v #9 Indian Ocean A» ” Atlas ., V /" imp DOCUMF m DEPARTMENT ‘ MAR 9 977 LUL LIB‘AR‘.’ iivg‘e'u‘éilfovfija "Mm -x._. K E, ‘ CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY EIndian Ocean Atlasj CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY AUGUST 1976 Preface The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world’s oceans. It and its adjacent seas cover 14 percent (72,000,000 square kilometers) of the earth’s surface and wash the shores of 35 independent nations. For centuries the Indian Ocean has been an important route of dis- covery and commerce. The diverse peoples of the area, since the end of the colonial period, have begun gradually to develop a sense of common interest in the vast body of water that both separates them and links them together. Recently, major powers have found new economic and strategic interests in the area. Yet, the Indian Ocean is perhaps the least known of the world’s major oceans. This atlas brings together available infor- mation from a wide variety of sources not previously assembled under one cover. Its purpose is to provide, in maps, graphics, photographs, and a minimum of text, a general understanding and appreciation of the Indian Ocean area. a 2350 f M 5 We WIPU?) Table of Contents The Indian Ocean and Littoral Countries 4 Natural Environment The Physical Scene 6 Indian Ocean Basin 8 Climate 10 Ecological Concerns 14 Resources Food from the Sea 15 Mineral and Energy Resources 16 Shipping Historical Development 18 Trade Patterns 20 Dhows 21 Dry Cargo Carriers 22 Giant Tankers 23 Political Relationships “Zoneiof Peace"? 24 Law of the Sea 26 Waterway Issues 28 Suez Canal 28 Red Sea 29 Persian Gulf 30 Malacca-Singapore Straits 31 Islands in the Sea Overview 32 Arabian Sea Islands 35 Socotra, Jazirat Masirah, Jaza’ir Khuriya Muriya Zanzibar 36 Comoros 38 Madagascar 40 Reunion and Other French Islands 44 Mauritius and Dependencies 46 Seychelles 48 British Indian Ocean Territory 51 Maldives 52 Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands 54 Sri Lanka 55 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 58 Christmas Island 60 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 61 Southern and Antarctic Islands 62 Iles Kerguelen 63 Iles Crozet 64 Ile Amsterdam and lie Saint-Paul 65 Prince Edward Islands 66 Heard Island and MCDonaId Islands 67 Air Access to Indian Ocean Islands 68 Gazetteer and Index 69 Reference Map Insert V JU‘ (w Black Sea Gibraltar +C/"'\» / 4’" o /” V / . orth ; \ i 00 Atlantic 12 ~ f.” v ”C7 . Ocean 0 Sea Gulf of Guinea 1 Equator 0 { Anibal h-m; _ V‘Mluritil >8) Ila Jilin 11!“on (Franc/o)“ 15° ‘outh N Atlantic ' '9 ' VV'M-flflifllo.‘ moormuoo 0‘ _, . V l l, w ‘ . (Mauritian! ' Buses fieunlon Q, ~ , ' , 2 » do Indh ~ , 4 '(anco) FM“) ’ ~ lloéumpi .3 ‘ ______~__.,,, é,,.__.__......___...._._._.v mlfl.’ ” m-q ’— 1 ’ L \ Pun“ ldnrfl,’ , ‘ Mud: ' The Indian Ocean /“5° and Littoral Countries Azimuthal Equa/vArea Projection « ‘ 'ucoonw uni-nah g (Mun-am) Hun H ‘ 3 Islam . In Scale 1:36.000,000 0 500 Nautical Miles 0 500 1000 Kilometers 45° A damn I lands ndia) Nicobar Srl Llnkl “hm” .‘ (India) 7. . Colombo -Christmas Island (Australia) I l w Cocos (Keeling) Islands 5 (Australia) 9) i i ‘“ ”‘M~—-~M 11: Amsterdam 3 1Funce) 1/ He Saint-Paul 1 ' (France) /’ / 7L fix ,, / / / ‘7\ff ‘ 2 Li its 0! water bodies int nal lo and adjoinin lh _Ind_ian Ocean . _, “W“ a defined by the Intern ional Hydrographic rg mutton. / 5 "‘H‘” ‘MM"‘-~~—-~~ f ‘7\*-»- ‘5‘“ 1/ /_/ r ; _\N ‘ / / ’\,<\ f/ .. , / / \\‘\ 4/ . f / ‘x I ,1 \‘ z \ Vfl.fi*,v 44““. 1_y , / ' ‘ M M ' , I I / , \\\ . l‘ 'I ' South. Pfi‘CIYIC \ \ \ \ Equator , \n x , I 900. / / w i ( f I / (If; 3’ X ' ,/ ." x/ , I]; / .I‘ 4 \ ‘. 3 I I 1 l ‘ t . v r . A 1 a , 1 L i . L ) I n I 1 Ocean ‘x' ;- v.1 vam-u— pumm— : Wavy-ream"! ’1“ Natural Environment The Physical Scene Until the mid-20th century, so little re- search had been done in the Indian Ocean that it was known to marine scientists as the “forlorn ocean.” With the rapid development of new methods and instruments in the past few decades and the analysis of data from the International Indian Ocean Expedition (1960—65), many of its scientific mysteries have been unlocked. The unique surface water circulation of the northern Indian Ocean, which reverses seasonally, offered scientists of the expedition an unusual opportunity to study the effects of wind and weather on currents, tempera- ture, mixing of water, and marine life. Anal- ysis of the tremendous amount of data gathered by the expedition’s 40 vessels (from 20 nations, including the United States) is still going on. India and other littoral coun- tries are also conducting additional oceano- graphic studies oriented primarily toward marine fishery resources. Of the non-littoral nations, the Soviet Union is the most active, carrying on a wide variety of scientific studies. The evolution of the Indian Ocean basin has come into better focus with the develop- Eurasian plate Antarctic plate 9 Al Tectonic plate boundary (arrow indicates relative motion) Earthquake epicenter (representative sampling) ment and increasing acceptance of the theory of continental drift. According to this theory, the oceanic basin was formed during the Mesozoic Era (65 to 225 million years ago) with the breakup of the ancient continent of Condwanaland. The fragments of this con— tinent drifted apart on several tectonic plates and now comprise South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India. A system of submerged ridges, the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge, marks the juncture of three of these plates—Antarctic, African, and Indian. Here the ocean floor is spreading as much as 10 centimeters a year as molten rock wells up along the fissure lines. The deeply dissected branches of the ridge system are cut by numerous faults, displacing crestlines in many places. Shallow earthquakes associated with volcanic activity are common through— out the Mid—Indian Ocean Ridge. The most active seismic region, however, is in the vicinity of the Java Trench, where the Indian plate plunges underneath the Eurasian plate. Stable features predominate elsewhere on the ocean bed and along the con- tinental shelves. The Mid—Indian Ocean Ridge complex and lesser ridges, plateaus, seamounts, and trenches divide the bed into a series of basins ranging from about 300 to 9,000 kilometers in width. Smooth abyssal plains, among the flattest areas on the earth’s crust, occur at depths of 3,000 to 6,000 meters. Off the coast of Africa inclined plains extend from the cliffed margin of the continental shelf. Abyssal cones (alluvial fans) are pres- ent off the mouths of the two great river systems of southern Asia, the Indus and Ganges; deep valleys and canyons furrow the river-deposited sediments. Seamounts and abyssal hills are distributed singly or in groups over much of the ocean bed. Two inactive ridges, one formed from uplifted oceanic crust (the Ninetyeast Ridge) and the other volcanic in origin (the Chagos- Laccadive Plateau), run generally north- south for about 5,000 kilometers. The islands of the Indian Ocean have de- veloped in a variety of ways. Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Socotra, and part of the Seychelles are granitic islands, detached from larger land masses. Mauritius, Reunion, the Co- moros, Kerguelen, and several others are volcanic islands that formed from submarine eruptions. Another type, including the is- lands of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) and the Cocos Islands, developed from the buildup of coral in shallow tropical waters. Cuyots, flat-topped seamounts, are often associated with volcanic islands and coral atolls. These underwater features probably represent the final stage in the subsidence and erosion of islands. Surface water circulation is largely deter— mined by the prevailing winds. North of 10°S the currents change direction seasonally under the influence of the monsoon winds. The Northeast Monsoon Current flows gener- ally from east to west from November to April. Current velocities are usually strongest south of Sri Lanka and in the southern Arabian Sea, where they exceed 1 knot. Off the coast of Somalia the current turns south- ward, flows across the equator, and then turns eastward forming the Equatorial Coun— tercurrent. With the onset of the southwest Tropic at Cancer 7 . ..,2 ” o 4’ \ Equatorial Countercurfin‘lulzk. . Egunto orial Countercurreni‘ /"‘/\ &u \Snu‘th/Equa ial Current- V dirk 5)) I I. West Wind unit 45/“ \Ll» h _———-> J\\ 30 45 60 75 90 105 <——— Surface current (February) <— Surface current (August) West Wind llrilt Generally constant circulation Oceanic features _ volcano in mid-oceanic ridge oceanic trench continental shelf trim: » . 41....» it .;.ii. .4“; upper granitic crust lower granitic crust mantle oceanic ridge abyssal plain basaltic crust guyots islands monsoon in April the circulation reverses direction. The Somali Current starts to flow northward, and by May the principal cur- rents north of the equator start to flow in an easterly direction. By July the monsoon cur- rent is fully developed and the Equatorial Countercurrent has shifted north and joined the eastward flow. South of 10°S the circulation is generally constant throughout the year. The South Equatorial Current, portions of the West Wind Drift, and the Agulhas Current form a counterclockwise flow in the belt between 10°S and 40°S, and the West Wind Drift prevails south of 40°S. Near Antarctica local currents comprise a less well defined East Wind Drift. Along the southeastern Arabian and the Somali coasts extensive upwelling of nutrient- rich cold water occurs when the strong mon- soons blow coastal water away from the shore. This water, rising from depths of several hundred meters, may carry as much as 10 to 20 times more nutrient materials than are normal to surface water. The nu- trients promote rich blooms of plankton, ideal feeding conditions for fish. Such up- welling, paradoxically, can be deadly to fish when plankton becomes so thick that all the oxygen is removed from the water. In 1957 a bloom in the Arabian Sea was estimated to have killed the equivalent of the entire world catch for a year. The salinity of most Indian Ocean surface waters varies from 32 to 37 parts per thou- sand. The waters of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf are, however, more saline because of high rates of evaporation. In contrast, un- usually low salinity occurs in the Bay of Bengal because of high rainfall and a con- siderable inflow of fresh water, between Australia and Indonesia because of high precipitation and an intermixing of Indian Ocean and low-saline Pacific Ocean waters, and in the southern Indian Ocean because of the thawing of the Antarctic ice pack. Water density is a product of salinity and temperature. In the northern part of the Indian Ocean, the surface water of lowest density is found in the Bay of Bengal; the highest is in the western Arabian Sea. Den- sities in the southern half of the ocean increase gradually from the equator toward the Antarctic. Salinity and temperature vari- ations are generally greatest in the upper- most 1,000 meters of the ocean; below this depth they do not vary appreciably. Ice formation occurs in the extreme south- ern Indian Ocean during the Antarctic winter. Severe storms in January and February cause the ice to break up, and large blocks and broad floes are carried by winds and currents to the open ocean. The northern limit for such floating ice in the area west of 90°E is about 65°S; east of 90°E, however, floating ice is commonly encountered to 60°S, and large icebergs may sometimes be carried as far north as 40°S where they become hazards to navigation. Coral reef types Barrier Atoll evolution (Darwinian theory) lst stage Volcanic island with fringing reef 2nd stage Shrinking island with barrier reef la» 3rd stage Atoll Final stage 95,, ., Guyot 2,1' 1 n vi 581‘ n‘chan B i-r A £00,000 00 4 ‘uflca / mulhnl EquaFArea Projection ' mane 1:27 2 l Miles 00 4 Statute Miles Q ; I 800 4400 ilometers £2 , K 'ayb " NabrvShu s and elevations in meters {a Indianmgfi Cdrdiflot: is an 0%” name for {hi 0 , x j 1‘ an ridga. lam lbcfjndudgi Soufhwosi M . ‘ M ‘ ‘ Ridge, Mid-fig" Ouindtidgh-Souihamlndldn ,, ‘ - ‘ ‘ Judge, Car «9‘15ng Emcg'ghagos-LMQ 1; W“ :1“ Climate Climate in the Indian Ocean area ranges from the enervating high temperatures and humidities that slow the pace of life on the ocean’s northern gulfs to the nearly constant chilling westerly gales of the south, known traditionally as the “roaring forties” and “screeching fifties.” In between are the monsoons, doldrums, southeast trades, and horse latitudes. “50 ~ ~ ; ' ; 15.77" - ’ ' ' southeast trades 7 A " , , l_ - ‘ A I ' Ironic 11! Capricorn ‘ horse latitudes ' ' westér lies b Indian Ocean winds follow the global pattern of air circulation with one major ex- ception—the monsoon. The main controls are semipermanent subtropical high pressure cells located in both hemispheres at about 30° latitude. Air moves outward from these cells toward areas of semipermanent low pressure near the equator (the doldrums) and near the poles at about 60° (subpolar lows). The deflection due to the earth’s rotation, known as the Coriolis force, causes the moving air to veer to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern. As a result, winds approaching the equator in both hemispheres are easterly and winds moving poleward are westerly. The high and low pressure areas move north- ward and southward seasonally, following the march of the sun. During the Northern Hemisphere summer the doldrum belt extends from the southern margin of the Arabian Peninsula across Pakistan and northern India, where the low pressure trough is deepened by intense heating of the land. The trade wind flow toward this trough from the Northern Hemi- sphere high pressure cell is northerly over the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, while the flow from the Southern Hemisphere is de- flected after crossing the equator and be- comes the strong and steady southwest monsoon over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. During the northern winter the doldrum belt shifts to a position 10° to 15° south of the equator. The movement of air over the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is still northerly; 10 during this season it originates in the great seasonal high pressure cell over Siberia. In the area of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, the lofty Himalayas slow and de- flect the flow from the Siberian high, and dry, subsiding air from the southern slope of the mountains forms the relatively weak northeast monsoon. Climatic zones Climate in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf is dominated by dry winds from the continental interior that prevail all year except in the extreme south, which is af- fected by the southwest monsoon in summer. Rainfall is very low, exceeding 125 mm* annually only in the mountains of the Ara- bian Peninsula bordering the southern en- trance to the Red Sea. Throughout the area, daily high temperatures range from the low 30’s (°C)* to the high 30’s (°C) in summer and are between 17°C and 29°C in winter. Temperatures over 37°C combined with high evaporation from the two extremely warm bodies of water (surface temperature ex- *Conversion scales are on page 13. Generalized cross section, near 75°E I on i 30°N Northern Hemisphere summer low pressure southwest monsoon southeast trades I 60°S i 30°S Southern Hemisphere winter subtropical high pressure subpolar low Northern Hemisphere winter high pressure northeast monsoon southeast trades | I 30°S 60°S Southern Hemisphere summer ubtropical high pressure subpolar low ceeds 32°C as late as September) produce the greatest naturalphysiological heat stress in the world. The air is so packed with moisture that the cooling power of sweat is minimized and condensation may occur on the skin when one emerges from an air-conditioned room. The phenomenon is quite localized, and arid desert conditions prevail a few miles inland. The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are strongly affected by the monsoon system. The northeast airstream that passes over India and Pakistan in the winter is still dry when it reaches the Arabian Sea; on Amini Island in the Laccadives, for example, no month has more than 65 mm of precipita- tion from November through January, and February and March are virtually rainless. In contrast, the northeast airstream moving across the Bay of Bengal picks up moisture and brings substantial rains to the so-called Dry Zone of northeastern Ceylon in Novem- ber and December. \ The southwest monsoon, beginning in May or June and lasting through September, ab- sorbs much moisture in its long passage over water. It brings slightly more than 360 mm of rain to Amini in June and even greater amounts to the windward slopes on Ceylon. Daytime temperatures at low elevations in the monsoonal zone are generally in the low 305 (°C), and nighttime temperatures are between 24°C and 27°C. Upland stations are about 5 degrees cooler. Maximum tempera- ture readings occur in April and May just prior to the buildup of cloud cover associated with the southwest monsoon. The doldrum belt—an ill defined zone of calms and light winds, ascending air, and low pressure—extends east-west across the Indi- an Ocean and shifts latitudinally with the sun. Called the intertropical convergence zone (ICZ) by scientists, it is most pro- nounced from December through February or March when it is centered at about 10°S in the eastern part of the ocean and between 15° and 20°S in the west. The northeast monsoon winds curve upon crossing the equator and enter the doldrums as northwest winds bringing moist, unstable air. The southeast trade winds also bring moist, unstable air, and the convergence of the two air currents in the doldrums results in showers and occasionally in the formation of squall lines with severe thunderstorms and heavy rains. January is the peak month for rain on most of the islands within this zone, with totals ranging from 570 mm at an upland station on Reunion to 160 mm at a lowland station on Rodrigues. Despite the amount of rain at this season, the bad weather is interspersed with periods of bright, clear days. When the doldrums shift to the north from May to September, the southeast trades become dominant in the zone between 30°S and the equator. Winds are steady at about 10 to 15 knots and the weather is mild with partly cloudy skies. Convective showers are frequent, bringing about 75 mm of rainfall to the Reunion station in July and 70 mm to Rodrigues. Yearly rainfall varies from island to island in the doldrum belt with the larger amounts (2,285 mm to 4,290 mm) in the Seychelles Seasonal windflow: thickness of arrow indicates force of wind —’ 20 knots or more 7* 10-15 knots 7 ~ 10 knots or less and Chagos Archipelago, slightly smaller totals (1,905 mm to 2,160 mm) on Christmas and Cocos far to the east, and the smallest amounts (890 mm to 1,225 mm) on Car- gados Carajos Shoals and Rodrigues. Rain- fall increases with elevation, and pronounced differences occur between leeward and wind- ward exposures. Thus on Reunion all parts of the island receive rain in summer, but in winter the southeast trades bring heavy rains to the southern and eastern (windward) coasts while the north and west (leeward) coasts, shielded by the mountains, are almost without precipitation. Daily high tempera- tures reco1ded at lowland stations are usually between 21°C and 32°C, and lows are be- tween 16°C and 27°C throughout the year. At upland stations temperatures are about 8 degrees lower. The horse latitudes, centered at about 35°S in January and 30°S in July, is a zone of relatively warm, dry, subsiding air and high pressure. Mild, fair weather and light vari- able winds persist year-round. No weather stations exist in this landless expanse of ocean, but average rainfall is probably similar to that of Rodrigues and temperatures are from 3 to 6 degrees cooler. In the days of sailing ships, vessels were frequently be- calmed in these latitudes in both hemi- spheres; they were called horse latitudes because in the North Atlantic horses being transported to America were sometimes thrown overboard to conserve water for human consumption. South of the horse latitudes are the wester- lies—the roaring forties and screeching fifties —-> 15-20 knots I ,1 "Juli/‘Atfgustr mini | _" H Authwest If Chagos Arch .~ \M \% southeast trades ~ = gascar xmnlxes \ _y \ roaring forties —->*$ Heardlt . screechlng fIftIes :IIe Amsterdam 30°] ..,.,n.~— 15" no ,,..,.,. "_.. 5‘8““an 300 ...,__....._... . Crozet /> 45° C ) lles +Kergusel£n $ ’ ' Minicoy and ‘ Amindivi ' Islands .' t Maldives); \ high pressure (horse latitudes) \ roaring forties screeching fifties 11 of the mariners. There is little land surface anywhere to obstruct these westerlies, and wind speeds increase with latitude from yearly averages of 10 to 20 knots on Am- sterdam to 20 to 25 knots on the more southerly islands. Maximums higher than 70 knots occur in winter on islands south of 4008, and speeds exceeding 45 knots have been recorded even in summer. In- cursions of northward-moving polar air from Cyclone source regions and storm tracks 4 O , 5 ‘ . ..,,. , ,. 4 . V . May—November X (4/3 qu’u Width of arrow indicates relative h frequency of tropical storms. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ', 12 Antarctica frequently overrun the islands in winter, and intense low pressure sys- tems form when this air encounters warm air from the southern margins of the horse latitudes. The lows move southeastward, bringing severe weather with cloudy skies, gales, freezing temperatures, and snow to the more southerly islands. Low pressure sys— tems that form in the South Atlantic near Argentina and move eastward into the Crew members of the U.S.S. Enterprise assisting Mauritians with storm damage repair " VH4 \ \- .4; :‘4‘, L:\‘\ “1‘3 \ > ' . hr Cyclone Gervaise over Mauritius and Reunion, 7 Februar southern Indian Ocean area add to the in- clement conditions. The frequency and intensity of these lows are greatest in winter. Islands in the westerlies have little seasonal variation in temperature, but dif- ferences in temperature between those in the northern and those in the southern parts of the zone are pronounced. Daily highs on Amsterdam range from about 13°C to the 20’s, and on Heard, 1,600 kilometers to the south, they average only 4°C. Precipitation is frequent, and most islands receive between 760 mm and 1,400 mm annually; snowfall is moderate to heavy on the southernmost islands. Cale-force winds combined with temperatures between —1°C and 5°C often produce Windchill corresponding to tempera- tures near —18°C. At Marion Island in July the wind has been recorded at an average maximum speed of 75 knots for a 1-hour period, with a peak gust of 105 knots. Pre- cipitation of all types is wind driven, often nearly horizontal, and seas quickly become rough. On the mountainous southern islands violent down-slope winds frequently descend from the heights as squalls. Storms Parts of the Indian Ocean are subject to intense tropical “cyclones,” storms similar to the hurricanes of the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. There are two principal source regions. In the Bay of Bengal cyclones tend to generate before and after the southwest monsoon as the intertropical convergence zone migrates through the area. The second region is the central ocean east of Madagascar, where peak occurrence is during the southern hemisphere summer, December through March. A few storms originate in the Arabian Sea, but they gen- erally move northwestward away from the thickly populated Indian coast. About five tropical storms (winds of 34 to 63 knots) occur each year in the Bay of Bengal, and one or two of them become mature cyclones (winds in excess of 63 knots). Some tropical storms move inland causing floods and heavy rains; the greatest loss of life and property damage occurs when a fully developed cyclone comes ashore on the low, densely populated north coast of the Bay of Bengal. Although there is significant wind damage, most of the destruction comes from the rapid flooding caused by the ac- companying torrential rains and storm tides. A November 1970 tropical cyclone with winds of 105 knots may have killed as many as a half million people in Bangladesh. Storms born in the waters east of Mad- agascar usually move southwestward and later recurve to the south and southeast. Islands in their path suffer damage from high winds and flooding. The average yearly frequency in this area is about 11 tropical storms, 4 of them growing to the cyclone stage. Not all warm-season weather disturbances near the ICZ grow into these tropical storms. Some remain slow-moving tropical depres- sions, smaller in area than mid-latitude low pressure systems, that bring several days of showery rain. Climatic data for selected weather stations arrayed progressively between latitudes 33°N and 54°S Precipitation 0 Location of weather station 1.000 2,000 3,000 millimeters I | IIIII llllII [I1 I III l’l | ll'Il [Ililll i O 40 80 120 inches Two-month sample January February Temperature Gan I mean monthly maximum temperature 0° ° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° Celsius (Centigrade) 2:423 millimeters [I mean monthly minimum temperature ----- 339%” 3%” .___ mean monthly precipitation 32° 41° 50° 59° 63° 77° 86° Fahrenheit [100mm=3.9 inches, 2mm orless not shown] weather station , annual pwcwnanon January February March April May June July August September October llovember December 33° , Suez I I; I 24mm 2 y 30° N , .7 5:“ a . e l I Kuwait I “a F Q\ \\ 125mm ,f 2.: 2 ,2 . r 270 2 2 , r s; I ‘1 2 i I l Ash Shariqah I W I?!) 1L M1 . 99mm 240 I 7 2’ IX \e I 7' a ,Lx, KI» I 2‘3 I I Jidilah a ‘x \ \4 I? M we! , . ,1 \e I Ml . m {2222” Bombay L- I \‘x ’5" 7 ‘ A / \3 l / [I31 2 , 0 76mm in I j '\ I I ‘\ LI ' 18° ' \ i t , K r Diamond I. i Ii. / III IIIIII I IIIIIII ’IIIIII IHI A" I ‘ _ I 3,111mm 150 I ' be I g . _ ,1; I ‘2 2 2"! I I . II K It Port Blair \I I fl 1/1" . IIII _IIIIII._I_mI'_jI_IIIF IIII h \I I 3,177mm 120 I I I1\"s:‘m.—/" I I 2. 3.! I I i I Lu r I I. Amini I. ‘\ Arm/I l “I II II! \‘L . ./ 1,430mm 90 I l I. I l ,,, I I IV ry§\\ ‘ Ii I, \II j"! i , - i ii I . M .22 l I l. ,2 li . 22 i. lp‘I II ° l I \ I . Ii 2 Male I / II II“ \ IIII/‘/ an “I. . l .21 l. 1I II i. x i l. . Mogadiscio y I - ‘ \. $3 H I 427mm Equator I I I I , I I If I» r; aI {I II Ii I 2 I i l l—Hr' i i M ‘ ~ 2,428mm 3° II , :2 I I , I 7.7 H u 7 :7 r; I“ _____ 3 Mahé I. II +__Ir I l . I II RY“: "9 so Inf” “II". , 7 l. l ,, , I II I __ l Diego Garcia _ III II I II h h I r I II II III W “”m’" 9° i i Ill 7 It I i I \z’fim christmas I. II. —flI II, II I1 I L . . II. II ,2 . . i. . I_ l l l . Diégo-Suarez II II I ' II x II 983mm “7 '._ Wm i ll ) r27 I l . W i . . 7. . . Dara' s Shoals , 2 —. ' 23°22 I. il/ fIIf l I4 ,J l. l MI I . ,. . Saint-Denis II {1’ II In [I 980mm 2‘0 I e “I I / I I '6 ,,', , I I I , I I I Tulear I i ll I l. j. l . l Fort Dauphin 1.780mm _=l= Ira—~— —— —- — 2 fed- l ,x’?’ K - w '—:_ 7 5; pr“ __|. ,/ 27., | 9 Cape Saint lucia 1,298mm a" 30° I; Perth , ,/ 917mm /‘ o v I _ 33 V,- Cape leeuwm 1.004mm _ 360 I lie Amsterdam “I , ,2 1.083mm I .2 I. 39° no weather station 42" no weather station 45° Marlon l. 2,1 73mm 48° Ile Kerguelen 880mm 51 ° Heard I. 1,3 80mm 54° l January I February -— Mareh I April I Mail l July 0‘" ,l ‘ 7 ll. :2 ‘V be i l w: ‘5 L I August I September I October I November I December Ecological Concerns When the English traveler, Peter Mundy, visited the Indian Ocean in the 1630’s its marine and terrestrial ecosystems were rela- tively undisturbed by man. It was still pos- sible to see the strange animals, flightless birds, and peculiar plants that had developed under insular conditions. Since that time, the expanding activities of man on the islands and adjacent waters have wrought dramatic changes. In some cases, man’s excesses of de— forestation, cultivation, mining, and fishing and his direct and indirect polluting of the environment have gone beyond environmen- tal change to ecosystem replacement. Exploitation of the islands of the Indian Ocean is most obvious in the replacement of the native woodland vegetation by intro- duced food plants such as coconut palms, tea, and sugar cane. On Frigate Island, one of the Seychelles, coconut palm plantings are so widespread that little remains of either the native forest or the animal life. On other .1 .1111 111111 Addu ' Atoll Mahé l Cousin Is. Frigate l. Seychelles M , Aldabrals. f you 1, 'II 111 ; .Rodrigues 9 Reunion Mauritius 1'“ ill t lll'l 11 1 111111111111 Scale 113,000,000 Maldives ‘ 11MB Major phytoplankton production islands the introduction of new plant species, both intentional and inadvertent, has led to rapid changes in the vegetation. Since the building of the British military base on Addu Atoll 1n the Maldives in 1956, the number of plant species has increased by nearly 70 percent. Guano mining has had catastrophic effects on the ecology of a few islands. Removal of vegetation and the scraping of surface guano 0n Assumption Island in the Seychelles, for example, has resulted in the formation of barren rock deserts and the destruction of most of the native fauna and flora. Hunting and the introduction of exotic species have also significantly affected the balance of natural fauna. Wild dogs and cats have destroyed a large part of the bird popu- lation on some islands; it took a relatively short time for introduced pigs and monkeys to exterminate the dodo bird on Mauritius. Sheep, goats, and rabbits have reduced the 11111111 ’1 , 11111111111111 ‘ 111,1, 51111. l1‘1‘1111l1'“ 11111111111111111 :3 Principal area exposed to oil pollution from tankers Population density 0 10 100 iersons per km2 0 26 260 persons per ml2 1111111111 Reunion Densely populated island(s) 14 numbers of still other native animals through competition for food and by altering the habitat. Hunting has virtually eliminated the giant tortoise from the Seychelles. The first French settlers, although dispatched to raise crops, found it more profitable to sell tor- toises as a source of fresh meat for passing ships. The tortoises eventually became their most important export. All that remains are a large colony of tortoises on Aldabra and a small protected colony on the Cousin Islands. Sharply increasing human population has been the major factor in rapid ecosystem de— terioration. Demand for cropland has in some cases led to the deforestation of marginally productive upper slopes, and erosion has become a problem. Overfishing in the im- mediate vicinity of some of the islands has depleted fish resources and destroyed several fish species. Waste materials generated by large concentrations of people have caused serious pollution, particularly contamination of water supplies. The greatest threat to the marine ecology of the Indian Ocean is oil pollution. Increas- ing demand for Middle East oil and the use of tankers too large to transit the Suez Canal have meant that more oil is being carried across the Indian Ocean, most of it west around the Cape of Good Hope or east through the Malacca-Singapore Straits. The risk of oil spills is greatly increased by the sheer size and limited maneuverability of giant tankers. Oil kills zooplankton and phy- toplankton (the minute marine plants that generate oxygen as well as serve as food for many species of fish) and many of the fish, birds, and mammals in the affected areas. The initial kills are usually enormous: the zooplankton population can drop from 200,000 animals per cubic meter to almost none. Some scientists believe that the long term effects of oil on the ocean’s ecology may be even more serious than the short term effects. The most polluted areas of the Indian Ocean are near the major tanker ports and routes; many beaches along the routes be- come fouled from oil spills. The most in- tensely affected area is off the South African coast, where more oil has probably been leaked, spilled, slopped, or illegally dumped than in any other ocean area of the world. Very heavy winter seas off the Cape are hazardous, and tankers in trouble fre- quently dump oil to lighten their load. Interest in Indian Ocean ecology has in recent years focused on the arid, heavily eroded atoll of Aldabra. Few people had heard of it until 1966 when the British Cov- emment announced plans to build a joint UK/ US military facility there. An angry worldwide protest by conservationists thwarted the plans. Today the atoll is a nature reserve in the hands of the British Royal Society. Aldabra’s unique ecosystem has largely escaped modification; scientists consider it the world’s least disturbed atoll. Almost 10 percent of its wildlife can be found nowhere else on earth. Twelve of its 21 land birds are believed to be found only on the atoll, as are a quarter of its species of invertebrates. It is the only breeding ground of the frigate bird in the western Indian Ocean and the major breeding place of the increasingly rare green and hawksbill turtles. It is also the home of an estimated 100,000 giant tortoises, one of the few re- maining colonies in the world. Resources Food from the Sea Nearly a third of the world’s people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, and most of them are poorly fed. The region has an estimated 3-million-ton protein deficit annually. A greatly expanded marine fish- eries harvest has been considered a potential means of reducing the deficit, but though yields could be increased substantially, food from the sea is by no means the solution to the area’s food problem. Indian Ocean fishing harvests in recent years have been about 2.5 million tons (U.N. estimate) out of a potential 15 million tons. The littoral states harvest perhaps 90 percent of the catch, largely without benefit of mod- ern fishing technology. Fishing craft are family owned and operated and usually are not motorized. Processing of most of the catch is minimal: half is marketed fresh off the boat, roughly one-third is cured by simple means, about 5 percent is processed for fishmeal, another 5 percent is frozen, 1 percent is canned, and the remainder is used in other ways. Quite in contrast are the modern fishing operations of the USSR, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, which account for roughly 10 percent of the Indian Ocean catch. Their fleets seek mainly high-value surface fish of the open ocean—tunas and tuna-like species, including billfishes. In 1973 the South Korean fleet took 53,400 tons, the USSR 44,200, Japan 33,300, and Taiwan 23,400 tons. The larger tunas (yellowfin, bigeye, bluefin, and albacore) and the bill- fishes are in particular demand and are being overfished. Declines in the population of these species can be expected if the present harvest level continues. Nearly all of the larger tunas and billfishes are taken by longlines—surface lines several kilometers long to which numerous baited hooks are attached. The harvest of skipjack, a smaller species of tuna, is presently 50,000 to 70,000 tons per year taken from the main fishing ground off the Maldives and in waters off Sri Lanka. The annual yield might be increased to a range of 150,000 to 400,000 tons by purse seining, trolling, or pole and line fishing with live bait. Shrimp are a high value resource usually located close inshore, and most of the land- ings are by littoral states—primarily India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Thailand. The 1973 shrimp harvest was 265,000 tons, while the maximum sustainable yield is estimated to be not much in excess of 250,000 tons per year. Shrimp are caught with bottom trawls, and the catch usually includes large numbers of “trash” fish. Most of these are non-com- mercial species that have to be disposed of in a manner (generally by discarding over- board) that involves additional labor and cost. About 1.5 million tons of commercially valuable bottom fish (croakers, snappers, groupers, skates, and grunts) are taken annually by littoral country fishermen. Sur- veys of egg and larval abundance and some experimental fishing indicate good additional possibilities for bottom fishing along the Pakistan coast west of Karachi. Much of the present catch is taken along the coast be— tween Karachi and Bombay and near the west coasts of Thailand and Malaysia. If fishmeal prices increase significantly, trash fish may become commercially at- /' \,\ \ \ \ x\\\ ‘\" \ \\ \‘x‘ , xxx \\ Scale 1:73.ooo.ooo \ \\\ xx \ \\\\\ \x . \\\\ \\ \\,‘\\\\\ ' Limit of 200 nautical mile , economic zone ‘ . \ [AN Fishing grounds \ Coastal species Open-ocean species tractive to the large foreign fishing fleets. Trawlers could fish specifically for trash species, processing the entire fish catch with- out sorting and handling difficulties. Under such a procedure, some bottom fish caught with the trash species would be processed as fishmeal. Sardines, anchovies, and mackerel are ex- ploited to a limited degree by littoral nation fishermen: perhaps 800,000 tons are caught annually out of an estimated 6- to 7-milli0n- ton potential catch. These surface fishes are found in continental shelf waters that have high concentrations of the phytoplankton upon which they feed. Most of the present catch is made along the west coast of India, in the Bay of Bengal, and in the Strait of Malacca, but surveys suggest that the most abundant concentrations of sardines are in the western Arabian Sea. Sharks are also underutilized. An esti- mated 400,000 tons, with marketing potential for both food and leather, could be harvested annually from the western part of the Indian Ocean. The use of advanced technology by for- eign fleets favors a disproportionate increase in their share of the catch over the next few years. The overall catch by littoral states will gradually increase, however, as local fishermen adopt modern equipment and methods. Thailand, the Maldives, and Yemen (Aden) are already showing sub- stantial increases. Sardines, anchovies, and mackerel probably hold the greatest potential for the small developing fleets. The oppor- tunities for expansion of local fleets vis-a-vis foreign fleets will be enhanced if inter- national agreement is reached granting each coastal state preferential fishing rights with- in a prescribed economic zone off its coast. The full potential of Indian Ocean fish- eries may not be approached for many years. The likelihood is small that a gradually in- creasing fisheries catch will appreciably alter the per capita protein intake; the protein requirement is currently doubling about every 30 years in India alone. Mineral and Energy Resources Except for oil, the mineral and energy resources of the Indian Ocean are largely undeveloped and until recently were little known. Markedly increased interest in ex— ploiting subsea resources has in recent years brought new problems to the area. These include the questions of ownership of the international seabed, the high cost of devel- opment, and the conflict of vested interests. Petroleum is the great hope of the less developed countries of the Indian Ocean area. It is the most sought after and easily exploitable resource. Currently, about 40 per- cent of world offshore production comes from Indian Ocean littoral countries. Natural gas is also present in considerable amounts, but in 1975 less than 1 percent of total world production came from offshore fields of the Indian Ocean area. Offshore petroleum exploration and pro- duction have increased steadily and are likely to intensify as recovery techniques advance and new petroleum discoveries are made. The Persian Gulf fields continue to lead the world in production. Promising areas else- where in which geophysical surveys and Offshore petroleum activity in the Indian Ocean area drilling are under way include the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambat (Bombay High), Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea, the north- western Australian continental shelf, Mauri- tius, and the South African continental shelf. Development of petroleum resources of the Indian Ocean has been slowed by con- flicting ownership claims and rapidly chang- ing policies toward foreign concessionaires. Dubayy and Kuwait nationalized their petro- leum operations in 1975, and Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, and Qatar have each taken 60- percent control of operations in their coun- Southern Africa Cumulative Area/Country offshore production Est. remaining Offshore activity, 1976 1 July 1975 reserves Middle East (million bbl) (million bbl) Abu Dhahi 1,162 2,473 10 exploration wells drilled; 2,818 km2 awarded. Bahrain 344 2,320 Consortium led by Texas Pacific Dubai; 7,300 km2 awatded. Iran 1,106 6,316 Exploratory drilling off Bushebr and on median line. lraq .................................................... 35,000 llo exploratory activity reported. Kuwait ................................................. 71,000 llo significant exploratory activity reported. Neutral Zone 1,403 16,000 19 wells drilled. Oman ..................................................... 5,900 Exploratory drilling started. Qatar 720 12,310 Uatar Petroleum Co. plans to drill after obtaining deep water equipment. Saudi Arabia 5,112 170,000 26 producing wells completed in Safaniya field; plan to drill 140 more. Africa/Bed Sea Egypt .................................................... 5,000 Six discoveries (1976); 21 exploratory wells planned. Ethiopia .................................................................. Two seismic surveys; 26,810 km2 awarded for exploration (1976-80). Kenya ............................. Exploration under way. Somalia .................................. Two exploratory wells drilled and abandoned. Sudan ....................................... 28,800 km? awarded for exploration to 1981. h o Offshore exploration Tanzania ............................................. Two wells drilled, one abandoned; 40,100 km2 awarded. Yemen (Aden) ..................................................... Geophysical surveys completed over 8,962 km? of Red Sea. Petroleum prodUCtion Madagascar ____________________________________________________________ 29,860 km2 awarded for exploration. in the Persian an" area Mozambique ............................................................. Petroleum activities disrupted by political unrest. a \ . ‘g ‘ 7 s South Asia “, ‘~.\ ’ slamsoieyman India ....................................................... 1,320 Six wells drilled, Bombay High; first well drilled, Gulf of Kutch. 1 ‘ \ 4‘ Other well sites selected: Gulf of Kutch, Bay of Bengal, x SI r a 013%.. A and west of Bombay High. I a n Pakistan ................................................................. Exploration sharply curtailed; limited activity planned. . Burma ....... Four exploratory wells drilled (2 in Bay of Bengal, 2 in Andaman Sea). N :1 ,’_ f: . '4: sri Lanka ................................................................ First well drilled off uw coast (1976); 2 more planned. - \g" Bangladesh .............................................................. Five wells drilled, all dry (1976); 20 more planned all along coast. ’ % “5r II 0 _ Kuwait .Mlno'araakr ' “an.” . , . mm Australia 575 1.227 One well drilled. Exploration under way. ‘5; Wei'I'ANM‘l ,0 " .z' rm Khirk Indonesia 219 702 Bringing discoveries of recent years into production. imam,“ an,“ ' ‘ eosmm Malaysia 514 2,651 Exploration concessions replaced by production sharing contracts. New”; :2 Wiiswad.‘ 2‘ , . Maldives ................................................................. First exploratory well planned after seismic survey completed. 2m \g . . , Mauritius ................................................................ First exploratory well planned (1976). Rossini“)! "my. /°‘°”:¢PLINE . ,. ‘ > "°°Faa % ’ ' .. I \‘ -r "4 ' ’975) .. ‘ _ Bandar J r . e- Persran \\ “be“ \) Ju‘ay ah "$2.317“ W ' sin“ I r a n 'C Ras Tanun Gulf v ' Hormuz \I” Dhah '1' . ° brain 0' -- ’4 S a u d i - -Iq ‘ ' Arabia ' Kl Hillil ' ' ‘ f n ‘mk . - : Qa r ‘e‘Fatéh Musaylld D.” I ’Dubnyy 3 GU” O! . ‘ ' ' , ( ‘~ Riyadh ‘ ‘ mgr“ 0% a” ) Oman ' ‘ . "I! \ ' ‘ ( ' . 4.1 0 0‘ ‘1 . “U r 5' SBurglymi '\ . lflgannah H ma, {’31 ,‘C t") ' | \\’§~,7 , A r//\ «’5. /f ”1 .i‘i'L‘m - Ollfi ld T k termlna s 5, e I mtzlfacilltlos for alive/in 00 / M cat —— Pipeline 100900th or larger) if (‘1 [3 ‘ 93 / it Refinery (2/5?“ -_. N uni‘ed // O m a n s I 19,000,000 app"?! ’I/n; ‘* \ a . /\ cc” §0 too 150 Miles ’°"dmlms,r.-.o;},“ / \ I o"_50'_100 150 Kilometers \ \v l/ \\ ’\ u . 16 tries. The Saudi Arabian Government ac- quired a 25-percent share of Aramco in 1973 and reached an agreement in March 1976 to take over the remaining 75 percent. In Ma- laysia, the vagueness of the govemment’s policy of control over foreign oil companies has led a major operator to halt work and may affect about 40 new groups seeking licenses. A maritime boundary dispute be- tween Bangladesh and India clouds con- cessions granted by each country to foreign companies for offshore exploration in the Bay of Bengal. The cost of petroleum exploration and development is continually escalating, and for many Indian Ocean countries—which must depend on the use of foreign tech- nology—this cost is exorbitant. In 1975, for example, Burma, with a 1974 GDP of $2.8 billion, was seeking foreign assistance to raise up to $2 billion for exploration. Manganese nodules, first discovered in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans a century ago, have also been identified in the Indian Ocean. The nodules form at depths of 3.5 to 5 kilometers where sediment accumulation is negligible. They contain principally manga- nese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper. The proportions of these elements vary from one area to another but are more uniform in the Indian Ocean than anywhere else. The man- ganese content in nodules is highest in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean and lowest in the northwest. Although recent techno- logical advances in chemical processing have reduced the costs of separating out the metals in manganese nodules, the overall extraction costs remain high. Of the numer- ous systems devised, none are in commercial operation. Hot brines and associated metal-bearing sediments in the Red Sea were first discov- Principal elements in Indian Ocean manganese nodule samples manganese ............... 1470% iron ....................... 135070 nickel ...................... 042% cobalt ...................... 0.25% copper ..................... 0.22% Grapefruit-size manganese nodules on the lower flanks of the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge ered in 1947-48 by the Swedish Albatross ex- pedition. Located at depths greater than 1,900 meters, the brine layers occupy the lower 20-40 meters of seawater in the Atlantis II, Chain, and Discoverer Depressions. The brines are believed to be the hottest seawater in the world, with temperatures up to 56°C; their salinity is more than seven times that of ordinary seawater. The most striking fea- ture of the brines is that they contain con- centrations of metallic elements thousands of times greater than normal for seawater, in addition to a great variety of nonmetallic substances (mainly potassium, sulfate, chlo- ride, sodium, and calcium) in solution. Ooze and clayey silt sediments associated with the brines contain large quantities of iron, manganese, zinc, and lead. These sedi- ments, more than 100 meters thick in places, are richest in the depressions, although they are also found in other parts of the Red Sea. The present cost of mining them is so high that they seem likely to be mere curiosities for some time. The question of who owns the Red Sea hot brine zone could impede the exploitation of these resources in the future. The Gov- ernment of Sudan is claiming the rights to these resources on the assumption that Saudi Arabia is adhering to the principle of median lines. This is the concept—applied through- out the Persian Gulf and elsewhere—that offshore areas are under the sovereignty of the nearest coastal state. Guano, phosphatized rock, phosphorite, and mineral beach sands are currently ex- tracted along some sections of mainland coast and on some small islands. Other re- sources present in the Indian Ocean include barite, glauconite, magnetite, and organic sediments at shallow depths; and silicious and calcareous oozes, red clay, and zeolite in the deeper parts of the ocean. Technology has not been developed to exploit most of these resources. The seawater itself contains numerous exploitable minerals. About 8 per- cent—14 million tons—of the world’s total annual salt production comes from the Indian Ocean area; probably more than half this amount is produced by the evaporation of seawater. The less developed countries (LDC’s) in the area favor making the deep seabed re- sources—those located beyond areas of na- tional jurisdiction—a common heritage. They believe that seabed mining should be man- aged by a world authority that would dis- tribute part of the profits and royalties to the LDC’s. The UN. Law of the Sea Con— ference is attempting to reconcile these views with the conflicting views of industrialized nations. 6' Manganese nodule sampling site A Guano or phosphatized rock --- Phosphorite Mineral beach sands D Deposit I2 Mine Insular and offshore minerals l\_ Cr -chromile II —ilmenite Sn -tin V F: -iron M -monazite Zr-zircon st . \s. 1' ’k l \ \. { ’ 7“} (’y ‘f i, \\ Vim/- NV _ f, Kl \l 3' \ \ 2.3"” ‘ l-l-lQOtbn’nes 6’ a M5" ”1 (”new Ind. \v l 9 1! MB ff 1"” sum; vanadium. ”'Mcl 2" ' . , J “L . K! MM . / \ I ‘\\ 3 x l l. «J '1 “m V‘ 3 A, x (J ILM d \ $§<<3 \‘V 1 i . ’L I i. “it: A A - l i a ». » ~ ” r J v s/ ,r’ : II.M.Zr ,1 c, 1 ‘ ‘u‘ V ,r» / * II.M.ZrUJ film A, if” '9 afi.M r '\\~:9" Q \3 .J' “3 , - / fl 51:33: // s~\\\ ’ \\ a. / s \ ,,~ .9 (7;); l‘ J ' .'\\ \3 la l AK/V‘}; / ‘ ..\ ‘A. D a. { lg" I \ f N . K} , \ ( W a ,g f‘h\ (1' $ A \Mlm“ fl 3 Li it 3, “»\;‘ i» ‘ 7' A 0 “Wayne. )2» A \fiil g Q ¢~ a ‘3 3 AA A 15 W1 a Fa .- 31 A ’ Limit of 200 nautical A! mile economic zone ‘ 5 \ fit. A ll 6’ ‘ 1,211”) AV -r" J H Zrm l Scale 173.000.0041 17 Shipping Historical Development Waterbome trade has flourished in the Indian Ocean area since antiquity. Arab sailors pioneered in the art of navigation and used the monsoon winds to carry on a profitable trade between ports of eastern Africa, the Persian Gulf, and the west coast of India. The expansion of early trade was aided by the “Canal of the Pharaohs,” which was used to bring products from the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa to the Nile Valley. This precursor of the Suez Canal fell into disrepair many times during its nearly 2,800-year history, and was finally closed in A.D. 776. By the 10th century A.D. Arab sea routes extended to the islands of Southeast Asia and as far as the coast of China. Arab sea- ports at this time became important transfer points for the movement of goods—particu- larly spices—from the Orient to Mediter- ranean countries. Silks from China moved primarily overland to the eastern Mediter- ranean coast by a succession of caravan trails, known as the Silk Road, controlled by Per- sians and other intermediaries. Merchants of medieval Europe sought to participate directly in the lucrative spice and silk trades, but were frustrated by the Arab and Persian monopolies. European knowledge of sea routes was limited; a guide- book published in Greek, The Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, provided general information on Indian Ocean routes and ports, but a sea route from Europe to the Indian Ocean was yet to be discovered. In the period between A.D. 1200 and 1500 Europeans mounted voyages of exploration along the west coast of Africa, seeking a passage eastward to “the Indies.” As the voyagers progressed southward, they accu- mulated knowledge of the currents and wind systems of the Atlantic Ocean, perfected the use of the compass, and designed sturdier ships to withstand the buffeting of the South Atlantic gales. The successful rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama in 1498 sig- naled a new era. During the 16th century the sailing ships of the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the English became familiar sights along the littoral and off most of the islands of the Indian Ocean. Trading posts were established and exclusive trading zones staked out by competing groups, notably the British and the Dutch East India Companies. Political control of the islands and littoral countries by treaty or conquest normally followed soon after. The wind systems of the Indian Ocean made it an ideal sea for sailing ships. The strong westerly winds of the roaring forties could push a well rigged merchantrnan across the 4,700 miles of ocean from the Cape of Good Hope to Australia in about 3 weeks. Farther north, the southwest monsoon winds ensured easy passage to India and on to the East Indies. Return crossings were speeded by the northeast monsoon winds or the dependable southeast trade winds. The era of the graceful clipper ship ended in the mid-19th century with the introduc- tion of the steamship and the opening of the Suez Canal. The new route drastically cut travel time to the ports of Western Europe, and the steam engine eliminated dependence on unreliable winds in the northern half of the Red Sea. The industrial revolution under way at this time in Western Europe was fueled by the rapidly growing trade between maritime powers and their colonies. Raw materials such as rubber, cotton, jute, wool, indigo, tin, teak, tea, coffee, copra, and coconut oil replaced exotic spices as primary im- ports. A profitable outgoing voyage was assured by the expanding market for manu- factured goods in the colonies. The swift trip across the Indian Ocean using the roaring forties cut weeks off the explorers' route up the east coast of Africa and across the Arabian Sea. clippe' ships and East lndiamen b ', r B .‘ N‘ . ‘ ““Jgkflfiww w" .. . Q ,C southeast trade winds Trade was strongly affected by the con- tinued evolution of technology, together with the economic and political disloca- tions stemming from World War II and from the breakup of colonial empires. Petroleum emerged as a major energy source and industrial raw material; commer- cial aircraft captured most of the passengers and some of the high-value, low-bulk cargo from surface shipping; and diesels replaced coal-burning steam engines in ships. Trading patterns shifted as world interest began to focus on the Persian Gulf as a major pe- troleum producer. The prolonged closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975 forced sea traffic between Europe and the Persian Gulf to revert to the longer, costlier Cape route and accelerated the development of giant tankers. No longer limited in size by the dimensions of the canal, the tankers became ever larger, providing economies of scale to compensate for the longer voyage. However, the VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier) and the ULCC (Ultra- Large Crude Carrier), which dwarf older ships, introduced new navigational problems. The oceans, long regarded as bottomless, are now in places too shallow for shipping. At present, there are essentially three tiers of commercial activity in the Indian Ocean, each with different ships, trade routes, cargoes, and servicing ports. A large part of the intercoastal trade in the northwestern part of the Indian Ocean is still conveyed in dhows. These small ships with low overhead and operating costs are able to move cargoes and provide inexpensive passage to ports not usually visited by larger vessels. An in- creasing variety of dry cargo carriers in the 10,000—80,000 dwt range serve both intra- Indian Ocean and interoceanic world trade. The third tier is occupied by the giant oil tankers. - Coaling station The age of sad The age of steam J W Baghdad ' '3'”? 7 7 . Seasonally reversing monsoon winds / ) Al :. .1 carried traders to the Malabar Coast J . - ‘ \r and to the east coast of Africa. /;‘ Madras 1 < in: in. / his ‘ m {Colombo Trinoomalee ', K‘ fl oar:- Uleelheue ‘ O "a . .; gVictena .Batavla . .‘ akarta) . ._ “b" - . eanyumn .1.“ " Sumner: KAN“. sy Be 1.. sélmfime With the advent of the marine .Pon Lou's steam engine, cargo ships became . independent of seasonal wind systems and required only the easy availability of coallng stations. 0 Delegoa Bay East London on Elizabeth ; Albany Colonial administration-about 1900 (1976 International boundaries) - British - Dutch - French I German Scalei:98.000.000 - itaiien .. fl Portuguese . Turkish 18 There are few good natural harbors in the Indian Ocean, although some—Trincomalee on Ceylon, Port Blair and Nancowry in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Baie de Narinda and Diego Suarez on Madagascar— compare with the best natural harbors in the world. Unfortunately, these harbors are isolated from the main centers of population and economic activity, and port facilities are min01 or completely undeveloped. In gen- eral, Indian Ocean shorelines are regular and have few indentations or promontories that afford protection from adverse weather and sea conditions. Silting channels and off- shore bars obstruct navigation and limit use of ports established on some of the larger rivers. Many ports have been developed from roadsteads with the aid of breakwaters. The limited dock and anchorage areas in these ports are factors in the long delays now experienced 1n loading and unloading Most of todays major ports—including Bombay, Calcutta, and Singapore—were established by European colonial powers to serve the hinterlands of their growing colonies. Ports currently under construction are designed primarily as subsidiary facilities to relieve congestion in crowded major port areas or to circumvent physical restrictions such as shallow depths or silting. Two ports, Durban in the west and Singa- pore in the east, dominate general cargo shipping by virtue of their location on major shipping lanes entering the Indian Ocean, their importance as regional trade centers, and their repair and bunkering services. Dubayy is the most important commercial center for today’s dhow trade, and the Per- sian Gulf terminals are the main focus of activity for tanker traffic. Distances to Indian Ocean ports From the west Via Cape of Good Hope . . . and via From the east via Selat Sunda . . . and via London Marseille New York Odessa Manila Shanghai Vladivostok l Yokohama 1 440 Al Basrah 1. 1LO3O 12.030 12.480 Aden 5.400 6.360 7.180 7.100 10.780 10.370 11.380 Bombay 11.830 AI Basrah 5.720 6.680 7.500 7.410 11.810 11.400 12.400 12.850 Calcutta Bombay 4.240 5.200 6.020 5.940 10.960 10.550 11.560 1 Fremantle 2.010 Calcutta 3.720 4.680 5.500 5.410 Selat Lombok 11.660 11.250 12.260 12.710 Cape of 6.680 7.640 8.460 8 370 Good Hope ' 11.370 10.960 11.970 12,420 Selat Sunda Dar es Salaam 5580 6‘5“) 7360 7‘2") . 11,780 1 370 1 Singapore L 12.380 12.830 Madras 3.490 4.440 5260 J 5.180 ‘ .AI Basrah , .Al Basrah l . l Calcutta Q Calcutta Q Bombay \ O \ l E S“ < / 2g: a ‘ ‘ I, ‘ p Q Dar es . - Salaam . clot Sunda Lombolf R I.“ " . ‘ Q I Q l/,/ ‘\\\ . /“ Cape of Fremantle // Ca e o /"’ Goad G P e Distances given are in nauuce! miles, _ E, : routes shown are generalized. Trade Patterns The close economic association of countries bordering the North Atlantic has no parallel in the Indian Ocean area. Intra-area trade accounts for less than a quarter of the Indian Ocean total. Most cargo shipped from Indian Ocean ports is destined for other parts of the world, and most of the tonnage discharged at these ports originates outside the area. Exports consist mainly of raw materials, while imports are mainly manufactured goods and grain. This pattern reflects the low level of industrial development of Indian Ocean countries compared to their principal trading partners—Westem Europe, Japan, and the United States. Most of the maritime trade of the more economically advanced countries of the area is directed away from the Indian Ocean and crosses other waters: Australia is oriented toward the Pacific, Israel the Mediterranean, and South Africa the Atlantic Ocean. Petroleum is by far the most significant export from the Indian Ocean area, both in value and in tonnage. The foreign trade of the seven area members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries—Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Indonesia—is valued at 26 percent of the area total. Most of the oil is shipped to Western Europe and Japan; Japan’s share represents more than a third of her total imports. Lesser amounts of oil go to Australia and the United States. Other important commodities moved through the Indian Ocean include iron, coal, tin, rubber, and tea. The main iron ore ship- ments originate in Western Australia, India, and South Africa and are destined for Japan. A substantial flow of iron ore from Brazil and a lesser flow from West Africa also reach Japan via the Indian Ocean. Coal is exported 20 from Australia to the United Kingdom by way of the Indian Ocean, and manganese ore is shipped from India to Japan. Signifi- cant amounts of tin, rubber, and tea pro- duced by Indian Ocean countries are shipped to consumers outside the area. South Africa and Japan have developed particularly vigorous commercial links in commodities other than oil. The trade be- tween these two countries exceeds that of Japan with all the countries of East Africa combined. Japan is the largest market after Britain-for South Africa’s exports and its fourth largest supplier. Japanese exports to South Africa include motor vehicles, textiles, steel, and electrical equipment. Important shipments from South Africa to Japan, in addition to iron, include chrome, platinum, manganese, diamonds, asbestos, copper, vanadium, and agricultural products such as corn, sugar, and wool. Potentially strong trade ties are devel- oping along the eastem fringe of the Indian Ocean area. Trade among member nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN) has grown, particularly in the last five years. Commerce between Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand is far above the average for the area. As the economies of Indonesia and the Philippines develop, intra- ASEAN trade will continue to expand. India is strengthening her merchant ma- rine and striving for a larger role in In- dian Ocean commerce. A decade-long em- bargo on trade between India and Pakistan was lifted in February 1975; raw cotton is imported from Pakistan for Indian mills, and Indian jute products, railway equipment, and tea are shipped to Pakistan. India and Jordan have signed an agreement providing for a greater volume of trade, especially an in- crease in exports of Jordanian phosphates. India is also trying to expand trade with Iran and Iraq as markets for her tea, sugar, rice, drugs, gunny sacks, cement, and steel. In return for Iranian assistance in a major min- ing project, India is to supply Iran with 150 million metric tons of iron ore over the next 20 years. Finally, India looks to Australia as a potential market for a wide range of indus- trial and consumer goods, and the two coun- tries recently inaugurated an Indo-Australian trade group. East African coastal states carry on little intra-area trade. Their exports (notably cotton and coffee) go out of the area, while their imports (machinery, transportation equipment, petroleum products, textiles, and consumer goods) originate elsewhere. As one of several minor exceptions, Tanzania plans to export cashew nuts to India and import Indian locomotives. Kenya hopes to export a large amount of soda ash to Australia for alumina production when Australia com- pletes installation of the necessary handling facilities—perhaps by 1977. Dhows For at least 2,000 years lateen-rigged sail- ing ships—commonly called dhows—have moved cargo and passengers across the reaches of the northwestern Indian Ocean. Both local and long-distance dhow trade developed along the coasts of East Africa, the southern Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf, and the Indian subcontinent. Arabs seeking ivory, slaves, and gold early intro- duced Islam and Arabic culture to the East African coast through the dhow trade. Dhows range in size from coastal vessels of 6 tons to oceangoing craft larger than 400 tons. The vast majority are 20 to 90 tons and carry crews of 8 to 30 men. Most dhows are made of Indian teak preserved with regular coatings of shahamu, a mixture of lime and fat. Kuwait is the most important of many dhow-building ports in the north- western Indian Ocean. The long-distance dhow trade has capi- talized on the dependability of the monsoon winds. The northeast monsoon starts in Oc- tober and blows until April when the south- west monsoon sets in. The large oceangoing dhows sail down from the north with one wind and return with the other. Most dhows from home ports on the Persian Gulf and Arabian coast set course for East Africa be- tween early November and February. Those leaving early in the season average 30 to 40 days for the journey; those departing when the monsoon is fully established take only 20 to 25 days. Dhows usually leave India in December and January and average 20 to 30 days for a voyage. Zanzibar is the southern- most port for most dhows, but some go on to Madagascar. The return journeys start in April and May. Dhows traveling between India and the Persian Gulf can usually make two round trips 3 year between September and May by taking advantage of local wind conditions. Monsoon storms and rough seas from June through August make sailing dif- ficult for the essentially fair-weather dhow. Dhows carry virtually anything. To the ports of Kenya and Tanzania they bring cattle, sheep, goats, ghee, tallow, gum arabic, and shark fins from Somalia; salt, fish, and dates from Arabia; nuts, waterpots, and carpets from Iran; and mats, tiles, and manu- factured goods from India. On their home- ward journey the main cargo is usually man- grove poles (maboriti in Swahili) from the Rufiji Delta in Tanzania or Lamu in Kenya. Maboriti are tough, termite-resistant, [and highly prized for house construction. Other goods include coconuts and coconut prod- ucts, sugar, com, and cloth. There is also a significant passenger traffic—particularly migrant laborers and traders. Other dhow activities include a considerable amount of fishing in most of the areas frequented and some pearling in the Persian Gulf. Dhows lend themselves well to smuggling because of their ubiquity and the lack of ef- fective regulation of their movements and trading activities. At present most of the smuggling takes place between the Persian Gulf and the west coast of India. Gold, formerly the most important item smuggled into India, declined in significance because of the drop in the differential between world and Indian prices. Textiles, electronic equip- ment, watches, and other consumer luxuries are now the principal goods smuggled into India; silver, antiques, silk, and foodstuffs are the main illegal exports. There is also a substantial illegal traffic in laborers from India to the United Arab Emirates. Smug- gling elsewhere, such as cloves and ivory from East Africa, is conducted on a much smaller scale. Arab dhow visiting Zanzibar town Although dhows are still an important means of transport, technology is reducing their prominence along the ancient trading routes. Foreign dhow arrivals in Zanzibar town, for example, declined from more than 300 per year in 1946 to fewer than 100 in 1975. Competition from larger motor-pow- ered vessels and improved land transport as well as the attraction of better jobs in the Persian Gulf oil industry are mainly respon- sible for the decline. Even the addition of auxiliary engines has not helped the dhow owners improve their competitive position. L. _ 40, ,xBushahr Comoros u. «‘5‘ i' {\Madagascar Iran I \V‘KBandar-e Bandar'Abbas 0 comm...“ Laccadive. " . -. Minicoy and '_..," Amindivilslands :‘ “C B‘——- o Aden Major dhow port - Doha Other dhow port W Provaiiing winds (January) <‘——— ' Prevailing winds (July) Scale 134,600,000 0 m 400 Nautical Miles h—n'. u, ‘ 5-200\700Kflomotersu. l V I. I 21 Dry Cargo Carriers Ships moving dry cargo in the Indian Ocean range in size from small freighters engaged in the intra-ocean trade to large specialized bulk carriers hauling iron ore in the interoceanic trade. Since World War II, however, the relatively fast cargo liners and the specialized bulk carriers, with their econ- omies of scale, have largely replaced the fa- miliar general purpose tramp freighters. Most general cargo now moves in sched- uled service on cargo liners—freighters rang- ing up to 20,000 dwt with two or three decks and self-contained cargo handling gear for rapid loading and unloading. The commod- ities hauled are generally of higher value and lower density than those moved by dry bulk carriers. Many of the liners are specially fitted for particular cargoes, such as those requir- ing refrigeration; these have been important to the South African fruit trade, for example, and in the movement of dairy products and meats from New Zealand to Europe. Specialized bulk carriers are used mainly to transport iron ore from India, southern Africa, and Western Australia to Japan and Europe. Most range from 20,000 to 160,000 dwt and resemble tankers in profile—the bridge located aft and a few large hatches. Because single-purpose bulk carriers spend about half their time in ballast, double- bottom tanks and side tanks for sea water ballast are standard equipment. In addition to iron ore, the bulk carriers in the Indian Ocean trade transport other ores, raw chemi- cals (such as sulfur), fertilizers, grains, and sugar. Only a few of the littoral states have their own merchant fleets. India has about 290 vessels—230 in its overseas fleet and 60 in the coastal trade—and ranks 16th in the world with 3,636,000 gross register tons.* Indian ships carry between 40 and 50 per- cent of the nation’s general cargo trade. South Africa has a modern, efficient merchant fleet that has grown rapidly in recent years to about 90 ships (420,000 gross register tons). It handles about 20 percent of the country’s seaborne trade and serves major world trad- ing areas. Port congestion is a chronic problem. Ship traffic has increased more rapidly than have improvements in port and feeder land trans- portation facilities. Major expansion and de- velopment projects are now under way, how- ever, at ports in India, Iran, South Africa, and the United Arab Emirates. The use of container and LASH (lighter aboard ship) ships has been suggested as another means of reducing port congestion; both Singapore and the port of Haldia (near Calcutta) are presently equipped with modern container handling facilities. Construction has begun in Bombay, Port Elizabeth, and Cape Town to ready these harbors for container traffic by mid-1977. The pattern of dry cargo shipping in the Indian Ocean has been disrupted in recent years by the prolonged closure and subse- quent reopening of the Suez Canal. Unlike *Gross register tonnage is the cubic capacity of permanently enclosed space in a ship, measured at 100 "3:1 ton. 22 the giant tankers, all but the largest dry cargo ships can transit the canal; they save both time and money by using the canal route between Indian Ocean and Mediter- ranean or North Atlantic ports. The last canal closure (1967-1975) was detrimental to most Indian Ocean states and beneficial to only a few. Egypt lost annual toll revenue that had amounted to $224 million in the 12 months prior to June 1967. Ports along the Suez route—mainly Aden, Djibouti, and Port Sudan—suffered marked declines in ship calls, bunker sales, and other port earnings. In South Africa, on the other hand, bunker sales zoomed as ship calls increased by more than 50 percent; Mombasa LASH ship in Karachi Harbour had an increase in port earnings of 80 per— cent; and Mauritius was visited by 37 percent more ships and its port earnings increased by 70 percent. In general, exports from South- east Asia and East Africa to Western Europe held steady through 1968 and then dropped to 90 percent of pre-closure figures in 1969 and 82 percent in 1970 as a result of the higher shipping rates and longer delivery time. Japan replaced Europe as the principal market for Malaysian and Indonesian ex- ports. Dry cargo ships have been returning to the Suez Canal route since its reopening, and traffic had increased to about 45 ships per day as of March 1976—about two-thirds the 1966 rate. AI Bifi"",.Khorramshuhr Kuwait Jlddlh Port Sud-n \ Aden / .37 bu Dhabl Djibouu Mogadiscio Domplor Perth Scale 1 178,000,000 0 Major port Intraocoan route —— Intorocoan route Giant Tankers Easily the most spectacular craft plying the Indian Ocean, the giant tankers are a relatively recent addition. Their appearance followed the unprecedented demand for pe- troleum that accompanied the recovery of Western European and Japanese industry after World War II. Development of these ships was stimulated by the post-war trend toward construction of new refineries in con- suming rather than producing countries; this innovation changed shipping emphasis from carriers of refined products to vessels suited to crude oil, with fewer but much larger compartments and greater deadweight ton- nage. Only 20 percent of the world’s tankers were over 17,000 dwt in 1951; by 1956 half of the operating tankers were larger than 17,000 dwt, and some were approaching 50,000 tons. At that time still greater size was limited by harbor depths—there were few deepwater terminals—and, for tankers sailing between the Persian Gulf and Western Europe, by the 10.5-meter (34-foot) controlling depth of the Suez Canal, which restricted use of that waterway to loaded tankers of less than 30,000 dwt. Closure of the Suez Canal in 1956 prompted immediate orders for large tankers that could economically carry crude from Middle East oil fields around the Cape of Good Hope. Even after the reopening of the canal in 1957 the construction of large tankers con- tinued. Tankers larger than 150,000 dwt were operating by 1967 when the canal was again closed; by 1970 some 130 VLCC’s (ships in the 200,000- to 400,000-dwt range) were in use, and when the canal reopened in mid- 1975 the VLCC’s had increased in number to about 450 and three ULCC’s (ships greater than 400,000 dwt) had been added—the largest, 484,000 dwt. These giant ships are too large to pass through the reopened Suez Canal. They must continue to use the Cape route until deepen- ing and widening of the canal is completed. Even though the shipment of crude by small tankers through the canal is more expensive, some purchasers of Persian Gulf oil must use them because of depth limits at offload- ing ports and the inability of certain termi- nals and refineries to absorb the huge cargoes carried by the VLCC’s and ULCC’s. The giant tankers will also continue as major carriers between the Middle East and Japan, although the traditional route via the Malacca-Singapore Straits may change. A Tanker break-even costs per ton of cargo carried on Persian Gulf-Rotterdam run (1975) Loaded Round via Cape, Round Ship size trip empty trip (thousand dwt) via Cape via Suez via Suez 500 s 7.31 — - 250 8.20 - - 130 10.52 9.65 — 90 11.85 10.77 — 70 12.24 11.11 9.53 50 13.49 12.16 10.32 Blanks indicate Suez is not now capable olhandll‘ng ships ol this size. VLCC of-205,953 dwt scraped bottom twice transiting these straits in 1967, heightening concern about accidental oil spillage. Surveys indicate that a minimum depth of 23 meters (75 feet), theoretically safe for smaller tank- ers, can be guaranteed. However, the safety margin is thin. In 1972 Indonesia and Ma- laysia announced that tankers exceeding 200,000 dwt were not to use the waterway. Despite Indonesian and Malaysian objec- tions, ships up to 250,000 dwt continued to transit the strait and in January 1975 the 238,000-dwt Showa Maru grounded there. The resultant oil spillage caused damage estimated at $10 million. Ship channels within the straits are rela- tively narrow—2.5 nautical miles in the Strait of Malacca and about 1 mile in Singa- pore Strait—considering the limited maneu- verability of VLCC’s. These ships require a stopping distance of 2.5 miles at full ahead speed and slightly more than 0.3 mile at 4 knots; they also experience steering difficul- ties when operating at speeds under 6 knots. Substantial course changes are required to keep ships at maximum depths in these chan- nels, and in heavy traffic the danger of collision or grounding is significant. Selat Sunda, to the south, is an even more dangerous strait in some respects; its ap- proaches from the Java Sea are shallow, and the channel is only 2 nautical miles wide. Currents are strong and ships over 100,000 dwt do not use this strait. The distance to Japan from the Persian Gulf via Selat Sunda is about 700 miles greater than via the Strait of Malacca. Selat Lombok, farther east, has minimum depths greater than 180 meters in most places and a minimum channel width of 5.5 miles. It will probably become the main route be- tween Japan and the Indian Ocean for ships larger than 200,000 dwt, even though it adds about 1,500 miles and 3 days to the trip. 484,000 dwt Globtik Tokyo under way l Suez / Elat Cane! i Persian 0 Gulf Cape of Good Hope Scale 173,000,000 i sun of Value. ‘ D W 0 Facilities for tankers of 175,000 dwt or larger Tanker route 23 Political Relationships “Zone of Peace”? In December 1971 the United Nations General Assembly, by a vote of 61 to 0 with 55 abstentions, adopted a resolution proposed by Sri Lanka declaring the Indian Ocean to be a “zone of peace.” The resolution had two provisions. The first called on the great powers to consult with Indian Ocean littoral states in order to halt escalation of great power military presence in the area and to eliminate from the Indian Ocean “all bases, military installations, logistical supply facili- ties, . . . nuclear weapons, and weapons of mass destruction . . . conceived in the context of great power rivalry.” The second provision called for consultations among littoral and hinterland states, permanent members of the UN. Security Council, and other major maritime nations to ensure that warships and military aircraft would not use the Indian Ocean in any manner which threatened the littoral and hinterland states. Subject to these restrictions and to the principles of international law, “the right to free and unimpeded use of the zone by the vessels of all nations is unaffected.” Resolutions relating to the zone of peace were passed at succeeding sessions of the General Assembly by similarly overwhelming votes but, in each case, with a significant number of abstentions, the latter including all of the permanent members of the Security Council except China. The United States position, supported by many other maritime powers, was that it is inappropriate for a regional group of states to establish a special regime over a portion of the high seas, that the declaration is in violation of existing international law, and that it is incompatible with Washington’s traditional position on freedom of the seas. Perhaps the primary significance of the action taken in New York in 1971 is the fact that 13 Indian Ocean states could combine in sponsoring a regional resolution. Of the 27 nations in the area who were members of the United Nations in 1971, only 6 abstained on the vote. In subsequent years the number decreased until in 1974 and 1975 there were no abstainers from the area. A regional con- sensus had been demonstrated on a subject of major importance to the members of the Indian Ocean “community.” Traditionally, there has been little unity within the Indian Ocean region, and through- out history no single indigenous power has been able to dominate. Even in the late 19th century when Great Britain, through its posi- tion in India and its control of all the ap- proaches to the ocean, had turned the world’s third largest ocean into a virtual British lake, there was no community of feeling. Patterns of trade and of cultural interchange radiated between the colonies and the imperial pow- ers, seldom from one colony to another— even when both were in the same empire and in close proximity. The colonial era lasted from the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean in 1497 to the end of World War II. Of all the peoples who populate this area, only the Ethiopians, the Iranians, and the Thai man- aged to retain a large degree of independ- ence during the centuries of colonial rule. As the European powers withdrew after 1945, many Asian and African states became inde- 24 pendent. With independence, however, came rivalries and occasional hostilities between-— among others—India and Pakistan, Indo- nesia and Malaysia, Iran and Iraq, Ethiopia and Somalia. Additionally, most of the new nations were forced to concentrate on inter- nal problems, particularly on economic de- velopment and political unity; there was little time or reason to focus on regional relationships. The scant pre-l970 literature on the Indian Ocean area illustrates the tend— ency in that period to view its nations and peoples more as parts of other areas (Sub- Saharan Africa, the Middle East, South or Southeast Asia) than as a single geographic region with unique and unifying character- istics. . In the post-VVorld—VVar-II period, the In- dian Ocean achieved increased strategic sig- nificance, in large part as a result of the increasing dependence of many developed countries on Persian Gulf petroleum. Keep- ing the sea lanes open for the transport of oil became vital to \Vestern Europe and japan and of increasing importance to the United States. \Vith the closure of the Suez Canal in 1967, the transport of oil between the Persian Gulf and Western Europe had to be re-routed along the ancient trade routes running south through the Indian Ocean and around the Cape of Good Hope. Develop- ment of the giant tanker was accelerated during the following years—ships so large that they were unable to pass through the canal when it was reopened in 1975. The reopening of the canal was of considerable significance to the Indian Ocean region, how- ever, because it made possible far more rapid transfer of naval vessels from European waters to the Indian Ocean. The steady pace of British withdrawal from Indian Ocean colonies and bases in the postwar period and the increase in naval operations by the United States and the So- viet Union led eventually to the peace zone proposal at the United Nations. British domi- nance in the Indian Ocean had provided an era of stability. With the departure of the Indian submarine moored at Port Louis, Mauritius L as» {r . ,. r , . 1 British, the ocean becomes another arena for competition and confrontation between the two superpowers. A British announcement in 1968 that only token forces would remain east of Suez after 1971 was followed by increased Soviet and US. activity in the area. A Soviet naval task force entered the Indian Ocean in 1968 for the first time, and Soviet naval units have been stationed in the ocean almost continu- ously since that date. Facilities for their ex- clusive use have been granted at Berbera in Somalia. The US. Navy has maintained a three- vessel Middle East Force, homeported in the Persian Gulf at Bahrain, since 1949. On several occasions in recent years, naval task forces have been detached from the Seventh Fleet in the Pacific for cruises into the Indian Ocean. The United States has built a naval communications facility on the island of Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). A 1966 agreement be- tween Great Britain and the United States made the island available to both countries for military purposes for a period of 50 years. In july 1975 the United States Con- gress approved plans to expand the Diego Garcia facility to provide logistical and op- erational support to US. forces in the Indian Ocean. The proposed expansion was criti— cized by several governments in the area, most strongly by India, Mauritius, and Mada- gascar. Britain and France no longer maintain major military and naval forces in the area but do retain some strategically important facilities. Great Britain, in addition to pos- session of Diego Garcia, has use of airfields at Salalah and Masirah in Oman, although it intends to end operations from Masirah in 1976. Until March 1976 the British main- tained an RAF staging base on Can in the Maldives. France has kept a small naval squadron in the Indian Ocean and a major base at Djibouti in the French Territory of the Afars and Issas. Independence negotiations are under way, and the status of the French base is under consideration. Among the Indian Ocean states only India, Iran, Indonesia, Pakistan, Australia, and South Africa have navies of significant size. All of these are small in comparison with those of the superpowers but are larger than the US. and Soviet task forces assigned to the Indian Ocean. Both Iran and India are engaged in major expansion programs. India has large naval installations on both the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea; Iran is estab- lishing a major naval base at Bandar ‘Abbas, on the Strait of Hormuz near the strategi- cally important entrance to the Persian Gulf, and a smaller installation at Chah Bahar, near the Pakistan border. Whether the Indian Ocean can become a zone of peace in the foreseeable future is questionable. Naval vessels of both the Soviet Union and the United States con- tinue to ply its waters. Moscow warns that US. submarines may use the Indian Ocean as a missile-launching site against Soviet targets. United States spokesmen emphasize the possibility that Soviet ships might interfere with Western access to Persian Gulf oil. Additionally, both nations continue to use naval vessels to “show the flag” in the Indian Ocean through occasional port visits. Meanwhile, the states in the region, de- spite a mutual wariness, are experimenting with new ideas that could lead to closer relations. The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) has endorsed a “zone of peace, freedom, and neutrality” in Southeast Asia. The Shah of Iran has sug- gested an Indian Ocean Common Market and Security Group to include the littoral states along the northern shore of the Indian Ocean from Iran to Singapore, with possible even- tual extension to Australia. A movement to increase solidarity among the nations of the Persian Gulf is under way and may have improved chances for success in the wake of a 1975 agreement reconciling differences be— tween Iran and Iraq. There are also frequent visits between heads of state, and close ties already exist or are developing between countries such as Iran and Pakistan, India and Mauritius. The peace zone in the Indian Ocean en- visaged in the 1971 proposal is far from a reality, but the very exercise of repeatedly submitting proposals at the United Nations and voting as a bloc may have a long range effect on the area. The foundation could be created for something approaching what has long existed in the North Atlantic region, a collection of states with often conflicting goals but with a sense of belonging to a wider geographic community. Oasr ,. ~ \, Seycheilcg South 0 / Africa / ”H-144 1 Simonstown Scale 148,000,000 Iran Bandar‘Abbés - g: .Manamlkzsaifi, . L \ Diego-Suarez i British Indian Ocean Territory \ i iDiego Garcia \ ) 9"“; I5. .\ ~ \A\ “g ’ . \‘Nwflfiafiw cs 2; i a A r A C“- 0 North West Cape L Y ,\| \q‘ Australia Cockburn Sound \ Wx/fi Significant facilities i Naval + Air I Communications 3, USSR anchorage Littoral France UK US USSR {3254‘ Sovereignty [:] - - User privileges C O C 25 Law of the Sea. Who owns the Indian Ocean? This ques- tion has taken on new importance with the vastly increased use of the ocean in modern times and with the reexamination of oceans law in the Third UN. Conference on the Law of the Sea (LOS). In the past decade Indian Ocean states have intensified their efforts to gain greater control over the ocean. They declared it a “zone of peace” at the Conference of Non-aligned Nations in Cairo (1964) and Lusaka (1970) and in the United Nations (1971-72), and they strongly backed U.N. resolutions designating the deep seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction the “common heritage of mankind.” A new inter- national agreement on LOS issues very likely will give littoral states broad rights over the resources of a large part of the Indian Ocean as well as the responsibility for their con- servation. National jurisdiction in the oceans has historically been expressed in terms of the territorial sea—that narrow belt of water, seabed, and airspace adjacent to the coast where the coastal state exercises sover- eignty subject only to the right of innocent passage by foreign ships.* The nature of a coastal state’s jurisdiction over the re- sources of the continental shelf was cod- ified in the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf. In the 1960’s and 1970’s growing concern with the exploitation of living marine resources gave rise to the concept of the “economic zone,” a wide belt of sea and seabed adjacent to the territorial sea where the coastal state would have preferential fishing rights and con- tinued exclusive control over the exploita- tion of mineral resources. A fundamental goal of the LOS Conference has been to standardize the physical limits of both zones and to define national rights and obliga- tions within them. National claims in the Indian Ocean now vary from 3 to 200 miles.“ Most Indian Ocean states favor a 12-mile territorial sea and the establishment of an adjacent economic zone that would extend to a maximum of 200 miles from the coast. In the past, seaward limits have been estab- lished primarily in areas of actual or po- tential conflict, usually involving resources. ‘Passage is innocent when it does not interfere with the peace, good order, or security of the coastal state. “Distances and areas in this section are expressed in nautical miles (nmi). Some Persian Gulf states, for example, have delimited continental shelf boundaries to ensure orderly oil development. In 1974, India and Sri Lanka delimited their common boundary in the process of resolving an old dispute over ownership of an uninhabited island in Palk Bay. Ships and airplanes currently transit most international straits under high seas freedom- of-navigation rules. Global application of the 12-mile territorial sea would necessitate ac- ceptance of special rules for straits since those less than 24 miles wide would be overlapped by the territorial seas of bordering states. Six of the straits in and adjoining the Indian Ocean are in this category. Many Indian Ocean coastal states are genuinely concerned about navigational safety and the effect that growing maritime traffic, particularly giant tankers, will have on the environ- ment of these narrow passageways; some would like to control straits transit for reasons of national security. Efforts have already been made to restrict international shipping through two of the narrower Indi- an Ocean straits, Bab el Mandeb and Ma- lacca. Some Arab states tried to block pas- sage of shipping by, to, or from Israel through Bab el Mandeb; Indonesia and Malaysia declared in 1971 that the strait of Malacca was “not international” and that all ships transiting it should observe rules of innocent passage. The establishment of ZOO-mile economic zones would place approximately 7 million square miles of the Indian Ocean, about one-third of its total area, under some de- gree of national jurisdiction. The expanse of each nation’s coastal zone would vary with the length and configuration of its coast- line. India, with its long coastline and numerous island territories could claim some 588,000 square miles; Kenya, with the short- est coastline of Africa’s Indian Ocean coun- tries, could claim a zone of only about 34,400 square miles. Some nations—including those bordering the Mozambique Channel, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea—could not extend their economic zones to the ZOO-mile limit because their opposite neighbors are less than 400 miles away. Although the 1958 Convention on the Con- tinental Shelf gives the coastal state exclusive rights to the mineral resources of the shelf Maritime claims Country Territorial sea Fishing zone Area within 200 nmi coastal zone (nmiz) (nmi) (nmi) [' includes non-Indian Ocean coastline] Australia 3 12 2,043,300“ Bahrain 3 3 1 ,500 Bangladesh 12 200 22,400 Burma 1 2 1 2 148,600 Comoros 12 12 undetermined Egypt 1 2 1 2 50,600 " Ethiopia 12 12 22,100 Fr. Terr. of the Mars and lssas 12 12 1.800 India 12 12 587,600 Indonesia 12 12 1,577,300 ’ Iran 12 50 45,400 Iraq 12 12 200 Israel 6 6 6,800 “ Jordan 3 3 200 Kenya 12 12 34,400 Kuwait 12 12 3,500 Madagascar 5O 50 376,800 Malaysia 12 12 138,700‘ Maldives 2.77 to 55.0 100 to 150 279,700 Mauritius 12 12 345,500 Mozambique 8 12 163,900 Oman 12 50 163,800 Pakistan 12 50 92,900 Qatar 3 3 7,000 ' _. Saudi Arabia ' 12 12 54.300 Seychelles 3 12 undetermined Singapore ' 3 3 1 00 Somalia 200 200 228,300 South Attica 6 12 296,500 " Sri Lanka 12 12 150,900 Sudan 12 12 26.700 Tanzania 50 50 65.100 Thailand , 12 12 94.700 ' United Arab Emirates 3 and 12 3 and 12 _. 7 17,300 Yemen (Aden) 12 12 __ .,___1_6°.5°° Yemen (Sana) 12 12 V 9900““ hm low water line <—territorial sea boundary Seabed diagram 26 adjacent to its coast, the convention does not draw an outer boundary of national jurisdic- tion. The convention does contain general guidelines for delimiting continental shelf boundaries between bordering states, but few Indian Ocean littoral states recognize the convention as international law because they did not participate in its drafting. A new treaty agreed to by Indian Ocean states un- doubtedly would continue the exclusive coastal-state control of non-living resources in the adjacent seabed, but would in all like- lihood limit coastal state seabed resource rights to a precisely defined outer edge of the continental margin where it extends beyond the 200-mile economic zone. A new oceans treaty may also define how to apply all of these maritime jurisdictional concepts (i.e., territorial sea, economic zone, and continental margin) to archipelagos and islands. A likely possibility is that archipe- lagic states will be differentiated from island states, dependent archipelagos, and islands. Archipelagic states—like the Comoros, In- donesia, and the Seychelles—might be per- mitted to construct, according to a specific mathematical formula, baselines connecting ' m w ‘2. ’3". . °9 I 6),; : ta’r Strait of Normal their outer perimeter of islands, placing all of the enclosed water and land areas under national sovereignty with some exceptions for international navigation. Island states, such as Madagascar, and dependent archipelagos and islands, such as the British Indian Ocean Territory and the Indian dependencies, could use only the low-water line along the coasts of individual islands as the baseline. Dwindling fish stocks in other oceans and stiffer national controls over coastal fishing are forcing increasing numbers of foreign fishing fleets into the Indian Ocean, where only 20 percent of the potential catch is now taken. Establishment of broad coastal eco- nomic zones will ease the impact of this in- flux on Indian Ocean littoral states. Under a new treaty each coastal state would not only determine the total sustainable catch avail- able for harvest from its economic zone, but it would have first crack at the total—taking all within its capacity—and would receive equitable compensation for that portion of the remainder taken by foreign fleets. Freedom to conduct scientific research in the economic zone of another state—a right sought by many developed countries—is al- most uniformly opposed by Indian Ocean na- tions, which insist that a coastal state should have the right to approve or prohibit such activities in its economic zone. Resolution of these differences will likely hinge on a pre- cise definition of what activities constitute scientific research. A new oceans treaty will contain articles designed to standardize regulations for pro- tecting and preserving the marine environ- ment. Most Indian Ocean countries favor some coastal state control over pollution by ships in the proposed economic zone. There are serious questions concerning the exploitation of deep seabed mineral resources that lie beyond the limits of coastal state jurisdiction. In the deep ocean west of Aus- tralia, for example, there is a 300,000-square- mile concentration of manganese nodules. Al- though deep seabed resources are accepted by all as the “common heritage of mankind,” there is strong disagreement over the system of exploitation and the nature and powers of any international organization that might be set up to administer the development and dis- tribution of this seabed wealth. l Arabian if"! ndlan ,. God-n nllovy sea : ay 1 Benoal . . h, K India) ' Andaman 0 Sea " A“; v g a, j I “It ML x, 4 r , j ’ «a» ga pore Limit of 200 nautical mile economic zone sem sung. Strait affected by 12 nautical mile territorial sea v. 0 200 2000 Ocean bathymetry (meters) 27 Waterway Issues The Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Malacca-Singapore Straits are the most heavily trafficked of the many channels, gulfs, partially enclosed seas, and straits that interconnect with the Indian Ocean. Each plays a prominent role in international trade and in the area’s economy, and each is af- fected by the growing conflict between the traditional concept of freedom of the seas . . . Suez Canal The Suez Canal, completed in 1869, was built to provide a shorter trade route between Europe and the East. The British, initially cool toward the project, had turned down the chance to participate, and the construction was carried out by a French company under contract to the khedive. When inaugurated, the canal had an immediate and major im- pact on both trade and grand strategy, and the British recognized its importance to their expanding empire. They bought up much of the Canal Company’s stock and then, to pro- tect their investment, occupied Egypt and Aden. A commission composed mostly of British and French managed the canal until 1956 when it was expropriated by the Egyp- tians. They, in turn, operated it very success- fully until it was blocked during the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. The closure forced a shift to the alternate route, through the Indian Ocean and around the Cape, and hastened the evolution of specialized ships no longer dependent on the canal route for profitable operation—raising questions about the ca- nal’s future competitive position. In its early years the Suez Canal was used primarily by dry cargo ships, but by 1950 the tonnage of petroleum and its products exceeded that of dry cargo. In the mid-1960’s cargo consisted of petroleum, a variety of agricultural products, and other raw ma- terials moving westward from the Middle East, Asia, and Australia, and grain and manufactured goods moving eastward from North America and Europe. During the 1967 Arab-Israeli War several ships were sunk in the canal, trapping 16 merchant ships in Lake Timsah and Great Bitter Lake. The consequent rerouting of traffic added 4,850 nautical miles (9,000 kilometers) to routes from the northern In- dian Ocean to northern Europe and 3,300 nautical miles (6,100 kilometers) to routes and the demands of coastal states to extend their sovereignty ever farther offshore. Arab-Israeli confrontations in the Middle East have led to several attempts to cut off Israel-bound shipping through Red Sea straits. The prolonged closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975 triggered realign- ments in shipping routes in the Indian Ocean and caused serious economic dislocations; to the east coast of North America. This created a demand for larger tankers, and there was a marked increase in the number and size of tankers during the period of closure. The canal was returned to Egyptian con- trol in March 1974, and the United States, Great Britain, and France assisted in clearing the sunken ships and other obstacles. The Soviet Union participated in sweeping mines from the southern Gulf of Suez. The canal reopened in June 1975; however, the tanker traffic—which had comprised 65 percent of pre-closure tonnage—has not returned to previous levels since the canal is not large enough to accommodate the'very large tank- ers added to the world fleet. In an attempt to boost traffic the Egyptian Government has initiated a program for deepening and widen- ing the canal to handle tankers up to 150,000 dwt (loaded) by the end of 1978 and up to 250,000 dwt in the 1980’s. The terrain is not a limiting factor; the canal could be enlarged to accommodate the largest of tankers under full load if considered economically feasible. As a bid to attract additional petroleum revenues before canal expansion is com- pleted, Egypt is building a competing 42- inch twin pipeline, the Sumed—the first of its lines to be finished in 1976. It will extend from ‘Ayn Sukhnah, on the west coast of the Gulf of Suez, to Sidi Kurayr, 20 kilometers west of Alexandria. Offshore docking facili- ties for giant tankers will be constructed at both termini. Some critics question whether the transshipment costs will be competitive with the prevailing rates for transport via the Cape route. Other development plans include large land reclamation projects on both sides of the canal, restoration and expansion of the canal cities, establishment of free trade and industrial zones, and construction of five tunnels—for roads, a railway, and water lines—under the canal. W95! <—————-193m(633f1) Planned expansion (cross section at km 30) 315 meters (1,033 feet) l east 1976 depths: 1976 15.0 m (50 ft) 1978 19.5 m (64 ft) after 1980 23.5 m (77 ft) l-——90m(295m———~] ‘ 122m(400fl)——-—> ‘ maximum ship size loaded: 1916 , 50.000 dwt . 1978 150.000 dwt after 1980 250.000 dwt the readjustments stemming from the re- opening of the canal have yet to run their course. The increased likelihood of oil spills from heavy tanker traffic through Indian Ocean straits—particularly Hormuz and Malacca-Singapore—has also prompted some of the straits states to demand the right to impose navigational safety and antipollution controls on shipping. "WW Chirictorlstlcs (1853);)? , Iength:162.5kilometera (101mg), . ., I; width: 160-200 meters (525-657 is“). 1 tumours (360 foot) bot’woan navlgatlon buoys maximum draft: 11.6 meters (38 feet) maximum ship siza:50,000 dwt loaded; ” . 150.000 dwt in ballast 28 '...RedSea . The Red Sea was transformed into a major waterway by construction of the Suez Canal. The prolonged closure of the canal from 1967 to 1975 and attempts to control international shipping through straits at either end of the Red Sea have demonstrated both the vulner- ability of this waterway and the economic importance to the Red Sea countries of canal traffic. Local shipping—mostly tramp cargo carriers serving secondary ports, some tanker traffic from the Gulf of Suez, and Moslem pilgrim traffic to the port of ]iddah—is relatively insignificant. The Red Sea occupies a deep trough, part - of the Great Rift Valley, which extends south- ward through East Africa. Its shores are backed by mountainous desert and bordered in many places by coral reefs. Air tempera- tures over the southern part of the sea some- times reach 38°C (100°F), the highest known over any water surface other than the Persian Gulf, and the air is always humid—one of the most unpleasant climates on earth. Arab threats and attempts to block Israeli shipping through the Straits of Tiran and Bab el Mandeb have raised international concern over sovereignty and rights of pas- sage. Both straits lie within the overlapping territorial seas claimed by bordering states. Bab el Mandeb connects the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, two parts of the high seas; whereas Tiran connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aqaba, which falls entirely within the territorial seas claimed by its bordering states. Israel’s only southern port and Jordan’s only port lie at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. Following the conclusion of the 1949 General Armistice Agreement, Israel main- tained that the rules of innocent passage applied to the strait. The Arab nations con- tended, however, that the Agreement did not end the state of belligerency and that passage through the strait by Israel-bound vessels was therefore not innocent. Further- more, Egypt claimed that Israeli occupation of territory at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba was illegal and that the gulf constituted a “closed Arab Sea.” ' In 1953 Egypt instituted a blockade of Israeli shipping through the Strait of Tiran. After 1955 all ships intending to pass through the strait from either direction were required to give 72 hours’ notice to an Egyptian Coast Guard unit stationed at Ra’s Nasrani, and ships were stopped and searched if suspected of carrying Israeli cargo. Israel invaded the Sinai during the 1956 War, occupied Jazirat Tiran, and destroyed Egyptian gun emplace- ments on Ra’s Nasrani. After Israel’s with- drawal, trade moved freely through the strait for 10 years under the supervision of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF). In May 1967 Egypt ordered with- drawal of the UNEF from the Sinai, moved guns back to Ra’s Nasrani, and announced the mining of the strait. The June 1967 War followed, and Israel occupied the Sinai Pen- insula. She has kept the Strait of Tiran open since that time. ' ® Major port —‘—- Railroad ~~—— Road Bathymetry Strait of Tiran and Bab el Mandeb 0 1O 30 50 tathoms O 18 54 92 meters Closure of Bab el Mandeb to Israeli ship- ping was threatened in 1967 by the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). In June 1971 a Palestinian guerrilla group, oper- ating a bazooka-equipped speedboat frOm PDRY territory, attacked and inflicted minor damage on a Liberian-flag tanker bound for Israel from Iran. Egypt blockaded the strait during the October 1973 War and for some months following. No further attempts have been made to close the strait, but the ease with which the 12-kilometer-wide shipping channel can be controlled makes it a tempt- ing target, well removed from Israeli-held territory. L ;: ' Jiddah—the Red Seav's bu‘siest port Nasser } ‘5 ’ "\ ' , VI T ”3(an rlagjl “(6 Ii (,5. .3“ ““6 /. ’7 Omdurman Khartoum .' Knamrg M us hlyt n Territory-tot! , , Alan alga lit ' , { scare’LgoOQOtib l 2 \x Scale 1:11.500.000, l MOO 2100‘ ‘200 Kitometers\ ‘x . 29 . . . Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf area accounts for an estimated two-thirds of the world’s proved oil reserves and supplies more than half the world’s oil requirements. The lands surrounding the gulf are arid and fresh water enters from only one peren- nial watercourse, the Shatt a1 Arab, which receives the combined flow of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun Rivers. Even with this flow the waters of the gulf would soon dry up through evaporation were they not continually replenished by Indian Ocean water moving through the Strait of Hormuz. Hundreds of islands dot the gulf; its shore- line is fringed in many places by coral reefs, sandbars, and mudflats; and shallow water along the southern coast makes nearshore navigation hazardous. There are few good natural harbors. Unusually high summer temperatures com- bined with high relative humidity have earned the gulf area its reputation for an enervating climate. Air temperatures over the gulf exceed 38°C (100°F) during the day in June, July, and August and fall only to 27°-29°C (the low 80’s) at night. The humidity is relatively high during this period because of rapid evaporation from the warm gulf waters. The dew point—the tem- perature at which water vapor in the air con- denses—exceeds 27°C about 10 percent of the time in midsummer. Under these condi- tions the body’s cooling mechanism is dis- rupted; the body sweats, but the sweat does not evaporate, and thus cool, and any strenuous activity increases the danger of heatstroke. During the coolest months, De- cember through February, the relative hu- midity is actually higher than in summer, but the climate is more pleasant since the temperature does not rise above about 23°C (the low 70’s) during the day and often falls below 15°C (59°F ) at night. Most of the limited rainfall occurs during the winter season, ranging from an annual average of 75 mm (3 inches) on Bahrain to 250 mm (10 inches) at Bushehr, Iran. Persian Gulf states are believed to have been involved in Indian Ocean commerce for at least 3,000 years. The name “Dilmun,” found on Babylonian and Assyrian inscrip- tions in Iraq, probably refers to an ancient trading center on Bahrain. Ships sailing from Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and certain of the present-day United Arab Emirates plied trade routes extending to the Indian sub- continent and to the east coast of Africa, carrying agricultural and manufactured goods, lumber, slaves, pearls, and gold. These trade routes are still important to the local economies. Until recently the gulf ports were small, sleepy places that reflected the Persian Gulf’s position as a backwater of the Indian Ocean, but the development of the petroleum fields has brought drastic changes to the ports and their hinterlands. The oil economy has made the tanker the ruler of the seas, and pros- perity has changed many of the ports to bus- tling, overcrowded trade centers. Some en- tirely new ports have been built to serve the giant tankers. Persian Gulf ports are of two kinds, spe- cialized petroleum handling terminals and general cargo ports. Many of the petroleum ports—such as Iran’s Iazireh-ye Khark, Ku- wait’s Mina’ a1 Ahmadi, and Saudi Arabia’s Ras Tanura—are loading facilities situated far out in the gulf where the water is deep enough to accommodate tankers with capaci- ties up to 500,000 dwt. Nearly all of the cargo ports are under- going some expansion. Those in Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia are severely overbur- dened. Rapid economic development has in- creased imports to these countries an average of 75 percent over the last 2 years, and the offloading delays currently average 90 to 120 days. The congestion will be relieved only when additional transportation facilities are developed to clear goods rapidly from the port areas. Strait of Hormuz The Strait of Hormuz, deep and free of obstructions, affords access to the Persian Gulf and is a chokepoint that could con- ceivably be cut off by a hostile power con- trolling either shore. Part of it falls within the overlapping 12-nautical-mile territorial sea claims of Iran and Oman, and while neither country has attempted to control traffic through Hormuz, each favors the coastal state prerogatives implicit under an innocent passage regime. Iran’s concern for assuring the security of shipping through the strait is a major consideration in her immense expenditures to build a modern navy. The shortest routes through the strait, however, lie in Omani waters. / Iraq-Scum, ' '3‘ Arabia Neutral , Zen. Hamid.- A E Scale 13,006,000 0 " 56 1.30 1‘56 Miles 0 ’50, 1001‘. 0‘ Kilometers; . ' '3 \1-“ V . , \ \ 3‘ . Alfie '5. ‘ ® Major dry *7 Railroad « ~~~ Road _ Slime ' cargo port Iraq, ".f ; . Bathymetry \ lFéw , _kafmiyan o 10 so so fathoms ‘3 gFayIakam 0 18 54 92 meters pmoxlmaro [Iain ,, n'-=Wlsmm>n. 3O . . . Malacca-Singapore Straits The Malacca-Singapore Straits are the chokepoint in the most direct maritime route between the northern Indian Ocean and the Pacific. Tankers in the narrow passageway congest its shallow and shifting navigation channels, heightening the risk of accidents and oil spills. Malaysia, Indonesia, and—to lesser extent—Singapore seek to control the growing volume of traffic in the straits, long regarded as international waters. Those ef- forts directly counter the desire of maritime powers for free transit of all international straits. The Strait of Malacca, more than 200 nautical miles wide at its northwestern end, narrows to no more than 8 miles amid a cluster of islands in the southeast. Singapore Strait is less than 6 miles wide at its nar- rowest point. Shipping channels in Malacca narrow to 2%. miles, those in Singapore to about 1 mile. Channel depth is even more restrictive than width. Depths in the south- eastern part of the Strait of Malacca and in the Singapore Strait are in several places only 23 or 24 meters, limiting passage to vessels no larger than about 225,000 dwt. Despite its physical limitations, the 550- mile waterway is one of the most heavily trafficked in the world. More than 1,000 craft are estimated to use it each week. Cargo liners, tankers, and bulk carriers account for at least 90 percent of the traffic. The strategic value of the Malacca-Singa- pore Straits has grown in recent years. The navies of both the United States and the USSR, which have increased their presence in the Indian Ocean since the withdrawal of the British Navy in 1971, rely on the straits to move ships quickly between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The importance of the straits was underlined during the 1971 India—Paki- stan conflict when both US. and Soviet war- ships used the passageway, and again during the 1973 Middle East crisis when a task force of the US. 7th Fleet moved from Pacific waters through the straits to new positions in the Indian Ocean. The Indonesian and Malaysian challenges to the international status of the straits assert that vessels use them under the right of innocent passage, not free transit. Both coun- tries charge that pollution from the growing commercial traffic is destroying marine re- sources, that uncontrolled use of the straits by foreign warships is a threat to their se- curity, and that the lack of controls en- courages smuggling and illegal immigration. They have requested that tankers larger than 200,000 dwt not use the Malacca-Singapore Straits. Their request has gone unheeded despite the January 1975 oil spill by a 238,000-ton Japanese tanker. Singapore, with only a small fishing industry vulnerable to pollution damage and an economy dependent on the free transit of all vessels through the passageway, has not followed its neighbors’ lead in this matter. Indonesian requests for prior notification of the passage of all foreign warships through the straits have been similarly ignored. Al- though Jakarta and Kuala Lumpur have dis- cussed the imposition of controls on war- ships, their navies lack the capability to en- force them. Joint naval patrols were initiated in 1973 to prevent seaborne infiltration by subversive elements and to control piracy and smuggling. The commercial shipping passing through the waterway is a key factor in the economies of the neighboring countries, particularly Singapore. The strategic location of Singa- pore has helped make it Southeast Asia’s most prosperous and rapidly developing country and its financial and industrial cen- ter. Singapore also ranks as the most im- portant port on the shipping lanes between Europe and East Asia. It has an excellent harbor, a container teiminal, one of the world’s largest oil refinery complexes, and drydock facilities that can handle all classes of tankers. Petroleum companies engaged in offshore oil exploration in Southeast Asia use Singapore as an operations base. Malaysia and Indonesia have plans to capitalize on their proximity to the straits. Malaysia intends to improve port facilities in order to rechannel its own exports from Singapore to Malaysian ports. Plans also are under way for the construction of ship repair facilities that can handle giant tankers at Pasir Gudang in the southern part of the peninsula. Indonesia has an ambitious master plan for the development of Pulau Batam, directly across the strait from Singapore. An industrial complex is envisioned, centered on an oil refinery capable of processing 100,000 barrels of oil a day. Pulau ‘« "a . Simeulue . if t. A. ,5. r? fissrraan sea . ‘ Sura‘g‘il’hani . . ,7 5‘ mg, l ‘ ‘ E . W , . :1 on Si . f 381: ‘h marat , RR g, . ' ' a P m f . j . a principai sh 9 center nuke ‘ . for the Stra l‘Malacca I ”’13 \ f x » gslTumpat SOUH‘! Pulaunrw - ; , ' " AlorSetai ‘ "6 5“;°K‘ota Baharu ,_. . ‘ We‘f’fSabnno .- .1 fl 5 . . d}. ' . (, mm Uleqlheue ‘ ‘ ~'."" . . cos . :: , '. . \ '9 . . Pman _, pg. kAceh *\ ’7’ ~3 (Georgetofin). 1 ° I . _ g" 00%\ “ L Eulau’ . r. 9‘\ ». ~~ ‘ ”'9 Pinang -' '- Port Weld . s \_ \ . fl _ _ f Melaka r * \ c ; is' " Mua' see S'b0'sa. i. 3;, is.» \ inset « Pulau 9‘ \QQ \\ horBaharu \Nias \ . r \ Sinsanuro_.\.r-'// W ‘2 $3: '\ . J ‘ \‘y Sirfgapore L @usmatra T aKepulauan) g is’ \ ‘ . ' Rlau - . 8,. #1 x .Pakanbaru - A Criticalarea .3, Major port ,. i, f _. _ ‘ (shoals) 3, «.1 Indonesia . —+—-—-o— Railroad Paved road a " I \ Kepulauani' §ayil§umbuh Lingga ._ ‘ f ‘3 ‘ ‘2 ~ » Bathymetry ;. hwy“ o 10 so so fathoms pedang " ‘ i. _ ‘ ‘Scalo l:8.000.000 0 1a 54 92 meters g1, go .1 50 100 150 Mlles J" 1‘ \ .’ Port Dickson ' \\ N Q 50 _ 100 150 Kilometers 31 Islands in the Sea . . . cultural heritage . . . colonial legacies . . . contemporary problems {-047 “ ‘fim Outsiders have known of the islands of the Indian Ocean for centuries but have seldom shown more than a cursory interest in them. Some of the islands have long histories of human occupancy, but advanced civilizations have developed only on Madagascar and Ceylon. Many of the islands were unin- habited until colonized by European powers in the expansionist periods of the 18th and 19th centuries. Some are still uninhabited, usually because of an unfavorable physical environment. The Arabs were the first group to leave their imprint on the islands. Arab dhows followed the seasonally reversing wind sys- tems of the Arabian Sea, and their crews spread the Islamic religion and left a legacy of trade and seamanship as far distant as Zanzibar and the Comoros to the south and the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian Archipelago to the east. The westward drift 32 u3“’ of the South Equatorial Current is credited with bringing the Malayo-Polynesian an- cestors of the important Merina tribe to the shores of Madagascar. Following their development on the sub- continent of India, early Hindu and Buddhist civilizations spread to Ceylon, while Hindu culture expanded into the Laccadives and the Maldives to mix with the Arab influences there. The Indic peoples who brought these cultures were not noted as sailors, and their cultural expansion elsewhere in the western Indian Ocean region came only during the 19th and 20th centuries as Indian laborers and traders emigrated to areas controlled by the British Empire. The animistic cultures of African tribal groups similarly spread to the nearshore islands of Zanzibar and Pemba and filtered into the Comoros and Madagascar; the Africans, like the South Asians, were not seafarers and their influence did not reach s" the more oceanic islands until they were introduced as field hands during the colonial era. Africans were also traded as slaves into the coastal lands of the Arabian Peninsula, where their descendents remain a racial ele- ment in the local populations today. French and British influence on the Indian Ocean islands began in the late 19th century with the establishment of plantation agricul- ture to serve rapidly expanding Western European markets. Primary emphasis was placed on the coconut palm, indigenous to the low coral islands; on sugarcane, easily adapted to the fertile volcanic soils of the Mascarenes; and on coffee, tea, spices, and rubber. The language, the religion—par- ticularly Catholicism in French-dominated areas and the lifestyles of the colonial ad- ministrators became the cultural heritage for the successor states of the mid-20th century. The plantation system is responsible for some 5 Comoros * file 0 Mada scar * Prince Edward Is. I. Jazi'ir Khuriyé Muriyi ‘ "DI. Socotra ”lee - I Seychelles ’. Jazi'rat Masirah \ ~ \ IOU,- ,» \ Laccadive, Minicoy l and Amindivi ls. , Sri Lanka* ...1 Maldives 31: .4 (~- ‘ British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) i O Mauritius* “lee Reunion ~ ile Amsterdam ' and He Saint-Paul . lles Crozet I Iles Kerguelen . ,Heard I. and McDonald Is. ma Predominant influences Colonial: f I British I French Cultural: ® African . British . Indian . Arab . French . Malay * Communal tension Andafiran Is. 5 REL“? Nicobar,o Is. U" , Christmas I. ‘l. Cocos (Keeling) ls. Scale i:48.000,000 of the problems that now afflict the Indian Ocean islands. Among the foremost of these are overdependence on one or two cash crops and the frictions that have surfaced between cultural groups originally brought in as plan- tation labor. Population pressure on many of the islands is focusing attention on the emerging prob- lems of food deficits and limited water re- sources. The more densely populated is- lands—the Laccadives, the Maldives, Ceylon, Mauritius, the Comoros, the Seychelles, and Reunion—are already net importers of food, and only the larger islands have even the prospect of self-sufficiency. The harvesting of food from the sea is still a primitive pur- suit on most of the islands. Even in the Laccadives and the Maldives, whose people are skilled fishermen, modern techniques of ocean fishing have only recently been intro- duced and on only a limited basis. The search for economic diversification has turned toward the exploitation of the warm climate and the natural beauty of the islands for tourism. Aided by low-cost jet flights, new airports, and the boom in world travel, Indian Ocean resorts have now been constructed that appeal particularly to tour- ists from South Africa, Japan, and Western Europe. Tourism, however, is accompanied by rising prices, pollution, and changing social values. There are few alternatives to tourism for most of the smaller islands, which almost totally lack other resources. Faced with burgeoning populations, some island admin- istrations are encouraging simple cottage industries such as the weaving of mats from coconut palm fibers. Assembly-type light industries are being established on islands where the workers are sufficiently educated to carry out more complex operations. The expansion of tourism and industry may compound the problem of water short- ages, which occur with increasing frequency. Many smaller islands totally lack streams or springs, and on other islands with hilly ter- rain the runoff is very rapid. On coral-based islands, wells are sunk to tap limited reserves in pockets of limestone. Storage and con- servation facilities have been planned for some of the water-short islands, but high costs slow implementation. An uncertain future awaits those small islands with large populations and limited resources that have recently become inde- pendent. Political and economic relationships among the Indian Ocean islands and littoral countries are skeletal but growing, stimulated by the increasing interest of the major world powers in the region and by the new in- fluence in the northwestern Indian Ocean of the oil-rich states of the Persian Gulf. 33 . . . communal tensions Only a few Indian Ocean islands have homogeneous populations. On many others, frictions among ethnic groups have assumed major political and economic importance. Local resentment of South Asian com- munities is widespread, and government policies toward them range from reluctant tolerance to systematic pressure to emigrate. Strong familial cohesiveness and, in Hindu families, religious beliefs preclude intermar- riage with outsiders and alienate South Asians from the other ethnic groups among whom they live. They are often viewed as aloof and unassimilable. Not even Islam has bonded together the minority of South Asians who are Moslem with their Arab and African coreligionists: Moslem South Asians are re- garded in the same light as Hindus. The role of the South Asian in many islands and in the countries of the East African littoral is that of trader, shopkeeper, and middleman in financial affairs. They have a reputation for commercial acumen, frugality, and accumulation of wealth that generates envy as well as a begrudging respect among their neighbors. South Asian workers, known for their ability to endure long hours of arduous work, dominate the labor-intensive sugar industry on Mauritius and the tea and rubber planta- tions of Sri Lanka. Indians were introduced onto both islands by British colonial admin- istrations to replace less tractable local labor. In Sri Lanka antipathy between the Tamils of Indian descent and the native Sinhalese continues to contribute to strained commu- nity relations. 111 will between the South Asians and the Creoles (primarily of African descent) on Mauritius, where the Asians are now the largest ethnic group in the popula- tion, has hardened into an alignment of opposing political factions with occasional eruptions of violence. Similar disharmonics 34 between communities with South Asian and African cultural backgrounds in such dis- parate places as Guyana, Surinam, and the countries of East Africa suggest that this is a basic clash of cultures and differing value systems rather than an outgrowth of local conditions. Small but influential overseas Chinese communities share the trader/ shopkeeper role with the South Asians. Generally, the two groups do not compete directly. If situ- ated together in the same village or town, the Chinese are more likely to specialize in foodstuffs and South Asians in textiles and other dry goods. Although they are a closely knit community, the Chinese tend to be less obtrusive than the South Asians, mainly be- cause they intermarry with other groups. Chinese communities are nonetheless ac- cused of remitting a disproportionate share of their income to their homelands rather than investing it locally. The hostility of the coastal African peoples toward local Arab elites is a relic of the slave trade era. With political independence and the coming to power of new African leaders, the former Arab ruling class is gradually being displaced. Wealthy Arab merchants are losing their predominant economic posi- tions, and some are being forced to emigrate. Many aspects of Arab life, however, particu- larly the tenets of Islam, have been ab— sorbed into the distinctive Swahili culture that has evolved on Zanzibar, in the Como- ros, and along the nearby African coast. Differences in ethnic background are basic to the political rivalry between the Merina tribe in the highlands of Madagascar and the coastal tribes (cotiers). Although a blend of Malayo-Polynesian and Negroid racial characteristics appear in both groups, Ne- groid features are more pronounced among the cotiers. The Merina upper classes have preserved their distinctive Malayo-Polynesia .' features by spurning intermarriage with in- dividuals of Black African descent. Thi maintenance of group exclusivity adds t tensions in the economic and political life 0 l A Madagascar. Lingering love-hate relationships charac terize the cultural ties between the people of the Indian Ocean islands and their forme colonial overlords. Many aspects of Wester European cultures remain imprinted on th area, intermingled with resurgent pre-colo : nial traditions. ' Only remnants of the former French and? British colonial class remain in the islands. After the administrators departed, planters and other businessmen with economic hold- ings to protect stayed on, but now they are. being driven out by the nationalistic policies of the new countries. Among the first to leave were the British tea and rubber planters in Sri Lanka, where laws wer: passed to con- trol, to nationalize, and to break up the large estates. (Some of these emigres are settling near Perth in Australia.) The most recent have been French nationals who left Mada- gascar in the wake of the Malagasization pro- in gram. The last stronghold of the French is Reunion, a department of France. Even there, grumbling greeted the influx of mili- tary personnel and dependents evicted in early 1975 from the former French naval base at Diego Suarez on Madagascar. On Mauritius, uncertain prospects for the future have caused some members of the small French elite, which controls the sugar indus- try, to relocate in South Africa. The decline of the French and British colonials is likely to continue in the remaining years of the 1970's with the lessening influence of British plantation owners in the Seychelles and the probable departure of some of the French interests in the Comoros. Arabian Sea Islands - cSocotra Jazirat Masirah accessible by: occasional boat, military air service part of the Sultanate of Oman Jaza’ir Khuriya Muriya accessible by: occasional boat part of the Sultanate of Oman Socotra and neighboring islands accessible by: occasional boat, unscheduled air service part of the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen The forbidding physical attributes of these windswept, rocky, and largely barren islands have discouraged their development. The lo- cation of Socotra, the largest of them, at the southern entrance of the Gulf of Aden has briefly attracted the interest of one after an- other of the European countries that from the 16th century onward sought to establish a naval presence in the northwestern Indian Ocean. There are no good harbors, however, and the few anchorages afford protection only part of the year from the strong season- ally shifting monsoonal winds. Sunken rocks and reefs border the Socotran coastline, and these together with seasonal squalls and heavy seas make coastal navigation hazard- ous even for dhow traffic. The interior of Socotra, a rugged plateau above which rise a number of low mountains, is sparsely populated. Most of the island’s villages are along the north and northwest coasts on the small coastal lowlands and flat-bottomed wadis that lie between moun- tain spurs. Rough tracks connect the vil- lages, but only trails penetrate the highlands. The narrow belt of lava and sand dunes along the south coast is uninhabited. About half the Socotran population are Bedouins who eke out an existence in the mountains as nomadic herdsmen. The other half, the Negroes and Arabs who live in the scattered coastal settlements, fare little better economically. The Bedouins speak an ancient Arabic dialect, but most of the Ne- groes and coastal Arabs speak modern Ara- bic. Some of the coastal Arabs are traders, whereas the Negroes tend to be fishermen, pearl divers, or workers on Arab dhows. A few export products enter the dhow trade— ghee (clarified butter), aloe juice, and civit musk from the interior, and dried fish, pearls, and ambergris (a sperm whale secretion used in perfumes) from the coast. Rainfall is highly erratic in this hot semi- desert climate but averages less than 250 mm (10 inches) per year. Most of it falls in No- vember and December in the violent squalls frequently associated with the prevailing northeasterly winds of the winter monsoon. The steadier southwest winds of the summer monsoon bring little rain. Supplies of fresh surface water are scarce and unreliable ex- cept during the height of the winter monsoon, and cultivation is limited to palm date groves in oases in the wadis and to small vegetable plots. The other Arabian Sea islands are of little economic or political significance. There is a small British airbase on Iazirat Masirah; fishermen operate seasonally from a few sandy beaches on ‘Abd al Kuri; and some guano deposits are being mined on the Jaza’ir Khuriya Muriya. The Brothers are uninhabited. Jaza’ir Khuriya Muriyé 83 km2 — 32 mi2 no permanent inhabitants Ra’s Hilf 1; .5 a. Masimh Airfield paved _, wik’ (RAF military) segment j ‘ Ra's 3/ Y5' Jazirat Qarzawit Shagha "~ ‘ I \ .1. ””2” 1.51“ .- . 'Y/ Jazirat Masirah As Sawda' } i .3 AI Qibfiyah R8'5 “’55" :1) . I 658 km2 -254 mi2 ’AI Hésikwah t Al l-lallaniyah fireman f" 9°“ _ d3“ ”"kmw" 1; 4145 I 5‘ Scale 1:1,2so.ooo . ~ ‘/ Scale 1:1.2so,ooo it t f” Ra's Abri Rasis L A... 3" Landing supplies for the airfield, Jazr'rat Masirah Socotra and neighboring islands Darsah 12 km2—4.6 mi2 , Ka'l Fir‘uvvn Ra's Khaysal ”rm” ‘Abd al Kflri ‘ Ra's An/nlah . ' 51a anchoragot ~il;_ ) Socotra 3,579 km2—1,382 mi2; pop. — approx. 15,000 ‘Abd al Kim 1131 km2-51 mi2 Samhah 39 km2 — 15 mi2 no permanent inhabitants _, ' K . . anchorage gt ‘ Ra S “dam“ Had Ra s Hula!” t . ( We 06% Iboht/ . §Ibfimvah Qaysoh‘ \ ‘ \K ’ t / . I. _ * ”.2323? - x a .1 I L. \ ‘ ‘m‘m Ris~K rma ~ " ‘x 3:": - « Airfi§ld 1530 . '0‘ . ..-_- t " " 4" M (military) , 1 “- i 1‘ Ra's Momi .3, , ) ,6; + Ra‘s Sha‘ab .. ~. - , . 1 . ‘choh 5 . . 2" 788 ' - l3 1 x): 1012‘; - . ‘4' ‘ “' ‘ \ Fa/anj . x w, a Socotra : p ,.. Ra’s Oafanan ; you-i M ”a a-.. b u) . The Brothers no “Q Darsah Saml'iah f I 663 + many footpaths, camel and r» . r ’ cattle tracks throughoutisland , WJJ .‘ NaWQ'd-"n' — — ~ Unpaved road elevations in meters Scale 1:1.250.000 0 _1_0_ 20 Miles 6———1.0——_20 Kilometers Zanzibar land resources. On Pemba the population is fairly evenly distributed, but on Zanzibar Island it is concentrated in the agriculturally productive areas on the western half of the island and along the coast. Zanzibar Island is urbanized to an extent unusual in Africa, with more than a third of its population residing in Zanzibar town. Pemba island Zanzibar Island Most Zanzibaris depend on agriculture for ‘fl their livelihood. Work on the farms, or sham- " has, is closely tied to the seasons. During both the hot dry season (January-February) and the cool dry season (June-September) the ground is prepared for food crops, most of which are planted at the beginning of the rainy seasons, March-May and October- December. The main harvest of cash and food crops takes place during the cool dry season and a secondary harvest from Novem- ber to January. All agricultural operations are performed by hand, and a great deal of the cultivation is done by women. part of United Republic of Tanzania Zanzibar island 1,658 kmz-liiii mi2 pup. 214,000 (1975 est.) Pemba Island 934 kmz- 330 mi pup. 195,000 (1915 est) accessible by: merchant ships to Zanzibar town, and Zanzibari Government cammuter ships from Dar es Salaam; daily air service to Zanzibar and three times weekly to Pemba from Kenya and mainland Tanzania became an independent sultanate on 9 December 1963, combined with Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in April 1964, renamed United Republic of Tanzania in October 1964 The primary export crops are cloves and coconuts. Cloves, originally introduced by the Sultan of Oman when he established his capital on Zanzibar in 1840, dominate the economy. They account for 70 to 80 percent of the islands’ exports and constitute 80 per- cent of the world’s supply. Apparently the combination of soil and climate is unique: Zanzibar consists of reef-rimmed Zanzibar and Pemba, the largest coral islands off the African coast. The monsoon winds have for many centuries brought to these islands sailing people from countries bordering the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf; Arabs, Persians, Indians, and others have inter- mingled with the African population. Arabs ‘n. " 5:1; have had the most lasting cultural influence, ' and almost all the population is Moslem. Until 1964 Arabs were the principal land- owners while Asians controlled most of the commerce. Since then racial harassment and the nationalization of land and businesses have led to a steady outflow from the Arab and Asian communities. With more than 150 persons per square kilometer, Zanzibar is one of the most densely populated areas in tropical Africa. Birth control is illegal, and the rapidly growing population is increasing the pressure on 0.} . i 3 ’3 ‘3 ‘9. « * National capital Railroad Allvweather road ‘ Scale 13,000,000 0 25 50Miles , . 0’. x) , % ,Qg 43° . l l / I Moro - . » 9’, v j: .°—an ”a -:V :; ~ A Dan Sal-Int l intern-ti alAleort New apartment blocks built with East German aid in Zanzibar town experiments to grow cloves elsewhere on a large scale have not met with much success. Clove trees are grown on the hillier western sides of both islands where rainfall averages at least 1,500 mm (60 inches) a year and where deep, fertile, sandy loam soils are predominant. Pemba produces most of the crop because it has wider expanses of good soils, rainfall is heavier, and a destructive fungus disease (referred to as “sudden death”) is less of a problem. About half of the cloves are sold to Indo- nesia, where they are used to flavor ciga- rettes. Smaller quantities go to Singapore, India, Europe, and the United States for use as a cooking spice and as an ingredient in flavorings and perfumes. Cloves are stored for export during the lean years of the widely fluctuating harvest. They are processed in and shipped from Zanzibar town, on Zanzi- bar’s sheltered western side. Coconuts are a poor second to cloves as an export crop; even so Zanzibar is the largest producer of copra on the east coast of Africa. The coconut palm, more tolerant of poorer soils than cloves, is more widespread on Zanzibar Island than on Pemba. On both islands the palms are scattered throughout the clove growing areas, along the coast, and in patches on the eastern coral plains (wanda). Zanzibar’s climate and soils support the cultivation of a wide variety of food crops such as citrus, cassava, maize, millet, rice, sugarcane, and sweet potatoes. However, so much of the land is in cash crops that the islands must import rice—-—the basic staple in the Zanzibari diet—and other food. The government is attempting through diversifi- cation to reduce the islands’ reliance on food imports and overdependence on one export crop. While past attempts to diversify the econ- omy were for the most 'part failures because of poor planning and lack of a sustained effort, current efforts appear to be more successful. The Peoples Republic of China has been helping with a state rice farm and a large integrated sugar project, designed to make Zanzibar self-sufficient in sugar. There has been some success with the production of other spices such as cinnamon and nut- meg. Cattle raising, which is more wide- spread on Pemba than on Zanzibar Island, has expanded into the grasslands of the wanda, an area generally unsuitable for culti- vation. An Italian survey carried out for the government reports that there are encourag- ing prospects for commercial fishing, which is presently limited by inefficient traditional Sorting cloves ffmfig’htaw .. , M‘“ ' Zanzibari Arab minority was overthrown, and Zanzibar united with Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanzania (URT). The unifica— tion agreement, modeled after the 1920 union between Great Britain and Northern Ireland, assures Zanzibar its own identity and a largely autonomous government. Many of the problems inherent in this hastily formed union remain unresolved, and actual unifica- tion has lagged. methods and the lack of freezer facilities. Tourism is being encouraged on both islands through the construction of new hotels, al- though the government is determined not to become dependent on the tourist industry. The islands lack proven petroleum or other mineral resources except for lime; a series of exploratory oil wells in the 1950’s came up dry. Shortly after independence the ruling Arab Pemba Island Relative positions of islands have been altered. Area of cloves Main rice valleys Area of limited agriculture (coral wanda) Clove industry Coconut products aelll Scale 1700.000 0 5 10 Miles ‘ 0 5 10 Kilometers . 1 i Potoa Kilindi elevations in meters ._,,,.._ All-weather road _,. M M Seasonal road Zanzibar Island Mangapw ‘3 (Mkunguni Zanzibar Island profile (A-B on map) wanda thin coral soil, few villages or roads shamba land cloves, coconuts, rice in swamps, many Villages and roads I l l Masingini _ l Ridge Koani | t, | I (‘3! Clove trees 1‘ Coconut palms mm: Grass or bush 37 Comoros Republic of the Commas 2.230 km’— 053 mi’ pop. 294,000 (1975 est) accessible by: regular ship service, deity air service independent republic since 31 December 1975 Comoran independence from French rule was proclaimed unilaterally in 1975 follow- ing several years of unsuccessful negotia- tions. In dispute was the status of Mayotte, one of the four Comoran islands. The is- landers on Mayotte—the Mahorais—had opposed independence and vociferously struggled to remain an overseas territory of France. Of Malagasy origin, most of the Mahorais are Catholic and strongly in- fluenced by French culture. They fear domi- nation by the Islamic majority on Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli, who share the distinctive Afro-Arab cultural heritage com- mon to Zanzibar, Pemba, and the nearby African coast. More isolated from trends of change, the social structure of the majority group has remained hierarchical, feudal, and conservative. The two disparate groups of Comorans are unlikely to unite in a single political body without some form of au- tonomy for Mayotte within a Comoran federation. The assets of the new state are minimal and its liabilities overwhelming: population densities are high, the islands spend nearly twice as much money for imports of food and other necessities as is earned from export products, there are few natural resources for potential development other than the beauty of tropical beaches, and the possibilities of generating new sources of income are slim. French subsidy to make up the annual defi- cit was ended in 1975. Without aid, the new state is faced with major financial problems. All of the islands are warm enough and wet enough to support a lush growth of trop- ical forests, yet there is a shortage of wood. Heavy demands for fuel, construction ma- terials, and more cultivable land have led to the destruction of all but a few stands of forest. Despite the nearly 5,000 mm (200 inches) of rain that falls on the flanks of Mont Kar- tala every year, water shortages occur on Grande Comore during the drier season, May through October. The porous volcanic soils and fissured basaltic bedrock allow the rainwater to percolate to great depths. The Grande Comorans therefore depend for their water supply on storm water collected in house cisterns. The other three islands re- ceive considerably less rainfall, but the larger streams flow throughout the year and water shortages are not as critical. Spices and plants yielding essential oils are grown for export. The Comoros are second in world production of vanilla, most of which goes to the United States (1972 value, $1.6 million). About three-fourths of the vanilla crop is grown on Grande Comore, where the vines are trained on coconut palms and other trees. Essential oils such as jasmine and lime are produced on Anjouan and Moheli for the perfume and soap industries. Cloves, grown on a small scale on Anjouan, and copra from all the islands are other exports. France is the major recipient of essential oils and cloves, and most of the c0pra is shipped to Reunion and Madagascar. The Comorans are largely illiterate and un- skilled, and most are subsistence farmers or laborers on plantations controlled by a few large landholders. Most of the land belongs to private companies or to members of the Arab aristocracy who live in the towns. Co— conuts are the staple food in poor villages, and coconut trees cover 34 percent of all arable land. However, rice is the preferred food and a status symbol in the islands. The desire for rice is so great that those who can afford it buy imported rice, and others grow it on small family plots regardless of whether the land is suitable. Rice imports in recent years have been three to four times greater than the amount grown on the islands. The shortage of arable land is aggravated by the high population growth rate, esti- mated to be more than 3 percent annually. Unemployment is already widespread, and the population profile bulges in the under-18 age group, which has not yet entered the labor market. Emigration to Madagascar and the countries along the east coast of Africa has been the traditional outlet for the surplus Comoran population, but the ability and will- ingness of these countries to absorb addi- tional migrants is rapidly diminishing. The number of overseas Comorans is estimated to be at least one-half of the home population, and remittances to relatives in the islands are an important source of income. The Comoros have approximately 400 kilo- meters of tarred roads. Most interisland trans- port is by small boat, but air service is also available to each island. Most products— vanilla, cloves, and essential oils—are ex- ported by air. Plans to encourage interna- tional tourism may be overly optimistic; the islands lack the basic services tourists nor- mally expect, and many tourist facilities are already under construction on other Indian Ocean islands. . “ ' ' Mtwa Tanzania J , Masasl 'V Vila de Moélmboa da Praia Porto Amélia ,Nampula Grande Comore Moronit Comoros Ouani.. . Moheli ’ {Anjouan , Dzao d ' Mayotte ' u 2' Scale1:6.000,000 0 50 100 Miles 0 50 100 Kilometers lles Glorleuses (France) Cap d' Ambre , I’Dlégo-Suarez Nosy Be Henvme' , _ 38 s Moroni street scene, veiled woman reflects lingering conservative Islamic traditions Young girls of Moroni Moroni waterfront, Grande Comore lie M’Zambourou seen from Mayotte i l l i l l I Grande Comore Amouan Mayotte H 1.148 km2-443 mi2 "915,“ ~— 424 kmz- 164 mi:2 IN’— 374 km2 — 144 mi2 pop. 149,000 pop. 95,000 * pop. 38,000 try- Ric}! du Nord u won“) Bale anchorage 3,50 “1‘ d'An/‘ouan P ‘3 M'Zarlll'fimurou9 0°"5’"°“"’ Sugd $2”, Bambao ‘ - u or s M'Sanga o r h.’ ‘r‘si— Ile “‘ n m — ‘ Domoni — Pamanzi 12°15'— Bm‘e do ' 90“]0“ Soulou Grande Passe 0180"“ 'Ramonl de FOuest “I?“ ? ac: “Ty “w Pomonzr l 0 p‘SSe Bendeli ndele i I * MOhell 12°10’~—4 9:6 290 km2 -112 rni2 , “a” "W ,_ pop. 12,000 _. 5° " m; :/ 4‘01? 080d r 0 I Foumboum ‘5?) £5115 — 12°20’— it Aanchorage ”manage \ ‘ - * Na"ona' Gapi‘a' «MW All-weather road PointeSud 04 'Egle Chandzi elevations in meters """ ' 7' ‘ Seasonal road lle Canzoum (gnaénéfou 26m 1 700,020 10 __ any“ 15 MIIES “a“: War “9.0, w, 0 5 i0 15 Kilometers i J _ i I . imp 39 Madagascar The huge island of Madagascar is in many ways an anomaly. It is an ancient fragment of Africa, yet its relationship to the continent is remote. The presence on the island of animals such as the lemur, now extinct in Africa, and the absence of large mammals common to Africa indicate separate develop- ment of island and mainland species. The peoples also differ: the Malagasy natives are a blend of Malayo-Polynesian and Negroid racial stock, and the tribal cultures are more Asian than African. IJntfl the late 19th century, hdadagascar was the home of a dynamic, indigenous civi- lization led by the highland Merina tribe. In 1895 the island came under French domi- nation following prolonged and difficult military operations against outlying tribes. Madagascar remained a French colony until 1958 when rising nationalist feelings led to establishment of the Malagasy Republic as an autonomous member of the new French Community. Full independence followed in 1960. Madagascar is fourth in size among the islands of the world (after Greenland, New Guinea, and Borneo). A sparsely populated plain in the west rises gradually to a popu- lous central highland area of rolling plateaus and volcanic mountains. The steep eastern slope of the highlands ends in a narrow, thickly settled coastal plain. Few of the mountains exceed 2,700 meters; most peaks are 600 to 2,000 meters above sea level. Most of the original forest has been de- stroyed by man, and the central highlands have a moorland appearance, with only scat- tered patches of woodland. Open savanna with scattered trees and shrubs, which sup- ports large herds of scrub cattle, now pre- dominates on the western plains. In the east, a narrow belt of rainforest extends from north to south along the lower mountain 4O Grands Comore 45° roni Comoros Aniouan Moheli K Mayo “6 3,". Pamanzl Mozambique Chann lle Chesterfield ' el Morondava (topic a! , Capricorn Tule 7, 25° Cap Saints-Marie l i 50° 0 lles Glorleuses (France) Geyser Reef Nosy Levee, Bale de Narinda art-Dauphin Nosy Be Hellvill , , . Cap d ' Ambre . . légo—Suarez Nosy MitsioJ' Sosdinav ' le Sainte-Marie Ambodifototra :- Fenerlve Indian Ocean National capltal @ Province capital Provlnce boundary ® Major port Populated places (1972 est) Mljungl Over 50,000 Tulear 10.000 to 50,000 Morombe Under10.000 +4—0- Rallroad (meter gauge) Roads: Paved -—-—— All-weather —————— Seasonal elevations in meters Scale 1 16.000.000 2__52__1°o Miles _ o 50 100 Kllometers l l Physiographic regions Morondava ' . l. flanarantaoa. 4' ’ . K I lhosy. Tulear Fort-Dauphin Annual rainfall In centimeters 320 cm= 126 in 16p 160 cm= 63in 80 cm= 31.5 in 160 slope, comprising two-thirds of the island’s remaining forest. Erosion has been wide- spread, particularly in the central highlands. The exposed red clay has earned Madagascar its nickname, “the great red island.” Influenced seasonally by the northwest monsoon, the doldrum belt, and the south- east trades, the island’s climate ranges from wet tropical to near desert. Heavy rainfall, high humidity, and high temperatures along the east coast combine to create oppressive conditions year-round. The central high- lands, in contrast, are relatively comfortable with moderate temperatures and distinct summer wet and winter dry seasons. The dry season becomes progressively longer to- ward the south and west, culminating in arid conditions in the extreme southwest. Tropical cyclones occur at irregular intervals, often bringing abnormally heavy rains, flooding, and destructive winds to parts of the island. The rainfall feeds perennial streams that originate in the highlands. Those that cascade down the eastern slope are short, some with spectacular waterfalls; on the western slope the streams flow in braided, silted channels within the highlands and through wide alluvial valleys near the coast that have con- siderable potential for irrigated cultivation. Madagascar’s capital city, Tananarive, with new government center at left middleground. The mon- ument in Lake Anosy is dedicated to the veneration of Malagasy ancestors. Directly beyond the mon- ument rises the Madagascar Hilton. Most Malagasy are descendents of Malayo- Polynesians who crossed the Indian Ocean in outrigger canoes. Other settlers on the island included Arabs and Negroid peoples; many of the latter were imported from east Africa as slaves. All 18 Malagasy tribes speak dialects of the same Malaya-Polynesian lan- guage and share the same animistic ancestor- Tananarive street scene 41 worshiping religion overlain by a veneer of Christianity. An important force in contem- porary society, traditional religion is a hin- drance to material progress because its taboos and controls tend to deter the Mala- gasy peasant from innovation. Malagasy society is nationally distinct and superficially homogeneous; however, beneath the surface there is a mutual distrust between the highland Merina tribe and the coastal tribes that pervades all aspects of Malagasy life. The light-skinned Merina are the domi- nant minority, comprising 25 percent of the population. Next in numbers are the more Negroid Betsimisaraka (15 percent), who occupy much of the east coast, followed by the Betsileo (12 percent), who adjoin the Merina on the south. The Merina are the richest, best educated, and most adaptable of the peoples. F our—fifths of Malagasy doc- tors, lawyers, teachers, civil servants, and urban wage earners are Merina. Most cotiers (coastal people) are less educated and con- tinue to live as subsistence farmers and herders. Madagascar was long considered under- populated, but the Malagasy people have nearly doubled their number in the past 25 years. The population is predominantly rural, living in villages or hamlets. Pockets of high rural density are found near all the cities, but the most thickly settled are associated with the intensive rice cultivation in the highlands around Tananarive, the national capital, and along the east coast. Although Madagascar is considered one of the world’s poor countries, there is generally enough to eat. Only 15 percent of the land is arable and only one-third of the arable land is cultivated, but small-scale agriculture, especially in the highlands, has been devel- oped to a high degree. Rice, the staple food throughout most of the island, occupies more than 25 percent of the cultivated land. Manioc and livestock products are other im- portant subsistence foods. Agricultural com- modities provide more than 80 percent of the island’s export earnings; the most important of these are coffee, vanilla (Madagascar ac- Rice fields near Tananarive counts for about three-fourths of world pro- duction), cloves (30 percent of world out- put), sugar, sisal, and animal products. Although the country has 5,000 kilometers of shoreline, ocean fishing is confined mainly to shrimp and tuna from west coast fishing grounds. Freshwater fish, most of them raised in farm ponds and consumed domestically, account for four-fifths of the total catch. Manufacturing is limited to the processing of agricultural products and the small-scale production of light consumer goods. Small amounts of chromite, graphite, and mica are mined in the highlands. Intra-island transport is primarily by ships and aircraft, which utilize the island’s nu- merous small ports and airstrips. Two short rail systems serve a limited area of the east coast. Most of the road system is poor in good weather and subject to frequent washouts in bad; parts of the island may be isolated from each other during the rainy season except by air or sea. Coastal shipping is sup- plemented to a limited extent by light barge traffic on segments of the Canal des Panga- lanes, a discontinuous series of intercon- nected lagoons and streams along the popu- lous east coast. The country has two of the largest and best natural harbors in the world—Baie de Diego Suarez, developed by the French as a naval base, and Baie de N arinda, isolated from the country’s principal Population density and ethnic groups Bara Ethnic group name Ethnic core area Persons per square kilometer O 8 18 28 160 NosyBeq 0 21 47 73 414 Am j Persons per square mile lie [Sainte- Marie Vangaindrano Fort-Dauphin mbovombe Agricultural products - Rice (33 Cloves / ' Cacao —* Su arcane .-_ Vanilla ’ g d 3135:.- Pepper ’6 Cotton "c" '" sugarane . _. t . 5; Mananiary Farafangana Fort-Dauphin Animistic religious beliefs persist. Men bind a zebu ox for sacrificial offering. commercial centers and still undeveloped. There are few other good harbors. Air Madagascar, the national air carrier, maintains a dense route network on the island, and both Air Madagascar and Air France provide international service. Charter and other air transport services are operated by private companies, aeroclubs, and govern- ment agencies. French influence is gradually diminishing a decade and a half after independence, but many of the old ties between Madagascar and France still hold. The Malagasy elite still tend to live like the French. French com- panies control most of the island’s industry, Minerals and industry deposit mine Fe Iron Fe Ni Nickel Ni J Graphite / Mn Manganese Be Beryl Be Pb Lead Cu Copper ~ ® Center of light industry a Petroleum refinery i Textile mill Shipyard ca/umbiie mine A Be ‘ bauxite H Mn Fe [hill/"7!? Fe I amen O mme Lake Ilmemle {3. 50’0””- IAIaoira sand: Be Ni ‘ - O; Tamatave bauxite ‘ ‘ Be Tananarive uranium . e B e Antsirabe B Be Be ‘ w/umblte Fe Fianaran soa bl 'to ‘\ I {nil/137%"; I . .. Tulear Fe ‘ ’ ’Fe‘ ”I,” V," and Ifmm sand: I (ham/rile ‘ S: ' Fort-Dauphin ( "tea-ave University students, primfi me Wine elite, .» I , b > :- champiorfagaqsgq' ‘ ' . W; plantation agriculture, banking, and inter- national trade. Almost half of Madagascar exports are shipped to French markets, and French goods account for about half the imports. The Government has stressed programs that expand state control of the economy and lessen foreign influence. The giant French trading company, Compagnie Marseillaise de Madagascar, has been nationalized. The French have pulled out of their naval base at Diego Suarez, foreign warships are barred Aerial view of the modern port of Tamatave Scheduled airline connections- 1976 Madagascar's well-developed network of air- fields provides access to all parts of the island, some difficult to reach by surface transport. Dur- ing the rainy season air service is the most dependable means of travel into areas lacking all-weather roads. Not shown are many landing strips and airfields not in regularly scheduled use. Diégo-Suarez/ Andrakaka lntemational Domestic ® Asphalt or concrete runway e Gravel or graded earth runway from all ports in Madagascar, and the NASA tracking station has been closed. The agriculture-based economy is experi- encing only modest overall growth. If present trends continue, the country should become self-sufficient in basic foodstuffs by 1977; over the long run it has the potential to be- come a large—scale exporter of both food and industrial raw materials. The tough problems remain—raising the standard of living and overcoming ethnic antagonisms and peasant resistance to change. Malunga/ Amborovy Plateau des Tombes Scaie1:350.000 0 1 2 aMiles 0—1—2_3 Kilometers 43 Reunion glues Glorleuus new a Move ' .lle Iromelln / O . Bale. da . - ' Ina- I Reunion lle Europa Overseas Department of Reunion 23512 km“ 970 mi2 pop. 493.000 (1975 est.) accessible by: regular ship service. daily air service overseas department of the French Republic since 1946 Reunion is the principal French territory in the Indian Ocean. Uninhabited until early 1643, the island was colonized by France to serve as a way station on the sea routes to India. Its first inhabitants were mutineers deported from Madagascar, but it was not until 20 years later that it was permanently settled by French colonists and their slaves. Reunion’s population today is an intermix- ture of European, African, and Asian peoples; French culture is dominant. The rugged terrain of the island restricts the populated and cultivated areas primarily to the coastal fringes. Much of the coast is cliffed and there are no natural harbors, but small fishing boats can be accommodated at various points. Larger vessels are handled at man-made Le Port. Inland, a high dissected plateau noted for its spectacular scenery is dominated by two peaks—the 3,069-meter Piton des Neiges, the highest point in the Indian Ocean, and the 2,63l-meter active volcano, Piton de la Fournaise. The central mountains deflect the prevail- ing southeast trade winds, creating a climatic contrast between the eastern and western parts of the island. The eastern, windward side (the Arrondissement-du-Vent) has heav- ier rainfall and is the principal sugarcane growing area. On the leeward side (the Ar- rondissement-sous-le-Vent) rainfall is low, cactus-like plants abound, and crops must be irrigated. The island lies within the zone of tropical cyclones, which vary in intensity from weak disturbances to storms of hurri- cane force. Their frequency is very irregular, but the usual season of occurrence is January through March. Reunion’s economy is so highly dependent on sugarcane that little arable land remains for other crops. Efforts to convert land to the production of other food have met with re- sistance from the dozen large sugar producers who control the industry, and much food has to be imported. Total imports are more than triple exports, which are primarily sugar and sugar products plus minor amounts of vanilla, tea, and perfume essences. The large trade deficit is made up by a French subsidy. Dur- ing the 1960’s, when the selling price of sugar was actually lower than the cost of produc- tion, France agreed to buy all Reunion’s sugar at a guaranteed price above the world market. This protected market discouraged the introduction of more efficient production practices, and now the sugar industry is find- ing it difficult to meet competition. Many of the small producers have been forced out of business—increasing an already high unem- ployment rate (25 percent) on an island where poverty is commonplace. Lacking significant natural resources other than agricultural land, Reunion has few ways to broaden its economic base. The nascent fishing industry has some potential, and sev- eral small industrial plants using imported raw materials and semifinished goods now manufacture products—such as paints, re- treaded tires, and plastics—for the domestic market. The expansion in 1966 of Cillot Air- port, outside Saint-Denis, sparked a substan- tial increase in the number of tourists, par- ticularly from South Africa. Limited hotel space and the high cost of living, however, will impede development of tourism. Reunion is faced with a serious population problem. The growth rate is one of the high- est in the world, nearly 3% percent annually, and more than half the population is under 18. Birth control programs have met with re- sistance from the predominantly Catholic Reunionnais, and emigration, encouraged as a short run measure, has had little overall effect on the growth rate. *1} Overseas department capital Populated places (1971) Salnt-Denls Over 50,000 Le Port 10.000 to 50,000 La Possession Under 10.000 U Sugarcane ' Sugar factory Paved road anchorage t Points des Galets > . Le Pofi Poinle de Bletagne ' OIGVIIIODS in meters Scale 12400.000 0 2 4 8 0 2 4 6 8 Kilometers Saint-Denis (WV 85-000) Glllot lntemltionll Airport - ‘ e-Marie 4M , Plalne .fj . ‘ figs Palmletu 5’ l’ 55'30' ‘ SIMS Poinie des Galets J. 1‘ _ Le Port Reunion's principal port _ Sainte-Rose Le Port waterfront Poi/rte de In Table 44 A low standard of living, widespread un- employment, concentration of wealth in the hands of a few large sugar producers, and the island’s status as a DOM (department d’outre-mer) have led to some political dis- content. Reunion is represented by three deputies and two senators in the French legislature, but DOM status means lower minimum wages and social security benefits than in metropolitan France. Nevertheless, there is little agitation for independence. The Prefect of Reunion, the appointed representative of the French Ministry of Overseas Departments and Territories, serves as the island’s chief executive. He also serves as the administrator for several French overseas territories in the Indian Ocean—the islands of Ile Tromelin, Iles Clorieuses, Ile Juan de Nova, Ile Europa, and Bassas da India. These tiny reef-fringed islets have no permanent population; weather station crews are rotated to Ile Tromelin, Iles Clorieuses, Ile Juan de Nova, and Ile Europa. Ile Juan de Nova once had guano workings and—like Ile Europa and Ile Tromelin—is now a wildlife sanctuary. Recent pronounce- ments by the President of Madagascar have reiterated his country’s claims, based on pre-independence association, to the islands in the Mozambique Channel—Juan de Nova, Europa, and Bassas da India. Young Reunionnais Fishing is a tradition among the Reunionnais I'- 7" ‘ . . 4 ; 3‘ a”! ./ . . . and Other French Islands W35 1“” t W eck r ‘ . Rock lles Glorleuses x , 4,3 km2 - 1.7 mi2 t , pop.— weather station crew "e d” Lys it anchorage lush vegetation and coconut palms. lagoon used by snorklers 3: weather I‘lftlo" 7‘ 7' ‘t 7 I " Verte 1‘ 1%? Rocks Traile’p 7’? T . , g fGlorleuse 1 lie Tromelln 4 ‘l 77 ”l 77‘ RT ¢anchorage I dln 0,8 km2 - 0.3 mi? 5 h 27.5." pop. - weather station crew t ’ Rglék weather Scale 1:120,000 ' M” firstly sand covered A it anchorage with scattered bushes, "e Juan de Nova wildlife sanctuary 4.8 km2 — 18 {hi2 Scale 1:60.000 pop. - weather station crew o 'A 1 Mile \ — 0 V1 1 Kilometer I ’r 7 an. a}:\ ”H Tiff T as 71‘ ?,r1 trees cover nearly entire island. wildlife park, RR. formerly used for transporting guano Scale 1:120,000 Bassas da Indla 0.2 km2 — 0.1 mi2 no permanent inhabitants sandy islets barely above water Scale 1:120.000 weather 7’ T . .statlon ,. ile Europa covered with bushes f 20 2 km2 _ 7 8 mlz and trees, blrd sanctuary / ,/ “ Pop. - weather station crew “'4’; / / / r t "I ,7 ‘ ‘ Ilmflp\ j / A . ,K T l //'l Scale 1:120.ooo 1" 'l' f o 1 2 a Mlles ‘t 1‘ )1 —— ~ . T 't " 0 1 2 3 Kilometers , .Xfi’f 45 Mauritius , Agalega Islands > . ,Cargados Carajos Shoals . . Rodri gues " ‘ Mau ritius 2,012 ka—TH mi2 accessible by: reqular ship service, daily air service pop. 888,000 (1975 est.) independent state since 12 March 1968; member of the British Commonwealth Mauritius is a microcosm of the world’s demographic problems. Its limited natural resources are severely taxed by a burgeoning population. When discovered by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Mauritius was uninhabited, the domain of the flightless and now extinct dodo bird. Early attempts at settlement by the Dutch were ultimately abandoned, but in the 1700’s the French successfully colo- nized the island, introducing sugar cultiva- tion and African slaves. The British took Mauritius from France in 1810 and con- tinued development of the sugar planta- tions—already the island’s economic main- stay. Thousands of indentured laborers were brought from India to work as field hands following the abolition of slavery in 1833. The completion in 1869 of the Suez Canal siphoned off much of the East-West shipping that once called at Mauritius; but sugar pro- duction continued to expand, and the island experienced a steady increase in population. 5203:. 1,865 km2 —720 mi 2 pop. 861 .000 t National capital District boundary Populated places (1972) Port Louis Over 50.000 Vacoas 20,000 to 50.000 Palma Under 20.000 Paved road elevations in meters Scale 1:400,000 0 2 4 6 Niles 0 2 4 6 Kilometers / , Petite / Riviere Paints Petite Riviera j A 20°15' j\ r “ , ambou Pitan do I! Polite 828+ Rlviére Nair: Grands 7 Case [\loyale \ / lle Morne‘ Le Home 20°30 - “20°00 -. . Cannoniers POI'nf7'\_/\ / \ / \ rande .9 » V" ‘ e Grande . Alrstfgii ‘ l' repipe , 52,154) 51‘45' ‘ Serpent ‘ Island a '7 \ J Round Island Flat island. ‘W / CGabriel 3 island ,/ ‘G \ as? Cap Malheureux \_ / L Grands Gaube Roche I (.3 Terra C19)“ d’Ambre cont/rs les: than ' , ,,/~ 6 meters on Piton ' x , Riviére du " \ Roche ' ~-mar‘t ' ' , \- x L, (J . If) Ouartier t llitar r . / VWeux Grand Port 1 3:. ' -¢ Nahébourg K/\ ‘x‘ Olle aux Algrattes Plaisance (\1 lntemational » Airport F .Bénarés 46 During the 1940’s the high growth rate was sharply accelerated by the almost complete eradication of malaria, long the island’s lead- ing cause of death. In the 1950’s the popu- lation was growing at a rate of more than 3 percent annually. By 1968 an extensive birth control program had reduced the rate to less than 2 percent. Under the govern- ment’s current program, which disseminates information to a wide audience via televi- sion, the growth rate has continued to drop. Mauritius receives an average of 1,500 mm (60 inches) of rainfall per year along its coasts, but enormous quantities, more than 5,000 mm, drench the highest parts of the central plateau. Passage of weak atmospheric disturbances over the island or severe storms at a safe distance provide ample water for the cane fields, but an occasional direct hit from a tropical cyclone may cause 1,000 mm of rain and the damage from flooding is often worse than from the wind itself. The abundant rainfall, year-round warm temperatures, and fertile volcanic soils of Mauritius are well suited to sugarcane, and the crop remains basic to the Mauritian economy. About two-thirds of the island and more than 90 percent of the arable land is planted to sugarcane. The sugar industry, one of the most efficient producers in the world, employs half of the island’s wage earners. More than half the sugar acreage is owned by a score of large estates, which process all of their own cane plus that of more than 25,000 small planters whose crops they buy. Paradoxically, there is a shortage of cane cutters despite a high unemployment rate; many of the unemployed have received a primary or secondary level education and aspire to more rewarding jobs. Attempts are being made to diversify the economy by ex- panding the cultivation of other crops and by encouraging tourism and the develop- ment of labor-intensive light industry. Whites, mostly of French descent (the Franco-Mauritians), who constitute only 1 percent of the island’s inhabitants, control practically all of the sugar production. Chinese—shopkeepers and small business- men—make up about 3 percent of the popu- lation and Creoles, the descendents of black Land use and economic activity - Sugarcane - Tea - Other cultivation - Pasture or savanna - Forest or scrub - Urban area ' Sugar factory @ Tea factory gr African slaves with a varying admixture of other racial strains, about 28 percent. The remaining two-thirds are Indo-Mauritians, a term encompassing both Hindus and Moslems. The Franco-Mauritians and Creoles, linked by Roman Catholicism and language ties, consider themselves part of the F rench- speaking world. In contrast, the Indo-Mauri- tians look to the Indian subcontinent and seek the expanded use of English and Hindi. Despite the dichotomy and consequent inter- group conflict, a distinctive Mauritian cul- tural identity is slowly emerging. Mauritius lies on the principal shipping lane between Europe and the Far East for traffic not using the Suez Canal. Port Louis, the main port, has the largest ship repair facility on any of the small Indian Ocean islands. The harbor is being dredged to 12 meters, and the port will soon undergo com- plete modernization. Ten international air- lines operate from Plaisance, and a new airport capable of handling jumbo jets has been proposed for the north side of the island. A number of tiny islands are under Mauri- tian sovereignty. The most important is Rodrigues, 325 nautical miles to the east. Its Afro-European inhabitants, more like the people of the Seychelles, Reunion, and Com- oros than Mauritians, resent the South Asian administrators appointed by the Mau- ritian Government. The islands important crops are citrus, maize, and beans. The Agalega Islands, two islets connected by a sand bar, are located almost 600 miles north of Mauritius. Covered with coconut palms, they are a significant source of copra. The extensive Cargados Carajos Shoals, 250 miles northeast of Mauritius, are a group of reefs, shoals, and islets, none more than a square kilometer in area. Petroleum exploration is now under way north of Mauritius, and there is a possibility of bringing in wells on the Cargados Carajos Shoals; if exploitable pe- troleum reserves should be proved, the im- portance of the outlying islands would in- crease dramatically. Port Louis Harbor . . . and Dependencies 56 135’ anchorage :t ’ls . North West Point Tl ._ T 27 km’— 10.5 mi2 fill“ All 55: 45 _ alnt James North Island coconut 1‘ ~. Palms flying: Cinq r a \t r X 2“\\ Km Ijswklns Point \‘7, ‘w .Pon Salnle Rita “a fr‘ 2' .11 "“Agalega Islands ; 2» y 1’!“ La Digue / pop. 200 seasonal workers P°""' "fl South Island “I‘VE” lil“30'~ pop. 26,000 l l Scale1:400,000 § 63420 55°73 5mg ,, :t/ l L 19W " .cn .rer ,j/ > U “ ha.“ I . . (Rffipri Mathurlh a: .323; :‘(c y MdnlLiufon/r Irv“ “f ‘;C°c°a ,r 3“ La'Ferme/A/r .. _. Island ; . , ’ E ‘f/ . / fl ' i f“ .; Br." Topacq H‘ M",\ /" \‘. Kr Frégarelsrandr' af'fiddl , ’Hermnage Island 19:45 *5», r"‘*~ ’ “Gombrani Island 0 C2 ‘ , , Islaaigd “Pierrot ram Rodrrgues ,_ 119 km2—46 mi2 19%? Scale 1:400.000 j 52933:] Cargados Ca (Saint Brandon) 1.3 km2—0.5 mi2 59440 . rajos Shoals pop. 800 seasonal workers ‘Albatross Island ’ North Island .3 he Raphael it . Siren Island , t Pear! Breaker JPearl Island .4 Frigate Island Salome Hacks anchorages 1; t it / 'Coco Island Avocaré 16°2ll’ ~ 15030'~r Island , Mapare 3 it AVen'onge Smle 1:400.000 25°40 -» O 2 4 Miles 5—2 4 Kllometers 47 Seychelles V ‘ Seychelles Republic of Seychelles 444 km2 - 172 ml’ pop. 58,000 (1975 est.) accessible by: infrequent shill service. daily air service independent republic since 28 June 1976; member of the British Commonwealth The newly independent Republic of Sey- chelles links some 85 islands that sprawl across 400,000 square kilometers of the west- ern Indian Ocean. Most of the population is concentrated in a core group of about 40 granitic islands, including the main island of Mahé. The outlying coralline islands are little more than reefs in various stages of formation. Geographic isolation and the lim- ited resources' of the Seychelles have placed The granitic islands rise sharply from the sea to heights of 600 to 900 meters. Only 54 percent of the land is arable. Farming is restricted by steep slopes to relatively small areas of flat land along the coasts and in interior valleys. The lack of additional arable land has forced the government to focus agricultural development on the improve- ment of crop and livestock yields. The coralline islands support at the most a scant cover of coconut palms and scrub vegetation. Commercial coconut groves are tended by contract workers on some of the islands; a few still have reserves of guano. Others contain rare species of wildlife and are of considerable interest to scientists. Supplies of fresh water are scarce because of the porous soil and bedrock. Settlements are small, rarely exceeding a few hundred people. The climate of the Seychelles is particu- larly inviting. The high humidity and tem- peratures ranging between 24°C (75°F ) and 30°C (86°F) are ameliorated by the south- east trades from May to October and the more variable northwest monsoon winds from November to March. The heavy annual rainfall occurs mainly between December and March, though no month is completely without rain. Amounts range from 2,300 mm (90 inches) at sea level to 3,600 mm (140 inches) on the mountains. All of the islands lie outside the Indian Ocean’s cyclone belt, and severe storms and high winds are rare. The population of the Seychelles is a mix of races and skin colors. About 95 percent gasy, and European origin—who constitute the main source of labor for the large planta~ tions. A small group of white plantation owners of French ancestry, known locally as Grand Blancs, controls much of the islands’ wealth. The islands are for the most part culturally homogeneous; the people think of themselves as Seychellois and share the same language (Creole, although English is offi- cial), religion (Roman Catholicism), and customs. The only exceptions are a few hun- dred Indians and Chinese, part of the small but growing middle class, who monopolize both retail and import-export trade. More than 85 percent of the population lives on Mahé and most of the remainder on nearby Praslin and La Digue. The Seychelles have had a significant de- gree of self-govemment since a new consti- tution was put into effect in 1970. The ma- jority Seychelles Democratic Party aban- doned its anti-independence stance in 1974, partly because of pressure from international organizations including the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the United Na- tions. The opposition Seychelles People’s United Party—which was recognized and financially supported as a “liberation move- ment” by the OAU—long supported auton- omy. The economy of the Seychelles has been almost entirely dependent on the export of plantation crops and, until recently, on British subsidies to support the fast-growing population. Copra, virtually all exported to India, accounts for more than half of the major restrictions on economic development. are Creoles—people of mixed African, Mala- islands' exports; cinnamon, vanilla, and Bird I. - a, Denisl.‘ Mahé Island . -_ 155 km2 — 60 ml2 - Prawn I155“ film | pop. 50,000 .~ " Sltlouetteu) - 9'” ' f Ouincey .Sainte Anne , - Jaime" :‘ . Island Mahé & Belle Ompre cfi Beacon I. um:- I; see inset ’ ’ : ’ MI. JW I. . ...... x 1" Q . . ~ .Long I. Amlrante 5‘" " ‘_ ‘ bCerf Island D'Arroe I. ‘t-sum WI “Qt _ 7 ’Feon I. ' \‘ \_/~¢“>_\\ ‘ Isles N" . lie Beam ‘ . VA Anmymo I. , ‘ Platte I. Conceotion I. a.» \ i « / fr 5mm, -/ r , ~ . lleueuNoeuls"M'i°w”l' Therese I. Isle \] .,\ Vaclle \ Bol‘v’eall Bay “Why I‘ I. , A Saint Frmeoisl." ‘0“ I“ WM ';0 * National capital 1}; Paved road ~— -— — All-weather road ,1, elevations in meters Scale 1:300.ooo o 2 4 Miles 0 2 4 Kilometers J Wizard Reef s“ H .Provldenca I. ‘ Aldabra Islands an," Providence Reef $39 ,cm I. _ Comm-do Group ‘s°""‘ 3"“) Scale 15,000,000 motion lo 0 _; 0 50 100 Miles 0 50 100 Kilometers “J" Astor/etc thuhr Group .2 .48 patchouli (used in perfume) comprise most of the remainder. Local fisheries offer good potential for large-scale export development. Fish is the main source of protein in the Seychellois diet. Most other food—including rice, the basic staple—must be imported to supplement the small amount of locally grown sugar, cassava, yams, plantains, vege- tables, and other crops. Tourists are attracted by the pleasant features of the Seychelles, and tourism is fast becoming the backbone of the economy. Before the opening in 1971 of an interna- tional jet airport on Mahé, Visitors averaged fewer than 1,000 a year. In 1974 an estimated 35,000 visited the islands, and Seychelles officials hope that this figure will increase to 150,000 by the early 1980’s. The gradual development of tourism has helped to modernize and diversify the Sey- chelles economy. The high prices the hotels pay for food has stimulated local production, and progress has been made in the establish- ment of light industry. Not all changes brought by the tourists have been for the better: pollution, traffic congestion, over- crowding, and inflation have made their appearance, and tourists are forced to the outer islands to catch a glimpse of the un- spoiled tropical paradise they sought in the Seychelles. Despite the government’s efforts, economic development has not kept pace with the rapid population growth since 1960, which has been in excess of 3.5 percent. The islands are only now beginning to feel the full im- pact of this rate, and unemployment—— Curing vanilla pods r to, 2' - ,3}. ., v," , .. ,u; t, 3' ‘. Ad‘sQf“, N. I I I 5°19 M" gust m. Principal granitic group 258 kmz— 100 mi2 pop. 55,000 QM.“ L B°°by " ° Curieuse I. West “15'— . <. > ~ East Sister PrasIIn N- \f 5.5mm Q Island \Qx A ; Félecité I. North Coudnc. .\ 367+ VJ) ‘\ QMarie Anne I. South Cuudnb \”\\U ° l / V La Digue \ h 5‘ Kandudu . ’ . . Thaa , Lamu . n"- . ° “ Valmandu l », _ - Waduni E L 2 Gang '3. 0.; . =.Funadu Hitadu Haddummatl Atoll Arabian Sea One and Hall Dog/Fe Channel Brown lines delimit administrative atolls. Scale 122,500,000 0 25 50 Miles —— O 25 50 Kilometers ) Gan 2.8 km2 — 1.1 mi2 4‘37 U9 ll?’ depths less lhan 10 melms 73709' l 80an 1:50.000 733,0, Ismahilihgm ‘ “""a "“7? s, :‘ ‘ Do 35 ‘ -,1 Malurl . ¥Mametu anchorage . Gaafu :VWringiIi Aliff Atoll l l ', Gas- 1 Kilohera Hltaddu :1 l \ eubm-lne Hanknda or, \powor cable ”Mullkadu Maradu‘ town) it. -. ’// third/,3, , ”76/ see enlargement. Gall left 7305’ l 73:10' Selle 1:250.000 : Herfltera 73015 I o 'I‘ Havaru ' \ .R. linadub - -. Suvadiva Kanduduo ' ‘: Atoll o 1 ' g°Kubula ‘ ' ° 'gadu Gaafu \ o " ”Gan \§, '° Daalu Bandm. Wadu / Equatorial Channel Addu Atoll\ see enlargement, a Nadaleg c; Naviyani Fua V’Ml‘llaku I. Seenu left Indian Ocean 53 Laccadive, Minicoy and Amind'ivi Islands Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi ._-, Islands 2’; Union Territory of Lakshadweep 20.5 kmz- 11 mi’ pop. 30,000 (1975 est.) accessible by weekly ship from Calicut 0r Cochin, India Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands, renamed Lakshadweep in 1973, has been a union territory of the Republic of India since 1956 This group of tiny low coral islands 100 nautical miles off the southwest coast of India is little known and seldom visited. Al- though there arc numerous lagoons behind protecting reefs, the islands lack harbors useable by any but small boats; they are too small for jet—size airfields, and they have few exploitable resources. Ten of the islands are thickly populated; 12 others (totaling 2 km?) are uninhabited although the largest of these are cultivated by farmers from other islands. Minicoy, the southernmost island, flanks a major shipping lane between the Red Sea and the Strait of Malacca. The islands, col- lectively known as the Laccadives, were ad- ministered as parts of districts in India’s Madras state until the union territory was formed in 1956. The weather is always warm and humid, rarely very hot and never really cool. During the day temperatures generally reach 30°C (86°F) and rarely exceed 32°C (90°F). At night they drop to between 24° and 27°C (75°-80°F). Most of the 1,400 to 1,525 mm (55 to 60 inches) of annual rainfall occurs during the southwest monsoon, May through October; June is the peak month with 300 to 350 mm. No month is without rain al- though February, in the middle of the north- east monsoon, normally receives only about 25 mm. Occasional tropical cyclones in Oc- tober and November bring the most severe weather conditions—high winds, rough seas, and heavy rains. Before the use of motor vessels, communications with the mainland ceased during the southwest monsoon, when the small native sailing craft could not safely navigate the heavy seas. The islands have two exploitable resources, coconut palms and fish. Coconut products provide the main source of income. Copra is bartered to Indian Government agents for rice; coir, the fiber of the husk, is woven into mats, rope, and rough textiles for export. Cottage industries that produce coir products engage nearly one-third of the working popu- lation. Some 20 to 30 percent of the coconut The populated islands Census of India, 1971 island pop. km2 density island pop. krn2 density Andréth 5,425 4.8 1,130 Kalpeni 3,152 2.3 1,370 Minicoy 5,342 4.4 1,214 Kadmat 2,416 3.1 779 Amini 4,542 2.6 1,747 Kiltén 2,046 1.6 1,279 Kavaratti 4,420 3.6 1,228 Chetlat 1,200 1 0 1,200 Agatti 3,155 2.7 1,169 Bitré Reef 112 01 1,120 crop is destroyed by tree-climbing rats, but neither periodic extermination campaigns nor the introduction of predators—cats, owls, and snakes—has had an appreciable effect on the rat menace. Fish, mainly tuna and shark, are important for both local consumption and export. The tuna catch has been increasing in recent years, and a small cannery (5,000 cans per day) established on Minicoy in 1969 proc- esses part of the catch for export. Powered fishing boats, constructed in a small shipyard on Kavaratti, are gradually replacing the traditional sailing craft; 96 of them were in operation by 1974. The government plans to introduce trawlers and has already set up a training center for fishermen. Indian Government programs have been under way since 1959 to aid the social devel- opment of these remote island dependencies. Radios and ships now link the islands with each other and with the mainland. Reported improvements in education include an in- crease in the literacy rate from 23 percent of the population in 1961 to 43 percent in 1971. Schooling is free, and on some islands attendance in the lower age group ap- proaches 100 percent. Several hundred stu- dents have scholarships to mainland colleges. Improvements in health care have cen- tered on establishment of clinics and control of the more troublesome diseases—filariasis, malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, and eye ail- ments. The mortality rate has been reduced, but despite stress on family planning the birth rate remains high and population density (about 1,000 persons per square kilometer in 1971) is becoming critical. The inhabitants of all the islands except Minicoy are related to the Moplas, a tribe native to the state of Kerala. The Minicoy people share the Moslem faith of their fellow islanders, but their ancestors came from Sri Lanka. Minicoy has a matriarchal social organization; the men, noted as seamen, serve on Indian Ocean ships, sometimes re- maining away from the island for months at a time. Travel to these islands is closely controlled. The Government of India, through Air India, is considering the construction of the islands’ first tourist facilities on the island of Banga- ram and an airstrip on the neighboring island of Kavaratti or on Agatti. As a first step to- ward opening Lakshadweep for tourism, an Indian cruise ship now visits the islands. Per- manent settlement by non-islanders, even other Indian citizens, is officially discouraged. _North Islet Cherban/ani (Beieapani)Reef 'Sand Cay I . ‘ ' Byramgore (Chereapani) Reef I 1 ..., Chetlatl. a BtréRe f _ _ . ' E Amrnd1v1 Islands .Sand Cay Peremu/ Par Bangaram l. a ’Tinnakara I. ,VAgatti 1. Kalputhi I. 'PIIII I. Laccadrve Kavarafl North I. 0 25 50 Kilometers Klltén I. Kadmat I. (Cardamum I.) 0 . . Am1n1 I. [9 see insel " \‘ Union Territory of Lakshadweep, administrative center Suhel/ Par ° 10'“ South I. A r a bi a n S e a .90 Nine Degree Channel Scale 12,500,000 M' , o 25 50 Miles lsllnalfigy see inset “10"35' fisheries r ”Kavaratti Island » 710313 7.37 Scale 1:150,000 "‘39 Andrfith I. (S Laccadive I s I a n d s S e a ”Cheriyam I. 'flKaIpenl I. . 1 \ . . ’ . <9 73°02 7;"00 an \‘o 7) (0* ”J (1 s Kodi Pom! 447.70 ((4700)) ’10, 8°18’~—« depths Iess than 5) rnelers Minicoy 4“? “"394! 21,751,” Island/gry’ . , , NF 11“”: 4? To“; . I I“ x‘1‘ ‘ 0‘ 07‘. 209%?" tz/ 0°15'—~ 0 1 Mile lighthouse Scale 11150.000 0 1 Kilometar I 54 Sri .; Lanka " Republic of Sn Lanka , 79° { . f0 8' . .x 64,644 km2--211,95$iml2 pop.13,797,000 (1975 est.) mg l, 400‘ .. bo/urga'l/ * Nationamapnal . . ti (5 accessible by: regular ship servrce, ' dl // 53+ o/wg‘e / Pdgglated plafes . . . A ‘u - n US daily air serVIce, n a / Q ‘0‘) Jam, ( Overc5e0 hoo rail fer ff l d /‘ \9/ Kankesamurai ,, ' Point Pedro . a ' ry 0'" n '3 N‘ , .- Batttcaloa 10,000 to 50,000 . . . 940m“ // Karaitivu' 1 ~.\ Polonnaruwa Under10,000 » l \ mdepbendefnthreiéulitlichsence 4 Februfly 1948' / \ Velanai‘~\ "\\\ 0'- Important historic site mm are e n Is nmmonwea { \ , mm” -_ w «\\_ Railroad (5,6,, gauge 5 Delft ~ Puhkudutivu )Devi ' Island x, \, \ MY”: H except where noted) .\ patam Pa/k \ Bay , Chalai Paved road . \\. of-K h n .m ' 1' Domestic airfield Sri Lanka, formerly called Ceylon, has been \ 8° ° “' “ \ » .x- Major pm known to travelers for more than 2,000 ye irs. {Pagan -. ‘ Mullalttivu . . . ‘ \ elevations in meters 'Io Arab merchants 1t was a land of spices, h d -- My . “ . D an hko i "-, “ ‘u - and to Marco Polo 1t was the best island of "8 4%,;slé,_a..-‘a'a'ma""a' . . - v ” 99 \ 1 its s1ze 1n the world. Numerous references to tr Manna} an 4 , § . . . . l , r PI data the Island appear 1n rellglous lore: some Mos- 's'and : . , . um° ' lems believe that Adam and Eve spent their last days there; Buddhists hold that Buddha stepped into heaven from one of its moun- tains; and the island forms the backdrop for ‘ stories in the Hindu epic, Ramayana. Long Karaitivu", \ before the island was “discovered” by mari- ‘ time trading nations it had attracted the in- , terest of people in neighboring India, to Gulf which it is connected by Adams Bridge——a chain of islands, shallows, and sandbars. Sri _7 Lanka’s principal ethnic communities are the Manner ' result of repeated immigrations by Indic peoples. The country’s political institutions and its export-oriented economy are, how- ever, a legacy of British domination during the colonial era. The bulk of the population and most eco- nomic activities are concentrated in the southwest part of the island. This area $“’°°"' coincides with the island’s Wet Zone, which sadwmxamnayam 7? receives 1,900 to 5,000 mm (75 to 200 inches) Ja-Eta of rainfall per year, with some precipitation at all seasons. The traditional estate crops grown here for export are stratified altitudi- nally—coconut palms on the coastal low- lands, rubber trees in the foothills, and tea Marichchukkaddl'. of “ma ‘ ‘ >7 Eravur ‘ ‘Batticaloa Kattankudi Buffalo ' Island 'Ganga (j. u- , I] a ’0 Marx ’“It4‘a‘mawell " Kalmunai ' in the highlands. The Dry Zone, which com- Ka'u‘a'a’. a - .~ ‘- ‘ ‘ . . . it ~\ ' prises the rest of the island, recelves 1,250 to \‘ i, It \ ‘ 1,900 mm (50 to 75' inches) of rainfall, but Laccao’ive “\ ‘ 65:31:" 53.2215 irrigation is necessary for agriculture. Most Sea “Batipitiya Na“ Reef 3 of the rainfall is concentrated in the short Ambalancoda7 xw“ _ period from late October through January. \“ 2M Hambaniota $5953: The first Indic settlers to enter Ceylon av ScaIa1:2.soo.ooo = Ree" were the Sinhalese, who beginning about 500 °____29____4° Mites v: B.C. established a flourishing agricultural 0—70—70 Kilometers Dm’” Head . civilization in the northern Dry Zone low- ‘ g 1 Indian Ocean 55 lands. For various reasons, the elaborate sys- tem of ponds (called tanks) and irrigation canals on which the civilization was based fell into disuse and disrepair, and the in- habitants dispersed to the Wet Zone about AD. 1200. The Tamil people came to Ceylon from India much later. They and the Sinhalese are today the principal ethnic groups in Sri Lanka. The two differ basically in religion and language. Most Sinhalese are Buddhist and speak Sinhala; most Tamils are Hindu and speak Tamil. The Sinhalese make up about 80 percent of the total population and effectively control the Covemment of Sri Lanka. The Tamils comprise two subgroups. The Ceylon Tamils, the principal inhabitants of northern Ceylon, are citizens of Sri Lanka with a history of several hundred years’ resi- dence on the island. The Indian Tamils were brought from India as estate laborers by the British in the 19th century; only about half of them are citizens of Sri Lanka. Two additional small groups are signifi- cant. The Ceylon Moors are Moslems who have maintained their cultural identity for many generations and are now concentrated in urban areas. The Burghers—politically prominent Catholic descendents of Portu- guese, Dutch, and Sinhalese—reside pri- marily in and north of Colombo. Sri Lanka was the first of the Indian Ocean islands to achieve independence after World War II. Its legacy of parliamentary institu- tions and cadre of indigenous administrators provided an exceptional base for handling the complexities of self-rule in the modern world. Politically, all shades of opinion are represented in a vigorous competitive party system. A populist brand of socialism laced with a strong appeal to Sinhalese Buddhist sentiment is the dominant political philos- ophy. Regionalism is strong and personalities play an important role in the system. The armed forces are small, absorb few resources, and have no significant role in politics. The political distance between Tamils and Sinhalese and the alienation of many edu- cated youths from democratic party politics are persistent problems. The adoption of Sin- hala as the official language after independ- ence raised communal tensions sharply. Many Tamils felt threatened, anticipating diminish- ing economic and political opportunity, and they have supported Tamil parties outside the political mainstream. The stateless Indian Tamils have been given official attention and their plight is now being slowly eased under the terms of an agreement between India and Sri Lanka. Many will return to India, while a substantial number will acquire Cey- lonese citizenship. A more immediate problem is the challenge of the educated younger generation. Em- ployment opportunities outside agriculture have not kept pace with the increas- ing numbers of qualified applicants.. Free education has raised both literacy and ex- pectations. The literacy level for the 15-24 age group was almost 91 percent in 1970, and more than one-fourth of secondary school and college graduates under 25 were unem- ployed. These youth are resentful and rebel- lious; an insurgency movement drawn almost exclusively from this group nearly succeeded in overthrowing the government in 1971. The country has developed socially and politically at the cost of severe economic maladjustment. Although per capita income is higher than that of any other South Asian country, Sri Lanka’s once favorable intema- tional trade balance has become one of sub- Processing latex Ethnic communities and religions Sinhalese [:1 Low country - Kandyan Tamil [3 Ceylon ! Indian C Ceylon Moor Mannar 0 District capital Mount Lavlnla (154,785) District boundary (district names are the same as their capitals) Population density Persons per square kilometer 0 50 1 200 O 130 260 520 Persons per square mile Mannar ‘ . Trincomalee petroleum refin ship repair yard‘ railroad shops Land use and economic activity - Rice I: Rubber a Tea - Coconut - Mixed rice and coconut ‘P Hardwood plantation Scrub or second- growth forest mineral beach sands ullaittivu ‘ fishing 56 stantial deficit in the quarter century since independence. The government’s extensive social service and welfare programs, which have contributed to a more equal income distribution, have been based on extensive imports of foodgrains. At the same time, impending nationalization reduced incen- tives for revitalizing the coconut, rubber, and tea estates. The potential for growth in this part of the economy, now nationalized, is limited by changes in world demand for these traditional export crops. Colombo Sri Lanka’s capital and principal port , 7000. b Coromm Harbour Colombo ? ' , 6°55’ Gulf of Mannar 5050, Mount Lavlnl Ratmala '4. Angula MOI'INIVII Scale “250.000 79T50' Faced with a critical shortage of foreign exchange, the government has recently given greater attention to food production. Sri Lanka is potentially self-sufficient but has been importing more than 40 percent of its foodgrain supply—primarily rice. New ef- forts are being made to expand rice produc- tion in the Dry Zone, which already contrib- utes two-thirds of domestic output. Major irrigation schemes are under way to increase the existing acreage in the Mahaweli Canga The need to create new job opportuni- ties has encouraged steps toward economic diversification. Non-traditional exports are increasingly important; tourism has demon- strated a promising growth potential; limited facilities have been constructed at Calle for expansion of the fishing industry; and plans are under way to modernize the main port of Colombo and to develop port facilities and an industrial zone at Trincomalee, a former British naval base with an excellent natural Development Project area. harbor. Q """.¢ 3”,...tl‘r’g i."'¢ ~ w Tourist helicopter at historic site of Anuradhapura Mankanai 7 ‘lppuveli ‘ B a y of Bengal ,7. ’cmm Inner Bay Harbour - 'y/ ogl. g 1. ,- g 2” av Sober .yfon Ostenhurg ,« /El u. _ 09h!" Fay/Point Tambaiagam Trincomaiee Bay (9 Round I. Norway Point “Ag-21° Harbour Cor-i , \ Nadltivu ., Point Ellnbllh i. Koddiyar Bay Trincomalee Harbour area 9°3a'~~ 8°25’ ,_ 57 Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands 0,293 km’—3,202 mi2 pop. 148,000 (1975 est.) accessible by: regular ship service from Calcutta and Madras. India; biweekly air service from Calcutta, India union territory of the Republic of India since 1950 The Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is one of the few underpopu- lated parts of India. Colonization of the “Bay Islands” and their integration into the na- tional economy have been pressed by the Indian Government since independence. Despite their proximity to the Strait of Malacca, the Andamans and Nicobars re- ceived scant attention from the outside world before World War II. The islands had gained a reputation among mariners as places to be avoided; tales were widespread of impene- trable jungles, hostile natives, and Malay pirates. In addition, the British established a penal colony at Port Blair in 1858 that be- came known as the “Devil’s Island of the East.” This facility, used mainly to confine political prisoners from India, supplied the labor force for a lumbering operation—the only significant commercial venture in the 58 islands during the colonial period. The Japa- nese occupied the Andamans and Nicobars in World War II, and the British did not reactivate the penal colony after the war. Administration of the islands passed to the Government of India with Indian independ- ence in 1947. The two island groups share a monsoonal climate, but they differ in other significant ways. The Andamans are hilly to moun- tainous and rise abruptly from the sea, whereas the Nicobars are comparatively flat, except for Little Nicobar and Great Nicobar. Their reputation for impenetrable jungles probably stems from the dense tropical forests on the Andamans that extend to the water’s edge. The wide palm-lined beaches of the low coral-fringed Nicobars, in con- trast, are as inviting as those of any tropical island. The Andamans’ forests have valuable timber species; several mills in the Port Blair area and one at Betapur process wood for markets in mainland India. Coconut and betel palm groves are the characteristic vege- tation of the Nicobars; only the two larger islands have forests, and these lack commer- cial-grade timber. All of the islands receive copious rainfall during the southwest monsoon, but little rain falls during the northeast monsoon. Only Great Nicobar has perennial streams. Dry season water shortages in the Andamans will limit development until dams and other catchment facilities are constructed; water shortages in the Nicobars are less acute since fresh water can be obtained from shallow wells. There is a sharp ethnic distinction between the island groups. The Andaman natives are remnants of Negrito aboriginal tribes, where- as the Nicobarese are related to the Burmese and Malaysians. The Andaman natives have dwindled to two tribes, the Jarawa and Sentinalese, both primitive and implacably hostile to all out- siders. The Jarawas live in the western part of Great Andaman (the collective name for North, Middle, and South Andaman Islands) on native reserves cordoned off by lines of Bush police posts. The Sentinalese are the occupants of North Sentinal Island. The 14,000 Nicobarese are concentrated primarily on Car Nicobar and to a lesser extent on Chowra, Katchall, and Nancowry. They have a well organized social structure and an uncomplicated way of life. Their money does grow on trees: wealth—even the islands’ debt—is measured in coconuts. The products of the coconut palm and betel palm together with subsistence crops, pigs, and chickens have traditionally sustained an easy life. With the introduction of improved health measures by Christian missionaries the population growth rate has increased markedly, and the northern Nicobars are now rapidly becoming overpopulated. Immigrants accounted for about half the 81-percent growth in the population of the Territory from 1961 to 1971. Colonization efforts have been confined mostly to Great Andaman and, to a lesser extent, Great Nico- bar. The families of parolees from the penal colony at Port Blair were the first settlers. Later colonists were drawn mainly from refugee and repatriate groups, since main- land Indians still have a generally unfavor- able image of the islands and have little enthusiasm to participate in the government’s colonization and development programs. Some 20,000 Hindu refugees from East Bengal and a lesser number of Indian re- patriates from Burma and Sri Lanka have been settled in pioneer communities on Middle and North Andaman. They raise their own rice and other food crops and sell tim- ber for income. A group of 100 Punjabi ex-servicemen and their families, recently settled on Great Nicobar, are the first col- onists in the Nicobars. The limited transportation facilities are being improved. Ferries operating out of Port Blair provide scheduled service on inter- island routes. The north-south road on Great Andaman is being improved and extended Harbor entrance at Port Blair to connect all the settlements with Port Blair, and a coastal road is being constructed on Little Andaman to aid agricultural devel- opment of that island. The amount of land suitable for field crops is limited. There is little flat land on the Andamans, and the slopes are highly sus- ceptible to erosion when cleared for culti- vation. The Nicobars have more flat land, but uncultivated land for field crops is avail- able only in the thinly populated southern islands. Indian Government plans call for the expansion and improvement of the coconut and betel nut groves on the Nicobars and the introduction of small rubber plantations. Experimental plantings of cacao, coffee, and various spices and fruits are also under way. The tropical beauty of the Andamans and Nicobars has stimulated proposals for the development of tourism on the islands. Ac- cess to both island groups has, however, been closely controlled by the Government of India. Few foreign nationals have been permitted to visit the islands, and even Indian citizens have needed official spon- sorship. In late 1975 the Indian Government announced that the islands would be opened for tourism, but as yet no tourist facilities have been constructed. Sawn timber at Chatham Island mill Hope Town jetty in Port Blair harbor (Burma) 9 1'1 y 0 f Landfall I. 7‘ . :3 U n g ‘3 I West II CapeF’nce 447+ North . Tm" Andaman , 3? Smith I. Dlglifi ' N. Reel I. Interview I. Anderson I. Little Coco I. 732 °‘ tin-idle Peak Cadell Point . 1; Sound I. 0 Maya Bandar F" . Table l. (Burma) M fGreat Coco I. (Burma) extinct volcano v/ Narcondam I. Middle Andaman Beta” -__. Great Andaman . Trunk Road Flat I. Andaman em ' Long I Spikei. A WV «N. Pasagel. Bgsrceannl). (:3 Outram I. - 5 Henry Ritchies | S I a n d S 3 Lawrence I. \ John Lawrence I. Defence L. ‘Sir kuiarn Peel I. ‘ ' ; Havelock I. Archipelago South ” 9i] Neill I. Andaman ' ‘ rightmyo is" Hugh Wimberleyganj "099 I Herbertabad (Port $233300) pop. , N. Sentinel I. it Manglutan see inset 1; . Labyrimh ls.‘ . ~ I. Rutland I. ' . Cinquels g I Sisters Is. 1: S. Sentinel I. N. Brother I. - S. Brother I. Palalankwe‘; ' 3.35221; Little ~ Andaman +’190 .Chetamale Roast. $_. Ten Degree Cnaririel ° « “mm“ A 1 Cl .1 In :2 i". Keating Paint " Malacca . A Car Nicobar .3 0 r7 Betti Malv |. A N i r 3 -. y c o b a C r ' Tillanchong I. Chowra I. 1 , .q r Isle of Man 8 (7 ll (4 fl / Teressa I. ChanUmIa ‘ P Bompoka I. _ Horace Pomt I S I a n d S Laksi Camor‘ia I. -. Trinkat I. Kaichail I. i _ M°hea"" « . » Nancowry I. Olenchi. I: up ' ' Miroe I. 15? Union territory administrative center Paved road _ Menchal I. + Airfield « 435 It Anchorage Little Nicobar J, v, o Sawmill ’H i 1‘ Murray Point "' Hospital . . Lam-1| . 542 i Lighthouse + Great. elevations in meters .Nicobargt ‘ T’v‘ Scale 115011000 3 i1 0____25 50 Miles KanétIa" —— . Henhéahar, : _ 0 25 50 Kilometers Parsons Paint fl we. Grins! (Ia. . 59 Christmas Island 0 Christmas Cocos (Keeling). Island Islands Territory of Christmas Island 135 kmz~52 mi? pop. 2,734 (1972) accessible by: cargo ships from Singapore and Australia, emergency air service territory of the Commonwealth anustralla since 1958 Christmas Island derives its importance from massive deposits of almost pure phos- phate, which is mined by the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission. The Commis- sion, jointly owned in equal shares by Aus- tralia and New Zealand, controls the produc- tion, shipping, and sale of the phosphate; provides the island’s power, water, telephone, and radio services; maintains the roads and buildings; and supplies medical, education, and other services to employees. All land on the island is the property of the Australian Government; there is no private land owner- ship or leasing. Christmas is truly a “com- pany island.” The island was discovered in 1688 but re- mained uninhabited until the late 19th cen- tury when George Clunies-Ross, of the Cocos Island settlement, and Sir John Murray, a Scottish sea captain, obtained mineral leases from the British Government. The Govem- ments of Australia and New Zealand bought the rights to the mines in 1948 and set up the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission to manage and control the property. Annual production currently is 11/4 million tons, 60 percent of which is exported to Australia and New Zealand. Malaysia and Singapore import large amounts of phosphate dust. The phosphate is transported from the quarries via a 1.4-meter-gauge railroad to Flying Fish Cove, where it is treated, stored, and loaded on ships. A screening and washing plant was commissioned in 1970, and a cal- cining plant and additional storage facilities have recently been built. A second electric power plant has been constructed, additional railroad tracks laid, and loading bridges and conveyor systems installed. There is no other industrial development on the island. The Commission derives some additional revenue from the sale of postage stamps. It also man- ages the timber resources for local use. Tapi- oca, maize, sugarcane, bananas, and papaya are grown for home consumption. Physically, the island is an uplifted coral plateau, 180 to 250 meters (600 to 800 ft) above sea level, covered by tropical rain forest, with trees averaging 30 meters in height. Several hills rise above the plateau surface. A shallow coral reef fringes the is- land, and steep cliffs rise abruptly from the water’s edge. Only at Flying Fish Cove does 60 a major break in the forbidding shoreline permit ships to anchor. Passengers embark and disembark by launch; general cargo is offloaded in barges. A narrow terrace around the cove provides a bit of level land for the island’s main settlement. The climate is tropical, and the mean daily temperature, 27°C (81°F), varies only slightly during the year. On occasion, tem- peratures rise to the low 30’s (90’s) and drop to about 20° (the high 60’s). Precipitation averages 1,930 mm (76 inches) per year, with a marked November to April maximum. The southeast trade winds predominate more than half of the year—May through November— and temper the effects of high temperature and humidity. Heavy swells from December through March may prevent ships from mooring at the cantilevered loading cranes. Christmas Island has no indigenous popu- lation. There is a small supervisory com- munity, mainly from Australia. The bulk of the resident workers—recruited from Singa- pore, Malaysia, and the Cocos (Keeling) Is- lands—are of Chinese extraction; Malays, Indians, and Indonesians comprise the re- mainder. A hospital serves the community, and special operating teams can be brought in when necessary. Separate educational fa- cilities are provided for children of the Aus- tralian and Asian communities. English is the medium of instruction, but both Malay and Chinese are taught. A technical school opened in 1969 provides training for the younger Asians, and a limited number of scholarships for Asian students are available for advanced education in Singapore. The Australians normally return to Australia for secondary and university-level education. The island is served every 2 to 3 weeks by ships as large as 13,750 dwt, which are owned or chartered by the Phosphate Commission. They are primarily bulk carriers but have some passenger accommodations and limited space for general cargo. The Settlement, Flying Fish Cove y . u .. 12°61 7. .- l, .~ 7’, W "‘ ‘4‘” I for I‘ ~, x ieslx. £3539 7.3“ -~ ~».»' ‘ ‘t .‘vfiew‘r .. I n. ., MiddlePor'n! '_ Jones Point, Phosphate quarry W Railroad . Paved road “WW All-weather road W Trait . . elevations ln meters, ‘ Scaraizraopao A ' a. ‘1'.’{-ng‘|9§, ———.—-— ‘ ‘ o, 1‘ 2 Knomown l l 105415, twat “5°55 /fil\lortheasl Point Note: Frlnglng reefs too close offshore for depiction. ROCKY POW/x fl {/ 74-» ’ ~ \ Flying Flsh Cove 7 "’ anchorage ¢ Eek“: 10°?fi'-~ . . .7. x g ‘ Smith Pornr l 2 Dru'msjte ( I .l ‘ V‘_ l ,‘ « . . , . (Qt NorthweslPoint V /’ l . l ' \ , 5“ . . Z" 4‘ Norris / , uglrfieldp' ‘rs . Pom! «. ‘fi x ’ ‘ l\ \\ t, . ‘ 2 , \ '4. . x ,Waterran \LI +223 ‘\ “““““ - -\ J/ forest 4/ I 1 fl“: \\ “x“ W” y" Y ‘, .“s._ . .7 / " . ' “‘Q Low ' —' ,.. : , forest ' ‘ jg" PM" ‘ Murriy ‘lII a , mau— John‘ D. Point Medwin Polril . Cocos (Keeling) Islands North Keeling Island , South Keeling Islands Scale 1700.000 3 '17 O 5 Miles 0.. 0 5 Kilometers Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands 14 km’— 5.4 mi2 pop. 554 (1973) accessible by: semi annual supply ship from Australia, biweekly air charter from Australia territory of the Commonwealth of Australia since 1955 The Cocos Islands—2 atolls comprising 27 coral islands, islets, and reefs—are officially an external territory of Australia. In practice they have been operated for almost 150 years as a private estate of the John Clunies-Ross family, sometimes labeled the “White Kings of Cocos.” All of the inhabitants, economic resources, and communications facilities are located on the South Keeling Islands; North Keeling, 13 nautical miles to the north, is habitable but uninhabited. The Clunies-Ross estate, situated on Home Island, manages the coconut groves located on South, Home, West, and Horsburgh Islands. The estate workers are quartered on Home Island. The official representative of the Australian Cov- emment and most of the 140 members of the Australian community reside on \Vest Island, the site of an airfield formerly used by Qantas and South African Airways but now maintained only for emergency and other un- scheduled use. The two communities have little contact with each other. The islands are low, averaging only 1 to 5 meters above sea level, and the thin, poorly developed soil supports a varied cover of tropical vegetation. Shallow wells, the only source of fresh water, provide sufficient po- table water for the present needs of the is- landers. The tropical climate is marked by relatively constant temperatures, averaging 27°C (81°F ), and high humidity throughout the year and by only slight seasonal varia- tions in rainfall and wind direction. The southeast trades that blow for about 9 months of the year tend to ameliorate the discomfort of the high temperature. Destruc- tive storms are rare. Copra production is the basis for the econ- omy of the islands; some 300 tons is proc- essed each year and shipped to Australia. The work force consists of “Cocos Malays,” Malay-speaking Moslems whose forebears were imported from the Netherlands East Indies and Malaya during the period 1827- 31. By the end of World War II the Cocos Malay population was larger than the Clunies-Ross estate could support. A pro- gram of controlled emigration at that time resettled 1,600 Cocos Islanders on Christmas Island and in Sabah, now part of Malaysia. Since 1951 population growth has been re- strained by a vigorous birth control program and by emigration when the worker popu- lation exceeds 500, the number considered optimum for the present economy. The administration of the Clunies-Ross estate has been the subject of criticism, by both the Government of Australia and a United Nations Special Committee, centering on the tight control the estate maintains over the lives of its workers. In 1975, the United Nations Special Committee urged Australia to seek ways to diversify the Cocos economy and to establish an identity for the Home Island workers as a community separate from the Clunies-Ptoss estate. Provisions have now been made to establish a judicial sys- tem, to upgrade the education of the is- landers, and to elect a local government authority. As an added measure, the Gov- ernment of Australia is negotiating for the purchase of the Clunies-Ross estate. Home Island—housing for workers 24"?! ._ I ~ .. ’IIW‘ g:- uiogltll ‘7 Well—maintained [ukongs serve for both pleasure and inter-island commuting \ar 1’ it“ HOVSbUIQh Island North Keeling Island \(""’ 11' ’T‘\“\l\\:{ Wreck POI!" {$17 .4 T $ Possesslon Direction ’ Porn! . 1‘ *2; Island ’ggg’c'gg a x ”7:; i» r ie V ’l t Scale 1 100.000 Prison Island . sand bar KR 4 [4* Home Island lefty “ ‘ 5“ 31" ,. £‘3’3ISQLI:»* :r .\T :t anchorages 1: oil tanks ”jetty Pulo Cheplok *7 coconut 1,- ’I‘ palms Pulo Pandang 1 *1» T? T . 1p. ’l‘ Pulo Siput w. South Keeling Islands 7 x a I.“ V 1“? “West Island 7"», Til , ‘I’ f 1" . a, T? cf 0 cos Islands rotating IIght "Fmdwme tr ”Tr Pulo " Kambhng South lSland Pulo -. Blan . \ Pulo Maria 4 p Tl; _ , \ 7 7 . T Pulo To - “l T77 T Blan * I 7? T Paved road Madar fl " Scale 1:100,000 »~«-—~ All-weather road 0 1 Mile —-—-— Submarine POL pipeline _____ O 1 Kilometer 61 Southern and Antarctic Islands The islands in the southern Indian Ocean are located almost as far from civilization as man can travel on this planet. There are some scientific research stations on these remote islands but no settlements—no “natives.” There are no airfields, and only an occasional supply ship calls. Situated in a belt of nearly perpetual storms and high seas, these deso- late, bleak, and windswept islands provide a habitat more suited to seals and marine birdlife than to man. The islands are now of value principally as sites for scientific research. Marine studies are facilitated by the location of most of the islands in the zone of antarctic convergence, where the cold waters of antarctic seas underride the warmer waters of the main body of the Indian Ocean. The islands also provide sites for the study of upper atmos- pheric physics and for collection of meteor— ological data in the seemingly limitless ocean expanse. Their remoteness makes possible the study of ecosystems that have been relatively undisturbed by man. All of the islands are of volcanic origin and, although widely separated, have similar terrain, flora, fauna, and climate. Low cliffs and rocky shores make landings from the sea difficult if not hazardous. Only the fjord-like inlets of the Kerguelens offer protected anchorages. Most cargo and personnel are transferred between ship and shore via barge or helicopter. Most of the research stations are on the leeward sides of the islands, where there is some shelter from the prevailing westerly winds. The incessant battering by the ele- ments deteriorates buildings rapidly. Re- searchers are usually rotated after tours of 12 to 18 months to avoid the mental de- pression that may be induced by the con- fined and lonely existence. Various other hazards to field research have been noted. It is easy to become disoriented and lost since compass readings are unreliable—the needle often rotating erratically within short distances—and low visibility conditions de- velop quickly and frequently. Discomfort associated with the Windchill factor is ever present, often compounded by exposure to wind-driven sleet or snow and by unexpected soakings from loss of footing in boggy areas. Only one attempt has been made to estab- lish a permanent colony on the islands—a small settlement to support a seafood can- nery on Saint Paul—and that ended in fail- ure. Commercial activity is limited largely to fishing near the Kerguelens and lobster trapping off Amsterdam and Saint Paul. The islands attained some economic im- portance during the 19th century in the heyday of fur sealing and whaling, but un- controlled slaughter greatly reduced the seal herds, and advances in technology obviated the need for whaling ships to call at the islands. Most of them have been made wild- life sanctuaries, and the threatened species are now re-establishing themselves. Administratively these islands are con- trolled by three countries. The French Southern and Antarctic Lands (Territoire Australe et Antarctique Francais—TAAF) comprises the largest and most important islands—the Kerguelens, the Crozets, Am— sterdam, and Saint Paul. The Prince Edward Islands belong to South Africa, and Heard Island and the McDonald Islands are an Australian territory. Africa ' 0 Prince Edward Islands (South Africa) ‘Also includes Terre Adélie, the French-claimed sector ofAntarctica Scale l:48,000.000 O 300 600 Nautlcal Miles 0 300 600 (Ilometers "" .lle Amsterdam . Ile Saint-Paul Wu "J \. x ’ . . l / firearm acumen: ' and f Animate Land? '1 ' c ,\ les rote! Iles / - _. Kerguelenm O, Me!) n u. ‘ m, . lslalfidas .Heard Island It. far, ‘7 (Australia) (Australia) 1“": , (If. 00. “9" 9r at 108 m “iiiw’ W_. v / 62 . . . Iles Kerguelen part of French Southern and Antarctic Lands 7,000 km’- 2,700 mi2 accessible by research station supply ship from Reunion pop. 90 members of research station French Southern and Antarctic Lands has been an overseas territory of the French Republic since 1955 The Kerguelens have been used by man for more than a century and a half. Their eastern embayments offered the only pro- tected anchorages in the turbulent seas of the southern Indian Ocean for whaling ships seeking refuge from storms, shelter to make repairs, or replenishment of freshwater sup- plies. The anchorages were used again by marauding German warships in World War II. In recent years the island group has been used for research stations. From the sea the appearance of the Ker- guelens is deceptive. The seemingly large, deeply embayed body of land is actually 300 or more closely spaced islands, islets, and rocks separated by inlets, many of which resemble fjords. Although general aspects are known from aerial reconnaissance and from some coastal exploration by ship, much detailed exploration of these islands remains to be done. The better known areas are on the Presqu’ile Courbet. Port-aux-Francais is the main base for French research in the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. Scientists from other na- tions are occasionally invited to participate in the research programs; one of the more important of these is a joint F rench-Soviet effort in the fields of geomagnetism and ionospheric physics. The southern Indian Ocean is an ideal location for this research because (1) geomagnetic force lines are most easily observed in the auroral zones that surround the polar regions, and (2) the conjugate points—paired locations in op- posite hemispheres along the same geomag- netic force path—for three stations in the northern USSR are in the Kerguelens, the Crozets, and on Heard Island. High Winds accompanied by rain, snow, or sleet occur frequently throughout the year. The winds retard the development of vege- tation and cause rain, snow, sleet, and even hail to “fall” almost horizontally. Although man’s presence in the Kerguelens has been limited, it has produced some eco- logical changes. The Kerguelen cabbage, one mporaryresearch camp at Baie de I’Oiseau of the few native plants, proved to be edible not only by man but by the rabbits intro- duced by man. The rabbits multiplied, and this once prolific plant has largely disap- pcared on those islands overrun by rabbits. Other animals brought to the islands include reindeer, sheep, dogs, cats, mice, and rats. The reindeer and sheep adapted to the rigors of life; cats on the Presqu’ile Courbet thrived, to the detriment of the bird population; but the dogs did not survive in the wild. Mice proliferated in the research base area, but rats did not. Recently, salmon fingerlings have been released in the inlets, hopefully to survive and return to breed. “6 Roland Scale 121.000.000 / 0 10 20 Miles lies Nuageuses H .7 —— ‘ / '\ "2‘ Cap d'Estaing O 10 20 Kilometers lle de Cray \ “ 7%; _ . 7 , , .7 +fl/ , lie de Castries elevations in meters . 7 5:2 /" , 7 flats lies Swain he Clugny ,‘V/ ’2 Davis ileDauphine ’ y” . if . 575'! “25% 1) 3,1 g,$anchorage d'A'Cafil 9' g ‘ ‘*' ' j I lie ’ 7lle Howe '9‘” on Eng-fl? K A 9“ ‘ / _- ,-Saint-Lanne 245 3, ,4. i 0 g: ,7‘ is; ' f Gramont ‘ i) E 1177" * «I 7 364 " 7‘, . :7 fl ‘ . ‘ c _ +‘, 4 ‘ ' ’3 k ’3 ‘ ”3.7; . lie Macmurdo \gl'e 9303'“ it b“ , _ 2 ,7 T 0‘s ’,_' ,3. " F : _ 279 x , ,g " x t' [.77 if .7 lie + '- j q?) . ‘0‘ ‘ 7‘ —’ 7' |le_ ». Bethe” , 7 :t‘anchorage '. / ) ‘ + ‘ - ’ . «4" é ‘ Foch " iIeMaroon " “7"?” Cap C J' ‘ 7‘, >1 7_ V9 Presqu‘lle 7 Cotter gap is, t 7 . . * ;.7 Jame 7' Mangny. ‘7 ; pf «79“; 103191+ ‘5’ , r 121+ " , ; _ile Violette _ 7' lie du Port 340 . 176 + . l + _llot $ : ‘3‘ V ’: Bellouard , .= . .7 Pregqu [[3 +157 . ,7 ,f g .7 , . e , Courbet rl(l)e det .7 a A,” v. “(+979 , ues , ' 7, ’ ‘ a 599 > . _ ‘ ‘1 Port-aux- , j .. at. ,. ,7 . 59 _ “5‘ COOk W ‘ 7 i 4H“5 _ ' f .Francars + U, I _ " 717m: "7i . f f - 7 may," _ _ 7 , “4%., le, Kerguel-en ‘ .g, t 4” Y8?” . f 357" — , 7 _ n g . ' g . . ,4 ,7, jam-Me 3. l .7. " ‘ “'- . . 95’s,"! Suzanne .7...“ I m ‘ - at . ‘ ‘ 1 ~ 5" +1, 7’ .. , ‘ + f.‘ 1‘?" $5.». ‘ 1’ , 1 ~ ‘ l i *7». 1534' 9 a. ‘ «’7. g- .7 7 la Longue 1, . o , g ~, ~ .7 _ ‘ 1'! f {s M 3 +353 7 Presqu‘ile 1‘202+.«3j.§ ‘ _ ' Momfl'ess 6‘ £94. '7 a”, ‘ 7 ‘ “ , 4' ,7. 1:950+ u ’4““~,‘,\ ,- , ‘ R'onarc'b ,firesml'ile s. ' a . ' ,7 g r“ ”Di, . ' ‘ .7 7 . ' ‘ r l, ‘ llsduPrinoe .1»; “ .3? b"; " p, 1- ‘ ”1e, ..‘ "fit deMonaco A ‘ 7/ 7-», ;.' ‘ ’ ” esqu ”6 (it! My : _ 7 _, Jeanne d’Am 1. ,i ,7.,, ,, ,7 7,, ., .,,, IIeGaby 7. _ s7 , Q. . any in» . f1.‘.;lt j (v: M 11304 i . ‘“ Vr‘ ' '1‘ ‘ , ff Cap George Cap Ca I p du Bourbon Challenger lie Ronde GO . . . iles Crozet Camp AIfred-Faure, i/e de la Possession part‘of French Southern and Antarctic Lands 343 kmz— 132 mi2 pop. 25 members of research station accessible by research station supply ship from Reunion French Southern and Antarctic Lands has been an overseas territory of the French Republic since 1955 F requented by sealing and whaling ships in the 19th century, the islands of the Crozet archipelago were otherwise ignored by man from the time of their discovery by the French 1n 1772 until the recent expansion of scientific research activities. The archipelago consists of two groups of islands separated by 50 nautical miles of open sea. The eastern group, Ile de la Possession and Ile de l’Est, have permanent snow cover on their fog-shrouded higher peaks, while their deeply eroded lower slopes bear a sparse cover of tussock grasses, lichens, and mosses. The western group consists of Ile aux Cochons and numerous smaller islands that are little more than rocks and reefs serving as rookeries for a large population of sea birds. Ile aux Cochons—Hog Island, a name originally given by American Whalers because pigs were left to forage on the island as a food cache to supplement ships’ ra- tions—is similar in terrain and vegetative cover to Ile de la Possession and Ile de l’Est. To protect the bird and animal life the Crozets were decreed a national park in 1938. The Crozet research base, Camp Alfred- Faure, is an expansion of a meteorological station established on Ile de la Possession in 1964. Temporary camps for special research are set up from time to time on Ile aux Cochons. The research activities in the Cro- zets are closely tied to those at the larger French base at Port-aux- F rancals in the Kerguelens. There is, however, no transport between the two bases other than the two supply ships each year. Communication at other times is restricted to radio. Coast of Ile de I’Est Scale 1:1,000.000 o 5 1o 15 Ml . . , ——'— '95 lle aux Cochons Ile de la V V‘ _ Cap “,8“th 0—5—10_15K'| t 67 km2—26 mi2 Possessron . ; ~ ”mm - . '“C‘NM 150 km2- 58 mi2 Fires ’ ##82’ $ ‘ Painte des @§2 :91] tanchorage Memes ”" jig}, .£*~ 4/ , )1 192 1 27:}! ”a Camp Alfred- -Faure 3 ’{Ii 9 as! “‘1’ I c uMas lles des :1 . “.3" 11%“ , - it Apétres <‘ {,1" W x . ’1 "2,1: 4/, , Pointede _ #9 1 .k‘V , Petite "9’ Grandelle elevations in meters ' ’5 Hou/e ‘ «y Scale 171300.000 ‘ ' W16 0 2Milas C d ‘ , —— Scale 1:300,000 62%;; Cup du Gauss 1, 0 2 Kilometers . t )' lle aux Cochons see inset lle de la Possession ‘. a see inset 1 , :32” _ CQNW ~ ~ ,2“ ‘ M? lle de l’ Est Rocher de I'Arche . . $1110": ,9 ‘\ lles des ngoums '1 1mg? Avg! gig 1;: 1:1 n so 5201' $2730 64 - ...ile Amsterdam and ile Saint-Paul part of French Southern and Antarctic Lands 62 km1-24 mi2 pop. 36 members of research station accessible by research station supply ship from Reunion French Southern and Antarctic Lands has been an overseas territory of the French Republic since 1955 Amsterdam and Saint Paul offer a more hospitable environment than the other is- lands of the southern Indian Ocean. Their latitude gives them a less rigorous climate in which horticulture is possible in protected spots, and the surrounding waters have a greater variety of exploitable marine life. The waters around Amsterdam and Saint Paul have been fished by Reunion islanders at various times since the early 19th century. In the mid 1830’s Reunionnais were taking a species of warm water cod from these waters and asked the French Government to take possession of Amsterdam and Saint Paul to safeguard their interests in the fishing grounds. France declined, preferring instead to supply the Reunionnais with Newfound- land cod. The commercial possibilities of sea- food in this area led to the only attempt at permanent colonization in the southern In- dian Ocean islands. In 1928 a French com- pany set up a cannery on Saint Paul but the company quickly folded—and apparently abandoned some 50 families, mainly from Madagascar, who had been brought in as workers. A ship sent to check on the settle- ment some 3 years later found only two sur- vivors. Currently two vessels from Reunion visit the waters off Saint Paul each year to harvest a quota of 350 tons of lobster tails (800-1,100 tons of whole lobster). Saint Paul is the eroded top of an extinct volcano; its submerged crater resembles a natural harbor. It is not used as a harbor, Volcanic cones on ile Amsterdam however, because it is unprotected from gusty downdrafts that descend the crater slopes with little warning and because access is limited by a depth of 2 meters. Amsterdam, also an eroded volcano, is the site of a French research station. The island’s broad north slope is dotted with small vol- canic cones interspersed with bogs; a number of the craters are filled with water. From a distance the surface appears to be open grass- land, but the bogs are very difficult to tra- verse on foot. Some of the cattle introduced to the island in the past survived and multi- plied, but they have bone weaknesses be- cause of nutritional deficiencies in the nat- ural forage. Amsterdam is noted for having the only tree found in the southern islands. Amsterdam has no harbor; supplies for the research station are lightered to the base of a low cliff and lifted from there by crane. Living conditions at the station are regarded as among the best in the southern islands—— in part because of the warmer, more pleasant climate. ‘\ ‘ g lle Amsterdam Scale 1:1.000,000 0 5 10 15 Miles 0 5 10 15 kilometers s lle Saint-Paul is ile Amsterdam 54 kmz— 21 mi2 +30 . rhg-de-Vrvles ' anchorage dEngglczzreeaux 1" :{el V. i elevations in meters K ' . ,/ ointe Vlaming Scale 1:200.000 ile Saint-Paul SM; n mom . mil 0 8.4 km2 — 3.2 mi2 +19 \ .Rocher Ouille ile Saint-Paul 65 . . . Prince Edward Islands 334 kmz— 129 mil accessible by research station supply ship pop. 30 members of research station possession of the Republic of South Africa since 1947 Prince Edward Islands, the westernmost of the Southern and Antarctic Islands, have only recently engaged much attention. Prior to 1965, scientific knowledge of the islands consisted of little more than meteorological observations made on Marion, the larger of the two islands. In that year, a South African expedition visited the islands as part of a broad Antarctic research program. The group stayed several months, mostly on Marion Island. A permanent meteorological station has since been established on Marion, with quarters to accommodate as many as 30 researchers. Some 130 low volcanic cones are scattered over the central highland area of Marion Is- land. They are juxtaposed with shallow, glacier-formed basins and depressions in which ponds and extensive bogs have formed. Natural drainage is further retarded in the narrow coastal lowlands by wallows made by Research station, Marion Island 66 molting seals. The terrain on Prince Edward Island is considered similar. Foot travel on both islands is precarious. Available climatic data confirm the ap- pellation “gloomy isles.” The periods of sun- shine are too brief to dispel the sense of continual cloudy weather. Fog or some form of precipitation, normally rain but occasion- ally drizzle or snow, occurs on an average of 311 days a year, and the relative humidity is high. The temperature permits seasonal herbaceous growth but is not warm enough for the establishment of woody plants. Ac- companying the damp, chilly atmosphere and grey skies are strong prevailing northwest winds that average 17 knots and are fre- quently of gale velocity. Much of the current research is concen- trated on the ecology of the birds that breed in the islands—albatrosses, terns, petrels, prions, and penguins. The far-ranging alba- tross is one of the more familiar birds that nests there, and large rookeries of both albatrosses and penguins abound along the rocky coasts. Farther inland, petrels and other species nest in pockets burrowed in the soft grey and black lava soils. Scale 1:500.000 0 4 Miles 0 4 Kilometers elevations in meters West Point ‘ 672 Prince Edward Island a» /' 44 kmz— 17 mi2 Cape Marion Island L 290 km2-112mi2 . x ‘1‘ research station .2 Mrs. ‘9 t u Cape Hooker Shore scene, Transvaal Cove . . . Heard Island and McDonald Islands Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands 378 km2-146 mi2 no permanent inhabitants accessible infrequently by ships carrying research teams territory of the Commonwealth of Australia since 1947 Heard Island is regarded as the hardship post among the research stations of the south- ern Indian Ocean. Environmental discom- forts common to all the stations—stormy seas, howling gales, and somber, overcast skies—seem magnified on this lonely out- post. The heavily glaciated terrain is desolate and treeless; vegetation is limited to lichens and mosses and to small flowering plants in season. The landscape is dominated by two quiescent but still active volcanic cones, snow-capped Big Ben and the lower Anzac Peak. This island was discovered by a British expedition in 1833, but the first landing was not made until 1855. Fur seal hunters from the United States later visited regularly, dominating the seal hunting until 1890. Great Britain laid claim to the island in 1910 and retained control until 1947, when administra- tion was transferred to Australia. The climate on Heard is harsh, reflecting its location in the latitudes known as the “screeching fifties.” Westerly winds prevail throughout the year, and severe storms ac- companied by high winds and rain or snow may strike with little or no warning. Periods of good weather—lasting occasionally as long as 2 weeks—are most likely to occur in December and January. Snow covers the entire island from April through November. Australian reconnaissance parties have made sporadic visits to study ionospheric physics, glaciation, volcanic activity, and plant and animal life. Reportedly, permission has been granted by the Australians to the Soviet Government to station a research group on the island. The Australian National Antarctic Expedition operated a meteorologi- cal station on Heard from 1947 until their Mawson station was established in Antarctica in 1955. Weather observations are now lim- ited to infrequent Australian summer visits. Poor weather conditions have prevented detailed study of Big Ben. Two members of a 1963 team reached the main crater but were forced to return to camp after 5 days of bad weather without being able to measure the activity in the volcano. Steam has been observed emerging from the crater and from fumaroles on the sides of the cone. Heard Island is an excellent laboratory for the study of seals, penguins, and numer- ous other bird species. Although wanton slaughter in the 19th century greatly thinned the seal and penguin populations on the island, recent efforts to conserve these ani- mals have been fruitful. A 1969 census showed a marked increase over the 1963 count. The McDonald Islands are a group of three small uninhabited islets—McDonald Island, Flat Island, and Meyer Rock—some 25 nautical miles west of Heard Island. The first known landing on McDonald, largest of the three, was made by helicopter in 1971 when two members of a F rench-Australian survey team spent 45 minutes reconnoitering the island. They verified that South and Needle, depicted on hydrographic charts as separate islands, are in reality promontories of McDonald. Elevations range from about 120 meters in the north to more than 200 meters in the south. All three islands are treeless and, like Heard, are used as breeding grounds by various sea birds, penguins, and seals. 3 72‘0' McDonald Islands “33(3' ,Flat Island McDonald Island { . t ~ l W'» . WW Laqrens - Peninsula ,5.». , .Book 73“? WW snag island 3 Sat: 3 ‘Drury Rock l L _ 7'] Forbidding sea conditions off Heard Island 67 . . . sounce: Ofllclal Airline Guide. Scheduled direct servrce With mainland WorldwideEdltlon,MaIch1970 . 1- - ll‘ldlal'l ocean Islands lsland(s) + Mainland . Andaman ls. lnilia Air Access Comoros F.T.A.l., Kenya. Tanzania f Mainland airfield: scheduled direct Madagascar Ethiopia, F.TA.|.. Kenya, Mozambique. Tanzania commercial service with island(s) . Maldives lndia + Island airfield: scheduled direct . _ commercial service with mainland Mauritius Australia. Egypt, Ethiopia, F.TA.I.. India, Kenya. Malawi, Mozambique, Snuth Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia - Other island airfield: civil, private, or R°""'°" “mm" ”M" mm m“ military Seychelles Ethiopia. F.T.A.l., Hnnu Kong, Kenya, Malawi. South AfricaJanzania Sri Lanka “finial, lillihErain. Brunei, Hong Kong. India. Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sinnapora. South Africa, Zanzibar i./Pemba |. Kenya, Tanzania Jazlrat Muir-h Arabian Sea Seawall-5* i Zanzibar l. ' V '91 - «,Asiov“. i. Cameron ,ila Glorious. Gazetteer and Index Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative. Photo credits Frank Fischbeck-Camera Press via Franz Furst .......... page 32 (bottom-left), page 34 (bottom-right) Michael Kuy-Camera Press via Franz Furst ................. page 2 page 32 (bottom-right) National Science Foundation ..................................... page 17 Photo Research International .................................... page 14 Three Lions Inc ........................................................ page 37 (top). 42 (right) United Press International ......................................... page 23 Wide World Photos ................................................... page 36 (bottom), 43 (bottom), 57 (right) 69 Atlas name usage Spelling of geographic names is in accordance with decisions of the US. Board on Geographic Names (BGN). A few names, not ruled on by the Board, are spelled according to current usage. Admd Administrative division Atll Atoll Chan Channel Cnl Canal Hhr Harbor Isl Island lgn Lagoon Mrsh Marsh Mtn Mountain Page with largest scale \ llame map reference Feature latitude ‘Abd al Kuri 35 Isl 12 12N ‘Adabiyah 28 Ppl 29 53N ‘AI Aqabah 29 Ppl 29 31N ‘Aqiq 29 Ppl 18 14N ‘Asaluyeh 30 Ppl 2 7 ZBN ‘At Turbah 29 Ppl I3 42N ‘Atbarah 29 Ppl l7 42N ‘Ayn Sukhnah 28 Trmo 29 38N Abadan 30 Ppl 30 20N Ahercrombie 46 Ppl 20 095 Aberdeen 59 Ppl I 1 4ON Abha 29 Ppl 18 UN Abqaiq I6 Ppl 25 56N Abu Dhabi (Abu Zaby) 30 Ppl 24 28N Abu Hadriyah 30 Ppl 27 20N Abu Musa, Jazireh-ye 30 Isl 25 52N Abu Rasas, Ra's 35 Pt 20 09N Abu Rudays 29 Ppl 28 53N Accessible. Baie 63 Bay 49 075 Ad Dammam 3O Ppl 26 26N Adams Bridge 55 Shol O9 04N Adams Peak 55 Mtn 06 48N Addis Ababa 29 Ppl 09 02N Addu Atoll 5 3 Atll 00 385 Aden 29 Ppl 12 46N Aden, Gulf of 4 Gulf 10 OON African Islands 48 1515 04 535 Agalega Islands 47 1515 10 285 Agatti Island 54 Isl 10 50N Agulhas, Cape ‘ Cape 34 505 Agulhas Current 6 Curr 30 005 Agulhas Plateau 8 Plat 40 005 Ahvaz 16 Ppl 31 I7N Aigrettes, Ile aux 46 Isl 20 255 Aigrettes, Ilot des 43 Isl 12 145 Aiguillon, Cap d' 63 Cape 48 505 Aiquille, Baie de |' 64 Bay 46 085 Ak’ordat 29 Ppl 15 32N Akyab ‘ Ppl 20 09N AI ‘Arabiyah 30 Isl 27 46N Al‘Arish 29 Ppl 31 08N Al Ballah 28 Ppl 3O 46N Al Basrah 30 Ppl 3O 30N AI Buraymi 30 Ppl 24 15N AI Faw 3O Ppl 29 58N Al Fujayrah 30 Ppl 25 06N Al Ghurdaqah 29 Ppl 27 MN AI Hallaniyah 35 Isl 17 30N AI Hasikiyah 35 151 I7 28N AI Hudaydah 29 Ppl 14 48N Al Hufuf so Ppl 25 22N ’llelerence map insert 70 longitude 5215E 32 28E 35 DOB 3812E 52 37E 46 01E 33 59E 32 20E 4816E 57 31E 92 45E 42 30E 49 40E 54 22E 48 58E 55 03E 58 38E 33 10E 7010B 5007E 79 37E 80 30E 38 42E 73 [DE 45 01E 5000E 53 24E 56 40E 7212E ZOOOE 35OOE 26 00E 48 43E 57 43E 49 19E 68 49E 5014E 37 52E 92 55E 5012E 33 48E 3219E 47 47E 55 45E 48 29E 56 21E 33 50E 56 00E 55 37E 42 57E 49 34E Pen Plat Pln Plnm Ppl Pplx Rdgm Riv Pages with text or other map reterences 16,17,21,22,68 21 68 14 4,19,21,22, 25.29 21,29, 35 4,27 18 19,21,22 21 Peninsula Plateau Plain Subsea plain Populated place Section of populated place Point Suhsea ridge River Page with largest scale llame map relerence AI Kabrit 28 AI Kharijah 29 Al Khasab 3 0 AI Lith 29 Al Matariyah 28 AI Mukalla * AI Qantarah 28 AI Qibliyah 35 AI Qunfudhah 29 AI Qusayr 29 Al Wajh 29 Alaotra, Lake 40 Albany 55 Albatross Island 47 Aldabra Islands 50 Alexandra Channel 59 Alexandria 29 Aliff 5 3 Alifuri 53 Aligau 5 3 Allai Tank 57 Alor Setar 31 Alphones Island 48 Ambalangoda 55 Ambalavao 40 Ambanja 40 Ambato Boeni 40 Ambatolampy 40 Ambatondrazaka 40 Ambatosoratra 40 Ambilobe 40 Amboasary 40 Ambodifototra 40 Ambondrona 43 Ambositra 4O Ambovombe 4O Ambre, Cap d' 40 Ambre, Ile d' 46 Ambre, Montagne d’ 40 Americaine, Baie 64 Amindivi Islands 54 Amini Island 54 Amirante Isles 48 Amirantc Trench 8 Amman 29 Ampanihy 40 Amparai 55 Amsterdam, Ile 65 Analalava 4O Analavory 4O Anamakia 43 Andaman Islands 59 Andaman Sea 5 Andaman Strait 59 Andan Kulam 57 Andapa 40 Rstn Rsv Semt Shol Site Strt Trrno Trn Vol Feature Rsv Ppl ‘Beterenco map insert latitude 3015N 25 26N 2612N 2009N 3111N 1432N 3O 52N 17 30N 19 08N 26 06N 26 15N 17 305 34 575 16 155 09 258 I4 O7N 31 12N 04 3ON 05 58N 05 MN 08 22N 06 O7N 07 005 06 |4N 21 505 13415 16 285 19 235 17 505 17 375 13 125 24 455 16 595 15 325 20 315 25 [IS II 575 20 045 12 305 46 235 11 23N 1106N 06 005 O6 005 3157N 24 425 O7 I7N 37 525 14 375 18 585 12 208 12 30N IO OON 12 18N 08 35N 14395 Railway station Reservoir or tank Suhsea mountain Shoals Historic site Strait Tanker terminal Subsea trench Valley Pages with text or longitude other map references 32 29E 3033E 5615E 4016E 32 02E 4908E 21 32 19E 56 20E 4105E 3417E 36 26E 48 30E 41, 42 117 54E 18 59 35E 46 22E 93 13E 29 54E 72 SSE 72 55E 73 30E 8| 18E 100 22E 52 45E 80 0313 46 56E 48 27E 46 43E 47 25E 48 25E 48 37E 49 04E 43 46 28E 49 52E 46 22E 47 15E 42 46 05E 42 49 17E 57 41E 49 10E 51 50E 72 23E 72 45E 53 10E 52 30E 35 56E 44 45E 81 40E 56 77 32E 5,11-13,27, 33.62 47 4515 43 46 43E 49 15E 92 45E 100 00E 92 45E 81 11E 49 39E 14,48, 51 41. 42 41, 42 11.13 5, 27, 33. 58. 68 16, 27 Page with Page with . Pa as with text or P: es With text or “We“ 593" _ 9 llama m|:;greesti:rsucnad: Feature latitude longitude othuer map references Name map reterence “I‘ll" latitude “"11"“! 011“" map ”WWW” Anderson Island 59 Isl 12 46N 92 43E Barkan, Ra s—e 16 Tlrrlno 311; 3151; :39 4331135 Andilamena 40 Ppl I7 015 48 35E Barren‘ ”CS 40 [5‘5 12 I6N 935115 c Andriamena 40 FP1 ‘7 265 47 505 Barre" Hand 551 Clian 07 155 72 25E Andringitra 4o Mts 22 205 46 5512 33m" Pa“ , R f 21 27s 39 425 4 Androth Island 54 Isl 10 50N 73 41 E Bassas da Indla 4.5 Peel [6 46N 94 45E Angavo 40 Mrs 19 005 47 4512 335851" 3] IPI 01 em 1040315 ‘ Anglaise. He 51 Isl 05 205 72 1413 Batam. Pulau 151 08 ”N 9 2 5 1 E "’ Angulana 57 Ppl 06 48N 79 5213 Batty Malv Island 59 PS1 7 43N 111 42E 56 Anjafy. Hauts Plateaux de l' 40 Plat 18 005 47 45E Batucaloa 55 MP 86 55N 39 49E Anjarah, Ra's 55 Pt 12 12N 52 24E Batu 3 ll" 13 205 48 ”E 42 Anjouan 59 Isl 12 15s 44 25E 311 Be. Nosy 40 151 04 37s 55 3| E Anjouan Airport 59 Air 12 075 44 27E Beacon Island :3 PSI 14 33 s 48 ME 42 Anjouan. Baie d‘ 39 Bay 12 075 44 2513 3681893"? 46 l)Pl 20 15 s 57 2 7E Aniozorobe 40 Ppl 18 24S 47 52E 42 Beau 83.55”] PP] 15 165 48 32E Ankaratra 4o Mts 19 25s 47 12E Bafandnana 4? PPl 19 49s 34 ”E 4 22 Ankavandra 4o Ppl 18 46s 45 1813 Belra ll: 06 ”N 79 5113 1 Ankazoabo 40 Ppl 22 185 44 31E Be“? Lake 57 La e S 45 19E Ankazobe 40 Ppl 18 21s 47 071: MW 40 :9: 16595 45 01113 42 Anonyme Island 48 Isl 04 405 55 31E Bekodoka :2 PPI 20 155 57 45E Anosyennes. Chaines 40 Mts 24 305 47 00E Bel A" 46 Ppl 20 308 57 24E Anosy, Lake 41 Lake 18 555 47 3113 Bel Ombre P91 03 UN 98 4‘ E Anse Boileau 4s Ppl 04 455 55 2913 Belawan 3| Ppl 04 37s 55 251: Anse Royale 4s Ppl 04 44s 55 311: Belle Ombre 48 ll; 49 135 69 m Antalaha 40 Ppl 14 535 50 16E Bellouard, [lot 63 s S 44 3E 42 Antanambalana 40 Riv 15 265 49 45E BCIO 40 Ppl I9 335 45 15E Antongil, Baie d' 40 Bay 15 45s 49 505 Bemaréha Plateau d" 40 I"?! ‘9 s 5 09E Antonibe 40 PP] 15 07S 47 24E Bemarlvo 40 RIV I4 09 0 E Antsalova 4o Ppl 18 405 44 37E Bemarwo 40 R'V ‘5 275 47 4° Antsirabe 4o Ppl 19 515 47 02E 41, 42 Benares ' 4.6 PPl 20 305 5 7 35% Amsohihy 4o Ppl 14 525 47 5915 42, 45 Bender Cass'm PP' ” ”N 49 111315 7 10 12 1, 16 Anuradhapura 55 Ppl 08 21N 80 23E 56 Bengal. Bay of 5 Bay 15 OON 80 , 25- 27. , , Anzac Peak 67 Mtn 53 005 73 18E 4 Apotres. Iles des 64 1515 45 57s 50 27E Beraketa 40 PP: 24 '0: :55 33% :22] 22 24 25 Aqaba. Gulf 61 29 Gulf 29 OON 34 401: 4 Berbera 29 PP '0 25 E . ' , , Arabian Peninsula 7 Pen 20 OON 45 0013 10. 18. 21, 53 36ere 44 PPl 21 135 55 33 Arabian Sea 4 Sea 15 OON 65 001:: 7. 11. 15, 21. 25. Beroroha 40 PP1 21 4'5 45 '0E 42 27, 32, 36 Besalampy 40 Ppl 16 455 44 30E Araml‘l 53 ISI 0415N 73 29E BfiaPUl‘ 59 Ppl 12 39N 92 54E 58 Arche, Rocher de l' 64 Rock 46 285 50 23E Bethell. “5 63 kl 48 585 69 27E An Atoll 53 A111 05 SON 72 50E Betwky 40 Ppl 23 425 44 225 Ari Faro 55 Isl 03 20N 72 53E Betwka 40 PP] 23 '65 46 0615 42 Aride Island 49 Isl 04 125 55 40E BetSIboka 4? R” 16 035 46 365 Arivonimamo 40 Ppl 19 015 47 11E Bhavnagar PP] 21 46N 72 ME Ariyaddu Channel 53 Chnl 03 25N 72 SSE Biblle 55 PP' 07 lON 8' 13E Arrachart Airport 43 Air 12 215 49 17E Big B?" 67 Mm 5 3 065 73 “E Arusha " Ppl 03 215 36 40E 68 BIJOUIICI' Island 48 151 07 045 52 45E Aruvi Aru 55 Riv 08 48N 79 55E Blntan, I’ulau 31 Isl 01 05N 104 30E 18 As Sawda 35 Isl 17 SON 55 5013 Birchganl 59 Ppl 1 l ”N 92 455 A561) 29 Ppl 1300N 42 42E Bird Island 48 ISI 03 43:] 5:129E 68 . Aser, Ras (Cape Guardafui) "' Cape 1 1 49N 51 15E 81‘” Reef 54 1513f l l ”S 46 ?0E Ash Shariqah 3o Ppl 25 22N 55 2313 13. 21 My , 40 I“ 20 05 E Ash Shil’ir 21 Ppl 14 42N 49 36E Black Rlver 46 Admd 20 205 57 25 Ashmore Reef " Reef 12 145 123 05E Blan. PUIO . 61 '5' 12 [IS 96 52B Asmera 29 Ppl 15 20N 38 SSE Blanche, Bale 63 Snd 48 535 69 08E ‘ Assumption Island 48 Isl 09 455 46 30E 14 Blan Madar. PUIO 6.] [5| '2 125 96 52E Astove Island 48 Isl 10 065 47 45E 68 Blantyre Ppl 15 465 35 0013 68 Aswan 29 PP] 24 05N 32 53E Blenheim Reef 5] Reef 05 125 72 28E Asyut 29 PP1 27 IIN 31 [IE Bobonl . 39 Ppl 11 445 43 17E AtTa'if 29 Ppl 21 16N 40 24E 3°be PIC 40 Mm 22 125 45 ”E Atlantis 11 Deep 29 Trn 21 30N 37 50E 17 Boddam, Ile 51 151 05 215 72 ”E Atlas Cove 67 Cove 53 018 73 22E 301193“ B97 48 Bay 04 43S 55 29B Audierne, Baie d' 63 Bay 49 57s 69 16E Bogs Chen 46 PP' 20 265 5 7 3 25 Austen Harbour 59 Bay 12 55N 92 48E Bois-Blanc 44 PI"l 2‘ ”S 55 49E Austen Strait 59 Strt 12 52N 92 52E Bolgoda Lake 5] Lake 06 46N 79 54E Avissawella 55 Ppl 06 57N 8012E Bombay l’Pl ‘3 “N 72 “E 4112351651112"sz E . 2;?gilihsri2nd 21; T3110 21; 33:1: 53; 3225 Bombetoka. Baie de 43 Bay 15 505 46 17E Az Zannah 30 Trmo 24 1 IN 52 35E 16 Igomp‘oka I'slland i: IIsll ($21131: 59; 43117:: on ccuel P Booby Island 49 Rock O4 155 55 40E " Boot Rock 66 Rock 46 49s 37 4415 B Boudeuse Cay 48 Isl 06 055 52 51 E Boueni. Baie de 39 Bay 12 545 45 09E Bourbon, Cap 63 Cape 49 455 68 45E . Baa 53 Admd 0500N 72 50E Bouzi. 110! 39 Isl 12 49S 45 15E Bab e1 Mandeb 29 Sir! 12 30N 43 20E 4, 26. 27 Brahmaputra " Riv 23 51N 89 45E Back Bay 57 Bay 08 35N 81 14E Brava " Ppl 01 025 44 02E 21 Badulla 55 Ppl 06 59N 81 03E 56 Bras-Panon 44 Ppl 20 595 55 41E Bagamoyo 36 Ppl 06 265 38 54E Bretagne. Pointe de 44 Pt 21 115 55 17E Balapitiya 55 Ppl 06 16N 80 02E Bretonne. Baie 63 Bay 49 255 68 50E Baleine Rocks 47 Rock 16 41 S 59 31E Brickaville 40 Ppl 18 495 49 04E Baleiniers. Baie des 63 Bay 49 095 69 48E British Indian Ocean Bali ’ Isl 08 205 115 00E Territory 51 Isls 06 305 72 00E 4, 6. 24. 25. 27, Bambao M'Sanga 39 Ppl 12 115 44 31E 33.48 Bamboo Flat 59 Ppl 11 43N 92 43E Broken Ridge 9 Rdgm 31 305 95 00E Bambous 46 Ppl 20 155 57 24E Broome * Ppl 17 585 122 15E Banda Aceh 31 Ppl O5 34N 95 20E Brothers. The 35 1515 12 09N 53 12E Banda Kuu 37 Ppl 05 443 39 18E Browse Island " Ppl 17 585 122 14E Bandar ‘Abbas 30 Ppl 27 I IN 56 17E 21,25 Bruce. MI, 9 Mtn 22 365 118 08E Bandar-e Lengeh 30 Ppl 26 33N 54 33E 21 Bubiyan 30 Isl 29 47N 48 10E Bandar-e Mah Shahr 30 Ppl 30 33N 49 12E Bububu 37 Ppl 06 065 39 13E Bandar-e Shahpur 30 Ppl 30 25N 49 05E Bububu Springs 37 Spng 06 075 39 14E Bandara 53 Isl 00 12N 73 08E Buffalo Island 55 Isl 07 41N 81 42E . Bandaranaike International Bukum, Pulau 31 Isl 01 MN 103 46E ' Airport 55 Air 07 UN 79 53E Bunbury ‘ Ppl 33 208 115 34E Bandar Seri Begawan ’ Ppl O4 53N 114 56E 68 Bundusi (Bandos) 53 Isl 04 17N 73 29E 52 Bandele 39 Ppl 12 545 45 1113 Bur Fu'ad 28 Ppl 31 UN 32 19E Bandeli. Passe 39 Chnl 12 535 45 16E Bur Safajah 29 Ppl 26 44N 33 56E \ Bangaram Island 54 151 10 MN 72 17E Bur Tawfiq 28 Ppl 29 57N 32 35E Bangkok ‘ Ppl 13 44N 100 30E 68 Buruni 53 Isl 02 33N 73 06E Banyuwangi " Ppl 08 128 114 21E 18 Bushehr 30 Ppl 28 59N 50 50E 21 Baratang Island 59 Isl 12 13N 92 45E Byramgore (Chereapani) Bargal 21 Ppl 11 [SN 5103E Reef 54 RCCf 11 54N 71 49E "MOTH" map 1'15!“ ‘notorance map insert Page with largest scale Name map reterenee Cadell Point 59 Cafres. Plaine des 44 Cailloux Blancs. Baie des 43 Cairo 29 Calcutta ' Calicut ’ Cambuston 44 Camorta Island 59 Camp Alfred-Faure 64 Camp Diable 46 Campbell Bay 59 Cannoniers Point 46 Canzouni. Ile 39 Cap-Diego 43 Cape Town " Car Nicobar 59 Cargados Carajos Shoals 47 Carlsberg Ridge 8 Carnarvon " Cartier Island “ Cascade 48 Cascades. Pointe des 44 Castries. Ile de 63 Casuarina Bay 59 Centre de Flacq 46 Cerf Island (South Banks) 48 Cerf Island 48 Cerf Passage 48 Cerfs. Iles aux 46 Ceylon 1 1 Ceylon Plain 9 Chaani 37 Chagos Archipelago 51 Chagos-Laccadive Plateau 8 Chah Bahar " Chain Deep 29 Chake Chake 37 Chake Chake Bay 37 Chalai 55 Chalinze 36 Challenger. Cap du 63 Chandzi. Ile 39 Changaweni 37 Channer. Ile 63 Chanumla 5 9 Chatham Island 59 Chem Chem Spring 37 Chemin Grenier 46 Cheplok, Pulo 61 Cherbaniani (Beleapani) Reef 54 Cheriyam Island 54 Chesterfield. Ile 40 Chetamale 59 Chetlat Island 54 Chilaw 55 China Bay 57 China Bay 57 China Bay Airfield 57 Chingoni 39 Chisimayu ' Chittagong ‘ Choisy 46 Chowra Island 59 Christmas Island 60 Chukwani 37 Chumphon 3| Chwaka 37 Chwaka Bay 37 Cilacap ‘ Cilaos 44 Cilaos. Bras de 44 Cilaos. Cirque de 44 Cinque Islands 59 Cleugh Passage 59 Clugny. Ile 63 Cochin ' Cochons. Ile aux 64 Cockburn Sound 25 Cocoa Island 47 Coco Channel 59 Coco Island 47 Coconut Island 50 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 61 Cocos Islands Aerodrome 6| Coetivy Island 48 Coin du Mire 51 Coin. Ile du 5 I Colombo 57 Colombo Fort Station 57 Columbo Harbour 57 Colombo/Ratmalana Airport 57 Comorin. Cape ‘ Feature Cape Bay Isl Sm Isl Isl Isls Air Isl Isl Isl Ppl Rstn Hbr Air Cape ‘ Inference map insert 72 latitude 1301N 21105 12135 3003N 22 35N 1115N 20555 0808N 46 255 20285 07 OON 20 005 12 235 12 155 33 565 09 ION 16 385 03005 24 515 12 325 04 405 21 105 48 405 13 15N 20125 09 325 04 385 04 395 20 165 08 OON 04 005 05 578 06 008 03 OON 25 16N 21 27N 05 155 05 155 09 25N O6 365 49 435 12 245 05 225 49 235 08 19N 11 42N 06 095 20 295 12 085 12 18N 10 09N 16 203 10 42N 11 42N 07 34N 08 33N 08 33N 08 32N 12 485 00 255 22 20N 20 295 08 27N 10 305 06 145 10 3ON 06 105 O6 105 07 445 21 075 21 165 21 075 11 17N 13 36N 48 445 09 56N 46 075 33 155 19 435 13 45N 16 495 09 245 12 105 12 125 07 085 05 255 05 263 06 56N 06 56N 06 57N O6 49N 08 04N longitude 9301E 55 35E 4915E 3115E 88 21E 75 45E 55 39E 93 30E 5152E 57 35E 93 55E 57 32E 43 41E 49 17E 18 28E 92 47E 59 38E 67 00E 113 45E 123 32E 55 30E 55 50E 69 30E 92 51E 57 43E 50 59E 55 30E 55 30E 57 48E 80 30E 82 00E 39 18E 72 00E 73 00E 60 41E 38 10E 39 46E 39 40E 80 40E 38 21E 70 05E 43 43E 39 40E 70 11E 93 05E 92 44E 39 13E 57 27E 96 55E 71 53E 73 40E 43 58E 92 35E 72 42E 79 47E 81 11E 81 12E 8| 11E 45 08E 42 31E 91 48E 57 22E 93 02E 105 40E 39 13E 99 [DE 39 26E 39 28E 109 00E 55 28E 55 27E 55 28E 92 43E 93 03E 68 44E 76 15E 50 15E 115 15E 63 18E 93 10E 59 30E 46 27E 96 58E 96 50E 5616E 7153E 7146E 79 51E 79 51E 79 51E 79 53E 77 34E Pages with text or other man references 68 5.19.22.68 4, 18. 22 58, 68 4. 11, 13.27 19. 32.33.55 4,11 6 25 17 21 5. 22 58 5. 11.13.27. 33.68 5. 6, ll, 27. 33. 60. 68 5.13.22.55.56 55 Page with largest scale Name map reierence Comoros 38 Conception Island 48 Cook Glacier 63 Coondapoor " Coral Point 57 Corbyns Cove North 59 Corbyns Cove South 59 Corinthian Bay 67 Cosmoledo Group 48 Cotter. Cap 63 Courbet, Presqu'ile 63 Cousin Islands 14 Crab Island 47 Cratere. Lac 65 Crawford Bay 66 Croy. Ile de 63 Crozet. Iles 64 Crozet Plateau 8 Cuddalore ' Curepipe 46 Curieuse Island 49 Cust Point 51 D'Arros Island 48 Daalu 53 Dacca " Dahlach Archipelago 29 Dambulla 55 Damietta 29 Dampier " Danger Island 51 Dar es Salaam 36 Dar es Salaam International Airport 36 Darsah 35 Das 30 Dauphine. Ile 63 Davis. Cape 66 Davis, [lots 63 Dawwah 35 Daya 37 Dayyinah 30 De Quincey Village 48 Deduru Oya 55 Dehiwala 57 Delagoa Bay (Bale de Lourenco Marques) 18 Delft Island 55 Dembeni 39 Dembeni 39 Demon Point 53 Denis Island 48 Dese 29 Desroches. Ile 50 Devipatam 55 Dhahran 30 Dhanushkodi 55 Dhofar ‘ Diable. Pointe du 46 Diamant. Ile 51 Diamantina Fracture Zone 9 Diamond Island ‘ Diego Garcia 51 Diego-Suarez 43 Diego-Suarez 40 Diego-Suarez. Bale de 43 Diego-Suarez/Andrakaka Airfield 43 Diglipur 59 Digura 53 Diligent Strait 5 9 Direction Island 61 Discoverer Deep 29 Djibouti 29 Djoiezi 39 Doha 30 Domoni 39 Dondra Head 55 Dos d'Ane 44 Douamouni. Cap 39 Doumeira 29 Drumsite 60 Drury Rock 67 Dubayy 30 Dukhan 30 Duncan Passage 59 Dunga 37 Dunidu (Presidents Island) 53 Durban ‘ Dutch Bay 57 Dzaoudzi 39 Dzaoudzi Airport 39 Dzumogne 39 feature Isls Isl Glcr Ppl Pt Cove Cove Bay Isls Cape Pen Isls Isl Inlt Bay 151 Isls Plat Ppl Ppl Isl Pt Isl Admd Isls Admd "iieierence map Insert latitude - longitude 13 005 04 405 49 185 13 38N 08 30N 11 43N 11 38N 53015 09 435 49 035 49 155 O4 205 19 463 38 435 46 585 48 375 46 005 45 005 1143N 20195 04165 07 175 05 245 02 50N 23 42N 15 40N O7 57N 31 25N 17 308 O6 235 06 485 06 493 12 06N 25 09N 48 435 46 495 48 435 20 33N 05 075 24 57N O4 365 07 36N O6 51N 25 585 09 30N 12 505 11 535 00 355 03 485 13 36N 05 425 09 29N 26 18N O9 11N 17 00N 20 205 O5 155 35 005 15 50N O7 205 12165 13305 12135 12155 1315N 03 07N 1211N 12 065 21 16N 11 36N 12 175 25 17N 12 155 05 55N 20 585 12 385 12 37N 10 255 52 56N 25 18N 25 25N 11 OON 06 085 0413N 29 535 08 34N 12 475 12 485 12 435 45 00E 55 22E 69 00E 74 42E 81 21E 92 46E 92 46E 73 27E 47 35E 70 20E 7015E 55 40E 63 21E 77 32E 37 47E 68 38E 52 00E 50 00E 79 46E 57 31E 55 44E 72 29E 53 18E 73 15E 90 22E 40 30E 80 36E 31 48E 122 55E 71 16E 39 17E 3916E 53 16E 52 53E 69 29E 37 41E 69 11E 58 48E 39 43E 52 25E 55 28E 79 48E 79 52E 32 35E 79 42E 45 11E 43 25E 73 05E 55 40E 39 49E 53 41E 78 54E 50 08E 79 24E 54 10E 57 46E 71 46E 105 00E 94 17E 72 25E 49 17E 49 00E 49 17E 4915E 92 59E 73 33E 92 57E 96 53E 38 00E 43 09E 43 47E 51 32E 44 29E 80 35E 55 23E 45 07E 43 10E 105 43E 73 35E 55 18E 50 48E 92 00E 39 20E 73 30E 31 00E 81 15E 4515E 4518E 45 0713 Pages with text or other map reierenees 4. 6. 14, 21, 26. 27. 32-34. 68 49 4.11.12.27.33. 62. 63 22 4, 19. 21, 22. 68 68 16 55. 56 48. 51 16. 68 13 4. 13, 24. 25. 27, 68 13.18.19.25.34. 40-42 19. 42 42 17 4.18, 21.22. 24. 25. 68 21. 68 17-19.21 4. 18, 19,22. 23,68 .. ’0 3r it Page wlth largest scale E Eagle IsIand Eagle Islands East Cape East Channel East Island East London East Point East Sister Eau Bleue Reservoir Eclipse Bay Eclipse Point Edd Edu Faro Egmont Islands Eight Degree Channel Eil EIat Elephant Island Elephant Pass Elizabeth Island Elizabeth Point Elphinstone Harbour Enggano. Pulau Entre-Deux Entrecasteaux. Falaise d‘ Equatorial Channel Equatorial Countercurrent Eravur Ernakulam Escalier Esperance Est, Ile de 1' Est. Ile de 1' Est, Riviere de 1' Estaing. Cap d' Etang-Sale Etingili Euphrates Island Europa. Ile Everest. Mt. Exmouth Plateau F Fa'id Faafu Fadiffolu Atoll Fahala Faidu Falanj. Jabal Fandriana Faon Island Farafangana Farasan. jaza‘ir Farquhar Group Farsi, jazireh-ye Farukolu Fateh Faylakah Feartu Fedu Felicite Island Felidu Atoll Fenerive Fianarantsoa Fianarantsoa Fiherenana Finya Fivaku FIacq Flagstaff Point Flat Bay Flat Island Flat Island Flat Island Flores Flying Fish Cove Foch. Ile Fomboni Fond du Sac Fort Frederick Fort Ostenburg Fort-Dauphin Forur. Jazireh-ye Foteo Foul Point Foumbouni Fournaise. Piton de la Francais. Baie des Frégate Island Fremantle French Southern and Antarctic Lands Frigate Island Frigate Island Fua Mulaku Island map reference 28 53 53 53 53 37 53 46 57 59 67 59 46 O 60 63 39 46 57 57 40 30 53 57 39 44 43 47 t 62 47 49 53 Feature Isl Isls Cape Chan Isl Ppl Isl Rsv Bay Ppl Isl Isls Chnl Isl Strt Plat Ppl Admd Atll Isl Isl Mtn Ppl Isl Ppl Isls Isls Isl IsI Trmo Isl IsI Isl Isl Atll Ppl Ppl Admd Riv Ppl Isl Admd Pt Bay Isl IsI Isl Isl Cove Isl Ppl Ppl Site Site Ppl Isl 151 Pt Ppl Mtn Bay Isl Ppl Isls Isl IsI Isl *lleterence men Insert latltutle 05 075 06 125 46 545 09 225 07 135 33 005 07 215 04 I75 20 215 07 168 O7 155 13 56N 05 43N 06395 08 OON 08 OON 29 33N 08 32N 09 31N 08 30N 08 38N 12 UN 05 245 21 135 37 515 00 00 07 46N 10 OON 20 285 33 495 46 265 12 26N 21055 48 395 21 155 05 59N 09 255 22 215 27 59N 16 005 30 19N 03 15N 05 25N 02 25N 06 21N 12 30N 20 145 04 385 22 49S 16 48N 10 105 27 58N 04 UN 25 40N 29 25N 03 MN 00 415 04 205 03 29N 17 225 21 265 19 305 23 195 05 025 06 21N 20 155 08 35N 11 39N 53 025 12 32N 19 525 08 305 10 255 49 005 12 165 20 035 08 34N 08 32N 25 025 26 I7N 03 27N 08 31N 11 505 21 148 12 178 19 455 32 075 45 005 16 365 04355 00173 longltude 53 19E 71 20E 37 54E 46 26E 72 25E 27 54E 72 28E 55 52E 57 36E 72 22E 72 22E 41 39E 73 24E 71 22E 49 49E 34 57E 81 14E 80 25E 81 13E 81 13E 92 58E 102 16E 55 28E 77 28E 73 15E 75 00E 81 36E 76 16E 57 36E 121 52E 52 15E 46 01E 55 46E 69 03E 55 23E 72 54E 46 15E 40 21E 86 56E 114 00E 32 19E 72 55E 73 30E 73 22E 73 02E 54 17E 47 23E 55 30E 47 50E 41 54E 51 10E 50 11E 73 32E 54 50E 48 22E 73 02E 73 07E 55 52E 73 32E 49 25E 47 05E 47 00E 43 37E 39 46E 73 11E 57 45E 81 14E 92 41E 72 38E 92 41E 57 40E 121 00E 105 43E 69 [SE 43 45E 57 34E 81 14E 81 13E 47 DOB 54 32E 73 46E 81 19E 43 30E 55 43E 49 20E 63 20E 115 44E 65 00E 59 31E 55 56E 73 26E Pages wltli text or other map references 18 23 4, 68 41, 42 48. 51 42 41. 42 13.41. 42 Page with largest scale Fufuni Fulidu Fulidu Channel Fumba Funadu Fundo Island Funidu Furena F uri F urnadu F usilier Channel G Gaafu Aliff Gaafu Daalu Gabriel Gabriel Island Gaby. Ile Gachsaran Gadu Gaha Faro Gal Oya Gal Oya Dam Galathea Bay Galets. Plaine des Galets. Pointe des Galets. Riviere des Gallandu Channel Galle Gallieni. Cap du GaIIieni. Presqu'ile Gallois. CuI-de-Sac Gampola Gan Gan Gan Channel Ganaveh Gang Island Ganges Ganges Fan Gascoyne Plain Gass Kalohera Gauss. Cap du Gazert, Cape Gazi Gemas George. Cap Geraldton Geyser Reef Ghubbah Giants Tank GiIIot International Airport Gin Ganga Giuba Glorieuse, IIe Glorieuses. Iles Goadu Godavari Goelette Island Goidu Island Gombrani Island Good Hope. Cape of Goodlands Grand Benard Grand Bois Grand Brule Grand IIet Grand Port Grand River North West Grand River South East Grande Baie Grande Baie Airstrip Grande Case NoyaIe Grande Comore Grande Gaube Grande Ile Grand Ile Coquillage Grande Retraite Grande Riviere Sud Est Grande Soeur Grants Well Great Australian Bight Great Basses Reef Great Bitter Lake Great Channel Great Coco Island Great Nicobar Island Great Quoin Island Great Sober Island Greenland. Baie Gros Billot Gunners Quoin Gwadar H Haa Aliff map reterence 37 53 53 37 53 53 Feature Ppl Isl Chnl Ppl Isl Isl Isl Isl [SI [SI Chnl Admd Admd Ppl Isl IsI Ppl Isl Isl Riv Dam Bay PIn Pt Riv Chnl Ppl Cape Pen Bay Ppl Isl Isl Chnl Ppl Isl Riv Fan Plnm Isl Cape Ppl Ppl Cape Ppl Reef Ppl Rsv Air Riv Riv Isl Isls Isl Riv Isl IsI Isl Cape Ppl Peak Ppl Lava Ppl Admd Riv Riv Ppl Air Ppl Isl Ppl Isl Isl P I 151 Well Bay Reef Lake Strt Isl Isl Isl Isl Bay Ppl Isl Ppl Admd ‘lleterence map Insert latltude 05 265 O3 41N 03 45N 06 195 01 50N 05 035 04 12N 04 16N 03 OIN 06 09N 11 52N 00 45N 00 20N 19 425 19 525 49 405 30 12N 00 18N 04 53N 07 18N 07 13N 06 48N 20 565 20 555 20 575 06 55N 06 OZN 46 285 49 355 12 175 07 10N 00 17N 00 425 00 435 29 32N 01 54N 23 20N 12 OON 16 005 00 385 46 288 53 055 04 255 02 35N 49 415 28 495 12 255 12 36N 08 51N 20 535 06 03N 00 26S 11 345 11 335 06 25N 17 OON 10 135 04 54N 19 465 34 205 20 025 21 065 20 245 21 145 21 015 20 255 20 I35 20 185 20 005 20 005 20 245 11 355 20 015 45 575 05 215 20 105 20 173 05 203 10 295 35 005 06 [IN 30 20N O6 OON 14 07N 07 OON 26 3ON 08 32N 49 385 20 265 19 565 25 09N 06 55N longlturle 39 41E 73 24E 73 25E 39 17E 73 30E 39 39E 73 30E 73 32E 73 01E 73 16E 93 03E 73 30E 73 15E 63 26E 57 41E 69 45E 50 47E 73 24E 73 28E 8146E 81 32E 93 51E 55 19E 5517E 55 17E 72 55E 8013E 51 44E 69 30E 4914E 80 34E 73 22E 73 09E 73 11E 50 31E 73 33E 78 51E 87 00E 107 00E 73 14E 5| 49E 73 21E 39 30E 102 37E 7014E 114 36E 46 25E 53 46E 80 02E 55 31E 8010E 42 30E 47 18E 47 20E 72 55E 8145E 5108E 72 58E 63 25E 18 25E 57 38E 55 25E 57 33E 55 47E 55 29E 57 38E 57 30E 57 43E 57 34E 57 33E 57 22E 43 20E 57 39E 50 27E 71 58E 57 40E 57 46E 71 45E 105 39E 130 00E 81 29E 32 23E 94 00E 93 22E 93 50E 56 30E 81 12E 7014E 57 35E 57 37E 62 21E 72 55E Pages wltlt text or other man references 18. 56. 57 I3. 25. 27, 68 21 68 4, 40 14.18.19, 23. 24 38 58 21 73 Page wlth largest scale Haa Daalu Habarane Hadd, Ra's al Haddo Haddummati Atoll Hadiboh Hadiboh Airfield Haggier, Jabal Haifa Hala'ib Haldia Hall Tablemount Halul Hambantota Hamilton Canal Hammillewa Handeni Hankadu Harad Hastie. Pointe Havaru Tinadu Havelock Island Hawkins Point Hazofotsy Heard Island Hell-Bourg Hellville HellvilIe/Fascene Airport Hemiti Hendala Hengam. Jazireh—ye Henhoaha Henry Lawrence Island Heratera Herbertabad Hermitage Island Highlands Hilf, Ra's Hitadu Hitaddu Hoani Home Island Homfray Strait Hong Kong Hooker. Cape Hope Town Horace Point Hormuz. Jazireh-ye Hormuz. Strait of Horsbourg Atoll Horsburgh Island Houle. Pointe de la Howe, Ile Hulaf, Ra's Hulule Hulule Airfield Hulumidu Island Huras Hut Bay Hutchison. Pointe I Iconi Ihavandiffulu Atoll lhavandu Ihosy Ihosy Ikopa Ilaka Ilakkantai Imaloto Indus Indus Fan Inhambane Inner Harbour Interview Island Ionaivo Ipoh Iranamadu Tank Irrawaddy lsalo. Massif Ruiniforme de l’ Isdu Isle of Man Ismahilahera Island Ismailia Itremo, Massif de l‘ Ivakoany, Massif de l' Ivato International Airport Ivembeni lvondro J Ja-Ela Jaflna Jaffna Lagoon map reference 53 55 55 55 55 Feature Admd Ppl Cape Ppl Atll Isl Cape Cape Isl Strt Atll Isl Pt Isl Pt Isl Air Isl Isl Bay Pt Ppl Atll Isl Ppl Riv Riv Ppl Ppl Riv Riv Fan Ppl Hbr Isl Riv Ppl Rsv Riv Mts Isl Isl Isl Ppl Mts Mts Air Ppl Riv Ppl Ppl Lgn *Reterence map insert 74 latitude 06 45N 08 OZN 22‘ 32N 11 41N 01 55N 12 38N 12 38N 12 34N 32 50N 22 UN 22 O5N 21 508 25 40N 06 07N O6 59N 08 3ON 05 265 00 395 24 I4N 18 105 00 31N 11 58N 10 275 23 245 53 065 21035 13255 13 255 O3 16N O6 59N 26 39N 06 49N 12 09N 00 375 1143N 19 455 20165 20 42N 0147N 00385 12 155 12 075 12 18N 22 15N 46 595 1142N 08 I4N 27 04N 26 34N 04 53N 12 045 46 095 48 505 12 42N 0411N 04 “N 00355 04 06N 10 38N 38 445 11445 07 OON 06 57N 22 245 21445 17 015 19335 08 29N 23 275 24 20N 18 OON 23 515 08 33N 12 55N 22 565 04 35N 09 18N 15 50N 22 455 02 06N 08 23N 00 365 30 35N 21005 23 505 18 485 11 29S 18 155 07 05N 09 4ON 09 35N longltude 72 55E 80 45E 59 48E 92 44E 73 25E 54 02E 54 03E 54 02E 35 00E 36 38E 88 00E 39 01E 52 25E 81 07E 79 52E 80 29E 38 03E 73 06E 49 03E 49 26E 72 57E 93 00E 56 40E 45 24E 73 30E 55 32E 48 16E 48 16E 72 49E 79 52E 55 33E 93 49E 93 05E 73 14E 92 37E 63 26E 57 30E 58 52E 73 23E 73 05E 43 40E 96 55E 92 50E 114 11E 37 51E 92 44E 93 30E 56 28E 56 15E 72 54E 96 50E 50 16E 69 25E 54 06E 73 32E 73 32E 73 14E 73 31E 92 36E 77 33E 43 14E 72 55E 72 55E 46 08E 45 53E 46 45E 48 52E 81 21E 45 13E 67 47E 68 00E 35 29E 81 13E 92 43E 46 54E 101 05E 80 26E 95 06E 45 15E 73 35E 93 38E 73 12E 32 16E 46 40E 46 25E 47 29E 43 19E 49 22E 79 53E 80 DOB 8015E Pages with text or other map reterences 22 16 56 4,11-13.27,33. 62, 63 68 4. 25. 27, 28 52 41, 42 21 56 Page with largest seale Name map reterence Jahrom 30 Jakarta " Jan Smuts Peak 66 Jangli Chat 59 Jask 30 Java Trench 9 Jean-Baptiste Charcot, Chenal 63 Jeanne d'Arc, Presqu’ile 63 Jendele 37 Jerusalem 29 Jiddah 29 Jizan 29 Jo'oh 35 Joffre, Presqu'ile 63 Johannesburg " John D. Point 60 John Lawrence Island 59 Johor Baharu 31 Jones Point 60 Jozani 37 Ju‘aymah 16 Juan de Nova. Ile 45 Ka‘l Fir‘awn 35 Kaafu 5 3 Kachchaitivu 5 5 Kadarma, Ra‘s 35 Kadmat (Cardamum) Island 54 Kakinada "' Kala Oya 55 Kala Wewa 55 Kalban 35 Kalban. Ra's 35 Kalmunai 55 Kalpeni Island 54 Kalpitiya 55 Kalputhi Island 54 Kalu Ganga 55 Kalutara 55 Kamaran 29 Kambling, Pulo 61 Kampala ' Kanalla 59 Kandla " Kandu Hera 53 Kandudu 5 3 Kandudu 5 3 Kandute 5 3 Kandy 55 Kangani 39 Kanifuri 5 3 Kankesanturai 5 5 Kanniyai 57 Kantalai 55 Kantang 31 Karaitivu 55 Karaitivu 55 Karachi "' Kardiva Channel 53 Karidu 53 Karimum, Pulau 31 Kartala. Mont 39 Kartara 59 Kassala 29 Katchall Island 59 Kattankudi 55 Kavaratti Island 54 Kazerun 30 Keadu 5 3 Keane Island 53 Keating Point 59 Kegalla 55 Kelai 53 Kelani Ganga 55 Kelaniya 5 7 Kengeja 37 Kerguelen. Ile 63 Kerguelen. IIes 63 Kerguelen Plateau 8 Kerintji, Gunung 9 Kerman 30 Khafii, Ra's al 16 Khambhat, Gulf of ‘ Khamis Mushayt 29 Khandema Magu Channel 54 Khark, Jazireh-ye 30 Khartoum 29 Khawr al Amaya 16 Khaysat an Nawm. Ra’s 35 Khorramshahr 30 Khuran (Clarence Strait) 30 Khuriya Muriya. Jaza'ir 35 Kigomasha, Ras 37 Kikutani 37 Feature Ppl Ppl Mtn Ppl Ppl Trn Isl Isl Stm Ppl Ppl Isl Isls Plat Mtn Ppl Trmo Ppl Ppl Chnl Isl Ppl Trmo Cape Ppl Strt Isls Cape Ppl " neterenee map Insert latitude longitude 28 31N 06 105 46 545 11 40N 25 38N 10 305 48 405 49 405 O6 105 31 46N 21 30N l6 54N 12 32N 49 025 26 105 10 315 12 06N 01 28N 10 305 06 I65 26 51N 17 033 12 26N 04 4ON 09 23N 12 42N 11 I4N 16 59N 08 18N 08 OlN 2018N 20 21N 07 25N 10 04N 08 I4N 10 49N 06 35N 06 35N 15 21N 12 125 0019N 06 58N 23 03N 00 375 02 19N 00 29N 06 26N O7 18N 12 205 05 22N 09 49N 08 36N 08 21N' 07 25N 08 28N 09 44N 24 51N 05 OON 04 58N 0103N 11 455 12 44N 15 28N 07 57N 07 40N 10 33N 29 37N 03 28N 04 MN 09 [SN 07 15N 06 57N 06 58N 06 57N 05 255 49 305 49 155 55005 01 425 30 17N 28 24N 20 58N 18 18N 0818N 2915N 15 36N 29 48N 1215N 30 25N 26 50N 17 30N 04 528 06 228 53 33E 106 46E 37 44E 92 44E 57 46E 110 00E 68 55E 70 00E 39 22E 35 14E 39 12E 42 29E 54 12E 69 32E 28 02E 105 43E 93 02E 103 45E 105 35E 39 25E 49 54E 42 44E 52 08E 73 30E 79 31E 53 40E 72 47E 82 20E 79 50E 80 33E 58 38E 58 38E 81 49E 73 41E 79 46E 72 10E 79 57E 79 58E 42 34E 96 51E 32 35E 93 55E 70 11E 73 09E 72 55E 72 56E 72 54E 80 38E 43 50E 73 19E 80 02E 81 10E 81 00E 99 31E 79 47E 79 52E 62 07E 73 20E 73 27E 103 22E 43 22E 92 45E 36 24E 93 22E 81 43E 72 38E 51 38E 73 32E 73 31E 92 46E 80 21E 73 12E 79 52E 79 55E 39 44E 69 30E 69 10E 75 00E 101 16E 57 05E 48 33E 72 54E 42 44E 73 02E 50 20E 32 32E 48 40E 52 04E 48 11E 55 40E 56 00E 39 41E 39 27E Pages with text or other map references 5, 68 4, 13. 21. 22 68 4, 68 56 56 68 56 4, 21. 22. 25. 68 38 58 56 4.6.11-13.27. 33. 62 ‘0 Page with largest scale iiarne map reference Kilimanjaro 8 Kilindi 37 Kilosa 36 Kiltan Island 54 Kilwa Kivinje " Kirillapone Canal 5 7 Kirindi Oya 55 Kisauni Airport 37 Kish Kash 37 Kiuyu, Res 37 Kiwani 37 Kiwani Bay 37 Kizimkazi. Ras 37 Koani 37 Koddiyar Bay 57 Kodi Point 54 Kojani Island 37 Kolonnawa 57 Kolufuri 5 3 Kolumadulu Atoll 53 Kombani 39 Konde 37 Korogwe 36 Kosciusko, ML 9 Kota Baharu 31 Kotte 57 Krishna " Kuala Lumpur 31 Kuantan 31 Kubura 53 Kudu Huvadu 5 3 Kudu Kandu Channel 53 Kuduhuvadu Channel 53 Kuhestak 30 Kuludu Faro 53 Kumadu Island 53 Kumana 55 Kundur. Pulau 31 Kung-ka Shan 9 Kupang ‘ Kuramati 53 Kuraymah 29 Kuredu 53 Kuria Muria Bay 35 Kurumba 53 Kurunegala 55 Kutch. Gulf of “' Kutch, Rann of " Kuwait 30 L’Ilot 49 La Bretagne 44 La Butte 44 La Crete 44 La Croisee 46 La Digue Island 49 La Digue Point 47 La Dives 65 La Ferme 47 La Ferme Reservoir 46 La Fontaine 44 La Mare 44 La Montagne 44 La Nicoliere Reservoir 46 La Plaine des Cafres 44 La Plaine des Palmistes 44 La Possession 44 La Possession Airport 44 La Riviere 44 La Roche Ecrite 44 La Rosa 46 La Saline 44 Labourdonnais 46 Labuan. Cape 67 Labyrinth Islands 59 Laccadive Islands 54 Laccadive Sea 4 Laful 59 Lakshadweep. Union Territory of 54 Laksi 59 Lalmatie 46 Lamu “ Lamu 53 Landfall Island 59 Langsa 31 Laperouse. Baie du 64 Lar 30 Larak. Jazireh-ye 30 Large Strait 29 Latham Island 36 Laurens Peninsula 67 Lava. Nosy 43 Lava. Nosy 4O Lavan. Jazireh-ye 30 Laviyani 53 Lazare. Point 49 Le Bois de NeIIes 44 Feature Mtn Ppl Ppl Isl Ppl Cnl Riv Air Ppl Cape Ppl Bay Cape Ppl Bay Pt Isl Ppl Isl Atll Ppl Ppl Ppl Mtn Ppl Ppl Riv Ppl Ppl Isl Isl Chnl Chnl Ppl Isl Isl Ppl lsl Mtn Ppl Isl Pen Isl Isl Isl Admd Pt Ppl *iteterence map insert latitude O3 025 05 535 06 505 ll 29N O8 455 06 53N 06 45N 06 13$ O5 015 O4 535 05 065 06 165 06 295 06 085 08 30N 08 I9N O5 055 06 56N 02 46N 02 25N 11 375 04 575 05 095 36 275 06 08N 06 54N 15 57N O3 ION 03 48N 00 23N 02 4ON 00 365 02 4ON 26 47N 06 37N O5 18N 06 31N 00 45N 29 47N 10 135 04 16N 18 33N 05 33N 17 40N 04 12N 07 29N 22 36N 24 05N 29 20N 04365 20 545 20 555 21 205 20195 O4 215 10315 37 515 19 425 20155 21085 20 535 20 535 20 095 21 135 21075 20 555 20 555 21 145 21008 20 255 21048 20 045 53 108 11 35N 1100N 08 OON 07 ION 11 OON 08 UN 20 128 02 175 02 UN 13 40N 04 28N 46 275 27 41N 26 52N 12 46N 06 545 53 005 12 105 14 335 26 48N 05 30N 04 463 20 595 longitude 37 39 36 73 39 79 81 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 81 73 39 79 79 80 101 72 93 57 40 73 93 97 51 54 56 43 39 73 49 47 53 73 55 55 20E 17E 59E 00E 21E 53E 06E 13E 42E 52E 49E 19E 30E 17E 15E 04E 51E 53E 24E 10E 23E 45E 29E 16E 15E 54E 59E 42E 20E 30E 54E 07E 10E 02E 03E 06E 42E 26E 53E 38E 58E 51E 27E 00E 30E 22E 30E 10E 59E 54E 30E 18E 39E 28E 50E 40E 31E 23E 25E 19E 32E 26E 36E 33E 38E 20E 19E 27E 28E 37E 16E 36E 27E 35E 00E 00E 52E 00E 09E 40E 54E 55E 02E 58E 43E 17E 22E 21E 56E 18E 22E 36E 15E 30E 28E 20E Pages with text or other map references 55 55 68 18 52 56 16 13. 21. 22 48 4.11.14.21, 27 55 21 16 32. 33 Page with largest scale liarne map reference Feature Le Brule 44 Ppl Le Coeur Saignant 44 Pplx Le Guillaume 44 Ppl Le Morne Airstrip 46 Air Le Port 44 Ppl Le Tampon 44 Ppl Le Titan 44 Pplx Leeuwin. Cape ‘ Cape Les Avirons 44 Ppl Les Cinq Geants 64 Rcks Limah 3O Ppl Leuser, Gunung 9 Mtn Limani 37 Ppl Limon. Mont 47 Mtn Lindi " Ppl Lingga, Kepulauan 31 Isls Lingga. Pulau 18 Isl Little Andaman 59 Isl Little Basses Reef 55 Reef Little Bitter Lake 28 Lake Little Coco Island 59 Isl Little Nicobar Island 59 Isl Little Quoin Island 30 Isl Little Sober Island 57 Isl Lombok " Isl Lombok. Selat “ Strt Londres. Baie de 63 Bay Long Island 48 Isl Long Island 59 Isl Longoni. Baie 39 Bay Longue. Ile 63 Isl Loranchet. Presqu'ile 63 Pen Low Point 60 Pt Lubine, Ile 51 Isl Lumbo 38 Ppl Lurio. Rio 38 Riv Lusaka ‘ Ppl Lys, Ile du 45 Isl M M’De 39 Ppl M’Ramoni 3 9 Ppl M'Remani 39 Ppl M'Sapere 39 Ppl M’Zambourou, Ile 39 [SI M'Zambourou. Passe 39 Chnl Ma Faro 5 3 Isl Mabole 5 7 Ppl Macmurdo, Ile 63 Isl Macpherson Strait 59 Strt Madagascar 4O Isl Madagascar Plateau 8 Plat Madampe 5 5 Ppl Madras " Ppl Maduru Oya 55 Riv Maevarano 40 Riv Maevatanana 40 Ppl Mafatte. Cirque de 44 Val Mafuri 5 3 Isl Mafia Island ‘ Isl Mahabo 40 Ppl Mahajamba 40 Riv Mahajamba, Baie de 40 Bay Mahajilo 40 Riv Mahanoro 4O Ppl Mahavavy 40 Riv Mahavavy 4O Riv Mahaweli Ganga 55 Riv Mahe Island 48 Isl Mahebourg 46 Ppl Maho 5 5 Ppl Mahonda 3 7 Ppl Main Channel 50 Chan Main Pass 5 1 Chan Main Strait 3 l Strt Maintirano 40 Ppl Majunga 40 Admd Majunga 43 Ppl Majunga/ Amborovy Airfield 43 Air Makoba 3 7 Ppl Makunudu Atoll 5 3 Atll Makunudu 5 3 Isl Malacca 5 9 Ppl Malacca, Strait of 5 Strt Malaimbandy 4O Ppl Maldives 5 3 Isls Male 5 3 Ppl Male Atoll 5 3 Atll Male Island 53 Isl Malheureux. Cap 46 Cape Malheureux. Cap 49 Cape Malindi ‘ Ppl Mamelle Island 49 Isl Mametu 5 3 Isl Mamoutzou 39 Ppl ‘ileterence map insert latitude 20 545 20 555 21 025 20 265 20 555 21 165 20 555 34 225 21 145 46 045 25 56N 03 45N 05 I75 19 425 10 005 00 00 00 00 10 45N 06 24N 30 UN 14 OON 07 20N 26 28N 08 32N 08 455 O8 305 48 575 O4 375 12 24N 12 435 49 318 48 505 10 285 O6 395 15 005 13 315 15 265 11 315 11445 12 205 12 195 12 475 12 395 12 365 05 50N O7 OON 48 525 11 31N 20 005 30 005 06 32N 13 05N 07 52N 14 335 16 565 21 035 00 50N O7 505 20 235 15 335 15 243 19 425 19 545 15 575 13 003 08 27N 04 405 20 245 07 49N 06 005 09 225 07 155 01 09N 18 035 17 005 15 433 15 305 05 575 06 20N 06 24N 09 ION 02 30N 20 205 03 OON 04 MN 04 25N O411N 19 595 04 485 03 145 O4 295 00 51N 12 475 longitude 55 26E 55 18E 55 19E 57 19E 5518E 55 31E 55 18E 115 08E 55 20E 5017E 56 25E 9711E 39 47E 63 26E 39 44E 10435E 10435E 92 30E 8143E 32 33E 93 13E 93 40E 56 32E 81 13E 116 30E 115 45E 69 11E 55 30E 92 57E 451013 69 54E 69 00E 105 45E 71 21E 40 44E 40 32E 28 20E 47 22E 43 15E 44 32E 44 30E 45 15E 45 03E 45 08E 73 27E 79 54E 69 23E 92 39E 47 00E 45 DOB 80 35E 80 18E 81 31E 48 14E 46 49E 55 25E 73 07E 39 35E 44 40E 47 08E 47 05E 45 22E 48 48E 45 54E 48 55E 81 13E 55 28E 57 42E 8O 16E 39 15E 46 14E 72 23E 103 45E 44 01E 47 00E 46 19E 46 22E 39 12E 72 35E 72 41E 92 49E 101 20E 45 36E 73 00E 73 30E 73 30E 73 30E 57 36E 55 32E 40 08E 55 32E 73 21E 45 14E Pages with text or other map references 25 13 21 58 5. 19, 23. 27 68 4,6,12,16,19, 25-27. 32-34, 4143. 68 5. 19. 22, 68 42 42 57 4.13.14.25.50 41-43 4042 14.15. 23. 26-28. 4.15.16, 21, 25— 13 52 68 31 27. 33. 52. 68 75 Page with largest scale Man Kandu Channel Manaha Islands Manakambahiny Manakara Manama Manambao Manampatrana Mananantanana Mananara Mananara Mananara Mananiary Mananiary Mandabe Mandapam Mandrare Mandritsara Mandu Mandvi Mangalore Mangapwani Manglutan Mangoky Mangoky Mangoro Mania Manila Maningory Manja Mankanai Mankulam Mannar Mannar. Gulf of Mannar Island Manners Strait Manzilah. Buhayrat al Mapare Maputo Maradu Marble Point Mare d'Albert Mare Longue Reservoir Marianne Point Maria. Pulo Marichchukkaddi Marie Anne Island Marie Louise Island Marigny. Cap Marin. Baie du Marion Island Marmagao Maroansetra Maromokotro Maroon. Ile Marovoay Marsouins. Riviere des Martaban, Gulf of Martin‘de-Vivies Marville. Lac Masasi Mascarene Islands Mascarene Plain Mascarin. Pic du Masirah, Jazirat Masirah Airfield Masirah Channel Masjed Soleyman Masoala, Presqu’ile Masulipatam Mat. Riviere du Matale Matara Matatemwe Matiwari Matugama Mauritius Mauritius Trench Mavaidu Mavaru Mavila Mawson Peak Maya Bandar Mayotte Mbeni McDonald Island McDonald Islands Mecca Medan Medina Medine Medwin Point Meemu Melaka Menai Bay Menarandra Menchal Island Menkamam Mentawai, Kepulauan Mergui Mergui Archipelago Messalo, Rio Meurthe, Cap de la map reterenee 53 50 40 40 30 53 38 64 Feature Chnl Isls Ppl Ppl Ppl Riv Riv Riv Ppl Riv Riv Riv Ppl Ppl Ppl Riv Ppl Isl Isl Cape Isl Ppl Ppl Mtn Isl Ppl Riv Gulf Ppl Lake Ppl Isls Plnm Peak Isls Chnl Ppl Isls Ppl Isls Riv Cape *neierence map insert 76 latitude 00 365 10 095 17 518 22 085 26 UN 17 415 22 515 21 255 16 105 16 105 23 215 21 145 21 135 21 033 09 17N 25 105 15 505 03 43N 22 50N 12 52N 05 595 11 36N 23 275 21 295 20 00$ 19 425 14 36N 17 135 21 265 08 38N 09 08N 08 59N 08 30N 09 03N ll 20N 31 UN 16 365 25 585 00 405 08 30N 20 255 20 238 07 195 12 133 08 35N 04 205 06 115 49 065 46 265 46 55S 15 24N 15 26S 14 015 49 02$ 16 065 21 055 16 OON 37 485 49 085 10 435 20 005 19 005 46 265 20 25N 20 40N 20 30N 31 59N 15 405 16 UN 20 585 07 28N 05 56N 06 015 04 12N O6 31N 20 155 20 305 06 31N 01 53N 05 48N 53 065 12 54N 12 505 11 305 53 035 53 025 21 27N 03 32N 24 28N 20 145 10 345 03 OON 02 12N 06 235 25 175 07 42N 08 22N 02 005 12 26N 12 UN 11 405 46 215 longitude 73 08E 51 11E 48 18E 48 01E 50 35E 44 04E 47 50E 45 33E 49 46E 49 46E 47 42E 48 20E 48 20E 44 55E 79 07E 46 27E 48 49E 72 42E 69 25E 74 53E 39 12E 92 39E 45 13E 43 41E 48 45E 45 22E 120 59E 49 28E 44 20E 81 13E 80 26E 79 54E 79 00E 79 50E 92 40E 32 00E 59 42E 32 35E 73 06E 81 12E 57 38E 57 2713 72 25E 96 52E 79 56E 55 5513 53 09E 68 46E 51 53E 37 45E 73 48E 49 44E 48 58E 69 39E 46 39E 55 36E 97 00E 77 32E 70 29E 38 48E 57 00E 52 00E 5| 45E 58 50E 58 53E 58 40E 49 18E 50 12E 81 12E 55 42E 80 37E 80 33E 39 14E 72 43E 80 07E 57 30E 56 00E 73 02E 73 15E 73 09E 73 31E 92 55E 45 10E 43 24E 72 3813 72 38E 39 49E 98 41E 39 36E 57 3913 105 43E 73 50E 102 15E 39 22E 44 30E 93 45E 81 16E 99 33E 98 34E 98 24E 4O 26E 51 48E Pages with text or other man reterences 42 25 41-43 21 4, 21 68 56 5, 55, 57 4, 22, 68 11-13 41, 42 32 4, 25, 33. 68 24.25 56 56 4.6.11.12,14. 16, 22, 24-27, 33, 34, 47. 68 18. 38 4,12, 27.33.62 Page with largest scale Meyer Rock Miandrivazo Miarinarivo Mid—Indian Ocean Ridge Middle Andaman Michamvi, Ras Middle Island Middle Island Middle Point Midu Mihintale Miladummadulu Atoll Milieu, Piton du Reservoir Mina' al Ahmadi Mina‘ ‘Abd Allah Mina’ a1 Bakr Mina' al Fahl Mina' Baranis Mina' Su‘ud Minah Minicoy Island Minneriya Tank Mirbat Miroe Island Mirufuri Misere Mits'iwa Mitsamiouli Mitsaoueni Mitsinio Mitsio, Nosy Mitsoudje Mkanyageni Mkata Mkoani Mkokotoni Mkondoa Mkumbara Mkunguni Mocambique Mocha Mogadiscio Mohean Moheli Moheli Airport Mohoro Moines, Pointe des Moka Mombasa Momi, Ra's Mon Piton Moneragala Mont Blanche Morafenobe Moramanga Morarano Moratuwa Morbihan. Baie du Moresby Channel Moresby Islands Morne, Ile Morogoro Morombe Morondava Morondava Moroni Moroni International Airport Moulmein Mount Lavinia Moya Moyenne Island Mozambique Channel Mozambique Plateau Mtegani Mtoni Mtwara Muar Muara Mubarraz, Halat al Muhammad, Ra's Muhammad Qawl Mulaku Atoll Mulikadu Island Mullaittivu Murray Hill Murray Point Musandam Peninsula Musay‘id Muscat Mutsamudu Mutur Mvomero Mzambarauni N Nabi Shu‘ayb,_]abal an Nabq Nacala map reference 67 40 8 29 38 Feature Rock Ppl Ppl Rdgm Isl Pt Isl Isl Pt Ppl Site Atll Rsv Trmo Trmo Trmo Trmo Ppl Trmo Ppl Isl Rsv Ppl Isl Isl Mtn Ppl Ppl "neterenee map Insert latitude longitude 53015 19315 15 323 30 005 12 30N 06 075 07 135 09 225 10 305 00 35$ 08 21N O6 OON 20175 29 04N 29 01N 29 40N 23 41N 23 55N 28 43N 27 09N 08 17N 08 01N 16 58N 07 31N O4 27N 04 405 15 35N 11 235 11 285 16 015 12 545 11495 06 065 06 235 05 225 05 523 06 555 O4 465 06 275 15 005 13 19N 02 02N 07 58N 12 205 12 175 11475 46 235 20145 04 035 12 32N 20 055 06 52N 20 17S 17 495 18 565 17 465 06 46N 49 255 05 21N 05 145 20 255 06 495 21455 20175 20145 11415 11 425 16 3ON 06 50N 12 183 04 373 20 008 32 005 06 255 06 525 10 165 02 02N 00 405 24 29N 27 44N 20 54N 03 OON 00 403 09 16N 10 285 07 MN 26 18N 24 59N 23 37N 12 095 08 27N O6 205 05 055 1517N 28 04N 14 335 72 37E 45 28E 46 20E 75 00E 92 50E 39 30E 72 24E 46 21E 105 38E 73 13E 80 30E 73 10E 57 35E 48 02E 48 10E 48 35E 58 30E 35 28E 48 25E 57 05E 73 02E 80 53E 54 42E 93 31E 73 42E 55 28E 39 29E 43 18E 43 17E 45 52E 48 36E 43 16E 39 15E 37 27E 39 40E 39 19E 37 15E 38 11E 39 28E 40 45E 43 15E 45 21E 93 19E 43 45E 43 46E 43 27E 51 39E 57 32E 39 4013 54 30E 57 38E 81 20E 57 39E 44 55E 48 12E 48 10E 79 53E 70 08E 72 57E 71 49E 57 20E 37 40E 43 22E 4417E 44 20E 43 16E 43 15E 97 39E 79 52E 44 27E 55 30E 43 00E 35 00E 39 33E 39 16E 4011E 102 34E 100 57E 53 22E 3415E 37 05E 73 30E 73 13E 80 49E 105 37E 93 50E 56 24E 51 32E 58 38E 44 25E 81 16E 37 25E 39 46E 43 59E 34 25E 40 40E Pages with text or other man reterences 43 6,17 58 16 21 36 4, 13, 21, 22 38 4, 18, 21, 22, 68 56 55 42 41-43 38 55, 56 26, 27, 40 56 16 21 55 Nachchaduwa Tank Nadale Naditivu Nairobi Nakhon Si Thammarat Nampula Namunaghar Nancowry Island Narcondam Island Narinda, Baie de Narmada Nasrani, Ra's Nasser. Lake Naturaliste Plateau Naviyani Navy Bay Nawadu Nawalapitiya Nawqid Negapatam (Nagapattinam) Negombo Neiges, Piton des Neill Island Nellore Nelsons Island Ngava Nias. Pulau Nicobar Islands Nikitin Seamount Nilandu Nilandu Nile Nine Degree Channel Ninetyeast Ridge Nioumachoua Noeufs. Ile des Noonu Nord, Recif du Nord-est, Grande Recif du Nord, Cap Nord. Chenal du Nord, Ilot Nord. Pointe Norris Point North Andaman North Bay North Brother Island North Cousin North Island North Island North Island North Island North Island North Islet North Keeling Island North Lagoon North Malosmadulu Atoll North Nilandu Atoll North Passage Island North Point North Reef Island North Sentinel Island North West Bay North West Cape North West Point Northeast Point Northwest Point Norvegienne. Baie Norway Point Nosy Varika Nouvelle France Nova Sofala Novara. Cap Nuageuses. Iles Nugegoda Nungwi. Ras Nuwara Eliya O Obbia Obock Oiseau. Baie de l' Okha Ole Olenchi Olivelifuri Olivia Oman, Gulf of Omdurman Omuna One and Half Degree Channel Ongoujou Onilahy Onive Opanake Orangea Page with largest scale map reference 55 53 57 l 31 38 59 59 59 40 t 29 29 9 53 59 53 55 35 18 55 44 59 O 51 37 31 59 9 53 53 29 54 9 39 48 53 39 39 64 64 65 39 60 59 59 59 49 47 5O 54 47 49 54 6| 61 53 53 59 49 59 59 48 t 47 60 60 63 57 40 46 t 65 63 57 37 55 39 4O 40 55 43 Feature Rsv Isl Isl Isls Semt Isl Isl Riv Chnl Semt Ppl Isl Admd Reef Reef Cape Strt I51 I51 Ppl Ppl Bay Ppl Ppl Ppl Isl Ppl Gulf Ppl Ppl Chnl Ppl Riv Riv Ppl Ppl ‘Ieterence map insert latitude 08 I5N 0018N 08 30N OI 17S 08 26N 15 075 1140N 07 59N I3 20N I4 555 21 38N 27 58N 23 30N 33005 00155 11 39N 06 44N 07 03N 12 20N 10 45N 07 UN 21 055 11 50N 14 29N 05 415 05 585 01 05N 08 OON 03 005 03 04N 00 39N 30 ION 09 OON 03 005 12 218 06 145 06 OON 12 365 12 425 46 248 46 005 38 428 11 225 10 265 13 I5N 08 OIN 10 59N 04 I93 16 235 10 075 10 08N 10 255 O4 238 12 24N 11 505 12 115 05 35N 03 05N 12 18N 04 345 I3 05N II 33N O4 375 21 485 10 235 10 248 10 265 49 248 08 30N 20 355 20 225 20 095 37 515 48 365 06 52N 05 435 06 58N 05 20N 11 59N 48 415 22 29N 05 113 07 56N 05 17N 20 175 25 OON 15 38N O7 37N 01 3ON 12 198 23 34S I9 438 O6 36N 12 148 longitude 80 29E 72 59E 81 12E 36 50E 99 58E 39 15E 92 41E 93 32E 94 16E 47 30E 72 36E 34 25E 32 45E 113 00E 73 151?. 92 44E 72 54E 80 32E 53 50E 79 50E 79 50E 55 29E 93 03E 80 00E 72 20E 39 18E 97 35E 93 30E 83 00E 72 54E 73 23E 31 06E 73 00E 83 00E 43 43E 53 03E 73 45E 45 06E 45 14E 52 15E 50 20E 77 31E 43 19E 105 45E 92 55E 93 21E 92 40E 55 39E 59 39E 51 11E 72 20E 56 36E 5515E 71 54E 96 49E 96 50E 72 55E 72 50E 92 55E 55 26E 92 43E 92 15E 55 26E 11410E 56 36E 105 45E 105 3613 70 21E 81 17E 48 32E 57 33E 34 43E 77 33E 68 44E 79 53E 3918E 80 46E 48 30E 43 20E 69 04E 69 06E 39 49E 93 27E 73 3515 57 43E 58 00E 32 30E 81 16E 73 20E 44 29E 43 45E 48 02E 8O 37E 49 21E Page: with text or other man references 68 19, 58 19, 42' 21 5, 27. 33, 58 18, 27 58 58 25 18 56 21 30 Page with largest scale lame map reterence Orient Bay 51 Oruwala 56 Ouani 39 Ouela 39 Ouenefou. Ile 39 Guest. Grande Passe de l' 39 Guest. Ile de I' 63 Ouest, Pointe 65 Ousini 39 Outram Island 59 Padang 31 Padawiya Tank 55 Paie 37 Pakanbaru 31 Palalankwe 59 Palk Bay 5 Palk Strait 55 Palma 46 Pamanzi. Ile 39 Pamanzi. Recif 39 Pamban Island 55 Pamplemousses 46 Pamplemousses 46 Panadura 55 Pandang, Pulo 61 Panga Maua 37 Pangalanes. Canal des 43 Pangani 36 Pangani 36 Paradip ‘ Parsons Point 59 Pasir Gudang 31 Passage Island 59 Passe. Ile de la 5| Patsy 39 Payakumbuh 31 Pearl Breaker 47 Pearl Island 47 Peliyagoda 5 7 Pemba Channel 36 Pemba Island 37 Perak. Sungai 31 Peremul Par 54 Perim 29 Peros Banhos 51 Persian Gulf 4 Perth ' Petite Ile 44 Petite Ile 64 Petite Riviere 46 Petite Riviere Noire, Piton de la 46 Petite Riviere. Pointe 46 Phoenix 46 Phuket 3I Pidjani 39 Pidurutalagala 5 5 Pierre. Ile 51 Pierrot Island 47 Piliyandala 57 Pinang (Georgetown) 31 Pinang. Pulau 3| Pingouins. Iles des 64 Pitti Island 54 Plaine Magnien 46 Plaine. Bras de la 44 Plaines Wilhems 46 Plaisance International Airport 46 Platte Island 48 Point Pedro 55 Poivre Islands 48 Police Point 49 Polonnaruwa 5 5 Polymnie Island 50 Pomoni 39 Pondicherry ‘ Port. Ile du 63 Porbandar " Port Anson 59 Port Blair 59 Port Campbell 59 Port Cornwallis 59 Port de la Pointe des Galets 44 Port Dickson 31 Port Elizabeth 22 Port Glaud 48 Port Hedland ‘ Port Kelang 31 Port Louis 46 Port Louis 46 Port Mathurin 47 Port Meadows 59 Port Refuge 61 Feature Bay Ppl Ppl Ppl Isl Chnl Isl Pt Ppl Isl ‘lteterence map insert latitude O7 153 06 53N 12 075 11 245 12 245 12 485 49 225 38 448 12 155 12 MN 00 575 08 48N 06 I65 00 32N 10 52N 09 30N 10 OON 20 175 12 475 I2 525 O9 I5N 20 065 20 055 06 43N 12 085 05 568 18 095 05 265 05 265 20 I5N O6 45N 01 26N 11 IIN 05 I88 12 085 00 I45 16 315 16 335 06 57N 05 105 O5 108 02 41N 11 ION 12 39N 05 205 27 OON 31588 21215 45 585 20115 20 245 20 125 20 I65 07 53N 11 465 07 OON 05 175 19 465 06 48N 05 25N 05 24N 46 288 10 5ON 20 263 21 I65 20 I55 20 265 05 525 09 5ON 05 465 04 483 07 56N O9 225 12 165 II 59N 49 HS 2140N 12 18N 1140N 11 55N I3 17N 20 555 02 31N 33 585 O4 408 20 245 03 20N 20105 20105 I9 415 12 02N 12 065 longitude 72 26E 80 00E 44 26E 43 21E 43 42E 45 00E 68 45E 77 31E 44 29E 93 06E 100 21E 80 45E 39 32E 101 27E 92 29E 79 15E 79 45E 57 26E 45 15E 45 18E 79 20E 57 34E 57 35E 79 54E 96 55E 39 15E 49 25E 38 58E 38 SSE 86 3515 93 49E 103 54E 92 41E 72 15E 44 28E 100 38E 59 32E 59 30E 79 54E 39 20E 39 48E 102 14E 72 04E 43 25E 71 51E 51 00E 115 49E 55 34E 50 27E 57 26E 57 24E 57 24E 57 30E 98 24E 43 27E 80 46E 71 44E 63 26E 79 SSE 100 20E 100 14E 50 23E 72 38E 57 39E 55 27E 57 30E 57 4013 55 23E 8014E 53 19E 55 31E 8100E 46 15E 44 25E 79 50E 69 34E 69 40F. 92 44E 92 45E 92 38E 93 05E 55 18E 101 48E 25 36E 55 25E 118 36E 101 27E 57 30E 57 32E 63 25E 92 47E 96 52E Page: with text or other man references 26. 27, 55 40. 42 27 14, 27. 32. 33. 36. 38, 68 I8 7. 10. 16-19, 23-28, 30, 34.36 5,13,22. 68 47 56 18 21 13.19. 58 22. 47 77 Page with largest scale Port Reitz Airport Port Said Port Sainte Rita Port Shepsrone Port South East Port Sudan Port Weld Port—aux—Francais Port-Berge Porto Amelia Possession. Ile de la Possession Point Poste, Riviere du Potoa Pottuvil Poudre d'Or Poule, Ile Praslin Island Price, Cape Prince de Monaco, lles du Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Islands Prison Island Proani Providence Island Providence Reef Pulmoddai Punkudutivu Puri Puttalam Puttalam Lagoon Q Qadub Qarzawit Qatanan, Ra's Qaysoh Qeshm Qeshm Qeys. Jazireh-ye Quartier Militaire Quatre Bornes Queen Victoria Quelimane Quille, Rocher Qurmah, Ghubbat R Ra‘s al Khaymah Ra's Gharib Raa Radama, Iles Ragama Raheita Raimandu Rakidu Rallier du Baty, Presqu'ile Rambler Bay Rangoon Rantauprapet Raphael, Ile Ras Karma Airfield Ras Tanura Rasdu Atoll Ratmalana Ratnagiri Ratnapura Recif Island Red Island Red Sea Remire Reef Rempart, Riviere du Remparts, Riviere des Resolution. Passe de la Reunion Revello Channel Riau, Kepulauan Richard Foy. Mt. Richards Bay Ritchies Archipelago River des Anguilles Riviere du Mat-[es Bas Riviere du Rempart Riviere du Rempart Riyadh Roche Noire Roche Terre Rocheuse. Baie Rocky Point map reference 36 28 47 t 47 29 31 63 40 38 64 61 46 37 55 46 51 49 59 63 66 66 61 39 48 48 55 55 3 55 55 30 29 53 57 29 53 63 51 31 47 35 30 53 57 55 67 48 46 63 44 59 3 1 64 t 59 46 44 46 46 so 46 46 63 60 Feature Reef Ppl Admd Isls Ppl Ppl Isl Isl Pen Bay Ppl Ppl Isl Air Trmo AtII Ppl Ppl Isl Pen Sea Reef Riv Riv Strt Isl *iieterence map insert 78 latitude 04 025 31 16N 10 293 30 445 19 445 19 37N 04 5ON 49 215 15 335 12 575 46 255 12 055 20 255 05 515 06 52N 20 045 O5 235 04195 13 34N 49 355 46 355 46 505 12 065 12 535 09 145 09 235 08 56N O9 35N 19 49N 08 02N 08 07N 12 36N 1738N 12 22N 12 39N 26 45N 26 58N 26 32N 20155 20155 20135 17 535 38 435 12 40N 25 47N 28 21N 05 30N 14 005 07 02N 12 44N 03 O5N 03 19N 49 355 07 175 16 47N 02 06N 16 275 12 36N 26 40N 04 18N 06 49N 17 OON 06 41N 04 355 52 585 2000N 05 055 20 095 21 228 48 465 21 005 07 58N 01 OON 46 065 28 475 12 MN 20 295 20 575 20 065 20 035 24 38N 20 075 20 015 48 558 10 245 longitude 39 36E 32 18E 56 42E 30 28E 63 27E 37 14E 100 38E 7014E 47 40E 40 30E 51 45E 96 51E 57 35E 39 17E 81 50E 57 40E 7] 45E 55 44E 93 03E 6913E 37 56E 37 45E 95 53E 45 09E 5] 02E 51 03E 80 59E 79 50E 85 54E 79 49E 79 47E 53 56E 56 07E 53 31E 53 29E 55 45E 5616E 53 58E 57 35E 57 28E 57 42E 36 51E 77 32E 53 50E 55 57E 33 06E 72 50E 47 47E 79 55E 43 05E 73 37E 73 27E 68 55E 72 29E 96 10E 99 50E 59 37E 53 54E 50 09E 72 58E 79 52E 73 20E 80 24E 55 45E 73 18E 40 00E 53 22E 57 40E 55 37E 69 30E 55 30E 93 28E 104 30E 5014E 32 05E 93 10E 57 33E 55 42E 57 41E 57 38E 46 43E 57 41E 57 37E 68 54E 105 43E Pages with text or other man references 4 4, 21. 22 64 42 48, 68 4,12, 27, 33, 62 56 5, 22 56 7,10,17,18, 21, 26-29 4,6,11,12,14. 25,27, 33, 35. 45, 65, 68 Page with largest scale Name map reference Rodrigues 47 Rodrigues Fracture Zone 8 Roebera Point 54 Rohi 53 Roland, Ile 63 Ronarc'h Presqu'ile 63 Ronde, Ile 63 Rongat Bay 59 Rose Belle 46 Rose Hill 46 Ross, Mont 63 Ross Island 59 Round Island 46 Round Island 48 Round Island 57 Royale, Passe 63 Rufiji "' Rutland Island 59 Ruvu 36 Ruvu 36 Ruvuma 38 Sa‘dah 29 Sa‘idabad 30 Sabang 31 Sabkhat Matti 30 Sable, Pointe de 43 Sabri 59 Sabuniyah 35 Sada 39 Sadani 36 Saddle Peak 59 Sahabe 4O Sail Rock 67 Saint Andre 46 Saint Brandon 47 Saint Francois Island 48 Saint Georges Channel 59 Saint James 47 Saint joseph Island 48 Saint Lucia, Cape " Saint Paul, lie 65 Saint Pierre Island 48 Saint-Andre 44 Saint-Benoit 44 Saint-Denis 44 Saint-Denis, Riviere 44 Saint-Etienne. Riviere 44 Saint-Gilles-les Bains 44 Saint-Hubert 46 Saint-joseph 44 Saint-Lanne Gramont, Ile 63 Saint-Leu 44 Saint-Louis 44 Saint-Paul 44 Saint-Paul, Baie de 44 Saint-Paul. Ile 65 Saint—Phillippe 44 Saint-Pierre 44 Sainte-Anne 44 Saint Anne Island 48 SainteClotilde 44 Sainte-Marie 44 Sainte-Marie, Cap 40 Sainte-Marie, Ile 40 Sainte-Rose 44 Sainte-Suzanne 44 Sakaraha 40 Sakay 40 Salalah ‘ Salazie 44 Salazie, Cirque de 44 Saleh Magu Channel 54 Salomon Islands 51 Salween “ Sambava 40 Same 36 Samhah 35 Sampur 57 Sana 29 Sanafir, Jazirat 29 Sand Cay 54 Sand Cay 54 Sandy Island 47 Sapitwa 8 Savannah 44 Savanne 46 Save Rio ‘ Savu Sea ‘ Sawai Bay 59 Sawakin 29 Sayhut "' Saziley du Sud, Passe 39 Seba, Djeziret 29 Sebastopol 46 Feature Isl thn Pt Isl Isl Pen Isl Bay Ppl Mtn Isl Isl Isl Isl Strt Riv Isl Ppl Riv Riv Cape Chnl Atll Isls Ppl "iteterence map Insert latitude longitude 19 455 19305 08 16N 03 52N 48 355 49335 49 485 12 3ON 20 245 20145 49 355 1140N 19 515 04375 08 30N 49 285 08 005 ll 25N 06 485 06 235 10 295 16 52N 29 28N 05 55N 23 51N 15 335 12 26N 12 38N 12 515 06 025 1309N 17 385 52 545 20 055 16 385 07 [OS 07 MN 10 225 05 265 28 325 38 435 09 195 20 575 21 025 20 525 20 525 21 175 21025 20 215 21 225 48 545 21095 21 165 21 005 20 595 38 405 21 215 21 195 21048 04 365 20 535 20 535 25 365 16 SOS 21065 20 545 22 555 19 245 17 OON 21015 21035 08 19N 05 205 16 31N 14165 04 045 12 09N 08 29N I5 23N 27 55N 11 13N 12 16N 19 423 15 575 20 585 20 285 2100N O9 405 09 MN 19 07N 15 12N 12 575 12 28N 20178 62 25E 62 DOB 73 02E 73 21E 68 49E 70 10E 68 49E 92 58E 57 36E 57 28E 69 30E 92 46E 57 48E 55 30E 81 13E 70 20E 39 20E 92 10E 38 39E 38 52E 40 28E 43 37E 55 42E 95 19E 52 DOB 46 18E 92 52E 53 10E 45 07E 38 47E 93 01E 48 28E 73 34E 57 33E 59 38E 52 44E 93 40E 56 37E 53 22E 32 25E 77 29E 50 43E 55 39E 55 43E 55 28E 55 27E 55 24E 55 14E 57 38E 55 37E 69 11E 55 17E 55 25E 55 16E 55 26E 77 30E 55 46E 55 29E 55 45E 55 30E 55 29E 55 33E 45 08E 49 55E 55 47E 55 37E 44 32E 46 09E 54 04E 55 33E 55 30E 73 04E 72 15E 97 37E 5010E 37 44E 53 03E 81 17E 4412E 34 40E 72 07E 71 54E 63 19E 35 36E 55 19E 57 27E 35 02E 122 00E 92 45E 37 20E 51 12E 45 14E 43 26E 57 41E Pages with text or other map references 4,11,12,14,27. 47, 68 21 5,27, 33,62 42 42 21, 24. 25 41-43 18. 21 g. Page with largest scale Seenu Sel Point Semeru, Gunung Senanayake Samudra Serpent Island Settlement, The Seychelles Seychelles-Mauritius Plateau Shag Island Shagha, Jazirat Shark Bay Shark Rocks Sharm Ash Shaykh Shatt al Arab Shaviyani Shell Bay Shiraz Shu‘ab, Ghubbat Shu‘ab, Ra's Sibbald, Ile Siberut, Pulau Sibolga Sidi Kurayr Sidr Siduwa-Katunayaka Sigiriya Silhouette Island Sima Simeulue, Pulau Simonstown Simpson Point Sinai Singapore Strait Singapore Strait Sinnakinniyai Siput, Pulo Sir Hugh Rose Island Sir William Peel Island Siren Island Sirri, Jazireh-ye Sisters Islands Small Strait Smith, Pointe Smith Island Smith Point Smithson Bight Soalala Soavinandriana Socotra Sofia Somali Current Somali Plain Sombrero Channel Songkhla Sosumav Souillac Soulou, Baie de Sound Island Sources, Mont aux Sous-le-vent, Arrondissement South Andaman South Australian Plain South Bay South Brother Island South Cape South Cousin South Equatorial Current South Island South Island South Island South Island South Island South Keeling Islands South Lagoon South Male Atoll South Malosmadulu Atoll South Nilandu Atoll South Point South Rock South Sentinel South West Bay Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge Spike Island Spit Bay Spit Point Spur Reef Sri Lanka State President Swart Peak Steep Point Stella Matutina Stewart Sound Suakin Archipelago Sud. Chenal du Sud, Pointe map reference 5 3 49 9 5 5 46 6O 48 66 i 44 59 29 64 39 Feature Admd Pt Mtn Lk Isl Ppl Isls Pltm Isl Isl Ppl Rcks Ppl Riv Admd Bay Ppl Bay Cape Isl Isl Ppl Trmo Ppl Ppl Site Isl Ppl Isl Ppl Pt Pen Ppl Strt Ppl Isl Isl Isl Isl Isl Isls Strt Isl Isl Isls Atll Atll Ppl Rock Isl Bay Rdgm Rdgm Isl Bay Reef Isl Mtn Cape Ppl Snd Isls Strt Pt "neterence map Insert latitude 00 305 O4 445 08 065 O7 IIN 19 495 10 255 04355 10 005 52 555 20 29N 25 305 O5 345 27 51N 31 OON 06 15N 08 31N 29 36N 12 33N 12 32N 48 565 01 205 01 45N 29 41N 29 39N 07 07N O7 57N 04 295 12 [IS 02 35N 34 125 O7 165 29 30N 01 17N OI 15N 08 30N 12 115 11 47N 12 05N I6 285 25 55N ll O8N 12 46N 38 425 13 20N 10 255 10315 16 065 19 095 12 3ON I5 275 05 OON 01 OON O7 41N 07 12N 13 075 20 315 12 458 12 58N 28 465 21 085 11 45N 37 30$ 10 33N 10 56N 46 403 O4 215 10 005 10 108 O9 265 10 03N 12 125 10 305 12 105 12 135 O4 OON 05 OON 02 50N 10 335 11 345 10 59N 53 03S 50 008 32 003 12 17N 53 068 53 075 07 145 O8 OON 46 545 26 095 21 115 12 56N 18 42N 46158 11585 longitude 72 55E 55 32E 112 55E 81 29E 57 48E 105 43E 55 40E 60 00E 73 35E 58 45E 113 30E 53 40E 3417E 47 29E 73 30E 8] 18E 52 32E 53 22E 53 18E 69 38E 98 55E 98 48E 3109E 32 41E 79 53E 80 45E 55 14E 4417E 96 05E 18 26E 72 21E 34 OOE 103 51E 104 DOB 81 11E 96 55E 93 05E 92 59E 59 35E 54 32E 43 21E 77 31E 93 04E 105 43E 105 40E 45 20E 46 43E 54 00E 92 10E 130 00E 92 23E 92 37E 37 59E 55 38E 75 00E 51 10E 46 23E 72 17E 96 54E 56 42E 96 52E 96 51E 73 25E 73 00E 72 50E 105 41E 47 [BE 92 14E 73 22E 110 DOB 55 00E 92 43E 73 45E 73 51E 72 24E 80 30E 37 43E 113 [IE 5518E 92 56E 38 30E 5015E 43 29E Pages with text or other man references 4, 6, 11, 14, 25-27, 33. 34, 49-51. 68 28 4, 28 5,19, 20, 22, 23 25, 26, 31. 68 14, 23, 28 4, 6, 11, 21, 27, 33, 68 58 5,6,15,16, 24- 27,33,34.52,56, 57. 68 Page with largest scale Name map reference Sud. Pointe 65 Sud, Recif du 39 Sudest, Ile 51 Suez 28 Suez Canal 28 Suez, Gulf of 28 Suhar 3O Suheli Par 54 Sumatra 31 Sumba ' Sumbawa ' Sunda, Selat " Sur ’ Surat ' Surat Thani 31 Surinam 46 Suvadiva Atoll 5 3 Suzanne, Pointe 63 Swain, Iles 63 Sweet Water Canal 28 Ta'izz 29 Table, Pointe de la 44 Table Island 59 Tabuk 29 Takamaka 48 Takamaka, Ile 51 Talaimannar 55 Tamarin 46 Tamarin Falls Reservoir 46 Tamarin, Riviere 46 Tamatave 43 Tamatave 4O Tamatave Airport 43 Tambalagam Bay 57 Tambohorano 40 Tampalakamam 5 7 Tana " Tan-lam Railroad 36 Tananarive 40 Tananarive 40 Tananarive/ Ivato International Airport 43 Tanga 36 Tanga Airport 36 Tangalla 5 5 Tanio. Pointe 43 Tanjungbalai 3 I Tanjungkarang—Telukbetung " Tasmania 5 Tavoy ’ Tawkar 29 Tekiluttu 5 7 Tel Aviv-Yafo 29 Telok Anson 31 Ten Degree Channel 59 Teressa Island 59 Ternay Pass 48 Ternay, Cape 49 Terre Rouge 46 Thaa 5 3 Therese Island 48 Three Brothers 51 Tigris ‘ Tiladummati Atoll 53 Tillanchong Island 59 Timor " Timsah. Lake 28 Tinah, Khalij at (Bay of Tina) 28 Tinnakara Island 54 Tinneriveli 57 Tiran, jazirat 29 Tiruchirappalli 68 Tiran, Strait of 29 Toba, Danau 31 Toddu 5 3 Tombes, Plateau des 43 Tondi 5 5 Tonnerre. Baie du 43 Topaze, Baie 47 Toppur 5 7 Transvaal Cove 66 Tremble! 44 Trineomalee 5 7 Trincomalee Harbour 5 7 Trinkat Island 59 Triolet 46 Trivandrum ‘ Trois Bassins 44 Trois Iles 50 Tromelin. Ile 45 Trou d'Eau Douce 46 Tsaratanana 40 Tsaratanana, Massif de 40 Tsiafaiavona 40 Tsimbeo 39 Tsiribihina 40 Feature Pt Reef Isl Ppl Cnl Gulf Ppl Reef Air Cape Ppl Admd Isl Isls Riv Atll Isl Isl Lake Bay Isl Ppl Isl Ppl Strt Lk Isl Plat Ppl Bay Bay Ppl Cove Ppl Ppl Hbr Isl Ppl Ppl Ppl Isls Isl Ppl Ppl Mts Mtn Ppl Riv *neterence map Insert latitude 38 445 13155 06 405 29 58N 29 55N 28 ION 24 22N 10 03N 00 OO 10 005 O8 405 05 505 22 34N 21 ION 09 O8N 20 305 00 30N 49 265 48 415 30 34N l3 38N 21 195 1412N 28 23N 04 465 05 205 O9 05N 20195 20 215 20195 18 105 18 005 18 075 08 3IN 17 305 08 3ON 02 325 06 555 18 555 19 005 18 555 O5 045 05 048 O6 OIN 18 085 02 58N 05 27S 40 00$ 14 OZN 18 26N 08 34N 32 04N 04 OZN 10 OON O8 15N O4 395 04 388 20 085 02 15N 04 405 O6 085 31 OON O6 40N 08 30N O9 005 30 34N 31 08N 10 26N 08 26N 27 56N 10 SON 27 55N O5 23N O4 25N 15 335 09 44N 12 135 19 448 08 24N 46 533 21 178 08 34N 08 33N O8 05N 20 035 O8 41N 21 06$ 10 085 15 538 20 145 16 475 14 005 19 215 12 125 19 425 longitude 77 32E 45 08E 71 24E 32 33E 32 33E 33 27E 56 45E 72 17E 102 OOE 120 OOE 118 00E 105 50E 59 32E 72 54E 99 19E 57 29E 73 15E 7O 26E 69 30E 32 14E 44 04E 55 49E 93 22E 36 35E 55 30E 72 16E 79 44E 57 23E 57 27E 57 22E 49 23E 49 00E 49 23E 81 10E 43 58E 81 06E 40 31E 30 DOB 47 31E 47 00E 47 31E 39 06E 39 06E 80 48E 49 25E 99 48E 105 16E 145 00E 98 12E 37 44E 81 11E 34 46E 10101E 92 30E 93 10E 55 22E 55 22E 57 32E 73 55E 55 24E 71 3313 47 25E 73 00E 93 37E 124 00E 32 17E 32 40E 72 19E 81 11E 34 34E 78 43E 34 28E 98 50E 72 57E 46 18E 79 01E 49 19E 63 21E 81 19E 37 54E 55 48E 81 15E 81 13E 93 30E 57 32E 76 57E 55 18E 51 05E 53 31E 57 46E 47 39E 49 00E 47 15E 44 28E 44 31E Pages with text or other man reterences 13, 18 4, 14, 18, 22-24, 28.29 4, 29 5 5 5, 19, 23.27 21 18 4, 22,41-43 21 41—43 21 68 19.25,55,56 79 Page with largest scale Ilarne map reterevnce Tsiroanomandidy 40 Tsudiini 39 Tulear 40 Tulear 40 Tulhiriya 56 Tumbatu Island 37 Tumpat 3 1 Tunbs 30 Tunda Point 54 Turadu 5 3 Turk Reef 61 Tuticorin " Tuvaru 5 3 Uda Walawe Reservoir 55 Uleelheue 31 Uleguma 5 3 Ullackalie Lagoon 5 7 Umba 3 6 Umm a1 Qaywayn 30 Umm Qasr 30 Upembe, Ras 37 Uppu Aru 57 Uppuveli 5 7 Uroa 3 7 Uzi 3 7 Uzini 3 7 Vache, Isle 48 Vacoas 46 Vacoas. Mare aux 46 Vakarai 5 5 Valappadu 5 5 Van Zinderen Bakker Peak 66 Vangaindrano 40 Vannatital 5 7 Vatomandry 40 Vavuniya 5 5 Vehamafuri 5 3 Veimandu Channel 53 Veimandu 5 3 Velanai 5 5 Vema Trench 8 Vent, Arrondissement-du- 44 Verdoyant, Cap 64 Verronge 47 Verte Rocks 45 Vevaru 5 3 Victoria 48 Victoria Bridge 5 7 Victoria Harbour 59 Vieux Grand Port 46 Vila de Mocimboa da Praia 38 Vilas 5 3 Vingt Cinq 47 Violette. Ile 63 Viper Island 59 Vishakhapatnam ‘ Vlaming. Pointe 65 Vohemar 40 Feature Ppl Ppl Admd Ppl Pp] 151 Pp! [515 Pt Isl Reef Ppl Isl Cape Isl Rcks Isl Ppl Bdg Hbr Ppl Ppl Isl Ppl Isl Isl Ppl Pt Ppl ‘lleterenee map insert 80 latitude I8 465 II 395 21 005 23 215 07 17N 05 495 O6 12N 26 14N 08 16N 05 02N 12 075 08 48N 02 54N 06 30N 05 35N 07 O5N 08 23N 04 395 25 35N 30 02N 05 28N 08 28N 08 36N 06 065 06 205 06 055 04 415 20 185 20 225 08 08N 09 21N 46 375 23 215 08 28N 19 205 08 45N 04 15N 02 ION 02 IIN 09 40N 09 005 21 003 46 075 I6 415 11 335 02 57N 04 375 06 57N 07 25N 20 225 11 205 04 08N 10 255 49 075 11 40N 17 42N 37 535 13 215 Pages with text or longitude other map retereneas 46 02E 43 16E 45 00E 43 4013 80 13E 39 1312 102 10E 55 19E 73 02E 72 49E 96 50E 78 10E 73 2215 41.42 13.41-43 80 50E 95 18E 18 72 55E 81 21E 39 13E 55 34E 47 56E 25 39 44E 8| 12E 81 13E 39 25E 39 24E 39 20E 55 26E 57 29E 57 29E 81 26E 80 04E 37 57E 47 36E 42 81 07E 48 59E 80 30E 56 73 31E 73 20E 73 06E 79 52E 67 20E 55 35E 50 18E 59 36E 47 20E 73 35E 55 27E 79 53E 93 40E 57 42E 40 21E 73 25E 56 38E 69 40E 92 42E 83 24E 77 31E 50 01E 43 22, 49 5. 22, 25 W Waavu Wadi Halfa' Wadu Channel Wadu Wadu Waduni Wagaru Walawa Ganga Wallaby Plateau Wami Wanani Wataru Channel Wataru Reef Waterfall Wattala Wawi Airport We, Pulau Weligama Wesha West Bay Western Entrance West Island West Island West Island West Island West Point West Sister Wete Wild Point Wilifuri Wilingili Wilingili Wilingili Channel Wimberleyganj Winston Lagoon Wiringili Wiringli Wizard Reef Woodmason Bay Wreck Point Wreck Rock Wrightmyo Wright Point Y Ya. Ra's al Yan Oya Yanbu' a1 Bahr Ye Yeye, Ile Yogyakarta Z Zambezi Zanzibar Zanzibar Channel Zanzibar Island Zarand Zomandao Zuluf Zuqar. Jazirat Page with largest scale map reterenee 35 55 29 51 t 37 36 37 30 40 16 29 Feature Admd Ppl Chnl Isl Isl Isl Isl Riv Plat Riv Ppl Chnl Reef Ppl Ppl Isl Ppl Ppl Chnl Isl Isl Isl Isl Pt Isl Ppl Pt Isl Isl Isl Chnl Ppl Lgn Isl Isl Reef Bay Isl Rock Ppl Pt Pt Riv Ppl Isl Ppl Riv Ppl Chnl Isl Ppl Riv Trmo Isl "iteterenee map Insert latltude longitude 03 30N 21 56N 04 07N 00 MN 04 08N 02 OON 07 O6N 06 O6N 22 005 06 085 12 205 03 15N 03 15N [O 275 O6 59N 05 I55 05 51N 05 58N 05 I45 10 36N 12 075 13 35N 07 155 09 225 12 105 46 365 04 175 05 045 04 IIN 02 30N 04 IIN 00 418 00 405 11 44N 53 095 00 45N O8 16N 08 505 11 25N 11 495 11 293 11 47N 10 295 20 3ON 08 55N 24 O5N 15 15N 05 145 07 485 18 505 06 105 06 005 06 105 30 48N 21 335 28 20N l4 OON 73 15E 31 20E 73 27E 73 12E 73 27E 73 22E 72 52E 81 01E 107 00E 38 49E 43 48E 73 30E 73 25E 105 45E 79 53E 39 48E 95 18E 80 25E 39 44E 92 22E 96 50E 92 54E 72 23E 46 13E 96 50E 37 53E 55 51E 39 43E 73 30E 73 19E 73 28E 73 11E 73 12E 92 43E 73 40E 73 22E 73 01E 51 04E 92 38E 96 49E 47 23E 92 43E 105 44E 58 55E 81 01E 38 03E 97 50E 71 SSE 110 24E 36 17E 39 11E 39 00E 39 20E 56 35E 45 26E 49 50E 42 45E Pages with text or other man references 21. 27. 36 14, 32~34. 36 38, 68 7 K 7, y - «pp-a ¢.¢ ‘ ‘ . ~ ‘ l ‘ 4‘ _ c ‘ ” 2' ’ ' . \' ‘ ‘ )_ . . 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