long Point near the middle of Round Bay. mation. This agrees with Minard’s statement in the Ma- gothy section that: In internal structure and mineral- ogy, these beds are reminiscent of Englishtown out- crops in New Jersey.” SEVERN FORMATION i REINTRODUCTION OF NAME Minard, Sohl, and Owens reintroduced the name Severn Formation to replace the entire Monmouth For- mation on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay, Md., and to certain correlative units on the Eastern Shore and extending into Delaware. These include the upper part of the Mount Laurel Sand, as mapped and describ- ed by Minard (1974, pl. 1, p. 21—24) in the Betterton quadrangle and at Gregg Neck and Bohemia Mills, Md, and at Odessa, Del. Its type locality is designated the east bank of the Severn River at Round Bay (in the Round Bay, Md., 7 1/2’ quadrangle) 0.64 km north of 10 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND Swan Point. The entire thickness is well exposed here in a single continuous outcrop (fig. 8). The total thickness (about 2.7 m) of the glauconitic gray clayey sand of the Matawan Formation (Campanian) is exposed at the base of the outcrop. It lies directly on the light-gray lignitic sand and clay of the Magothy Formation, the top of which is at high-tide level. Overlying the Matawan is the Severn Formation of Maestrichtian Age; it is 12.6 m thick. The Severn is overlain by a combined thickness of about 9 m of the Brightseat Formation and the lower part of the Aquia Formation, both of Paleocene age. At its type locality the Severn Formation consists of dark- to medium-gray, clayey and silty, poorly sorted, mostly fine- to medium—grained sparsely glauconitic quartz sand containing a fair amount of both very fine and coarse to very coarse quartz grains and granules, colorless mica, and carbonaceous matter. Grain size in- FIGURE 8.—Outcrop of the entire Severn Formation at its type locality north of Swan Point. Top of the Magothy Formation (concealed) lies at the high-water just below line area shown. The 2.7 m of section above this is the Matawan Formation. Above the Matawan is the Severn, 12.6 m thick here. Above the Severn lies about 3.6 m of the Brightseat Formation, capped by about 6 m of the exposed Aquia Formation. creases upward towards the middle of the section, whereas glauconite content decreases upwards through the middle but increases again near the top. Several shell beds or former shell beds are present, and near the top is a distinctive bed of medium- to light-gray clay or clay layers about 30 cm thick. On the Eastern Shore, the Severn Formation is as much as 24 m thick and has at the base a distinctive bed, 2—3 m thick, of very glauconitic, coarse to very coarse quartz sand with granules and small pebbles (Minard, 1974, p. 21—24). The name Severn Formation at the same type locality was originally proposed by Darton (1891, p. 438—439), who included both the Matawan and Monmouth Forma— tions, which included the entire stratigraphic section between the Magothy Formation below and Pamunkey Group (lower Tertiary) above. The Magothy was in- cluded in the Potomac Group until Darton (1893) described it as a formation, and later (1896, p. 124—126) noted that it underlay the Severn, stating (1891, p. 439) that “In Maryland it is a stratigraphic unit, distinctly separable from the New Jersey series as a whole by its homogeneity of constitution; ***”. The point to make here is that in New Jersey the Monmouth can be readily divided into several distinctive lithologic units, whereas in Maryland, although fossils suggest correlation with both the Red Bank Sand and Navesink Formation of New Jersey, lithologic homogeneity does not make it feasible to divide the Monmouth on this basis; rather, it is a lithologic unit unique to Maryland and part of Dela- ware. Contrasted with this is the presence of rocks of distinctively different lithologies in the thin Matawan section, still traceable from New Jersey. Like the Matawan, the Monmouth in New Jersey is thicker than its stratigraphic interval equivalent in Maryland. It is about 58 m thick in its type area and thins to about 24 m in the southwest part of the state. The thinning in New Jersey is largely accounted for by the thinning to extinction in outcrop of the Red Bank Sand and Navesink Formation, partly compen- sated for by the thickening of the Mount Laurel Sand in southern New Jersey and Delaware before it thins again toward Chesapeake Bay (fig. 9). In Delaware and on the Eastern Shore of Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, however the Monmouth interval thickens locally to a maximum thickness of about 51 m. This greater thickness is partly accounted for by the reap- pearance of the Red Bank Sand and possibly the basal part of the Navesink Formation or beds stratigraphic- ally equivalent to these formations but with different source areas. (For a more complete discussion of these beds in Delaware and eastern Maryland, see Minard (1974, p. 21-25)). The thickening here is local; at the west edge of the Betterton quadrangle (fig. 1), a short distance (about 40—45 km) southwest of its maximum 11 STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE .wmocfimmmmmwh was insomnia .3385 @555...“ $5255 ”9.530% :32 Sam .558. 8 .62 Sam 53:5. 80¢ .mcosaEhow 556...; was 968320 23 me 552% $98 oSNEEEwmald amour". wmew—ZOIZV. 0—. O .20me; 50535:: .9390 omEOuon. 0 ON ME WFW S— U¢U_>_U: 3 duo. 0 uaEOVOL Q £3.50 / T / CO— .SES... >50me cot-Eton. >50qu . c2565“. 2.355.035. >30 >._:n.DOO>> 059.50 u. c3352mcm c . €039.55“. $55.4 p01 : 2:330 m r. OVCOOFZ. > 5:0 Es Ciel coin :o_umE5u. Cozmo 5:53.55. 29552.5 cotauuwm 5:25.22 0.52630 .mflotOlfich 6.9.9535 2952.3. ucw 3323350 23. 5:30.". >353 262 .o.mcu5wzo :Eounuoog >wm..m_. 262 6.9.5.335 >_.oI 250.2 >om._o_. 262 23.5.. 262 6.9.5.835 :o>wmoom 6.9.5525 xooI >ucum >mm 53.5.". wZ >>m 12 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND thickness, the section is only 18 m thick (Minard, 1974, p. 10 and fig. 6). In the Round Bay quadrangle (fig. 1), 56 km farther southwest from the Betterton quadrangle, the section has thinned to about 14 m, partly owing to the continued thinning of the Mount Laurel from its maximum thickness in southern New Jersey and Dela- ware. The basal part of the Severn is mostly medium- to dark-gray, silty, poorly sorted, fine to medium glauconitic quartz sand containing a fair amount of both very fine and coarse quartz grains, colorless mica, and ilmenite, and sparse lignite. Grain size in— creases upward toward the middle of the 12.6-m-thick section, where there is a fair amount of coarse to very coarse quartz grains and granules. Three “shell” beds are present locally; one in the bottom meter, one near the middle of the section, and one near the top. The “shells” are mostly iron—oxide- coated casts and molds in the clayey sand; a few out- crops contain calcareous shells. Pieces of lignite are commonly associated with the shell beds, as is pyrite. Glauconite is present throughout the section, but varies widely in amount; it decreases upward from a fair amount (1-2 percent) in the base, to a trace (less than 1 percent) within the next 7.5 m. From about 8 m above the base, glauconite content increases upward to about 1—2 percent. Near the top of the Severn Formation is a distinc- tive bed of montmorillonitic clay. This clay appears to occur continuously throughout the entire area of the Severn outcrop in the Round Bay quadrangle and was seen as far to the southwest as the west bank of the Patuxent River in the Bowie quadrangle (fig. 1); it typically occurs as fragments and thin discontinuous layers in an interval about 30 cm thick 1 m from the top of the Severn. It was found, in one outcrop along the Severn River just south of Rugby Hall, to be as much as 1 m thick. At this outcrop the entire vertical interval occupied by the clay layer is nearly all clay rather than thin layers and fragments in a sand matrix. The clay itself is bedded but has little sand in- terlayed or intermixed, as is typical in most outcrops. One of the most distinctive features of the clay bed is its color. Beds above and below the clay may vary from essentially unweathered grayish black and dark gray to oxidized medium light gray and brownish gray, but the clay generally is medium light gray to light gray. Only rarely, where the enclosing beds are oxidized to moderate and light brown, is the clay ox- idized to shades of brown, then generally only sur- ficially. Being somewhat more coherent, the exposed edge of the clay bed more nearly approaches verticali- ty than the containing beds, and thereby forms a visi- ble break-in-slope feature in many outcrops. Lithologically, the Severn is distinguished from the Matawan mainly by a generally coarser grain size par- ticularly more very coarse grains and granules, less glauconite, more mica, its shell beds, and the distinc- tive clay bed near the top. Where weathered, the Severn ranges in color from medium gray to shades of brownish gray. The southwest thinning of the thick “Red Bank sands” in Monmouth County, N.J., was early recognized by Clark (1898, p. 185), who stated that they do not occur in southern New Jersey, but reappear in Delaware and the eastern counties of Maryland, where their characteristic fea- tures are again developed and where they have a thickness in the Sas- safras River basin of about sixty feet. They decline somewhat in thick- ness toward the Chesapeake Bay, and upon the western shore of the Chesapeake cannot be distinguished from other members of the Mon- mouth Formation. Although the Severn Formation in the Round Bay quadrangle paleontologically correlates with both the Red BanH Sand and the Navesink Formation of New Jersey, it is lithologically more similar to the Red Bank Sand. The Mount Laurel Sand does not seem to crop out at the base of the Severn in the Round Bay quadrangle as it did in the Betterton quadrangle and to the north- east. Minard (1974) mapped the Monmouth as Mount Laurel in the Betterton quadrangle on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay. He also speculated on sub- dividing it into the Mount Laurel and Red Bank, with possibly a thin remnant of the Navesink lying between the two (Minard, 1974, p. 21—24, and Minard and others, 1976, p. 40—41). With continued tracing and mapping of the units farther southwest into the Round Bay quad- rangle and on nearly to Washington (fig. 1), further discussion on correlation seems necessary, particularly of the lower part of the Severn. In the Betterton report (Minard, 1974), discussion of the Monmouth interval (Severn) included descriptions of a “persistent distinctive bed of glauconite-rich coarse sand, 8 to 10 feet thick ***” (p. 21). This bed, seen in outcrop or located in the subsurface at several places on the Eastern Shore of Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and in Delaware (Minard, 1974, p. 21—24), was tentatively correlated with the lower part of the Navesink Forma- tion. The bed was not found as a recognizable entity in the Round Bay quadrangle, but it may be present as a thinner, less glauconitic nearer shore unit in the Lanham quadrangle adjacent to the west of the Bowie quadrangle (fig. 1). The bed crops out in an overgrown cut along the north side of US. Route 50 just west of Lottsford Vista Road 2.6 km east of the Beltway (Inter- state 495), where the Severn lies directly on the light- olive-gray to dusky-red clay of the Potomac Group. There is no Matawan or Magothy here. The basal 1 m of the Severn is dark-greenish-gray, glauconitic (1—2 per- STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE 13 cent), fine to very fine quartz sand. Above this basal part is a section of about 1 m which is similar in lithology ex- cept that it contains, in addition, many greenish rounded quartz granules and pebbles as much as 4 cm in di- ameter. The pebbles are quartz and quartzite and are distinctively stained green, possibly as a result of leach- ing of the glauconite by ground water and partial repre- cipitation on the pebbles. The fact that the gravel is much coarser than that in the bed on the east shore of Chesapeake Bay may result from its being much nearer the Piedmont and the abundant gravel in the Potomac Group, from which the gravel probably was derived. This is suggested by the mature orthoquartzitic nature of the pebbles that is characteristic of the gravel in the Potomac Group, as compared with a lesser percentage of mature material typical of the gravel derived directly from the Piedmont and Valley and Ridge detritus. The gravel bed is overlain by dark-gray, micaceous, silty, fine to very fine grained sideritic and iron- crusted quartz sand. This interval is very fossiliferous; most fossils are present as molds and casts, and many are coated by iron oxide. The fossils include Pync- nodontes, Exogyra, Turm'tella (Bilim), and some bel- emnites. According to Sohl (oral commun., Feb. 8, 1977), the age range is about equivalent to the lower and middle parts of the Navesink. Although this bed may be equivalent to coarse sands in the middle of the Red Bank Sand in New Jersey, the “Transitional units” of Minard (1964), correlation with the lower part of the Navesink seems best, both lithically and on age. The depositional environment for the Severn Forma- tion appears to have been mostly inner shelf, as in- dicated by its lithology and fossil content. One local distinctive lithologic constituent is the siderite, general- ly in the upper part of the section. It may occur as spherical concretionary masses or “doughnuts” 1 m in diameter, or as large slabs as much as 40 cm thick and 3.6 m long, these slabs crop out near water level at Rughby Hall. Another horizon of smaller concretions oc- curs near the top of the formation, about 5.4 m higher, in the same outcrop. The Severn Formation crops out across the central part of the quadrangle. It forms steep outcrops along the shores of Round Bay and underlies stream-valley bottoms and intermediate slopes back from the water. Locally it underlies isolated flat-topped interfluves. The Severn is best exposed in the banks along the shores of Round Bay. It crops out at several places, along the south side of the bay and also on the narrow peninsula at the mouth of Brewer Pond where a bed of calcareous shells and siderite concretions are near water level. The age of the Severn in the Round Bay quad- rangle is early Maestrichtian. The Severn equivalent in Delaware, the upper meter of the upper part of the Monmouth, crops out along Drawyers Creek, just west of Odessa, Del. (fig. 1). That part of the Monmouth, above the Mount Laurel and equivalent to the Severn, crops out between this place and Bohemia Mills, Md., 9 km west of Odessa. This part of the Monmouth, about 24 m thick, has a coarse glauconitic sand bed at its base. It is overlain at Drawyers Creek by the glauconitic Hornerstown Sand of Paleocene age. In this area, Osburn and Jordan (1975, p. 162) place the quartz sand, below the typical Horners- town glauconite sand, in the Hornerstown on the basis of foraminifera. Christopher and May report (oral com- mun., June 25, 1975) pollen and dinoflagellates from this interval, some of which are restricted to the Cretaceous. For a more detailed discussion, refer to Minard, Owens, and Sohl (1976, p. 42—43). TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY ROCKS BRIGHTSEAT FORMATION The Brightseat Formation mapped on the west side of Chesapeake Bay consists of dark-gray silty and clayey, fine quartz sand. The unit was first proposed as a forma- tion by Bennett and Collins (1952), who reported it to be as much as 15—23 m thick. At its type locality in Mary- land, several kilometers northeast of the farthest east- ern part of the District of Columbia, it is about 7.5 m thick. The Brightseat is the lowermost Tertiary unit in the area; it occupies the same approximate stratigraphic position here that the Hornerstown Sand does in New Jersey and in the northern part of the Salisbury embay- ment (at least as far southwest as the Betterton quad- rangle). In outcrop in the Round Bay quadrangle, the Brightseat ranges in thickness from 3—6 m near the up- dip limit of the formation; it is thicker downdip and to the southwest. According to Hazel (1968, fig. 2, p. 106), the Brightseat is early to middle Danian in age on the basis of ostracods; the Hornerstown is partly equivalent in age, however the uppermost part of the Hornerstown may be late Danian on the basis of foraminifera; therefore, it is younger than the Brightseat. The Brightseat Formation is medium gray to medium dark gray and dark greenish gray where unweathered, brownish gray where weathered. It is mostly fine- grained, glauconitic micaceous quartz sand. It contains some medium quartz sand and some coarse to very coarse grains and granules scattered throughout, par— ticularly in the base where there also are some pebbles and pieces of lignitized wood. Glauconite is generally more abundant (several percent) in the Brightseat For- mation than in the underlying Severn Formation and is more distinct morphologically; a considerable number of accordian or concertina grain forms are present. A dis- 14 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND tinctive lithic characteristic of the basal meter is the presence of many moderate-green, flat to curved, thin (1/4—1/2 mm) fragments of illite and kaolinite several mil- limeters across. Mica, more abundant here than in the underlying Severn, is mostly colorless muscovite but with much green chloritized mica. Many animal borings characterize the formation, par— ticularly near the top. They commonly are filled by cleaner and coarser material than that in the formation surrounding them. Glauconite content usually is con- siderably higher in these borings; the glauconite being largely derived from the overlying Aquia Formation. Because of the fossils and lithology, it seems likely that the sediments were deposited in a nearshore environ- ment such as estuaries and lagoons. Ostracods in the formation have been discussed in detail by Hazel (1968), foraminifera by Loeblich and Tappan (1957). Some features of the basal contact of the Brightseat Formation suggest an unconformity. At some places the contact lies about a meter above the gray clay layer near the top of the underlying Severn Formation; at other places, the contact is near the top of the clay layer. Locally there is a considerable amount of lignitic material and pebbles in the base of the Brightseat sediments. The thin green clay fragments in the basal part may partly result from reworking of such material or crusts from dessication polygons. Benson (1975) studied the dinoflagellates in detail across the Creta- ceous-Tertiary boundary, he concluded (p. 19) that an “unconformable relationship” was indicated and “a paraconformity exists at the Cretaceous—Tertiary boundary in the Round Bay, Maryland area.” The Brightseat Formation crops out mainly as narrow bands along steep to moderate slopes. The best outcrops can be seen in the bluffs along the shores of Round Bay, particularly on the south and east shores (fig. 10). AQUIA FORMATION The Aquia Formation is dark-greenish-gray, fine to medium and coarse glauconitic quartz sand. Its type locality is at Aquia Creek in Virginia, where it is reported to be about 30 m thick, about the same thick- ness as in the Round Bay quadrangle. It occupies about the same stratigraphic position as the Vincentown For- mation to the northeast and is lithologically and faunally similar. Minard (1974) mapped the Aquia stratigraphic interval as Vincentown in the Betterton quadrangle on the Eastern Shore of Chesapeake Bay, as did Pickett and Spoljaric (1971) in Delaware. The Aquia is of Paleocene age and overlies the Bright— seat disconformably (Hazel, 1969, p. C64) in the area west of Chesapeake Bay. The Aquia is medium to dark gray and dark greenish gray where unweathered; where weathered it is various FIGURE 10.—Exposure of the Brightseat Formation at Arnold Point. The fragmental clay layer near the top of the Severn Formation is exposed at and just above high-water level. shades of brown and gray, moderate reddish brown, moderate yellowish brown, light greenish gray, grayish orange, moderate brown, light olive gray, and dusky yellow. It is mostly fine- to medium-grained glauconitic quartz sand containing a few coarse to very coarse grains in the lower part. Average grain size and glauconite content increase upward. Coarse to very coarse quartz grains and granules are abundant in the middle to upper part of the formation and some small (to 20 mm) pebbles are present. Mica generally is sparse but locally is abundant in layers; it is mostly muscovite but it includes con- siderable green chloritized mica. Glauconite content ranges from several percent in the basal part to as much as 30 percent in the middle and up- per parts. Except for the thin (1 m) glauconite bed in the Matawan, the Aquia is the most glauconitic formation in the quadrangle. Other than the Potomac, it is also the thickest. The glauconite mostly consists of moderate green to greenish black, medium to coarse botryoidal grains and some tabular grains. Some weathered sec- tions of the formation are clean, loose, light-gray to light-greenish-gray quartz sand speckled with green grains of glauconite. Other weathered sections contain reddish—brown sand and thin to thick layers of iron- oxide-cemented sand, commonly resistant, forming ver- tical outcrops and protruding ledges (fig. 11). Fossil imprints are common in the ironstone layers. Some un- weathered sections consist of dark gray to dark- greenish-gray, firm glauconitic, micaceous quartz sand. The Aquia probably was deposited in an inner shelf to nearshore depositional environment. The coarse- grained nature of the upper part suggests a moderately high energy zone. The Aquia is in general very fossili- ferous, both megafossils and microfossils are abundant. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE 15 FIGURE 11.—Iron-oxide-cemented layers and ledges in the Aquia For—i mation. Oph'iomorpha nodosa burrows of the callianassid shrimp are common in the sand. Extreme southwest part of the quadrangle. Exogym, pectens, Ostrea, Venem’cardia, and Glycymer- is are common megafossils. Foraminifers and ostracods are generally abundant in the unweathered sediment. Ophz'o’momha nodosa, burrows of the callianassid shrimp are common, particularly in the upper half of the forma- tion. Such burrows indicate a littoral depositional envi- ronment. The Aquia crops out in the southern half of the quad- rangle where it forms steep bluffs along the Severn River. Back from the river, it underlies a well—dissected hilly landform with irregular ridge lines and hilltops in- cised by many erosion gullies. It is well exposed in the high bluffs along the southern part of Round Bay and along the Severn River south of Round Bay. The Aquia forms nearly all of the highest bluff along the Severn river (fig. 12) a 36-m high on the east shore of the river just south of Arnold Point. The basal part of the bluff, approximately 4.5 m, is Brightseat; the rest, Aquia. Prominent ironstone ledges form the base of a nearly vertical section of the upper 12—15 m of the bluff. These ledges contain many oyster shell imprints and Ophio- morpha nodosa tubes. The upper 4.5 m is nearly all iron oxide-cemented sand, mostly thin layers. The face of the upper bluff retreated 1.5 m in the 10 years 1965 to 1975, mainly through frost-riving, root- wedging, and loss of support of fracture blocks by gravi- ty creep and flowing of loose underlying sand. The soil developed on the Aquia is mostly fairly loose and sandy. Ironstone fragments litter the ground on many steep slopes and narrow ridge tops. A distinctive green clayey glauconite soil forms at some horizons where glauconite content is high. Such a soil can be seen at the top of the highest bare bluff on the south side of Round Bay. It is mostly a mottled blocky green glauco— nite clay with quartz grains throughout; most grains of FIGURE 12,—Highest bluff (36 m) in the Round Bay quadrangle. Nearly all the Aquia Formation and about 4.5 m of the Brightseat Forma- tion (base of bluff) is exposed. Much ironstone is in the upper part, including many casts and molds of pelecypod shells and Ophiomor- pha nodosa. Southeast of Arnold Point. glauconite have been weathered to a green clay similar to soils on the Hornerstown Sand in New Jersey. CALVERT FORMATION The Calvert Formation in the Round Bay quadrangle typically is yellowish-gray, fine to very fine grained quartz sand. Its type locality is Calvert Cliffs in southern Maryland on the west shore of Chesapeake Bay, where it is about 54 m thick. In the early 1900’s (Shattuck, 1904, p. 22—24) divided it into two members: the lower Fairhaven Diatomaceous Earth Member and the upper Plum Point Marl Member. Only the lower 15 m of the formation is present in the Round Bay quadrangle. The Calvert occupies nearly the same stratigraphic position that the Kirkwood Formation does in New Jersey to the northeast. It is of Miocene age, probably early Miocene. In the Round Bay quadrangle, it un- conformably overlies the Aquia Formation. In the Round Bay quadrangle, the Calvert is highly weathered. It ranges in color from moderate and light brown to yellowish and pale moderate yellowish brown, light gray to yellowish gray and grayish yellow, and very pale orange, grayish orange, and dark yellowish orange. It is fairly uniform texturally and mineralogically, most- ly a silty and clayey very fine to fine grained quartz sand; colorless mica, ilmenite, and feldspar are all com- mon. Some medium quartz grains are scattered in the lower meter. Some glauconite is present in the very basal part as a result of reworking from the underlying Aquia Formation. No fossils were found in the forma- tion in the quadrangle, probably because it was highly weathered; where less weathered it is abundantly fossil- iferous. Diatomaceous earth, in varying amounts, is a l6 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND well-known constituent of the lower part of the Calvert in its type area. In appearance, outcrop pattern, age, and lithology, the Calvert is very similar to the Kirk- wood Formation of New Jersey. The Calvert forms isolated caps on more than 60 ridges and small hills in the southern part of the quadrangle. It is best exposed in roadcuts. Several small good exposures of the basal contact are noted on the map (pl. 1) by triangular pointers. The contact relation is sharp; the yellowish-gray to dark-yellowish-orange and light-brown fine quartz sand of the Calvert lies directly on the light-olive-brown to light-olive-gray to olive-gray glauconitic quartz sand of the Aquia. Thin layers of ironstone are common at the contact (fig. 13). FIGURE 13.——Pen marks typical contact between the Calvert Forma- tion of Miocene age and the underlying Aquia Formation of Paleocene age in the Round Bay quadrangle. The basal part of the Calvert is clayey, very fine grained quartz sand and silt. Colors in the Calvert range from pale brown to yellowish brown and light and moderate brown to yellowish orange, contrasting sharply with the light-olive-brown to grayish-olive-green medium quartz sand of the Aquia below. Thin ironstone layers are common in the upper part of the Aquia. Roadcut northeast of the gatehouse at the entrance to Sherwood Forest (location marked on pl. 1). The lower contact of the Calvert is the most irregular formational boundary in the quadrangle. In the line of small hills on the blunt-ended peninsula just northwest from Sherwood Forest, the base differs in elevation by as much as 4.5 m nearly along strike. There is no Calvert on hill 211 (elev. ft; 64 m) just northeast from Water- bury, but it caps the upland surface adjacent to the northeast, at an elevation 12 m lower than the top of hill 211. The differences in elevation probably result from deposition of the Calvert sediments in channels or scours in the surface of the underlying Aquia Forma- tion. According to Gibson (1962), the Calvert Formation represents deposition in shallow marine water. TERTIARY (P) ALLUVIUM There is very little alluvium mantling the surface in the Round Bay quadrangle as is typical in many of the nearby Coastal Plain areas. In the Betterton quad— rangle, on the Eastern Shore of Chesapeake Bay, at least three-fourths of the surface is thickly mantled by alluvium, locally as much as 52 m thick. In the Round Bay quadrangle, there are only a few pre-Holocene alluvial deposits. They may be Pliocene in age, or con- ceivably, in part, of late Miocene age. The highest remnant of one of these deposits caps a small hill above 18 m elevation a short distance west of the west shore of Little Round Bay. The material in the deposit, about 1.8 m in maximum thickness, is well weathered, yellowish-brown, loosely to firmly cemented glauconitic quartz sand containing pebbles as large as 2—3 cm; small pebbles, 5—12 mm are common. Clay is present as fragments. A small alluvial deposit mapped in the west central part of the quadrangle includes a basal quartz-pebble layer underlying a silty glauconitic quartz sand that caps the hilltop and drapes down the slope as a result of creep. The deposit ranges in thickness from 1 m at its periphery to possibly 3—4.5 m at the hilltop. A third deposit lies against the nose of a ridge along Bacon Ridge Branch in the extreme southwest corner of the quadrangle. The deposit consists of horizontally and cross—bedded, very glauconitic quartz sand with consid- erable ilmenite. Grain size ranges from very fine sand in thick beds to medium, coarse, and very coarse sand and granules in medium to thin beds. Small pebbles to 16 mm in length are common. The alluvium is light olive gray to moderate and light brown. The deposit is as much as 7.5 m thick. A fourth deposit mapped as Tertiary alluvium caps the flat-topped peninsula west of Sullivans Cove at the north end of Round Bay. The deposit consists of 3 m of fine- grained, sparsely glauconitic, highly ilmenitic quartz sand overlying the Matawan Formation. The adjacent quadrangles to the west and southwest DINOFLAGELLATE-ACRITARCH PALYNOLOGY 17 contain the broad, thick deposits of the Patuxent River valley. These are clean sands and gravels as much as 9 m thick. QUATERNARY SEDIMENTS Sediments of Holocene age in the quadrangle are generally thin and of small areal extent; therefore the different types of deposits are mapped undifferentiated, represented by one symbol. Most of the sediments in the deposits are derived locally, largely from the underlying and adjacent formations. Deposits included in the Holocene are alluvium along present streams and small tidal deltas and estuarine deposits at the mouths of streams, both tidal and fresh water marsh deposits, and small beach, bar, and spit deposits of sand. Most of these deposits probably are on- ly 1—2 thick; a few, such as the tidal marsh deposits at Maynedier Creek, may be 3—5 m thick. All deposits, ex— cept the beach sand, contain much organic matter. A deposit of clean medium- to coarse—glauconitic quartz sand, mapped as Quaternary sediments (Qs) at South Ferry Point, is possibly as much as 6—9 m thick and probably is the largest and thickest such deposit in the quadrangle. This deposit may be of Pleistocene age. STRUCTURE The formations in the quadrangle strike northeaster— ly, ranging from about N 50°F] to N 70°E. The forma- tions of Cretaceous age have the more northerly trend, the younger formations of Tertiary age the more easter- ly; the Calvert Formation, of Miocene age strikes more easterly than all the underlying formations. No accurate measurements were obtained for the Potomac Group, but it probably dips more steeply than the overlying for- mations. The more easterly the strike, the shallower the dip. As basin subsidence progressed, the center of maximum downwarp apparently migrated shoreward or north- ward with a resultant easterly shift of strike. This same upward shallowing of dip and easterly migration of strike exists in the Coastal Plain in New Jersey. The Cretaceous formations above the Potomac Group in the Round Bay quadrangle dip about 6.3—7 .2 m/km toward the southeast. The lower Tertiary units dip about 5.4—6.3 m/km southeastward. Dips measured on the base of the Calvert Formation (Miocene) are quite ir- regular, ranging from 0—3.6 m/km toward the southeast. These strikes and dips compare closely with those in the Coastal Plain in New Jersey. ECONOMIC ASPECTS Large quantities of ground water are available in the Round Bay quadrangle, particularly in sand beds in the Potomac Group and Magothy Formation. Good quality mortar sand is dug from the Magothy just south of Sunrise Beach in the west-central part of the quadrangle. A considerable amount of fill material is a byproduct of the mortar sand operation. Large pits in sands of the Potomac Group in the northwestern part of the quadrangle attest to the exten- sive previous use of this material and suggest potential for the future (fig. 14). Perhaps one of the most valuable natural resources is the land frontage along the shores of the Severn and Magothy'Rivers where lots typically cost as much as the houses built on them. DINOFLAGELLATE-ACRITARCH PALYNOLOGY By Fred E. May Well preserved and diverse dinoflagellate and acri- tarch assemblages were recovered from all samples (fig. 15) collected at Round Bay localities 6 and 11A. Local- ity 11A is the type section of the Severn Formation (fig. 8), locality 6 is just north of 11A. Biostratigraphic com— parisons of these assemblages with other assemblages reported or observed from the Atlantic Coastal Plain and Europe suggest that the formations studied at Round Bay are of Campanian, Maestrichtian, and Dani- an Age and that deposition was generally under open marine conditions. BRIGHTSEAT FORMATION Benson (1975) reported on the dinoflagellates and ac- ritarchs of the Severn (Monmouth) and Brightseat For- mations of Round Bay, concluding that the Brightseat is FIGURE 14.—Large sandpit in the Potomac Group southeast from Elvaton. The pit floor covers at least 40 hectares. 18 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND 17 16 — _ R1081C 15 — — _ Brightseat Brightseat . 14 _ Formation R1081B Formation _ clay layer clay layer 13 — _. R1081A 12 — _ 11 — — 1O - _ m 9 _ Severn Severn E (Monmouth) (Monmouth) _ 5 Formation Formation 5 8 - _ 7 — _ 6 - _ 5 _ _ 4 '— . -‘ D R1096 3 - Wenonah- Wenonah - Marshalltown interval Marshalltown interval 2 B (marine unit) R1112 (marine unit) R1111 R1095 1 f . R1110 _ Magothy Formatlon Magothy Formation 0 RB-6 RB-1 1A FIGURE 15. — Profiles of bluffs showing locations of samples RB-G and RB-l 1A studied by May. of Paleocene age. Whitney (1976) reaffirmed this age assignment for the Brightseat south of Washington, DC, suggesting that the dinoflagellates present there are of Danian Age. The Brightseat assemblages observ- ed by May from samples R1081B and C collected at Round Bay locality RB-l 1A are basically as reported by Benson (1975). They also show strong similarities to Da- mian-equivalent assemblages from the US Geological Survey’s Clubhouse Crossroads core drilled in Dorches- ter County near Charleston, SC, (depth 198—244 In). Characteristic species are: Defiandrea dilwynensis Cookson and Eisenack 1965 D. magnified Stanley 1965 D. pammcea Stanley 1965 D. phosphoritica Eisenack 1938 D. pulchra Benson 1977 Palaeocystodim'um golzowense Alberti 1961 Trichodimum hirsutum Cookson 1965 SEVERN FORMATION A comparison of Severn Formation assemblages at Round Bay with assemblages of northern New Jersey indicates an age correlation with the middle part of the Navesink Formation (fig. 16). May (1976) reported on the dinoflagellate assemblages from the Monmouth Group, Atlantic Highlands, N.J., correlating the Navesink with the lower type Maestrichtian of Holland (foraminifera zones B and C of Hofker, 1956, 1957, 1962, 1966; Belemnella ex gr. lanceolata and lower Bel- mnitella ex gr. junior zones of Schmid, 1959) (fig. 16A). It appears that the Severn Formation of Round Bay (samples E, F, and H of locality RB—6 and sample R1081A of locality RB—11A would correlate with parts of these same zones and that the unit is early Maestrich- tian in age (figs. 16B and C). The concurrent ranges of 10 species common at both Round Bay and Atlantic Highlands provide the basis for correlating the Severn DINOFLAGELLATE-ACRITARCH PALYNOLOGY 19 of Round Bay with the middle part of the Navesink For- mation, in the middle of the Monmouth Group. Deflandrea cordtfera May 1977 D. speciosa Alberti 1959 Dinogymnium elongatum May 1977 D. westmlium (Cookson and Eisenack) Evitt et al. 1967 Diversispz’na truncata Benson 197 7 Hexagomfera chlamydata Cookson and Eisenack 1962 Ophiobolus lapidaris O. Wetzel 1933 Spongodimum delitiense (Ehrenberg) Deflandre 1936 Trichodimum cf. T. hirsutum Cookson 1965 Trithyrodmium pentagonum May 1976 (manuscript species) I MARINE UNITS UNDERLYING THE SEVERN FORMATION Samples were collected from a 3-m-thick sequence of marine strata between the Severn and Magothy Forma- tions, not previously documented paleontologically, at RB—6 and RB-llA (fig. 15, pl. 1). All samples contained highly diverse dinoflagellate and acritarch assemblages that differ markedly from those seen in the overlying Severn. Of the approximately 60 species observed in the upper part of this marine unit, only about 20 extend up- ward into the Severn. Species observed in this interval that appear distinctive and may be helpful in differen- tiating it from the Severn are: Amphidinium Mitratum Vozzhennikova 1967 Deflandrea cf. D. balcattensz's Cookson and Eisenack 1969 . mam May 1977 . cf. D. rhombica Cookson and Eisenack 1974 . spicata May 1977 . spicata subsp. 1 . cf. D. Sve'rdrupirma Manum 1963 D. victoriensis Cookson and Manum 1964 Gillema hymenophe’ra Cookson and Eisenack 1960 Litosphaeridz'um siphonophorum (Cookson and Eisenack) Davey and Williams 1966 Odontochitma costata Albert 1961 O. operculata (O. Wetzel) Deflandre and Cookson 1955 Palaeohystrichophora infusorioides Deflandre 1935 Phobe’rocysta ceratz‘oides (Deflandre) Davey and Verdier 1971 Schizocystia laem'gata Cookson and Eisenack 1962 Spimdmium lanternum Cookson and Eisenack 1964 ?Svalbardella sp. Wilson 1971 UUEEU Sample R1112 from RB—l 1A yielded the most diverse assemblage from the marine unit underlying the Severn Formation, having more than 100 species of dinoflagel- lates and acritarchs. This sample, about 1.2 m above the Magothy Formation, has an assemblage that is striking- ly similar to one observed in the middle part of the Mar- shalltown Formation of Irish Hill, N.J. Species common to both localities are: Amphid’inium mitratum Vozzhennikova 1967 Deflandrea asymmetrical Wilson 1967 . cf. D. balcattensz's Cookson and Eisenack 1969 D. cf. D. rhombica Cookson and Eisenack 197 4 D. rhombovalis Cookson and Eisenack 1970 D. D. b omata May 1977 spicata May 197 7 D. victoriensis Cookson and Manum 1964 Dinogymnium digitus (Deflandre) Evitt et al. 1967 I nversidmium caudatum Benson 197 7 Palaeohystrichophora infusorioides Deflandre 1935 .9 Svalbardella sp. Wilson 1971 Trithyrodim’um robustum Benson 1977 New genus A, Benson 1977 New genus B, Benson 1977 Sample C from RB—6 contains many of the same species seen in sample R1112, suggesting a similar cor- relation. The presence of Amphidmium mitratum and Defian- d'r'ea spicata subsp. 1 in the upper half of the marine unit (samples C and D of locality RB—6 and samples R1112 and R1096 of locality RB—11A) suggests that the inter- val could correlate with the Marshalltown-Wenonah in- terval of Irish Hill, N.J. and the Marshalltown-Wenonah equivalents in the core hole at Clubhouse Crossroads, Dorchester County, near Charleston, SC. (core depths 310—400 m.) The lower half of the 3-m thick marine unit at RB—6 (samples A and B) and locality RB—11A (sam- ples R1110, R1095, R1111) lacks A. mitratum and D. spicata subsp. 1 and bears somewhat different peridin- ioid and gonyaulacoid complexes. Whether this differ- ence reflects a change in environment or time is difficult to determine at present. Some forms restricted to this lower half of the marine unit have been reported in coastal plain sediments considered to be as old as the Merchantville equivalent (lower Campanian). Because of the preliminary state of dinoflagellate—acritarch biostra— tigraphy in some of the Coastal Plain units, further work is needed before specific conclusions can be made. At this time, it seems reasonable to consider at least the up- per 1.8 m of the marine unit underlying the Severn For- mation to be Marshalltown through Wenonah equiva- lent. The possibility that the Mount Laurel equivalent is present cannot be ruled out. Although the dinoflagellate assemblages from the upper part of the Mount Laurel 20 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND Sand of northern New Jersey have been documented (May 1976, 1977) and appear distinctively different from these assemblages at Round Bay, the assemblages from the lower part of the Mount Laurel have not been docu- mented. The concurrent ranges of several species noted at Round Bay suggest a general correlation with upper Campanian sedimentary rocks from the Grand Banks of Nova Scotia (Williams and Brideaux, 1975) and the up- per Campanian sedimentary rocks of Holland and Den- mark (Wilson, 1974). This similarity is best seen in samples from the upper 1.8 m of the Round Bay marine unit beneath the Severn; it is much less striking in the lower 1.2 m. It is hoped that further work will resolve the age relations of the entire unit. Species suggesting a late Campanian Age for the upper part of the unit are: Amphidimum mitratum Vozzhennikova 1967 Australiella surlykt' Wilson 1971 (manuscript species) "' Deflandrea victoriensis Cookson and Manum 1964 Eurysphaem'ddum glabrum Wilson 1971 (manuscript species) Odontochitina costata Alberti 1961 Palaeohystrichophora infusorioides Deflandre 1935 Phoberocysta ceratioides (Deflandre) Davey and Verdier 1971 ?Svalbardella sp. of Wilson 1971 Trichodim'um castanea (Deflandre) Clark and Verdier 1967 CRETACEOUS POLLEN By Raymond A. Christopher At Round Bay, where the entire post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous section is about 15 m thick (as compared with a thickness of about 143 m for the same section in New Jersey), age determinations are constrained by two factors. First, marine invertebrate megafossils are scarce in many units or absent. Second, as reported by Owens and Sohl (1969), the Cretaceous and Tertiary de- posits of the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain display a cyclic pattern of sedimentation that reflects a series of marine transgressions and regressions. As a result, lithologic units from different cycles, and therefore of different ages, but which represent the same stage in the cycle, commonly display similar mineralogies, tex— tures, and sedimentary structures. Because of poor megafossil control and because many of the post- Magothy Upper Cretaceous beds exhibit similarities in lithology, palynologic examinations were made of three sections in order to compare ages of the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous lithologic units at Round Bay with Atlantic Highlands, “pl; 3::tis1zr1iftiigion NewJersey ’ Holland A E A II) as? =5 ~ .2; " 5 a... .1 ~31 '62 N on "-1 a; 5 a a3 12% a ‘52 w 51 = °“ 5‘5 5 § “‘1: 2 § ‘33 -':.' 3 3% mg g 3: :2. g c a x: =5 '3 ‘5 (:3 6:: a: 5 E ‘5 g a '° ¥ E '58: Egg g "5 § E § § § 3 .522 figs 5, § § 3 :3 .E =1 Q «Eh-0‘ ENE at 'E u a s s E E 3.42:: 32:: ‘s s 3 3 = c 9, r4 NI: * fl'a . = o a, a a g; Q g 2": 2 = G g S u E 3 3 .52 HEB g 3 3 a S. ': ': ”839‘”2§;°u g "'2 to :4 s. s gen: 33‘; to v: i: s 1 2 3 4 -I A 1 2 3 4 3 237— a 236- — .. 3-2 235- _ E8 234— — 5.: 233— .3 — a: = a 83 232s 2 _ :3 231— :75 ~ >111: 230'— - 0A h -' Eu = “I O ‘2 o 229- .3 EE '5 - 228— :5 SE .a _ 227— 5 EE 5 _ 226— 3 0,35 3 — 225— E =V — 224— g — 223— E 3 — 222— g _ 221— .1 — I: .9 220— — ‘5 219— — E 5 218—1 1 2 — 2 217— 2 4 — 5 216- 3 — u g 215— a — ~ “I: 1: z 214— ”a: E — 213— 5: 3 _ 212— ”-5 ‘= I- «I ‘ _ "S - _ 211 a ‘5 '51. 210— 30:3; >< ' 209— " - «5 7.: 208— I I I I — :3 207— — Sig 206- 4 — 5 =01 205— — “3 D. — _ :2 204 A FIGURE 16. — A suggested correlation of the Severn Formation at Round Bay, Md., with the Navesink Formation of Atlantic Highlands, NJ. and with the lower type Maestrichtian of the Maestricht Region, Holland, based on dinoflagellates and acritarchs. A, A comparison of the ranges of key species common to both the Navesink of New Jersey and the lower type Maestrichtian of Holland. CRETACEOUS POLLEN 21 Navesink species, Atlantic Highlands, N.J., in common with Severn species, R'ound Bay, Md. Ranges of Navesink Species given Correlation of Severn Forma- tion, Round Bay, Md., with the Navesink Formation, Atlantic High- lands, NJ. Severn species (in samples E,F,H, from RB-6; R1081A from RB-l 1A), Round Bay, Md., in common with Navesink species, Atlantic Highlands, NJ. Ranges of Navesink species given Formations (in New Jersey) Samples (int. = 0.5 m) '— Trichodinium cf. T.‘ hirsutum N Spongodim'um delitiense u Ophiobolus Iapidan‘s b Dinegymm'um elongarum 0- Diversispina truncata 0‘ Dinegymnium westralium on Trithyrodinium pentagonum *0 Deflandrea cardifera Hexagom' fem chlamydata 4 Deflandrea speciosa .— O R1081A pidaris T. cf. 7.‘ hirsutum - D. westralium H. chlamydata D. speciosa T. pentagonum D elongatum '— D. truncata N H. chlamydata w 0.1a - T. cf. T. hirsutum A N 0.1apidaris U S. delitiense N D. speciasa 1234 Q 237 - 236- 235 ' 234 - 233 - 232 - 231 — 230 - 229 - in Sandy Hook Member of Red Bank Sand 227 '- 226 - 225— 224— 223— 222- 7 221— 220— 9 219— 218— 217— 216— 215— 214— 5 213— 212— 211— 210— 209— 10 .— on Navesink Formation N o R1081A 208 F 207 — 206 — 205 ' 204 ' Upper part of Mount Laurel Sand B FIGURE 16. — Continued. General agreement in the pattern of appear- ance of the four species shown suggests that the Navesink correlates with Hofker’s foraminiferal zones B and the lower part of C and Schmid’s ex gr. lanceolata and lower ex gr. junior belemnite zones, suggesting that the Navesink is early Maestrichtian in age. B A com- parison of the ranges of key species common to both the Navesink of New Jersey and to samples E, F, H, and R1081A of the Severn, C Round Bay, Md. The concurrent ranges of the species shown indivi- dually for samples E, F, H and R1081A suggest a correlation with the middle Navesink of Atlantic Highlands, N .J . C, Probable correla- tion of samples E, F, H, and R1081A with Navesink of Atlantic Highlands, N.J. By comparison across the chart to the left, it seems that samples E, F, H, and R1081A are correlative with parts of zones A and B of Hofker and ex gr. lanceolata and ex gr. junior in the lower type Maestrichtian of Holland. 22 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND those of New Jersey. Samples were examined from the upper part of the Magothy Formation at Round Bay for the purpose of age correlation with the Magothy of northern New Jersey. PREVIOUS PALYNOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS Although several studies have been made on the spores and pollen of the Magothy and post-Magothy Up- per Cretaceous deposits of the Middle Atlantic States (Groot and Penny, 1960; Groot and others, 1961; Kim- yai, 1966; Doyle, 1969; Wolfe and Pakiser, 1971), only two, those of Wolfe (1976), and Christopher (1979), pre- sent range charts showing the stratigraphic distribution of selected pollen types. Christopher (1977), in a study of the Raritan and Magothy Formations of northern New Jersey, recog- nized a three-fold biostratigraphic subdivision of the Magothy based on the distribution of Normapolles and triporate pollen types. In ascending stratigraphic order, these subdivisions are referred to as subzones A, B, and C of Sirkin’s (1974) informally proposed zone V. Sub- zone VA includes the South Amboy Fire Clay Member of the Raritan and the lower and middle parts of the Old Bridge Sand Member of the Magothy; the upper part of the Old Bridge Sand and the Amboy Stoneware Clay Members of the Magothy; the “Morgan beds” and the “Cliffwood beds” of the Magothy. For the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous units of the Salisbury and Raritan embayments, Wolfe (1976) estab— lished six informal palynologic zones based on the distri— bution of 104 angiosperm pollen types. Zone CA—l includes the uppermost beds of the Mago- thy Formation and therefore overlaps subzone VC of Christopher (1977). Zone CA—2, which Wolfe (1976) divided into two sub- zones, encompasses the entire Merchantville Formation of the Raritan embayment and the lower part of the Merchantville of the Salisbury embayment. Zone CA—3, also divided into two subzones, includes the Woodbury Clay of the Raritan embayment and the upper part of the Merchantville of the Salisbury embay- ment. Recognition of Zone CA—3 in both embayments led Wolfe (1976) to suggest that the Woodbury Clay changes facies from north to south as indicated by Minard (1974, p. 20), rather than pinch out completely as suggested by J .P. Owens and J. P. Minard (in Owens and others, 1970, p. 10). Zone CA—4 encompasses the Englishtown Formation of both the Raritan and the Salisbury embayments and includes one of the most distinctive pollen assemblages of the entire section. No subdivision of this zone was made by Wolfe ( 197 6). The Marshalltown, Wenonah, and Mount Laurel For- mations occur in Zone CA—5, which Wolfe (197 6) divided into subzones CA—5A and CA—5B. Zone CA—6/MA—1 includes the Navesink Formation and at least the basal part of the Red Bank Sand in the Raritan embayment. In the Salisbury embayment, the Severn Formation (referred to as the Monmouth Forma- tion by Wolfe, 197 6) falls within this zone. Wolfe noted a dissimilarity of samples from the uppermost part of the Navesink and the Red Bank and samples from lower in the Navesink and used this as a basis for a twofold sub- division of zone CA—6/MA—1 in the Raritan embay- ment. Not noticing this microfloral change in samples from the Salisbury embayment, he included the entire Severn in this subzone. (Wolfe did mention, however, that the marine invertebrate fossils at Round Bay sug- gest that at least part of the Severn is biostratigraphic- ally equivalent to the upper part of the Navesink and the Red Bank of New Jersey.) STRATIGRAPHIC PALYNOLOGY AT ROUND BAY Twenty-two of the species used by Christopher (1977, in press) and 48 of the species used by Wolfe (1976) in formulating their subdivisions of the Upper Cretaceous formations of the Middle Atlantic States were identified in the samples from Round Bay. Because taxonomic studies of these species have yet to be made, many species and some genera are not described. In order to make this report more useful to others and to help in in- terpreting the data presented here, these species are figured on plates 2—4. The stratigraphic distribution of the 22 species from the Magothy Formation as they oc- cur in northern New Jersey (after Christopher, in press) and of the 48 species from the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous formations of the Raritan and Salisbury em- bayments (after Wolfe, 1976) are presented here as figures 17 and 18, respectively. (Because Wolfe used alphanumeric codes to designate his species rather than formal taxonomic binomens, his code designations are presented here in parentheses following the names adopted in this study.) THE MAGOTHY MICROFLORA Only two of the samples collected from the Magothy Formation of Round Bay, R1080C and R1094, were palynologically productive. Sample R1080C was ob— tained from a highly carbonaceous clay lens (0.3 m thick) within a clean crossbedded sand exposed in a sand and gravel pit on the road to Sunrise Beach, west of the Severn River (lat 39°08’45”N, long 76°36’W), sample R1094 from the base of a section located on the east bank of the Severn River, approximatley 0.45 km north of Swan Point. Only the uppermost 0.6 m of the Mago- thy is exposed in this section; it is overlain by beds of the CRETACEOUS POLLEN 23 H “-1 g Q U- m. a m. o. "i o 9;.<-g9;.3'.% mg 8‘3 <= %¢anm .2: d.2.2.=£°°.< 92's 3&3“? rid—s 2 cad. sss=ssaaasts§aassagsss 3g§§§§§sas§§§s§sss§§ss R xxxa B=BSEEB°==333== sasssg§sasgggssoesssae EUROPEAN LITHOLOGIC POLLEN g g g g g g §§ 5% g g g ”g g 5 5% g 5 g 5 STAGE FORMATION SUBDIVISION ZONE 9 z o o o i” o E z s I: 5: 5’: IN o z z s :5: a z z “Cliffwood beds” I I I C Santonian Magothy “Morgan beds” V Amboy Stoneware Clay Member B Old Bridge Coniacian(?) Sand Member A i , South Amboy Turoman Fire Clay Member Sayreville Sand Member ’Raritan Cenomanian IV Woodbridge Clay Member FIGURE 17.—Stratigraphic distribution of the pollen species recovered from the Magothy Formation at Round Bay as they occur in the Magothy of northern New Jersey. After Christopher. (1977,1979). Matawan Formation. These beds were angered at this location. The sample reported on here came from 1 m below the Magothy-Matawan contact. Occurrence of the biostratigraphically diagnostic pol- len species in both Round Bay samples is presented in table 3. Although the two samples contain somewhat dissimilar microfloras, the presence of certain species in each assemblage suggests that both samples should be placed in subzone VC of Christopher (1977). Only one species in sample R1094, New Genus C, sp. B, was considered by Christopher (1977) to be biostra- tigraphically significant within the Magothy Formation. In northern New Jersey, this species is restricted to the “Cliffwood beds” of the Magothy of subzone VC, sug- gesting a “Cliffwood” age for the sample. Of the 16 biostratigraphically significant species oc- curring in sample R1080C, three are restricted to sub- zone VC: Trudopollis sp. 1, Pseudoplécapollis sp 1, and New Genus B sp. B. None of the remaining species have stratigraphic ranges that conflict with an assignment of sample R1080C t0 subzone VC. The occurrence of New Genus B sp. B suggests a “Cliffwood” age (Magothy) for this sample. The suggestion that “Cliffwood—equivalent beds” (Magothy) are present in Round Bay conflicts with Wolfe’s hypotheses (1976) that the Magothy Formation 24 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND ( I 'HN) v ‘ds smodm uI (1-98.13) N 'ds samodzoam _— ( z- N N) 113.727.13.49 smodomayd (E-VSdO) 3 'ds sauwdloom (S‘ON) V 'ds sauuanodgoaavlmag (Z'Hdw) 9 'ds sazgdlooounudusomopg (Z-(Idw) 8 'dS 331,117.13!“an5) (t-VEO) 0 'ds “331.141091011321" —_ (Z-JEdD) 8 'ds sazyodzomma (9-010 8 ‘ds saupzumnsvo _ (S-VN) snonogdsuoo '3 go sazguanodouvoug _ (I-Idw) V ‘ds sauuanodvunbv . (Z-JN) 3 -ds sauuanodoymyl (g-VN) V ~ds sauuanodounoyg (S'flEdO) )1 'ds sauwdloam __ (E'HN) ”11171.15" SHIOWOMJ (I'dN) V 'ds sauuanodoywyl (I‘Hdw) V ‘ds saudzoaounqdaasomavg _ (g-dio) sgsuapmmatp 'H 3:) sauuauodomoH (Z'ON) V 'd5 331.117.114.110'15‘00 __ (Z-GN) H 'd9 SJIIOdWHJi, _ (L-Hd) 9 'ds saupgonaaou (t-JN) WNW—"M LL ‘JD 5111040Pm1 _ (I-nN) v adm GIBJOdIJl (Z-VN) smgsurm '3 go sauuauodounoug _ (Z'IN) mun smodzwwxa ( I-WN) SWGWJSIP smodvznqmunjuxopua (z-HN)‘ smmax mtodvand _ (S‘H‘EdO) H 'dS Salyodloayl (MN) 8 'ds SHIOdnlwaqog‘; (L-V N) 3 -ds sauuanodounoug (I‘VN) ”Mill-35111) 0 '10 sauuauodounoug ( 1-0 N) mnnban smodvmaso (MIN) 3 ‘ds S!110d'79lldi. (9-3 N) snuaxas smodnaydopnasd (I'Hsdo) v ‘ds sauuauodonnoy‘; (Ion) v 'ds smodvondopnasd (z-veo) a 'dS..sa1.1dIoa.wuszI,, (I-JEdD) v 'ds samodzoagnaxg __ (1-8:!) V 'ds saupgavumd ( z-Q N) sgdsnoopua smodnaydopnasg (#314) 0 ‘ds smodvana _ (v-ON) v ‘ds smodvmoso (I-aN) ”0.1:an mlodvond (I-HN) smzpqv Smodozxazdwoo (MIN) V ‘ds Sylodoprul; (ZOE O) H 9d!“ GIBJOdloopl (I-(IEdO) V 'ds sauuanodomoy in the Salisbury and Raritan embayments. After Wolfe (1976). FIGURE 18.—Stratigraphic distribution of the pollen species recovered from the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous formations at Round Bay as they occur 31402 «4 an [<1 i m | < m 2 Ma'noa I-vw/9-vo s-vo g s-vo z-vo o .2 g _: l .L . E‘ 4- >. = 0-0 _ .—. g : mawxvawa g a S g E °' 2 E E E g E 2 § NVlIHVH 1:, 3 £3 5 J. 32 F98 8 3%.; :9 5'; Z 3 l 2 Bl 3 2 E .5 =. . J.- >. .LNEIWAVHWH E g g; :5 g 52 g Aunasnvs .>, 5 g3 :03 g E g m 3 2 m g 2 .4 S. g := 1'1 E U 5 ° 3 a s E < t 2 .. a > (- g : 3 3 o w 2 (- a < 25 D “5 z 5 I1 I- .- = E ”4 E a ‘3’ ,2 9‘ O o D. O G o < : D .—l S x i" 70' :: V) 0 :9 D «I m m 2 usguedweg CRETACEOUS POLLEN 25 TABLE 3.—Occu'r1'ence of the biostratigraphically diagnostic pollen species in the samples from the Magothy Formation at Round Bay Sample No. Species RIOSOC from RB-72A3 R1094 from RB-11A Complexioptisllisi sp. E x —— New enusB A1 —— —— Comsp pesgopollis abAditus x x x __ >< __ Pseudogiilicopollts sp. B x —— Osculapollts sp. B —— x Minorpollis Sp. A —— x New genus D sp. E x Mlnorpollis minimus x Pltca ollis sp. F x Pseu oplicapollis sp. E x x x x s . Traditipollis sp. H Osculapollis sp. D1 —— New genus A sp. A1 —— —— New genus D sp. H x deopollts sp. I >< Pseudopllcapollis sp. I x —— Semioculopollis sp. C x New genus B sp. B x New genus C. sp. B —— >< 1Recovered only from sample at high-tide watermark at section RB-81A. Considered reworked. in Round Bay is biostratigraphically equivalent to an in- terval between the samples he examined from the Old Bridge Sand and the Amboy Stoneware Clay Members of the Magothy in New Jersey. Wolfe based his correla- tions on broad similarities in assemblages, for example, the diversity of N ormapolles, tricolpate and tricolporate pollen occurring as common elements rather than on the stratigraphic distribution of species. Christopher (1979) has shown that Normapolles diversity is fairly constant throughout the upper part of the Old Bridge Sand and Amboy Stoneware Clay Members and “Morgan beds,” and into the middle part of the “Cliffwood Beds” of the Magothy. Higher in the Cliffwood, its diversity declines slightly. Moreover, the histograms presented by Chris- topher (1979) showing the relative percent of major palynomorph groups throughout the Raritan and Mago- thy Formations of northern New Jersey indicate a strong similarity in the relative frequency of both tricolpate and tricolporate pollen in the upper part of the Old Bridge Sand and the Amboy Stoneware Clay Mem- bers and the “Cliffwood beds.” These data might help explain the discrepancy between the age assignments for the Magothy Formation of Round Bay proposed here and that proposed by Wolfe. (Wolfe does mention that some of the tricolpate and tricolporate pollen types observed in his Round Bay samples also occur in samples from the Amboy Stoneware Clay Member of the Mago- thy, but it has been my experience that most tricolpate and tricolporate species range throughout the Magothy, although their relative abundance fluctuates greatly.) POST-MAGOTHY LATE CRETACEOUS MICROFLORA Samples from three post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous sections—RB-6, RB—87a, and RB—79—were collected and examined for palynomorphs. The most thoroughly sampled section is RB—6, exposed along the north shore of the Severn River, approximately 0.6 km southeast of Eaglenest Point. The basal 1.5 m of the section is clean, light-gray, coarse to very coarse quartz sands of the Magothy Formation. These sands are overlain by ap- proximately 2.7 m of dark-green, glauconitic, mica- ceous, and lignitic clays, silts, and sands assigned to the Matawan Formation on the basis of their lithologic characteristics. These beds are overlain by lighter col- ored beds, primarily of quartz sand, which generally contain lesser amounts of glauconite, mica, and lignite than the underlying unit. On the basis of lithologic evidence, the upper deposits have been assigned to the Severn Formation. The stratigraphic position of the seven samples col- lected at this locality are 0.2 m, 0.6 m, 1.5 m, 2.4 m, 3 m, 3.7 m, and 4.9 m above the high-tide waterline. Occur- rence of the biostratigraphically diagnostic pollen types in these seven samples from RB—6 and samples from RB—81a and RB—79 are presented in table 4. A comparison of the distribution of the species at Round Bay with their stratigraphic ranges as presented by Wolfe (1976) indicates that a distinct microfloral change takes place between the samples at 2.4 and 3 m. This biostratigraphic break coincides with the lithologic break separating the Matawan and Severn Formations. Pollen data from this section suggest that the Matawan can be placed in Wolfe’s zone CA—5 (1976), whereas the Severn belongs in his zone CA-6/MA—1. With the exception of Betulaceotpollenites sp. A (NO—3) and Choanopollenttes cf. C. discipnlus Tschudy 1973 (NA—1), the 11 biostratigraphically significant species in the basal sample of section RB—6 occur together only in subzone CA—5A in beds of Marshall- town age from the Raritan and Salisbury embayments. Betulaceotpollenites sp. A (NO—3) has previously been reported only from younger beds, Choanopollenites cf. C. discipulus (NA-1) only from older beds (Wolfe, 197 6). The concurrent ranges of all but three species of pol- len from the samples at 0.6 m, 1.5 m and 2.4 m suggest that these samples can be placed in subzone CA—5B, making them correlative with the Wenonah and (or) the Mount Laurel to the north. Tricolpom'tes sp. K (CP3B—8) and Casuam'nidites sp. B (NO—5) are restricted to sub- zone CA—5B in the Raritan and Salisbury embayments. Again, Betulaceolpollenttes sp. A (NO—3) has previously been reported only from younger beds, whereas Choct- nopollenites cf. C. transitus Tschudy 1973 (NA—2) and C. sp. E. (NA—7) have been reported only from older beds (Wolfe, 1976). 26 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND TABLE 4.—0ccuwence of the biostmtig'raphically diagnostic pollen species in the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous formations at Round Bay Southeast of Eaglenest North of Mathier NW of P i . 01nt Pomt Long Point Section Species RB-6 RB-81A RB-79 0.2 0.6 1.5 Holkopollem'tes sp. A (CP3D—1) ______________________ __ ___ __ Tricolporate type B (C3C—2) __________________________ __ __ __ deopollis Sf): A (NF—1) __ __ .__ ”LS Complextopol abditns (NB—1) ______________________ __ __ __ Plica ollt's rusticus (NE—1) ___________________________ __ __ __ Oscu apollis sp. A (NO—4) _____________________________ __ __ __ Pltca ollis sp. Q (NE—4) _______________________________ __ __ __ Pseu oplicapollis endocuspis (NC—2) ________________ —— —— x Protencidites sp. A (PR—1) ____________________________ __ __ __ Brevicolporites s . A (CP3F—1) _______________________ __ _.. __ ”Retitm'colpites’ sp. B (C3A—2) ______________________ __ __ __ Pseudoplicapollis sp. A (NC—1) _______________________ __ __ __ Pseudoplicapollis serenus (NC—3) .................... —— —— x ?Holkop0llenites s . A (CP3E—1) _____________________ x x ?Plicapollis sp. C ND—3) .............................. —— x —— Osculapollis aequulis (NO-1) ......................... x x Choanopollent'tes cf. C. discipulus (NA—1) ........... x —— —— Choanopollenites sp. E (NA—7) ________________________ —— x -——— ?Bohemiapollis s . B (NI—2) __________________________ —— —— —— Tricolpomtes sp. (CP3B—5) _________________________ —— —— —— Plicapollis retusus (N E—2) ____________________________ x —— —— Endotnfundibulapollis distinctus (NM—1) ........... —— —-— —— Extremipollt‘s minus (NJ —2) ____________________________ —— —— —— Choanopollenites cf. C. transitus (NA—2) ............ x —— >< Triporate type A (NU—1 _______________________________ x x x Trudopoll'is cf. T. va'ria ilis (NF-4) __________________ —— —— -— Proteacidites sp. G (PR—7) _____________________________ x x ?Plt'ca,pollis Sp. B (ND—2 ______________________________ —— ~— Casuam'ntdites sp. A (N —2) —— Bacnlostephanocolpites T'riat’m' ollent'tes sp. A .A MPH—1 ______________ 5&1) ________ l ______________ 1— -— x x x x Holkopollem'tes cf. H. chemardensis (Cp3D-3) ______ x x x x x X X Plicapol is usitatus NE—3) ___________________________ >< Tm'colpo'm'tes sp. K ( P3B—8) _________________________ —— Choanopollenites sp. A (NA—3) ________________________ —— Triatm'opollenites sp. B (NF—2) _______________________ —— —— —— Aguilapoltenites sp. A(MPI—1) ....................... —— —— —— C oanopollenites cf. C. conspicuous (NA-8) ......... —— —-— —— Casuar'inidites Sp. B (NO—5) __________________________ —— —-— x s “Retit’ricolpites’ lg. Cupanicidttes sp. ( Baculostephanocolpites Betulaceoipollenites s D (C3A—4) ______________________ —— x —— MPD—2) _________________________ —_ __ __ 5:. B MPH—2) _______________ —— __ __ B- (N -3) .................... X X x Tricolpom'tes sp. C (C 3A—1) _________________________ __ __ __ Plicatopollz's cretacea (N N—2) _________________________ __ __ __ Brevicolptm'tes sp. B (CP3F—2) _______________________ __ __ __ T’ricolpon'tes Sp N (CP3G—1) __________________________ __ __ __ Interpollis sp. A (NH—1) ............................... __ __ __ Samples from above the lithologic break at 2.7 m in section RB—6 contain similar pollen assemblages. Of considerable biostratigraphic significance are the con- current ranges of Plicatopollis cretcwea Frederiksen and Christopher, 1978 (NN—2), Choanopollenites of C. con- spicuous (Groot and Groot, 1962) Tschudy 1973 (NA—8), Tricolpom'tes sp. C (CP3A—3), T. sp. N (CP3G—1), Brent‘- colpom‘tes sp. B (CP3F—2), Interpollis sp. A (NH—1), Baculostephanocolpites Sp. B (MPH—2), and Cupan- ieidites sp. B (MPD—Z), all of which indicate an equivalency with Wolfe’s subzone CA~6/MA—1A (1976). In the Raritan embayment, this subzone represents all but the upper part of the Navesink Formation. At the RB—6 locality, three species were observed from the Severn Formation that have previously been reported only from older beds: Triatriopollem'tes sp. A (NP—1), Casuartnidites sp. A (NO—2), and Choanopollenites sp. A (NA—3). Wolfe reported Aquilapollen’ites sp. A (MPI—l) as occurring in only one sample from the Wenonah For- mation of the Salisbury'embayment, but Evitt (1973) has recovered specimens of Aquilapollenites from the “Mon- mouth” Formation of Charles County, Md, and from the Red Bank Sand of Monmouth County, NJ. The genus is generally considered to be a major constituent in many CRETACEOUS POLLEN 27 Campanian and Maestrichtian assemblages from west- ern North America; its rare occurrence in samples from the Atlantic Coastal Plain is possibly the result of long— distance wind transport; the stratigraphic distribution of this genus in deposits from this area is probably not biostratigraphically significant. A second section sampled for spores and pollen, RB— 81a, is located along the western shore of Little Round Bay approximately 0.5 km north of Mathiers Point, due west of St. Helena Island. Two lithologic units are recognized at this locality. The basal 2 m consists of a black, very lignitic blocky clay with thin layers and laminae of white sand, (fig. 6) lithologically similar to the uppermost regressive phases of the sedimentary cycles described by Owens and Sohl (1969). Resting in sharp contact with the lower unit is 2.1 m of mottled gray, sil- ty, very fine to medium sand containing some glauconite and disseminated organic matter. Two samples were collected from the lower unit: one at the high-tide waterline and one from 1.5 In higher in the section. One sample was collected from the upper unit, 3 m above the high-tide watermark. Occurrence of the biostratigraphi- cally significant pollen types in samples from section RB—81a is presented in table 4. The stratigraphic ranges of species from the lower unit (as reported by Christopher, (in press) and by Wolfe, 1976) suggest that sediments of the Magothy and (or) Merchantville Forma- tions have been reworked into beds equivalent to the Englishtown Formation (zone CA—4). The upper unit can be placed in Wolfe’s subzone CA—6/MA—1A and probably represents the Severn Formation at this locality. Evidence of reworking in the lower unit lies in the dis- junct nature of the species ranges in these samples. Five of the species from this unit have previously been re- ported only from the Magothy Formation of northern New Jersey (Christopher, 1979), and three only from the Merchantville Formation of the Raritan and Salisbury embayments (Wolfe, 1976). Species apparently rework—- ed are indicated as such on table 3. Except for Plicapollis usitatus Tschudy 1975 (NE —3) and Holkopollemtes cf. H. chema'rdensis Fairchild in Stover, Elsik, and Fairchild (1966) (CP3D—3), previous- ly observed only in younger beds, the concurrent ranges of all other species indicates that the lower unit at RB— 81a can be placed in Wolfe’s zone CA—4 (1976). Four of these species are considered by Wolfe to be restricted to this zone: Tricolpom'tes sp. H (CP3B—5), ?Bohemiapollis sp. B (NI—2), Choanopollenites sp. E (Na—7), and C. of C. transitus (NA—2). On this basis, it is concluded that the black lignitic blocky clays with thin, white sand part- ings at the base of section RB—81a represent zone CA-4 and are equivalent to the Englishtown Forma- tion. Sediments for this unit were probably derived from beds of Magothy and (or) Merchantville age. The pollen assemblage from the upper lithologic unit at Mathiers Point is very similar to the assemblage from the Severn Formation at locality RB—6, all species pres- ent in the Mathiers Point sample are present in the Severn at RB—6, including Plicatopollis cretacea (NN—2), Baculostephanocolpites sp. B (MPH—2), and Brevicolporites sp. B CP3F—2). As stated, the concur- rence of these species is indicative of subzone CA— 6/MA—1A in the Raritan and Salisbury embayments. Although pollen from the section at Mathiers Point suggest that beds equivalent to the Englishtown Forma— tion are directly overlain by the Severn Formation, with units equivalent to the Marshalltown, Wenonah, and Mount Laurel Formations of Wolfe’s zone CA—5 miss- ing, representatives of at least one and possibly two of the units missing at Mathiers Point are present at a sec- tion, RB—7 9, exposed on the north side of Long Point, 0.3 km northwest of the tip of the point. Here, 1.8 m of a medium— to dark-gray, lignitic, compact clayey quartz sand exposed at the base of the section is overlain by approximately 1 m of thinly bedded, glauconitic, dark- greenish-gray to greenish—black clays, silts, and sands. A third lithologic unit at the top of the section consists of 1.8 m of medium-gray to yellow-gray, slightly glauconi- tic, lignitic quartz sand. Two samples from the middle lithologic unit were sampled; the palynomorphs recovered from them are listed in table 4. The concurrent ranges of all species except Choomo- pollem'tes sp. E (NA—7) and Betulaceoipollemtes sp. A (NO—8) suggest that the lower sample collected at the base of the middle lithologic unit at Long Point belongs to subzone CA—5A and is equivalent to the Marshall- town Formation in the Salisbury and Raritan embay- ments. Choanopollemtes sp. E (NE—7) indicates an older age for this sample, having been previously re- ported only from the Englishtown Formation by Wolfe (1976), whereas Betulaceoipollemtes sp. A (NO—3) sug- gests a younger age. However, Betulaceoipollemtes sp. A (NO—3) was recovered from all samples at section RB—6, and its presence at Long Point is consistent with its presence in other samples of apparent Marshalltown age at Round Bay. The second sample from the middle lithologic unit ex— posed at Long Point was collected 0.9 m stratigraphical- ly higher than the first. The concurrent ranges of all species recovered from this sample, again with the ex- ception of Betulaceoipollemtes sp. A (NO—3), indicates that this sample belongs in subzone CA—5B, which en- compasses the Wenonah and the Mount Laurel in the Raritan and Salisbury embayments. 28 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND SUMMARY Palynologic examinations of samples from five out- crop sections at Round Bay suggest: First, at least part of the Magothy Formation at Round Bay is equiv- alent to the uppermost units of the Magothy of northern New Jersey (the “Cliffwood” and possibly the “Morgan beds”). Second, the Matawan Formation at Round Bay con- sists of at least Englishtown, Marshalltown, and Wenonah or Mount Laurel equivalents. These beds may not be continuous throughout the area, because the ydunger Severn Formation is observed to rest directly on Englishtown equivalents at one locality, but on Wenonah or Mount Laurel equivalents at two others. Further, a reworked microflora within the Englishtown Formation suggests that units equivalent to the Mer- chantville Formation were present in the area, at least during Englishtown time. Third, the Severn Formation contains a pollen assem- blage similar to that of the Navesink Formation of New Jersey, and one that is quite distinct from assemblages from the underlying Matawan Formation. If the age assignments and correlations presented here are correct, the stratigraphic ranges of several species used by Wolfe (1976) in formulating his zonation of the post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous formations of the Middle Atlantic States must be extended. Betulaceo- ipollenites sp. A (NO—3) was recovered from samples of apparent Marshalltown and Wenonah or Mount Laurel age, as well as samples from the Severn Formation at Round Bay. Wolfe reported this species as occurring only in the Severn of the Salisbury embayment and in its equivalent Navesink Formation and the overlying Red Bank Sand of the Raritan embayment. The range of Betulaceoipollemtes sp. A (NO—3) should probably be extended downward to accommodate its occurrences at Round Bay. Only one specimen of Choanopollemtes cf. C. discipulus Tschudy 1973 (NA—1) was found in the samples from Round Bay which were in beds coeval with the Marshalltown Formation (the basal sample at sec- tion RB—6). Wolfe (1976) observed this species in sam- ples from the uppermost part of the Woodbury Clay and throughout the Englishtown Formation. In light of the data presented here, this species apparently extends up- ward into the Marshalltown. Wolfe (1976) considered Choanopollem'tes of. C. tran- situs Tschudy 1973 (NA—2) to be restricted to the Englishtown and the basal part of the Marshalltown, and C.‘ sp. E (NA—7) to the Englishtown Formations in the Raritan and Salisbury embayments, respectively. At Round Bay, both species were recovered in samples con- sidered equivalent to the Wenonah and (or) Mount Laurel, which would extend their ranges higher in the section. Three of the species recovered from samples of the Severn Formation at Round Bay were observed only at lower stratigraphic horizons by Wolfe (1976): the last occurrence of Triatriopollenites sp. A (NP—1), Casuarim'dites sp. A (NO—2), and Choanopollenites sp. A (NA—3) all reported from the Mount Laurel Sand. As they are found here to extend up into the Severn Forma- tion, the upper limit of their stratigraphic range should probably be extended. Aquilapollemtes' sp. 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G., 1954, Marine Upper Cretaceous formations of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal: Delaware Geol. Survey Bull. 3, 62 p. Groot, J. J. and Penny, J. C., 1960, Plant microfossils and age of non- marine Cretaceous sediments of Maryland and Delaware: Micropaleontology, v. 6, no. 2, p. 225—236. Groot, J., J., Penny, J. C., and Groot, C. R., 1961, Plant microfossils and age of the Raritan, Tuscaloosa and Magothy Formation of the eastern United States: Palaeontographica, Abt. B, v. 108, p. 121-140. Hansen, J. J ., 1969, Depositional environments of subsurface Potomac Group in southern Maryland: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. v. 53, no. 9, p. 1923—1937. Hazel, J. E., 1968, Ostracodes from the Brightseat Formation (Danian) of Maryland: Jour. Paleontology, v. 42, no. 1, p. 100-142. _1969, Fauna] evidence for an unconformity between the Paleocene Brightseat and Aquia Formations (Maryland and Virginia: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 650—C, p. 058—065. Hofker, J., 1956, Les Formainiferes de la zone de contact Maaestrichtien-Campanien dans 1’Est de la Belgique et du Sud des Pays-Bas: Ann. Soc. geol. Belg, 81, p. B191—233. _1957, Foraminiferen der Oberkreide von Nordwestdeutschland und Holland: Geol. Jahrb., v. 27, p. 1—464. 1962, Correlation of the Tuff Chalk of Maestricht (type Maestrichtian) with the Danske Kalkof Denmark (type Danian), the stratigraphic position of the type Montian, and the planktonic foraminiferal faunal break: Jour. Paleontolo g, v. 36, p. 1051-1089. 29 _1966, Maestrichtian, Danian and Paleocene Foraminifera: Palaeontographica Supp, v. 10, P. 1—376. Kimyai, Abbas, 1966, New plant microfossils from the Raritan For- mation (Cretaceous) in New Jersey: Micropaleontology, v. 12, no. 4, p. 461—476. . Loeblich, A. R., Jr., and Tappan, H. N., 1957, Planktonic Foraminifera of Paleocene and early Eocene age from the Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plains: U.S. Nat. Museum, Bull. 215, p. 173—198. McGee, W J, 1886, Geological formations [underlying Washington, D.C., and vicinity]: District of Columbia Health Officer Rept. 1885, p. 19—20, 23—25; Abs. Am. Jour. Sci., 3d Ser., v. 31, p. 473-474. May, F. K., 1976, Dinoflagellate cysts of the Gymnodiniaceae, Peridin- iaceae, and Gonyaulacaceae from the Upper Cretaceous Mon- mouth Group, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Virginia Polytech. Inst. and State Univ., Dept. Geol. Sci., Ph.D. Dissert., 363 p., 23 pls. _1977, Dinogymnium tests from the Upper Cretaceous Mon- mouth Group, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Palynology, v. 1, (in press). _ Minard, J. P., 1964, Geology of the Roosevelt quadrangle, New Jersey: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map GQ—340, scale 124,000. 1974, Geology of the Betterton quadrangle, Kent County, Maryland, and a discussion of the regional stratigraphy: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 816, 27 p. Minard, J. F., Owens, J. F., and Sohl, N. F., 1976, Coastal Plain strati- graphy of the Upper Chesapeake Bay region: Geol. Soc. America, Field Trip Guidebook, Joint Meeting Northeast and Southeast Sections, Reston, Va., 1976, p. 1—61. Minard, J. P., Sohl, N. F., and Owens, J. P., 1977, Re-introduction of the Severn Formation (Upper Cretaceous) to replace the Mon- mouth Formation in Maryland, in Sohl, N. F., and Wright, W. B., eds., Changes in stratigraphic nomenclature by the U.S. Geological Survey, 1976: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1435—A, p. 132—133. Osburn, W. L., and Jordan, R. R., 1975, Location of Cretaceous-Terti- ary boundary, Drawyers Creek, Delaware: Southeastern Geology, v. 16, no. 3, p. 159—167. Owens, J. P., 1969, Coastal Plain rocks of Harford County, in The ge- ology of Harford County: Baltimore, Md., Maryland Geol. Survey, p. 77—103. Owens, J. F., and Minard, J. P., 1970, Rock stratigraphic studies, in Owens, J. F., Minard, J. P., Sohl, N. F. and Mello, J. F., Stratig- raphy of the outcropping post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous forma- tions in southern New Jersey and northern Delmarva Peninsula, Delaware and Maryland: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 674, p. 5—27. Owens, J. P., Minard, J. P., and Sohl, N. F., 1968, Cretaceous deltas in the northern New Jersey Coastal Plain, In Guidebook to field ex- cursions, 40th Ann. Mtg. New York State Geol. Assoc, May 1968: Brockport, N.Y., State Univ. Call., Dept. Geology, p. 31—48. Owens, J. P. and Sohl, N. F., 1969, Shelf and deltaic paleoenviron- ments in the Cretaceous-Tertiary formations of the New Jersey Coastal Plain, in Subitzky, Seymour, ed., Geology of selected areas in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania and guidebook of excursions: New Brunswick, N.J., Rutgers Univ. Press, p. 235~278. Owens, J. P., Minard, J. P., Sohl, N. F., and Mello, J. F., 1970, Stratig~ raphy of the outcropping post-Magothy Upper Cretaceous forma- tions in southern New Jersey and northern Delmarva Peninsula, Delaware and Maryland: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 674, 60 p. Perry, W. J., Jr., Minard, J. P., Weed, E. G. A., Robbins, E. I., and Rhodehamal, E. C., 1975, Stratigraphy of Atlantic Coastal Margin of United States north of Cape Hatteras — brief survey: 30 GEOLOGY OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY MARYLAND Ami. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists~Bull., 1529—1548. Pickett, T. E., and Spoljaric, Nenad, 1971, Geology of the Middletown- Odessa area Delaware: Delaware Geol. Survey Geol. Map Ser., no. 2, scalel: 24, 000. Reineck, H -E. ,and Singh, I. B. 1973, Depositidnal sedimentary envi- ronments: New York Spririger- Verlag, 439p. V. 59, no. 9, p. Robbins, E. 1., Perry, W. J., Jr., and Doyle, J. A., 1975, Palynological V and stratigraphic investigations of four deep wells in the Salis- bury embayment of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. U. S. Geol. Survey Open- File Report 75— 307, 120 p. Schmid, Friedrich, 1959, Biostratigraphie du campanien- Maestrich- tien du N. E. de la Belgique sur la base des Belemites: Soc. Geol. Belgique Annales, V. 82. p. B235—256. Shattuck G. B., 1904, Geological and paleontological relations with a review of earlier investigations, in Clark, W: B., Shattuck, G. B., and Dall, W. H., eds., The Miocene deposits of Maryland: Balti- more, Maryland Geol. Survey, Miocene Volume, p. 22—24. Sirkin, L. A., 1974, Palynology and stratigraphy of Cretaceous strata in Long Island, New‘York, and Block Island, Rhode Island: US. Geol. Survey Jour. Research, v. 2, no. 4, p. 431—440. Stover, L. E., Elsik, W. C., and Fairchild, W. C., 1966, New genera and species of early Tertiary palynomorphs from Gulf Coast: Kan- sas Univ. Paleont. 'Contr. Paper 5, 11 p. 1.:v ‘e Tschudy, R. H. 1973, Complexiopollis pollen lineage in Mississippi Embayment rocks: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 743— C, p. C1— C14. 1975, Normapolles pollen from the Mississippi Embayment: U.S. Geol. Survey,Prof~, Paper 865, 40 p. Whitney, B., 1976, Campanian—Maestrichtian and Paleocene dinofla- gellate and acritarch assemblages from the Maryland-Delaware Coastal Plain: Virginia Polytech. Inst. and State Univ., Dept. Geol. Sci., Ph.D. Dissert, 350 p., 18 pls. Williams, G. L. and W. W. Brideaux, 1975, Palynologic Analyses of Upper Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of the Grand Banks, Atlantic Continental Margin: Canada Geol. Survey Bull. 236, 163 p., 47 pls. Wilson, G. J., 1974, Upper Campanian and Maestrichtian dinoflagel- late cysts from the Maestricht region and Denmark: Nottingham, Univ. Nottingham, Ph.D. Dissert., 569p, 34 pls. Wolfe, J. A., 1976, Stratigraphic distribution of some pollen types from the Campanian and lower Maestrichtian rocks (Upper Cre- taceous) of the Middle Atlantic States: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 977, 18 p. Wolfe, J. A., and Pakiser, H. M., 1971, Stratigraphic interpretations of some Cretaceous microfossil floras of the middle Atlantic States, in Geological Survey research 1971, US. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 750—B, p. B35—B47. his PLATES 2—4 [Contact photographs of the plates 1n this report are available, at cost, from U. S. Geological Survey Library, Federal Center, Denver, Colo. 80225 ] PLATE 2 Magothy pollen. All figures X 1000. FIGURE 1. 19, 20. 21. 22. Complexiopollis abditus Tschudy 1973, sample R108OC, slide 2, coor. 17.0 X 107.3 (= NB—1 of Wolfe, 1976). Complexiopollis sp. D, sample RIOSOC, slide 1, coor. 37.2 X 110.7. Complexiopollis sp. E, sample R10800, slide 2, coor. 45.0 X 104.2 (= NB—2 of Wolfe, 1976). Complexiopollis sp. F, sample R108OC, slide 2, coor. 23.8 X 98.2. Pseudoplicapollis sp. B, sample R1080C, slide 2, coor. 24.9 X 108.6. Pseudoplicapollis sp. C, sample R1080C, slide 2, coor. 21.6 X 111.4. Pseudoplicapollis sp. E, sample R1080C, slide 2, coor. 24.9 X 108.6. Pseudoplicapollis sp. I, sample RIOSOC, slide 2, coor. 21.7 X 113.4. Plicapollis‘sp. B, from the Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 45.7 X 105.9. Trudopolli‘s sp. H, sample R108OC, slide 2, coor. 22.0 X 111.2. . Trudopollis sp. I, sample R108OC, slide 2, coor. 42.0 X 103.4. . Osculapo‘llis sp. B, sample R1094, slide 3, coor. 28.6 X 100.9. . Osculapollis sp. D, from the Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R118, slide 6, coor. 47.8 X 112.0. . Minorpollis sp. A, sample R1094, slide 3, coor. 40.8 X 100.2. . Minorpollis minimus Krutzsch 1959, sample R1080C, slide 2, coor. 40.8 X 107.4. . Semioculopollis sp. C, sample R1080C, slide 2, coor. 41.8 X 110.2. . New Genus D sp. E, sample R1080C, slide 2, coor. 41.1 X 106.0. . New Genus D sp. H, from the Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1118, slide 6, coor. 42.1 X 112.6. New Genus B sp. A, from the Matawan Formation (reworked7), sample R1118, slide p 6, coor. 21.9 X 101.8. New Genus B sp. B, sample RIOSOC, slide 2, coor.10.5 X 111.7. New Genus A sp. A, from the Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1118, slide 6, coor. 25.0 X 99.3. New Genus C sp. B, from the Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 28.5 X 101.7. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1109 PLATE 2 POLLEN FROM THE MAGOTHY AND MATAWAN FORMATIONS PLATE 3 Pollen from the Matawan and Severn Formations. All figures X 1000. FIGURE 1. 2. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Choanopollenites cf. C. discipulus Tschudy 1973 (NA— 1), Matawan Formation, sam- ple R1079A, slide 2, coor. 27.0 X 104.4. Choanopollenites cf. C. transitus Tschudy 1973 (NA—2), Matawan Formation, sample R1079C, slide 1, coor. 36.1 X 102.9. Choanopollenites sp. A (NA—3), Matawan Formation, sample R1079B, slide 2, coor. 39.4 X 112.7. Choanopollenites sp. E (NA—7), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 32.9 X 104.4. Choanopollenites cf. C. conspicuous (Groot & Groot 1962) Tschudy 1973 (NA—8), Severn Formation, sample R1120, slide 4, coor. 23.7 X 106.5. . Complexiopollis abditus Tschudy 1973 (NB—1), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 21.9 X 105.1. . Pseudoplicapollis sp. A (NC—1), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 13.4 X 107.9. . Pseudoplicapollis endocuspis Tschudy 1975 (NC—2), Matawan Formation, sample R1103, slide 2, coor. 20.8 X 102.2. . Pseudoplicapollis serenus Tschudy 1975 (NC—3), Matawan Formation, sample R1079B, slide 2, coor. 18.0 X 110.5. ?Plicapollis sp. B (ND—2), Severn Formation, sample R1120, slide 4, coor. 33.0 X 113.4. ?Plicapollis sp. C (ND-3), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 41.6 X 99.8. Plicapollis rusticus Tschudy 1975 (NE-1), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 38.7 X 105.8. Plicapollis retusus Tschudy 1975 (NE—2), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 45.7 X 105.9. Plicapollis usitatus Tschudy 1975 (NE—3), Matawan Formation, sample R1102, slide 3, coor. 21.1 X 100.6. Plicapollis sp. Q (NE—4), Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 32.6 X 105.9. Trudopollis sp. A (NF—1), Matawan Formation (reworked?) sample R1118, slide 6, coor. 37.4 X 106.4. Trudopollis cf. T. variabilis Tschudy 195 (NF—4), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 36.2 X 109.9. Interpollis sp. A (NH—1), Severn Formation, sample R1079F, slide 1, coor. 11.9 X 103.8. ?Bohemiapollis sp. B (NI—2), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 26.4 X 110.0. Extremipollis vivus Tschudy 1975 (NJ—2), Matawan Formation, sample R1102, slide 3, coor. 29.8 X 97.6. Endoinfundibulapallis distinctus Tschudy 1975 (NM—1), Matawan Formation, sam~ ple R1118, slide 6, coor. 42.2 X 108.2. Plicatopollis cretacea Frederiksen & Christopher 1977 (NN—2), Severn Formation, sample R1079H, slide 1, coor. 45.9 X 103.6. Osculapollis aequalis Tschudy 1975 (NO—1), Matawan Formation, sample R1079A, slide 2, coor. 19.7 X 107.7. Casuarinidites sp. A (NO—2), Severn Formation, sample R1079H, slide 2, coor. 24.2 X 111.5. Betulaceoipollenites sp. A (NO—3), Severn Formation, sample R1120, slide 4, coor. 21.9 X 98.0. Osculapollis sp. A (NO—4), Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1118, slide 6, coor. 38.7 X 114.3. Casuarinidites Sp. B (NO—5), Matawan Formation, sample R1102, slide 3, coor. 42.0 X 102.7. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1109 PLATE 3 24 25 POLLEN FROM THE MATAWAN AND SEVERN FORMATIONS PLATE 4 Pollen from the Matawan and Severn Formations. All figures X 1000. FIGURE 1. 2. 1 1, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, 17. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Triatriopollenites sp. A (NP—1), Matawan Formation, sample R1079E, slide 2, coor. 38.2 x 113.2. Triatriopollenites sp. B (NP—2), Severn Formation, sample R1079E, slide 2, coor. 16.3 X 110.4. . Triporate type A (NU—1), Matawan Formation, sample Rk079A, slide 2, coor. 16.7 X 107.3. . Proteacidites sp. A (PR—1), Severn Formation, sample R1079F, slide 1, coor. 29.9 x 97.5. . Proteacidites sp. G (PR—7), Matawan Formation, sample R1079E, . ”Retitricolpites” sp. B (C3A—2), Magothy Formation, sample R1080C, slide 2, coor. 15.1 X 99.9. . ”Retitricolpites” sp. D (CBA—4), Matawan Formation, sample R1079E, slide 2, coor. 40.8 X 109.8. Tricolporate type B (C3C—2), Matawan Formation, sample R1118, slide 6, coor. 30.4 X 110.7. . Tricolporites sp. C (CP3A—3), Severn Formation, sample R1079H, slide 1, coor. 20.8 x 102.8. Tricolporites sp. H (CP3B-5), Matawan Formation, sample R1118, slide 6, coor. 22.3 x 112.7. Tricolporites sp. K (CP3B—8), Matawan Formation, sample R107QB, slide 2, coor. 33.7 X 101.9. Tricolporites sp. N (CP3G—1), Severn Formation, sample R1079F, slide 1, coor. 30.0 x 104.0 Holkopollenites sp. A (CP3D—1), Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 18.9 X 106.0. Holkopollenites cf. H. chemardensis F airchild in Stover and others 1966 (CP3D—3), Matawan Formation, sample R1079A, slide 2, coor. 18.6 X 110.0. ?Holkopollenites sp. A (CP3E— 1), Matawan Formation, sample R1119, slide 6, coor. 37.0 x 105.8. Brevicolporites sp. A (CP3F—1), Matawan Formation (reworked?), sample R1118, slide 6, coor. 46.8 x 103.5. Cupanieidites sp. B (MPD—2), Severn Formation, sample R1079F, slide 1, coor. 16.1 X 97.0. Baculostephanocolpites sp. A (MPH—1), Matawan Formation, sample R1102, slide 3, coor. 13.4 x 109.6. Baculostephanocolpites sp. B (MPH—2), Severn Formation, sample R1120, slide 4, coor. 30.9 X 98.5. Aquilapollenites sp. A (MPI—l), Severn Formation, sample R1079E, slide 2, coor. 36.4 X 105.4. Brevicolporites sp. B (CP3F—2), Severn Formation, sample R1079H, slide 1, coor. 32.4 x 105.1. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1109 PLATE 4 22 23 24 POLLEN FROM THE MATAWAN AND SEVERN FORMATIONS W U L: i'7/Z‘A’D/I UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 763730” BALTIMORE (JUNO. U.S. 40) I3 Ml. GLEN BURN/E 3.2 MI. \ \ (CURT/s BAY) ‘3] MI. TO MD. i _‘ a , 1. 3‘ _. I U a - {Run-I. a u \" . ,. BALTIMORE (JUNO. U.S. 40) I5 Ml. GLEN BLIR‘N/E 5 MI, II MI. TO U.S. 30/ MILLFRSVILLE 2.4 MI -. I... M . a 7 point L/ \Llfistead-ont I ~- ' the~Severn (ODENTON) 1.2 MI. TO MD. 3 \ ’3) 2/30” 9% Jr 0 UNI) BA 1’ , Island V I . X c PM: . .. \ x. 3 I Mathiers N A «Ref/1:71,: Fs< <7” :5 l Xa/ Steedmans Point Henderson Point, North Ferry Point South Ferry Point, ee/‘y Point (GIBSON ISLAND) P/V‘JU” ANNA/DOLLS (STATE HOUSE) 4,7 MI. 1/09 Ml. To us 50 &307 CHESAPEAKE BAY BR/DGE 5 ML 39000 ' '“ ’ - ‘ i ' “ ‘ ‘ ‘ z , - , , 7 76937130” 35" (SOUTH R/VER) V1.3 MI. To us. 50 a 301 Base from U.S. Geological Survey, 1956-70 922” SCALE 1 :24 000 I KntATf” 10,000—f00t grid based on Maryland coordinate O 1 MILE \\ ,% v MARYLAND > system ' ,7 i - Lissa fl 1 5 0 1 KILOMETER “Wit! CONTOUR INTERVAL 20 FEET NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM OF 1929 DEPTH CURVES AND SOUNDINGS IN FEET—DATUM IS MEAN LOW WATER SHORELINE SHOWN REPRESENTS THE APPROXIMATE LINE OF MEAN HIGH WATER THE MEAN RANGE OF TIDE IS APPROXIMATELY 0.9 FEET QUADRANGLE LOCATION HmoN DEN?!“ HLHON Emit _‘ ”\e APPROXIMATE MEAN DECLINATIONv 1979 3( ‘7 '> 'v AG78080 r 3 Qt filnterior»Geological Survey, Reston. Va.»l980 /6 ‘30! Mapped by JJ’. Mmard, 1973-76 Qal Unconformity Tal Unconformity PROFESSIONAL PAPER 110 9 PLATE 1 CORRELATION OF MAP UNITS Qal } “019°C“ and QUATERNARY Pleistocene Unconformity Tal } Pliocene(?) Unconformity I i TERTIARY Unconformity } Paleocene Paraconformity , Upper Unconformity Cretaceous __ 3W CRETACEOUS ng, Unconformity KP } Upper and Lower Cretaceous DESCRIPTION OF MAP UNITS QUATERNARY SEDIMENTS ALLUVIUM - CALVERT FORMATION Unconformity Paraconformity Unconformity _ ng' Unconformity KP AQUIA FORMATION BRIGHTSEAT FORMATION SEVERN FORMATION MATAWAN FORMATION MAGOTHY FORMATION POTOMAC GROUP _1__ ContactvSolid contacts generally accurate to within 15 m; dashed where approximately located; dotted where concealed. Point of triangle indicates exposed contact RB-8 —* Fossil locality X Sand or gravel pit SCHEMATIC SERIES UNIT COLUMNAR THICKNESS, IN METERS SECTION g g Quaternary ‘3' 4; _._ 1. '-_ I-GI?) 8 'c 3 sediments ~'a'_'°-: .5313 ‘6; m 9 ‘. . , °' _°‘ ' Unconformitym '5 0 . . '_1 , . . ' 6? I Alluvium ioob If ' 1—6(.7) E "'0: '. ‘0': _.° Unconformity V“— “c’ a) . . . U . . - --—. .9 .' ; ‘_ ' ; : E '. o . -_ ‘ Calvert -. .— 1 ~ -' ‘. g Formation -- 3,’ “_ 15 8 . . - .0 - a: '. ' . ‘ U _ . . 1 . 9 .. - _ . . . ‘ . "01: 7 Q: ‘ ' I :L Unconformity M “It '1‘ ‘.-_‘_..-?_. ':'¢"L.',' ‘Fv_“;' .1 .-.._‘_-_.;__’~.' . , , . ‘ _ ..,. a." a» x. o" —\.-' I.“- K{ g, ‘3‘: A)? 'J; '_ 1:; . . Aquia ‘ “é ; m Formation ' ', . -p 30-33 g 5 “xi” H. . g 8 . '. A; . ., E h v \ 4 . ‘ .. o. _‘_ , . .1“ , ‘ ' . ‘ - . ., ‘ f 1' .' .‘i- g; .._ I. ' I .L'.\ - I j—"_ 1;" .~ I j..- ._ Disconformity N Brightseat . ._~\.-w /_‘_ 3-6 Formation AL. '|-' I"; "Z‘. ' —.. “— .-‘—. u- . ' ‘ _ '_ Paraconformityv - '_-_'\— ; _ . .' n. :16 § :4 \\ .— \“e 2“. ,‘_—‘:.'."_'_ . 2.. .9 2.2.3:? @1373. _:/g-_.l:,.-:_'.; .12: Severn 4 Q 2“ ftp—'3 ‘. 12 6 Formation m” ' 5:9 . I _' I 2-5 7‘7 1211'? L 0', 2??2.»_>t¢3;o. 0w 353 \/ 3 E’ ' ' ‘ -.: ‘ .- ' " Disconformity M U Matawan A. \- ft. ‘1; 35"; 2_3 Formation / L‘ 551' . _.. . .._ , Unconformlty v Magothy ‘ ' j‘ . —j~/ 6-12 Formation ‘K'CW ' K! . 2”". V JJJ“. UnconformityA B Q In 2* 8 Upper part '2 8 of the 30 f g Potomac u) \— g 0 Group C _.I EXPLANATION o',-.o_ :‘__" JJ/J/J 1 ‘L a. ° ° ' 0 ~ — -- LLK\ \. “\- 'L Gravel Sand Clay-Silt Cross- Glauconite stratification o o \ f m 5 we / / o c Q'e I Mica Lignite Siderite Fossils Borings GEOLOGIC MAP OF THE ROUND BAY QUADRANGLE, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY, MARYLAND concretions