RAE VRE Hh ip! EOL Sev eh piriniel Le pert . UA Tat ai aieian i AHL ail) 1 1 J a Led i ARERR A is haya (BA OAC ETRER PH FOR epee Pe UAnUNTPEi i RE ARAL HEH jk EH i AA Lb BL | al Bar Lats ETE a HA in a) i 4 ET er eno dull CHERRY HER raps FIREER HY i TR AEE ff a EIEN LHe YEH UH rt SRE HET 2 FEIT ERE {ei Span ERE Et RT ae ll bi CUPL E ey ao EE ite COMPA rah a i UT ET TO PRN or Y SER LPO EI ELEAF RVD AER 4 1) y poled i f y [Ee VV Rathi PLATE 3 3 3 y.. NY JJ J Dy SX / a! Seale of Mellons of Miles. 10 20.30 40 a0 60 70 - 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 1 1 | ! ] ] 4 | 1 x 1 1 | I | 1 | Lr | 3 | { | dg | { | 1 London, Published by Baldwin & Cradock; and 61100ll, Hastings THE BRITISH CELESTIAL ATLAS; BEING A COMPLETE GUIDE TO THE ATTAINMENT OF A PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES: . CONTAINING TWELVE ROYAL QUARTO MAPS; : OR ENTIRE VIEWS OF THE STARRY HEAVEN S, AS THEY APPEAR TO THE NAKED EYE; ADAPTED FOR EVERY NIGHT THROUGHOUT THE YEAR: ON WHICH ARE CAREFULLY LAID DOWN, ALL THE STARS VISIBLE IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE, FROM THE FIRST TO THE FOURTH MAGNITUDE; WITH THE BOUNDARIES OF THE CONSTELLATIONS ACCURATELY DEFINED. ALSO THREE MOVEABLE PLATES, AND A PLATE OF DIAGRAMS, TO ELUCIDATE THE Arotions of the arth and the Celestial BWodies: ACCOMPANIED BY A FAMILIAR TREATISE ON ASTRONOMY. By G. RUBIE, TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY, THE USE OF THE GLOBES, ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION, HASTINGS. LONDON: BALDWIN & CRADOCK, PATERNOSTER ROW; G, WOOLL, AND THE AUTHOR, HASTINGS ; AND SOLD BY ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. 1830. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION Rr yn A GENERAL VIEW oF THE Urivenss : CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED STARS Zodiacal Constellations 3 Northern Constellations which never neh in the Latitude of London Constellations which ply set in the north . Constellations which wholly: rise and set Southern Constellations which whellys rise and set Constellations hich partially rise in the south . . Constellations which never rise in the Latitude of London . Modern Constellations which are not uni- versally adopted . Greek Alphabet . 3 oa. DEscrIPTION AND Assocr KiTon OF THE CONSTELLATIONS Zodiacal Constellations Northern Constellations Southern Constellations Description oF THE GLOBES, $0 THE Form, MEASUREMENT, AND MAGNI- TUDE OF THE EARTH . 2 PueENomENA oF THE HEAVENS ARISING FROM THE DIURNAL MOTION OF THE EArTH ; Jug en PHENOMENA OF THE Husvrys AS SEEN FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE Earth Problem 1. To flasinte a ny of the Heavens as seen at the Poles . Problem 2. To illustrate the phenomena of the Remnly bodies seen at the Equa- tor Problem 3. To ‘Waste He phernintha, of the Heavens as seen between the Equator and the Poles . Page SA —d 2b. 2b. ib. 10 11 th. 12 2b. 21 32 40 48 59 62 63 66 69 Problem 4. The Latitude of a place given, to find the Constellations which never rise, and those which never set to its inhabitants Problem 5. To find the Sg} 8 oti in the Ecliptic, and his Declination , Problem 6. To find the Sun’s eri altitude for any given day and place . Problem 7. To find the Latitude of a Star Problem 8. To find the Longitude of a Star (001 Problem 9. The Lotiiude id Loneitade of a Star given, to find it on the Globe, Problem 10. The Latitude and Longitude of the Moon or a Planet given, to find its place on the Globe : Problem 11. To describe the APROReT path of the Moon or a Planet, and to find what Stars they will make a near approach to Problem 12. To Atoarinin whon hore will be an Eclipse of the Sun \ Problem 13. To ascertain when there will be an Eclipse of the Moon THE SOLAR SYSTEM . The Sun Mercury Venus ; The Earth . The Moon . Mars Asteroids Jupiter . Saturn . Herschel Gomels. .. ..i% THE PTOLEMIAN SYSTEM . Tue TycHoNIC SYSTEM . ; DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THF Trino MovEaBLE PLATL Page 75 76 77 78 79 2b. 80 82 83 85 87 90 93 95 98 . 101 > 107 +110 112 . 117 . 120 . 122 . 128 . 129 130 Page The apparent motion of the Sun in the Ecliptic . 130 The phenomena of the Starry rteiins; shewing the cause of the appearance of certain Fixed Stars at different times of the Year, and at different hours of the same Night . . . . 133 The Seasons; Long and Short Dove; ; Po lar Day and Night . 135 The Precession ot the Equinox . . 138 The real and apparent motion of the Planets; their Direct, Retrograde, and Stationary appearances ; Conjunctions and Opposi- tions +1139 To represent the Dolition of the Earth, the Moon, and Planets; with their Phases for any given day . . . 142 Inclination of the Orbits of the Moon and Planets to the plane of the Ecliptic . . 146 Ecripsks JE ron.) a. . 147 Of the Moor | . 148 Of the Sun - 150 MiLiTaArRY ORRERY, OR A New Astron: MicAL GAME . 152 1v TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE Uni- VERSE . GENERAL DEscriPTION AND USE OF THE Maps . MonNTHLY OBSERVATIONS ON THE SITUA- TIONS OF THE CONSTELLATIONS, AND PRINCIPAL STARS . January February . March . April May June July August September October November December REMARKS ON THE MAPS RELATIVE TO OBSERVATIONS MADE BY THEM IN ForeicN PARTS DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. Plate III. 1. i IV. at the end, and the Maps to follow it. to face the Title. . page 40. 62. ERRATA. Page 8, col. 1, and page 23, line 1, for Madusa, read Medusz. —— 8, col. 2, and page 22, lines 23 and 27, for Madusa, read Medusa. —— 23, line 6, and page 37, line 22, read Medusa. 96, line 3, read 163 ; and page 97, line 10, read 23%. —— 162, line 29, for night, read month. Plate, July, for Alderamin, read Alpirk, and vice versa. Page . 156 ..- 199 . 164 2b. . 166 -A87 . 168 .. 169 . 171 . 172 +=173 . 174 . 176 «177 3178 i179 INTRODUCTION. Tae general division of the Heavenly Bodies is that of Fixed Stars, Planets, and Comets. The Fixed Stars are supposed to be Suns, placed at immense distances from the Earth and from each other. Planets are either primary or secondary; the former revolve round the Sun, and the latter, called Satellites, revolve round their primaries. On the nature and design of Comets, various opinions exist; but they appear to be a compound of the other two; participating of the nature of the Sun, as to the quality of their Atmospheres, and that of the Planets, with respect to their motions. Hence they may be very properly termed Secondary Suns; and are doubtless destined to some noble purpose, with which we are yet unacquainted. The Planets and their attendant Satellites, are undoubtedly of the same nature as the Earth, and destined for similar purposes. For they are solid opaque spherical bodies, and appear to be capable of vegetation, and the support of animal life. Some of them are many times larger, some smaller, and others about the size of the Earth. The Satellites, as before mentioned, cir- culate round their primaries, and with them, round the Sun, like the Earth and Moon, in longer or shorter periods, according to their re- spective distances from him ; and have, where most convenient, a regular return of Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. They have, therefore, warm and cold climates, requisite for the production of various sorts of vegetables; and in such as have afforded opportunities of discovering it, are observed to have a regular rotation on their own axis, like that of the Earth; causing an alternate return of Day and Night. If, therefore, we reason from analogy, we must certainly conclude that each Planet is inhabited with a race of intelligent beings, on whom the all-wise Creator bestows his blessings suitably to their respective wants. vi The number of the Fixed Stars is found by the telescope to be infinite, some of which are observed to revolve round others, or round a common centre of gravity; forming, as it were, Systems of Suns. Those which have not such a motion are supposed by Dr. Herschel to be sur- rounded with Planetary Systems, similar to our own; teeming with life and vegetation. Astronomy, therefore, surpasses every other science in the sub- limity and grandeur of the objects which it contemplates. I'he magni- ficent appearance of the Celestial Bodies, the regularity and harmony of their motions, combined with the various phenomena they display, strike us with astonishment and profound admiration! There is no art or science whatever, so well calculated to improve and elevate the human mind, to give us so just conception of ourselves, and to excite in us such exalted ideas of our beneficent Creator, as that of Astronomy. If we consider the science only as connected with our commercial pursuits, we shall find it to be one of the most useful and important branches of knowledge. For by observations made on the Sun, Moon, and other Celestial Objects, Astronomers and Mathematicians have been enabled to ascertain the form and magnitude of the Earth, and to lay down on Maps, Charts, and Artificial Globes, with an astonishing preci- sion, the situation and extent of every Country, Kingdom, and known place on its surface. By the assistance of these Charts, combined with Solar, Lunar, and Stellar observations, it is that the bold and adventurous Mariner is enabled to prosecute his voyage through the wide and pathless ocean, from one port to another, with certainty and safety. Thus we find that it is by the knowledge we derive from Astro- nomy, that trade and commerce is carried on to the remotest parts of the Earth; and the luxuriant produce of foreign climes, imported and dis- tributed for our health, comfort, and convenience. Astronomy being now very justly considered as forming an essen- tial branch of a liberal education, he who endeavours to render the attain- ment of so useful and sublime a science not only easy, but in many instances to convert the very means of obtaining it into an amusement, Vil ought to meet with encouragement from an enlightened public, in pro- portion to the advancement he makes towards the accomplishment of so desirable an object. The arrangement of the work, in which mach original matter will be found, is that which experience as a teacher has suggested ; beginning with a general view of the whole Starry Heavens, their classification, and origin of the figures by which they are designated. A short description of the artificial Globes follows; after which the Student is instructed in the knowledge of the Earth, its form and magnitude, and the methods by which they have been ascertained. The apparent diurnal motion of the Sun, Moon, and Stars round the Earth from East to West, is next explained, and proved to be occa. sioned by the rotation of the latter on its axis in a contrary direction. The apparent motions of the Celestial Objects being different when viewed from other parts of the Earth, these phenomena are more fully and separately illustrated by Problems on the Moveable Plates of the Celestial Globe; to which are added several other useful and interesting Problems, all of them being easily performed on the same Plates. The details of the Solar System comprehend, it 1s presumed, all that is most interesting in that department of the science; notes are also added, in which the magnitudes, velocities, &c. of the Planets are calculated. In the description and use of the third Mogeablé Plate, which may be called a Manual Planetarium, the apparent motion of the Sun in the Ecliptic; the cause of the appearance of certain Fixed Stars at dif- ferent hours of the Night, and at different times of the Year; the Seasons; Long and Short Days: Polar Day and Night; the Precession of the Equinox ; the real and apparent motions of the Planets; their Direct, Retrograde, and Stationary appearances; the inclination of their orbits to the plane of the Ecliptic; their Nodes, Latitude, &c. are all familiarly illustrated ; including a very instructive and amusing practice, with rules and examples for representing the position and phases of the Earth, Moon, and Planets for any given day. Then follows the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon, illustrated by suitable diagrams. The Military Orrery, or New Astronomical Game, is introduced vill for the use of Schools and Families, by which they may be instructed and thoroughly grounded in the knowledge of most of the principles and phenomena explained in the Solar System ; while the means of acquiring it, will afford them a fund of novel and rational amusements. In the general description and use of the Maps, a bare inspection of which, it is presumed, will be sufficient to prove their utility, rules and examples are given for ascertaining the places of the Moon and Planets thereon, for any day in the year; consequently they will not only repre- sent entire views of the Fixed Stars, but of the Moon and Planets also. As fresh Constellations appear every month on the eastern part of the Maps, while others are disappearing on the western part, the relative situation of the whole of the Constellations visible to the British Islands will thereby be obtained. The monthly observations will direct the Student how to find all the principal Stars and Constellations; and after having acquired a knowledge of them, those of less note may be found by their relative situation with the others. In this department, numbers are annexed to the names of the Stars, for the convenience of nautical and other persons, who ascertain the Latitude and Longitude by Stellar and Lunar obser- vations. The numbers correspond with those prefixed to the Stars used by Mr. Thomas Lynn in his excellent “Star Tables;” which are now coming into general practice. The names of the principal Stars on the Maps will also be found to correspond generally with those inserted in Table XIV. of Mr. J. W. Norie’s, and Table XX. of Mr. J. H. Moore's Epitome of Navigation. If mariners were to take the pains to learn those Stars by means of these Maps while they are within the parallels of 48° and 53° north Latitude, they would be sure to know them when seen from any other part of the world. Thus in one book are comprehended, a Familiar Treatise on Astronomy ; two Moveable Plates of the Celestial Globe, with Problems thereon ; a Manual Planetarium, on which a variety of instructive and amusing experiments may be performed; and a complete Atlas of the Starry Heavens; which it is hoped will be found equally useful to Families, the Conductors of Schools, private Students, and to Mariners. Hastings, October 4, 1830. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE. Astronomy may be defined to be the Science by which we are taught the knowledge of the Heavenly Bodies, the Sun, the Moon, the Planets, the Comets, and the Fixed Stars: with a judicious account of their Order, Distances, Magnitudes, Periodical Revolutions, and Eclipses ; the Laws which govern the Heavenly Host, and by which their several courses are directed ; as also of the cause of their apparent motions in the Heavens, as seen by a Spectator on the Earth. The Science is naturally divided into two parts; namely, Geocen- tric and Heliocentric. The former treats of celestial motion, as seen from the Earth; and the latter, as seen from the Sun. The one being the apparent motion of the Heavenly Bodies, and the other, their true motion. As the true motion of the Planets, can be seen only from the Sun, round which they revolve as their centre; I shall suppose the Student to be situated at the centre of that Luminary, where he could see the whole Starry Heavens at one view. The Stars would then appear to him as so many brilliant points of different magnitudes, scattered In all directions in the concave surface of the sphere, which would every where surround him. By attentive and repeated observations, he would discover, that nearly all the Stars would always remain at the same relative distance from each other; it is from this permanent quality in their position, that they have derived the name of Fixed Stars. | He would also observe a few others, moving in regular order among the Fixed Stars; which he would find to circulate around him, in different periods of time, and with different degrees of velocity. It is for this reason that they are called Wandering Stars, or Planets. B 2 The Planets are seven in number; namely, Mercury, Venus Tellus or the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel ; besides these there are four smaller Planets lately discovered, called Asteroids: viz. Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno. Although our Solar Astronomer would not be whl to form a cor- rect idea, as to their distance from him; no more than any one could tell the distance of several lights, placed irregularly at different distances from him, in a dark night; yet he might arrange them in the same order as above, by observing the difference in the velocity of their motions; the first mentioned moving fastest, and the last slowest. Continuing his observations, he would sometimes see a Star of a very singular appearance, approaching him from a great distance, increas- ing in its apparent magnitude and lustre, till it passed round him, and then to recede in a line not far distant from that in which it approached him, decreasing in brightness, until it would wholly disappear. Stars of this description are called Comets: they appear with a long luminous stream or tail, when seen sideways from the Earth, but when viewed from the Sun, the tail, being behind the Comet, with respect to the Sun, would not be seen; except its extremity, which, being the broadest part, would appear to surround the head or body of the Comet, in the form of hair. These Planets and Comets, when spoken of as a whole, form with the Sun, what is denominated the Solar System. The Earth or Planet on which we live, 1s the third in order of the Solar System, and is one of those Wandering Stars, which our supposed Solar Astronomer saw revolving around him; it is a vast globular or round body, 25,000 miles in circumference, and is inhabited on all sides by different nations and tribes of people, except at the Poles, where the cold 1s supposed 10 be too intense for human beings to exist. The Starry Sphere is so immensely great, that the Earth, though revolving round the Sun, at a distance of 95 millions of miles, is apparently suspended in the centre of it, so that, to whatever part of the World we may go, we shall there find the Heavens spread over our heads, and bespangled with Stars; which on account of the immensity of theiy distance, have the same stationary appearance with respect to each other, when seen from the Earth, as they have when viewed from the Sun. The Stars visible to the nidled eye are not so numerous, as at first sight we might imagine them to be, for, supposing a person to be standing on a hill, where he could have an uninterrupted view of the Heavens all around him, he would not see more than a thousand, at the same time, not even on a clear winter's night: a deception arising from the confused man- ner in which people in-general look upon them. To such persons, the Stars appear to be so numerous, that they think it fruitless to make an attempt to number them; if they were to select any portion of the Heavens, the Constellation of Orion for instance, and with the assistance of one of the accompanying Maps, they would find it, not only possible to count them, but would be surprised to find the part chosen, to contain so few. Again, if they were to take a common spy-glass, and view the same part of the Heavens, they would be asto- nished at the increased number of Stars, thus brought within their sight; but even these are nothing in comparison with the myriads discovered by the high magnifying powers of the Telescope. “ Come forth, O Man, yon azure round survey, And view those Lamps, which yield eternal day. Bring forth thy Glasses; clear thy wond’ring eyes : Millions beyond the former millions rise: Look farther :— Millions more blaze from remoter skies.” It is not to be imagined that the Stars are all placed in the concave surface of the Celestial Sphere, at equal distances from the Earth, or from the Sun; but, that they are diffused throughout universal space in such a manner, that there may be as great a distance between any two neigh- bouring Stars, as there is between the Sun and them which are nearest to him. These imaginations have been fully verified by the observations of Astronomers, who have always discovered more Stars, in proportion to the improvements made in their instruments. The Planets may be known from the Fixed Stars, by their always shining with a steady light, whereas the Fixed Stars are more brilliant, and are continually displaying that appearance which is called their 4 twinkling ; this is said to arise conjointly from the smallness of their ap- pearance, and from the minute intervening particles which are constantly floating in the atmosphere, and which, for an instant, deprive us of a sight of them; when the intervening particle is removed, we again see the Star : a quick and perpetual succession of them, will, of course, occasion a continual twinkling. CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED STARS. Tre Fixed Stars are so numerous that it would be impossible to apply names to them all, or even to them that are visible to the naked eye, so as to retain them in the memory : they are, therefore, arranged into several Classes and Orders; the former consisting of groups called Constel- lations, and the latter, of the apparent magnitudes of the several Stars, of which they are composed. These divisions of the Stars were invented by the Ancients, who. formed about 48 Constellations, which they fancifully represented by the figures of their heroes, beasts, birds, fishes, &c. The antiquity of the Constellations is proved by the writings of the ancient heathen poets, Hesiod and Homer, both of whom mention some of them; and also by the book of Job, chap. 9. ver.9. and chap. 38. ver. 31. where Arcturus, Orion, and the Pleiades are twice spoken of. The Seven Stars and Orion are also mentioned in the prophecy of Amos, chap. 5. ver. 8. As the ancient Constellations did not include the whole of the Stars, they that were not comprehended under either of them, were called Informes or Sporades: but as the knowledge of the Stars became more extensive, these Informes were progressively reduced into new Constel- lations, and certain figures applied to them. The number now generally represented on the British Celestial Globes, is ninety-four, but foreign Astronomers have added several more to that number, and it is probable that others will continue to be invented. 3 It is not to be understood that such figures can be seen in the Hea- vens, nor, that any outline of them can be traced in the disposition of the Stars included by their boundaries ;—the Constellations were undoubtedly invented for the purpose of referring with ease to any part of the Heavens ; and whilst their names answer the intended design, the figures themselves materially help us to retain them in our memories. | The several magnitudes of the Stars, of which there are usually reckoned six, have no reference whatever to their real size; but to their different degrees of brilliancy; the brightest being denominated the first, and those just discernible to the unassisted eye, the sixth magnitude. The Stars of each Constellation are also distinguished by the letters of the Greek alphabet; the principal Star being denoted by the first letter, the next to it in brightness by the second letter, and so on through the alphabet ;—thus the principal Star in Orion is called Alpha Orionis, the next Beta Orionis, &c. If there be more Stars in the Constellation, than letters in the Greek alphabet, then the small Roman letters are used in the same order: the ordinal numbers are also applied to those which exceed the two alphabets. Besides the above distinctions, many of the principal Stars have particular names applied to them, as Arcturas, in Bootes; Capella, in Auriga ; Rigel, in Orion; Sirius, in Canis Major; and Castor, in Gemini. By this contrivance, it is as easy to find the place of any given Star in the Heavens, as it is to find the situation of a city or town on the Earth. For instance, suppose 1 wish to find Sirius, and I am informed that it is a Star of the first magnitude in Canis Major; I first look on the map, or globe for the constellation Canis Major, and then within its boundaries for the star required. We are not, however, to infer from this distinction, that all the Stars included in each denomination are of equal brightness, for Vega is brighter than Capella, and the splendour of Sirius exceeds any other in the Heavens, yet they are all three of the first magnitude; the same remark may be applied to those of the second, third, &c. The best way to acquire a practical knowledge of the several mag- nitudes of the Stars, is to compare them with others that are well known, q or such as can be easily learned, and which are visible all the year round ; thus Capella, in Auriga; and Vega, in Lyra, will serve as a standard for the first magnitude; those in the tail of Ursa Major, viz. Alioth, Mizar, and Benetnasch for the second ; the five forming the W in Cassiopeia, for the third ; and the three which form a small triangle in the head of Ce- pheus, for the fourth magnitude. Besides the preceding classifications of the Starry Heavens, they are also divided into three distinct regions, viz. the Zodiacal, the Northern, and the Southern region. The Zodiacal, includes those constellations which are situated in and about the Sun’s apparent annual path, called the Ecliptic, being twelve in number. The Northern includes all them that are north of the Zodiac, of which there are usually reckoned thirty-five. The Southern comprehends about forty-seven, situated on the south of the Zodiac ; making a total of ninety-four constellations. The Zodiac itself includes a space about 8 or 10 degrees on the north and south side of the Ecliptic, and encompasses the Heavens like a belt or girdle. It is divided into twelve equal parts, called Signs, of thirty degrees each, which are represented by the names of the Zodiacal Con- stellations, and correspond with the twelve months of the year. These Signs serve to mark the apparent progress of the Sun, Moon, and Planets, in their periodical revolutions. Further information on this subject will be found in the description of the third moveable plate. The following Tables contain lists of all the Constellations on the British Celestial Globes, with the number of Stars in each, according to Flamstead’s Catalogue. The last two columns contain the Right Ascen- sion and Declination of the middle of each Constellation by which they may be readily found on the Globe. ” ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS. NORTH OF THE EQUINOCTIAL LINE. English Names. The Ram. The Bull. The Twins. The Crab. The Lion. The Virgin. No. of Stars. 66 141 85 83 95 110 SOUTH OF THE EQUINOCTIAL LINE. of the Signs. Latin Names. v. | Anes. 8 Taurus. I Gemini. = Cancer. a | Leo. m | Virgo. of the Signe. Latin Names, a Libra. m Scorpio. + | Sagittarius. vw | Capricornus. #= | Aquarius. * Pisces. Linglish Names. The Balance. The Scorpion. The Archer. The Sea Goat. The Water Bearer. The Fishes. No. of Stars. 51 44 69 51 108 113 NORTHERN CONSTELLATIONS. CONSTELLATIONS WHICH NEVER SET IN THE LATITUDE OF LONDON. Latin Names. Ursa Minor. Draco. Cepheus. Tarandus. Camelopardalis. Lynx. Ursa Major. Cassiopeia. Cor Coroli. English Names. The Little Bear. The Dragon. Cepheus. The Rein Deer. The Camelopard. The Lynx. The Great Bear. The Lady in her Chair. Charles’s Heart. No. of | Stars. || R.A. 24 | 80 | 35 10 58 44. | 87 55 3 B.A. 35° 65 108 125 157 191 R.A. 225° 24.3 290 314 335 10 241° 270 333 34 70 110 160 12 191 Dec. 20°N. 17. =. 15 N. 20 N. 15 N. 5 N. Dec. 11s, 26 s. 35 s. 20 s. 10 s. 10s. Dec. 80'N. 65 N. 70 N. 74 N. 66 N. 47 N. 60 ~. 60 N. 40 N, 8 CONSTELLATIONS WHICH PARTIALLY SET IN THE NORTH. Latin Names. Lyra. Cygnus. Lacerta. Andromeda Perseus et Caput Madusa Auriga. Bootes. Canes Venatici. Hercules et Cerberus. Leo Minor. CONSTELLATIONS WHICH WHOLLY RISE AND SET. Latin Names. Serpentarius vel Ophiu-y chus. S Serpens. Taurus Poniatowski. Scutum Sobieski. Aquila et Antinous. Saghin, + Vulpecula et Anser. Delphinus. Pegasus. Equuleus vel Equi ! Sectio. Triangulum. Musca Borealis. Cerona Borealis. Mons Maenalus. English Names. The Harp. The Swan. The Lizard. Andromeda. Perseus & Madusa’s hd. The Charioteer. The Herdsman. The Grey Hounds. Je and the Three-headed Dog. The Little Lion. English Names. The Serpent-bearer. The Serpent. Poniatowski’s Bull. Sobieski’s Shield. jie Eagle and Indian Youth. The Arrow. The Fox and the Goose. The Dolphin. The Flying Horse. The Colt, or Horse's 1 Head. § The Triangle. The Northern Fly. The Northern Crown. Mount Manalus. No. of Stars. 22 81 16 66 59 66 54 25 113 53 No. of Stars. 74 64 7 8 71 18 37 18 89 10 16 6 43 11 R.A. 230° 305 335 12 50 85 217 193 260 150 255° 252 274 276 200 205 304 310 340 315 29 38 185 224 Dec. 38°~. 40 N. 45 N. 40 N. 40 N. 43 ~. 30 ~. 42 N. 30 ~. 35 N~. Dec. 9 SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS. CONSTELLATIONS WHICH WHOLLY RISE AND' SET. Latin Names. Orion. Lepus. Monoceros. Canis Minor. Canis Major. Hydra. Sextans. Pyxis Nautica. Antlia Pneumatica. Crater. Corvus. Pisces Australis. Cetus. Brandenburgium ! Seeptrum. Linglish Names. Orion. The Hare. The Unicorn. The Little Dog. The Great Dog. The Water-Serpent. The Sextant. The Mariner's Compass. The Air Pump. The Cup: The Crow. The Southern Fish. The Whale. The Sceptre of Bran- 1 denburg. 5 No. of Stars. 78 19 31 14 31 60 41 4 3 31 9 24, 07 3 R. A. 81° 81 108 111 099 4 138 150.4 132 153 170 185 333 25 65 CONSTELLATIONS WHICH PARTIALLY RISE IN THE SOUTH. Latin Names. Apparatus Sculptoris. Fornax Chemica. Eridanus. Cela Sculptoria. Columba Noachi. Argo Navis. Centaurus. Lupus. Microscopium. : English Names. a Sculptor’s Ap- | paratus. The Chemical Furnace. The River Po. The Graver’s Tools. Noah's Dove. The Ship Argo. The Centaur. The Wolf. The Microscope. Cc No. of Stars. 12 14 84 16 10 64 35 24 10 R.A 9° 40 55 71 84 120 195 230 277 i Dec, 18 s. 2 s. 6. 22 5. 8s. 31. s. 32 s. 15.85 16 s. 31 5: 11s. 15 8. Dec. 35° 5: 30 s. 23.5. 37 s. 35 s. 45 s. 50 s. 42 s. 50 s. 10 CONSTELLATIONS WHICH NEVER RISE IN THE LATITUDE OF LONDON; THEREFORE ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THE MAPS. Latin Names. Pavo. Indus. Octans Hadleianus. Grus. Touchan. Phenix. Horologium. Hydrus. Reticulus Rhomboidalis. Equuleus Pictoris. Dorado. Mons Mensz. Pisces Volans. Robur Caroli. Crux. Musca Australis. Chameelion. Circinus. Triangulum Australis. Norma vel Quadra Euclidis. | Ara. Apus vel Avis Indica. Corona Australis, Telescopium. English Names. The Peacock. The Indian Youth. Hadley’s Quadrant. The Crane. The American Goose. The Phoenix. The Time Piece. The Water Snake. The Rhomboidal Net. The Painter's Easel. The Sword Fish. The Table Mountain. The Flying Fish. Charles’s Oak. The Cross. The Southern Fly. The Camelion. The Compasses. The Southern Triangle. Euclid’s Square. The Altar. The Bird of Paradise. The Southern Crown. The Telescope. No. of Stars. 12 14 43 13 9 13 12 10 10 ff © LO =O RYE. 315° 300 280 235 355 15 45 37 57 78 15 70 114 159 183 186 170 223 235 24.2 256 240 280 278 Dec: 55s. 67 s. 82 s. 45 s. 63 s. 46 s. 55.8%. 70 s. 82s. 50s. . 60s. 74 s.. 68 s. 52 s. 59 s. 70 s. 80 s. 62 s. 65 s. 44 s. 53s. 755. 40 s. 50 s. 11 MODERN CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE NOT UNIVERSALLY ADOPTED. Latin Names. Telescopium Herschelii. Gloria Frederic. Quadrans Muralis. Custos Messium vel L’ Messier. Latin Names. Avis Soliairia vel Noctua. Ballon Aerostatique. Felis. LI’ Atelier Typographique Psalterium Georgianum. NORTHERN. English Names. Herschel’s Telescope. Frederick's Glory. The Mural Quadrant. The Guardian of the Harvest. SOUTHERN. English Names. The Owl. The Air Balloon. The Cat. The Printing Press. George's Harp. | No. of Stars. 17 38 9 10 No. of Stars. 20 9 28 16 11 R.A. 102° 350 222 34 R.A. 208° 317 145 117 55 Dec. 41°N. 45 N. 53 N. 67 ~. Dec. 23’s. 30 s. 20 s. 15 s. 5 s. As the Greek Alphabet is used to denote the several Stars on the Globe, &c. I have introduced it here for the convenience of those who may be unacquainted with it; reminding them at the same time, that the Small Letters only are made use of for that purpose. The Capitals are inserted for the sake of uniformity; but the powers or sounds of the letters are omitted, as having no connexion with the subject before us. Capitals. Small. A ao B GB, 6 r ¥ A Jd E £ z G¢ H 7 0 3,0 I ‘ K % A A M H Names. Alpha. Beta. Gamma. Delta. Epsilon. Zeta. Eta. Theta. Iota. Kappa. Lambda. Mu. Capitals. HEXesSsaMTOOoOmZ Sweall, V § 0 Names. Nu. Xi. Omicron. Pi. Rho. Sigma. Tau. Upsilon. Phi. Chi. Psi, Oméga. DESCRIPTION AND ASSOCIATION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. Tre English names and order of the Zodiacal Signs and Constellations, may be readily learned, and as easily retained, by committing to memory the following poetical lines by Dr. Watts, viz. The Raw, the Burt, the heavenly Twins, And next the Cras, the Liox shines, The Vircin, and the SCALES: The ScorPI1ON, ARCHER, and SEA-GOAT, The Man who holds the WarTEer-poT, And F1su with glittering tails. And by associating the Northern and Southern Constellations together, according to their mythological relations, or local connexions, not only their names, but their situations also may be remembered. ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS. Spring Signs. ARIES, TAURUS, AND GEMINI Aries, according to the Grecian fables, is the Ram, with a Golden Fleece, on which Phryxus and his sister Helle fled from Ino, their step- mother. Crossing a narrow part of the sea, on this animal, Helle fell off and was drowned : hence this part has ever after been called the Helles- pont; Phryxus was carried safe over, and arrived at Colchis, where he married Chalciope, daughter of Altes, king of that country; who some time after killed his son-in-law, in order to obtain the Golden Fleece. To revenge his death and to regain the Fleece was the principal object of the Argonautic expedition. The Ram had been previously sacrificed to Jupiter, who made it a Constellation. 13 "The character (+) is a representation of the horns of the Ram. This Constellation contains 66 Stars, viz. Arietis of the second, one of the third, and two of the fourth magnitude, the rest being smaller. Aries rises in the E.N. E. and continues visible from the beginning of Sep- tember till March. This is the first Sign of the Zodiac; de beginning of the spring, and of the Astronomical year. The sun enters it about the 20th of March, when being in the Spring Equinox, he distributes equal day and night to all parts of the Earth, except at the Poles; for it is the opening of the day at the North, and the close of the day at the South Pole. Taurus, the Bull. The mythologists inform us, that this was the Bull, whose shape Jupiter assumed when he carried off Europa, across the sea into Crete, where he disclosed his divinity to her, and placed the Bull among the Stars. The Sidonians stamped medals in honour of her, with the picture of a woman riding over the sea on a Bull. It contains 141 Stars, viz. Aldebaran of the first, El Nath of the second, four of the third, nine of the fourth, and the others of a less magnitude. The character of this sign (x) represents the face and horns of the Bull. Taurus contains two small Constellations, viz. the Pleiades, and Hyades. The Pre1apes, or, as they are commonly called, the Seven Stars, are the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, viz. Maia, Electra, Taygeta, Asterope, Merope, Haleyone, and Celene. They were translated to the Heavens by Jupiter, in compliance with their earnest entreaties, to avoid the pursuit of Orion. This Constellation contains 78 Stars, only 6 of which are visible to the naked eye. It is situated on the right shoulder of Taurus, near the tropic of Cancer; it rises in the N. E. and may be seen in the ‘evenings from the beginning of October till April. The Hy aves were also the daughters of ‘Atlas by Aithra, viz. Ambrosia, Coronis, Eudora, Pasithoé, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche, the 14 whole of whom fell into continual fits of weeping for the loss of their bro- ther Hyas, who was devoured by a lion, till Jupiter out of compassion, changed them into this Constellation. The principal Star of this group 1s Aldebaran in the southern eye of the Bull, it is of a dusky red appearance, similar to the planet Mars. Taurus is the second of the Zodiacal, and of the Spring Signs, into which the Sun enters about the 20th of April, when the length of the days is increasing in the Northern, and decreasing in the Southern Hemisphere. Gemini, the Twins. The mythologists inform us, that these were Castor and Pollux, sons of Leda, by Jupiter, who to gain the love of Leda, assumed the likeness of a Swan.* The Twins accompanied Jason in his expedition to Colchis for the Golden Fleece. In the course of the voyage they were overtaken by a violent storm ; and while Orpheus, one of the Argonauts, was making vows to the gods for the safety of the Ship, two meteors appeared playing about the heads of Castor and Pollux, and a dead calm immediately followed. This event gained them divine honours, and ever after when such meteors were seen, the general belief was that they were sent by their command. If two appeared they were considered to be favourable, and were termed Castor and Pollux; but if only one was seen, it was deemed to be the sign of an approaching storm, and therefore called Helena. These notions are entertained by mariners to the present day ; the meteors generally appear about the rigging of the ship, particu- larly where there is iron; 1 recollect having seen one on the spindle of the vane, and I affirm, without being superstitious, that a most tremendous storm ensued. The character (x) is composed of two parallel lines joined together at the top and bottom, in imitation of the Twins clasping each other. This Constellation contains 85 Stars, viz. Castor of the first, Pollux and Gamma of the second ; three of the third ; and five of the fourth mag- nitude, the rest being very small. It rises in the N.E. and may be seen m the evenings from November to the middle of June. * See the Constellation Cygnus. 15 Tt is the third of the Zodiacal, and last of the Spring Signs ; the Sun enters it about the 21st of May, when the length of the days is still increas- ing in the Northern Hemisphere, and decreasing in the Southern. It is conjectured by some, that the figures of the Z.odiacal Con- stellations are Egyptian Hieroglyphics, and that they are descriptive of the Seasons, or of some remarkable occurrence in each month of ‘the year. Thus, while the Sun was passing through the three Spring Signs, the ani- mals which they held in the highest estimation, were produced, viz. Sheep, Black-cattle, and Goats ; the latter being the most prolific, were originally represented by two kids; but now by Gemini or the Twin-brothers, Castor and Pollux. | 41 Summer Signs. CANCER, LEO, AND VIRGO. Cancer, the Crab. The Greeks say, that when Hercules was contending with the Lernean Hydra, Juno sent a crab to annoy him, which having fixed upon his foot, the hero instantly shook it off and crushed it to atoms. The Goddess, however, as a reward for its services, placed it among the Constellations. Bat, | ; According to the Egyptian Hieroglyphical representation, the crab is supposed to resemble the motion of the Sun when in this sign, which passes sideways along the Tropic of Cancer, without crossing it : for, sup- posing a crab to be confined to a certain space, it would crawl to the extremity on one side, and then retrace its steps to the other, somew hat similar to the motion of the Sun at this season, which after having attained his greatest elevation towards the North, begins to descend towards his Southern limits, the Tropic of Capricorn. ‘The character (=) pointing both ways, is also emblematical of the change in the Sun’s declination. Jan This Constellation consists of 83 Stars, none of which are larger than the fourth magnitude. It rises in the E. N. E. and is visible in the evenings, from December till June. 16 This is the fourth of the Zodiacal, and the first of the Summer Signs. The Sun enters it about the 21st of June, when he arrives at the Summer Solstice, and produces the longest day to the Northern, and the shortest day to the Southern Hemisphere ; the length of the day to the one, being equal to the length of the night to the other, in the same degree of latitude. It is the middle of the artificial day at the North Pole, and of the night at the South Pole. Leo, the Lion. The Greeks fabled that this was the Lion, which, by Juno's enchantment, fell from the circle of the Moon, and infested the Nemaean woods, where he committed dreadful ravages among the herds; till killed by Hercules, who ever after wore his skin as a garment. But it is more probable that the Egyptians placed this hieroglyphic here, either to represent the great heat of the Sun in his passage through this sign; or, because at this season of the year, the lions often left the sandy deserts, to quench their thirst at the banks of the Nile. The character (a) represents the tail of the lion in a state of agitation. This Asterism contains 95 Stars, viz. Regulus, or Cor Leonis, in the heart, and Denebola in the tail, of the first; two of the second ; five of the third, and the rest of an inferior magnitude. It rises E.N.E. and may be seen in the evenings from the beginning of January till the middle of June. Leo is the fifth of the Zodiacal, and the second of the Summer Signs. The Sun enters it about the 23d of July, when he is fast de- clining towards the South; hence the days are becoming shorter in the North, and longer in the South, Temperate Zone. Vireo, the Virgin. The origin of this Constellation, as related by the fabulists, is this, that Astrea, daughter of Jupiter and Themis, the goddess of justice, who distributed to every one his due proportion, came down to reside on the Earth during the Golden Age; but, when men gave themselves up to vice, she returned to Heaven, and was made a Con- stellation of the Zodiac. 17 ~The figure is that of a Virgin, with wings on her shoulders; holding a palm branch in her right hand, and a few ears of corn in her left, denoting the time of harvest. | This is the present character of the sign (nw), but three ears of corn was the original one. This Constellation consists of 110 Stars, viz. Spica Virginis of the first; Vindemiatrix and five others of the third ; eleven of the fourth, and the remainder of a less magnitude. Spica Virginis rises in the E.S.E. and may be seen every clear evening from the beginning of April till the end of June. This is the last of the Summer Signs, and the sixth in order of the Zodiac. The Sun enters it about the 23d of August, decreasing in his declination, and passing vertically over New Spain, the Coast of Guinea, and the Philippine Islands. Autumnal Signs. LIBRA, SCORPIO, AND SAGITTARIUS. Lisra, the Balance. The Grecian fabulists do not give any plau- sible account of the origin of this Sign, therefore it inclines us to look to the Egyptians as the inventors; who most probably placed it in this part of the Zodiac, as an emblem of the equality of day and night. The character (=) is intended to represent the beam of the Scales. This Constellation includes about 51 Stars, viz. Zuben el Gemubi in the north scale, and Zuben el Chamah in the south scale, both of the second ; Zuben ha Krabi, and Zuben el Gubi, of the third ; and 12 of the fourth magnitude. The principal Stars rise in the E.S.E. and continue visible every evening from the beginning of May till September. Libra is the seventh of the Zodiacal, and the first of the Autumnal Signs. The Sun enters it about the 23d of September; the time of the Autumnal Equinox ; when equal day and night is again experienced by all the inhabitants of the earth, between the arctic and the antarctic regions. At the North Pole the Sun is setting, to rise no more for six months; and at the South Pole it is rising, to set no more for the same length of time. D 18 Scorpio, the Scorpion. It is said that Orion,* boasting of his superior skill as a hunter, so offended the Goddess Diana, that she sent a Scorpion, which after mortally wounding him with its sting, was trans- formed into this Constellation. The Greeks also relate a story, that Diana was so fond of Orion, that she intended to marry him; but Apollo, her brother, disapproving of the union, made use of a stratagem by which she unintentionally shot him with one of her arrows. But the Egyptians undoubtedly placed this poisonous reptile in this sign as an emblematical representation of the dreadful maladies which usually attack mankind at this season of the year. The character (mn) is in the form of the letter m with the point of the last stroke barbed like a sting or dart. The boundaries of this Constellation enclose 44 Stars, viz. Antares of the first; one of the second; ten of the third, and the rest of a less magnitude. Antares, its principal Star, rises in the S.E. and may be seen every evening, a few degrees above the horizon, from the beginning of June till the middle of August. The tail which contains eight Stars of the third magnitude does not rise at London. ’ This is the second of the Autumnal, and the eighth of the Zodiacal Signs. The Sun enters it about the 23d of October, and is vertical at noon to Lima and St. Salvador, in South America; to the northern extre- mity of Madagascar and that of New Holland, where, of course, it is the height of Summer. SaeitTartvUs, the Archer. The figure of this sign is a Centaur, or an animal half a man and half a horse, in the act of shooting an arrow from his bow ; who, according to the Greeks, was Chiron the son of Saturn and Phillyra. He was considered the most accomplished master of the fine arts ; and had the honour of being the preceptor of Achilles ; he also taught Aisculapius physic, and Hercules astronomy ; and was, after his death, changed into this Constellation. * See the Constellation of Orion. 19 It is otherwisé supposed, that the Egyptians placed him in this sign as an emblem of the hunting season which commences at this time of the year. The character (#) is an arrow, which also has a reference to hunting. This Constellation contain 69 Stars, only five of which are of the third magnitude, situated between his left shoulder and the bow. They rise in the S. 8. E.; ascend but a few degrees above the horizon, and continue visible, about three hours and half every evening, from the beginning of July till the end of August. Sagittarius is the ninth of the Zodiacal, and Ta last of the Autumnal signs. © The Sun enters it about the 22d of November, when his meridian altitude is about 17 degrees, consequenily the days are then getting very short. Winter Signs. CAPRICORNUS, AQUARIUS, AND PISCES. Capricornus, the Sea-Goat. The Greeks pretend that this was the Goat, named Amalthea, which suckled Jupiter in his infancy, who, when he grew up, had it placed among the Stars, as a reward for its kindness ; he also, by the advice of Themis, covered his shield with its skin, in order to strike a terror into his enemies. Its horn was called, the Horn of Plenty, because he who possessed it, was supposed to be able to obtain all he desired. The figure is that of a monster, having the head of a goat, ad the tail of a fish ; and sometimes it is that of a common goat, which delights in climbing the sides of mountains and precipices. It is therefore very pro- bable, that the Egyptians appropriated it to this part of the Zodiac, as an emblem of the Sun’s motion, it having now descended to its utmost southern limits, the Tropic of Capricorn, where it begins to re-ascend, mounting higher every day, till it reaches the Tropic of Cancer, its highest point in the heavens. 20 The character (v) is supposed to resemble the twisted tail of the goat which characterises this sign. This Asterism consists of 51 Stars, viz. two in the head, and Deneb Algediin the tail, of the third magnitude ; two of the fourth, and the rest smaller. The principal Star in the head rises in the E. S. E. and is visible only from midsummer till the middle of November. This is the first of the Winter, and the tenth of the Zodiacal Signs. The Sun enters it about the 22d of December, when the Winter Solstice takes place. It is then mid-day at the South Pole, and midnight at the North Pole. Aquaritus, the Water-bearer. Xenophon informs us, that Gany- medes, son of Tros, King of Troy, was such an accomplished youth, and his external beauty corresponding so much with his inward virtues, that Jupiter thought him a fit companion for the gods; who accordingly sent his faithful minister, the Eagle,* to convey him from mount Ida, to the celestial regions, where, being placed among the Stars, Jupiter turned him into the Sign Aquarius, to attend on him at his banquets with flowing cups of nectar. The figure is that of a Man pouring water from a vessel, thereby denoting the wet and unpleasant season of the year, in which the Sun passes through this sign. The character («) is an imitation of the undulatory motion of the waters. This Constellation contains 108 Stars, viz. four of the third, six of the fourth, and the rest of an inferior magnitude. The principal Star, in the right shoulder, rises E. by S. about the beginning of August, when the Nile overflows, and public rejoicings are made at Cairo. It con- tinues visible till January. Aquarius is the eleventh of the Zodiacal, and the second of the Winter Signs. The Sun enters it about the 20th of January, when the length of the day is increasing in the Northern Hemisphere, and de- creasing in the Southern. * See the Constellation of Aquila. 21 Pisces, the Fishes. The Mythologists do not give any plausible account of the origin of this Sign : some say that the Egyptians, who never ate fish, considering them as an abomination, placed them here because they supposed that this Sign had some malignant influence over their affairs. The figure is that of two fishes tied together by the tails with a long cord ; and the character (x) is supposed to resemble two fishes tied back to back; denoting thereby that the rivers are now open for the com- mencement of the fishing season. The Constellation contains 113 Stars, viz. one near the neck of Cetus, of the third magnitude, five of the fourth, and the rest very small. The Northern fish is situated near Mirach in the girdle of Andromeda, and the Southern one below Markab in Pegasus. The former rises in the N. E. by N. and the latter due East. Both of them become visible, in the Eastern part of the Heavens, in the evenings, about the middle of August. The Southern fish disappears in the West about the middle of January; but the Northern one continues visible till the middle of March. This is the last of the Winter and of the Zodiacal Signs. The Sun enters it about the 19th of February, when it is again vertical at noon to the same places as it was when it entered Scorpio. The day is fast declining at the South Pole, and beginning to dawn at the North Pole. NORTHERN CONSTELLATIONS. CEPHEUS, CASSIOPEIA, ANDROMEDA, PERSEUS, PEGASUS, EQUULEUS, TRIANGULUM, AND MUSCA BOREALIS. CePHEUS, was a king of Ethiopia, and father of Andromeda; he is represented on the Globe in the costume of an oriental monarch, in a sitting posture, with his sceptre in his right hand. This Asterism consists of 35 Stars. There are three of the third, 22 and five of the fourth magnitude, the rest being smaller. It is within the circle of perpetual apparition, consequently it does not set to the inha- bitants of London. Cassiopeia, the Lady in her Chair, is the wife of Cepheus, and the mother of Andromeda. She is represented sitting in a chair, and drawing her mantle over her right shoulder. She boasted of her beauty being greater than that of the Nereides or Sea Nymphs, which so offended Neptune, that he sent a sea monster® to ravage the country of Aithiopia :— Nothing could appease his wrath, but the sacrifice of Andro- meda, her daughter, which would have been accomplished, had it not been prevented by the timely interference of Perseus. This Constellation contains 55 Stars, five of which are of the third magnitude, remarkable for forming an outline of the letter W, which may be seen every night in the year. ANxproMEDA, the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia. She is represented as being chained by her wrists to a rock, to be devoured by the sea monster, from which she was delivered by Perseus, who after- wards made her his wife. The places of 66 Stars have been marked in this Constellation, viz. Alpheratz, Mirach, and Almaach of the second magnitude, two of the third, and twelve of the fourth. Alpheratz i in her head rises in the N. E. and continues visible in the evenings from July till April. Perseus, was the son of Jupiter and Danae; he slew Madusa, one of the Gorgons, and cut off her head, with which he performed many wonderful exploits. On returning from the slaughter of the Gorgons, he met with the sea monster, and turned him into a rock by shewing him the head of Madusa, and thus rescued Andromeda from her perilous situation. He 1s represented on the Globe, with wings at his ancles, a sword in his right, and Madusa’s head in his left hand. * See the Constellation Cetus. 23 This constellation, including Caput Madusa, consists of 69 Stars, viz. Algenib and Algol, of the second magnitude, four of the third, nine of the fourth, and the rest smaller; the greater part of which are visible all the year. Pre asus, the Flying Horse, is said by the Greeks, to have sprung from the blood of Madusa, when Perseus cut off her head. It contains 89 Stars; Markab, Scheat, and Algenib of the second, three of the third, ten of the fourth, and others of a less magnitude. Markab the chief Star is situated in his body, it rises in the E. N. E. and is visible in the evenings from the middle of June till February. EquuLtus, the Colt, is by some supposed to be the brother of Pegasus, and by others, to be the horse which Mercury gave to Castor. It contains only 10 Stars, viz. four of the fourth magnitude, and six smaller. It rises a little north of the east, and continues visible every evening from the beginning of July till the end of the year. TriaNeuLUM, the Triangle, is supposed to have derived its name from the Delta, a fertile tract of land in Lower Egypt, lying between the mouths of the Nile, resembling the Greek letter* of the same name. A lesser triangle has been added to the ancient one by Hevelius. The whole Constellation contains 16 Stars, three of which are of the fourth magnitude, and three of the fifth; the former being in the greater, and the latter in the lesser triangle. It rises in the N. E. and may be seen in the evenings from July till April. Musca Boreavris, the Northern Fly. A new Constellation, con- sisting of six Stars, one of them being of the third, and two of the fifth magnitude. It rises in the N.E. and is visible in the evenings with Triangulum. * See the Greek Alphabet. 24 In this association we find Cepheus in a line with the pointers in Ursa Major, but on the opposite side of the Pole Star; with Cassiopeia on his right hand. Andromeda is south of Cassiopeia, with Pegasus and Equuleus near her head, and Perseus, her preserver, at her feet. On the South of her, are Triangulum and Musca Borealis. AURIGA, LEO MINOR, LYNX, CAMELOPARDALIS, AND TARANDUS. Avrica, the Charioteer, is depicted on the Globe, as a Man in a kneeling attitude, with a Goat and her Kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right. He is generally supposed to be Myrtilus, son of Mercury and Clymene, and charioteer to Oénomeus king of Pisa.—Oénomeus had promised his daughter Hippodamia in marriage to any person who could outdrive him in a chariot, on condition that the defeated should suffer death ; thirteen had made the attempt, and lost their lives ; when Pelops, having bribed Myrtilus, gained the prize, and slew Myrtilus afterwards, for claiming a share in the reward : but being a son of Mercury he was made a Constellation. This Asterism contains 66 Stars, viz. Capella, a beautiful Star of the first magnitude, El Nath of the second; nine of the fourth, and the rest smaller. Capella never sets to the inhabitants of Great Britain. Leo Minor, the Little Lion, situated between Leo Major and Ursa Major, consisting of 53 Stars, viz. one of the third magnitude; five of the fourth, and the others less. Its principal Star rises in the N.E. by N. and 1s visible in the evenings from Christmas till August. Ly~x, the Lyn, is a spotted animal, remarkable for its swiftness, and sharpness of sight. It consists of 44 Stars, only one of which is larger than the fifth magnitude, and which never sets in the latitude of London. Camerorarparts, the Camelopard, is an animal of Ethiopia, remarkably tame, very tall, and spotted like the Leopard. It contains 58 Stars, only six of which are so large as the fourth magnitude. It is always visible at London. 25 This and the preceding two Constellations, were made out of the ancient Sporades, by Hevelius, a celebrated astronomer, born at Dantzic in Prussia. TaraNDuUs, the Rein Deer, is a small Constellation, formed by Le Monnier, of about ten small Stars, which formerly belonged to Ce- pheus and Cassiopeia, they are always visible. Auriga 1s situated on the East of Perseus, having the Lynx between him and Ursa Major; with Camelopardalis and Tarandus on the North. URSA MAJOR, AND URSA MINOR, BOOTES, MONS MAENALUS, CANES VENATICI, COR COROLI, AND COMA BERENICES. Ursa Major, the Great Bear, is sald to have been Calisto, the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, the former being turned into a bear by Juno, was nearly killed by her son Arcas in hunting: Jupiter, there- fore, to protect her from future harm, translated her to the Heavens. This remarkable Constellation is generally known by the name of Charles’ Wain, or the Plough and Horses. It contains 87 Stars, viz. Dubhe of the first magnitude, Merak, Phach’d, Alioth, and Benetnasch of the second, Megrez and three more of the third; thirteen of the fourth, and the rest of smaller magnitude. Dubhe and Merak are called the Pointers, because they point to the North Pole Star. It is visible all the year. Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, is supposed to be Arcas, son of Jupiter and Calisto, the former of whom having been killed by his grand- father Liycaon, Jupiter turned him into this Constellation. It consists of 24 Stars, one of which is of the second magnitude, in the extremity of the tail, called Alruccabah, or the Pole Star; three of the third, and three of the fourth. The principal Stars of this Constellation form a figure similar to the seven in Ursa Major; butin a reversed order. Lo} 26 Boores, the Herdsman. The origin of this Constellation appears to be wrapped in obscurity, or to have been lost in a variety of opinions. Some suppose him to have been Lycaon, the father of Calisto, which opinion being the most favourable to my plan of association, is the only reason I have adopted it in preference to others: He is represented on the Globe in the character of an Elderly Man in a walking attitude, with a club in his left hand, holding Canes Venatici in a cord with his right. The boundaries of this Constellation inclose 54 Stars, viz. Arcturus of the first, six of the third, and twelve of the fourth magnitude. The beautiful Star Arcturus rises in the ENN.E. and is visible every evening from the beginning of March till the end of August. Mons M &~aLus, the Mountain Menalus, in Arcadia, sacred to Pan, the son of Mercury, and the god of Shepherds. The Mountain derived its name from Menalus, son of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. It forms no separate Constellation, but is included in that of Virgo and Serpens. Canes Venaricl, the Greyhounds, Aslerion and Chara; a new Constellation, formed by Hevelius, and contains 25 Stars. Cor Coroli is its chief Star, of the second magnitude; it just grazes the horizon when on the meridian below the Pole, and may be seen from the 1st of January tll October. Cor Corori, Charles's Heart, is a small Constellation on the neck of Chara, and is included in Canes Venatici. It is represented as a heart surmounted by a crown, and was formed by Sir Charles Scarborough, physician to King Charles II. in honour of his late sovereign Charles I. It consists of only three Stars, the principal of which is Cor Coroli above mentioned. Coma Berexices, Berenice’s Hair. Berenice, the wife of Pto- lemy Euergetes, king of Egypt, made a vow to dedicate her hair to Venus, (who had immortalized her), if her Husband returned in safety from an expedition on which he was gone into Syria; Euergetes having 27 returned victorious, she consecrated her Hair, and sent it to the Temple of the Goddess; who prevailed on Jupiter, to place it in the Heavens in the form of this Constellation. : Her father Ptolemy Philadelphus, a king of Egypt, founded the celebrated Alexandrian Library, consisting of one hundred thousand volumes. This Asterism contains 43 Stars, eleven of which are of the fourth magnitude. It rises in the N.E. part of the horizon, and may be seen from the beginning of March till August. Referring to the Globe, we find Bootes with his two Greyhounds, hunting or driving the Great Bear round the Pole, whilst the Little Bear, appears to be fixed by the tail to the Pole, and keeping a watchful eye on Bootes to see the result of the chase. Coma Berenices 1s south of Canes Venatici, and Mons Manalus near the feet of Bootes. HERCULES, CERBERUS, DRACO, SAGITTA, AND CORONA BOREALIS. Hercures was the son of Jupiter and Alcmene, the former of whom, by the hatred and subtlety of Juno, was subjected to the will of Eurystheus, by whom he was obliged to perform his celebrated twelve labours. He is represented on the Globe in a kneeling posture, with a club in his right hand ; Cerberus and the golden apples in his left ; and the skin of the Nemaean Lion,* which he slew, over his shoulders. The places of 113 Stars have been found in this Constellation, six of which are of the third magnitude, and nineteen of the fourth. Ras Algethi in his head is the chief Star; it rises in the E.N. E. and is visible every evening from the beginning of April till November. Cerserus, the Three Headed Dog, belonging to Plato, by whom he was stationed at the gates of the infernal regions; where, it is said, he fawned upon all those who entered, but devoured all them that attempted to escape. * See the Constellation Leo. 28 The dragging of this monster from the infernal regions, and the bringing of him to Eurystheus, king of Argos, was the last and most dangerous achievement of Hercules. The figure was invented by Hevelius, and is included in the Constellation Hercules, who holds it in his left hand. Draco, the Dragon, according to the fables of the Greeks, was set as a watch over the Golden Apples in the garden of the Hesperides. It was slain by Hercules, that he might obtain some of the fruit to carry to Eurystheus. Juno, having presented the apples to Jupiter on the day of their marriage, took the creature with her to Heaven; and, in con- sideration of its faithful service, made it a Constellation. It contains 80 Stars, viz. four of the second magnitude, seven of the third, eleven of the fourth, and the rest smaller. No part of Draco sets to the British Isles. Sacirra, the Arrow, with which Hercules killed the Eagle, that was daily gnawing the liver of Prometheus, who was chained to a rock on Mount Caucasus, by Jupiter, for animating a man with fire, which he had formed of clay. It is a small Constellation, situated between Vulpecula et Anser and Aquila, consisting of 18 Stars, none of which exceed the fourth magnitude. It rises in the E.N.E. and appears in the evenings from May till December. Corona Boreavris, the Northern Crown, is supposed to be that, which Bacchus gave to his priestess Ariadne, daughter of Minos king of Crete, which, after her death, was made a Constellation. This is a beautiful little Asterism, containing 21 Stars; Gemmi its principal Star, is of the second magnitude, which with five others of the fourth magnitude, form the circular part of the crown. It rises in the N. E. and is visible from the 1st of March till November. 29 Hercules is delineated on the Globe with his feet towards the North Pole, having his left foot on the head of Draco; with Corona Borealis on his right hand, Lyra on his left,and Sagitta at a little distance fromhim, as if shot from his bow. SERPENTARIUS, SERPENS, TAURUS PONIATOWSKI, AND SCUTUM SOBIESKI. SerpENTARIUS Vel Oruiucnus, the Serpent Bearer, is supposed to be Asculapius, son of Apollo and Coronis, and God of Physic. He was killed by Jupiter with a thunderbolt, in consequence of his skill in having restored the life of Hypolytus a giant, who had been slain in a war with Jupiter. By whom he was translated to the Heavens, the Mythologists do not inform us. The figure is that of a Man, with a long beard, holding a Serpent in his hands, which appears to have been an ancient symbol of medicine. It contains 74 Stars, viz. Ras Alhagus, situate in the head, and about five degrees east of Ras Algethi, in the head of Hercules, of the second magnitude; six of the third, and nine of the fourth. It crosses the Equinoctial, consequently rises due east, and is visible in the evenings from April to October. SERPENS, the Serpent, is the same which Ophiuchus grasps in his hands. It contains 64 Stars, viz. one of the second magnitude; eight of the third ; seven of the fourth, and the remainder less. It rises and sets with Ophiuchus. Taurus PoNiarowskr, Poniatowski’s Bull, is a new Constellation, made in honour of Count Poniatowski, a Polish Officer of extraordinary merit. It consists of 7 Stars, four of which are of the fourth magnitude, and situate in his head ; they rise due east, and are visible every evening from May to November. 30 Scurum Sosieski, Sobieski’s Shield, was formed by Hevelius, in honour of John Sobieski, king of Poland. It contains 8 Stars, of which only two are so large as the fourth magnitude. It rises in the E.S.E. and can be seen every clear evening from the beginning of June till the middle of October. Serpentarius crosses the Equinoctial, south of Hercules, having Taurus Poniatowski and Scutum Sobieski on the east. CYGNUS, LYRA, AND LACERTA. CyaNus, the Swan, this Constellation derived its name, according to the Greeks, from Leda the daughter of Thestius, and wife of Tyndarus king of Lacedaemon. She was deceived by Jupiter in the form of a swan, on the banks of the river Eurotas, by whom she had Castor, Pollux,* and Helena; the latter of whom was the most beautiful woman in the world. She ran away with Paris, and thus occasioned the Trojan War. The Swan, the form of which Jupiter had assumed, was by him translated to the Heavens. : It includes about 81 Stars, viz. Deneb, its chief Star, of the second magnitude, six of the third, and eleven of the fourth. Deneb never sets, and Albiero in its bill, rises about N. E. The whole Constellation may be seen every evening from the beginning of May till the end of the year. Lyra, the Harp, is said, by the Mythologists, to be that which Apollo gave to his son Orpheus, who was a celebrated musician. The Harp having seven strings, represents the harmony of the seven Planets, and it was metamorphosed into this Constellation by the Muses. It contains 22 Stars, viz. Vega of the first magnitude, two of the third, and the rest very small. Vega just touches the horizon, when on the Meridian below the Pole, and is visible almost every evening in the year; excepting February, when it is too near the northern horizon to be seen. * See the Constellation Gemini. 31 Lacerta, the Lizard, is a small Constellation, made by Hevelius, containing 16 Stars, only three of which are so large as the fourth mag- nitude, the greater part of it is visible all the year. Cygnus occupies a large space in the Via Lactea or Milky Way, south of Cepheus and Draco, having Lyra on the west, and Lacerta on the east, when on the Meridian. AQUILA ET ANTINOUS, DELPHINUS, AND VULPECULA ET ANSER. AquiLa, the Eagle, 1s supposed by some to have been Merops, a king of the island of Cos, in the Archipelago, who was changed into an Eagle, and made a Constellation: and by others to have been the Eagle, which Jupiter sent to convey Ganymedes,* son of Tros, king of Troy, from Mount Ida, when he made him his cup-bearer instead of Hebe. Axtixous, was a youth of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, and a great favourite of the Emperor Adrian; who perpetuated his name by erecting a temple to his memory; and by having him placed among the Constel- lations. Aquila and Antinous are considered as forming one Constel- lation ; consisting of 71 Stars, viz. Altair in the neck of the Eagle, of the first magnitude, ten of the third, three of the fourth, and the rest smaller, Altair rises E. by N. and may be seen in the evenings from the beginning of June till December. DerprINUS, the Dolphin, was made a Constellation by Neptune, who, by means of a Dolphin, obtained Amphitrite for his wife. She was the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and Goddess of the Sea. This Constellation contains 18 Stars, viz. five of the third magni- tude, four of which form a Diamond, and are conspicuously situated a little to the eastward of Altair ; the rest being very small. They rise in the E.N.E., and may be seen every evening from June to the end of the year. * See the Constellation Aquarius. 32 VuLrecurna et Ansewr, the Fox and the Goose, a new Constella- tion formed by Hevelius, containing 37 Stars; none of them larger than the fourth magnitude: it rises in the N.E. and continues visible every evening from May till January. Aquila et Antinous crosses the Equinoctial east of Taurus Ponia- towski, having Delphinus on the east, and Vulpecula et Anser on the north. Sagitta, which was described with Hercules, lies between Vulpe- cula and Aquila. SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS. - ORION, LEPUS, CANIS MAJOR, CANIS MINOR, AND MONOCEROS. Orirox is represented by the figure of a Man, with a huge Club in his right hand, and in his left the skin of a Lion for his shield. He was a famous hunter, and accompanied Diana to the chase. He was at last killed by her, with an arrow in mistake, or as some say, by a Scorpion® which she raised out of the ground; either for his improper conduct, or for boasting that no beast whatever could escape him. The Goddess however, requested Jupiter to place him among the Stars. This Constellation is the most brilliant in the Heavens, and con- tains 78 Stars, viz. Betelguex and Rigel of the first; Bellatrix and three others in the belt, of the second; Saiph and two others, in the sword of the third ; and fourteen of the fourth magnitude, the rest being more diminutive. It rises due east, and first makes its appearance, at eight o'clock in the evening, about the middle of November, and continues visible every evening till April. Lepus, the Hare, was said to be placed near Orion, because it was an animal which he was particularly fond of hunting. It contains 19 Stars: three of which are of the third magnitude, forming a right angled triangle; seven of the fourth, and the rest of * See the Constellation Scorpion. 33 smaller magnitudes. It rises in the S.E. by S., and though it accom- panies Orion, yet, it is not seen so early, or so late in the year or in the evening, as that Constellation 1s. Canis Major, the Great Dog, is supposed by the Greeks, to have been one of Orion’s hounds, but others imagine that it had its origin from the Egyptians; who always judged of the rising of the Nile, by the he- liacal rising® of Sirius, its principal Star; which took place in Egypt, in the time of Hesiod, about the end of June. It contains 31 Stars, viz. Sirius of the first magnitude ; two of the second; four of the third, and four of the fourth. It rises in the E.S.E. and may be seen in the evenings from January till April. Sirius is the most brilliant Star in the universe, for which reason, it is supposed to be the nearest to the Earth. Canis Minor, the little Dog, is, also by the fabulists, supposed to be one of Orion’s hounds; but it is more than probable that it originated with the Egyptians, and for the same reason as Canis Major, as the chief Star in each Constellation, viz. Sirius and Procyon rise heliacally, at the same time to them. It is a small Constellation consisting of 14 Stars; Procyon, its principal Star, is of the first magnitude, it is accompanied by one of the third magnitude, about five degrees N.W. of it, and by which it may always be known. The rest are scarcely visible to the naked eye. Pro- cyon rises HE. by N. about an hour before Sirius ; and may be seen every evening from the beginning of the year till May. Moxoceros, the Unicorn, is one of the Constellations which were formed by Hevelius out of the Stella Informes of the ancients. It is situated between Canis Major and Canis Minor ; and consists of 31 Stars ; only nine of which are so large as the fourth magnitude. The three forming a line near Betelguex in Orion, are in his head. It rises and sets a little before, and after, Sirius in Canis Major. * A Star is said to rise heliacally, when it is seen in the morning, just emerging from the rays of the Sun, after being in conjunction with him. F 34 Orion is situated on the Equinoctial, having Aries and Taurus on the N.W.; Gemini on the N.E.; Canis Major on the S.E.; Canis Minor and Monoceros on the East, and Lepus on the South. If we attend to the attitudes of the several Constellations in this association, we shall find Taurus in the act of making an attack upon Orion, in order to protect the Pleiades® from his further importunities ; but who appears to be well prepared to meet the infuriated beast, having his Club raised ready to strike the fatal blow : and whilst Canis Major appears to be engaged as a watch over the Hare at his feet, we find Canis Minor stepping forward to assist his master in the combat. The Ram, looks back upon the contending party with little or no concern ; but the Twins are evidently clasping each other in fearful agitation, and seem to be consulting on the best means of escape. HYDRA, SEXTANS, CRATER, CORVUS, ARGO NAVIS, PYXIS NAUTICA, AND ANTLIA PNEUMATICA. Hypora, the Water Snake, according to fabulous history, was the Serpent of seven heads, that infested Lake Lerna in Peloponnesus; which was killed by Hercules in one of his twelve labours. It contains 60 Stars, viz. Cor Hydra of the second magnitude ; two of the third; and twelve of the fourth; the rest being of inferior magnitudes. Cor Hydra its chief Star rises in the E.S.E. and is visible every evening from the middle of January till June. SExTANS, the Sewxtant. A nautical instrument for taking the angular distance of Celestial objects, and is principally used in taking Lunar observations; it is one of the Constellations made by Hevelius out of the Informes of the ancients; and contains 41 Stars ; only one of which is of the fourth magnitude. Tt rises with Cor Hydra, and sets a little after that Star, and may be known by its lying between Cor Hydra and Regulus in Leo. CraTER, the Cup, is a small Constellation containing 31 Stars, viz. * See the Pleiades in the Constellation Taurus. 35 eight of the fourth magnitude, and the rest smaller. It rises in the E.S.E. and is visible in the evenings from the beginning of March till June. Corvus, the Crow. The Mythologists inform us that, Apollo killed his beloved wife Coronis, in a fit of jealousy, which was occasioned by the indiscreet prattling of a Crow, the white feathers of which he changed into black, and afterwards placed it among the Constellations. It consists of only nine Stars, three of which are of the third magnitude, forming an isosceles triangle.# It rises in the E.S.E. and may be seen every evening from the middle of March till June. Arco Navis, the Ship Argo, in which Jason, son of ZAson, king of Thessaly, and his forty-nine heroes, sailed to Colchis, for the Golden Fleece of the Ram. It is supposed to have been the first ship of war, and built by Argus for the purpose of this expedition. Hercules, Orpheus, Castor and Pollux were among the crew. | It is composed of 64 Stars, viz. Canopus and another, of the first magnitude ; six of the second ; ten of the third ; and twelve of the fourth. Only two Stars, in the prow, of the third magnitude, are visible in the latitude of London ; they rise in the S.E. and may be seen on the East of Canis Major, every clear evening from January till April. Pyxis Navrica, the Mariners Compass, is a modern Constel- lation, applied to the mast and rigging of Argo Navis, consisting of four Stars, according to Flamsted’s Catalogue; but nine are laid down on the Globes, only two of which are so large as the fifth magnitude. In conse- quence of which, and their nearness to the Horizon, they can seldom be seen. Antria PNEUuMATICA, the Air Pump, is a new Constellation formed from the ancient Sporades, south of Hydra. It contains a few very small Stars, the principal one being of the fifth magnitude, situated east of Pyxis Nautica, and though it partly rises above the horizon; yet it cannot be seen without a telescope. * A triangle having two equal sides. 36 The head of Hydra is about fifteen degrees east of Procyon in Canis Minor, whence it extends about ninety degrees eastward, and nearly parallel with the Ecliptic; having Sextans, Crater, and Corvus on the north, and Argo Navis, Pyxis Nautica, and Antlia Pneumatica on the south. CENTAURUS AND LUPUS. CENTAURUS, the Centauri, are said to be the offspring of Ixion, and a cloud, which Jupiter caused to appear before him in the form of Juno. They were monsters, half men and half horses, inhabiting Thes- saly till vanquished by Theseus, son of Algeus and /HEthra, who was con- sidered the next hero to Hercules. The Constellation contains 35 Stars, viz. two of the first, in the fore feet, one of the second in the left shoulder, seven of the third, and eight of the fourth magnitude; of which only the one of the second mag- nitude in the left shoulder, one of the third in the right shoulder, and four others of the fourth magnitude, in the head, rise in the latitude of London ; and even these are too near the southern horizon to be seen, except on a very clear evening in the month of June. Lupus, the Wolf, is one of the ancient Constellations, consisting of 24 Stars, viz. three of the third, and four of the fourth magnitude. The head of Lupus rises in the S.S.E. but the Stars are so small, and so near the horizon that they cannot be seen in this country. Centaurus is situated on the south of Libra, having Lupus on the east of him; he is holding the Wolf by the fore leg, and running him through with his spear. MICROSCOPIUM, PISCES AUSTRALIS, AND APPARATUS SCULPTORIS. Microscorium, the Microscope, is a modern Constellation, near the hind feet of Sagittarius, to which it formerly belonged. 37 It contains about 10 very small Stars. Though a small part of it rises in the S.S.E. yet it is not often visible to the naked eye, in the latitude of London. Pisces Austravrts, the Southern Fish, is supposed by the Greeks to have been the Fish, into which Venus transformed herself in order to escape from the Giant Typheus, whom Juno produced by striking the ground. | It contains 24 Stars, of which Fomalhant is of the first magnitude, two of the third, and six of the fourth. Fomalhant rises S.E. by S. and may be seen, very near the horizon, in the evenings of October and November. Avrraratus Scureroris, the Sculptors Apparatus, is a new Con- stellation, made by M. De la Caille, a celebrated French astronomer, con- sisting of about 12 Stars; but too minute to be seen in Great Britain, Pisces Australis is on the south of Aquarius, near his feet; having Microscopium on the west, and Apparatus Sculptoris on the east. CETUS, ERIDANUS, BRANDENBURGIUM SCEPTRUM, AND FORNAX CHEMICA. Cervus, the Whale. This is the sea monster that was intended to devour Andromeda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia; but it was metamorphosed into a rock, by Perseus,* who accomplished this wonder- ful exploit, by shewing it the head of Madusa. It contains 97 Stars, viz. Mencar, on the upper jaw, of the second magnitude; Deneb Kaitos, and Baten Kaitos, with six or seven others, of the third, and ten of the fourth magnitude, the rest being smaller. Baten Kaitos, in the body, rises in the E.S.E. and continues visible from September till February. * See the Constellations of Cepheus, Ca:siopeia, &c. 38 Eripanvus, the River Po. The Mythologists inform us, that Phae- ton, son of Sol and Clymene, presumptuously undertook to guide the chariot of the Sun, his father, for one day; when the horses, not being accustomed to their driver, took fright; the charioteer was so dazzled with the splendour of the light above, and so terrified by the depth of the abyss beneath him, that he let go his reins, lost his way, and would have set the whole world on fire, had not Jupiter struck him with a thun- derbolt into this river. It contains 84 Stars, viz. Achernar of the first magnitude, in the southern extremity, one of the second, Theemini and nine others of the third, and twenty-four of the fourth. The principal part of this Constel- lation rises between the East and S.E. and 1s visible every evening from November till March. Achernar its chief Star never appears above the horizon of London. BranpeENBURGIUM ScePTRUM, the Sceptre of Brandenburg, is a small Constellation, consisting of three or four Stars, viz. two of the third mag- nitude, one of the fourth, and another adjoining it, of the fifth. It is included in that of Eridanus, and forms a line perpendicular to the equinoctial line, Fornax Cuemica, the Chemical Furnace, a new Constellation made by M. De la Caille, containing about 14 Stars of an inferior mag- nitude, which are seldom visible to us, on account of their nearness to the horizon. Cetus occupies the largest space of any Constellation in the hea- vens. It is situated partly on the equinoctial line, having Pisces and Aries on the north; Eridanus and Brandenburgium Sceptrum on the east; Fornax Chemica, and Apparatus Sculptoris, on the south; and Aquarius on the west. I". 39 CELA SCULPTORIA, AND COLUMBA NOACHLI. CeLa Scureroria, the Graver's Tools, is a modern Constellation, containing 16 Stars, four being of the fifth magnitude, and the rest smaller. A small part of this Constellation rises above the horizon of London, but none of its Stars are visible. Corumsa Noacui, Noah's Dove, is also a new Constellation, con- sisting of 10 Stars, viz. one of the second magnitude, one of the third, and two of the fourth. Its chief Star rises in the latitude of London, but is too near the horizon to be seen. These two Constellations are on the south of Lepus, having Canis Major on the east, and Eridanus on the west. & DESCRIPTION OF THE GLOBES, &c. Tuere are two artificial Globes; one of them being a representa- tion of the Earth, and the other that of the Heavens; the former is called the Terrestrial, and the latter the Celestial Globe. On the Terrestrial Globe are delineated, the Continents, Islands, Seas, Gulfs, Lakes, aiid Rivers, as they naturally exist on the Earth; together with the boundaries of the several Countries and Kingdoms into which the World is politically divided, and the positions of the Cities and principal Towns which have been erected on its surface by the art of man. On the Celestial Globe, the Fixed Stars are laid down so as to retain the same relative position with respect to each other as they naturally possess in the Heavens. The figures of the Constellations are also delineated on its surface. These figures being lightly coloured, have a very pleasing effect to the eye, and are calculated to impress the names of the Constellations more permanently on the mind. Geographers and Astronomers suppose several Lines and Circles to be drawn on the Earth, and in the Heavens, by which they determine precisely the situation of places on the former, and the position of the Stars in the latter. | These Lines and Circles are actually drawn on the artificial Globes. They which are on the Terrestrial Globe are the Equator, Pa- rallels of Latitude, Meridians, Tropics, Polar Circles, and Ecliptic. They which are on the Celestial Globe, are the Equinoctial, Tropics, and Polar Circles; Ecliptic and Zodiac; Parallels of Celestial Latitude, and Circles of Celestial Longitude. « PLATE.Z}.} Zenith rn Rin pe m | qr J dl nm —— A il ay” a London Published by Baldwin & Cradock, and 6Wooll Hastings. Tr ow ¥ shir 5 3 if oli Yi I BET “fy ISRO 3 % fish J SR 3% = oi ug 41 If the Student be not in possession of the Globes, he is requested to refer, whilst reading the following definitions, to the Maps of the World, which may be found in every Geographical Atlas, and in almost every Treatise on Geography. These Maps consist of two distinct views of the Terrestrial Globe, usually entitled the Eastern, and the Western Hemis- phere. | A Great Circle is that which divides the Earth or Heavens into two equal parts. A Small Circle is that which divides the Earth or Heavens into two unequal parts. Every Circle, whether great or small, is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees; and each degree is subdivided into 60 equal parts, called minutes or miles; therefore, a Semicircle contains 180 degrees, and a Quadrant 90 degrees. The degrees are distinguished by a small circle (°), and the minutes by a dash(’); thus 51° 30’ means 51 degrees 30 minutes. The Graduated Circle, surrounding the Map, represents the Brass Meridian, within which the Globe is suspended by two pivots fixed in the poles. By these means it may be turned round to imitate the diurnal motion of the Earth. The four quarters or quadrants of this circle on the Maps are numbered from the Equator towards each Pole; but the Brass Meridian of the Globe, has one side numbered from the Equator towards each Pole, and the other side, from the Poles towards the Equator. The Axis of the Earth, is an imaginary line passing through its centre, on which it is supposed to turn, and is represented by the perpen- dicular line passing through the centre of the Map; the extremities of which are the Poles, the upper one being the North Pole, and the lower one, the South Pole. The Equator is that great circle which circumscribes the Earth, and 1s equally distant in ‘all its parts from the Poles. It divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. This circle is represented on the Maps by a straight line passing through the centre at right angles with the Axis, aud terminating at O on both sides of the circumference. G 42 The Situation of a Place on the Earth, is determined by what is termed its Latitude and Longitude. The Latitude of a Place is its distance, reckoned in degrees and minutes, to the North and South of the Equator, and can never exceed 90 degrees, that being the distance of the Poles from the Equator. This may be clearly understood by referring to the graduated circle of the Map. The Longitude of a Place is its distance reckoned in degrees and minutes, to the East and West of some noted Meridian, as that of Green- wich, and can never exceed 180 degrees, which is half the circumference of the earth. The Longitude is counted on the Equator, which is num- bered both ways from the Meridian of Greenwich. Parallels of Latitude are small circles parallel to the Equator, and are drawn on the Maps and Globes through every tenth degree of Lati- titude. Places lying due east and west of each other, are said to be in the same parallel of Latitude. Meridians are Semicircles drawn from pole to pole, through every fifteenth degree of the Equator; consequently, there are 24 of them, which correspond with the 24 hours of the day : but on the Maps of the World, they are drawn through every tenth degree. The Tropics are two small circles parallel to the Equator, and at the distance of 23 degrees and a half from it; one of them being on the north, called the Tropic of Cancer; and the other on the south, called the Tropic of Capricorn. The space included between the Tropics is called the Torrid Zone.’ The Polar Circles are two small circles parallel to the Equator, and at the distance of 66 degrees and a half from it, or 23 degrees and a half from the poles. That near the north pole is called the Arctic Circle ; and that near the south pole, the Antarctic Circle. The spaces included between the tropics and polar circles, are called the Temperate Zones ; and those included by the polar circles, the Frigid Zones. The first and second moveable Plates, are delineations of the Celestial Globe, consisting of two Parts or Hemispheres, the convex side being next to the eye. They contain all the Circles as well as the Fi- 43 ~gures of all the Constellations usually drawn on that instrument. The Student will therefore refer to these Plates whilst reading the following definitions. If we suppose the Axis of the Earth to be continued to the Hea- vens, it will terminate in the Celestial Poles, or those points in the Hea- vens about which the Stars appear to revolve. The Equinoctial is the Equator supposed to be continued to the Heavens. It is so called, because, when the Sun is in the Equi- noctial points, the Days and Nights are equal to every part of the World; which happens twice in the year, viz. about the 21st of March, and the 23d of September; the former is called the Vernal Equinox, and the latter the Autumnal Equinox. | The Tropics and Polar Circles correspond with those on the Ter- restrial Globe. These Circles are engraved deeper on the plates, in order to distinguish them from the other circles of the Celestial Sphere. The Declination of a Celestial Object is its distance, computed in degrees and minutes, to the North or South of the Equinoctial ; and corresponds with the latitude of a place on the Terrestrial Globe. Parallels of Declination are small circles parallel to the Equi- noctial. They are the parallels of latitude supposed to be continued to the Heavens, but they are not expressed on the Globes. The Right Ascension of a Celestial Object is that degree of the Equinoctial which comes to the Meridian at the same time as the object ; and is reckoned eastward from the first point of Aries. The Celestial Meridians are semicircles drawn from one celestial pole to the other; and are the Terrestrial Meridians supposed to be continued to the Heavens. They are not delineated on the Globe, but are represented by the Brass Meridian. The Colures are two great circles or meridians passing through the celestial poles, cutting each other at right angles. One of them, passing through the equinoctial points Aries and Libra, is called the Equinoctial Colure; and the other, passing through the solstitial points Cancer and Capricornus, is called the Solstitial Colure. They divide the Ecliptic into four equal parts of three signs each, and mark the 44 four Seasons of the year. Thus, the point Aries (v) in the centre of the first plate, is called the Spring Equinox ; and that of Libra (=) in the second plate, the Autumnal Equinox: the point Cancer (2), is termed the Summer Solstice; and that of Capricornus (»), the Winter Solstice. The Solstitial Colure divides the Globe into the two Hemispheres, which are represented by the Plates; consequently the circumference represents the Solstitial Colure; and the Line which passes through the points » and = from pole to pole, represents the Equinoctial Colure. The Ecliptic marked » # x « s and u in the first plate, and = a m = m and z in the second plate, is the apparent annual path of the Sun among the Stars; or, properly speaking, it is the real path of the Earth* extended to the Starry Heavens. It crosses the Equinoctial, and forms an angle with it of about 23 degrees and a half. The points of intersection, marked + and = are called the Equinoctial points. The Zodiac is a space including about 8 or 10 degrees on each side of the Ecliptic, and encompasses the Heavens like a bell or girdle. It is divided into 12 equal parts of 30 degrees each, called the Signs of the Zodiac. It may be easily known in the plates, by tracing the figures of the signs; or by the characters which are used to represent them: for the names and order of which, see the table of Zodiacal Constellations, page 7. The Poles of the Ecliptic are those points in the Heavens which are 90 degrees from every part of the Ecliptic; being 23 degrees and a half from the Celestial Poles. : The Latitude of a Celestial Object is its distance to the North or South of the ecliptic; reckoned on a great circle passing through the poles of the ecliptic. The Sun, being always in the ecliptic, has no latitude. Parallels of Celestial Latitude are small circles parallel to the ecliptic. They are drawn on the Globe through every tenth degree of latitude. The Circles of Celestial Longitude are great circles passing * This is familiarly explained in the Description of the Third Moveable Plate. 45 through the poles of the-ecliptic, and cutting it at right angles. They are drawn on the Globe through every 15 degrees of the ecliptic. The Longitude of a Celestial Body is its distance, computed in signs, degrees, and minutes, to the East of the first point of Aries ; or of that circle of celestial longitude which passes through that point. The Sun’s Longitude is sometimes called the Sun’s Place. Circles of Perpetual Apparition are small circles parallel to the Equinoctial ; the distance of which from the elevated pole is equal to the latitude of the place. Thus, that of London is 51 degrees and a half from the North Pole. The Stars within it are called Circumpolar Stars, being they which never set in that parallel of latitude. It is represented on the Maps by the inner circle, touching the north point “of the horizon. Circles of Perpetual Occultation are small circles parallel to the Equinoctial ; the distance of which, from the depressed pole, is equal to the latitude of the place. That of London, of course, is 51 degrees and a half from the South Pole. The Stars within it never rise to places in that parallel of latitude. These two circles are represented on the plates by dotted lines, drawn between the Tropics and Polar Circles. The Horizon is either Rational or Sensible. The Rational Horizon is a great circle, which divides the Starry Heavens into the upper and lower hemispheres ; the Stars in the upper, being those that are visible; and in the lower, those that are invisible to us, It also determines the rising and setting of the Sun, Moon, and Stars; and is represented by the Wooden Horizon of the Artificial Globe. ‘The Sensible Horizon is that circle which terminates our view, when the objects we are looking at are upon the surface of the earth. When the eye of a spectator is elevated above the level of the sea, he not only sees surrounding objects more distinctly, but those also which are more remote, the higher he ascends. The top-mast of a ship 100 feet high can be seen by a person whose eye 1s elevated 6 feet above the level of the sea, at the distance of 14 miles. If he ascends to the top of a hill 80 feet high, he can 46 see the same object at the distance of 22 miles, and still farther the more he 1s elevated. The Earth being a spherical body, the horizon or limits of our view must necessarily change as we change our station. The Zenith is that point in the Heavens which is directly over the spectator’s head, and is 90 degrees from every part of the horizon ; consequently it must be in the elevated pole of the horizon. The Nadir is that point of the Heavens which is directly under the spectator’s feet, and is diametrically opposite to the Zenith; con- sequently it must be in the depressed pole of the horizon. Azimuth or Vertical Circles are great circles passing through the Zenith and Nadir. An Arc of a Circle 1s any part of a circle. An imaginary line supposed to be drawn from the zenith to any part of the horizon is an Arc of a vertical circle containing 90 degrees. The Zenith Distance of a Celestial Object is the distance of its centre from the zenith, and is reckoned upon the arc of a vertical circle which passes through the centre of the object. The Meridian of a Place is a great circle which passes through the celestial poles, the zenith, and the south part of the horizon. The Altitude of a Celestial Object is the elevation of its centre above the horizon, and is reckoned upon the arc of a vertical circle which passes through the centre of the object. The Meridian Altitude of a Celestial Object 1s the elevation of its centre above the horizon, when the object is on the meridian, or due south. When a Celestial Object is due south it is then at its greatest elevation above the horizon. The Sun, when in that situation, is said to be on the Meridian; the Moon to South; and the Stars to Culminate. Apparent Time is that shewn by a Sun Dial. Mean Time is that shewn by a well regulated Clock. Equation of Time, is the difference of time between that shewn by a Sun Dial, and a well regulated Clock. There are only four days in the 47 year, when the Clocks agree with the Sun Dial; viz. about the 15th days of April and June, the 1st of September, and the 25th of December. The greatest difference happens on the following days; viz. about the 10th of February, when the Clock is nearly fifteen minutes faster than the Sun Dial ; the 12th of May, when the Clock is about four minutes too slow ; the 25th of July, when the Clock is six minutes too fast ;—and the 3d of November, when the Clock is sixteen minutes slower than the Sun Dial. THE FORM, MEASUREMENT, AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. Tue first step the Student ought to take in order to acquire a practical knowledge of Astronomy, is to obtain a clear idea of the form, magnitude, and motions of the Earth; and of the general appearance of the Heavenly Bodies as seen therefrom. I shall therefore endeavour to prove the Sphe- ricity of the Earth, and shew the method by which Astronomers ascertain its magnitude ; and then treat of its motions and of the appearances thence arising. The most simple and convincing proofs we have of the Rotundity of the Earth, are the several voyages which have been made round it by Magellan, Drake, Anson, Cook, and others.* These circumnavigators took their respective departures from Europe, and sailed on a Westerly course, round Cape Horn, until they returned by the Cape of Good Hope, to the several ports from whence they departed. Now we are certain that these voyages could not have been performed, if the Earth were in the form of an extended Plane, as the ancients supposed it to be; for then, if a Ship were to sail from any assigned port and continue to sail towards the same point of the horizon, she would never return to that * The following is an account of a Voyage recently made round the World, in the Ship Coronet, Captain T. B. Daniel, of Hastings; who very kindly allowed me to extract it from his journals. The Coronet left England April 3, 1828, and arrived at Madeira May 12 ;—passed by Cape Verd Islands May 24, and arrived at Rio Janiero July 1; from whence she sailed July 10 ;—passed by St. Pauls and Amsterdam Islands Sept. 4; and cast anchor off Hobart’s Town, Van Dieman’s Land, Oct. 6. Left Van Dieman’s Land for England April 29, 1829 ;— after sailing through the South Pacific Ocean, she came round Cape Horn June 16; and put into Pernambuco, coast of Brazil, July 31. Sailed from thence Aug. 15 ;—passed by the Western Islands Sept. 20; and arrived in the British Channel Oct. 6, 1829 : having been absent about 18 months. Her track may be easily traced on a Terrestrial Globe, or on a Map of the World. 49 port, but would continue to increase her distance from it, as long as she should continue on that course. The Rotundity of the Earth, from east to west, is also proved by the rising of the Sun; which takes place one hour earlier to those who live 15 degrees eastward, and one hour later to those who live 15 degrees westward, than to us. For, if the Earth were a plane, the Sun would rise to, and enlighten all the Earth at the same instant ; as may be proved by an easy experiment made with a lighted Candle and a Table. Thus, if the candle is gently raised from the floor till it just begins to throw its light upon the upper surface of the table, it will be seen, that every part of the table is enlightened at the same instant. But if a similar experi- ment 1s made with the Candle and Terrestrial Globe, the reverse will be the result; for the candle being gently raised on the east side of the globe, in imitation of the Sun rising; it will be found that, as the candle or artificial sun rises, the places situated on the west will be brought into the light ; or, in other words, the Sun will appear to rise to their inhabi- tants, one after the other as in nature. That the Earth is round also from north to south is proved by the elevation or depression of the Stars. If a Ship sail northward in the northern hemisphere, the mariners on board will observe the North Pole Star to be more and more elevated, the farther they proceed to the north ; whilst those in the south are gradually depressed till they disap- pear below the horizon. On the contrary, if a Ship sail southward, the Stars in the north will be depressed, whilst those in the south will be more elevated, and others will gradually appear above the horizon, which. were invisible to those on board in their former situation. And that the Earth is round in every direction is proved by the appearance of Ships departing from, or approaching to the land; for in- stance, suppose a person standing on the sea coast, looking out for a ship, which he is expecting to arrive ; with the assistance of his telescope he at length discovers her, with her top-sails just appearing above the horizon, whilst her hull is hid from his sight by the convexity of the water ; as the Ship approaches the land, he sees more of her sails, till by degrees the hull is presented to his view. On the contrary, if the Ship were depart- H 50 ing from the land, he would first lose sight of the hull; at a greater dis- tance, the lower sails, then the top-sails ; and at a still greater distance, she would wholly disappear. But, if the surface of the sea were a plane, the hull of the Ship being the largest part, would be seen first when the Ship was approaching to, and last when departing from, the land. To illustrate this by an experiment, draw the outline of a Ship on a card, and cut away all the superfluous parts. Place this ship on a table, and get an assistant to move it slowly to the opposite side, in imitation of a ship sailing on a plane; it will then appear evident that the whole of the ship may be seen, however distant she may be, and that, whether you are standing on a chair or on the floor. Again, let the assistant place the ship on a Terrestrial Globe, or any other spherical body, and move it slowly round till the hull is hid from your sight by the convexity of the globe, then ascend a chair, and the hull will become visible again. Sailor boys have a custom, in order to display their dexterity, in ascending to the mast head as soon as they lose sight of the upper limb of the setting Sun on deck, of running up the rigging, and by that means catch another glimpse of the departing Luminary of the day. Thus, distant objects are brought into view, in proportion to the height of the observers eye; whether his attention be directed to lofty Spires on land, to Ships at sea, or to the Sun in the firmament. The loftiest mountains, which are at least four or five miles high, no more affect the roundness of the Earth than grains of sand do that of an eighteen inch Globe. Although the facts already stated, clearly prove the globular shape of the Earth; yet, further evidence will be found in those pages in which the eclipses of the Moon are treated of: to which the reader 1s referred. It is necessary, however, to observe, that though we call the Earth a globe, and, in general terms, it is considered as such; yet, in the strictness of truth, it is not a perfect sphere, but what is called an Oblate Spheriod ; that is, a Sphere a little flattened at the poles : the ‘equatorial diameter being about 35 miles longer than the polar diameter. ol This difference, however, bears too small a proportion to the hele diameter to be represented on the Artificial Globes. Young persons, in general, find it very difficult to conceive how it is possible for people to stand on the opposite side of the Earth; for they suppose themselves to be on the upper part of it, and wonder how their Periceci and Antipodes* can stand with their heads hanging down- wards; little thinking that they themselves are carried, by the rotation of the Earth on its axis, into one of these situations in the space of twelve hours. Let « (Prater I.) be an inhabitant of Padang in Sumatra, and o his Antipode an inhabitant of Quito in South America. Each of these inhabitants is surprised that the one opposite to him can stand upon, what he imagines to be, the under side of the earth. But we know that the people who live at these places, and those also who live in any other part of the world, feel no inconvenience whatever in that respect; but stand as firmly there as we do here. For the Earth by its attraction, acting on all bodies according to their densities or quantities of matter which they contain, without any regard to their bulks, causes all bodies on its surface to fall towards its centre; not because the whole force of attraction is accumulated there, for it is the whole Earth that is the attracting mass; but, because the greatest quantity of attracting matter, or mass of Earth, is in that direc- tion. Therefore, the inhabitant « is most attracted towards his Anti- pode o; and for the same reason, e is most attracted towards w; =n towards s ; and ¢ towards v. There is no such thing as an upper or an under side of the Earth, for the general surface is the top; and the centre its general bottom. An artificial Globe has an upper and an under side; hence, when we look at it, we are apt to conclude that it is as impossible for our Anti- podes to stand on the Earth with their feet towards ours, as it would be for little artificial men to adhere to the under part of that instrument, which would, of course, fall to the ground as soon as they were left to them- * Periceci are those who live in the same parallel of latitude, but under opposite meridians : as ¢ and 7. Antipodes are those who live diametrically opposite to each other: as « and o. 52 selves ; for the Earth, by its superior attraction, pulls every loose body away from that side which is next to it; but there is no larger body so near the Earth as to overcome its attraction, which extends even to the Moon, and keeps her in her orbit. Therefore, there can be no such thing as an upper or an under side, and the inhabitants of the Earth can stand or move, and all loose bodies remain equally as well on one side as upon another. ‘To illustrate this a little farther, we will suppose an artificial Globe to be made of solid Magnet, and a number of little figures of a light substance, with iron sandals, to be its inhabitants. You might then place these little men upon all sides of the Magnetic Globe without fear of their falling off, for the magnetic attraction of the artificial Globe would overcome the attraction of the Earth, when acting upon bodies containing so little matter. If “either of these artificial men were to be “removed from the Globe to a little distance, so as to be within the power of its attraction, it would fall to the Globe again; but, if a larger Mag- netic Globe were to be placed near to the smaller one, so as to overcome its attraction, it would pull every thing away from that side of the small globe next to it, and only those on the opposite side would remain upon it. Again, suppose the little globe to represent the Earth, and the larger one the planet Jupiter; it is evident that Jupiter, being the larger body, would draw us and every thing else from that side of the Earth next to it. If the Earth were at rest, its form, by the laws of gravitation, would be that of a perfect sphere; for that is the only state in which the particles composing the Earth, which mutually attract and gravitate towards each other, could remain in equilibrium. This is familiarly exemplified by drops of water, or of quicksilver, the particles of which always dispose themselves, by the very same laws, into a spherical shape. But as the Earth revolves about its axis, the particles of which the Earth is composed, will move in circles, the planes of which are perpendicular to the axis, whilst the poles or extremities of the axis are at rest. All bodies moving in circles have a tendency to fly from the centre, which is technically termed the centrifugal force ; and this force increases in proportion to the velocity of the revolving body. As 03 the circles which the component parts of the Earth thus describe, in- crease from the poles towards the equator, and as they are all described in the same time: viz. in one complete revolution of the Earth ‘about its axis, it is evident that the centrifugal force will be greater at the equator than at London, and still greater than at Petersburgh; con- sequently the centrifugal force will diminish the gravity or centripetal force, which causes all the particles of a body to have a tendency towards its centre in the same proportion. The Earth, therefore, being made of yielding materials, will gra- dually swell out from the poles, towards the equator; where it will be highest, because the centrifugal force is there the greatest. Again, the gravity or centripetal force is always directed towards the centre ; there- fore, it is at the equator only, where the centrifugal force is directly opposite to that of the centripetal : in every other part of the earth (the poles excepted), the former acts against the latter in an oblique di- rection. Thus, the particles about @ and 0 (PraTe 1.) are attracted towards the centre v, and as they move in the equatorial circle a « o, the plane of which passes through the centre, they will be thrown off in a line directly opposite to the centripetal force, hence the gravity of the particles about the equator will be diminished. The particles about e ¢ and v u, are attracted towards the centre also, but, as the planes of the circles e 7 and v «, in which they move, are parallel to the equator, the particles there will be thrown off in a line parallel to the equator; or which is the same thing, in a line perpen- dicular to the axis. To illustrate this, draw a line with a pencil, or imagine one to be drawn, from e to i, and prolong it to a little distance beyond 7; draw another line also from / to +, then will the prolonged part of the line ¢ 7 represent the direction of the centrifugal force of the particles at 7, and the line 7 «~, that of the centripetal or gravitating force of those particles. Now, as the direction in which these two forces act, are oblique to each ‘other, the particles at z, which are affected by them, will obey neither, bat will move in a line between them, tending towards the o4 equator. It is evident, therefore, that the particles between the equato and the poles will press towards, and accumulate about the equator, consequently the equatorial diameter will be increased. The poles being at rest, with respect to the diurnal motion, the particles there will have no centrifugal force to diminish their gravity; but they will gravitate more towards the centre in order to restore an equilibrium,* and by that means will produce a flatness about the poles; consequently, the polar diameter will be decreased. The Earth, there- fore, under these circumstances, will assume the form of an oblate spheroid. As the centrifugal force decreases from the equator towards the poles, where it ceases; so the gravity, being less disturbed by that force, increases from the equator towards the poles, where it is greatest. It is evident, therefore, from these two causes, that bodies are lightest at the equator, and gradually increase in their weight or gravity as they approach the poles, where they are heaviest. The truth of this has been verified by the experiments which have been made on pendulums of equal lengths, the vibrations of which were found to be retarded in proportion to their approach towards the equator, where they were found to be slowest; and accelerated in pro- portion to their approach towards the poles, where they are quickest; hence a pendulum at or near the equator, must be made shorter if it be required to beat equal time with another fitted to beat seconds in the latitude of London, because the gravity which produces the vibrations, is less there than at London. The experiments made on the vibrations of the pendulum, therefore, is another and a Yyery strong proof of the oblate spheroidal figure of the Earth. As most of the Planets are observed to have a rotary motion about their axis, similar to that of the Earth, it was reasonable to conclude that they should exhibit a similar appearance as to their shape also; for similar causes will produce similar effects. This appearance has actually been observed to exist in those Planets, and especially the Planet Jupiter. * For a similar reason, the Polar diameter of the Earth, though the shorter, contains more matter than the Equatorial diameter. 55 By measuring the two diameters of that Planet with a micrometer, the proportion of the polar to the equatorial diameter was found to be as 12 to 13, which is a much greater difference than that of the Earth, because the rotation of that Planet is quicker, his diurnal motion being completed in the short space of 9 hours and 56 minutes; which is more than double the velocity with which the Earth revolves on its axis. The elipticity of the Earth is also proved by an actual measure- ment of a degree of the meridian in different latitudes, which is found | to increase from the equator to the poles. For, if the Earth be flattened at the poles, those parts of the meridian which are near the poles, must be portions of larger circles than those near the equator. It has already been observed, that every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts or degrees ; the length of the degrees then, must depend entirely on the size of the circle; therefore, the degrees of the meridian near the poles being portions of a larger circle, they must be greater or longer than those near the equator, which are portions of a smaller circle. A difference of opinion, as to the true shape of the Earth, having arisen between Sir Isaac Newton and some of the first philosophers of France, among whom was the celebrated Cassini, the former endea- vouring to demonstrate by mathematical calculation, that the equatorial diameter was longer than polar, and the latter affirming, that the polar diameter exceeded that of the equatorial. In order, therefore, to ascertain the true figure of the Earth, and by that means to determine the controversy between those philosophers, the continuance of which might have retarded the general improvement mm science; the French government in the year 1735, appointed two parties, the one to go to Peru to measure a degree of the meridian there, and the other to Lapland for the like purpose. The result of their labours proved the truth of Sir Isaac Newton's opinion, for the length of a degree in Lapland was found to exceed that of a degree in Peru. Since that period, degrees of the meridian have been measured at several places between the equator and the north pole. The fol- lowing table contains the proportional lengths of a degree in English 20 miles, &c. which have been selected from the best and most recent authorities, viz. Country. Latitude. Length of a Degree. Miles and parts. | Miles. fur. poles. Peru Equator 68-727 88 5 32 France 45° N. 69°04.5 69°00. 14 Lapland 66° ~. 69-264 69° 207 4 Hence it appears that the length of a degree in France exceeds that of a degree upon the equator by about 2 furlongs 22 poles, or more than a quarter of a mile; and it appears that a degree in Lapland is about 4 furlongs 12 poles, or a little more than half a mile longer than a degree at the equator. If 69-045 miles be taken for the mean length of a degree between the Equator and the Poles; then by multiplying this by 360 degrees, will give 24856 miles for the circumference of the Earth; then to find the diameter, say by proportion, as 355 is to 113, so is 24856 the cir- cumference, to 7912* the diameter of the Earth. The method of finding the length of a degree of the meridian, may be illustrated in the following manner: Thus, count 51 degrees and a half on the Brass Meridian of the Globe, (PrLaTe I.) reckoning from the Equator towards the North Pole, and bring the point where the reckoning ends, to the Zenith, which will then be directly over e the observers head. By counting the number of degrees contained between the North Pole and the north point of the horizon, it will be clearly seen that the elevation of the North Pole Star above the horizon, is equal to the latitude of the place of observation. Now, if the observer were to travel to the north, until he should * Mr. Richard Norwood was the first who ascertained the length of a degree; which he found by measuring the distance between London and York, in the year 1635. The result of his admeasure- ment gave 694 English miles for the length of a degree, which being multiplied by 360 will produce 25020 miles for the circumference of the Earth; and as 355 is to 113 so is 25020 to 7964 miles for the diameter of the Earth ; which is that generally given in books of Astronomy. a7 increase the elevation of the Pole Star five degrees, it 1s evident that he would have travelled over a space equal to five degrees; and if that space were to be accurately measured, it would give the length of five degrees of the Terrestrial Meridian, between the parallels of 51 and a half and 56 and a half degrees north latitude. This may be further illustrated by Prats IV. Fig. 1: thus, let the outer circle represent the Starry Heavens, and the inner one the Earth; ¢ ¢ the Equator; Ee q its corresponding circle in the Heavens ; n, the North and South Poles; ~,s the Poles of the Heavens; can observer in the latitude of London, 51° N.; « his Zenith, 51°; N. of & the Equinoctial liné; uo the Rational Horizon of ¢, and Ao that of d; No the altitude or elevation of the North Pole Star, as observed at ¢, which is equal to E « the latitude of c. Now, if ¢ travel northward till he arrive at ¢, and there find by an observation, that the altitude of the Pole Star is 56; degrees above his horizon ; it 1s evident that he has travelled over a space equal to five degrees, for 00 or iv is the difference between the altitudes of the Pole Star at the two stations, and is equal to ab or cd the difterence of latitude between the two observers. Then, if the space ¢ d between the two stations were accurately measured, the resalt would give the length of five degrees; one fifth of which would of course be the length of one, and this multiplied by 360 would give the whole circumference of the Earth, supposing it to be the mean length of a degree. As 1t may appear rather difficult for young persons to compre- hend how the length of an arc of a Meridian, or a direct orth and South line, as ¢d Prare 1V. Fig. 1, can be measured; 1 shall now endeavour to give them as familiar an illustration of the method by which it is ascertained, as the nature of the subject will admit. Suppose, then, that the arc to be measured be the iine ag Prate IV. ig. 2; the difference of latitude between a and ©, which gives the number of degrees contained in the arc, being previously ahtined by the former mahal The first step is to choose a level plain on one dle of the x O58 Meridian, on which a base line of a few miles in extent can be accu- rately measured, as Bc, being the only line required to be laid down by actual admeasurement. The next step is to select a number of con- venient stations, as B, c, D, e, and #, at each of which I shall suppose some remarkable object to be situated, such as a Church, a House, or a Mill ; and that these objects are so situated, that a, f, ¢, may be seen from the station B: v,e, f, B, from c; and E,e, c, from the station po. The several stations are then to be connected together by imaginary lines, which will form a series of triangles, as in the figure. The angles of all the triangles are then to be measured by a theodolite, or other instrument adapted for measuring angles. Beginning at station B, the instrument being properly adjusted, the telescope is first to be directed to the station a; the graduated circle will then show the inclination of the line Ba to the Meridian, or the number of degrees contained in the angle a Ba; by directing the telescope to f'and c, the angles A B f'and f'B c¢ are obtained. The observer then goes to the sta- tion a, to take the angle B a f'; thence to f; c, ¢, D, and E, at each of which the angles are determined in the same manner. Having determined the quantity of all the angles; and the base line B ¢ being known from actual measurement, the other lines or sides of the triangles are calculated by Trigonometry: Thus, to find the sides B f and ¢ f of the triangle B fc, say, as sine of angle B fc is to side Bc, so is sine angle Bc f'to side B #'; and as sine angle B fc 1s to side Bc, so is sine angle oc 8 f' to side c¢ /. By this means, a side of two more tri- angles are known: viz. 8 f of the triangle a B f; and c_f of the triangle sc f; and by proceeding in a similar way with the computations, the lengths of all the other sides are found without any further measure- ment in the field. The sides as, Bc, cp, and pe, with their several inclinations to the Meridian, or the angles Ase, Bch, DCC, EDA, being known, the second series of triangles, viz. a Ba, Bch, ¢cpe, and p Ed may be constructed, and their sides calculated as in the former series. It will now be evident that the sum of the sides as, bc, ce, pd, is equal in length to the Meridian Arc aE, which was required to be measured. THE PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS ARISING FROM THE DIURNAL MOTION OF THE EARTH. Ir the Stars which form any of the Constellations in the concavity of the Heavens, be compared with their representatives on the convex surface of the Celestial Globe, their positions will be found to be reversed ; for those which appear on the right hand, when looking down upon the Globe, will be found to be on the left hand in the Heavens. If we suppose the Celestial Globe to be made of a transparent substance, and a small Terrestrial Globe to be placed in the centre of it; then, to a spectator on the latter, the Stars on the surface of the former, would appear to him precisely as they do in the Heavens, to an observer on the Earth. | We may consider Prarte I. as representing the two Globes as above described, where the Terrestrial is supposed to be seen through the transparent surface of the Celestial Globe. Though the Earth appears so very large to those who uhabii it; yet it is reduced to a mere point, when compared with the immense sphere of the Starry Heavens, by which it is every where sur- rounded. Therefore, every inhabitant of the Earth, let him be where he may, as at a,-¢, n, 7, 0, u, s, or v, can see half of the Heavens at one time. 60 By turning the Celestial Hemisphere, (Prate I.) round until the north pole, near the right foot of Cepheus, comes directly under the zenith, it will then clearly appear that the inhabitant n at the north pole can see all those Stars which are above the Rational Horizon ; and that s, an inhabitant of the south pole, can see all those below 1t. Turn the Hemisphere from left to right, until 51; degrees on the Brass Meridian come under the zenith; then all that part of the Starry Heavens which is above the horizon, will be visible to e, an inhabitant of London ; whilst that part which is below it, will be visible to «, his Antipodes near New Zealand. Turn again uistil the o on the Brass Meridian comes to the zenith, then the Stars which are in the upper part of the Hemisphere will be visible to @, an inhabitant of Sumatra; whilst those in the lower part will be visible to 0, an inhabitant of Quito in South America. The other Hemisphere, (Prats 11.) being set in the positions respectively, as above described, will represent the other part of the Heavens, visible at the same time to the several inhabitants. The Earth revolves on its axis from wes? fo east every twenty-four hours, which causes an apparent revolution of all the Heavenly Bodies from east to west in the same time. It is, therefore, on account of the diurnal motion of the Earth, that the Sun, Moon, and Stars appear to rise in the east and to set in the west. But, supposing the Earth to be at rest and the Heavenly Bodies to revolve round it, the appearance would be exactly the same. Let the small Terrestrial Globe, in the centre of Prare L., repre- sent the Earth, and 2 s the axis on which it turns. As the Earth revolves on its axis, the inhabitant @ will be brought to the east, towards the reader, and in twelve hours, he will arrive at o, having been car- ried by the motion of the Earth, just half way round. Now, it is plain, from an inspection of the Celestial Hemisphere, that, in the former situation, he had the Stars in the Constellation of Aquila et Autinous over his head; but in the latter, those in the Constellation of Orion. 61 Again, suppose the Earth to be at rest, and the Starry Hea- vens to revolve round it, as they appear to do, from east fo west in twenty-four hours: then, by the apparent diurnal motion of the Hea- vens, the Constellation of Aquila et Antinous, would be carried to the west, from the reader, and in twelve hours it would appear in the opposite part of the Hemisphere; whilst Orion would move towards the reader, and appear over the head of the inhabitant «, as in the former case. THE PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS AS SEEN FROM = DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE EARTH. As the apparent diurnal motion of the Heavenly Bodies from east to west, has already been proved to arise from the contrary motion of the Earth; I shall now endeavour to shew how their motions are affected - by local circumstances. The Earth being a spherical body, the horizon will change as we change our station; therefore every place on the Earth will have a different horizon. The equator, therefore, and all the circles of celestial motion which are parallel to the equator, will have their planes differently inclined to the horizon, according to the part of the Earth from which they are observed. Hence the apparent diurnal motion of the Heavenly Bodies will be different, when viewed from different parts of the Earth; as may be illustrated by the following problems on the first two plates. PLATE.Z 5 | = it 4 (i Wht me | I \ > EE il ' Hi 0 al | | i % 14 no 26 | Ceres. 10 33421 =n 6 Earth. — em bat on | Polling 34 51 |22m29 Moon. 5 9 |Vanable.| Jupiter. 1 19 7 = 56 Mars. 1: 34 17 s 39 | Saturn. 2. 30 (21'= 32 Vesta. 7:1 9 13 «= 1 | Herschel. 0 346,513 v 47 Hence it appears, that Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, are sometimes seen beyond the limits of the Zodiac, which extends to only 8 or 10 degrees on each side of the Ecliptic. The nodes of the Planets’ orbits do not always keep in the same point; but move retrograde a few seconds every year; and those of the Moon shift back about 19" 19" 44” every year at a mean rate, so as to make a complete revolution in about 18 years, 228 days, 6 hours. 'ECLIPSES. Tae Planets and Satellites, being opaque bodies and illuminated by the Sun, cast a shadow behind them; which terminates in a point at a greater or less distance, according to. the size and distance of the Planet by which the shadow is projected. - + vy When a. Satellite passes through the shadow of its primary, it cannot be seen for want of light, and is said to be eclipsed ; and when 148 the shadow of a Satellite passes over the surface of its primary, it intercepts the Sun’s rays, and conceals him from the view of its inha- bitants : though it is the primary Planet itself that is really eclipsed. The shadow of the Earth and Moon are represented in Fig. 12, Prare IV. The dark shade is of a conical shape, in which no part of the Sun can be seen, and is termed the wmbra ; the light shade grows wider in proportion to its extent, in which a part of the Sun only can be seen, and is called the penumbra. Eclipse of the Moon. Ax Eclipse of the Moon is occasioned by her passing through the Earth’s umbra consequently, it must occur at the time of full moon, or when she is in opposition to the Sun, as at M. The eclipse begins at b on the eastern limb of the Moon, and ends at e on her western limb. This may easily be conceived by supposing the Moon to move in its orbit from p through M to «. If the Moon always moved in the plane of the Ecliptic, she would pass through the Earth’s shadow and be eclipsed at every full ; but it has already been observed (page 146.) that she is mostly seen above or below the Ecliptic: consequently, she generally passes either above or below the Earth’s shadow. Thus, if the Moon be full at B, Prat III, she will pass above the shadow ; and if she be full at D, she will pass below it; but if she be full at A, in her node, she will pass through the shadow and be eclipsed. When the Moon is full at about 12 degrees from either node, she just touches the shadow without entering it; when she is full between 6 and 12 degrees from either node, she is said to be partially eclipsed, because she does not enter wholly into the shadow. But when she is full within about 6 degrees of either node, she is totally eclipsed ; and when full in the node, she passes through the centre of the shadow, and she is said to be centrally eclipsed. The duration of a central eclipse is from 3 to 4 hours, according to the distance of the Moon from the Earth at the time. 149 The Moon passes through the penumbra before she enters the umbra, which causes her gradually to grow dim before the eclipse begins ; for the nearer she approaches the umbra, the less light she receives from the Sun. The Moon, even when totally eclipsed, is not always invisible, if she be above the horizon and the sky clear, but appears generally of a tarnished copper colour. The cause of this phenomenon is attributed to the refraction of the Earth's atmosphere, which bends the scattered rays of the Sun into the umbra, so that the real dark shadow of the Earth terminates in a point before it reaches the Moon. See the figure. Some of these scattered rays falling on the Moon, give her the colour above mentioned. The quantity of an eclipse is measured by digits; a digit being the twelfth part of the diameter of the Sun or Moon. If half the Moon enters the Harth’s umbra, she is said to be eclipsed 6 digits, as at a, Fig. 13, Prare IV. ; if her whole body just enters it, she is 12 digits eclipsed, as at 4. She is sometimes said to be more than 12 digits eclipsed, all the digits therefore above 12, shew how far she is above or below the nearest edge of the shadow at the middle of the eclipse; hence, at ¢ she is said to be eclipsed 18 digits, her upper limb being 6 digits below the edge of the shadow. An eclipse of the Moon is visible, and of the same quantity, and duration, to all parts of the Earth where she 1s above the horizon. | The circular shadow of the Earth upon the Moon, during an eclipse, is an” evident proof of its sphericity ; for no other form would, under all circumstances, cast such a shadow. The conical shape of the shadow also proves that the Earth is smaller than the Sun, for if they were both of one size, the shadow would be cylindrical, as in Fig. 14. If the Barth were larger than the Sun, the shadow would increase in breadth, as in Fig. 15; and in both cases it would extend to the orbits of the superior Planets, and eclipse them. But these Planets are never eclipsed by the shadow of the Earth; hence the Earth is neither equal to, nor larger than the Sun; consequently it must be smaller, and its shadow must terminate in a point short of the orbit of Mars. 150 Boclipse of the Sun. Ax eclipse of the Sun is occasioned by the Moon, when she passes between the Sun and the Earth; her shadow falling on the Earth inter- cepts the Sun’s ray from coming to those parts over which the shadow passes : hence, an eclipse of the Sun can occur only at the time of new- moon, or when she is in conjunction, as at m, Fig. 14, Prare IV. Solar eclipses do not occur at every new-moon, for the same reason that Lunar eclipses do not occur at every full-moon ; but when the Moon changes within 17 degrees of either node, an eclipse may occur; and when she changes within 15 degrees of either node, an eclipse must occur. Eclipses of the Sun are not visible to all parts of the Earth where he is above the horizon, because the Moon's penumbra zn 1s not large enough to cover the whole hemisphere. As no part of the Sun can be seen within the wmbra, all those places over which its point o passes, will have a total eclipse ; and as only a part of the Sun can be seen within the penumbra, all those places covered by it, will have a partial eclipse, which will be greater or less as the places are nearer to or farther from o, the centre of the penumbra. Now, as the Moon travels from m towards p, the shadow moves from » towards s: consequently, when the shadow reaches an observer at s, the eclipse begins, and at the same moment of absolute time to an observer at 7, the eclipse ends; for to the former, the eastern limb of the Moon is just beginning to obscure the western limb of the Sun at #, and to the latter, the western limb of the Moon is just leaving the eastern limb of the Sun at v. To all places beyond the reach of the penumbra, the eclipse will be invisible. The Moon revolves about the Earth in an elliptical orbit, having the latter situated in the lower focus; consequently, she is much nearer to us when at p in perigee, than when she is at @ in apogee. When the Moon is at me, she is at her mean distance from the Earth, and the point o of her conical shadow just reaches the Earth; therefore, a total eclipse “of the Sun continues only for a moment, when the Moon is at her mean distance from the Earth. 151 But as any part of the Moon's orbit may be turned towards the Sun, if the point p were at m, she would then be at her least distance from us, and the umbra at o would cover a space of about 180 miles broad. Hence, if the Moon then changes in her node, the total eclipse will be the longest possible, viz. about 4 minutes 6 seconds. If the point a were at m, the Moon would be at her greatest distance from us, and the point o of the wmbra would not reach the Earth ; therefore, the apparent diameter of the Moon would be much less than that of the Sun, so that he would appear all round the dark orb of the Moon, in the form of a luminous ring. This is termed an annular eclipse, one of which it is cal- culated will "he visible in England in the year 1847. An eclipse of the Sun may continue annular about 12 minutes. There cannot be less than two eclipses in a year, nor more than seven : but the most usual number 1s four, two solar and two lunar. There may be three of the Moon, and there may be none. If there be only two eclipses in a year, they will be of the Sun; and if five, three will be of the Sun and two of the Moon. If to the mean time of any eclipse, either of the Sun or Moon, you add 18 Julian years, 11 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 20 seconds, when the last day of February in leap years comes in four times, or a day less when it comes in five times, you will then have the mean time of the return of the same eclipse. The Satellites or Moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are eclipsed, and cause eclipses of the Sun to those Planets in a manner similar to those we experience ; but they are much more frequent with them than with us, because they have a greater number of Moons. Those of Jupiter's Satellites are calculated to a second of time, and are exceedingly useful in ascertaining the longitude of places.—See p. 115. Eclipses, like Comets, were formerly beheld with terror and amazement ; but they are now looked upon as one of the most sublime of all natural phenomena, which never fail to excite and gratify the curiosity of all ranks and ages. MILITARY ORRERY, -OR-A NEW ASTRONOMICAL GAME. Provipe eight ivory or wooden balls of different sizes from two to three inches in diameter, to represent the Planets, having one side painted black and the other white, with a piece of wire thrust into each, as shewn in Fig. 17, Prare IV. Write the characters of the Moon and Planets on each respectively, taking the least ball for the Moon, and the others according to the magnitudes of the Planets. Then take nine blank cards, on which write the particulars of the Sun and Planets as follow : © $ ? The Sun. Mercury. Venus. Distance, 95,000,000 miles. Distance, 37,000,000 miles. Distance, 69,000,000 miles. Cannon ball, 23 years. Cannon ball, 9 years. Cannon ball, 16% years. Diurnal rotation, 253 days. Annual revolution, 3 mo. 4 days. | Annual revolution, 8 mo. 1 day. Diameter, 886,000 miles. Rate, 110,000 miles per hour. Rate, 80,000 miles per hour. Magnitude, 1,405,000 times. Diurnal rotation, unknown. Diurnal rotation, 23 hrs. 20 min. | Diameter, 3108 miles. * Diameter, 7498 miles. Magnitude, one sixteenth. Magnitude, nearly one. oO? > 3 ® The Earth. The Moon. Mars. Distance, 95,000,000 miles. Distance from the Earth, 237,000 | Distance, 145,000,000 miles. Cannon ball, 23 years. miles. Cannon ball, 34% years. Annual revolution, 365% days. Cannon ball, 3 weeks. Annual revolution, lyr. 11mo. 14d. Rate, 68,000 miles per hour. Synodical revolution, 294 days. | Rate, 55,000 miles per hour. Diurnal rotation, 24 hours. Rate, 2270 miles per hour. Diurnal rotation, 24 hrs. 40 min. Diameter, 7912 miles. Diurnal rotation, 29 days. Diameter, 4218 miles. Magnitude, one. Diameter, 2144 miles. Magnitude, one seventh. Moons, one. Magnitude, one fiftieth. 153 Yo : vet : 2s Oas’ % Jupzter. > » Saturn. {. na Herschel, | Distance, 495,000,000 miles. Distance, 907,000,000 miles. Distance, 1,822,000,000 miles. Cannon ball, 118 years. Cannon ball, 215% years. Cannon ball, 433 years. Annual revolution, 12 years, Annual revolution, 29 2 years. Annual revolution, 83 years. Rate, 30,000 miles per hour, Rate, 22,000 miles per hour. Rate, 15,000 miles per hour. Diurnal rotation, 91 hours. Diurnal rotation, 10% hours. Diurnal rotation, unknown. Diameter, 89,069 miles. Diameter, 78,730 miles. : Diameter, 35,112 miles. Magnitude, 1400 times, Magnitude, 985 times. Magnitude, 88 times. Moons, four. Moons, seven, and two rings. Moons, six. Take twelve more cards, on which draw the figures and characters of the Zodiacal Constellations; and write on each the time of the Sun's entrance into them, according to the following table : Spring Signs. Autumnal Signs. v Aries, the Ram, March 20th, ~ Libra, the Balance, September 23d. 8 Taurus, the Bull, April 20th. m Scorpio, the Scorpion, October 23d. n Gemini, the Twins, May 21st. t Sagittarius, the Archer, November 22d. Summer Signs. Winter Signs. 3 Cancer, the Crab, June 21st, vp Capricornus, the Goat, December 22d. st Leo, the Lion, July 23d. : w= Aquarius, the Waterman, January 20th. my Virgo, the Virgin, August 23d. x Pisces, the Fishes, February 19th. Having prepared the cards, make a mark in the middle of the room for the Sun's place: then tie a loop at one end of a cord and a knot at the several distances of 2 feet, 34, 5, 73, 26, 47%, and 95 feet, which are the proportional distances of the Planets in order from the Sun. With these several distances describe as many circles round the Sun’s place, as the extent of the room will admit, for the orbits of the Planets. Place the above mentioned twelve cards round and a little beyond the outer orbit, at an equal distance from each other, and in the same order as shewn in Prat IIL, which will represent the signs of the Zodiac. 154 This being done, let a president be chosen, who should stand in the centre to represent the Sun, and to conduct the game. Place a pupil on each orbit, with a ball and card to represent Mercury, Venus, the Earth, the Moon, and Mars,* each being considered as an inha- bitant of the Planet which he represents, and to be called by its name. The president should then interrogate the pupils on the contents of the cards, putting a question to each in rotation, and always beginning with Mercury, the nearest Planet to the Sun. The following may serve as an example : Quest. What Planet do you represent? Ans. Mercury. Q. What distance is Mercury from the Sun? 4. 37 millions of miles. Q. How long would it take a cannon ball, flying at the rate of 480 miles per hour, in travelling thence to Mercury? A. 9 years. Q. What is the length of Mercury's year? A. 3 months, 4 days, being the time in which he makes a complete revolution round the Sun. Q. At what rate does he move in his orbit? A. 110 thousand miles per hour. Q. What is the length of his day, or the time in which he revolves on his own axis’ A. That has not yet been discovered. Q. What is the length of Mer- cury’s diameter? 4. 3108 miles. Q. What is his magnitude compared with that of the Earth? 4. He is only one sixteenth part of the size of the Earth. Q. Has Mercury any Moons or Satellites? 4. No. The president should repeat the contents of his own card in his turn, and cause his pupils to forfeit a counter to any one who may remind him of a mistake, for this purpose they should have a dozen counters dealt out to each. After a little exercise in the preceding game, the president may put his Orrery in motion. In order to do this he should provide a mu- sician, to play a slow march. The pupils should hold the balls so that the white parts may continue to be directed towards the Sun; and at the word of command, the music should begin to play, and the pupils to march round their respective orbits, in the order of the signs. The length of their steps should be so regulated, that while the * These are all the Planets that can be conveniently exhibited in a room at one time ; but on a play ground the whole may be introduced, and the Zodiacal cards may be erected on sticks. 156 Earth makes one revolution, Mercury may make three, and Venus one and a half; but Mars should get only half way round, Jupiter the length of one sign, Saturn about one third of a sign, and Herschel about one seventh part of a sign. The Moon should march round the Earth twelve times, or once while the Earth moves from one sign to another. At the end of every revolution of the Earth, the president should command them to halt, when each pupil should hold his ball over the place where he stops, so that it may be seen by the others. The presi- dent should then question each pupil as to what sign his Planet is in, and in what sign the Sun, and the other Planets appear, together with the phases they exhibit as seen from his Planet. Fines should be imposed in this, as in the former part of the game ; and at the conclusion, he who has the most counters should be appointed president when the game 1s resumed. After the pupils have become expert in answering the questions on the cards, others may be proposed, and extended to all the phenomena detailed in the Solar System, till the whole be perfectly known. | 156 TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE UNIVERSE. Tur knowledge of the ancients was confined to those stars which are visible to the unassisted eye, the number of which in both hemispheres, according to some authorities, does not exceed 3500; but since the invention of telescopes, a new and extensive field has been opened for the speculations of the contemplative mind. By the powerful aid of telescopes, myriads of stars have been discovered, which were before invisible to us; and myriads more are brought into view, as the powers of those instruments are increased, so that the number of stars and the extent of the Universe may be said to be infinite. Those stars which cannot be seen without a telescope are called telescopic stars. Several stars which are mentioned by ancient astronomers are now no longer visible, and new ones have appeared in different parts of the Heavens which are not recorded in their catalogues; some of these have also finally disappeared. Dr. Herschel mentions 13 of this kind. The principal telescopic objects beyond the Solar System, are Variable Stars, Double Stars, and Nebule. Variable Stars are such as undergo periodical variations in their apparent magnitudes, of which the star Algol in Medusa’s Head is the most remarkable ; its period being about 2 days 21 hours. It gradually varies, in the space of nearly 4 hours, from the second to the fourth mag- nitude, and recovers its greatest lustre in the succeeding 4 hours, which it retains to the end of its period. The number of Stars which have been aseerizined in be variable, amounts to 15 only ; while those which are suspected to be so amount 10.37. 157 The cause of these variations has been attributed to large black spots on their surfaces, which, during the diurnal rotation of the Stars, produce a gradual change in their brilliancy. Double Stars are those which appear single to the naked eye, but when seen through a telescope are found to consist of two, three, or more : hence they are termed double, treble, quadruple, &ec. Dr. Herschel has formed a catalogue of 269 double Stars, only 39 of which are visible to the unassisted eye; and out of this number he has found, by a series of observations, that many of them have changed their situation with respect to each other ;—that the one performs a revolution round the other, or both round a common centre of gravity, and that the motion of some is direct, while that of others is retrograde. These he terms binary sidereal systems. The observations which have been published relate to the following six binary sidereal systems only. | Char. Names. Mag. Situation. Colour of each Star. Hii i a | Castor. 1 | Head of Castor. Both white. 342 years 2 months. vy | Gamma Leonis. | 2 | Neck of Leo Major.| L. White. S. Reddish white. | 1200 years. ¢ | Mirach. 3 | Girdle of Bootes, |L. Light red. S. Fine blue. | 1681 years. ¢ |Zeta Herculis. 3 | Back of Hercules. |L. Bluish white. S. Fine ash. |S. Nearly occulted by ; L. April 11th, 1803. Delta Serpentis. | 3 | Neck of Serpens. |L. White. S. Greyish. 375 years. v | Gamma Virginis.| 3 | Left wing of Virgo.| Both white. 708 years, Those which do not revolve are supposed to consist ot two or more Stars at different distances beyond each other. ~The following are also included in the number of double Stars, viz. The Pole Star, Betelguex, Rigel, Capella, Aldebaran, Altair, Regulus, Alphirk, Alpheratz, Almaach, Ras Algethi, and Vega. Pollux is a multiple Star, Nebulae are luminous spots in the Heavens of a misty or cloudy appearance, most of which, when viewed with a powerful telescope, are found to consist of a vast collection of minute Stars. A beautiful milky nebula containing seven small Stars, appears 158 near the middle Star of Orion's sword ; the nebulosity of which varies in shape, and is not resolvable into Stars. Huygens, who discovered this beautiful phenomenon, says, that in viewing it, he saw as it were, through an opening, into a region of light ! Dr. Herschel has given a catalogue of 2500 nebulz, some of which consist of one, two, or more stars surrounded with nebulosity ; others of clusters of Stars; some of masses of Stars; and others of lumi- nous matter only. They are to be found in almost every constellation, and appear in every variety of shape. The Via Lactea, or Milky Way, is considered as forming one great nebula, encircling the Heavens in the form of a luminous zone, which Dr. Herschel found to consist of a continued assemblage of smaller nebulze. In order to account for the appearance of this singular pheno- menon, Dr. Herschel supposed our Sun to be placed in the inside of it, but not exactly in the centre of its thickness. The Milky Way, therefore, according to this supposition, is the projection of the nebula upon the apparent concave surface of the Heavens, as seen from a point within it. There are many other nebulae in the Heavens as large as that of the Milky Way, which, for a like reason, may exhibit the phenomenon of a luminous zone to the planetary worlds that are probably placed within them, as the Milky Way does to us. Those Stars that do not form binary sidereal systems, Dr. Herschel supposed to be so remote from others, as to be in a great measure beyond the reach of the attractive power of other Stars, such as our Sun, Sirius, Vega, Arcturus, Capella, and many others, which he has termed wnsulated Stars. These only were considered by that great astronomer to be the centres of extensive planetary systems like our own. Therefore, instead of supposing that every Star in the Universe is encircled with Planets, Satellites, and Comets, as has generally been done; Dr. Herschel believed that the insulated Stars alone are surrounded with such attendants. 159 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE MAPS. By the first three Problems on the Celestial Globe (pages 63—74) it will be found, that the aspects and phenomena of the Starry Heavens are not alike in every part of the world. For, to the Equatorial inhabitants, the whole of the Stars rise and set, perpendicularly to the horizon, in the course of the 24 hours; but to the Polar inhabitants, one half of the Heavens are never visible, and the Stars in the other half appear to be continually circulating about the pole, parallel to the horizon, without setting ; while the inhabitants between the Equator and the Poles, see more or less stars, the nearer they approach to, or recede from, the Equator. Hence, to all places remote from the Equator, in either hemisphere, there is a certain portion of the Stars about the elevated pole which never set, and a like portion about the depressed pole which never rise to them. See Problem IV. page 75. The Maps consist of entire views of all those Stars, as they appear to the naked eye, which are visible in the parallel of London, from the first to the fourth magnitude; with the boundaries of each Constellation accurately defined. The centre of the Maps represents the zenith, or that point of the Heavens which is over the observer's head; and the outer circles the horizon, on which is engraved the names of its principal points. The line NS represents the meridian of the place of observation ; and EW the prime vertical circle, intersecting the meridian in the zenith, and cutting the horizon in the cast and west points. The small circle on 160 the upper part of each Map is the circle of perpetual apparition, all the Stars within which, never set in the latitude of London. See page 71. The plain curved line drawn downwards from E to W, is the Equinoctial line. The space included by the three dotted curves, is the Zodiac, which is divided into the several signs by dotted lines, and distinguished by their proper characters; the middle line of the three being the Ecliptic. Stars of the first magnitude are expressed by an asterisk of eight points; those of the second, by seven points; the third, by six points; the fourth, by five points; and the fifth magnitude, by an asterisk of four points. The names of the Constellations are distinguished from those of the Stars, by capitals; and they are all engraved in a circular form, for the convenience of reading during the time of observation. The Moon and Planets may be laid down on the Maps, in pencil, for any given day, and their apparent paths among the Stars delineated in a manner similar to that shewn in Problem XI. page 82. Suppose, for example, I wish to represent the position of the Moon, and those Planets which are visible in the evening of the 21st of December 1830. By referring to the right-hand page of the month in White’s Ephemeris, or pages 4th and 5th of the Nautical Almanac, I find that the Moon's longitude at noon* will be 11° x 3, and her latitude 0° 43'S; therefore her place will be near a Star on the Ecliptic of the fourth magnitude, in that sign. The longitude of Mars will be 10° + 35, and his latitude 0'9 N.; his place, therefore, will be near the western Star of the three forming a line, of the fourth magnitude in the sign + Aries. Mercury will be in 9°» 10, Venus in 39° + 27, Jupiter in 22° » 47, Saturn in 1" m 45°, and Herschel will be in 8° = 45: consequently none of their places fall within the signs contained in the Map for December. If the position of the Moon be accurately laid down, according to_her latitude and longitude for every noon and midnight during her lunation, on the Map for the given month, and on those immediately * The Moon's longitude should be reduced to the time of observation, by the rule given in the note at the bottom of page 80, if greater accuracy be required. 161 preceding and following it; the latter will then be a sure guide to those persons who determine the longitude by Lunar Observations; for the relative position between the Moon and those Stars from which the lunar distances are taken, will be clearly ascertained thereby. The following table contains the names, &e. of the Stars used in determining the longitude by Lunar Observations, which may be found on the Maps, either in or near the Zodiac. Numes used in the Nawtical Names, &c. as expressed on the Maps. Almanac. Mag. Names. Constellations. Arietis. 2 Arietis. Aries. Aldebaran. 1 Aldebaran. Taurus. Pollux. 2 Pollux. Gemini. Regulus. 1 Regulus. Leo Major. Spica. 1 Spica Virginis. Virgo. Antares. 1 Antares. Scorpio. Aquilee. 1 Altair. Aquila. Fomalhaut. 1 Fomalhaut. Pisces Australis. Pegasi. 2 Markab. Pegasus. The altitude of the Moon, of a Planet, or of any Star, may be found by taking the distance, with a pair of compasses, between its place and the nearest part of the horizon; that extent being applied to the scale at the bottom of the Map for December, will give its altitude 1n degrees. To enable students, who are not in possession of a quadrant, to take the altitude of any object in the Heavens, I shall here instruct him how to make one. See Fig. 16. Plate IV. Take a piece of thick Bristol board, about six inches (perfectly) square ;—draw lines along two adjacent sides, about the eighth of an inch from the edges, for the lines a ¢ and a b ;—then, setting one foot of your compasses on the point a, where the lines intersect, describe as large an arc 4 ¢ as the board will admit. Divide the arc b ¢ into nine equal parts, each of which subdivide into ten equal parts for degrees, and number them as in the figure. Make a paper tube about half an inch in diameter, and fix it along the side a ¢ parallel to the iY 162 edge of the quadrant. The tube should be nearly closed at c, leaving only a small aperture in the centre of it ; and two threads should be placed across the end a, intersecting each other in the centre. Fix a plumb-line a d to the point a, and the Quadrant will be completed. To observe the altitude of a Star, suppose for instance, the North Pole Star s, hold the Quadrant in a vertical position, and directing the tube towards the Star, so that by looking through the aperture at ¢, you may bring it exactly on the crossing of the threads ; then, the degree on the arc 5 ¢ which is cut by the plumb-line will be its altitude in degrees. For the arc A B of the Heavens is equal to the arc 4 ¢ of the quadrant. The altitude of the North Pole Star is equal, or nearly so, to the latitude of the place of observation; consequently, if the observer be at London, its altitude will be about 51; degrees. | If the altitude of the Sun be observed, the eye must be protected by a piece of smoked or coloured glass, placed before the aperture of the tube. A table of the times of observation is given at the head of each Map, for every fifth day. Thus, on the 1st of January, the Map for that month will represent a complete view of the Starry Heavens at 9 o'clock in the evening ; on the 6th at 40 minutes after 8 ; and on the 11th at 20 minutes after 8 o'clock. If four minutes earlier be allowed for every night after those given in the table, it will give the time of observation for every night in the year; or, if the time be taken for the nearest day in the table, it will be suflicient for common practice. Although the several Maps will represent the appearance of the Starry Heavens, only at one hour of the same night, as given at the head of each ; yet different Maps will be found to answer the same purpose for different hours of the night, according to the following table, which is constructed on the principles illustrated in page 134, viz. that the Stars culminate about two hours earlier every night. Thus, for instance, the Map with its description for December, may be used if the time of obser- vation be 2 hours earlier; that for February, if 2 hours later; that for March, if 45 hours later; that for April, if 6% hours later ; and the Map, &c. for May, if the time be 9 hours later than that given for the several days at the head of the Map for January. | 163 oe 5 : Mup to be used. 3 3 Map to be used. $ 3 Map to be used. 5 3 Map to be used. z 1 Map to be used. January. 2 |December. | 2 |February. | 41 |March. 61 April. 9 |May. February. | 2 |January. 2% |March. 41 | April. 7 May. 10 |[June. March. 24 | February. | 2 |April. 41 |May. 71 June. 91 July. April. 2 |March. 24 |May. 51 June. 71 July. 81 August. May. 24 | April. 3 |June. 5 July. 6 |August. 71 September. June. 3 |May. 2 July. 3 |August. 41 September. | 64 |October. July. 2 lJune. 1 August. 24 |September. | 41 |October. 6 |November. August. 1 |July. 11 September. | 34 |October. 5 |November. | 7 |December. September. | 11 | August. 2 |October. 3% |November. | 51 December. | 71 |January. October. 2 |September. | 14 |November. | 3§ |December. | 51 January. 71 February. November. | 11 October. 2 |December. | 4 |January. 6 |February. 81 March. December. | 2 |November. | 2 |January. 4 |February. 61 March. 81 |April. The Maps should be held, during the time of observation, in a vertical position before you, with that point of the horizon downwards towards which you are turning your attention. If, for instance, you are looking at the Stars in the south, hold the S. point of the horizon downwards ; if to those in the north, hold the N. point of the Map down- wards ; and so on for the eastern, western, or any other aspect. 164 MONTHLY OBSERVATIONS ON THE PERIODICAL SITUATIONS OF THE CONSTELLATIONS, AND PRINCIPAL STARS. JANUARY. Tue Heavens, during the evenings of this month, invitingly claim the attention of the student, by the splendid appearance of the most beautiful Constellations in the Universe. They are chiefly situated in the S. E. quarter, where eight Stars of the first magnitude are presented to his view. Owrrox in the S. 8. E. Betelguex (18),* Bellatrix (15), Rigel (13), and Saiph form a large trapezium, or a figure of four unequal sides, the three Stars which form his Belt being in the middle of it. An imaginary line passing through the three Stars in the Bert of Orion, directs the students eye down to Sirius (20), or the Dog Star, in the mouth of Canis Major. It is of the first magnitude, and the most beautiful Star in the Heavens. Procyon (24), in Canis Minor, 1s E. of Orion, and nearly at the same height as Rigel, these two stars, with Sirius, form a large triangle. | Aldebaran (11), in Taurus, is near the meridian, and about 53 degrees high. * These numbers correspond with those prefixed to the Stars used by Mr. T. Lynn, in his “Star Tables,” for determining the Latitude and Longitude, by Stellar observations. The names of the Constellations are printed in capitals, and those of the Stars in small italics, as on the Maps. 165 If a line were drawn through the three Stars in the Sword of Orion, it would pass W. of Aldebaran, and direct the eye up to the Pleiades. Leo Major is rising in the E. Regulus (31), its principal Star, being about 8 degrees above the horizon. Capella (12), a beautiful Star of the first magnitude in Avrriea, is about 13 degrees E. S. E. of the zenith. Castor (23) and Pollux (25), in GEMINI, are nearly in a line with Rigel and Betelguex, in Orion. Cetus occupies a large space between the S. and S. W. Its principal Star is Mencar (8), of the second magnitude, which, with two other Stars of the third magnitude, in the head, form a small triangle. Eripanus is on the meridian. Markab (59), in Preasus, is about 22 degrees above the western horizon, and forms a large triangle with Scheat (58) and Algenib (1), in the same Constellation. A line supposed to be drawn from Markab to the zenith, will pass Alpheratz (60), in the head, Mirach (4), in the girdle, and Almaach, in the right foot, of ANproMEDA. Algenib (10), in Perseus, is near the zenith; and Algol (9), is about 9 degrees 8. S. W. of the former. The seven principal Stars in Ursa Mayor, may be seen in the | N. N. E. Dubhe (33) and Merak (32), are called the Pointers, because a line passing through them points nearly to the North Pole Star (0), mm the tail of Ursa Minor. Cor Coroli is in the N. E. by N. about 9 degrees high. Derprinus and Vureecura Er Anser will take their leave of us in the W. at the end of this month; and will not be seen again in the evening till the middle of May, when they will re-appear in the E. N. E. The Miky Way may be seen, if the sky be clear, extending from the S. E. through the zenith, to the N. W. part of the horizon. 166 FEBRUARY. Regulus (31), in the heart, and Denecbola (34), in the tail, of Leo Major, are of the first magnitude; and may be seen in the E. the former 29, and the latter 15, degrees high. Procyon (24), in Camis Minor, may be known by its being accompanied by a Star of the third magnitude. They are in the S. S. W. about 40 degrees high. An imaginary line drawn through the two Stars in Canis Minor, will pass up through the four Stars in the feet of Gemini. Serius (20), in Canis Major, is approaching the seridiany dis- playing the greatest power of its brilliancy, at the height of 20 ores In the S. E. is Cor Hydre (30), and nearly in a line between Regulus and Procyon, are four or five Stars, in the head of Hypra. Betelguexr (18), in the right shoulder of Orion, has just passed the meridian. The beauty of this Constellation is not equalled by any other in the Heavens. Cerus is declining towards the W.S. W. part of the horizon. Mencar (8), its principal Star in the head, is about 28 degrees high. A line supposed to be drawn from Rigel (13), in Oriox, through Baten Kaitos, in the body of Cetus, will pass near the principal Stars that are visible in Eripanus. Aries, the first Constellation in the Zodiac, 1s in the W. Arietss (6), its principal Star, is 35 degrees above the horizon; and may be known by two others of the third and fourth magnitudes, forming a small oblique triangle. Aldebaran (11), in Taurus, is nearly S. W. and at the height of 49 degrees. Algenib (10), in Perseus, is 63 degrees high, W.S. W.; and below it 1s Almaach, Mirach (4), and Alpheratz (60), in ANDROMEDA. The five Stars which form the fancied outline of the W. in Cassiopeia, are in the N. W. from 43 to 50 degrees high. Vega (52), in Lyra, is too near the northern horizon to be seen. 167 Capella (12), in Avurica, is about 11 degrees W. of the zenith; and a Star of the second magnitude in his right sheiuldey has J passed the meridian, near the zenith. Ursa Musor is in the N. E. Benetnasch (39), in the tip of his tail, 1s 26 degrees, and Dubhe (33), one of the Pointers, 1s 51 Lidegroes high. Rastaban, Grumium, and Etamin (51), in the head of Draco, have just passed the meridian below the pole; thence they will take a circular route eastward towards the zenith. Markab (59), in Pecasus, is setting in the W. S. W.; but Scheat (58) and Algembh (1) are still visible, the former 10, and the latter 9 degrees above the horizon. At the close of this month, Pegasus will disappear in the W. and will not be seen again in evening, till June, when he will reappear in the L. If the evenings be clear, and the Moon below the horizon, the Micky Way may be traced from the S.S. E. through Perseus, to the N. N. W. part of the horizon. MARCH. Arcturus (42), a beautiful Star of the first magnitude in Boores, is in the E. about 17 degrees high. Ursa Major appears in the N. E. Dubhe (33), its principal Star, is 67 degrees high. Denebola, (34), in the tail of Lro Major, is nearly E. S. E.; and Regulus (31), in the heart, is on the W. of it; the altitude of the former being 37 degrees, and that of the latter about 46 degrees. A line supposed to be drawn from Denebola to Benetnasch (39), in the tail of Ursa Major, will pass through Coma Berenices, and Cor Coroli, in Canes VENATICL About midway between Regulus, and Dubhe, are the five Stars in the body of Leo Miyok. The beautiful Constellation of Oriox, is in the S. W. A line supposed to be drawn through Rigel (13) and Betelguex (18), will be 168 nearly perpendicular to the horizon, directing the eye up to Castor (23) and Pollux (25), in Gem, Aldebaran (11), in the eye of Taurus, is on the W. of Betelguex, and Procyon (24), in Canis Minor, is on the E. of it. Serius (20), in Canis Mayor, with Betelguex, and Procyon, form a large triangle. Capella (12) in Avrica, is nearly W., its altitude being about 57 degrees. An imaginary line drawn from Capella towards the N. W. will pass Algenib (10), in Prrseus, directing the eye to Almaach, in the right foot, and Mirach (4), in the girdle of AxpromEpa. The five Stars in Cassiopeia, are N. W. by N. from 28 to 40 degrees high. Mencar (8), in Cerus, and Arietis (6), in Aries, are about to dis- appear in the W.; and will not be seen again in the evening, till the beginning of September. The Miky Way may be seen, if the sky be clear, crossing the western part of the Heavens ; extending from N. to S. APRIL. The beautiful double Star Vega (52), in Lyra, is N. E. about 18 degrees high; and above it are three Stars called Etamin (51), Rastaban, and Grumium, which form a small triangle in the head of Draco. Hercures is in the E. N. E. Ras Algeth: (49), in his head, being just above the horizon. Spica Virginis (38), in Virco, is in the S. E. about 17 degrees high. Regulus (31), a double Star in Leo Major, is near the meridian, 51 degrees high; and on the E. of it, is Denebola (34), about the same height. A line passing through these two Stars, will point out the situation of Procyon (24), in Canis Mor, on the W., and of Arcturus (42), in Boorss, on the E. 169 Spica, Denebola, and Arcturus form a large triangle. Ursa Major is approaching the zenith, having the three Stars in his tail, extending towards the E. Castor (23) and Pollux (25), in Gem, are Ww. S. W. about 52 degrees high. If a line were drawn from Castor towards the N. N. W. it would pass Capella (12), in Auvrica, and Algenib (10), in Perseus. Almaach, in the right foot of Axpromepa, and Algol (9), in Patti with Algenib, in the same Genviellodon form a triangle, the latter being in the upper angle. Cassiopeia is in the N. N. W. Schedir, the lowest Star, being elevated about 20 degrees above the horizon. Orion is setting in the W. by S., the three Stars, in the Belt, being about 9 degrees high; and above them are Beicloues (18) and Bellatriz (15). On the S. of Orion, is Serius (20), in Canis Major, very near the horizon; and on the W. of him, is Aldebaran (11), in Taurus, about 13 degrees high. The three last-mentioned Constellations will not be visible in the evenings after this month. Orion will re-appear, in the evening, about the middle of November, in the E. ; and Canis Major about the beginning of January, in the S. E. The MiLky Way may still be seen, on a very clear evening, almost parallel to, and about 30 degrees above, the western horizon. MAY. The seven principal Stars in Ursa Masor, commonly known by the names of Charles's Wain, or the Plough and Horses, &c., are in the zenith. About 18 degrees S. of Alioth, which is in the root of the Bear’s tail, is Cor Corolz, in Canes VeEnaTICI. Arcturus (42), in Bootes, is nearly S. E., 53 degrees high; and E. of it, is Gemma (46), in Corona Boreaus. Below Corona Borealis, are six bright Stars, in Serpens, one of Z 170 which 1s Alpha Serpentis (47), of the second magnitude, situated be- tween two others of the third magnitude. Virco is on the meridian, Spica Virgins (38), being S. by E. 27 degrees high. Lisra is on the E. of Spica Virginis; the altitude of ils principal Star (44), on the Ecliptic, being about 17 degrees; and that of the next to it in brightness (45), in the northern scale, is about 21 degrees. Ras Alhagus (50), in the head of Serpextarivs, is due E. 20 de- grees high; and 5 degrees above it, bearing a little towards the S. is Ras Algethi (49), in the head of Hercuces. Vega (52), in Livra, is 29 degrees high, in the E. N. E. This Star may always be known by its being accompanied by two others of the third magnitude, just below it. The middle one is a Quadruple-Star. Deneb (55), in Cyenus, is in the N. E. 18 degrees high. Above Lyra and Cygnus, is Draco, extending to the meridian, N. of the zenith. Cassiopeia is on the meridian below the Pole, being always on the opposite side of the Pole Star (0), to that of Ursa Major. Denebola (34), in the tail of Leo Masog, is 52 degrees high, in the S.S. W.; and Regulus (31), in his heart, is about S. W. 40 degrees above the horizon. Hypra extends from W.S.W. to S. S. E. nearly parallel to the horizon. Cor Hydre (30), in its heart, is 23 degrees below Regulus. Gevint is due W. Castor (23) and Pollux (25), being about 32 degrees high. Capella (12), in Auvrica, appears in the N. W., and its altitude is about 23 degrees. Prrseus is between Auriga and Cassiopeia, Algenib (10), its prin- cipal Star, being N. N. W. 16 degrees above the horizon. ~ Procyon (24), in Canis Minor, and its little companion, are setting in the W. They will not be seen in the evenings, after this month, till January, when they will re-appear in the E. The Miiky Way extends from the E. through Cygnus, Cassiopeia, Perseus, and the feet of Auriga, to the W. In the N. its altitude is 20 degrees. 1M JUN ELE. Dererinus is very conspicuous in the E. about 22 degrees high; and below it are the four small Stars in EquuLrus. Altair (53), in Aquia, is E. S. E., 25 degrees high. This Star may always be known by its being situated between two others of the third magnitude. A line passing through the three last-mentioned Stars, will direct the eye up to Vega (52), in Livra; and thence to Etamin (51), Grumium, and Rastaban, in the head of Draco. Praasus is rising in the E. N. E. Scheat (58), one of its principal Stars, being about 11 degrees high. An~promepa is N. N. E. very near the horizon; and above her, are Cassiopeia and Cepueus. Ras Alhagus (50), in the head of Sereentarivs, and Ras Algethi (49), in the head of HercuLes, are S. E. by S. their mean altitude being about 48 degrees. A line supposed to be drawn from the zenith through the head of Draco, will direct the eye to Deneb (55), in the tail of Cyanus. Gemma (46), in Corona Boreas, is nearly ‘on the meridian, 66 degrees high; and below it are the principal Stars in Sereexs. Antares (48), in Scoreio, makes a transitory appearance in the S. by E., only 11 degrees high. Lisra has just passed the meridian, the altitude of its principal Star (44), on the Ecliptic, being 21 degrees. Spica Virginis (38), in Vireo, is nearly S. W. about 20 degrees above the horizon. An imaginary line drawn from Spica Virginis to the zenith will pass through Arcturus (42), in Boorss. Regulus (31), in Leo Moor, is setting in the W. and Dene- bola (34), in his tail, is W. by S. 29 degrees high. Denebola, Spica Virginis, and Arcturus, form a large triangle. Above Denebola, are Coma Berenices, and Canes VenNaTicr. 172 Ursa Masor is N. W. of the zenith, Dubke (33), the upper Pointer, being 51 degrees high; and Ursa Minor is on the meridian N. of the zenith. ~ Avuriea is scarcely visible in the N. Castor (23) and Pollux (25), in Gemini, are setting in the N. W. They will continue visible during the evenings of this month; after which they will disappear till November, when they will re-appear in the N. E. The MiLxy Way may be traced, on a clear evening, from the S. through Cygnus, in the E. to the N. point of the horizon. JULY. Axpromepa extends from E. N. E. to N. E. having Pecasus on the E. and Perseus on the N. Below her are Pisces and TriaxcuLum; and above her are Cassiopeia and CepaEUS. Markab (59), Scheat (58), and Algenib (1), in Preasus, with Alpheratz (60), in the head of ANproMEDA, form a large square in the E. A line supposed to be drawn through Markab and Alpheratz, will pass near Mirach (4), in the girdle, and Ahnaach in the right foot of ANxproMEDA, and terminate in A/genib (10), in Perskus. Deneb (55), in Cyexus, is due E. about 62 degrees high. AquiLa Er AnmiNous are S. E. by S. the altitude of Altair (53) being about 41 degrees. A line passing through Altair, and the two small Stars on either side of it, will direct the eye up to Vega (52), in Lyra; and down to the two principal Stars, in the head of Capricornus; the latter being 17 degrees high. The five principal Stars in Deceninus, are 9 degrees E. of Altair. Antares (48), in Scoreio, is S. S. W. about 9 degrees high. Ras Algethi (49), and Ras Alhagus (50), in the heads of Hercutes and Serpentarius, are near the S. their mean altitude being about 51 degrees. | 173 ~~ Lupra 1s near the S. W. part of the horizon ; and above it, are the Stars in the head of Serpens. | Capella (12), in Bootes, is in the W. 36 degrees high. Ursa Major is descending towards the N. W. An imaginary line drawn from Benetnasch (39) parallel to Dubhe (33) and Merak (32), will always direct the eye to Cor Coroli, in Cases Venaricr. Capella (12), and its companion in the right shoulder of Auvrica, are in the N. being always on the opposite side of the Pole Star (0), to that of Vega, in Lyra. A line passing through Capella and Vega, is nearly at right angles with another passing through the four Stars which form a square in Ursa Major, and the five principal Stars in Cassiopeia. Leo Masor is setting in the W. N. W. Denebola (34), in his tail, being only 10 degrees high. Spica Virginis (38), in Virco, is W. S. W. but too near the hori- zon to be seen; and it will not be visible again, in the evening, till April, when it will re-appear in the E. S. E. If the evenings be clear, and the Moon below the horizon, the Miky Way may be seen extending from Perseus, in the N. N. E. through Cassiopeia, and Cygnus, to the S. AUGUST. Aries, the first of the Zodiacal Constellations, is rising in the E.N. E. Arietis (6), in his following horn, is 9 degrees high. This Star may be easily distinguished by the two small Stars preceding it, which form a small oblique triangle. On the N. of Aries, is Musca Borearis; above it, is TriancuLum ; “and S. of it, are a few small Stars in the southern Fish of Pisces. The large square, formed by Markab (59), Scheat (58) and Al- genih (1), in Preasus, with Alpheratz (60), in the head of ANDROMEDA, 18 mm the E. the mean elevation of which is about 30 degrees. A line supposed to be drawn from Alpheratz towards the N. point 174 of the horizon, will pass near Mirach (4) and Almaach in Axoromepa, A/- genth (10), in Perseus, and Capella (12), in Aurea. Algol (9), forms a triangle with Almaach and Algenib. If a line were drawn from Algol to the zenith, it would pass through the five Stars in Cassiopeia, and between Alderamun and Alphirk, in CepHEus. Derenivus is S. E. by S. about 38 degrees high; and Altair (53), in Aquita, is between it and the meridian, about 35 degrees above the horizon. Vega (52), in Lyra, has just passed the meridian, near the zenith ; and Arcturus (42), in Bootes, is due E. at an altitude of 27 degrees. Hezcures and Corona Boreawss, are between Arcturus and Vega. Ursa Major is about N. W., the seven principal Stars being nearly in an horizontal position. Cor Coroli is about 14 degrees below Benetnasch (39), in the tail of Ursa Major; and 14 degrees lower, is the small group of Stars in Coma Berenices. Scoreio, Lisra, Virco, and Leo Major, which are now setting between the S. W. and N. W. part of the horizon, will leave us in the evening after this month. Leo Major will reappear in January, Virgo in March, Libra in May, and Scorpio in June. The Muky Way will appear, every clear evening, extending across the Heavens, like a luminous arch, from the N. N. E. to the 5S. W. SEPTEMBER. The four Stars, which form a square in Ursa Major, are N. N. W. about 28 degrees high; and the three Stars in the tail, are towards the W. Alpha Draconis (41), in the tail of Draco, is in a line with Phach'd and Meyrez, in Ursa Major. Cor Coroli is about midway between Benetnasch (39), in the tail of Ursa Major, and the N. W. part of the horizon. 175 Capella (12), in Auvrica, is N. E, by N. 15 degrees high, and its companion, in the right shoulder, is a little lower, towards the N. Cassiopeia is nearly N. E. 51 degrees high. Between Cassiopeia and the zenith, are the three small Stars in the head of Cepmeus; and below it, in the N.E. is Algenib (10), in Perseus, 29 degrees Rik Almaach, Mirach (4), and Alpheratz (60), in ANDROMEDA, are nearly in an horizontal position, extending from LE. to E. N. E. about 38 degrees high. Arietis (6), in Aries, 18 below Mirach; and a little Sls the N. is Musca Boreas. Algeneb (1), Markab (59), and Scheat (58), in Prcasus, which form the large square, with Alpheratz, are E. S. E. from 30 to 50 degrees high. The Pleiades are rising in the N. E. by N.; and Algol (9), is about 19 degrees above them. Cyenus is on the meridian. Deneb (55), in its tail, being about 8 degrees S. E. of the zenith. Below Cygnus are Vurpecura er Anser, Sacrrra, Deceninus, and AquiLa ET ANTINOUS. Altair (53), in AquiLa, has just passed the meridian, its altitude being about 46 degrees. Vega (52), in Liyra, is nearly W. S. W. 68 degrees high. Etamin (51), Rastaban, and Grumium, in the head of Draco, are about 18 degrees N. of Vega. Hercures and Sereentarius are W.S. W. Ras Algeth: (49) and Ras Alhagus (50), in their heads, are about 38 degrees high. Arcturus (42), in Bootes, is W. by N. 15 degrees high; and Mirach is about 10 degrees higher. Coma Berenices is setting in the N. W. Neither this Constella- tion, nor the beautiful Star Arcturus will be visible in the evening after this month, till the beginning of March. The Miky Way extends from S. W. by 8S. through the zenith, to the N. E. by N.; and may be seen every clear evening. 176 OCTOBER. Mencar (8), in Cetus, 1s E. by S. 13 degrees, and Deneb Kaitos, in its tail, is S. E. by S. 12 degrees above the horizon. In a line between Mencar and the zenith, are Arietzs (6), in Aries, and Mirach (4), in the girdle of Axpromepa; the former being 37, and the latter 34 degrees high. Aldebaran (11), in the southern eye of Taurus, is nearly E. N. E. about 9 degrees high; and the Pleiades are 12 degrees higher. El Nath (14), in the northern horn, is N. E. by E. 11 degrees above the horizon. Capella (12), and the Star in the right shoulder of Aurica, are N. E.; the altitude of the former being 26 degrees. Castor (23), in Gemini, is rising in the N. E. by N. Algenib (10) and Algol (9), in Perseus, are E. N. E.; the former being 39 and the latter 43 degrees high. Cassiopeia is above Perseus. Triancurum 1s between Arietis, in Aries, and 4/maach in ANprOMEDA. Markab (59), in Prcasus, is S. S. E. 51 degrees high; Scheat (58), is about 13 degrees higher; and A/genih (1), is on the E. 6 degrees lower. Fomalhaut (57), in Pisces Avustraus, is near the horizon S. by E. The three small Stars, forming a triangle in the head of Cerutus are in the zenith. Alderamin and Alphirk have just passed the meridian. Dereanus is S. W. by S. 49 degrees high. A little lower towards the W.is Altair (53), and its companions on either side of it. A line passing through the last-mentioned Stars, will direct the eye down to two Stars of the third magnitude in the head of Carricornus. The same line continued upwards, will pass through Vega (52), in Lyra, which is now due W.; and thence to Etamin (51), &c., in the head of Draco. Cyayus 1s between Lyra and the zenith. | Ras Algethi (49) and Ras Alhagus (50), in the heads of HercuLes and Sereentarivs, are W. by S. about 23 degrees high ; and a few degrees higher on the S. of them, are four small Stars in the head of Taurus Poxiatowski. 177 Gemma (46), in Corona Boreaus, is W. N. W. 16 degrees high. Arcturus (42), is too near the horizon to be seen. The Stars in the head of Sereexs, are setting in the W. by N. Ursa Mayor isin the N. N. W. Benetnasch (39), in the tip of the tail, is 22 degrees high. The Mmky Way forms a luminous arch, extending from the N. E. by E. through the zenith, to the S. W. part of the horizon. NOVEMBER. The beautiful Constellation of Orioy, is just rising in the E. Bel- latriz (15), in the left shoulder, being 6 degrees ; and Betelguex (18), in the right shoulder, only 3 degrees above the horizon. Between Orion and the zenith, are Aldebaran ( 11), and the Pleiades, in Taurus; Algol (9), in Perseus; and Almaach, in the Hight foot of ANDROMEDA. Castor (23) and Pollux (25), in Gemini, are N. E., the former hing 9, and the latter 4, degrees high. Capella (12), in Aurica, is nearly E. N. E. 37 degrees high ; which, with Castor, Betelguex, and Aldebaran, forms a large square of brilliant Stars ; extending from E. to N. E. The five principal Stars in Cassiorena, are approaching the meridian near the zenith. Cerus extends from E. S. E. to the meridian nearly. Mencar (8), in the upper jaw, Baten Kaitos in the body, and Deneb Kaitos 3) in the tail, are nearly in an horizontal position. The principal Stars that are visible in Eripanus, are below Mencar. At nearly equal distances between the last-mentioned Star and the zenith, are Arietis (6), in Aries; and Mirach (4), in ANproMEDA. Prcasuvs is on the meridian. Markab (59,) and Algenib (1), are about 52 degrees high ; Scheat (58) is about 13 degrees higher than the former, and Alpheratz (60), in the head of Axpromena, is 14 Sagres above the latter. Fomalhaut (57), in Pisces Auvstravis, is S. by W. only 7 degrees high. 2a 178 Altair (53), in AquiLs, is W. S. W. 26 degrees above the horizon. Rather higher towards the S. are Derpuinus, and the four small Stars in EquuLrus. Deneb (55), in Cyenus, is due W. 61 degrees high. Vega (52), in Lyra, is nearly W. by S., its altitude being 38 de- grees; and about the same height, 15 degrees northward, are Etamin (51). Grumium, and Rastaban, in the head of Draco. Ursa Masor is in the N. Dubhe (33) and Merak (32) have passed the meridian. Benetnasch (39)1s N. N. W. 15 degrees high. Alpha Draconis (41), in the tail of Draco, is between Mizar, in the tail of Ursa Major, and the Stars which form the small square in Ursa Mor. Gemma (46), Ras Algeth: (49), Ras Alhagus (50), CAPRICORNTUS, and Fomalhaut (57), which are setting between the N. and N. W. part of the horizon, will not be visible in the evening after this month. Gemma will re-appear in the N. E. in March; Ras Algethi in the E. N. E. in April ; Capricornus in the E. S. E. in July ; and Fomalbaut in the S. E. by S. in October. The MiLky Way now forms a continuous stream of light, from E. to W. through the zenith. DECEMBER. Ori1oN may now be seen, with all its brilliant Stars, in the E. S. E. A line passing through Rigel (13) and Betelguex (18) directs the eye to Castor (23) and Pollux (25), in GEmin1. Another passing through the three Stars in the Sword, leads to Aldebaran (11) and the Pleiades, in Taurus. If another were drawn through Betelguex and Bellatriz (15), it would point out the situation of Mencar (8), in Cervus, on the W.; and of Procyon (24), in Canis Minor, on the E. And if a fourth line were drawn from Saiph between Betelguex and Bellatrix, it would pass El Nath (14), in the northern horn of Taurus, and terminate in Capella (12), in- Avniga. ATR AIRC PN O 179 Lro Minor, and two Stars of the third magnitude in the head of Lo Major, are near the horizon, in the N. E. Algenib (10), in PrrsEvus, is 15 degrees E. of the genith and Algol (9) is about 9 degrees S. of it. Cervus is on the meridian, and extends from S. S. E. to S. S. W. Almaach, in ANDROMEDA, is 11 degrees S. S. E. of the zenith ; be- tween which, and Baten Kaitos, in Cetus, are the three small Stars in Trisncurum ; Arietis (6), in Aries; and the principal Star in Pisces. Cassiopeia is a little W. of the zenith. Scheat (58) Algenib (1) and Markab (59), in Preasvus, with dlpheratz (60), in the head of Anbpro- MEDA, form a square in the S. W. from 40 to 60 degrees high. Cyenus 1s W. S. W. The altitude of Deneb (55), in its tail, is 42 degrees. Vega (52), in Lyra, is 21 degrees high, N. W. by W. More to the N. and rather higher, are Etamin (51), Grumium, and Rastaban, in the head of Draco. The seven principal Stars in Ursa Major, are from N. to N. N. E. Altair (53), in AquiLa, is setting in the W.; and about 14 degrees above it is Decpainus. These two Constellations will not appear again in the evening, after this month, till June, when they will re-appear in the E. The Miiky Way may be seen every clear evening, nearly as de- scribed in the preceding month. REMARKS ON THE MAPS, RELATIVE TO OBSERVATIONS MADE BY THEM IN FOREIGN PARTS. Tae Maps will exhibit the appearance of the Starry Heavens, suf- ficiently near for common observation, to all places lying between the parallels of 50° and 53° north latitude; which comprehends all the southern and midland counties of England, with those of Wales, Munster 180 and the southern parts of Leinster, in Ireland. Also to Holland, the Netherlands, and the midland circles or states of Germany, from the parallels of Bremen, Hanover, and Berlin, to those of Frankfort and Prague. To the midland and southern parts of Prussia, and Poland, from the parallel of Thorn to that of Cracow; and to some parts of Russia, &ec. To the northern counties of England and Ireland, and to the whole of Scotland, the Stars will appear to be removed towards the South ; those in the North appearing more elevated, and those in the South more depressed, than they are represented on the Maps. Hence an allowance should be made according to the number of degrees the observer is to the north of London. A similar allowance should be made also at Uranibourg and Copenhagen, in Denmark ; and at all the northern parts of Germany, Prussia, and Poland. At Paris, Rouen, Rheims, and Metz, the Stars in the South will appear rather more elevated, and those in the North a little more depressed, than at London; but the difference will be scarcely per- ceptible to common observers. To all the midland and southern parts of France, as also to Switzerland, Austria, and to all places lying in or near the same parallels of latitude, the Stars will appear to be removed more towards the North, those in the South appearing higher, and those in the North lower. An allowance, therefore, should be made, of as many degrees as the place of observation is to the south of London. A like change also will be observed, and for which a similar allowance should be made, at Quebec, New Brunswick, and the southern parts of Newfoundland. The longitude of the several places will make no material diffe- rence in the position of the Stars. THE END. Printed for G. WoovLw, Hastings. X Wirtas PLE God SITES : . + 1X / AX Zheernind { London, Lublisbed by Laldwern &Craddock, and 6. Waoll Hastings. 20 Ary > 0 Nyr4 London, Published bv Baldwin & Craddock, and 6Wooll Hastings. ; = aes $ 3 THON IW ) { * * \ \ * A i 3x * A % psa * - Co rr 5 2 yoo Zp 3 #70229.07- *% 7p Xk x 5 Zr ; = NZirs 5 vs ¢ A 7g i Ot ngs 2 x aA a Pa * J Hk Cortfydra x : #4 PD R A y * lL PyYxry z : zg rAvTICA ~Z - ! Zz ! + Z ! London Published by Baldwin & Craddock and 6 Wooll, Hastings. 1 24. .9.20 Gg... 9.10 11... 8.50 16 8.30 A717 1C A London, Publisked by Baldwin & Craddock, and 6Wooll, Hastings. &® sand G:Wooll, Hastings. © London Published by Baldwin & Cradock -10.40 10.20 9.40 9.20 30. 0 21... 1. at. 1.0 no. 16... 28... London, Published by Baldwin Cradock, and GWooll Hastings. oid si London Published by Baldwin & Cradock. and 6. Wooll lastings. ¥) io Slade So. Haslings. London, Publisbed by Baldwin & Cradock, and 6. Wooll, Hastings. Ro Er Ay | ¥ . YE, x 0% * »* * xX Hn22ee.09 * y x urgrginyrk WH ~ “reir rh vs x KX Uirach XX Arcturus London, Lublisbed by Baldwin & Craddock: and & Wooll, Haslings * a itr? IY TINOUS ro * w¥ ri wr SR + Ho hr * 2 Jel) no | Pr rm Slay fo Hastings. _ ty aN NY Way — 25 j pt : ; a | PIICES 97) rll i — — i > “ert @ / * 3 Zim albart London, Published by Baldwin & Craddock, and GNooll, Hastings. fs & \ x | siggomatba! 7 S I * 7 x ox 2 l= 74 WENT SS . Ror BL Hrs Tr 3 3 ’ i” lay x S Ye sis Varan k. Le trad veh and Wool Hastines. London, Fublished by Baldwin > : > 3 ¥ \ 3 a \ SLX Eo) : Z OAT Tr : iar (London, Published by Baldvin & Cradock, and Cool, Hastings RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TOm==p 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE OOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS charges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. alling 642-3405. Books may be Renewed by ¢ DUE AS STAMPED BELOW ALL B Renewals and Re UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720 WILY CEIEST TT ee Berkeley FORM NO. DD6 —fD 2TA=50m-1Z, OY (B6221510 )4T 6B mn. CD52234354 SN Sn IT SHEER as TN Sah EX ACH vadefiiniahie ! SE Bc [Ere LR el HH IE HER ntl (RE AR a 3ied 4 OAT JAMES RBA pit HA PE Ps irda] pia ho Pied heh, prev AR ge \ ta PRRs a EE ions RAs in ri tak bi Ht py dt Addo (ere o few pra rh BURY er ! Ir 3H or ee oid ld