Historical Development of the 
 
 New York State High 
 
 School System 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER JOHN GIFFORD, Ph.D. 
 
 Dean and Head of the Department of Education, 
 
 State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. 
 
 ALBANY, N. Y. 
 J, B I. YON COMPANY, PRINTERS 
 
% 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ''-''^^r^'^^r^^^r 
 
 ^i53 
 
 ooii 
 
 
 -SUt 
 
Graph for Table XII. 
 
 High schools reporting. 
 Academies reporting. 
 High schools admitted. 
 Academies admitted. 
 
 1840 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 9X) 95 00 05 10 
 
Historical Development of the 
 
 New York State High 
 
 School System 
 
 a-^^ 
 
 ^a 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER JOHN GIFFORD, Ph.D. 
 
 Dean and Head of the Department of Education, 
 State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. 
 
 ALBANY, N, Y. 
 
 J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS 
 
 1922 
 
3t^.'!4-f 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Foreword 5 
 
 PART I 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 Chapter i 
 
 Educational Developments in New York prior to 1853 10 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 1. Education in colonial New York. The Dutch public Latin Schools. 
 English public and private schools. Schools of the Society for the Propaga- 
 tion of the Gospel. 
 
 2. Development of the academy system. Establishment of the University 
 of the State of New York. Growth of the academy. The Literature Fund, 
 Expansion of the curriculum. Monitorial High Schools. Academy, a 
 quasi-public institution. 
 
 3. Development of the elementary school system. Early legislation and 
 status, 1 795-1 837. Increased state support and consolidation or union of 
 districts. Establishment of city systems, following the decay of the monito- 
 rial societies. 
 
 Summary and conclusions. 
 
 Chapter 2 
 
 Legal Status of the New York High School System 52 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 1. Special legislation granting public privileges to certain academies. 
 Creation of public secondary schools, free academies, union schools. 
 
 2. Union free school legislation. Act of 1853. Consolidated law of 1864 
 and its revisions. 
 
 3. University control of academical departments or high schools. Uni- 
 versity acts of 1889 and 1892. Unification act of 1904. Regents' ordinances 
 1 787-1904. 
 
 Summary and conclusions. 
 
 Chapter 3 
 Establishment of High Schools and their Admission into the University. . 68 
 
 1. Terminology in use in New York; academical department, equivalent 
 to high school. Usage of term high school in New York prior to 1850. 
 
 2. Early New York high schools. Lockport Union School. New York 
 Free Academy. Curriculums of secondary schools in 1850. 
 
 3. Admission to the Universit}'; laws and ordinances, 1800 to 1900. 
 Establishment of four grades of academical departments, 1894. 
 
 4. Establishment of high schools. Tabular views of those recognized by 
 1880. Typical local developments. Schools established by years and quin- 
 quennials. Rapid increase after 1890. Consequent raising of standards. 
 
 5. Factors conditioning development of high schools in New York. 
 Inadequacies of union free school law. Status of elementary schools. 
 Dominance of academy tradition. Slow progress of free high school idea. 
 
 Summary and conclusions. 
 
 PART II 
 Introduction 115 
 
 Chapter 4 
 State Aid to High Schools and its Distribution 117 
 
 1. State funds, and appropriations. Literature Fund. United States, 
 Deposit Fund. State tax of 1872-3. Increased appropriations of 1887 
 1895, and successive years. 
 
 2. Distribution and apportionment of the Literature Fund and state 
 appropriations. Early basis of attendance as indicated by school reports. 
 Higher standards of academic work. Examinations as major basis of dis- 
 tribution. The quota for equalization of aid to weaker schools. Non- 
 resident tuition aid. Scholarships to promising high school graduates. 
 
 Summary and conclusions. 
 
 l3l 
 
4 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Chapter 5 page 
 
 Academic Examinations and the High School Course of Study 131 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 1. Period of delegation of the examining power to the academies, 1828- 
 1865. University control of the secondary couse of study throughRegents' 
 Instructions. 
 
 2. The Regents' preliminar>^ examinations. Function, that of providing 
 means to adequate distribution of funds. Progress in system; correction of 
 evils. 
 
 3. Establishment of Academic Examinations, 1 864-1 883. Effort to 
 establish uniform college entrance requirements. Law of 1877. Origin of 
 first examination schedule. Changes of the next five years. Syllabuses of 
 1880 and 1882. 
 
 4. Revision of 1890. Part played by University Convocation and Asso- 
 ciated Academic Principals. The count as the unit of academic work. First 
 detailed syllabus and the treatment of certain studies. 
 
 5. Revision of 1895. Utilization of Report of Committee on Ten of 
 N. E. A. Specific revisions. The three-year course in English. Renewal 
 of discussion of uniform college entrance requirements. Influence of 
 academic examinations. 
 
 6. Revision of 1900. Activity of the Associated Academic Principals. 
 Organization of four-year programs. Courses in commercial branches, 
 home science and manual training. New requirements in English literature 
 and laboratory science. 
 
 7. Recent development in the examination system. Revisions of 1905 
 and 1910. New college entrance diplomas. Broadened conception of the 
 syllabus. Acceptance of principals' ratings. 
 
 Summary and conclusions. 
 
 Chapter 6 
 Reporting and Inspection 173 
 
 1. Reporting and Inspection, 1 790-1 890. Requirements of visitation of 
 University Act of 1787. Detailed annual school reports required in lieu of 
 inspection. Brief effort at inspection, 1 853-1 874. Inspection of teachers' 
 training classes in secondary schools by appointed inspector. 
 
 2. Establishment of systematic inspection. Status of reporting, 1880- 
 1890. Appointment of first inspectors. Early specialization; apparatus 
 and English inspectors. Results of inspection. Recent tendency ot throw 
 emphasis upon inspection or supervision rather than reporting and 
 examinations. 
 
 Summary and conclusions. 
 
 Chapter 7 
 
 .Summary of Conclusions and Interpretation of Tendencies 1 87 
 
 1. Educational conditions and influences of period prior to rise of the 
 High School. Public secondary education in colonial New York. Place 
 of the academy in New York education. Development of the elementary 
 school. 
 
 2. Comparative view of the establishment of high schools. The establih- 
 ment and admission of hig h schools. Comparative view of rise of high 
 school in New York and elsewhere. Distribution of schools and pupils. 
 
 3. The state system of secondary education. Classification and stand- 
 ardization of schools. Distribution of state aid to high schools. The 
 Regents' examinations and the state course of study. Reporting and 
 inspection of high schools. 
 
 Bibliography 1 99 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 The public high school has developed from uncertain beginnings 
 in the first half of the nineteenth century through a steady luit 
 progressively more rapid growth in the latter half of the nineteenth 
 and the early years of the twentieth centuries into a place in the 
 American educational system little less questioned than that of the 
 elementary school. The problems incident to this rapid develop- 
 ment are now taxing the best resources of administrators and 
 students of education. The literature of the subject is daily becom- 
 ing more voluminous, as instanced recently in the fact that a single 
 aspect presented enough material for a bibliographical bulletin of 
 the United States Bureau of Education.^ 
 
 It is probable that there remain few vestiges of the earlier dis- 
 position to doubt the legitimacy of the right and obligation of the 
 State to support, by permanent funds, taxation and appropriations, 
 the high school as well as the elementary school, or as to the corre- 
 sponding right of the State to supervise its activities in some maimer. 
 On the other hand, the great variations in the extent and nature 
 of this support and supervision indicate something of the variant 
 views as to the actual and potential functioning of the institution. 
 Moreover numerous other matters, such as the organization and 
 contents of the curriculums or programs of studies, the institutional 
 correlation with the lower and higher schools, and the administra- 
 tion of the social and corporate life of the school, are the occasion 
 for frequent radical proposals of reform and modification. 
 
 It would seem therefore that any contribution that might be made 
 in the way of ti^acing back the historical traditions and precedents 
 of high school practices should be of aid in their present diagnosis. 
 The main source of information in this regard has been the scholarly 
 work of Dr Elmer E. Brown, formerly United States Commissioner 
 of Education, " The Making of our Middle Schools," published in 
 1902. The pioneer nature of this book, however, made impracticable 
 the utilization of special researches other than careful but sometimes 
 biased accounts of early individual schools. Most later descriptions 
 of the development of American secondary education have been 
 greatly indebted to this work and have in general accepted its main 
 
 * Bibliography of the Relation of Secondary Schools to Higher Education ; 
 Bui., 1914, No. 32, U. S. Bureau of Education. 
 
O Till-: NEW YORK SI ATI-: iUCll SCHOOL SVSTKM 
 
 conclusions.- Among these are the following: (i) the develop- 
 ment of three consecutive well-defined types of American secondary 
 schools, the Latin grammar school, the academy and the high school ; 
 (2) the transition in most states from an early individual or local 
 development of high schools to state systems; and (3) the remark- 
 able growth anrl diversification of the high school in the last twenty- 
 five years. 
 
 Since this general surve\' was made, only one exhaustive and 
 intensive study has appeared, dealing with a considerable number 
 of schools. This is the monograph of Dr Alexander Inglis, " The 
 Rise of the High School in Massachusetts." Doctor Inglis limited 
 his study largely to the period previous to i860 and, aside from 
 indicating the progress of legislation in the state, he established 
 conclusively the number of schools founded in that period and the 
 nature of the curriculum. This was made possible by a detailed 
 research through the local town records and reports of school 
 committees which in Massachusetts have been preserved with great 
 care. 
 
 In New York, with which this study is concerned, far less atten- 
 tion has until recently been given to the preservation of local records 
 except for the colonial period. The great fire which gutted the 
 Capitol at Albany in 191 1 destroyed much valuable and irreplaceable 
 data of a local nature, particularly the catalogs of schools. The 
 number of schools, moreover, was seven times that of the period 
 studied by Inglis in Massachusetts, making such a mode of research 
 as that used by him impracticable. There are on the other hand 
 very full records both of the lower and higher schools in contem- 
 poraneous annual reports of the appropriate state officials, the State 
 Superintendent and the Regents of The University of the State of 
 Xew York. As various educational associations within and withou 
 the State began to be formed, especially after the Civil War. the 
 full proceedings of many of these bodies were printed in these 
 reports and form a valuable supplement. In addition, state practice 
 had, previous to the rise of the high school in New York, established 
 the custom of incorporation or formal admission of all higher 
 institutions into the University. This, together with the fact that 
 such admission made the school eligible to a share in the state 
 academic funds, makes the probability slight that a detailed survey 
 
 * Monroe, Principles of Secondary Education, II, p. 51-^: Inglis, Princi- 
 ples of Secondary Education, V; Johnston, High School Education, III. 
 P- 52-53, 62-66; Brown, The American High School, I. 
 
FOREWORD 7 
 
 of local records would considerabl}- change the conclusions of 
 this study. These records were used in the case of a number of 
 schools and were found to check closely with the data in the state 
 reports. 
 
 The purposes of this study are principally: (i) the description 
 of the development of schools in the State, and (2) an analysis 
 and evaluation of the workings of the state system into which these 
 were organized. In the former instance it is hoped that additional 
 light may be thrown upon the progress of the high school move- 
 ment throughout the country and upon the factors that accelerated 
 and retarded that movement. Also it is believed that certain errone- 
 ous conceptions as to the data and inferences in these items may be 
 cleared up. In the latter instance, the major interest has been to 
 indicate the main lines of development of what is perhaps the 
 most highly organised and centralized of our state secondary 
 systems of education. Therefore the efifort has been made to 
 trace and in some measure to evaluate the various means to an 
 effective state control and direction of high school work, through 
 such agencies as the admission and classification of schools, the 
 distribution of state moneys, examinations and syllabuses in high 
 school studies, annual school reports and state supervision. '^ 
 
 The writer is greatly indebted to the New York State Education 
 Department for the use of materials, particularly for the use of 
 the invaluable manuscript minutes of the Board of Regents. He 
 acknowledges with genuine gratitude the constant courtesy and 
 helpfulness of Dr. Henry L. Taylor of that department in connec- 
 tion with the publication. For her untiring assistance in the more 
 detailed work, he owes a special debt to his wife, and for their 
 kindly interest in the problem and its working out. a similar debt 
 to Dr. Paul Monroe and Qr. William H. Kilpatrick. He also wishes 
 to express his appreciation for the sympathetic co-operation — in 
 certain aspects of the study where the two problems overlapped — 
 of Dr. George F. Miller, the author of the Academic System of 
 the State of New York. 
 
 ' Inasmuch as this study was completed in the spring of 1918, the history of 
 developments since 1915 is not included. 
 
PART I 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The study naturally falls into two parts, the first including the 
 beginnings and establishment of the system, the second, the various 
 features of the state administration of high schools. In the three 
 successive chapters, therefore, are treated the educational develop- 
 ments in New York State prior to 1853, the legal status of the 
 high school and the actual establishment of high schools and their 
 admission into the University. 
 
 It is necessary to bear in mind in the approach to this part of the 
 study that there were early developed two parallel and independent 
 state systems of education. That for the elementary schools was 
 called the Department of Common Schools or of Public Instruc- 
 tion and that for the secondary and higher schools, the Regents of 
 The University of the State of New York, usually known as the 
 Regents or Board of Regents. This latter body early acquired and 
 always maintained a peculiar dignity and prestige due to the caliber 
 of the men appointed by the Legislature for the office. However, 
 during the middle of the nineteenth century it showed a definite 
 tendency toward conservatism that was at times inimical to the 
 high school through its favoritism of the academy, and that made 
 the body more or less impotent in securing reforms or extensions 
 of its work. 
 
 As the law began to put more responsibility upon the secretary. 
 now a paid officer, and tended to secure better trained men for that 
 work, greater activity was taken on. While in the long run this 
 augured well for the more valuable functioning of the University 
 and the extension of the privileges of secondary education, for the 
 quarter century from 1870 to 1904 there was constant friction 
 between the two state departments. In 1904 unification came, 
 marking as great an epoch in the history of state secondary educa- 
 tion as the establishment of the University in 1784 or the passage 
 of the high school (union school) act of 1853. 
 
 [9] 
 
lO THI-: M-:\V YORK STATE HIGH SCHDOI. SYSTEM 
 
 Chapter i 
 Educational Developments in New York Prior to 1853 
 
 The comparatively late rise of high schools in New York and 
 their subsequent slow dcYelopment make it necessary to trace in 
 some detail the historical precedents of this institution and the 
 steps that led up to its appearance. 
 
 The first educational institutions of a secondary character that 
 lit into the generally accepted classification, as high schools, are 
 undoubtedly the Lockport Union School and the New York Free 
 Academy both chartered in 1847 and fully established in the years 
 1848 and 1849 respectively. The practice of special legislation, which 
 had grown uj) much earlier, was thus carried over into the develop- 
 ment of the high school system, each school being founded, not 
 through state compulsion, as under the general laws of Massachu- 
 setts, but through local initiative. Once founded, it became a part 
 of the state secondary system upon admission to The University of 
 the State of New York. In 1853 there was passed the union free 
 school act which marks the beginning of general legislation for 
 high schools and which has remained the core of the high school law 
 to the present time. 
 
 In general the purposes of the following chapter are : first, to 
 review briefly the colonial education of New York, with particular 
 reference to secondary and public Latin grammar schools ; second, 
 to state the leading features in the development of the academy as 
 a quasi-pubhc school, adapting itself in a variety of ways to the 
 needs and demands of growing scientific and democratic interests 
 in the first half of the nineteenth century; and third, to point out 
 those characteristics in the development of common or elementary 
 schools that laid the foundation for the later taking over of the 
 secondary or high school function. The first two of these fields have 
 already been made the subject of careful investigation and advan- 
 tage has been taken of these results wherever they bear on the 
 present problem. 
 
 / Education in Colonial New York 
 To the Dutch colonists must be given due credit for rather 
 substantial beginnings in public education, both secondary and 
 elementary, within the present limits of the State of New 
 York. While the interests of these pioneers coming out 
 under the charter of the West India Company were pre- 
 dominantly commercial, it appears that their villages, with the 
 
I'.DL'fA'iK iXAi. i>i:\ i-:i.()i'M i-:.\ rs i'kiok to 1853 11 
 
 po.>;<il)le exccpiion of two, had established elementary schools nrior 
 to the comint;' of the English.^ The New Amsterdam School, estab- 
 lished by 1638. was known as late as 1670 as the "city school," but 
 by 1674 it had become a church school and has had a continuous 
 existence as such to the present.^ In the matter of control and 
 support, these colonial schools were maintained as tb.ose of tlie 
 mother countr}- with a curious and intricate intermingling of 
 ecclesiastical and secular authority, lart^elx' determined by the Synod 
 of Dort in 1618. All communities were under oblifjation to provide 
 schools, the church leaving to the local secular officials the support 
 and general administration but reserving to itself the right of exam- 
 ination of the master and the privilege of requiring a certain amount 
 of religious materials in the curriculum. In the New Netherlands 
 there prevailed a highly centralized and autocratic type of govern- 
 ment ; the \\'est India Company delegated its powers to the lords 
 directors and they in turn to the director general and the council. 
 The outlying villages enjoyed more local autonomy, but often found 
 the haughty Stuyvesant their best asset. As to support, the sources 
 were grants from the company, particularly for the salaries of the 
 masters, provision for the schoolhouse and its maintenance by local 
 excise, tuitions of pupils and, of greatest significance perhaps, 
 the town rates or compulsory subscription which in the case of Ber- 
 gen appears to have been a school tax at one time." 
 
 With the transition to English control came the consequent 
 effort of the conqueror to force his customs and language upon the 
 conquered, and a resultant vigorous opposition by the Dutch which 
 may have fostered the public school tradition in some measure even 
 as it tended to preserve the Dutch language. The schoolmaster 
 remained a semipublic official, performing customarily the duties 
 of church reader and chorister and occasionally those of court secre- 
 tary and court messenger. The town meeting tended to sitpplant 
 the earlier autocratic control and, though the licenses must be 
 obtained from the Bishop of London or the colonial governors, 
 there is evidence of a continued school activity which of necessity 
 was modified in character by the changing character of the immi- 
 gration. In the case of Flatbush (Midwoud) the records are very 
 
 ^ Kilpatrick, W. H., The Dutch Schools of New Netherland and Colonial 
 Xew York ; U. S. Bureau of Education, Bui., 1912, No. 12. His exhaustive 
 treatment of all the available records forms the basis of this summarj^ of 
 Dutch colonial education. 
 
 ' Dunshee, Historj^ of the School of the Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church 
 in the City of New York. 
 
 'Kilpatrick, op. cit., p. 205-6. Kilpatrick concludes that this is ihc only 
 instance on record of a true school tax. 
 
12 rilli NEW YORK STATE Uicni SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 complete and in the fact that one of the first secondary schools to be 
 established after the Revolutionary \\'ar, the Erasmus Hall Acad- 
 emy, ^vas established in this village, is to be found proof of the 
 following statement, that " it seems . . . unthinkable that this 
 deep interest in public education, which for over a century was 
 extended through so much of the colony, should have no part in 
 early committing New York to a strong policy of state public 
 schools." ^ 
 
 Of particular interest to our purposes are the efiforts to found 
 Latin schools. Three attempts were made in the period from 1652 
 and 1664 to found such schools in the village of New Amsterdam, 
 with the result that each school survived the rigorous conditions of 
 the colony but two years. Following the first establishment of 
 secondary facilities under Jan de la Montague, who was granted 
 a salary of 200 to 250 guilders by the lords directors, the next essay 
 was made in 1658, when we find the lords directors writing that 
 " Domine Drisius has repeatedly expressed to us his opinion, that 
 he thought it advisable to establish there a Latin school for the 
 instruction and education of the young people," and consequently 
 empowering Director Stuyvesant to look into the matter considering 
 both the interests of the colony and the company.^' In the following 
 \ear a teacher was sent out, Curtius by name, whose career was cut 
 short through his lack of disciplinary ability, his unwillingness to meet 
 his financial obligations, and the difficulty of satisfying his exorbi- 
 tant demands in the way of salary. Of the work of his successor, 
 Aegidius Luyck, who after the coming of the English remained as 
 a resident of the colony, we know little other than that his school 
 drew pupils from some distance, two coming even from Virginia.^ 
 
 With the permanent occupancy of the English there was intro- 
 duced into the New York colony the policy of laissez faire in edu- 
 cational matters. Private schools grew up to meet the variety of 
 demands of the young and prosperous colony although secondary 
 education seems never to have flourished." Kilpatrick in an unpub- 
 
 * Kilpatrick, op. cit., p. 230. 
 
 ^ New York Colonial Documents, 14:419. Compare also p. 436, 452 and 
 462 for later references to this school, its master, etc. 
 
 ' Pratt. D. J., Annals of Public Education in New Netherlands, Regents 
 Rep't, 1869, p. 863. In a letter to the lords directors in 1658 Stuyvesant had 
 remarked that the nearest Latin school was at Boston. With others he 
 entertained the hope that the New Amsterdam school would grow into a 
 university, or academy, as the term was then used; see Pratt, op. cit., p. 853. 
 
 ' Pratt, Public Education in the Colony of New York, Regents Rep't, 1870, 
 p. 619-92, gives much documentary evidence on the English period. 
 
EDUCATIOXAL DE\'EL( ) f'M 1-:.\IS I'UIOK 'l< » 1 853 IJ 
 
 lished study of the English colonial regime has found approximately 
 225 different masters serving in the various parts of the colony.^ 
 
 In the field of secondary education, it appears that the first public 
 interest was shown in the proposal of Governor Dongan to King 
 James asking that the proceeds of the king's farm be appropriated 
 to a Jesuit school.^ The first of two definite attempts to foster 
 public Latin grammar schools was made in 1702, when after much 
 consideration and discussion there was passed "An act for the 
 encouragement of a grammar free school in the city of New York."^° 
 Provision was made for teaching the " languages or other Learning 
 usually taught in Grammar Schools " and for a tax of 50 pounds 
 a year in New York money for the support of a teacher. George 
 Muirson was licensed in 1704 by Governor Cornbury to teach in 
 this school, Latin, Greek and English as well as writing and arith- 
 metic, and upon his return to England in 1705 the common council 
 licensed Andrew Clarke specifically to carry out the provisions of 
 the act." The fact that Clarke in 1712 is found in other public 
 employment in the city indicates apparently that the school could 
 not have been continued longer than a period of seven years. In 
 1708 we find that Clarke's salary is assured and that he has under 
 his care 33 pupils.^^ 
 
 In 1732 there was passed "An act to encourage a publick school 
 in the city of New York, for teaching Latin, Greek and mathe- 
 maticks."^^ The following quotation from the act is better than 
 any commentary : 
 
 And Whereas the Mayor and Aldermen and a great Number of the prin- 
 cipal Inhabitants of the said City of New York have by their petition to 
 the General Assembly set forth that One Mr. Alexander Malcolm has, by 
 keeping of a Private School within the said City, given a satisfactory Proof 
 of his Abilities to teach Latin, Greek and the Mathematicks ; But as the 
 Income of that School does at present fall short of a comfortable support 
 for himself and his Family they humbly pray he may have a suitable 
 encouragement to keep a Publick School amongst us under such Regulations 
 and Restrictions as may answer that End. 
 
 And although the not rightfully applying of a temporary salary heretofore 
 allowed for a Free School, has been the chief cause that an Encouragement 
 for the like purpose has ever since been neglected ; But in as much as the 
 
 * See also R. A. Scybolt, Apprenticeship and Apprenticeship Education in 
 Colonial New England and New York. 
 
 " O'Callaghan. Colonial History, 4 : 490. 
 
 '"Laws of Colonial New York, chap. 120, as transmitted to the Legislature, 
 pursuant to chap. 125 of the Laws of 1891. See also Pratt, op. cit., for 
 excerpts from the Assembly Journals. 
 
 " Pratt, op. cit., p. 642. Cf. Kemp, The Support of Schools in Colonial 
 New York by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
 Parts, p. 70 ft. 
 
 " Kemp, loc. cit. 
 
 "Laws of Colonial New York, op. cit, II, p. 813-17. 
 
14 'nil-- .\i:\\' YORK ST All', men school system 
 
 present Circumstances afford a better Prospect, and to the End our Youth 
 may not be deprived of the Benefits before mentioned. . . . 
 
 By this act provision was made for the continuance of the school 
 for a period of five years, free tuition to be had by twenty youths, 
 ten from New York city and county, two from Albany and one 
 each from the eight other counties. These pupils were to be certi- 
 fied to the master by the municipal authorities. The master's salary 
 was to be provided by an annual tax of 40 pounds together witli 
 the excess of hawkers' and peddlers' licenses over the grant there- 
 from to the salary of the sheriff. In 1737 the grant was continued 
 for one year but within a week of the passage of the act of renewal 
 Malcolm petitioned the Assembly for the sum of 115 lbs. 3s. 6d. for 
 arrears in salary.^* It was refused at the time but three years later 
 the major part of the sum was voted.^^ The activity of the colony 
 in providing higher education included further the single act of 
 the establishment in 1754 of the Kings College (later Columbia), 
 in connection with which there was provided a grammar school in 
 1763. Doctor Johnson, the retired president of the college, in a 
 letter of the same year suggested that the relatively slow develop- 
 ment of secondary education was in part due to the lack of an}- 
 college in the earlier history of the colony; boys went to other 
 colonies for their complete edttcation beyond the mere rudiments." 
 
 This account of English colcjnial education in New York would 
 be incomplete without reference to the work of the Society for the 
 Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. ^' As early as 1702, 
 a catechist was established in New York City and by 1710 the foun- 
 dations were laifl for the school which later was taken over by 
 Trinity Church and has come down to the present. To one of the 
 teachers. Mr Iluddleston, and later to his widow, meager appro- 
 priations were granted by the city and, for a time between 1714 
 and 1717, Huddleston was permitted the use of the city hall.''^ 
 Kemp has found that from 17 10 to 1776 the society maintained 
 v.ithin the bounds of the colony from five to ten elementary schools, 
 with an enrolment ranging from 20 to 86 pupils. He further states 
 that as regards the eighteenth century, " the society's encouragement 
 of schools furnished the nearest approach to a public school system 
 
 "Laws of Colonial New York. op. cit., IT. p. 073-77- 
 
 "Laws of Colonial New York, op. cit., II, p. 86. 
 
 "New York, Col. Docs.. 7:538. 
 
 "Kemp, op. cit.; a scholarly account of the society's activity. 
 
 "Kemp, op. cit., p. 90 ff. Tbe coimcil furthermore petitioned the Assem- 
 bly for the power to maintain " a ])ul)lick school-master for teaching? the 
 poor to read and write." 
 
EDUCATIONAL UEN-ELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 1 5 
 
 that was to be found among the Enghsh colonists in New York.'"^" 
 Certain it is that the promotion of the education of the poor in the 
 charity schools of the New York City churches received its impetus 
 from the society's work and that thus one of the prominent factors 
 in the city's education was initiated. 
 
 In conclusion it should be said that this meager showing of public 
 Latin schools is by no means a measure of secondary educational 
 faciHties but rather an index of an almost complete dearth, as 
 compared with the New England colonies, of a tradition that would 
 prepare for the early acceptance of the theory of the public high 
 school. On the other hand there was, through the adoption of the 
 voluntary policy, abundant precedent for, and some direct contri- 
 bution to, the early development of the academy, while for the time 
 being the numerous private schools apparently met rather fully the 
 needs of the commercial and mercantile as well as of the profes- 
 sional classes.^** 
 
 2 Development of the Academy System 
 
 a Establishment of The University of the State of Nezv 
 York. When the attention of the young State's leaders could 
 be directed to the building up of a new social system, they 
 turned to education.-^ and naturally the first significant step 
 was in the field of higher education. Determining factors 
 were the precedent of previous legislation during the Eng- 
 lish regime, the relatively aristocratic type of leadership, together 
 with the fact that the only extant institution with any following was 
 King's College, now Columbia. On May i, 1784, there was passed 
 "An act for granting certain Privileges to the College heretofore 
 called King's College, for altering the Name and Charter thereof, 
 and erecting an University within the State." -^ More significant 
 than the recognition of the college was the creation of the Univer- 
 sity, whose fimctions included not only the government of the col- 
 lege but the founding and government of other schools and colleges, 
 as a part of the University. By a later act of the same year,-^ the 
 the ecclesiastical and ex-officio representation, as well as that of 
 "Board of Regents," its governing body, was increased from 32 to 
 65, with the consequent reduction of the proportionate influence of 
 
 '" Op. cit., p. 277. 
 
 ^"Miller, G. F., The History of the Academy System of the State of New 
 York, chap. i. 
 
 " Assembly and Senate Journals for 1784. especially Senate Journal, p. 6. 
 
 "Laws of New York, 1784, 7th session, chap. 51. 
 
 '"Laws of New York, 1784, 8th session, chap. 15. Also in Pratt's Annals 
 of Public Education in the State of New York, Regents Rep't, 1876, p. 
 695-96. 
 
l6 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 the counties other than Xew York. This act appears to have been 
 a compromise between the aristocratic and conservative interests 
 centering in Columbia College and the more democratic interests 
 of the other counties. The college remained the chief object of con- 
 cern of the Board.-* A committee appointed in February of 1786 
 to consider " vt^ays and means of promoting literature throughout 
 the State " seems not to have reported. However a second com- 
 mittee appointed in the following January to consider generally 
 the status of the University and measures needed to render it more 
 effective reported soon thereafter, in particular recommending sepa- 
 rate corporate powers for the colleges within the University and 
 encouragement of " academies for the instruction of youth."^^ In 
 the meantime at least three academies had sought some sort of 
 recognition; petitions had been received by the Legislature from citi- 
 zens of Goshen for the privilege of raising by lottery 200 pounds to 
 complete an academy building,-^ an act had been passed legalizing 
 the sale of land for the erection of an academy by the Dutch Church 
 at Flatbush,-' and a petition had been received from citizens, includ- 
 ing a prominent Regent, Mr L'Hommedieu, of East Hampton, for 
 certain privileges for an academy at that place.^^ 
 
 After many tentative drafts and much consideration in both 
 branches of the Legislature as well as by the Regents, there was 
 passed in April 1787, an act which became the University law and 
 underwent little modification for over a century.^^ By this act the 
 University became a purely secular organization, consisting of 21 
 members, the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, serving ex-officio, 
 and the others to be appointed by the Legislature. Columbia Col- 
 lege was set off with a separate board of trustees, as were also all 
 other schools which became members of the University. The 
 enlarged powers of the University included the chartering of col- 
 leges and academies, the visiting and inspecting of these institutions 
 and finally the granting of aid. The provisions by which the acad- 
 emies were recognized as preparatory schools for the colleges indi- 
 cated that the act contemplated the founding of these two types of 
 
 ** Sherwood, The University of the State of New York. U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, Circular of Information No. 3, 1900. Pages 44 to 99 give a very 
 complete account from documentary evidence of the founding of the Univer- 
 sity and of the struggle mentioned above. Cf. Miller, op. cit., and also 
 Pratt, op. cit. 
 
 * Pratt, op. cit., p. 717, 724-2S. 
 
 ** Assembly Jour., 1785, p. 7. 
 
 " Laws of New York, 1786, chap. 54. 
 
 " Pratt, op. cit., p. 725. 
 
 "Laws of New York, 1787, chap. 82. See also Pratt, op. cit., p. 726-48. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1 853 
 
 17 
 
 institutions. Supplementary provisions empowered the Regents to 
 revise the course of study of schools whose trustees desired intimate 
 connection with the colleges in the way of permission of their stu- 
 dents to take the examinations and further provided for the erection 
 of academies into colleges. At the second meeting of the newly con- 
 stituted board the academies of Erasmus Hall at Flatbush and Clin- 
 ton at East Hampton were chartered.^" The first annual report 
 shows that Erasmus Hall had 26 students in two departments, the 
 classical and English, and Clinton 56 in three departments, classical, 
 English and common school .^^ It will be necessary to treat briefly 
 the leading features of the establishment of the academy system 
 which for nearly a centuiy largely preempted the secondary field. ^'- 
 b Growth of the academy: finance, curriculum. The numerical 
 growth of the academy movement is shown in table i.^"^ Of this 
 
 Table i 
 Secondary schools incorporated by 1853 
 
 YEARS 
 
 INCORPO- 
 RATED BY 
 REGENTS 
 
 INCORPO- 
 RATED BY 
 LEGISLATURE 
 
 YEARS 
 
 INCORPO- 
 RATED BY 
 REGENTS 
 
 INCORPO- 
 RATED BY 
 LEGISLATURE 
 
 1787-1790 
 
 I79I-I795 
 
 I796-I800 
 
 18OI-1805 
 
 1806— I8IO 
 
 4 
 II 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 10 
 6 
 
 
 182I-I82S 
 
 I826-183O 
 
 I83I-1835 
 
 1836-I84O 
 
 I84I-184S 
 
 I846-I85O 
 
 185I-1853 
 
 2 
 5 
 2 
 12 
 32 
 21 
 20 
 
 II 
 
 
 30 
 36 
 64 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 I8II-181S 
 
 I816-I82O 
 
 
 S 
 
 91 
 
 ' Six of the schools incorporated by the Legislature from 1847 to 1853 and included in the above 
 are properly high schools. 
 
 total of 315 institutions, of which 178 or 57 per cent were incor- 
 porated by the Legislature, it will be seen that the greatest growth 
 was in the years 1826-40, when legislative activity was at its 
 height.^* Two reasons may be given for this partial assumption of 
 the function of granting charters by the Legislature : 
 
 I The powers of the Regents had been called in question as 
 regards the rights under the constitution of 1821 to grant charters. ^'^ 
 and, although the answer of that body in reply to a resolution of 
 the Senate in 1825 justified its retention of the power, the practice 
 
 *• Regents Minutes in Pratt's Annals of Public Education in New York, 
 Regents Rep't, 1883, p. 439-42. See also Chronicles of Erasmus Hall 
 Academy, for facsimile of charter and proceedings relative thereto. 
 
 " Quoted in full in Pratt's Annals, op. cit., p. 444-45. 
 
 ^ See George F. Miller, op. cit., for a comprehensive treatment. 
 
 '^ Compiled from Regents Instructions, 1853, p. 139-50. 
 
 ■"^ Inglis finds a similarly rapid growth in Massachusetts; op. cit., p. 11. 
 
 "Regents ^Minutes (MSS), v. 3, p. lo-ii. See also Assembly Documents, 
 1853, no. 22. 
 
i8 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATK llK.ll SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 of turning to the Legislature had begun and was continued very 
 largely to 1840 (see table i). 
 
 2 The period was one of marked experimentation with the con- 
 sequent results that a large number of the schools of this period 
 were variants from the typical academy, wliich the Regents regarded 
 it as their duty to foster, and that many desired special privileges 
 not granted either in the University law or in the requirements of 
 the Regents of 181 5 which stipulated the minimum essentials of 
 building and funds of institutions seeking incorporation^^ (see 
 table 3). In table 2 this development is seen to even better advan- 
 tage, as regards the last quarter century of the period under dis- 
 cussion.^' It will be noted that but few more than one-half of the 
 
 Table 2 
 Growth in numbers of academies reporting, pupils, plants etc. 
 
 YEAR 
 
 No., 
 academies 
 reporting 
 
 No. 
 
 pupils at 
 
 time of 
 
 report 
 
 No. 
 
 allowed as 
 
 academic 
 
 pupils 
 
 No. 
 teachers 
 
 Annual 
 apportion- 
 ment 
 
 Total 
 
 value 
 
 plant and 
 
 equipment 
 
 1826 
 
 1830 
 
 183s 
 
 1840 
 
 184s 
 
 1850 
 
 34 
 57 
 66 
 127 
 153 
 166 
 
 2 446 
 
 4 303 
 
 5 548 
 
 11 477 
 
 12 608 
 IS 477 
 
 636 
 2 220 
 4 017 
 10 186 
 13 481 
 17 912 
 
 
 $6 000 
 10 000 
 12 000 
 40 000 
 40 000 
 40 000 
 
 
 160 
 228 
 571 
 610 
 739 
 
 J337 809 
 
 420 840 
 
 I 003 504 
 
 I 147 102 
 I 418 041 
 
 incorporated institutions were reporting. The Regents in iSsy^ 
 considered that 203 schools were subject to their visitation, while 
 37 were extinct or merged into colleges, and 73 of the Legislature- 
 incorporated institutions had not availed themselves of general acts 
 which provided that b}- meeting the requirements of the Regents 
 and of the statutes, they might be admitted to the L^niversity and 
 allowed lo share in the annual distribution of .state funds. ''^ 
 
 At the outset the great problem of the academy was seen to be 
 that of sufficient income. An act of 1786 had provided for the set- 
 ting ofif of two lots in each town of the State's unappropriated lands, 
 one of which was for '" gospel and schools " and the other " for 
 
 "Assembly Documents, 1839, v. 3, no. 141; a special report of the Regents 
 quoting from this early regulation with later modifications. 
 
 *' Compiled from Hough. F B,, Historical and Statistical Record of the 
 University of the State of New York, 1885, especially chaps. 20-23 inclusive. 
 See also Annual Reports of Regents. 
 
 "* Regents Instructions, op. cit.. p. 13^^50. 
 
 "Rev. Statutes of 1829, pt i, chap. 15, title i, sec. 54 (repealed by chap. 
 140. T.aws of 1834). Also Laws of 1838, chap. 237. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVEI.OI'M ENTS PRIOR TO 1853 I9 
 
 promoting literature."'*" In 1790 there was passed an act placing 
 at the disposal of the Regents several large tracts of land, and in 
 the interim until this should become productive of revenue, the sum 
 of 1000 pounds annually was appropriated for the needs of the 
 academies and the college.*^ 
 
 In 1813 there was passed "An act directing the sale of certain 
 lands for the benefit of academies,"*- which together with later acts 
 established the literature fund, permanently devoted to the use of 
 the academies by the constitution of 1846. The annual income had 
 increased to $12,000 by 1834 and in 1838 there was passed an act 
 adding to this sum annuall\- the sum of $28,000. making a total of 
 $40,000 annually to be apportioned on the basis of the number of 
 pupils pursuing other than common school branches. Reference to 
 table 2 will show the effects of the increased appropriations. A 
 marked injustice was brought about by the Revised Statutes of 1829, 
 by which the sum annually distributed was to be divided equally 
 among the eight senatorial districts, a practice which was continued 
 until i847.*' ^"d which operated to make certain institutions pros- 
 perous at the expense of others. 
 
 Reference having been made to the development of state funds 
 for the aid of academies and the changed status of the secondary 
 school, it becomes important to note the progress made in the exten- 
 sion of the curriculum. At the first the distribution of funds, left 
 entirely to the Regents, had been made on the basis of special need,** 
 but this practice was soon changed to one of distribution on the 
 basis of number of pupils reported. With the consequent rise of 
 the common schools, it became apparent that the work of the two 
 systems was overlappmg while the number of pupils in the higher 
 or classical branches was actually on the decline. In 1818 there- 
 fore the Regents adopted a rule that provided aid for those academy 
 pupils only that were pursuing " a course in classical instruction, 
 usually pursued as preparatory to admission to colleges."*^ Natur- 
 
 *" Laws of New York, 1786, chap. 67. Also Hough, op. cit., p. 70 ff. 
 
 **Laws of New York. 1790, chap. 38. Amended 1802, chap. 105. 
 
 "Laws of New York, 1813, chap. 187; see also 1813, chap. 199; 1814, 
 chap. 83; 1819, chap. 222; 1824, chap. 313; 1827, chap. 228; 1829, chap. 325; 
 1830, chap. 184; 1831, chap. 281. 
 
 *^ See constitution of 1846, art. 9. Documents referring to the results of 
 the district method of appropriation include the following: Assembly Docu- 
 ments, 1841, no. 256; 1839. nos. 76 and 141; also annual Rep'ts of Regents, 
 1830 flf. 
 
 ** Regents Rep't 1793 ; quoted in Hough, op. cit., p. 445. 
 
 " Special Rep't of Regents to the Legislature, in Assembly Jour., p. 863-66. 
 For statu.s of classics in the curriculum, see annual rep'ts of 1819, 1820, 1822 
 and 182;. 
 
20 THE XKW ^OKK STAT1-: IIKIII SlIIOOI. SVSTi:>[ 
 
 ally objection was early found to this by schools which were imme- 
 diately reduced in amount of aid but no change was made until 
 1827 when the Legislature passed an act defining the right to partic- 
 ipation as limited to those students who " for six months during 
 the preceding year . . . shall have pursued classical studies, 
 or the higher branches of English education, or both ; and that no 
 pupil shall be deemed to have pursued classical studies, unless he 
 shall have advanced as far at least as to have read the first book 
 of the Aeneid of Virgil in Latin; and no student shall be deemed to 
 have pursued the higher branches of an English education, unless 
 he shall have advanced beyond such knowledge of common, vulgar 
 and decimal arithmetic, and such proficiency in English grammar 
 and geography, as are usually obtained in common schools." *° 
 
 As this act provided further that institutions incorporated by the 
 Legislature might subject themselves to the rules of the Regents 
 and thereby receive aid, a marked impetus was given to the intro- 
 duction of '" English " subjects which included a very wide range, 
 indeed as usually interpreted all subjects not distinctly included in 
 the classics and above the elementary. An intensive study of the 
 curriculums of the reporting academies shows that of the 149 sub- 
 jects appearing in the years 1787— 1870, 100 appear for the first time 
 in the years 1826-40 as against 23 in the years preceding and 26 
 in the years following, while of 28 occasionally appearing and irreg- 
 ular subjects, 17 enter the curriculums at this time.*" From 1825 
 to 1828 one-third of the new subjects appear. Of the subjects that 
 came in in this period of 15 Acars, those that attained a prevalency 
 of 75 to TOO per cent include algebra, astronomy, botany, chemistry, 
 geometry, general history, history of the United States, surveying 
 and mental (intellectual) philosophy, while the subjects that came 
 to be taught in some twenty or more schools were elements of criti- 
 cism, drawing, geology, law (and civics), mensuration, music (in 
 18 schools), natural history, physiology and trigonometry. In this 
 connection it should be noted that in 1840 there were but 107S 
 students reported in the colleges in the State and, in 1853, 889 liter- 
 ary students and 847 medical students; the number of academy 
 pupils in this period practically doubled. In 1821 the Regents in 
 their annual report had considered the academy as the gateway to 
 
 "Laws of 1827, chap. 228. 
 
 " Compiled from Miller, G. F., op. cit., chap. 5. It should be borne in 
 mind that many of these subjects were merely topics, for example, logarithnv*. 
 electricity and optics. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOP^MKXTS PRIOR TO 1853 ^^ 
 
 the learned professions for those who lacked the means of a col- 
 legiate education while they ver}- rightly were considered as offer- 
 ing work that was the fair equivalent of college instruction.'*^ 
 
 c Special types of academics: "female" academies, monit'orial 
 high schools. The consequences of the experimental era above noted 
 were less favorable and permanent than might have been anticipated, 
 and yet it should be said that the underlying purposes of many of 
 the institutions were little different than those of the early New 
 England high schools, particularly the extension of higher educa- 
 tion to the mercantile and agricultural classes.*'^ One significant 
 phase of academy development was the provision for the education 
 of girls. Beginning in 1819, in which year was incorporated the 
 Waterford Female Academy,^" there were incorporated previous to 
 the year 1853, 32 institutions in whose titles appeared the word 
 " Female " while many other schools catered largely to the same 
 sex. In the Regents Reports, it is seen that in the later years of 
 those under consideration, the number of girls in strictly secondary 
 studies exceeded that of boys. Table 3 gives some conception both 
 of the variety of institutional interests, and the divergent activity 
 of the Legislature and the Regents in granting charters in the years 
 1826-40.5^ 
 
 Table 3 
 
 Titles of secondary institutions incorporated, 1826-40 
 
 CORPORATE TITLES OF SCHOOLS 
 
 Academy 
 
 Academy (female, scientific etc.) 
 
 Seminary 
 
 Seminary (female, scientific, agricultural etc.) 
 
 Institute 
 
 Institute (scientific, practical, liberal, collegiate, of science and industry) . 
 Miscellaneous (grammar, collegiate, college, lyceum, classical schools, etc.) 
 High schools 
 
 Total , 
 
 INCORPORATED BY 
 
 
 Regents 
 
 Legislature 
 
 10 
 
 
 72 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 
 4 
 IS 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 12 
 
 ii 
 
 
 12 
 
 IS 
 
 
 134 
 
 ' Lewiston High School Academy, under the act of 1821, chap. 61. Regents Minutes (MSS), 
 V. 3,p. 215. 
 
 Undoubtedly a detailed study of individual institutions would 
 show that the manual labor movement played an important role in 
 
 ^Regents Minutes, 1835 (MSS), v. 4, p. 62-63. 
 
 " Inglis, op. cit., p. 15-18. Cf . the report of a committee appointed by the 
 High School Society of New York, 1824. 
 
 "Laws of 1819, chap. 52. See also Assembly Jour., 1820, p. 15; also a 
 Memorial of Emma Willard and others relative to female education. Assem- 
 bly Documents, 1852, no. 74. 
 
 " Compiled from Hough, op. cit., p. 575-732. 
 
22 TIII-: xi:\\ ^•()KK statk iti(;h stiiooi. snsti:>[ 
 
 this period although but two schools bear the name.^^ Hough quite 
 inaccurately finds but five such institutions." In spite, however, of 
 the great variety of corporate titles, it will be seen that the number 
 of institutions bearing the title of " academy " and incorporated in 
 the years 1826-40, is approximately two out of three, which together 
 with the fact that many incorporated under other titles later changed 
 to that of " acadeni} ."' is indicative of the lendencv to remain 
 true-to-type. 
 
 Special mention must be made of the so-called " high schools " 
 of this period. All probably at some time in their history used the 
 monitorial method, as indeed did many academies.'* The first of 
 these schools to be incorporated was the New York High School 
 Society,"^ based directly on the experience of Dr John Griscom who 
 during a visit to Europe had been impressed with the use of the 
 monitorial system in the Edinburgh High School, and had widely 
 disseminated the knowledge he gained concerning that institution.'^® 
 At a meeting held earl\- in the year 1824 John Griscom and Daniel 
 Barnes were chosen associate principals, a " Plan and Articles of 
 Subscription " was drawn up and 134 shares of $100 each were 
 taken up by 96 subscribers. The preamble of the plan stated that 
 the purpose of the founders was to establish a school preparing 
 either for college or for business pursuits. In a " Report of a com- 
 mittee appointed by tbe High School Society of New York, to pre- 
 pare a plan of instruction to be pursued in the high school," given at 
 a meeting of December 15, 1824, note was made that New York's 
 great commercial precedence over her competitors was without a cor- 
 responding intellectual and moral status. The ideals of the founders 
 were stated in the following w^ords : 
 
 We wish to see established in our city a system of education congenial 
 with our republican institutions, and commensurable with our means and 
 wants. We should be glad to see an institution supported by law at the 
 public expense, for instruction in classical learning, and in some of the 
 
 "Laws of 1832, chap. 123 (Genesee Manual Labor Seminar}'; not organ- 
 ized) ; 1833, chap. 301 (Aurora Manual Labor Seminary; became Aurora 
 Academ\- by chap. 228, Laws of 1838). 
 
 " Hough, op. cit., p. 441. 
 
 " Miller, op. cit. 
 
 " See table 4- 
 
 "Griscom, John, A Year in Europe, 1818-19; second edition published in 
 1824. See pa.ircs 222-23. The term " hie scule " was used of this public 
 Latin grammar school at least as early as 1531 ; see excerpts from minutes 
 of the town council in Steven, The History of the Edinburgh High School, 
 app., p. 1. It is noteworthy that the New York Teachers Society had dis- 
 cussed the need of a high school as intermediate between the elementary 
 schools and the college; see the Academician, 1:186-88 (September 1818) ; 
 also p. 207. 
 
KDL'CATTOXAT, DEVEL(M^MEXTS PRIOR TO 1853 -3 
 
 higher branches of useful science, which should be open to all classes of 
 society. . . . Such an institution now exists in one of our sister cities 
 to her distinguished honor, and we believe nowhere else. ... It is not 
 expected that individual efforts will establish a seminary of learning upon 
 such a basis as this, but we confidently anticipate that the High School will, 
 in a great measure, be a substitute for it; and that it will go far towards 
 supplying the defects of our present means of education. 
 
 A Alale High School was opened in March 1825 and a Female 
 High School in the following year with the result that in 1828, 730 
 pupils were in attendance.'^' In addition to the usual academic sub- 
 jects, much was made of lectures in chemistry and natural phil- 
 osophy in which field Doctor Griscom attained some renown. In 
 the Male High School were offered Spanish and athletic exercises, 
 and shop work was planned for. In the Female High School, much 
 attention was given to the specialties of its principal, namely, draw- 
 ing, painting and plain needlework. The school encountered at first 
 the opposition of the New York Teachers Society, the various pri- 
 vate schools and even Columbia College, apparently through fear 
 of competition and the drawing off of students,^* but its discontinu- 
 ance in 183 1 seems to have been due rather to lack of administrative 
 ability on the part of its principals, the problem of adjusting the 
 monitorial method to higher subjects being found difficult.^^ Its 
 brief period of large success had caused a number of similar ven- 
 tures to be attempted, as seen in table 4. 
 
 '^ First, Second and Fourth Annual Reports of the High School Society. 
 
 "* Griscom, J. H., ^lemoirs of John Griscom, p. 203 and 208; see also p. 326, 
 in which Griscom refers to the high school and Columbia College as public 
 buildings. 
 
 °* Griscom, J. H., op. cit., p. 209-14. 
 
24 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATK TlICll SCHOOf, SYSTEM 
 
 Table 4 
 Monitorial high schools incorporated by special acts, 1825-36 
 
 DATE OF 
 ACT OF 
 INCORPORA- 
 TION 
 
 CONTROL AND 
 SUPPORT 
 
 REGENTS 
 AIDED 
 
 FURTHER DATA 
 
 New York High School 
 Society 
 
 Li\'ing[ston County High 
 School 
 
 Rochester High School . . 
 
 Buffalo High School As- 
 sociation 
 
 Gouverneur High School. 
 
 Warren County High 
 
 School 
 Palmyra High School. 
 
 Xewburgh High School. . 
 
 Ontario High School . 
 Clyde High School . . 
 
 Preble High School 1834, ch. 176 
 
 182s, ch. 74.. 
 
 1827, ch.64.. 
 1827, ch. 70. . 
 
 1827, ch. 330 
 
 1828, ch. 162. 
 
 1828, ch. 226. 
 
 1829, ch. 8r.. 
 
 1829, ch. 234. 
 
 1830, ch. 113. 
 1834, ch. I7S- 
 
 Stock Co. 
 
 Stock Co. 
 
 La Fayette High School . 
 Sandy Hill (high school 
 or academy) 
 
 1836, ch. 176. 
 1836, ch. 523. 
 
 Trustees of dists. 4 
 and 14. Tax; vide, 
 also 1831, ch. SI 
 
 Stock Co 
 
 Stock Co. 
 
 Stock Co. 
 Stock Co . 
 
 Dist. 13 made per- 
 manent; support 
 by tax 
 
 Stock Co ..... . 
 
 Trustees dists. 
 and 17; tax 
 
 Trustees dist. 6, 
 made corporate 
 body 
 
 Stock Co 
 
 Village trustees au- 
 thorized to raise 
 tax 
 
 1833-34. 
 1836-75 
 
 1829-30, 
 1832-51 
 
 1829-33. 
 1840-45 
 
 1831 ff. 
 
 1833-37 
 
 Dissolved 1833, ch. 9. A 
 high school at same 
 location sought Re- 
 gents charter, 1844, 
 Regents Minutes 
 
 (MSS), v.4,p. 443,474 
 
 1846, ch. 309, name be- 
 came Geneseo Acad- 
 emy; 1866, normal 
 school 
 
 Division of dist. author- 
 ized 1836, ch. 165. 
 Rochester Collegiate 
 Inst. 1839 
 
 Dissolved 1851, ch. 142. 
 Name changed to Lit- 
 erary and Scientific 
 Academy, 1830, ch. 32; 
 dissolved 1846, ch. 88 
 
 Aided by tax 1839, ch. 
 64, 1869, ch. 291, etc. 
 Name Gouverneur 
 
 Wesleyan Seminary, 
 1840, ch. 169 
 
 Not organized 
 
 Transfer of property of 
 dist. I, legalized 1830, 
 ch. lis; extinct 1850 
 
 District divided 1848, ch. 
 192; merged common 
 school system 1852, ch. 
 IS6 
 
 Not organized 
 
 Dist. 14 dropped out, 
 1842, ch. 268; 1858, 
 ch. 192 made free 
 school; 1876, ch. 332, 
 acad. dep't, subject to 
 Regents 
 
 Not organized 
 
 Not organized 
 Not organized 
 
 Table 4 indicates the fact that from 1825 to 1836 more than a 
 dozen such institutions were conceived. To these should be added 
 the Lewiston High School Academy/" the Troy High School estab- 
 lished in district i, and made the recipient of lottery venders' 
 licenses with the stipulation that the trustees establish a high school 
 on the monitorial plan and prepare teachers therein as well as 
 instruct in the higher branches,^^ the Utica High School for Boys, 
 established as a boarding school for boys in 1827, and known from 
 
 " See footnote to table 3. 
 " Laws of 1828, chap. loi. 
 
EDUCATIOXAl. DEVEI-OPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 -5 
 
 1833 on '^-'^ th^ Utica Gymnasium,®- and the Ellenville High School, 
 incorporated by the Regents as a stock company in 1856.®^ The 
 extent of the movement is further seen by the following facts : the 
 Clinton High School Association was formed in 1831,®* petitions 
 sent to the Regents in 1830 and to the Legislature in 183 1 request- 
 ing the chartering of the Genesee High School at Alexander were 
 refused because of lack of compliance with the regulations,"^ and in 
 1839 the Turin Academy applied for a charter under the name of 
 the Turin High School, only to have the name changed in the com- 
 mittee on colleges.*"^ 
 
 Reference to table 4 makes evident the fact that at the outset 
 these high schools were divided into two groups, corporate stock 
 companies and district schools which sought certain privileges. Of 
 the former, but two had any degree of permanence, Gouverneur High 
 School which like many other academies at different times, received 
 aid from town tax, and Livingston County High School which 
 was modeled closely after the New York High School.^^ In 1837 
 the trustees of the latter offered free tuition to four pupils in each 
 town of the county.*'^ Among the avowed purposes of this school 
 were the cheapening of instruction for the advantage of the poorer 
 classes, the training of teachers in the monitorial method, and the 
 provision of a suitable education for the wants of farmers, mechanics 
 and merchants. Favorable comment was made upon the institution 
 by Superintendent of Public Instruction Flagg in his annual report 
 for 1827, and by Governor Clinton in his annual message to the 
 Legislature. Each advocated the extension of the monitorial high 
 school throughout the State, to be located at the county towns, and 
 to provide for the training of teachers in addition to giving a 
 practical-scientific education. The Governor urged the Legislature 
 to provide that the State bear one-half of the expense of erection of 
 the buildings for these schools at a cost not to exceed $4000 each. 
 No action was taken and thus the first impulse toward the high 
 school movement failed, as it must have done had it been initiated 
 
 '^ Utica Directories for 182S and 1833. C. Bartlett, principal. 
 
 •^ Provisional incorporation by Regents in 1856; Laws of 1867, chap. 537, 
 declares Principal Post a corporation and makes name " Ulster Female 
 Seminary." See also Ellenville Journal, Sept. 12, 1863. 
 
 "Annals of Education, 3:487-88. 
 
 "Assembly Document, 1831, no. 319; Regents Minutes (MSS), v. 3, p. 270, 
 305. 
 
 "Assembly Tour. 1839, P- 1104. 
 
 *^ For prospectus and ideals of founders, see American Journal of Educa- 
 tion. 1:203-5, 441; 2:700-1; 3:633-34. 
 
 "Common School Assistant, 2:88. 
 
26 IIII". M-.W YORK STATK UICM SCHOOi. SYSTEM 
 
 with the monitorial ideal.^^ The county conception undoubtedly 
 influenced the incorporation of the Warren and Ontario High 
 Schools. 
 
 Of the districts granted special privileges as high schools. 
 Rochester and Clyde offer the first examples of union or consoli- 
 dated schools, respectively in 1827 and 1834, although both unions 
 were dissolved very soon. By the act of incorporation Clyde was 
 denied aid from the literature fund, which indeed was not granted 
 until 1876.'° The Rochester High School act referred to chapter 
 61 of the Laws of 1821, specially providing that any district might 
 place itself under the Regents for the privilege of incorporating 
 with the rights of es^ablishment of instruction in the systems of 
 Lancaster and Bell, and it soon came under the Regents. As late 
 as 1837 it was known as a common school and reported to have 12 
 teachers with 634 pupils out of 2782 in the city's public schools/^ 
 but by 1839 it was regarded as a stock company.'^ The act of incor- 
 poration of the city extended the privileges of establishment of 
 high schools by any district of the city or by any union of districts. 
 and further required the Rochester High School to make annual 
 reports to the common council " as trustees of a school district."'-^ 
 Evidence seems to be sufficient to justify the conclusion that these 
 schools, like the New York High School, took pupils at the earliest 
 age and carried them through the branches that were generally 
 considered preparatory to college. 
 
 d State recognition of special social functions of the academy. 
 One of the best indications of the large place of the academy and 
 of its institutional relationship is seen in the fact that it became 
 during this period an institution for the training of elementary or 
 common school teachers. Beginning with suggestions in the Regents 
 Reports of 1821 and 1823 and followed by the specific recommen- 
 dations of Governor DeWitt Clinton in his annual messages to the 
 Legislature, this function of the academy was specifically provided 
 for by an act of 1834.'* This act provided that the excess of $1200 
 of the income of the literature fund be devoted to this purpose and 
 the Regents immediately drew up a course of study and designated 
 an academv in each senatorial district, thus systematizing a work 
 
 "■Messages of the Governors (ed. by C. Z. Lincoln), 3:213. 
 
 '" See petition of trustees, Assembly Jour., 1838, p. 517, 540. 
 
 •' Common School Assistant, 2 :40. 
 
 '* Regents Minutes (MSS), v. 4, p. 22. 
 
 "Laws of 1834, chap. 199; see also Laws of 1850, chap. 262. 
 
 •*Laws of 1834, chap. 241. See also Laws of 1827, chap. 228. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 2/ 
 
 that was as old as the academy itself. An act of 1838 provided that 
 schools receiving the sum of $700 from the Hterature fund should 
 establish teacher-training departments, a measure that failed of 
 results because of the fact that such institutions were in a number 
 of cases not suited because of nature or location to carry on this 
 work.'^ In the meantime the administration had been transferred 
 to the Superintendent of Common Schools,''^ and thus there came 
 about a gradual change in policy which brought the temporary ter- 
 mination of the system in 1844 with the establishment of the state 
 normal school. By 1849 tbe academy was again recognized,'' this 
 time as a supplementary agency with the normal school, the number 
 of teachers classes was increased, and the administration restored 
 to the Regents where the authority remained until 1889. In 1853, 
 91 schools report a total of 1570 pupils in training as teachers.'* 
 In this same year, the permanent establishment of these departments 
 was effected by an appropriation of $18,000 and within the year 
 another act was passed providing that these pupil-teachers pledge 
 tliemselves to teach, requiring reports to the Regents, establishing 
 requirements as to the size of classes and providing a pro rata appro- 
 priation."^ Whatever may have been the efficiency of the system, 
 and there were radically opposite views of the matter, it is sufficient 
 for our purpose to note the importance of the step in the recognition 
 of the necessar)- relationship of the higher and the lower schools. 
 A single quotation, similar in tone to many expressions, will indicate 
 the sentiment of leaders who favored this means of solving the 
 most difficult problem confronting the elementary school : 
 
 As affecting more extensively the general welfare, common schools are 
 justly entitled to the first consideration and the most liberal patronage; yet 
 seminaries of a more elevated rank ought to be sustained and cherished, 
 for many reasons, and for this particularly, that upon them we must, in 
 great measure, depend for competent teachers of the common schools.^" 
 
 To many this assumed function of the academies became the 
 essential reason for any public aid to them. 
 
 From 1834 on, recognition of the changed status of secondary 
 education was evidenced in legislation empowering the Regents to 
 
 '^Laws of 1838, chap. 22)~. See Regents Alinutes, 1839 (MSS"), p. 230-31. 
 '"Laws of 1837, chap. 241. 
 '' Laws of 1849, chap. 174. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1854. p. 20-22. For a full treatment of the work of the 
 academy in teacher-training, see Miller, op. cit., chap. 6. 
 " Laws of 1853, chap. 210 and 402 respectively. 
 "* Message of the Governor, Senate Documents, 1834, no. i. 
 
28 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 grant small sums to individual academies for the purpose of provid- 
 ing them more fully with " books, maps and globes and philosophi- 
 cal and chemical apparatus."^^ A little later grants of meteoro- 
 logical apparatus were made with a view to creating at the various 
 academics local observation stations. ^■- 
 
 3 Development of the Elementary ScJiool System 
 a Early legislation and general status, 1795—18^/. We have seen 
 that in the elementary field as well as in the secondary, there was 
 no established system at the opening of the period of statehood.^' 
 By enactments of 1782 and 1786, lots were set apart in each town- 
 ship in the unappropriated lands of the State for the use of the 
 " gospel and schools."^* From 1787 on the Regents urged the estal)- 
 lishment of a public common school system, evidently conceiving 
 that the power to provide for elementary instruction properly came 
 within their jurisdiction.^-"' Following the vigorous plea of Governor 
 George Clinton in his annual message before the Legislature in 
 1795,*° in which he h^ld that the academies were instructing only 
 those of means and that the great majority were unprovided for, the 
 Legislature in that year passed "An act for the encouragement of 
 schools."®' This act provided temporary elementary educational 
 facilities, by an appropriation annually of 20,000 pounds ($50,000) 
 for a period of five years. The features of the act that proved to 
 have a large degree of permanency in the later acts relative to 
 common schools are as follows: provision for instruction "in the 
 English language, or . . . English grammar, arithmetic, mathe- 
 matics, and such other branches of knowledge as are most useful 
 and necessary to complete a good English education," the apportion- 
 ment of state funds .nmong the counties according to population, 
 the obligation of the county supervisors to raise a definite sum as a 
 condition of receiving the state aid, the provision for the appoint- 
 ment of town commissioners by the town meeting and for the 
 
 "Laws of 1834, chap. 140; 1849, chap. 301; 1851, chap. 536. 
 
 "Laws of 1849, chap. 301; 185 1, chap. 336; 1853, chap. 219. 
 
 '^ The Colonial Assembly of 1691 had under consideration a bill for the 
 purpose of appointing "a school-master for the educating and instructing of 
 the children and youth, to read and write English in every town in this 
 Province" ; Assembly Jour., 1691-1773, p. 7. 
 
 "Laws of 1782, chap. 22; 1786, chap. 67; 1805, chap. 136. 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts for 1793 and 1794, in Senate Journals for respective years; 
 .'luoted in Hough, op. cit., p. 65-66. 
 
 ^Messages from the Governors, 2:350. The Regents Rep't of 1795 shows 
 that out of 471 pupils in 7 reporting academies, about one-half were studying 
 the common branches; Senate Jour., 1795. 
 
 *'Laws of 1795, chap. 75. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPM EXTS PRIOR TO 1853 29 
 
 establishment of neighborhood schools through voluntary associa- 
 tions which laid the foundations for the district system.** Reports 
 from 16 counties out of 23, in 1798, gave a total of 1352 schools 
 with 59,660 pupils, the Comptroller estimating that the appropria- 
 tion amounted to about i cent a day for each child. *^ With the 
 lapsing of the state appropriation in 1800, came a practical discon- 
 tinuance of the public elementary schools,°° but in 1805 an act was 
 passed appropriating 500,000 acres of land to the establishment of 
 a common school fund, the interest to be used when it amounted 
 to $50,000 annually.'*^ 
 
 By an act of 1812, with its revisions of 1814 and 1819,^- the com- 
 mon school system was permanently created. The statute of 1795 
 and its amendment of 1796, had established the complete lack of 
 application of these laws to the academies."^ Distinctive features 
 of the system were: 
 
 1 The creation of the office of a State Superintendent of Common 
 Schools, with powers of the management of the school fund and the 
 collection of statistics. 
 
 2 The establishment of the district as the unit of administration 
 and control, and as a legal corporation. 
 
 3 The provision for intermediate administrative officers, including 
 the county supervisors, town commissioners and town inspectors, 
 with major duties, respectively; of (a) the levying of taxes and dis- 
 bursement of funds, (b) the distribution of funds to districts within 
 the town and general administrative oversight of schools of the 
 town, (c) the visitation and reporting of individual schools and the 
 certification of teachers. 
 
 4 The granting of state aid to be apportioned to counties on the 
 basis of population and to districts within towns on the basis of a 
 census of those between 5 and 15 years of age, the grant carrying 
 with it the obligation of towns (wnth the act of 1814) to raise an 
 equivalent sum and the right of districts to supplement this with the 
 rate bill and a limited building tax. 
 
 ** Swift, F. H., A History of the School District in New York State. See 
 use of term association in amendment of 1796, chap. 49. Also Sup't Rep't, 
 1839, P- 18. 
 
 '"Assembly Jour., 1798, p. 282-85. The population of these counties, 
 according to the U. S. Census of 1800, was 439,871. 
 
 "Annual Message of Governor Clinton; in Messages, op. cit., 2:512. See 
 also Fitzpatrick, The Educational Views and Influence of DeWitt Clinton, 
 p. 29 flf. 
 
 "Laws of 1805, chap. 66; see also supplementary acts 1807, chap. 32; 1814, 
 chap. 83 ; 1819, chap. 161 (which raised the annual appropriation to $70,000) ; 
 and Revised Statutes of 1829-30. 
 
 '"Laws of 1812, chap. 242; 1814, chap. 192; 1819, chap. 161. 
 
 *"" Laws of 1796, chap. 49. 
 
30 Till-: XRW YORK S'lATK liKlil SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 There was little signihcunt legislaiiun from ihis point on until 
 the end of the fourth decade of the century, other than the discon- 
 tinuance in 1821 of the office of Superintendent of Schools as such 
 and the consequent placing of his duties upon the Secretary of State 
 and the vesting in the following year of appellate and final juris- 
 diction of all matters relative to the common schools in the State 
 Superintendent."* The former of these acts was made necessary 
 through the political appointment of a successor to Gideon Hawley 
 who had served ably and constructively from the beginning of the 
 initiation of the system."^ The latter indicated a wholesome tend- 
 ency toward centralization and soon made the office of the Superin- 
 tendent a much more important factor than formerly. 
 
 The individual schools generally failed to maintain a high standard 
 through the somewhat incidental type of state governance and the 
 decreasing importance of the state fund in comparison with the 
 growth in number of pupils. If we may judge from the annual 
 reports, the more serious evils were the multiplicity of textbooks, 
 the increasing subdivision of districts, the lack of public sentiment 
 for education which resulted in short-sighted economy in term- 
 length, wages of teachers and fitness of buildings, as well as the 
 consequent rise in the forties of large numbers of opposition, or 
 select and private schools. Somewhat later there came to be an 
 appreciation of the complete inadequacy of the system of super- 
 vision through town commissioners and inspectors. ^^ The New 
 York common school system, however, both within and without 
 the State and even abroad came to be known as <"he most successful 
 of systems because it had in its schools more pupils per population 
 unit than any other state or nation. For many years the reports 
 revealed the fact that more pupils were in the schools than enumer- 
 ated as between the ages of 5 and 15, both from the years 1824 to 
 1830 and again from 1835 on. No adequate explanation was given 
 in the Superintendents' annual reports but the great source of this 
 anomalous statistical situation is undoubtedly indicated by Francis 
 Dwight who said that every child attending " but for a single day, 
 is returned as attending schools, and thus hundreds in every county 
 swell the returns, who instead of eight months, were not actually 
 
 ••Laws of 1821, chap. 240; 1822, chap. 245. 
 
 •^ See his Annual Reports, especially those of 1814 and 1819. Mr Hawley 
 ihen served as Secretary of the Board of Regents until 1842 and from 1842 
 10 1870 as a Regent, thus forming one of many links between the two sys- 
 tems. The office was reestablished in 1854. 
 
 "Sup't Rep'ls, 1837, p. 24-25; 1838, p. 23. 
 
KDUCATIONAL DEVELOPM F.XTS I'KIOK TO 1853 3I 
 
 taught tight days."''' Satisfaction was expressed with the state 
 method of apportionment, each superintendent in turn noting the 
 advantages over the free system of Connecticut or any system which 
 did not hold out a state bounty of such amount only to act as an 
 incentive or inducement to the local unit.°^ The " standard of 
 education " was, however, felt to be low and the source was 
 ordinarily sought in the lack of properly qualified teachers. We 
 liave already seen that the academy was conceived to be the means 
 for the removal of this handicap. 
 
 In the meantime private agencies were working for the " improve- 
 ment of the common schools." In the Superintendent's report of 
 1826, note was made of the appearance of the American Journal of 
 Education and its possibilities in the creation of public sentiment 
 and breadth of view in education. From 1836 to 1840 there was 
 published the Common School Assistant, a journal edited by 
 J. Orville Taylor, printed in large numbers and widely dissemi- 
 nated.^^ During the thirties, notices are found in the current edu- 
 cational magazines, notably the Annals of Education and the Com- 
 mon School Assistant, of county and local associations and con- 
 ventions. At least fifteen of the northern and eastern counties had 
 some such organization by 1840, and in at least two of them, the 
 work of the association was extended through the appointment of 
 an agent to go about the towns lecturing on educational topics and 
 rendering such assistance as he might to the teachers.^ State con- 
 ventions of the " friends of education " were held in Utica in 1830, 
 1831 and 1837,- at which the leaders of education not only of New 
 York but also of neighboring states met to discuss the means of 
 reform in the common schools. Among the topics which were much 
 discussed were the extension of the course of study and the 
 classification of pupils. The period from 1838 to 1853 is marked 
 by distinct, if uncertain, signs of progress. The succeeding 
 paragraphs treat of this progress as regards the enlarged powers of 
 state participation, developments in the district system through 
 extension of its curriculum and consolidation of districts, and the 
 
 "Reports of County Boards of Visitors, in Assembly Documents, 1841, 
 no. 153, p. "/J. S. R. Hall, the well-known author of School-Keeping, said in 
 1833, before the American School Agents' Society, that there were between 
 50.000 and 80,000 uninstructed children in the State; Annals, 3:525- 
 
 '* Sup't Rep'ts, 1816. 1833, 1834 and 1840. 
 
 "^ Bardeen, C. W., The History of Educational Journalism in the State of 
 New York, p. 5-10. 
 
 ^Annals, 3:426 fif; Common School Assistant, 1:91. 
 
 'Annals i. pt i, p. 175, and pt 2, p. 155-59; also 7:329. 
 
t^Z Till-: NEW YORK STATE IIICH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 rise of distinct city and village systems in which many features of 
 the modern city system were to be found. 
 
 h Increased state support and control^ iS^S-i8j2. The first 
 forward step was taken in 1838, in which year an act was passed 
 bv which, through the appropriation of the income of the United 
 States deposit fund, the sum annually distributed to the common 
 schools was increased from $110,000, at which point it had remained 
 for a decade, to $275,000." Article 9 of the constitution of 1846 
 established the inviolability of the United States deposit fund, as 
 well as the common school and literature funds and provided for 
 the annual supplementation of the common school fund with an 
 increment from the income of the deposit fund of the sum of 
 $25,000. The value of this increased aid was enhanced by the 
 incorporation mto the state system of certain of the voluntary 
 activities of the period, particularly the provision for county boards 
 of visitors in 1839, and in 1841 the adoption of the District School 
 Journal as the official organ of the Department to be sent to all the 
 districts.* In the latter year and through the same act there was 
 established, chiefl}- upon the recommendation of the visitors, a system 
 of county or deputy supervision, which, while abolished in 1847, not 
 to be renewed until 1856, was perhaps the most important single 
 piece of educational legislation up to this time. This body of men, 
 among whom were many of the leading educators of the State, were 
 given duties of inspection, visitation, supervision and certification, 
 that made them, despite the largeness of the units of administration, 
 an essential link in the system. Their reports, together with those 
 of the county boards of visitors,^ form the most illuminating picture 
 of the status of the schools, and served the double purpose of direct- 
 ing state legislation and of keeping the various districts of the State 
 in touch with progressive movements. At their annual coven- 
 tions there were discussed the leading problems of the era known 
 as the " educational revival," and by such leaders as Mann, Barnard. 
 Emerson, Potter, Judge Hammond and Francis Dwight. The lapse 
 of the county supervisory system and the return to the town unit 
 with the town superintendent as the substitute meant a return to 
 
 ' Laws of 1838, chap. 237 ; see also Governor Seward's Message for 1837, 
 in Assembly Jour., p. 8-9. 
 
 *Laws of 1839, chap. 330 (see also Governor's Message, Assembly Jour., 
 p. 29-31) ; 1841, chap. 260. 
 
 'Assembly Documents, 1840, no. 307; 1841, no. 153. For deputy superin- 
 tendents' reports, see annual reports of State Superintendent and columns 
 of the District School Journal. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 33 
 
 the constant series of appeals of petty district quarrels to the 
 office of the State Superintendent/' a lapsing of vital leadership and 
 a minimum of supervision and direction of the town and district 
 school officers. Some progress was made in the field of teacher- 
 training through the establishment in 1844 of the state normal 
 school,' and further by the development of teachers institutes, 
 beginning in 1842, and subsidized by an act of 1847.^ By 1845 ^^^ 
 1846 the agitation for free schools was well underway, receiving its 
 initial impetus in the county superintendents' conventions of those 
 years.^ Taken up by the constitutional convention of 1846 and 
 embodied in the superintendents' resolution which was passed, recon- 
 sidered and rejected, the principle was established by acts of 1849 
 and 1851/" The rate bill was not abolished, however, until 1867. 
 The State's significant part was to be played in the administration 
 of a tax of $800,000 (later changed to a mill tax) to be levied 
 annually for the support of free schools according to the act of 185 1, 
 the first considerable slate tax to have been levied for any purpose.^^ 
 Despite the large amount of voluntary activity of the thirties and 
 following, which aimed at the general " improvement of common 
 schools " as the foundation of stable political society, and the later 
 legislative activity which sought better teachers, better supervision 
 and increased support, the status of the district schools, except in 
 certain of the larger villages and cities to which attention will be 
 given later, was comparatively unchanged. The Superintendent's 
 report for 1853 gave 11,864 districts, with 622,268 pupils in attend- 
 ance out of 1,150,532 enumerated.^- A large decrease was noted 
 in the number of inspections, as well as in attendance, while the 
 number in attendance for less than four months comprised more 
 than two-fifths of those in attendance during the year. The rate 
 bill continued to be used, the amount raised thereby constituting 
 about one-sixth of the total of all school moneys and exceeding 
 slightly the amount of district taxes. 
 
 'See Sup't Rep't for 1851, p. 8-9; also Dix, Common School Decisions, 
 1837, as to the nature and number of appeals during the decade 1827-37. 
 
 'Laws of 1844, chap. 311. 
 
 ' Laws of 1847, chap. 361. See also Randall, S. S., History of the Com- 
 mon School System of the State of New York, 1871, p. 186 tT. 
 
 ° Randall, op. cit., p. 198 ff. Also the numbers of the District School 
 Journal, v. 7-12, and the Sup't Rep'ts from 1846 on. 
 
 "Laws of 1849, chap. 140; 1851, chap. 151. 
 
 " Fairlie, Centralization of Administration in New York State, p. 160. 
 
 " See p. 3-5. The report notes an inexplicable discrepancy of figures in 
 that the total " number of children taught " is 866,935. 
 
34 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 c Extension of the elementary currlcii'lum. Some sporadic 
 progress had been made in the way of an extension of the curriculum 
 to embrace higher subjects. As early as 1826, Governor DeWitt 
 Clinton in the annual message to the Legislature suggested that most 
 of the years of elementary instruction were wasted and could be 
 used in a study of the elements of algebra, mineralogy, agricultural 
 chemistry, mechanical philosophy, etc." In that year the history 
 of the United States Vv^as reported as studied in some schools of six 
 towns; by 1832 it was reported in 52 towns and by 1834, in 104 
 towns. In the latter year the Superintendent advocated the teach- 
 ing of criminal and civil jurisprudence and constitutional law,^* 
 and in 1837 in addition to these the " elements of natural philosophy 
 and mechanism, of chemistry and political science. "^^ In this report 
 we have perhaps the earliest official suggestion of the high school, 
 the belief being expressed that by this extension of the curriculum 
 upwards the great mass of people would have the same advantage 
 as those who attended higher schools. In 1840, the Superintendent 
 in a summary of the reports of the county boards of visitors took 
 the position " that there is no reason why the highest branches of an 
 English education taught in our academies may not be pursued in 
 our common schools."^^ 
 
 Something of the progress of the movement to include the higher 
 branches may be seen from table 5. Early reports in terms of 
 numbers of towns do not indicate whether or not more than one 
 school and one pupil were engaged in such studies. 
 
 " Quoted in Randall, op. cit., p. 51. 
 "Sup't Rep'ts, 1834, p. 22; 1835, p. Z2. 
 "Sup't Rep't, 1837, p. 21. 
 
 " Assembly Documents, 1840, no. 307. Such was the situation in some of 
 the city schools, for example, Rochester and Bufifalo, op. cit., p. 59-60, 101-6. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 
 
 Table 5 
 Introduction of higher subjects in the common schools' 
 
 
 NO. TOWNS REPORTING 
 SUBJECTS IN VEARS 
 
 NO. TEXTS 
 
 REPORTED 
 
 I84I 
 
 NO. 
 
 CLASSES 
 
 184I 
 
 NO. OF PUPILS' 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1832 
 
 1834 
 
 1836 
 
 Winter 
 1844 
 
 Summer 
 1844 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Geometry 
 
 History, not U. S. . 
 
 2 
 "7 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 2 
 2 
 I 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 I2I 
 
 II 
 22 
 
 5' 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 8> 
 I7< 
 
 2 316 
 217 
 903 
 189 
 644' 
 
 
 558 
 4 712 
 
 I 776 
 
 191 
 
 730 
 
 43 
 
 384' 
 
 
 Nat. hist. & botany. 
 Philosophy 
 
 a Mental 
 
 b Natural 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 386 
 2 769 
 
 
 
 Surveying 
 
 
 
 1 In addition there were reported " several in one town." 
 
 2 The number of common school branches has increased, and some of the other branches are 
 also included as " other subjects," a miscellaneous list. 
 
 ' Includes surveying and higher mathematics. 
 • Sixteen of which are in one town. 
 
 With the aboHtion of the county superintendent's office in 1847 
 records are no longer available, but general reports indicate a much 
 more rapid progress in the decade following those shown with the 
 incomplete data in table 5. While therefore the mere adding of 
 higher subjects to a common or elementary school, often at the 
 risk of comparative neglect of the elementary branches, does not 
 of itself constitute a high school, it was the first significant step in 
 that direction, for thereby the local unit, usually a district, became 
 accustomed to the support in part or wholly by taxation, of the 
 special classes or higher departments. 
 
 d Modifications of the district system: consolidation or union of 
 districts. Of much greater promise was the movement toward the 
 establishment of what came later to be generally called union schools. 
 The practice must have arisen very early of employing in more popu- 
 lous districts two or more teachers. By a decision of Superintend- 
 ent Flagg in 1826, such a district in the village of Sacket Harbor, 
 which had earlier found it necessary to hire three teachers and 
 provide a second building, was ruled to be one district, rate bills and 
 taxes to provide equality of opportunity for all children. ^^ In a 
 decision in 1829 by which an appeal was dismissed which sought the 
 annulment of the act of the school commissioners in dividing a 
 
 " Sup't Rep'ts, except for 6th column ("no. of classes"), which is found 
 in the County Boards of Visitors Report. 
 " Common School Decisions, op. cit., p. 4-8. 
 
36 THE XEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 district, the Superintendent added: " If the inhabitants of a large dis- 
 trict can act in harmony, and establish a high school, or otherwise 
 elevate the character of the common school, it would undoubtedly 
 be useful to the cause of education; but if this unity of sentiment can 
 not be produced, they can not have, under the law, any other than 
 a common school. "^^ The Superintendents' reports for 1834 and 
 1835,-° noted that the number of teachers was slightly in excess of 
 the number of schools due to the practice of employing more than 
 one teacher, and in 1838 for the first time official recognition was 
 given the fact that the continued division and subdivision of dis- 
 tricts was " one of the greatest evils of the common school sys- 
 tem."^^ In the report for 1839, the loss of 52 districts in 13 counties 
 was attributed to the consolidation of weaker districts.-- In the fol- 
 lowing year, the matter was taken under consideration by the county 
 board of visitors of Chenango county, and at the annual meeting 
 held in January 1841, the report favored " concentrating the district 
 schools in villages " where the common schools were generally held to 
 be the least efficient.^^ The report was based on practice in the 
 cities of Utica, Rochester and Buffalo and the villages of Vienna, 
 Greene and Geneva, and advocated a division into four departments 
 the last of which should embrace instruction in the " languages and 
 the highest branches of English, mathematics etc." In the same 
 document, the visitors of Ontario county, in rendering a brief ac- 
 count of the development of the Geneva Union School, stated that 
 the origin of the school dated from the realization of the low condi- 
 tion of the village schools and that following the decision of the 
 districts to unite instead of further subdivide, the progress in attend- 
 ance and place in public opinion was remarkable."* In an able edi- 
 torial in the October number of the District School Journal, for 1841, 
 now the official state journal, the subject of " Union Schools " is put 
 forth as the means of several reforms, namely, the elevation of pub- 
 lic, or village, educational interest, the increase of educational ad- 
 vantages, the equalization and diminution of expenses for schools 
 
 "Ibid., p. 52-53. 
 
 ^ Sup't Rep'ts, 1834, p. 20; 1835, p. 7. 
 
 ° Sup't Rep't, 1838, p. 6-7. The remedy lay in the suggestive power of 
 the Superintendent of Schools to the local commissioners who decided all 
 such questions. An illustration of their iiicfficiency is seen in the fact that 
 in 1841, the commissioners of the town of Cuba forbade the raising of a tax 
 sufificient to establish a union school on the ground that it would break up a 
 select school ; see Finegan, Judicial Decisions of the State Superintendent, 
 1822-1914, p. 7-10. 
 
 " Sup't Rep't, 1839, p. 18. See also Sup'ts Rep'ts of 1842 and 1844. 
 
 '^ Assembly Documents, 1841, no. 153, p. 13-15. 
 
 "Ibid., p. '75. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 Zl 
 
 and the more effective application of school moneys through the gain 
 in classification of pupils."^ 
 
 Superintendent Spencer in the report of the same year had 
 stressed the fact that the town commissioners had been repeatedly 
 urged to consolidate weak districts or unite parts of them to other 
 districts, and stated that it was under consideration to effect a gen- 
 eral revision of the school districts of the State to adapt their location 
 and size to the changed situation as regards population. -° The ques- 
 tion came before the State Department again in 1846, when a letter 
 from citizens of the village of Medina, asked advice as to the relative 
 advantages of the union school and academic plans. ^' Superintend- 
 ent Benton in his reply favored the union school plan but went on to 
 state that the common schools were not designed to teach the lan- 
 guages, inasmuch as the law confined its work to an English educa- 
 tion, and further that it was not permissible to charge a second and 
 higher rate of tuition for the more expensive teaching of these sub- 
 jects. ^^ With the increased absorption of the State Department in 
 other questions already noted, the union school continued to receive 
 the attention of the more progressive county superintendents, who 
 suggested in their annual reports various advantages and methods of 
 consolidation, stimulated in some cases at least by the utterances of 
 Mann and Barnard, in Massachusetts and Connecticut reports.^'' 
 Resolutions were passed at their annual conventions and later at the 
 State Teachers Association gatherings which favored its adoption as 
 the general practice, and were based on reports of committees of 
 these conventions. ^° In 1844 and 1845, t^^e county conventions 
 called by the county superintendent in Allegheny county indorsed the 
 union school and in the debates leading to such resolutions, the future 
 
 ^District School Journal, Oct. i, 1841, 2:28-29. Reference was also made 
 to the progress of the movement in certain New England states. (See Mass. 
 Laws. chap. 23, sec. 49, Rev. Statutes, 1835, and chap. 189, 1838, as well as 
 Fourth Annual Report of Secretary Horace Mann of the Mass. Board of 
 Education, 1841, p. 424-28.) Francis Dwight, editor of the Journal at 
 Geneva, was probably prime mover in founding the school at that place. 
 
 " Sup't Rep't, 1841, p. 4. A decision of Superintendent Flagg in 1826 had 
 made it clear that school districts were to be organized independent of 
 town and county lines. See Cubberley, Public School Administration, 
 p. (y-y, for interesting graphs indicating the modifications of the district system, 
 with progress in the settlement of a county. 
 
 " District School Journal, June 1846, 7 : 59-60. 
 
 ^ Common School Decisions, 1837, p. 47-48, more than one rate of tuition 
 for all branches ruled illegal. Cf. Superintendent Flagg, 1829, p. 47-48. Cf. 
 Laws of 1846, chap. 119 and 207. 
 
 "District School Journal, 4:87, 104. Sup't Rep'ts, 1843, p. 394; 1844, 
 p. 117, 638. 
 
 '"' District School Journal, 3 : 33 ; 44 : 83 ; 5 : 76-79. 107 ; 6 : 42-43, 49, 57-58. 
 Also New York Teacher (1853), 1:227, 369. 
 
38 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 of the academy was called in question."^ From 1840 to 1853 some 
 25 union and consolidated schools came into prominent notice either 
 through legislative action or the columns of the official journal; of 
 these the great majority were scattered along the important trade- 
 routes in the newer western part of the State. Concrete data as to 
 the status of the earlier union schools is not to be had in any large 
 measure but what is available indicates that these schools were 
 beginning to compete with the academies. The " Union District 
 School " of Lodi was reported in 1845 to have a building worth 
 nearly $2000.^- Pittsford Union School in the same year had 
 prepared students for Harvard CoUege.^^ Palmyra consolidated 
 school in 1848 was provided with a new building and apparatus 
 worth $10,000 and had a total of 400 pupils under eight teachers.^* 
 While legislative action did not keep pace with the demands of 
 educational leadership as noted in the foregoing paragraphs, such 
 action as was had must be noted here. With the establishment of the 
 system, provision was made for the joint school or district whose 
 territory was cut by town or county lines. While these districts 
 offered certain difficulties in administration and in reporting, they 
 were very numerous and offered an opportunity for the district sys- 
 tem to adjust itself to the needs particularly of villages not wholly 
 within a single town.^^ In 1835, Superintendent Dix had ruled that 
 in the case of united districts public moneys must be applied equally 
 to the benefit of all the pupils, and by an act of 1841 full provision 
 was made for the consolidation and dissolution of districts and the 
 adjudication of property matters in such cases. ^'^ The same act 
 provided indirectly for the central school plan by allowing 
 districts to " designate sites for two or more school houses." 
 Further general legislation tended to prohibit rather than 
 foster the consolidation of districts, especially the free school act of 
 1 85 1 which provided that of the public moneys one-third be distri- 
 buted among the districts, without regard to the number of pupils.^' 
 
 "District School Journal, 5: 108-9; 6:83. 
 
 "District School Journal, 7:91. This is the first school called a union 
 school in the state laws; cf. Laws of 1846, chap. 207. 
 
 ■^District School Journal, 6:57. 
 
 '* District School Journal, 9:76- 
 
 •° Common School Decisions, 1837, p. 225-27. 
 
 ^'Laws of 1841, chap. 260. See also LavVs of 1846, chap. 66; 1847, chap. 
 480; 1849, chap. 382. . , , . 
 
 "Laws of 1851, chap. 151. For statements as to the consequent hardshin 
 worked by this provision, see the New York Teacher, 1:142-43, 195; Editor 
 Valentine (p. 213-14) attributed the above provision to the representatives 
 from rural districts and said that it put a premium upon the " multiplication 
 and division of districts." 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 39 
 
 It accordingly became common practice to seek special privileges or 
 powers for individual districts from the Legislature. Without at- 
 tempting to be exhaustive, the following list of powers granted to a 
 number of progressive schools with t^-pical illustrative legal pro- 
 visions is offered as showing the tendency of a decade of special 
 legislation for districts exclusive of the cities : 
 
 1 Enlarged powers of taxation, generally for building pur- 
 poses.^^ 
 
 2 Privilege of differentiation of rate bills for lower and higher 
 departments.^^ 
 
 3 Right to provide free schools.*" 
 
 4 Incorporation as permanent districts, not subject to alteration 
 except by the Legislature, and with powers of trustees becoming 
 those of boards of education or their equivalent.*^ 
 
 5 Consolidation or union of school districts. *- 
 
 6 Relief to consoHdated districts, so that grant of public moneys 
 on the district basis be not affected by consolidation.*^ 
 
 7 Privilege of establishment of a public secondary school, free 
 academy, union school or classical school.** 
 
 The significance of the first four groups of powers noted above is 
 rather that of indicating the effort of progressive schools to transcend 
 the limitations of the general laws for district schools. The last 
 three groups of activities indicate the specific efforts to provide for 
 higher public education and will be taken up again in the next chap- 
 ter. In most cases these acts were made contingent upon a past or 
 future vote of the local electorate. As regards the uniting of schools 
 by legislative enactment or reference in the laws to such schools, it 
 should be said that the terms " consolidated " and " union " occur 
 with approximately equal frequency. 
 
 e Rise of city systems: monitorial societies paving the way for 
 corporate boards of education. Having noted the establishment of 
 the district system and the tendencies working toward its partial 
 evolution, it remains to trace the special developments in the cities 
 and certain progressive villages. In the main, this development was 
 from the laissez faire policy of the English supplemented by charity 
 
 ^Laws of 1839, chap. 229; 1844, chap. 75; 1847, chap. 264 and 335. 
 ""Laws of 1846, chap. 119 and 207; 1844, chap. 175. 
 ""Laws of 1847, chap. 336; 1848, chap. 81; 1853, chap. 151 and 344. 
 "Laws of 1848, chap. 81; 1852, chap. 120; 1853, chap. 252. 
 **Laws of 1847, chap. 51; 1850, chap. 293; 1851, chap. 206; 1852, chap. 75; 
 1853, chap. 305. 
 "Laws of 1852, chap. 75; 1853, chap. 59; 1853, chap. 392. 
 "Laws of 1847, chap. 51; 1850, chap. 321; 1853, chap. 155, 252 and 305. 
 
40 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOI. SYSTEM 
 
 schools in connection with the churches, through a period of quasi- 
 public control, best and most generally represented in the Lancaster- 
 ian or monitorial societies, and into the stage of local and largely 
 independent systems, with a board of education or other similar 
 governing body, with special provisions concerning taxes and in 
 some cases specific legalization of higher schools. 
 
 The first state common school act, that of 1795, made special pro- 
 vision for the existing cities. In Albany and New York the pub- 
 lic money was to be apportioned respectively to the " English 
 schools " and " charity schools." The city of Hudson was to be 
 considered a town for purposes of the law. In 1797,*^ upon petition 
 from the city government of New York stating that the " manner of 
 conducting the private schools " made the application of the general 
 act impracticable, there was passed a special act providing a special 
 method of distribution of the funds and empowering the mayor and 
 council to establish and, with the commissioners of schools, to govern 
 such free schools as might be established with the residue of funds. 
 There is no evidence that these latter provisions were carried out. 
 Fitzpatrick finds that, in spite of the lapsing of the general school 
 law, the cities of New York, Hudson, Albany and Newburgh were 
 comparatively well provided with schools of both secondary and 
 elementary nature at the opening of the nineteenth century.*" In 
 New York City alone with about 70,000 people, he found listed in 
 Jones's Directory for 1805-6, 141 teachers of private and church 
 schools. Similarly Longworth in 1805,*' lists 107 teachers exclusive 
 of the teachers of Columbia College and inclusive of the teachers of 
 all but three of the church charity schools. Of these, two were 
 music teachers, one a teacher of philosophy, and one a teacher of 
 mathematics. 
 
 In the same year there was as we have seen provision made for 
 the beginning of a common school system on the solid foundation of 
 a permanent fund. There was also initiated the beginning of the 
 Lancasterian movement in the passage of "An act to incorporate the 
 society instituted in the city of New York for the establishment of 
 a free school, for the education of poor children, who do not belong 
 to or are not provided for by any religious society."*^ This followed 
 a memorial of prominent New York citizens in which was stated the 
 fact that the charity schools were not providing for all the children 
 
 *'Laws of 1797, chap. 34. 
 
 "Op. cit.. p. 30-32. ^ „ o, ^ 
 
 ''Ibid.; LonpTvvorth's New York Register, p. "jfy^ll, 85-86, 162. 
 ** Laws of 1805, chap. 108. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1 853 4I 
 
 of the working classes and that in consequence ignorance and crime, 
 as well as poverty and disease, were becoming a lax on the city to an 
 alarming degree."*" 
 
 While this society was a stock corporation in which membership 
 was attained by a subscription of $8, and the privileges of sending 
 one or two children during life by the payment respectively of sums 
 of $25 and $40, the mayor and council wxre constituted ex officio 
 members of the corporation and annual reports of the trustees of the 
 corporation were required to be made to the corporation as a whole. 
 In 1806 the first school was opened on the monitorial plan, adapted 
 from the general scheme of Lancaster and made possible through 
 private subscription. In 1807 and again in 1808 substantial aid was 
 given by the city and in 1807 an act was passed enabling the city to 
 appropriate the sum of $4000 for the erection of a building and $1000 
 yearly, both from the excise funds.^° In 1808 the society became 
 the " Free School Society " and the restrictions as to pupils were 
 removed.^^ The general act of 1812 having made no provision for 
 New York City, a supplementary act was passed the following year, 
 causing the city and county to share in the distribution of public 
 moneys. The appointment of five commissioners was to be made by 
 the mayor and council and the moneys distributed to charity schools 
 alone, of which several were specified in addition to the Free School 
 Society.^^ 
 
 Through the fact that the monitorial plan was used, and conse- 
 quently few teachers employed, in spite of rapid growth, the society 
 asked for and received the privilege of deviation of such of the 
 public moneys as it saw fit to other purposes than the payment of 
 teachers.^^ Very soon thereafter the Bethel Baptist Church initiated 
 a policy of expansion and in 1822 obtained the same privilege of 
 use of funds. A long and bitter controversy came about in which 
 the arguments of the trustees of the society in opposition to the 
 extension of this privilege to church organizations were mainly, first, 
 that, by the act of 181 3, it was anticipated that the Free School 
 Society would minister to the educational needs of all children not 
 
 *' Quoted in full in Bourne, History of the Public School Society, p. 3-4. 
 This is a detailed account of the complete history of the society. Shorter 
 accounts are to be found in Boese, Public Education in the City of New 
 York, and in Fitzpatrick, op. cit. 
 
 ■^Laws of 1807, chap. 20. A second like sum was granted for a second 
 building in i8ii (chap. 84) and an additional $500 annually. 
 
 "Laws of 1S08. chap, in; see also Senate Jour., 1808, p. 176. 
 
 "Laws of 1813, chap. 52. Later special acts placed other schools under 
 the law, for example, the Female Association, chap. 87, 1813. 
 
 ^' Laws of 1817, chap. 145. 
 
42 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 already provided for in the church and other charity schools, and 
 second, that the school fund was " purely of a civil character, being 
 for a civil purpose. "°* The Assembly committee on colleges, 
 academies and common schools further raised the question " whether 
 it is not a violation of a fundamental principle of our legislation, to 
 allow the funds of this State, raised by a tax on the citizens, designed 
 for civil purposes, to be subject to the control of any religious cor- 
 poration." By an act of 1824 the controversy was settled whereby 
 the society became in large part the recognized agency of public in- 
 struction in the city, although ostensibly it merely provided for 
 closer civic control through the appointment of a body of ten com- 
 missioners upon whom were placed the obligation of reports to the 
 State Superintendent based on visitation, and who were constituted 
 guardians of the public funds and their distribution.^^ Of still more 
 importance in determining the public functioning of the society was 
 an act of 1826, changing the name to the Public School Society, and 
 enabling it to charge a small fee, with the specific end of extending 
 the work of the society to include all children, thus sounding the 
 death-knell of the charity idea. The pay system was soon found 
 objectionable and was abandoned in 1832.^^ This act also made 
 permissible the transfer of the society's property to the city, with 
 perpetual lease therefrom for educational purposes. 
 
 In the meantime the system had been adopted widely throughout 
 the cities and larger villages of the State. Recommended in 1812 
 by the commissioners who drafted the general plan of organization 
 of the state school system for the " serious consideration of the 
 Legislature,"^^ advocated in the annual report of Superintendent 
 Hawley in 1818 for adoption in the larger villages and cities and 
 still more ardently advocated by Governor DeWitt Clinton in his 
 annual messages of 1818, 1820, 1822, 1826, 1827 and 1828, the 
 monitorial plan was incorporated in a general law in 1821 when pro- 
 vision was made that these schools might incorporate and place 
 themselves under the control of the Regents but with aid from the 
 common school fund.-^ Hough believes that but four schools were 
 
 " Bourne, op. cit., gives the full discussion with documents relative thereto, 
 p. 48-75. See also Memorial to Legislature of January, 1823, and Nineteenth 
 Annual Report of the Board of Trustees, 1824. 
 
 "Laws of 1824, chap. 276. 
 
 "Laws of 1826, chap. 25. 
 
 "Assembly Jour., 1812, p. 102-8. 
 
 "Laws of 1821, chap. 61. See also as amended in Revised Statutes, 1829, 
 chap. 15, title i, art. 6, sec. 57-66. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 43 
 
 incorporated under this act, two becoming typical academies and two 
 select schools.'^^ Special acts instituting local systems were passed 
 as follows: Albany, 1812 (chap. 55); Poughkeepsie, 1814 (chap. 
 42) ; Schenectady, 1816 (chap. 12) ; Catskill, 1817 (chap, y"]) ; Hud- 
 son, 1817 (chap. 272); and Lansingburg, 1827 (chap. 271). In 
 general the acts of establishment provided for a limited amount of 
 public support with the proviso that the societies should be respon- 
 sible for the education of indigent children. However, the practice 
 of admitting other children as pay pupils was practised, at least in 
 Albany."" The general laws of the State placed certain of these 
 schools under the general act to the extent of receiving the state 
 moneys of the city or district. Such systems were also established 
 in Utica,''^ in Troy,*^- Ithaca, Brooklyn, Buffalo and Rochester and 
 no doubt in other large centers of population. Meanwhile by legis- 
 lative enactments of 1829 and 1831,"^ New York City was raising 
 taxes equivalent, respectively to one-eightieth and three-eightieths of 
 I per cent of the valuation of her property, the major part of which 
 went to aid the Public School Society. 
 
 As early as 1830 the insufficiency of these private monopolies 
 was seen in certain of the cities where the movement was less 
 extended than in New York, and in 1830 we find the city of Albany 
 authorized to establish the district system."* The Superintendent in 
 the following year pointed out the needs of better school facilities 
 in Utica and Poughkeepsie where the Lancasterian schools received 
 in the one case all and in the other case the greater per cent of the 
 school moneys but provided for a very small minority of the pupils. 
 In the annual report of 1841 (p. 32-35), the subject came up again 
 for special discussion and the systems of Poughkeepsie, Hudson, 
 Utica and Schenectady where the monitorial societies were still in 
 major control were found to be offering very meager facilities, as 
 opposed to certain cities where city organization had been established 
 by recent legislation. The Superintendent held that the Lancasterian 
 system had fallen behind the needs of the times and that it was as 
 a private institution without the control of the State. Gradually 
 
 "Op. cit., p. 429-32. 
 
 °* Amer. Jour, of Ed., 1 :440-4l. 
 
 " Laws of 1817, chap. 192, sec. 27-29. See also History of Oneida County, 
 
 p. 31S ff. 
 " Spaflford, op. cit, p. 524. 
 °^La\vs of 1829, chap. 265; 1831, chap. 119. 
 **Laws of 1830, chap. 240. 
 
44 THE NEW YORK STATE Ilir.ll SCHOOL SYSTE:\I 
 
 the schools of these societies were merged with those of the cities 
 and there passed out of existence the system which had done much 
 to prepare the way, even if negatively in some cases through the 
 offering of meager facilities, for free schools and organized systems 
 of city schools.^^ 
 
 In New York City, the organiza;ion of the Public School Society, 
 whose function we have seen was extended in 1826, was maintained 
 until 1853. Some of the more significant steps in its absorption by 
 the municipality will now be noted, as well as its important exten- 
 sions of functioning. In 1822 the board of trustees took up the ques- 
 tion of providing facilities in the " higher branches of an English 
 education," namely, geography, grammar and history.^" In 1826 
 the annual report lists the tuition rates for the elementary subjects 
 and adds a special rate for " grammar, geography, the use of maps 
 and globes, book-keeping, history, composition, mensuration, astron- 
 omy, etc., " and by 1830, a small number of pupils are listed as study- 
 ing these subjects. In the year 1826 also there was an effort to 
 establish a central school for the twofold purpose of training teachers 
 for the monitorial system and for a means of promotion of the more 
 meritorious students.''" Again in 1828, together with the effort to 
 bring about the support of the society's schools entirely through 
 taxation so that the schools might minister to the needs of the whole 
 community and not only to those who were the objects of charity, 
 the desirability was presented of establishing high schools in which 
 practical mathematics, bookkeeping and natural philosophy should 
 be taught, a classical school for the languages and a seminary for 
 the training of teachers in the monitorial method. "** Through a 
 variety of causes, naught came of these ideals but a slight advance 
 m the amount of the local tax, a steady but slow development of 
 the curriculum upwards and by 1834 the establishment of Saturday 
 normals. The monitorial method came to be adapted more and 
 
 *' Acts were passed legalizing such amalgamations as follows : Schenectady, 
 1828 (chap. 223) ; Catskill, 1830 (chap. 284) ; Albany, 1834 (chap. 230) ; 
 Hudson, 1841 (chap. 350) ; Lansingburg, 1841 (chap. 315) ; Poughkeepsie, 
 1843 (chap. 211) ; New York, 1842 (chap. 150) and 1853 (chap. 301). 
 
 "Palmer, The New York Public Schools, p. 61. 
 
 " Amer. Jour, of Ed., 1826, i : 693. 
 
 "Address of the Trustees, 1828. Also, 23d Annual Report. The 24th 
 Report favored a " system of public free schools ... a system of 
 schools supported by public taxes and to which children of all classes may 
 resort as a matter of right." 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 45 
 
 more to the needs of the schools, ^^ and from 1828 on a visitor or 
 agent, or superintendent as he was sometimes called, acted as a 
 means of providing business supervision and semiprofessional 
 administration."" Scholarships granted by Columbia (1839) and by 
 New York University were considered as late as 1842 as providing 
 ample facilities for those desiring higher education.'^ The more 
 immediate cause of the abrogation of the privileges of the society 
 was the renewal of the religious controversy from 1832 on. The 
 leaders of certain of the religious organizations which through the 
 law of 1826 had been deprived by the council of their former sup- 
 port renewed charges of sectarian texts as well as demanded aid 
 in teaching their poor children.'- Upon the careful consideration 
 and report of the Superintendent of Common Schools and the annual 
 message of Governor Seward in 1842, there was established a 
 parallel system of public schools, controlled by the first specifically 
 named ** board of education " of the State,'^ on the ground that the 
 system represented a departure from the general organization of 
 the state school system. The victory in principle at least was won 
 for complete divorce of religious or sectarian participation in educa- 
 tion and for the quasi-private method of organization and control. 
 By 1853 the reorganization of the city's common schools was effected 
 by the legal and voluntary surrender of all the property of the 
 Public School Society to the board of education."* 
 
 This somewhat extended survey of the Lancasterian schools has 
 been deemed essential as indicating the contribution they made to 
 the development of state and city systems. The high favor which 
 the method enjo}ed in the eyes of the early educational leaders was 
 undoubtedly a factor in establishing the common school system and 
 providing the, common school fund.'^ The people of the cities 
 through the adoption of these schools become used to the principle 
 of free schools. The schools were classified and higher subjects 
 were introduced in the upper departments."'' Moreover granting 
 
 ""Annals of Education (1836), 6:435-36. 
 
 '° Palmer, op. cit., p. 78-79. Also Annals of Education, 4 : 335-36 ; 2 : 412. 
 Also Griscom, J., Monitorial Instruction, p. 21. 
 " Sketch, 1842, p. 34. Cf. Renwick, Life of DeWitt Clinton, 1840, p. 
 
 85. 
 
 "Randall, op. cit., p. 119-38. 
 
 "Laws of 1842, char). 150. 
 
 "LaAvs of 1853, chap. 301; Bourne, op. cit., p. 585. 
 
 " Report of the Commissioners for the Organization and Establishment 
 of Common Schools, Assembly Tour., 1812, p. 102-8; quoted in Randall, 
 op. cit., p. 17-23. See also Renwick, Life of DeWitt Clinton, p. 81. 
 
 "As to Buffalo, see Assembly Documents, 1840, no. 307; for New York, 
 see annual reports of the Public School Society, from 1830 to 1853. 
 
46 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 special privileges to the cities established the practice of special 
 legislation and enabled the cities for the time being to run ahead 
 of the state system, and thus assume the leadership of the State. By 
 1845 cities and larger villages had free schools to such extent that 
 from one-fifth to one-fourth of the people were enjoying such 
 privileges in the State as a whole.^^ 
 
 Reference to table 6 will indicate the progress from the district 
 system or from the charity and monitorial schools in the various 
 cities of the State, previous to 1853. Several villages, including 
 Lockport, Salem, Poughkeepsie, Medina, Geneva, Newburgh and 
 Flushing, merit a place in this table but it has been limited to the 
 cities. It will be seen that the first city to take a definite step for- 
 ward was Bufifalo, in which, by an act of 1837, the common council 
 became ex officio a board of school commissioners with the power 
 to appoint a superintendent of schools as its " executive officer." 
 In the period covered, the office was established in more than half 
 the cities and in those where no such office was established, the 
 clerk of the board generally performed such duties, largely of a 
 business and clerical nature. In the columns of the New York 
 Teacher for 1852, the official organ of the State Teachers Associa- 
 tion, note was made that in that year in Buffalo for the first time 
 a professional teacher was appointed superintendent of schools.''^ 
 Of even greater import for this period, was the establishment of 
 boards of education or boards of commissioners of common 
 schools, beginning with the delegation of certain powers to the 
 common council or the district trustees of the various district 
 schools. Generally elected by the constituency of the various wards 
 or districts, this body tended to take on the power of appointment 
 of the superintendent. Moreover it was made a corporate body 
 with powers equivalent to those of district trustees but with enlarged 
 functions as to the organization of schools, " such and so many " 
 as they deemed expedient, of classification and transfer of pupils, 
 of certification of teachers, of determination of courses of study and 
 of furnishing the common council with estimates of needed funds 
 usually stipulated by law as from twice to six times the amount of 
 state aid. Progress was rapid in the development of a larger type 
 of building and school, extended programs of study and increased 
 facilities for education. Table 6 has been expressed in terms of 
 
 ^' Sup't Rep't, 1849, p. 43-44, 47- 
 
 "Op. cit., p. 65. Ibid, p. 159, as to Auburn. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 47 
 
 the legislation, as these special acts were uniformly carried out, 
 since they were expressions of public sentiment. For a more com- 
 plete statement of the growth of city systems, the reader is referred 
 to the brief individual histories given in the 1904 annual report of 
 the Department of Public Instruction, under the caption " Fifty 
 Years of Education." 
 
48 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Table 
 Significant developments in cities of 
 
 EAULY STEPS TOWARD 
 SYSTEM 
 
 BOARD OF ED. OR COMM RS 
 OF COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Albany (1686) . 
 
 Auburn (1848) . . , 
 Brooklyn (1834) . 
 
 Buffalo (1832) . 
 Hudson (1785). 
 
 New York City (1686). 
 
 Oswego (1848). . . 
 Rochester (1834). 
 
 Schenectady (1839). 
 Syracuse (1847) . . . . 
 Troy (1816) 
 
 Utica (1832). 
 
 Williamsburg (1851). 
 
 I/. 1830, ch. 240, provides 
 for dist. system 
 
 L. 1848, ch. 106, considers 
 city equiv. to town ^ 
 
 L. 1835, ch. 129, app. 3 
 comm'rs and 3 inspec- 
 tors for city 
 
 L. 1837, ch. 392; city 
 equiv. to town 
 
 L. 1795, ch. 75; city equiv. 
 to town; L. 1829, ch. 
 61; each ward equiv. to 
 town 
 
 L. 1826, ch. 25; Public 
 School Soc. 
 
 L. 1834, ch. 199; city 
 
 equiv. to town 
 L. 1850, ch. 262; city 
 
 equiv. to dist. 
 L. 1814, ch. 27; wards 
 
 equiv. to towns 
 
 L. 1832, ch. 203, creates 
 
 Svracuse a permanent 
 
 dist. 
 L. 1849, ch. 198; all wards 
 
 one dist. 
 L. 1851, ch. 366; each 
 
 ward a dist. 
 
 L. 1841, ch. 181, const. 3 
 separate school dists. 
 
 L. 1844, ch. 128; ex. off.'. 
 
 L. 1848, ch. 106, ex. off. 
 L. 1850, ch. 349; in part 
 
 app. 
 L. 1843, ch. 63; app. and 
 
 in part ex. off. 
 L. 1850, ch. 143; app. 
 L. 1837, ch. 392; ex. off. . 
 
 L. 1841, ch. 350; ex. off. . 
 
 L. 1842, ch. 150; elect.*. . 
 
 L. 1853, ch. 119; elective. 
 
 L. 1834, ch. 199; ex. off. 
 
 L. 1850, ch. 262; app. 
 
 L. 1848, ch.5 238; app. . 
 L. 1849, ch. 198; elect. 
 
 L. 1842, ch. 137; elect. 
 L. 1851, ch. 171; elect. . 
 
 ' In general, where no superintendent was provided for, the ofhce was filled by a clerk with 
 similar duties. 
 
 ' Acts constituting the city or wards districts, were for the purpose of making provision for 
 the execution of the general law which was a district school law, with the town as unit of more 
 extensive nature. 
 
 ' Ex officio boards usually consisted of the common council and mayor, except in case of 
 Albany where the mayor, recorder and local Regents made up the board; if the boards were in 
 part ex officio, the additional members were the mayor and recorder, usually. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 
 
 49 
 
 New York State previous to 1853 
 
 CITY SUP'tI 
 
 L. 1848, ch. 106; elective 
 L. 1850, ch. 349; app. 
 
 L. 1848, ch. 8; app 
 
 L. 1837, ch. 392; app. L. 
 
 1853, ch. 230; elective 
 L. 1841, ch. 350; board of 
 
 3 superintendents, app. 
 
 L. 1851, ch. 386; app . . . . 
 
 L. 1848, ch. 116; elective. 
 
 L. 1841, ch. 208; app 
 L. 1848, ch. 174; elect, 
 L. 1850, ch. 262; app 
 by board 
 
 FREE SCHOOLS 
 
 L. 1850, ch. 349- 
 L. 1843, ch. 3... 
 
 L. 1838, ch. 63. . 
 L. 1841, ch. 350. 
 
 L. 1842, ch. ISO. 
 
 L. 1853, ch. 119. 
 L. 1841, ch. 208. 
 
 L. 1849, ch. 198. 
 
 L. 1844, ch. 181. 
 
 PHOVISION FOR HIGHER 
 PUBLIC EDUCATION 
 
 L. 1844, ch. 128, provides that 
 indigent pupils be taught 
 free in local academies, or 
 normal school 
 
 L. 1853, ch. 230, provides for 
 central school 
 
 L. 1847, ch. 206, provides for 
 free academy 
 
 L. 1834, ch. 199 and L. 1845, 
 ch. 118, provide for high 
 schools 8 
 
 L. 1837, ch. 95 ; Schenectady 
 Lyceum to educate one 
 pupil from each town of co ' 
 
 L. 1848, ch. 238, provides for 
 " high schools " " 
 
 L. 1853, ch. 272, const. Utica 
 
 Academy one of common 
 
 schools 
 L. 1851, ch. 171, provides for 
 
 a high school or academy; 
 
 not established 
 
 * See earlier pages for the place of the Public School Society in providing the equivalent of 
 common schools, without charge except in the years 1826-32. With the county superintendent 
 law, 1841-47, this officer practically became a city superintendent. New York was excepted in 
 the repeal. The last county superintendent became the first city superintendent. 
 
 'Duties of superintendent performed by the clerk; see School Bulletin, i: 2, or Smith, 
 History of Syracuse Schools, p. 68 ff. 
 
 • Not true high schools; monitorial probably and really intermediate in nature. 
 ' Laws of New York, 1854, chap. 178, creating union school in city. 
 
50 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Summary of Educational Development in New York State to 18^3 
 By the middle of the century, New York State had a population 
 of more than three million. The second quarter of the century had 
 seen a remarkable development of factory industry."^ In 1825 the 
 Erie canal was opened and proved an additional inducement for 
 westward migration. Progressive villages and young cities grew up 
 along its route in what was practically a wilderness at the beginning 
 of statehood. After 1825 the building of railroads had gone on 
 uninterruptedly, until in 1853 the nine little roads between Albany 
 and Bufifalo were consolidated in the New York Central system. 
 The constitution of 1821 provided for the removal of property 
 qualifications for suffrage and paved the way for the development 
 of democratic institutions and attitudes; that of 1846 strengthened 
 the administrative machinery of the State, and provided for the 
 better regulation of corporations and business interests. Before 
 turning to further educational developments, which, for our purpose 
 in a study of the high school, begin with the union free school act 
 of 1853, ^^t "s summarize educational progress to 1853 ^s reviewed 
 in the present chapter. 
 
 1 The Dutch public school tradition, itself akin to the early educa- 
 tional enterprise of the New England States except as regards local 
 autonomy, suffered markedly upon the transfer of political power 
 to the English. The latter's practice of voluntary schools for the 
 upper classes and charity schools for the poor was the contribution 
 of their rule to the State. The Latin grammar school had been too 
 sporadic a development, although public under each regime, to 
 establish any significant precedent. 
 
 2 The comparatively rapid development of the academies was 
 due to the lack of earlier school facilities, together with the support 
 afforded by both general funds and special grants.®" Moreover in 
 the second quarter of the nineteenth century, their curriculums had 
 so extended that it v.'ould seem safe to say that the opportunities 
 of following out one's tastes could, within the limits of the status 
 of the subjects, be realized more than for any other period. College 
 domination was never strong, and the academy was regarded as 
 
 •' See Spafford, A Gazeteer of New York State, 1824, for a mass of 
 concrete evidence on the status of home and factory industry at the open- 
 ing of the second quarter. 
 
 "The practice of special grants by the Legislature had practically died 
 out by 1826, to Avhich time (1800-26) 18 academies had been granted 
 approximately $30,000 and in lands ten whole lots and two part lots; 
 compiled from Senate Documents, 1837, no. 32. 
 
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1853 5^ 
 
 the fair equivalent and a rival of the college, which up to this time 
 had not developed along professional lines other than medicine. 
 Moreover while the colleges were still required to report to the 
 Regents, support from the State was practically cut off while that 
 to the academies had been increased continually. By 1850 there were 
 approximately 200 reporting secondary institutions in the State with 
 nearly 20,000 academic pupils or about one to every 150 inhabitants. 
 However, of the various experimental or atypical institutions 
 developing in largest number from 1826 to 1840, few had survived 
 except the female academies. This failure to keep fully abreast 
 of the newer educational demands meant a certain degree of com- 
 petition with the public school system and with the complete accept- 
 ance of the free school principle the contest was bound soon to 
 favor the latter. 
 
 3 The Lancasterian or monitorial system from 1895 on, at least 
 until 1840, was adopted generally in the cities, and as a quasi-public 
 institution bridged the transition from charity and private schools to 
 full-fledged city systems. In a few instances, the steps toward 
 crowning these systems with the tax-supported high schools had been 
 taken and in three instances such schools had been admitted into 
 the University.^^ 
 
 4 The common school system, well organized by 1820, extended 
 in numbers of districts and pupils through the twenties and thirties, 
 had in the forties been moving forward until through better super- 
 vision, recognition of the advantages of taxation, and of consolida- 
 tion in more densely populated centers, there were here and there 
 in the villages of the State as well as in the cities a number of 
 schools which had transcended the limitations of the early district 
 system. Through extended curriculums, better teachers, and an 
 advanced public sentiment because of the voluntary activity of the 
 thirties, a generation was being educated which considered the 
 public school the best means to advancement in all professions and 
 walks of life. Progressive leaders had long asked for the provision, 
 by restoration of former offices and former privileges and by estab- 
 lishment of new features, of such measures as would place the New 
 York system again in the forefront as it was generally supposed to 
 have been in the late twenties.*'^ 
 
 " See tables 6 and 7. 
 
 " For a summary of the recommendations of this period, see the New 
 York Teacher 1852-53, 1:3 72-78, 78-81, 213-15, 351-53. 
 
52 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Chapter 2 
 
 Legal Status of the New York High School System 
 The University of the State of New York had been created for 
 the purpose of stimulating and directing secondary and higher 
 education in the academies and colleges. On the other hand the 
 common school system under the Superintendent of Common 
 Schools, had not by the middle of the century been accepted, 
 as was the case in New England and the newer states to 
 the west of New York, as capable of extension upwards into the 
 secondary field. Consequently the first phase of legislative activity, 
 and a phase which remained significant until about 1870, was that 
 of special legislation for individual localities. The unique feature 
 developed in the New York plan, however, was the " union free 
 school" with its academical department (high school), and this 
 became the bridge between the two systems and ultimately the means 
 to their union. No constitutional provisions for education were 
 made until 1894, except to safeguard the various school funds and 
 their use. In that year the constitution made it obligatory upon 
 the Legislature to establish and maintain a system of common 
 schools,^ this system having by that time expanded to include several 
 hundred high schools. No significant New York State court 
 decision ever fully defined this changed conception of the common 
 public school. 
 
 The present chapter will treat of legislation and official rulings of 
 like binding nature, as they determined the establishment and 
 development of the system of high schools. Numerous details will 
 be left for treatment in the following chapters in connection with 
 the description of the system. 
 
 / Special Legislation concerning Individual Academies and High 
 
 Schools 
 
 a Provisions for public support and control of certain academies. 
 There seems little doubt but that until well toward the middle of the 
 nineteenth century, the academy was regarded as providing the solu- 
 tion of secondary education in the State. Evidence of this fact is 
 found on the one hand in the local interest in and hearty support of 
 this type of school, and on the other hand in the views expressed in 
 the state documents on education. With no permanent and influen- 
 
 * Constitution of New York, 1894, art. IX, sec. i. 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 53 
 
 tial Latin grammar school tradition as in New England, the state 
 promotion of the academy was practically contemporaneous with the 
 general promotion of education in the State. Aside from the general 
 laws designed to enable the academy to serve various state educa- 
 tional functions, numerous special acts were passed, by which 
 certain academies for longer or shorter periods of time took on 
 more completely the nature of the public high school, and in which 
 were foreshadowed most of the distinctive features of the high 
 school. 
 
 In 1810 the custom of local town taxation for the support of the 
 academy was probably first practised, the instance being that of 
 Washington Academy at Salem after the burning of the academy 
 building.-' Although this practice did not at any time become very 
 general, several schools were allowed by legislative action in the 
 decade of the thirties to enjoy the benefits of town tax.^ Each 
 act seems to have arisen out of some such special need as that cited 
 above and to have been a substitute for the earlier practice, now 
 largely discontinued, of making special state grants of money or land 
 to academic institutions.* When the right of the town of Gouver- 
 neur to levy taxes for the support of the local academy was called 
 in question in 1839, the report of the committee on ways and means 
 was unfavorable on the ground that the town had no corporate 
 interest in and no control over the institution,^ but a select com- 
 mittee reported favorably and later the Legislature took action, 
 establishing the right of a town to tax itself for what were con- 
 sidered its own interests.^ With the later increase in the state appor- 
 tionment, the practice was largely discontinued except for a sporadic 
 cropping up in the late fifties and following.'^ The practice at this 
 period, as established in 1839, was that of permitting the vote of 
 the local electorate on the question. 
 
 Following the establishment of the common school system, a 
 similar series of acts granting to local academies privileges as regards 
 the districts and district schools of their neighborhoods is indicative 
 of the close relationship of these institutions to the community life. 
 In 1 814 the Erasmus Hall Academy was permitted to receive the 
 
 ' Hough, op. cit., p. 720. 
 
 'Laws of 1833, chap. 249; 1834, chap. 21; 1835, chap. 169, 241; 1836, 
 chap. 63; 1837, chap. 151; 1839, chap. 69; 1841, chap. 265; 1842, chap. 281. 
 
 ■* Senate Jour., 1825, p. 677-78. 
 
 ' Assembly Documents, 1839, no. igb. 
 
 ' Assembly Documents, 1839, no. 253 ; Laws of 1839, chap. 69. 
 
 'Laws of 1856, chap. 119; 1857, chap. 270, 452; 1867, chap. 50, 373; 
 t868, chap. 405, 610; 1869, chap. 424; 1871, chap. 130. 
 
 5 
 
54 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 public school moneys of the Old Town of Flatbush on condition 
 that free instruction be given the indigent children of the district 
 and that reports be made to the school commissioners thereon.® 
 Within the next decade acts were passed empowering the trustees 
 of three academies to serve as the trustees of the local districts, 
 to receive and disburse the school moneys and, upon vote of the 
 district, to act as ex officio trustees of the districts.'' Similarly the 
 privilege was occasionally given of the transfer of the property of 
 the district school to the trustees of the local academy.^" 
 
 A third type of special legislation for academies indicates to what 
 extent the academy came to be considered a town or city institution. 
 \'arious schools were granted the privilege of building upon the 
 village square, the academy building being considered one of the 
 " public buildings. "^^ The academy building was frequently, in 
 fact generally, the place of public meetings, in many places the upper 
 story being used for the town hall.^^ From 1833 on, a number of 
 acts of incorporation by the Legislature stipulated that the board of 
 trustees be made up in part of ex officio civil officers, in the case 
 of the cities, the ma}or and council.^^ In the case of Ogdensburg 
 Academy, the act of incorporation provided for a town tax of $2000 
 in order to furnish a lot and building. The town supervisor, the 
 town clerk and the clerk of the board of village trustees were made 
 ex officio members of the academy board of trustees and the local 
 districts were accredited in scholarships with their proportionate 
 amount of taxes toward the academic education of the children of 
 these districts.^* The Schenectady Lyceum and Academy, although 
 provided with no municipal aid, was required to educate gratui- 
 tously in the recognized secondary branches one pupil from each 
 town, provided that such pupil was a member of the common schools 
 
 *Laws of 1814, chap. 79; 1844, chap. 234. 
 
 "Laws of 1815, chap. 90 (also 1835, chap. 138); 1822, chap. 197; 1823, 
 chap. 150. Respectively Montgomery, Farmers Hall and Oysterbay 
 Academies. 
 
 "Laws of 1827, chap. 15 (1828, chap. 125); 1830, chap. 115. Respec- 
 tively Rensselaer Oswego Academy (later known as Mexico Academy), 
 and Palmyra High School. See also the Troy Academy, Laws of 1834. 
 chap. 295. 
 
 "Laws of 1825, chap. 260; 1832, chap. 127, 230. Respectively St Law- 
 rence, Fort Covington and Vernon. 
 
 "See Utica Academy; in addition to serving as town hall, the academy 
 building became the county court house. Assembly Documents, 1839, no. 98. 
 
 " Laws of 1834, chap. 295 ; 1835, chap. 254 (also 1850, chap. 49) ; 1853. 
 chap. 33. Respectively Troy Academy, Rensselaer Institute, and Packer 
 Collegiate Institute. 
 
 "Laws of 1833, chap. 249; 1834, chap. 173; 1835, chap. 118; 1857, chap. 
 382. 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 55 
 
 of his town and was certified by the town inspectors of common 
 schools. ^^ The trustees of the .Rochester Collegiate Institute were 
 by statute required as all district schools to report annually to the 
 city board of education.^'' 
 
 In conclusion it may be said that no one of these types of special 
 and public functions of relationships became general enough to be 
 of real promise in changing the status of the academy, although on 
 the other hand the number of institutions afifected by all types of 
 such special legislation is quite large. After 1840 legislative inter- 
 ference in the incorporation of secondary institutions waned. About 
 the same time the district schools through growth, classification of 
 pupils and improvements in the quality of the teaching staff, were in 
 many cases coming to rival the academy, so that as would naturally 
 be expected the beginnings of public secondary education came 
 about from them as its source. 
 
 h Authorization of individual high schools. The source of gen- 
 eral legislation permitting the establishment of public secondary 
 schools is not to be found directly in the granting of special privileges 
 to academies but in the legislation, actual and proposed, creating in 
 various villages and cities union schools and free academies. We 
 have already seen that the early corporate " high schools " had in a 
 few cases been established as common and union schools under the 
 control of district trustees and that in particular the Rochester High 
 School had as early as 1827 been established to all intents and pur- 
 poses as a public high school on the monitorial plan, though it 
 speedily succumbed to the prevailing tradition of private control in 
 secondary education. 
 
 Early in the year 1845 there was presented to the Senate a peti- 
 tion from citizens of the village of Avon in Livingston count}-, 
 which, though unsuccessful, is significant in that it pointed definitely 
 to later legislation and showed the obstacles in the way of a public 
 secondary system. The privileges sought included the consolidation 
 of the districts comprising the village and, in addition, the transfer 
 of the property of the Avon Academy from the board of trustees 
 to that of the district trustees of the proposed union district for 
 the sum of $1200 with the right to continue secondary or classical 
 instruction under the visitation of the Regents. Such a bill was 
 favorably reported by the literature committee and later by a select 
 committee of senators comprising the representatives from that 
 
 "Laws of 1837, chap. 95. 
 "Laws of 1844, chap. 145. 
 
56 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 senate district, but after being engrossed for a third reading was 
 referred to the Board of Regents.^' This body in a written report 
 which was accepted by the Senate found the proposed bill unaccept- 
 able, as it would establish the following precedents as regards the 
 state's educational policy:^® 
 
 1 The union of the common and academic systems with conse- 
 quent twofold visitation and inspection. 
 
 2 The granting of common school moneys and the income of the 
 literature fund to the same institution, thus opening the way for 
 duplicate returns of pupils. 
 
 3 The lowering of the minimum of the required valuation of the 
 property, real and personal, of the institutions within the University 
 which at that time stood at $2500. 
 
 The report further included a defense of the practice of granting 
 state aid to the academies and of the conduct of those who through 
 the payment of taxes contributed largely to the support of the com- 
 mon schools and yet sent their children to the academies. 
 
 In the same year a petition from the trustees of the Clarkson 
 Academy asked for the dissolution of that corporation with the right 
 to return to the stockholders the money derived from the sale of 
 the property, on the ground that a rival institution was drawing the 
 students. ^° The minutes of the Regents record a verbal statement 
 from the same source to the effect that it was planned to establish 
 a high school in connection with the district school in the place of 
 the academy, a step which was legalized in 1859. This petition 
 evoked no action at the lime other than the decision of the Regents 
 that they did not possess the power to dissolve the corporation, and 
 that the stockholders might dispose of their permanent fund, if 
 deemed advisable. 
 
 Two years later a similar request from inhabitants of Fayette- 
 ville, Onondaga county, was sent to Mr Hawley, secretary of the 
 Board of Regents. While it was also refused, note was made of 
 the fact that the desire was increasing " in several of the villages 
 of the State, to unite their school districts and academies " and a 
 resolution was passed appointing a committee, which seems not to 
 have reported, to " inquire whether such proposed unions may not 
 be legalized under a general enactment without impairing the effi- 
 ciency of the present common school and academic organizations." ^'^ 
 
 " Senate Jour., 1845, p. 222, 259, 404, 412, 418, 421, 443, 477, 554. 599- 
 "Senate Documents, 1845, no. 105; also Regents Minutes (MSS), v. 5, 
 p. 72-74. 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), v. 5, P- 58-59- 
 " Regents Minutes (MSS), v. 5, p. 188-89. 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NE\V YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 57 
 
 In 1S49 the request was renewed and this time it was referred (as 
 also was the Avon petition) to the Secretary of State in his official 
 capacity of adjudicator of common school controversies and also 
 as a member of the Board of Regents. His decision was to the effect 
 that the academy trustees could not sell a part of their building to 
 the trustees of the proposed union school but could lease it in whole 
 or in part.-^ He left unsettled the advisability and legality of the 
 union of the elementary common schools with neighboring academies. 
 
 In 1847 the Assembly committee on colleges, academies and com- 
 mon schools reported that numerous petitions had been received 
 requesting the establishment of union schools, and expressed a 
 favorable opinion as to this type of school organization.-^ In the 
 same }'ear the high school movement may be said to have been 
 definitely started with the establishment by special acts of the Lock- 
 port Union School and the New York (City) Free Academy.-^ 
 These institutions were the result of progressive local sentiment, 
 which was expressed in petitions to the Senate.^* 
 
 In the Lockport act, provision w'as made for the creation of a 
 school board consisting of one trustee from each of the existing 
 seven districts, which by this act became primary districts with free 
 tuition, together with five other members representing the union 
 district as a whole. The act differed from numerous similar acts 
 of the decade previous in that it empowered the board of the " union 
 school district of Lockport " to organize a " union school " for the 
 older pupils, which w^as to be supported in part by tuition and in 
 part by taxation. The New York act created a special executive 
 committee of the board of education w^hich had been organized in 
 1842. This committee was to act in behalf of the board in all matters 
 relative to the maintenance and administration of the free academy. 
 Furthermore, on the basis of an annual report, the details of which 
 were specified, the academy was to share in the distribution of the 
 literature fund income. In 1850 a supplementary act was passed, 
 renewing the right of the Lockport board of education to collect 
 tuition fees from the pupils of the union school and also placing the 
 school under the visitation of the Regents. The establishment and 
 early history of these two institutions will be traced briefly in the 
 succeeding chapter. 
 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), v. 5, p. 357, 361. 
 
 " Rep't of the com. on cx>lleges, academies and common schools, p. 7-8. 
 "Laws of 1847, respectively chap. 51, 206. 
 
 ^ See Senate and Assembly Jour., 1847, for the history of these acts before 
 the Legislature (consult index). 
 
58 
 
 THE XEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 No similar acts were passed in the following year but in the five 
 years 1849 to 1853 inclusive, eight other cities and villages were 
 granted the special privilege of making provision through their 
 boards of education for public secondary school facilities. Reference 
 to table 7 will indicate the fact that these facilities were provided in 
 two different ways, either through the amalgamation with the com- 
 mon school system of the local academy, as in Fort Covington, Salem 
 and Utica, or through the establishment of a higher department 
 of the common schools designated as the case might be academy, 
 high school, classical school or central school. 
 
 Table 7 
 
 Analysis of special laws creating public secondary schools antecedent 
 to the union free school act of 1853 
 
 NAME OF SCHOOL 
 
 ENABLING ACT 
 
 SUPPORT 
 
 L. 
 
 1847. 
 
 ch. 
 
 SI 
 
 Taxes and 
 tuition 
 
 L. 
 
 1847. 
 
 ch. 
 
 206 
 
 Taxes 
 
 L. 
 
 1850, 
 
 ch. 
 
 321 
 
 Taxes and 
 tuition 
 
 L. 
 
 i8si. 
 
 ch. 
 
 171 
 
 Taxes 
 
 L. 
 
 1851, 
 
 ch. 
 
 206 
 
 Taxes and 
 tuition 
 
 L. 
 
 I8S3 
 
 ch. 
 
 ISS 
 
 Taxes and 
 tuition 
 
 L. 
 
 i8S3. 
 
 ch. 
 
 230 
 
 Taxes 
 
 L. 
 
 1853 
 
 ch. 
 
 252 
 
 Taxes 
 
 L. 
 
 i8S3 
 
 ch 
 
 272 
 
 Taxes 
 
 L. 
 
 1853 
 
 ch 
 
 30s 
 
 Taxes 
 
 REMARKS AND SPECIAL FEATURES 
 
 Lockport Union School . . . 
 New York Free Academy. 
 Medina Academy 
 
 Williamsburg (academy or 
 
 high school) 
 Washington .\cademy 
 
 (Salem) 
 
 Fort Covington Academy . . 
 Buffalo Central School 
 
 Geneva Union School 
 
 Utica Academy 
 
 Pulaski Academy 
 
 L. 1850, ch. 77, forbade the use of 
 taxes in payment of teachers' sal- 
 aries 
 
 L. 1851, ch. 386, limited the literature 
 fund allotment to purchase of 
 library books 
 
 L. 1849, ch. 286, had created a board 
 of education for the village joint 
 school district 
 
 Consolidated with Brooklyn, i8ss 
 
 L. 1851, ch. 206, provided like Lock- 
 port act for consolidation of dis- 
 tricts; permitted board to lease 
 academy building 
 
 L. i8s3, ch. ISS, permitted transfer 
 of property of board of trustees of 
 the old Fort Covington Academy 
 
 L. 1853, ch. 230, revising the city 
 charter provided that in the central 
 school be taught the " higher 
 branches of English education, 
 authorized by the common school 
 law " 
 
 L. 1853, ch. 252, was the culmination 
 of a series of acts granting special 
 privileges to school district i in 
 the town of Seneca 
 
 L. 1853, ch. 272, created the academy 
 one of the common schools under 
 the existing board of school com- 
 missioners 
 
 L. I8S3, ch. 30s, consolidated schools 
 of village 
 
 In Geneva, which had had a union school since 1839, no board of 
 education was specifically created but the school trustees were 
 granted equivalent powers. In all except Buffalo and Williams- 
 burg, which schools were not organized as a result of these acts, the 
 provision was made that the newly constituted public high school 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 59 
 
 remain or become subject to the Regents ordinances and upon meet- 
 ing their requirements be entitled to share in the distribution of the 
 income of the Hterature fund. Three of these schools were by 1853 
 regularly participating in the privileges of the University, Lock- 
 port, New York and Medina,'^ in addition to Utica and Washington 
 which had remained under visitation. 
 
 Even after the general union free school act of 1853 (see the 
 following section), the practice of special legislation was continued 
 so that in the first decade, that is from 1853 to 1864, twenty-three 
 such acts of establishment of individual schools were passed, and 
 by 1870 a total of thirty-seven. Of these, fourteen provided for 
 the transfer of existing local academies. The causes of this con- 
 tinued demand for special legislative interference may be found on 
 the one hand in the desires of trustees of the academies to guarantee 
 the use of the academy property and endowments to the cause of 
 secondary education and in a number of cases to retain a degree of 
 control in the future administration of the school, *** and, on the part 
 of the boards of education, to ensure a permanent legal establish- 
 ment of the new venture at a time when many interests were hostile 
 to public higher education or to secure special rights not granted 
 in the general law.-' 
 
 After 1870, although there continued to be many special acts for 
 various educational needs of a local nature including numerous 
 legalizations of transfers of academy property, enabling acts are 
 seldom found, except that in the later city charters, following a 
 practice begun in the second quarter of the century, boards of edu- 
 cation were given among other duties those of providing and main- 
 taining high schools subject to the need and demand therefore.-* 
 An interesting illustration of the persistence of a practice once begun 
 is seen in the acts which enabled Brooklyn and New York cities in 
 the last decade of the nineteenth century, to create and finance high 
 schools, nearly a half century after the high school movement 
 began.^^ 
 
 "^ Regents Minutes (MSS), v. 5, p. 335, 360, 425, 484- 
 
 ""Laws of 1857, chap. 382; 1858, chap. 370 (1867, chap. 7) ; 1864, chap. 40, 
 318; 1865, chap. 520. 
 
 ''Laws of 1855, chap. 550 (1856, chap. 129); 1857, chap. 387 (1870, chap. 
 306) ; 1863, chap. 69; 1864, chap. 401. 
 
 "Laws of 1895, chap. 568; 1905, chap. 273; 1908, chap. 458. 
 
 "Laws of 1893, chap. 26; 1896, chap. 387; 1897, chap. 412, 502. 
 
6o THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 2 Legislation concerning Union (Free) Schools 
 
 a Union school act of i8jj. Having seen the interest from 1840 
 on in the estabHshment of union schools, and in the foregoing sec- 
 tion the beginnings of the development of public secondary facilities 
 in a few localities, it becomes the purpose of this section to note the 
 essential features of the act " for the establishment of union free 
 schools " passed June 8, 1853.^° This measure was the natural 
 culmination of the above-mentioned movements (see table 7), but 
 was the more direct outcome of numerous petitions presented to the 
 Senate in 1852 and 1853. In the former year there was received a 
 request from the board of trustees of the Warsaw Union School 
 praying for an appropriation from the income of the literature 
 fund.^^ In the same session, the committee on literature asked for 
 and received an extension of time until the next session to report 
 on sundry general bills, among which was a petition concerning union 
 schools.^- Early in the session of 1853 a bill was introduced, among 
 numerous similar bills, which provided for incorporation or relief 
 renewing the request from Warsaw. This was referred to the com- 
 mittee on literature and as a result relief acts were passed for War- 
 saw and Sherburne, and the general act, granting an extension of 
 the privilege of establishing academical departments in union schools, 
 received the unanimous vote of the Senate April 8th. Two months 
 later it was passed by the Assembly by a vote of 69 to 21.^^ 
 
 Apart from the general significance of this act in stimulating the 
 consolidation of schools and placing them under the type of control 
 which had been worked out effectively in the larger and more pro- 
 gressive cities and villages, this unique law which was entirely per- 
 missive in its nature made the following important provisions, each 
 of which was based upon the special acts of the last decade 
 preceding : 
 
 1 That the legal voters of a district or two or more contiguous 
 districts might, under definite restrictions, create in special meeting 
 a board of education. 
 
 2 That these boards should be considered corporate bodies with 
 the obligation of the annual preparation of a school budget to be 
 submitted in incorporated villages and cities to the municipal authori- 
 ties and in other districts to the voters.^* 
 
 "Laws of 1853, chap. 433. 
 "Senate Jour., 1852, p. 252. 
 "Op. cit., p. 649. 
 
 "Senate and Assembly Jour., 1853 (consult index). 
 
 '^ The district was much earlier considered a "legal corporation"; see Sup't 
 Rep't, 1839, p. 18. 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 6l 
 
 3 That these boards of education in addition to other defined 
 powers might (c) estabhsh in the union school an " academical de- 
 partment " with full powers in the matter of tuition, transfers of 
 pupils, texts and supplies, or (b) arrange with the trustees of a 
 local academy, upon their unanimous vote, to take over such school 
 and become trustees of it as the " academical department." 
 
 4 That such departments should be subject to the visitation and 
 control of the Regents as far as regards the course of study, and the 
 qualifications of entering pupils, but not in regard to the building 
 except in instances where the lower common schools were kept in 
 separate buildings. 
 
 5 That existing special laws were not to be interfered with by this 
 act but that union schools established under the general act were to 
 come under the jurisdiction of the state common school department 
 to the extent that a copy of the call and minutes of the organization 
 meeting be filed with the State Superintendent and that no school 
 was to lose its quota of apportionment for a period of five years as a 
 result of consolidation. 
 
 6 That the academical departments were to " enjoy all the 
 immunities and privileges now enjoyed by the academies," the money 
 from the literature and other funds to be appropriated with that 
 fiom the common school fund to their proper uses in the two depart- 
 ments. 
 
 It will readily be seen that the net result of this act so far as it 
 concerns us here was the permission given now to corporate boards 
 of education, which was formerly given only to boards of trustees 
 of academies, to establish academical departments which wxre, in 
 the accepted terminology in other states, high schools. These were 
 not to supplant but to supplement the academy system, which had 
 been established nearly seventy years previously. ^^ For admission 
 to University privileges these new departments or schools had to 
 conform, as had the few established by special acts from 1847 to 
 1853, to the ordinances of the Regents. Reference will later be made 
 to the requirements of the Board. Inadequacies were early dis- 
 covered in the law and discussed fully in the annual reports of the 
 Superintendent.^^ 
 
 No important change was made until the recodification of 1864. 
 It should be noted, however, that there was passed in 1862 the fol- 
 lowing act : 
 
 Any union school in this State duly organized according to law, by com- 
 plying with the requirements of the " Regents of the University " shall be 
 entitled to all the benefits and privileges of the academics in this State.^^ 
 
 " A discussion of terminologj' is reserved for the next chapter. 
 '^Sup't Rep'ts. 1856, p. 19-20; 1861, p. 15. 
 " Laws of 1862, chap. 450. 
 
62 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 This act appears unnecessary except as a means of giving a degree 
 of confidence to local school authorities contemplating coming under 
 the provisions of the act of 1853. That there was a lack of clear 
 interpretation and comprehension of that act is seen, first because 
 there appear to have been but 25 schools organized on the union 
 school plan in the first two and a half years after the passage of the 
 act and second because of some 30 high schools received by the 
 Regents from 1853 to 1862, over 80 per cent were created by special 
 legislation. 
 
 b The Consolidated School Law of 1864 and its later revisions 
 with reference to union free schools. By " an act to revise and con- 
 solidate the general acts relating to public instruction," passed May 2, 
 1864,^^ a thoroughgoing revision of the union free school act of 1853 
 was made in title 9, which expanded the original 19 sections into 27. 
 All later acts referring to union schools are either supplements or 
 amendments of this title. Moreover all sections were made to apply 
 to schools established under the act of 1853. The more important 
 changes afifecting directly the status of union schools in relation to 
 our problem were : 
 
 1 That the Superintendent of Public Instruction (which office 
 was created in 1854) was empowered (a) to call, or empower some 
 one to call, meetings for the organization of union schools, (&) to 
 have under visitation " every union free school district in all its 
 departments," together with the supervision of the boards of educa- 
 tion, (c) to require in addition to stipulated annual reports such 
 special reports as he deemed necessary and {d) to interpret certain 
 features of the law. 
 
 2 That money for teachers' wages in all departments should be 
 raised by tax and not by rate bill. 
 
 3 That the academical departments established in union schools 
 place their entrance requirements, " as high as those established by 
 the . . . Regents for participation in the literature fund of any 
 academy." 
 
 4 That the powers of boards of education in districts in unincor- 
 porated villages be so extended that they might vote taxes for 
 " teachers' wages and the ordinary contingent expenses " in case the 
 voters failed or refused to do so. 
 
 Minor revisions of the law regarding union schools were made 
 in 1863, 1865, 1875 and 1879 and almost yearly thereafter, most of 
 which looked toward the encouragement of the organization of these 
 schools through greater ease of establishment or to the more efficient 
 administration without particular reference to the academical depart- 
 
 ""Laws of 1864, chap. 555. 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 63 
 
 ments.^" Previous to 1880 one of the hindrances toward the more 
 rapid organization of union schools had been the uncertainty as to 
 the right of a district once formed to dissolve into its original sep- 
 arate districts. In a few instances special enactments were passed 
 providing either for the dissolution of these districts upon vote of 
 the qualified electors or directly dissolving them.^° The Attorney 
 General having ruled in 1879 that an academy once adopted as an 
 academical department could not he restored to its former status 
 without a special enabling act,*^ provision was made by an act of 
 1880 that such districts could be dissolved by a majority vote at 
 regular or special meetings of the electorate and that upon applica- 
 tion of a majority of the resident trustees or stockholders of the 
 academy its property might be restored to them.^- In 1875 there was 
 passed an act requiring that cities and union free school districts es- 
 tablish free instruction in " industrial or free hand drawing,"*^ and 
 although the act did not contemplate in all likelihood the extension of 
 this work into the high schools, it laid the basis for such extension of 
 industrial and trade schools in the first decade of the next century.** 
 In the first general revision and consolidation act since 1864, namely 
 that of 1894, no significant change was made in the union free school 
 type of organization but the boards of education of such districts 
 were given the privilege of leasing academy property for the use of 
 academical departments.*^ 
 
 In the later years of the nineteenth century and early years of the 
 twentieth, the practice of special legislation for union schools was 
 resumed. The acts in general were of two types : ( i ) placing union 
 schools formerly created by special act under the general law in some 
 or all particulars,**^ or (2) confirming and legalizing the acts of local 
 boards, which due to the frequent changes in the legal details of 
 organization and administration of these schools, were often at 
 variance with the law.*^ 
 
 '"Laws o£ 1863, chap. 378, sec. 8; 1865, chap. 647, sec. 15-17; 1875, chap. 
 482, sec. 28; 1876, chap. 50; 1879, chap. 134; 1883, chap. 413, sec. 10-16; 
 1884, chap. 49, sec. 3; 1885, chap. 340; 1886, chap. 595; 1888, chap. 27, 331; 
 1880, chap. 90. 
 
 *'Laws of 1872, chap. 262; 1873, chap. 404. 
 
 "Quoted in Hough, op. cit., p. 423-24; cf. School Bulletin (1880), 6:68-69. 
 
 ^'Laws of 1880, chap. 210. 
 
 " Laws of 1875, chap. 322; also Laws of 1887, chap. 540; 1888, chap. 334; cf. 
 Sup't Rep't 1876. p. iiS-17- 
 
 **Laws of 1908, chap. 263. 
 
 "Laws of 1894, chap. 556, sec. 27. 
 
 ^Laws of 1887, chap. 624; 1895, chap. 364; 1907, chap. 459; 1913, chap. 427. 
 
 " Laws of 1901, chap. 25 ; 1904, chap. 255. 
 
64 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Following the more efficient working of the system under the 
 unification act of 1904, and with the growing disfavor in which 
 special legislation was held, there were passed in 1909 and 1910 
 complete revisions of the school code, which for the first time made 
 the union school act an organic part of the general law.*^ The sec- 
 tions were now distributed under the appropriate heads of districts, 
 boards of education, school moneys, etc., the original powers were 
 retained and the district supervisors were empowered to create and 
 alter union free school districts. An amendment of 1914 marked a 
 step forward by providing for the establishment of central rural 
 schools or districts with high school departments and giving courses 
 in agriculture, the State Commissioner of Education to have the 
 power to determine the boundaries and the site of the building.*^ 
 With the realization of the inadequacies of the old district system, 
 agitation for the township unit of administration was begun in the 
 middle of the last century and was vigorously taken up by the State 
 Teachers Association, the Association of School Commissioners and 
 the Council of City Superintendents, in the effort to procure legisla- 
 tion.^** In one form or another the plan was generally favored by 
 most of the state superintendents as the means to the better equaliza- 
 tion both of educational opportunities and of the burden of sup- 
 port.^^ No action was taken until 191 7, since the uniqueness of the 
 union free school law commended itself so strongly to those directing 
 the educational policies of the State. 
 
 J The University and its Control of High Schools 
 
 a The University Acts of i88g and 1892 and the Unification Act 
 of 1904. Meanwhile there was enacted into law in 1889 a general 
 revision and consolidation of the laws relating to the University 
 which, with the complete revision in 1892,^- reestablished the power 
 of incorporations and charter over all the higher educational insti- 
 tutions, defined academies to include high schools, and academical 
 departments, and gave a new formulation of the rights of the 
 Board of Regents to provide for inspection and to require reports 
 of institutions which were members of the University as requisite to 
 their continued enjoyment of University privileges. The conflict of 
 
 *'Laws of 1910, chap. 140 (Consol. Laws, chap. 16). 
 *' Laws of 1914, chap. 55. 
 
 •■'School Bulletin, 271; 4:19, 68, 97-112; 5:38, 54-55; 6:55, 
 '■' Sup't Rcp't. 1877. p. 34-35. Cf. Letter of Com'r Finley to the Legis- 
 lature, April 15, 1915. 
 
 "Laws of 1889, chap. 529; 1892, chap. 378. 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 65 
 
 authority over the academical departments, which was made possible 
 by the union free school section of the consolidated law of 1864 and 
 which had been made the excuse for an effort to abolish the Univer- 
 sity in 1870,^^ now widened. Unification of the two state depart- 
 ments having failed in 1889 and 1900,^* it was again sought by both 
 departments in 1903, resulting in the unification act of 1904.^^ 
 
 The more immediate causes of friction were to be found in three 
 laws which modified and limited the Regents' supervision of sec- 
 ondary schools, and whose relevancy to our problem is such that they 
 must be noted here: 
 
 1 Chapter 1031 of the Laws of 1895, which empowered the State 
 Superintendent to supervise the courses of study in high schools, giv- 
 ing teacher-training courses. 
 
 2 Chapter 325 of the Laws of 1902, which made the adoption of 
 an academy by a union school subject to the joint approval of the 
 State Superintendent and the Chancellor of the University. 
 
 3 Chapter 542 of the Laws of 1903, which provided the sum of 
 $100,000 for distribution to high school pupils living in districts not 
 having such schools, said distribution to be left to the joint certifi- 
 cation of the Superintendent and the Chancellor but which was 
 claimed by the Superintendent and by him for the advantage of 
 public high schools only. 
 
 The Unification Act placed the number of Regents at eleven 
 and made the office elective by the Legislature, each for 
 term of 11 years, and made the Commissioner of Education, 
 successor to the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the 
 executive officer of the Board combining the duties of the office 
 of Superintendent as regards the " general supervision of all the 
 educational institutions of the State." The initiation of the act 
 under happy auspices led to complete harmony where there had long 
 been conflict with great resulting advantages, particularly for sec- 
 ondary education. The annual appropriation act of the following 
 year fixed a precedent established in 1887 concerning the applica- 
 tion of moneys to the academies and high schools, whereby the sum 
 to which the former were now entitled was limited.^^ 
 
 "Sup't Rep't, 1870, p. 59-74- Special Rep't of the Regents, Senate Docu- 
 ments, 1870, no. 82; cf. Governors Messages, Senate Documents, 1886, no. 
 2, p. 22-24; 1888, no. 2, p. 6. 
 
 ** For attempt at settlement of the question in 1900, see Assembly Docu- 
 ments, no. 17. 
 
 "Laws of 1904, chap. 40. For a history of the controversy see the some- 
 what prejudiced account in Sup't Rep't, 1904, p. xxx-li, and 102-5. The 
 complete account of the final adjudication of the matter which gave oppor- 
 tunity for the hearing of both sides and resulted in the bill of 1904 is given 
 in the final report of the special joint committee on educational unification, 
 Senate Documents, 1904, no. 25. 
 
 "'Laws of 1905, chap. 699; cf. Laws of 1887, chap. 709. 
 
 3 
 
66 THE NEW YORK STATE TITGII SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 b Regents ordinances. The University Act of 1787 had em- 
 powered the Regents to make such by-laws and ordinances as were 
 essential to the administration of their duties and with the opening 
 of the following century they began the practice of sending out 
 " circulars of instructions " to the academies and colleges under 
 their visitation. The earlier instructions had principally to do 
 with the two matters of the requirements for admission to the Uni- 
 versity, or incorporation as it was known, and with the prescription 
 of detailed reports as a basis for the distribution of the income of 
 the literature fund and state appropriations. With enlarged funds 
 and additional powers granted from time to time by the Legislature, 
 the circulars were continued but the practice was begun in 1828 of 
 combining the existing ordinances into " Regents Instructions."^^ 
 Thereafter the ordinances were published in book form and known 
 as University Manuals,^^ and included detailed requirements and 
 interpretations of the rather meager body of law under which the 
 Regents operated. The manual of 1888, for example, had been ex- 
 tended to cover as its main topics, incorporation of academies, dis- 
 tribution of the literature fund, academic examinations, and books 
 and apparatus. The special significance of these various ordinances 
 will be seen in the chapters following, it being necessary to note here 
 only that the Regents had become, by the time the high school move- 
 ment was begun, a definite legislative body. It was this feature of 
 the Board's work that gave rise to the remarkable developments of 
 the last quarter century before unification and which was reserved as 
 its distinctive work after unification. Two important illustrations of 
 the exercise of this power, because of their bearing upon the later 
 developments of the high school movement, are the following: (i) 
 the establishment in 1863 of the University Convocation, a joint 
 gathering of representatives of the Regents, the academies and the 
 colleges whose purposes included the effort to promote the " har- 
 monious workings of the state system of education," and to influence 
 the people and Legislature in the direction of larger support to sec- 
 ondary education,^'' and (2) the organization of the University in 
 1898 into various departments including those of the high school and 
 colleges, perpetuated under the present administration of the state 
 system. 
 
 " Regents Instructions of 1834, 1845, 1849, 1853. 
 "University Manuals, 1864, 1870, 1882, 1888. 
 
 "University Convocation Proceedings, in Regents Rep't, 1864, flF. p. 316. 
 Also Ordinance of the Regents of April 11, 1879, in Regents Rep't, 1880, p. 470. 
 
LEGAL STATUS OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL SYSTEM 6/ 
 
 Summary and Conclusions 
 
 The high school in New York in contrast with that of New Eng- 
 land, as typified in Massachusetts/" did not at the outset attain a 
 place in the state system by general legislation. First, a considerable 
 period passed during which special privileges were granted indi- 
 vidual academies in addition to the general quasi-public functions. 
 This was followed by a decade in which many special acts were 
 passed establishing union schools and higher departments in city 
 and village systems. In 1853 the general permissive act organizing 
 high schools, known as academical departments, was passed. All 
 later legislation retained this special terminology and the permissive 
 feature which was in direct contrast with the Massachusetts practice. 
 
 The University of the State of New York, which for seventy 
 years had had as its principal activity the guardianship of secondary 
 education in the academics, was naturally made sponsor for the new 
 type of secondary school. Inasmuch, however, as each public high 
 school was a part of some local common school system out of which 
 it had developed and therefore of the state common school system, an 
 increasing amount of dual control of the two state systems brought 
 about a corresponding amount of friction. The half century of 
 struggle was fortunately ended by the Unification Act of 1904 and 
 since that time the secondary and elementary interests in New York 
 have been more closely related. There has been therewith a cessa- 
 tion of attacks upon the secondary school and consequent increase in 
 state aid and state supervision of this branch of the school system. 
 
 Inglis, op. cit., p. 24-35. 
 
68 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Chapter 3 
 
 Establishment and Admission of High Schools 
 
 / Terminology in Use in New York 
 
 The term " high school " had come into use in New York at about 
 the time of the founding of the English High School of Boston 
 (1821) to designate monitorial schools of academic or partially 
 academic rank. We found that these schools were favorably con- 
 sidered at one time as the means to a state system of secondary pub- 
 lic or quasi-public schools for the purposes of preparing teachers 
 and of providing scientific training, but that they were rapidly 
 absorbed into either the common school or academy systems, in most 
 cases with a change of name. In 1838, the same year in which there 
 was passed in Massachusetts a union school law/ the education com- 
 mittee of the New York Assembly in a progressive report recom- 
 mended the complete reorganization of the whole state system and, 
 in view of the evils of the constant multiplication of district schools, 
 urged the formation of union or high school districts for the main- 
 tenance of district high schools.- The plan provided for a higher 
 grade of instruction than that ordinarily given in the common schools 
 and for state aid for apparatus. Its realization, however, had to 
 await the provision for union free schools in 1853. 
 
 In the educational literature of the second quarter of the nine- 
 teenth century, comprising largely educational magazines and official 
 documents, a number of meanings were attached to the term " high 
 school." Among them were the following: (i) the advanced 
 public school or department as typified in the Massachusetts legal 
 usage of the term,^ (2) the private fitting school often limited to 
 one sex,* (3) the secondary school founded by endowment through 
 private benevolence,^ (4) the manual labor school or in some cases its 
 
 'Laws of Mass., Jan. session, 1838, chap. 1S9; cf. Laws of 1848, chap. 279. 
 
 'Assembly Documents, 1838, no. 236, p. 12-14; cf. Assembly Jour., 1839, 
 p. 37. See also Sup't Rep'ts 1849, p. 47; 1853, P- 63-64; p. I49- 
 
 'Inglis, op. cit., p. 35-37; Annals of Ed., 8:31; American Quarterly Regis- 
 ter, 5:275-333- _. ^ ^, . . X 
 
 *Amer. Jour, of Ed., 1:316-17; Aurner, History of Education in Iowa, 
 
 3:78-79, 88, 100. 
 "Annals of Ed., 2:147. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 69 
 
 competitor,^ and also (5) the whole class of secondary schools in- 
 cluding the academies/ 
 
 In this study the first usage only is considered. This appears to 
 have been rather generally accepted by the middle of the century out- 
 side of New York. All schools therefore are included in this study 
 wherein branches higher than elementar}' branches were taught and 
 for which the local public school authorities were wholly or largely 
 responsible in matters of control and support. A few endowed 
 schools are included. No attempt has been made to trace out for 
 each community the beginnings of the instruction in higher branches. 
 In most cases such instruction appears to have been very meager 
 until some definite reorganization of the local system brought about 
 the recognition in official documents of the establishment of a public 
 secondary school. 
 
 In New York State tradition and legal usage fixed upon the high 
 school the name " academical department," which has persisted to 
 the present time. By reference to table 7 giving the data on special 
 sets creating high schools before the union free school act of 1853, 
 it will be seen that the term high school appears but once, academy 
 and classical school being preferred titles. The board of education 
 of Warsaw soon after the passage of the act of 1853 offered a test 
 case by making the request first to the Regents and then to the Senate 
 that the name Warsaw Academy be allowed.^ The Board of Regents 
 ruled that the name academical department as used in the law was 
 more descriptive of the nature of the school and that, if the request 
 were granted, it would be equivalent to converting these departments 
 into " separate and independent corporations " like the academies. 
 The report also stated that the corporate power necessary to the 
 establishment of a high school or academical department had l^een 
 taken from the Regents and vested in the local boards of educa- 
 tion.^ A little later the Regents made an effort to restrict the term 
 academy to private incorporated secondary schools.^" 
 
 In the early history of the high school movement in New York, 
 however, there was no uniformity in the names locally applied to 
 them. This was due mainly to the persistence of the name academy, 
 
 'Annals of Ed., v. 3, preface, p. iii; 4:161; 8:522. 
 
 ^Annals of Ed., 1:155; 3:594; 7'-28. Cf. Laws of 1851, chap. 425. 
 
 'Regents Minutes, 6:147, 167-68, 263-64. 
 
 • Regents Rep't, 1874, p. xvi. 
 
 " Regents Minutes, 7 : 164-65 ; 8 :87. 
 
yO THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 and its equivalents, seminary and institute, and their application to 
 the new type of secondary schools with perhaps the addition of the 
 word " free " where little or no tuition was charged. Again in cases 
 of the transfer of an academy the old name was generally retained. 
 Of the 22 public high schools established by i860, 10 bore the name 
 academy or free academy, 2 the name institute, 3 that of classical or 
 union classical school and only i that of high school. Sometimes the 
 contribution of an academy property was indicated for a time by a 
 combination of the two names, such as for example, Franklin 
 Academy and Prattsburg Union School. After i860 the stronger 
 city schools led the way toward the use of the term high school. 
 Legislative acts, however, did not for some years thereafter give 
 preference to the term and drop the phrase " academy or high 
 ■school." The university law of 1889 determined the present usage 
 by defining academies as including " high schools, academical de- 
 partments of union schools and all other schools for higher educa- 
 tion," except degree-granting institutions.^^ The term academy con- 
 tinued, however, to be used in the more restricted sense with refer- 
 ence to private or corporate schools. ^^ 
 
 By 1890 the unevenness of standards of high schools became so 
 apparent that the Regents were compelled to adopt a system of grad- 
 ing of schools on the groimd that those offering a three or four year 
 course should be differentiated from those that oiTered less by the 
 distinctive title of high school.^^ The older local names, academy 
 and the like, continued to be used although the Regents had under 
 consideration at one time some method of making the official titles 
 the required local titles." At the present time the practice of the 
 State Department of Education is to give the grade of school in a 
 separate column from the local names. The latter are now re- 
 stricted to high school and union school except in the case of about 
 thirty schools which have retained the old title of academy, seminary 
 or institute for reasons of local sentiment and tradition.^-' 
 
 2 Early New York High Schools and their Ciirriculums 
 A complete account of the development of the New York high 
 school system would of course include a description of the origin, 
 
 " Laws of 1889, chap. 529. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1893, p. rioB. 
 ^'Regents Rep't, 1892, p. rig. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1894, p. ri28. Cf. Rep't of the High School Dep't, 1904, 
 p. r5-6. 
 "Regents Rep't, 1913, p. 736-65. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS /I 
 
 establishment and history of each individual school. Since this is a 
 task quite beyond the limits of the present study/*^ the early history 
 of the first two schools to be admitted into the University is given 
 here. The Lockport Union School and the New York (City) Free 
 Academy were both legalized in 1847 and are entitled to be called 
 the only public high schools established in New York in the first 
 half of the last century. There is considerable evidence of a 
 general nature that these schools became models for the introduc- 
 tion of high schools into other New York cities. Later schools, for 
 example, tended to use very largely the terms " union school " and 
 " free academy," and the literature dealing with education made 
 much of the experiments tried in the western village and the 
 metropolis. 
 
 a Lockport Union School. The Lockport L^nion School has the 
 distinction of being the first of the high schools of the State to be 
 legalized and the first to be established. Local records give the 
 credit for the conception of the union school district to Sullivan 
 Caverno, a local lawyer, who was a former Nev/ Englander and 
 a graduate of Dartmouth College. It was he who called the first 
 organization meeting and who later drafted the law.^'' Shortly 
 after the passage of the bill the board of education was organized 
 with Caverno as president and on July 5, 1848, the school was opened 
 in a building specially provided. There were enrolled in the first 
 quarter 235 pupils of whom the larger number were pursuing the 
 higher grades of elementary instruction. The school's immediate 
 popularity was due in pait to the fact that there was no strongly 
 intrenched competing academy. The Lockport Academy, incor- 
 porated in 1841, was apparently defunct and had never been received 
 by the Regents. ^^ Of the better select schools of the village, at least 
 two were rendered innocuous in time by the appointment of the 
 principals to become teachers in the union school. 
 
 Instruction had hardly begun v/hen organized opposition and 
 threatened injury to the new venture came about with the realiza- 
 tion that taxpayers who sent their children must also pay tuition. 
 
 " See Hough, op. cit.. p. 574-732. This account which, despite small 
 inaccuracies, gives a good brief statement concerning each school to 1884 is 
 now being revised by Dr Henry L. Taylor. 
 
 " The sources are largely limited to the minutes of the board of education 
 (missing for 1848). and the register of the union school, both in manuscript. 
 See also Catalog of the Union School, 1897-98, 50th Anniversary Number. 
 
 "Laws of 1841, chap. 263. Four of the original trustees of this institution 
 were members of the first board of education. 
 
7? THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Relief was had and the school saved by an act of 1850, by which 
 the union school became subject to Regents visitation and shared 
 in the literature fund, and the board of education was denied the 
 privilege of taxation for teachers' salaries. ^^ Consequently teachers' 
 salaries and tuition rates fluctuated constantly and the attendance 
 and the efficiency of the school suffered somewhat for over a decade. 
 
 The course of study at the outset and as modified during the first 
 five years is given in table 8, from which it may be gathered that 
 there was little deviation from the practice of the typical academy. 
 The subjects of music and commercial branches were early provided 
 at first through special teachers who depended on tuition for their 
 incomes. The school was divided into junior and senior depart- 
 ments, with entrance age requirements respectively 10 and 12 years, 
 the junior department confining its work largely to elementary 
 branches. The course in the earlier years, as in the academies, was 
 quite lacking in organization so that pupils elected subjects very 
 much as they desired. The practice of graduation was begun in 
 1858 in which year a class of four, one boy and three girls, was 
 graduated. 
 
 We have already seen that the example set by this enterprising 
 canal village was rapidly followed by other western villages, so 
 that either with or without legislation the higher branches came to 
 be taught in many school systems. It may well be that the initial 
 step toward the general union free school law was taken when this 
 school was brought into existence. The experiment had now been 
 tried in New York as in her sister states to east and west of creating 
 public secondary school facilities. In this instance it was proved 
 that a village board of education with its executive officers, a super- 
 intendent whose duties were largely managerial and clerical and a 
 principal whose duties were professional, could compete with the 
 privately endowed academy and this in spite of very great difficulties 
 inherent in the special enabling act and the general school law.-" 
 However the early history of the school shows the persistence of 
 numerous academic traditions such as annual celebrations, a pre- 
 ceptress for the female department, and boarding privileges for a 
 limited number of boys. 
 
 The attitude of the Regents seems to have been favorable. In 
 1850 the Board first satisfied itself that the requirements were met 
 
 '•Laws of 1850, chap. T]. See minutes of the board of education, Nov. 30, 
 1849. 
 "New York Teacher (1852), 1:153. Cf. Sup't Rep't, 1853, p. 18. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 73 
 
 as regards age of pupils and a separate building for instruction and 
 then unanimously passed a resolution constituting the school an 
 academy, " sufficient provision being also made that the organization, 
 government and reports of the common schools, also under the care 
 of the said board of education are altogether distinct and separate."-^ 
 In the same year a request for recognition of a department of 
 teacher-training was refused on the ground of the inadvisability of 
 making a change in the existing arrangement within the county.-^ 
 Three years later this privilege was given and the union school then 
 lacked nothing of full participation with the academies in the 
 benefits of the state system of secondary education. 
 
 h New York (City) Free Academy, 1848-66. We have seen that 
 not only Stuyvesant but the founders and promoters of the New 
 York High School Society and the Public School Society had recog- 
 nized the superior public educational advantages of New York's 
 commercial rival, Boston. From 1839 on, a few of the graduates of 
 the public schools were given scholarships to Columbia College and 
 New York University,'^ but so few as only to make evident the 
 fact that there was a hiatus between the lower schools and the col- 
 leges that only a secondary school could fiU.^* In 1846 a resolution 
 was introduced in the board of education which led to the appoint- 
 ment of a committee to memorialize the Legislature as to the possibil- 
 ity of obtaining part of the literature fund for " the support of a 
 High School or College for the benefit of pupils . . . educated in the 
 public schools."-^ The committee's memorial held that of the four 
 local institutions receiving aid from the Regents, two were not in 
 any way entitled to it while the other two as grammar schools of the 
 two colleges made no provision for those entering agricultural and 
 mercantile pursuits. As a result there was framed and passed in 
 1847 ^'^ ^ct submitting the question of the establishment of a free 
 academy to the electorate.-" Following an overwhelmingly favorable 
 vote, the board of education was enabled to open the academy 
 January 2y, 1849. 
 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), 5:425. 
 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), 5:428. Cf. Minutes of the board of education, 
 Jan. 28, 1853. 
 
 =^Amer. Jour, of Ed. (1830), 5:136. 
 
 " Remvick, James, Life of DeWitt Clinton, p. 80-85. 
 
 *° Twenty-first Annual Rep't of the Board of Ed., 1862. Gives early history 
 of school and credits the conception to Townsend Harris. 
 
 ^ Laws of 1847, chap. 206. 
 
74 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 The double purpose of academic and collegiate instruction was 
 maintained at the outset but very soon the latter came to dominate. 
 In the establishment and organization of the school the models which 
 were followed, however, were the Boston English High School and 
 the Philadelphia Central High School, particularly the latter. The 
 Philadelphia institution had been created in 1836 and established by 
 1838. After ten years of successful administration there was 
 developed a four-year course with the following departments or 
 professorships: philosophy (mental, moral and political); belles- 
 lettres and history ; ancient and modern languages ; mathematics and 
 astronomy ; anatomy, physiology and hygiene ; drawing, writing 
 and bookkeeping; and additional lectures in history and extra- 
 English.-^ By 185 1 there were provided similarly in the New York 
 Free Academy ten departments differing from these in the Central 
 High School in the following particulars : no provision was made for 
 extra-English and history courses, comparatively little for astronomy, 
 chemistry and physics were set off from natural philosophy while 
 three distinct departments were formed of civil engineering, drawing, 
 and law with political economy and statistics. For a more complete 
 comparison of the curriculums of the two schools at this time, see 
 table 8. 
 
 Both institutions were influenced very definitely by the West 
 Point Mihtary Academy, because the first presidents of each were 
 West Point men who introduced the common ideals of discipline 
 and curriculum. The stress on mathematics and science together 
 with the large place given to merits and awards are the best evidences 
 of this. In the Philadelphia High School there was early devel- 
 oped a principal and a classical course, which differed only in 
 the substitution in the former of modern for ancient language. In 
 the New York Free Academy the same differentiation was made 
 and the courses were called the ancient and modern language courses. 
 Building alike on the experience of the Boston English High School, 
 similar admission requirements were established. Pupils were 
 required to be 12 years of age, to have spent one year in the public 
 elementary schools, and had to submit themselves to rigid entrance 
 examinations in subjects including the three R's, spelling. United 
 States history and geography. By 1850 the examinations for the 
 Central High School were made to include the constitution of the 
 
 "Annual Reports of the Controllers of the Public Schools of Philadelphia, 
 T836 ff. See also Edmonds, History of the Central High School of Philadel- 
 phia, p. 128-32. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 75 
 
 United States and the elements of algebra and mensuration while 
 those of the New York Free Academy were supplemented in 1852 
 by elements of algebra, in 1853 by elementary bookkeeping and in 
 ^^57 t>y plane geometry and the constitution of the United States. 
 These last two subjects were soon thereafter dropped, but the 
 age requirement was made 14 years. 
 
 As was to be expected, opposition to so novel an experiment 
 developed, receiving perhaps its most vigorous expression in the 
 famous " dissent " of Horace Greeley.-® Greeley held that the free 
 academy should be given up and the money used for charity on the 
 grounds that the institution had devoted itself too largely to dead 
 languages and that it was not the State's business to provide special 
 facilities for the superior in intellect, thus making class distinctions. 
 The incoming mayor in the following year (1851) raised the ques- 
 tion of the large expenditures on the part of common schools. As an 
 answer to these attacks, a careful study was made of the New York 
 system in comparison with other city systems, one-half of which 
 had high schools, and of the New York Free Academy with fifty- 
 five colleges and universities.-'' The report of this select committee 
 made evident (i) that New York was spending relatively less than 
 most cities upon common or elementary instruction and (2) that 
 while the free academy was much more costly per pupil than other 
 high schools it compared favorably in this regard with the colleges 
 and universities. From this time on repeated efforts were made to 
 obtain recognition for the school as a college and in 1853 the Regents 
 granted it the right to give degrees and to use the name New York 
 Free College. ^° The Legislature ratified the privilege of giving 
 degrees in 1854."^ and in 1866 erected the school into the College of 
 the City of New York, its present title."- In that interval it had 
 received from the Regents a total of $16,532 which, according to 
 the act of 1854, had been devoted to the maintenance of a library, 
 had graduated 426 students and had taught annually from 201 to 
 885 pupils. ^^ It remains to note how far the academy, while it was 
 such in name, fulfilled the original purposes of its founders. 
 
 In the first place it \vas earnestly expected that the school v.-ould 
 react upon the lower schools providing an incentive for study even 
 
 ' Annual Rep't of the Board of Ed., 1850, p. 30-31. 
 
 'Annual Rep't of the Board of Ed., 185 1, Doc. 9, especially tables C and D. 
 'Regents Minutes, 6:31, 41, 45, 49, 116, 118-21. 
 Laws of 1854, chap. 267. 
 ' Laws of 1866, chap. 264. 
 ' Compiled from Hough, op. cit., p. 479, 670. 
 
76 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 for those who would not or could not enter, thus popularizing and 
 extending the benefits of the lower schools. Thomas Boese, clerk 
 of the school board 1858-69, enthusiastically stated that as a result 
 of its influence '* thousands who had hitherto held aloof from the 
 public schools now sent their children." '* Whatever may have been 
 the basis for this statement, there were undoubtedly some who 
 patronized the public schools because of the consequent advantage 
 of free higher education. It was not until 1882 that the restriction 
 of one year's attendance in the public schools before entrance into 
 the college was removed.^'' On the other hand, statistics of attend- 
 ance indicate less gain relatively and absolutely in numbers of new 
 pupils in the five years following the opening of the free academy 
 than in the five preceding. There were, however, curricular adjust- 
 ments of the lower schools to make them correlate more closely. 
 In the so-called male schools, there came in the tendency to stress 
 algebra, history and other higher subjects often at the expense of 
 the lower and fundamental subjects.^^ In 1853 the course of 
 instruction for the sixth and uppermost class of the male departments 
 stated that the pupils pursuing it were preparing for entrance to 
 the free academy by taking the required entrance branches, and by 
 1857 these departments were teaching history, physiology, natural 
 philosophy, bookkeeping, algebra and geometry. In 1862 a supple- 
 mentary course was offered for those who cared to take it giving 
 most of the subjects offered in the first year of the academy course. 
 In 1866 there was established the first evening high school with a 
 program of studies almost as broad in scope as that of the free 
 academy.^^ 
 
 At the time of the graduation of the first class the academy was 
 teaching little more than i per cent of the number enrolled in the 
 public schools. Previous to 1866 the number graduating each year 
 included between 2>< and 8 per cent of the academy enrolment. The 
 attendance had risen to 885 in 1858 but from that point declined 
 for some time. In one respect, however, the influence of the school 
 was largely felt in the lower grades, inasmuch as many of its pupils 
 and graduates became teachers in the system.^* 
 
 "Boese, Public Education in the City of New York, p. 75. 
 
 "'Laws of 1882, chap. 410. 
 
 "Annual Rep't of the Board of Ed., 1850, p. ^2, 76-78. 
 
 ■" Annual Rep'ts of the Board of Ed., 1853, p. 15-16; 1857, p. 23; 1862, p. 24: 
 1866, p. 25. 
 
 ^ Finley, J., The College of the City of New York, in Cyc of Education, 
 Monroe, 4:456-58. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS "JJ 
 
 Evidence exists of a rather positive nature that the function in 
 the minds of the founders of the academy of preparing men for 
 the more practical pursuits of " agricultural, mechanical and other 
 productive occupations " was not fulfilled even through the 
 open door of free tuition. This ideal seems alike to have been 
 at the basis of the establishment of the English High School of 
 Boston and the Philadelphia Central High School. The latter, in 
 its earlier history especially, served the nonprofessional classes, the 
 graduates entering a wide range of activities. Apparently this did 
 not so widely hold of the New York Free Academy for in 1862 no 
 less than 15 per cent of the pupils were from the professional 
 classes,^'' while of the graduates for the period 1854-64 whose 
 records were obtainable in the latter year, the occupations were 
 as follows :*" teaching 20 per cent, law 20 per cent, ministry 10 
 per cent, medicine 6 per cent, military and banking pursuits each 6 
 per cent, architecture and engineering 6 per cent, leaving about 25 
 per cent consisting of tailors, clerks, merchants, bookkeepers etc., 
 the class for which the school was more particularly founded. From 
 this point the interest came to be even more largely centered in a 
 rigorous mathematical and classical curriculum and the more popular 
 and practical branches were developed in such institutions as Cooper 
 Union. ''^ No fundamental change was made until, with the estab- 
 lishment of the high schools in the last decade of the century, the 
 introductory course was extended to three years and upon the request 
 of the Regents the college curriculum was strengthened, it having 
 lagged behind because the school was doing double duty for col- 
 legiate and secondary education.*- 
 
 This account is scarcely complete without brief reference to the 
 attempt at about the same time to establish a " female free academy." 
 This was felt by many to be the only gap in an otherwise complete 
 system and in 1849 ^ special committee was appointed to consider 
 the " expediency and propriety " of establishing such a school. 
 The committee's report held that such an institution would prepare 
 teachers for the lower schools, would render complete justice to 
 the female sex and would provide the opportunity of higher educa- 
 
 '" Annual Rep't, 1862, p. 13-15. 
 
 * Compiled from nth Annual Rep't of the Free Academy. 
 "Jour, of the Board of Ed., 1858, p. 235. 
 
 " Mosenlhal and Home ; City College : Memories of Sixty Years. Also 
 Palmer, op. cit., chap. 37. 
 
78 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 tion for those who could not bear the expense of private schools.'*^ 
 In 1854 earnest advocates in the board of education secured the pas- 
 sage of a bill granting the right of establishment, but with the stipu- 
 lation that this must wait upon the consent of the majority of the 
 board of education.'** Such a vote was not obtained and throughout 
 the fifties progressive board members and the superintendent con- 
 stantly urged, following the example of Boston, Baltimore and 
 Philadelphia in the establishment of a " Female High School and 
 Normal School." The grammar schools for girls were less advanced 
 than those for boys and full preparation for the highest grade of 
 city teachers certificate was obtained only by special study in 
 advance of the subjects offered in the common schools,*^ while from 
 i860 to 1864 the short training courses offered in Saturday normal 
 classes were suspended. These were resumed in 1869 and two years 
 later the " Normal College " was legalized.**^ This became and 
 remained a training school for women teachers.*^ 
 
 c Curriculums of New York secondary schools about 1850. 
 Table 8 gives data for a comparative view of the first two New York 
 high schools, discussed in the previous section, their predecessors, 
 the Boston and Philadelphia high schools, and also the academies of 
 the State of New York in the matter of their curriculums about the 
 year 1850. Most of the changes made in the two or three years 
 immediately preceding and following are noted in the case of the 
 Philadelphia, Lockport and New York City institutions. 
 
 The general similarity of the offering of subjects of the three large 
 city high schools is very striking although the curriculum of the New 
 York Free Academy shows the early tendency toward collegiate sub- 
 jects. The more stable curriculum of the English High School of 
 Boston is supplemented in the other two schools by advanced and 
 specialized courses in applied mathematics and by instruction in the 
 foreign languages. 
 
 It may similarly be seen that the Lockport Union School curric- 
 ulum is patterned closely after the prevailing practice in the 
 academies. All the schools of this period found it necessary to give 
 .some attention to elementary subjects. Many academy pupils, how- 
 
 ^^ Minutes of the Board of Ed., quoted in Doc. no. 5, Assembly Documents, 
 1858, no. 50; Rep't of Commission to Investij^ate the Schools of the City 
 under chap. 6qq, Laws of 1857. 
 
 ■"Laws of 1854, chap. loi. 
 
 *■ Annual Rep'ts, 1861, p. 4-16; 1862, p. 44-45. 
 
 ^ Laws of 1871, chap. 692. 
 
 * Palmer, op. cit, chap. 38. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 79 
 
 ever, pursued these subjects only while the high schools offered them 
 in supplementation of previous training and in order that pupils 
 might be enabled to make up deficiencies in their entrance examina- 
 tions in these subjects. In the table the figures following the sub- 
 jects in the last column indicate the number of academies in which 
 the subject was taught except where it was universal, as with spell- 
 ing, declamation and a few other subjects. 
 
So 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Table 
 Curriculums of secondary 
 
 English High School 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 New York Free 
 
 (Boston)' 
 
 Central H. S.2 
 
 Academy * 
 
 Rev. elem. bran. 
 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Etymology 
 
 ,Eng. ety. and phil.* 
 
 Reading a;. 
 
 Hist., Eng. lang. and lit. 
 
 Prin. Eng. lang.' 
 Hist. Eng. lang.6 1 
 
 Eng. gram. 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Grammat. const.' 
 
 Writing 
 
 Penmanship 
 
 
 Declamation 
 
 Elocution 3 
 
 Orat.; eloc.^ 
 Foren. disc' * 
 
 Composition 
 
 Composition 
 
 Eng. compos. 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 Rhetoric ^ 
 
 Rhot.; pronun.' 
 
 
 Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Eng. writers ^ 
 
 Gen. hist. 
 
 Gen. and univ. hist. 
 
 
 
 Hist. Greece & Rome 
 
 Anc. hist 
 
 Hist. U. S. 
 
 Hist. U. S. 
 Hist. Eng. 
 Hist. Pa. & Phila. 
 
 Mod. hist.' 
 
 Const. U. S. 
 
 Const. U. S. 
 
 Const. U. S.5 
 
 Linear draw. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 Mech. draw.' 
 
 Machine draw.' 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Trigonometry 
 
 PI. & spher. trig. 
 
 Anal., pi. & spher. (trig.) ' 
 
 Surveying 
 
 Surveying 
 
 Surveying ' 
 
 Navigation 
 
 Navigation ' 
 
 Navigation ' 
 
 Mensuration 
 
 Mensur. & arith. 
 
 Mensuration ' 
 
 Astron. calc. 
 
 Uranography 
 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 Astronomy' 
 
 
 Anal. geom. 
 
 Anal, geom.' 
 
 
 Differ, calc. 
 
 Dif. & int. calc' 
 
 
 Spher. proj.' 
 
 Descr. geom.' 
 
 
 Graphics 
 
 Civil eng.' 
 
 Nat. philosophy 
 
 Nat. phil. 
 
 Nat. phil., etc' 
 Physics ' 
 Optics, heat etc' 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Mat. theology 
 Evid. Christ. 
 
 Moral philosophy 
 Intel], philosophy 
 Logic 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 French 
 
 Ancient geog. 
 
 Chemistry 
 Hygiene & zool. 
 Dom. med. & surgery 
 Anat., physiol. 
 
 Moral science 
 
 Mental phil. 
 
 Logic 
 
 Pol. econ. 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Phonography 
 
 French 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Greek 
 
 Latin 
 
 Dynamics ' 
 Chemistry 
 
 Anat., physiol.5 
 
 Nat. hist.' 
 
 Nat. & rev. relig. ' 
 
 Hist, phil.' 
 
 Moral phil. 
 
 Intell. phil.' 
 
 Logic 
 
 Pol. econ.^ 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Phonography 
 
 French 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Greek 
 
 Latin 
 
 Anc. & med. geog. 
 
 Greek & Rom. antiq.' 
 
 Law, internat., etc' 
 
 German ' 
 
 ' Curric. from 1833-52; see Barnard's Jour., 19: 484-87. 
 'From Rep't of Controllers, 1849. 
 ' From Rep't of Controllers, 1850. 
 
 ♦ From Rep'ts New York Free Academy, Jan. 28 and July 17, 1850; see notes 5 and 6. 
 ' From Rep't of Board of Ed., 1851, Doc. 9; studies added after first year and a half. 
 
 • From Rep't of Board of Ed. (on Free Acad.); Jan. 1853. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND At^MISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 schools about 1850 
 
 Lockport 
 Union School ' 
 
 New York Academies 
 in 1853 ^ 
 
 Arith.; geog. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Reading 
 
 Grammar 
 Writing 
 Declamation ^ 
 
 Composition ' 
 Rhetoric ^ 
 
 Hist.; gen. hist.i 
 
 Hist. U. S. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Algebra 
 Geometry 
 Trigon9m.8 
 Surveying 
 
 Mensuration ' 
 
 Astronomy » 
 
 Civil eng.8 
 Nat. phil. 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Anat.,8 physiol. 
 Botany s 
 
 Philosophy 
 Intell. phil.s 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 French 
 
 Greek' 
 
 Latin 
 
 German 
 
 Arith.; geog., 162 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Reading; pronunciation 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Writing 
 
 Declamation 
 
 Composition 
 
 Rhet.; elem. of crit., 107 
 
 Gen. hist., 119 
 Mythology, 16 
 Hist. U. S., 95 
 
 Drawing, 24 
 Draughting, i 
 Alg., i6s; logs., 44 
 PI. geom., t57 
 Trigonom., 102 
 Survey., 103; level., 20 
 Navigation, 25 
 Mensuration, 58 
 
 Astronomy, 152 
 
 Anal, geom., 19 
 
 Calculus, 12 
 
 Descr. geom., 6 
 
 Conic sect., 24 
 
 Civil eng., 12 
 
 Nat. phil., 161 
 
 (See note 10 below) 
 
 Optics. 34 
 
 Mechanics, 43 
 
 Chem., 141; agric. chem., 14 
 
 Zoology, 6 
 
 Anat., 66; hygiene, 41 
 Bot., 119; nat. hist., 35 
 Nat. theol., 22 
 Evid. Christ., 26 
 
 Moral phil., S3 
 Intell. phil., 97 
 Logic, 3 1 
 Pol. econ., 21 
 Bookkeeping, 146 
 
 French, 152 
 Spanish, 12; Ital., 12 
 Greek, 136 
 Latin, 162 
 
 Greek antiq., 24; Roman, 26 
 
 Law and gov't, 95 
 
 German, O9 
 
 Hebrew, 3 
 
 Prin. of teaching, 33 
 
 Geol., 56; Meteor., 17; Miner., 17 
 
 f Register Union School (MSS), for July 1S4S. 
 * From schedule 8, Regents Rep't, 1854. 
 
 9 From Regents Rep't, 1854; numbers following a subject refer to number of academies in which 
 it is taught out of a total of 167. 
 
 "•Following subjects also appear: electricity, 50; hydrostatics, 3; magnetism, 42; technology, 7. 
 
 :3^^2>^ 
 
82 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 J Admission to the University; Grading of Sclwols 
 Empowered by the act of establishment of The University of the 
 State of New York to incorporate academies, provided that the 
 applications for incorporation and the charters were in writing and 
 that such academies were found to be " calculated for the promotion 
 of literature,"*^ the Regents in 1801 adopted an ordinance requiring 
 in addition from each acadeni}- proof of the possession of sufficient 
 well-secured investments which should yield an annual income of 
 $100. In 181 5 this was raised to $250. The principal was not to be 
 diminished and the income was to be used for the payment of 
 teachers' salaries.'*-' As early as 1812, however, the Legislature 
 began the practice of granting charters or acts of incorporation to 
 academies,^'* and from 1820 to 1840 the number so incorporated far 
 exceeded the number incorporated by the Regents.^^ 
 
 As the formal act of incorporation was desired largely for the 
 fact that it gave the school " admission to visitation " and therefore 
 to a share in the annual distribution of the literature fund and other 
 funds in the care of the Regents, it became common practice for 
 Legislature-incorporated schools to secure this privilege either indi- 
 vidually in their charters or through general acts, it being stipulated 
 in each case that the ordinances and by-laws of the Regents must be 
 complied with. With the supplementation of these funds in 1838 
 by the addition of a portion of the income of the United States 
 deposit fund, supplementary requirements were laid down for the 
 schools which were to enjoy the privileges above-mentioned, namely 
 a suitable building ready for use, suitable library and apparatus, and 
 " a proper preceptor."^- Buildings, apparatus and library must 
 together be worth $2500, no requirement being made as regards 
 endowment. The Regents in their subsequent revision of instruc- 
 tions to the academies interpreted the term " suitable " in the case of 
 library and apparatus to mean the equivalent in each case of $150. 
 even though the value of the building exceeded $2500.^^ They also 
 provided detailed forms of application for the incorporation of 
 academies and for the admission of those incorporated bv the Legis- 
 lature.^* 
 
 **Laws of 1787, chap. 82, sec. 12; also Revised StaUites, 1836, chap. 15, 
 title I, art. 3. 
 ■"■Resrents Instructions, 1834, p. 26. 
 "T.aws of 1812, chap. 167. 
 " See chan. i. 
 "T.aws of 1838, chap. 237. 
 "Reeents Instructions, 1845. p. 23-24. 
 "Ibid., p. 18-23. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 83 
 
 The act of 1838 and the regulations prescribed by the Regents and 
 based thereon were in force at the time of the beginning of the high 
 school movement. The high schools were, as shown in the preced- 
 ing chapter, made corporate institutions through special powers 
 granted to local appointed or elected boards of trustees or of educa- 
 tion, and were, like the academies, given the privileges of visitation 
 and of sharing in the distribution of academic funds, provided the 
 rules and regulations of the University were fully complied with. 
 These provisions were made a part of the general union school act 
 of 1853 and its amendments. In the case therefore of the early high 
 schools or academical departments the Regents followed the practice 
 already in vogue for three decades and voted formally upon the 
 admission of each when satisfied that the requirements of the laws 
 and ordinances were met.^^ Admission was refused or granted 
 conditionally without the enjoyment of a share in the state funds in 
 case debts were not wholly paid or provided for or in case the re- 
 quirements regarding library and apparatus were only partially met.^° 
 As' no records are to be found either in the annual reports of the 
 Regents or the minutes of the Board, it seems certain that a minor 
 number of public secondary schools came into the University with- 
 out formal vote of the Regents or even formal recognition of legis- 
 lative incorporation. The academies already incorporated and ad- 
 mitted formed a special case when they were merged into the high 
 school type and often the minutes simply record the fact of their re- 
 organization.^' Following a decade of rapid merging, there was 
 passed in 1880 an ordinance requiring that academical departments 
 so formed must after January 1881, be formally received upon ap- 
 plication as prescribed in the ordinances. '^^ The forms were in gen- 
 eral like those for the incorporation of academies in that they called 
 for an attested description of property of all forms but were unlike 
 them, because of the lack of jurisdiction of the Regents, in that a 
 statement only was required as to whether or not the academical de- 
 partment was provided with a separate building. ^^ 
 
 The increase of academical departments was such that by 1874 they 
 were equal in number to the academies,"" and the inrush caused such 
 
 ■"^Regents Minutes, 7:17, 208. 
 
 "Ibid., 7:3-4, 293; 8:59, 87, 125-26, 253-54, 313. 
 
 "Ibid., 7:317-18; 8:12, 241. 
 
 "Ibid., 9;6-8; cf. 8:286, .321. The law had left the matter somewhat obscure 
 and had specifically provided only that the transfer be recorded in the office 
 of the county clerk; see Regents Rep't, 1868, p. xxiv. 
 
 ^'Univ. Manual, 1864, p. 55-56; cf. Laws of 1853, chap. 433. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1874, p. 420-27. . 
 
84 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 a lowering of standards that amendment of the ordinances governing 
 admission became necessary/'^ The new regulations of 1883 in- 
 creased the required valuation of the library and apparatus each to 
 $500 and in addition required assurance of sufficient income and of 
 ihe attendance of 25 academic scholars. **- 
 
 Previous to this time the Regents had never made an elTort, at 
 least with a definite program, to increase the number of schools under 
 their control and management, waiting for applications when local 
 initiative brought about the establishment of schools and sought their 
 admission.''^ As a result of this policy there appeared in 1878 in 
 the School Bulletin, the leading private educational journal of the 
 State at the time, an editorial, in answer to repeated requests for 
 information as to the means to and advantages of visitation of the 
 Regents. The article particularly stressed the financial aid, the 
 standing among the schools of the State, the opportunity in the an- 
 nual reports of the Regents for comparative study with other schools 
 and the incentive given to scholars by means of the Regents system 
 of examinations.*^* A decade later a new policy was initiated with 
 the appointment of a new secretary in the person of Melvil Dewey. 
 In the following year (1889), the revision and consolidation of the 
 university law became the working basis for a positive program of 
 extension of secondary education.^' 
 
 In 1890 systematic inspection of schools made possible to a greater 
 degree than hitherto the ascertainment by the Regents of compliance 
 with the admission requirements.*^® In 1892 the secretary called at- 
 tention in a series of twelve recommendations to the need of revising 
 the practice as regards incorporation.*'^ Among these were the fol- 
 lowing: higher standards for incorporation of all higher institutions 
 including high schools, complete registration of all such institutions, 
 the elimination of those which failed to meet the requirements and 
 the recognition of the differences in standards among the high 
 schools and academical departments by some method of grading or 
 classification. During the next quinquennial most of these sug- 
 gested recommendations were carried out either through legislation 
 or reg-ulations of the Board of Reg'ents. 
 
 ""Regents Rep'ts, 1874, p. xvi-xvii; 1882, p. xiii-xiv; 1885, p. 13. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1883, p. xv-xvi. 
 
 "" Regents Rep't, 1892, p. riQ. 
 
 ■"School Bulletin, 1:37; revised in (1882) 9:43. 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts, 1890, p. 13, 30-31; 1891, p. 18-20; 1900, p. 178-84. 
 
 '*' Regents Rep't, 1886, p. 11-12. 
 
 "' Regents Rep't, 1892, p. ri5-i9. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 85 
 
 The most significant change was wrought in the estabHshment in 
 1894 of four grades of academies and high schools according to 
 equipment and extent of courses. The report of 1892 referred to 
 above called attention to the great contrasts in these institutions and 
 noted that the term high school was coming into use as representing 
 the more advanced and progressive public secondary institutions. 
 Moreover it was now seen that many communities could not satis- 
 factorily support a complete four-year high school but that without 
 any grading of schools they would either attempt such a course or 
 would give up any effort at higher than elementary facilities with 
 consequent loss to the community. The immediate effect of the ordi- 
 nance grading the secondary schools may be seen in tables ii and 
 12. The latter table also indicates the relative numbers of the vari- 
 ous grades and gives abundant proof of the justification of the hopes 
 expressed by the secretary as to the development into higher grades 
 of those entering in the lower. Table 9 gives the principal features 
 of, the method of grading or ranking as well as the more important 
 revisions of 1897 and 1905.''^ 
 
 Table 9 
 Admission requirements of the four grades of secondary schools 
 
 YEAR JUNIOR SCHOOLS MIDDLE SCHOOLS SENIOR SCHOOLS HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 a Course of Study 
 
 1894 One yr. course or any Two yr. course Three yr. course Four yr. course 
 
 12 counts 
 1 897 Two of 1 2 counts must 
 
 be English 
 190S Approved _ one yr. Approved 2 yr. Addit. hist, and Eng. Addit. Eng. 
 course, inc. Eng., course, inc. addit. 
 math., and science Eng., math., and 
 
 also hist. 
 
 b Library 
 
 1894 Minimum S200 Minimum S300 Minimum $400 Minimum S500 
 
 1897 As above but with supplementary statement as to requisite reference books, etc., and proviso 
 
 that public library facilities might count toward one-half of requirement 
 1 90s As above. Renews statement of minimum values 
 
 c Apparatus 
 1894 " Whatever may be necessary for satisfactorily teaching the subjects offered in the 
 
 curriculum." 
 1897 As above but with supplementary statement as to requisite pieces and with stipulation that 
 
 value must be one-half of minimim library requirement. 
 1903 Minimum Sioo Minimum J150 Minimum $200 Minimum §250 
 
 The growing degree of control brought about within the first 
 decade which is indicated in the above table is also clearly seen in a 
 number of additional features appearing in a circular letter of the 
 secretary's in November 1897 and in subsequent minor revisions of 
 the Board of Regents : "" 
 
 •"Regents Rep'ts, 1895, p. r62-66; 1897, p. 469; Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1905, Suppl. 
 vol., Regents Revised Rules, p. 9. 
 
 •® Regents Rep'ts, 1896, i: 134; 1898, p. 1-148; 1900, p. r63. 1899, Rep't H. S. 
 Dep't, p. 351- 
 
86 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 (i) school must be in session for 175 days, (2) inspector might for 
 cause change grade of school upwards or downwards, (3) library 
 and equipment must be approved by the inspector (1897), also the 
 teaching stall (1898), (4) high schools must have a minimum of 
 two teachers, (5) 30-minute periods must be had in all schools, (6) 
 schools must be union schools and (7) must have at least live aca- 
 demical pupils (1905). The phenomenal growth in the number of 
 high schools and pupils maintained in spite of the seeming rigor of 
 certain of the requirements showed that there was no longer any 
 doubt as to the value of admission. The term had become restricted 
 to the public high schools, as the term incorporation to academies, 
 and like incorporation carried with it permanent membership in the 
 University together with the obligation of maintaining the Univer- 
 sity standards. The interpretation of the significance of admission 
 at the present time is clearly seen in the following: 
 
 Admission to the University confers on the secondary schools admitted 
 the right to share in apportionments, to hold Regents examinations, to inspec- 
 tion by Department inspectors without payment of a fee, to representation 
 in the University Convocation, to certification of secondary school pupils, to 
 receive the Department's publications, and appear in the list of approved 
 secondary schools.™ 
 
 4 Establishment of High Schools in New York State 
 Without compulsory legal requirements and without active pro- 
 motion on the part of the Regents previous to the last decade of the 
 century, progress in the establishment of high schools went rather 
 steadily forward until that time after w^hich it progressed phenom- 
 enally. As with the academies in the early part of the century, 
 periods of most rapid development numerically coincide with those 
 of increase of state aid. Tables 10, 11, 12 and 13 give data as to 
 the growth by years and periods of years. 
 
 Table 10 gives data for a detailed study of high schools estab- 
 lished before 1881. This date is chosen arbitrarily as representing 
 a point at which the high school had with certainty come to dominate 
 the field of secondary education. In the first column appear the 
 names of the schools with appropriate abbreviations v/here the term 
 high school, free academy or classical school was in use in preference 
 to the common term academical department. In column 2 are given 
 the years and chapters of special acts of establishment. In column 
 3 the year is given in which the school first appeared either in the 
 Regents minutes or in their annual reports, reference to which is 
 
 '" Ed. Dep't Kep't, 1914, p. 136. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 87 
 
 made in column 4. In most cases these dates and references cover 
 formal admission but in a few cases in lieu of that, note was found 
 simply of the transfer of an academy or of conditional admission, 
 or the name of the school simply appeared in the schedules for that 
 year. The last column gives pertinent data, largely on the merging 
 of academies into high schools. 
 
88 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Table io 
 High schools established by 1880 
 
 Addison. 
 Afton.. . 
 
 Albany F. A. 
 
 Albion 
 
 Ames 2 
 
 Angelica^ 
 
 Angola 
 
 Arcade 
 
 Attica Un. F. S.& A 
 
 Auburn Acad. H. S. 
 Avon 
 
 Bainbridge 
 
 Baldwinsville F. A. 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Bath-on-the-Hudson 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Binghamton Cent 
 
 H. S. 
 Brookfield 
 
 SPECIAL 
 L.\WS 
 
 f 1866 (444) I 
 \ 1873(312)' J 
 
 i866 (176) \ 
 1873 (93)' i 
 
 1864 (94) 
 
 1 86 1 (322) 
 
 D.\TE OP 
 RECOG- 
 NITION BY 
 REGENTS 
 
 Buffalo Cent. H. S. 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Camden 
 
 Canajoharie .... 
 
 Canaseraga 
 
 Canastota 
 
 Candor F. A... . 
 
 Canton 
 
 Carthage 
 
 Castile 
 
 Catskill F. A . . . 
 
 Champlain '' 
 
 Chester 
 
 Clarence Clas'l U. S 
 
 (see Parker) 
 
 Clarkson H. S 
 
 Clyde H. S 
 
 Cobleskill 
 
 Cooperstown 
 
 Corning F. A 
 
 Deposit 
 
 DeRuyter 
 
 Dryden 
 
 Dunkirk 
 
 fEast) Henrietta ^. 
 Egberts H. S. (at 
 
 Cohoes) 
 Elizabethtown . . . 
 
 Ellington 
 
 Elmira F. A 
 
 Fairport 
 
 Flushing H. S 
 
 Forestville F. A. . 
 Fort Covington A 
 Fort Edward .... 
 Franklin A. (at 
 
 Malone) 
 Franklin A. ana 
 
 Prattsburg U. S 
 
 Fulton 
 
 Geneva U. & Class'l 
 Gloversville 
 
 f 1853 (230 ] 
 
 \ 1861(272)1 J 
 1873 (671) 
 
 Gowanda 
 
 Greene 
 
 Greenwich 
 
 Griffith Inst. &U. S 
 
 (at Springville) 
 Groton 
 
 1859 (154) 
 1876 (332)' 
 
 l8S9 (298) 
 
 1869 (912) 
 
 1859 (113) 
 
 i875'(346y' 
 
 1853 (155) 
 
 1858(370) '1 
 1867 (7)' / 
 
 1833 (252) 
 
 1863 (2S2)' 
 
 '^876 '(93)' 
 
 1869 
 1872; 1874 
 
 1873 
 
 1877 
 l872(?) 
 
 1868; 1897 
 187s 
 1870 
 1867 
 1866 
 
 186S; 1 88 
 
 1874 
 1864 
 1861 
 1876 
 1879 
 1S61 
 
 1879 
 1862 
 
 1873 
 1879 
 1877 
 1880 
 1871 
 1871 
 1868 
 1871 
 1873 
 1868 
 1873 
 1870 
 
 1873 
 1873 
 i860 
 1876 
 1877 
 1S73 
 1871 
 1871 
 1869 
 
 1867 
 1871 
 1863 
 1873 
 1876 
 1867 
 1853 
 1873 
 
 1870; 1878 
 
 REF. TO REGENTS 
 MINUTES, 
 
 rep'ts, etc. 
 
 SPECIAL FEATURES 
 
 7:317-19. 
 
 8:68, 166. 
 8: 125-26. 
 
 i8S4 
 
 1878 
 1874 
 1868 
 1879 
 
 1873 
 
 8:253 
 
 R. R. 1891, HI 
 
 16S4 
 R. R. 1S69 xvi 
 8:199 
 
 Manual, 1870, 216. 
 7: 242-44 
 
 R. R. 1867, 260.. . 
 
 / R. R., 1869. 366 1 
 \ R. R., 1882, xiii / 
 8: 138 
 7: 163-64 
 7: 46 
 8: 220 
 
 8:314 
 
 By-laws, Bd. of 
 Ed., 1861 
 
 8:321 
 
 7:65-66 
 
 R. R., 1S74, 404. • 
 8:314 
 
 8: 264 
 
 R. R., 1881,375 
 
 8:35 
 
 8:3s 
 
 R. R., 1S69, xvi 
 
 8: 59 
 
 8: 125-26 
 7: 293 
 
 8: 104 
 
 Manual 1870, 217 
 
 8: 137 
 
 8: 104 
 
 7: 17 
 
 8: 206-7, 235 
 
 8:253 
 
 8: 104 
 
 8:59 
 
 8:59 
 
 7:338,347... 
 
 7: 242-44 
 
 R. R., 1872, 350... 
 
 7: 103-4 
 
 8: 104 
 8:238 
 7: 242-44 
 
 6:61 
 
 8: 120 
 
 R. R., 1869, xvi. . . 
 
 R. R., 1870, 470 
 
 8: 286 
 R. R., 1881, 379 
 6: 91 
 8: 12 
 
 8:303 
 
 8: 160 
 
 R. R., 1869, 378... 
 
 8:3141 340 
 
 1 Special acts placing under Regents visitation. 
 
 8: 120 
 
 ' Not reporting 
 
 Mer. Addison A. 
 Dist. sch. 1872-74 
 
 After 1873, H. S. 
 
 Mer. Albion A. 
 Mer. Ames A. 
 
 Mer. Angelica A. 
 
 Mer. Arcade A. 
 
 Mer. Auburn A. 
 Mer. Avon A. 
 
 Mer. Genesee Val. Sem. 
 Mer. Bing. A. 
 
 Mer. Brookfield A. 
 
 Begin, in 1846 
 
 Mer. Cam. Washington A. 
 
 Mer. Canajoharie A. 
 
 Mer. Carthage A. 
 
 Mer. Champlain A. 
 Mer. Chester A. 
 
 Sup't Rep't, 1870, 249 
 
 Mer. DeRuyter Inst. 
 Mer. private sch. 
 
 Mer. Monroe A. 
 Endowed H. S.; 
 Egberts' Inst. 
 
 Mer. Ellington A. 
 Mer. Elmira A. 
 
 Mer. Fort Covington A. 
 
 Mer. Franklin A. 
 Mer. Franklin A. 
 
 Mer. Gloversville Union 
 
 Sem. 
 Formerly Lodi U. S. 
 
 Mer. Union Village A. 
 Mer. Griffith Inst. 
 
 Mer. Groton A. 
 
 regularly, 1880 following. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 89 
 
 SPECIAL 
 LAWS 
 
 DATE OF 
 RECOG- 
 NITION BY 
 REGENTS 
 
 REF. TO REGENTS 
 
 MINUTES, 
 
 REP'TS, ETC. 
 
 SPECIAL FEATURES 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hancock 
 
 Haverling (at Bath) 
 Holland Patent .... 
 
 Holley 
 
 Homer A. & U.S... 
 
 Hoosick Falls 
 
 Hornell P. A 
 
 Horseheads 
 
 Huntington 
 
 Ilion 
 
 Ithaca H. S 
 
 Jamestown U. S. & 
 
 Collegiate Inst. 
 
 Johnstown 
 
 Jordan F. A 
 
 Keeseville 
 
 Kingston F. A 
 
 Leavenworth F. 
 
 Inst, (at Wolcott) 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Lisle 
 
 Little Falls 
 
 Lockport 
 
 Lyons 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 McGrawv-ille 
 
 Manlius 
 
 Marathon 
 
 Massena 
 
 Mayville 
 
 Medina F. A 
 
 Milton 2 
 
 Mora^^a 
 
 Morris 
 
 Morrisville - 
 
 Mount Morris 
 
 Naples 
 
 Newark Un. F. Sch, 
 New Berlin 
 
 Newburgh - 
 
 New York F. A.\ 
 
 Nichols 
 
 North Tarrytown . . . 
 
 Norwich 
 
 Nunda 
 
 Nyack ^ 
 
 Ogdensburg Ed, 
 
 Inst 
 
 Olean 
 
 Oneonta 
 
 Onondaga F. A. (at 
 
 Onondaga Valley) 
 Oswego H. S. . . . 
 Ovid 
 
 Owego F. A 
 
 Painted Post 
 
 Palatine Bridge . . . . 
 Palmyra Class'l Sch. 
 Parker Class'l Sch . . 
 
 Penn Yan 
 
 Perry 
 
 Phelps U. & Class'l 
 Sch. 
 
 Phoenix 
 
 Plattsburg 
 
 Port Byron F. A . . . 
 Port Henry 
 
 1863 (459) 
 
 1873 (155) 
 1864 (529) 
 
 1873 (386) 
 
 1S57' (387)' 
 
 1874 (123) 
 
 1867 (43) 
 
 1863 (360) 
 1864(40,318) 
 
 1847 *'Si) \ 
 1850 (77)1 i 
 1855 (550) 
 
 1880 (20S) 
 
 1850 (321) 
 1872 (874) 
 
 1867 (820) 
 1866 (727) 
 
 1853 (118) 1 
 1865 (88)1 J 
 1847 (206) 
 
 f 1857 (382) 1 
 1 1881 (70)1 j 
 
 1866 i&ig) 
 
 1869 (6) 
 'i857(296V 
 
 1857(764) 
 1855(553) 
 
 1865 (458) 
 1867 (810) 
 1857 (305) 
 
 1870 
 187S 
 1868 
 1S71 
 1868 
 1873 
 1863 
 1874 
 1877 
 1863 
 1872 
 1876 
 1 866 
 
 1 868 
 1869 
 186& 
 1859 
 
 1870 
 1873 
 1S73 
 1S50 
 
 1857 
 1877 
 1867 
 1879 
 1879 
 1871 
 1868 
 1851 
 
 8: 2 
 
 8: 294 
 
 7: 307 
 
 8: 59 
 
 R. R., 1869, 371. 
 
 8: 125-26 
 
 7: 273 
 
 8: 157 
 8: 264 
 
 7:103-4 
 
 S: 87 
 
 8: 230, 235 
 
 R. R., 1867, 265. 
 
 R. R., 1870,347. 
 R. R., 1869,371. 
 R. R., 1870, 469. 
 
 7: 20S 
 
 6: 400 
 
 8:314 
 8: 120 
 R. R., 1874, 402. 
 
 5 (MSS):42 5 
 
 6: 292 
 8: 264 
 R. R., 1868, 274. 
 
 8:348 
 
 8:314 
 
 8:50 
 
 7:317; 8:8 
 
 5 (MSB): 484 
 
 1869 
 
 1875 
 
 I8S9 
 1880 
 1863 
 1880 
 
 (1891) 
 
 1849 
 
 1873 
 1S77 
 1873 
 1878 
 1869 
 i860; 1882 
 1870 
 1874 
 1868 
 
 iSS9 
 1S73 
 
 1869 
 1878 
 1S60 
 185S 
 18O9 
 
 i860 
 1870 
 
 1857 
 
 1875 
 1868 
 i860 
 1878 
 
 R. R., 1870, 366... 
 8: 206 
 
 6:38s 
 
 R. R., 1881, 403.., 
 
 7: 114 
 
 R. R., 1881, 376 
 Sup't Rep't, 1863 
 
 289 
 5 (MSS):335, 360- 
 
 61 
 R. R., 1874, 412 
 8: 254. 320 
 R. R. 1874, 412. . 
 
 8: 294 
 
 R. R., 1870, xii 
 
 R. R., 1861, 172.. 
 
 Manual 1870, 220 
 
 8: 166 
 
 R. R., 1869, xvi. . 
 
 6:385 
 
 8: 104 
 
 R. R. 1870, 470 
 
 8: 303 
 
 7: 26-27 
 
 6: 342 
 
 R. R., 1870, 469. 
 
 7: 2 
 
 R. R., 1S71, 369. 
 
 6: 290 
 
 8: 206 
 
 R. R., 1869, 373. 
 7: 4; 0: 408 
 8: 294 
 
 Mer. Holley A. 
 Mer. Cortland A. 
 Mer. Balls' Sem. 
 
 Endowed H. S. 
 
 Mer. Ithaca A. 
 
 Mer. Jamestown Colleg. 
 
 Inst. 
 Mer. Johnstown A. 
 Mer. Jordan A. 
 Mer. Keeseville A. 
 Mer. Kingston A. 
 Endowed school 
 
 Mer. A. of Little Falls 
 
 Mer. N. Y. Cent. A. 
 Mer. Manlius A. 
 Mer. Marathon A. 
 
 Mer. Mayville A. 
 
 Mer. Ballston A. 
 Mer. Moravia Inst. 
 
 Mer. Naples A. 
 
 See Sup't Rep't, 1843, 394 
 
 Mer. Newburgh A. 
 
 N. Y. City College 
 
 Mer. Norwich A. 
 Mer. Nunda A. 
 
 Mer. Ogdensburg A. Re- 
 
 org. 1882 as F. A. 
 Mer. Olean A. 
 
 Mer. Onondaga A. 
 
 Mer. Genesee Conference 
 
 Sem. 
 Mer. Owego A. 
 
 Also Clarence; mer. Cla- 
 rence A. Endowed 
 
 Mer. Perry A. 
 
 Sup't Rep't, 1867, 237 
 Mer. Plattsburg A. 
 
 1 Special acts placing under Regents visitation. 
 
 2 Not reporting regularly, 1880 following. 
 
90 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 SPECIAL 
 LAWS 
 
 DATE OF 
 RECOG- 
 NITION BY 
 REGENTS 
 
 REF. TO REGENTS 
 
 MINUTES, 
 
 rep'ts, etc. 
 
 SPECIAL features 
 
 Port Jervis 
 
 Poughkeepsie 
 
 Pulaski A 
 
 Rhinebeck 
 
 Richburg2 
 
 Rochester F. A 
 
 Rome F. A 
 
 Rushford 
 
 Rushville 
 
 Sag Harbor Insf^. ., 
 
 Sandy Creek 
 
 Sandy Hill 
 
 Saratoga Springs . . . 
 Schenectady Un. 
 
 Classical Inst. 
 
 Schenevus 
 
 Schoharie 
 
 Schuylerville 
 
 Seneca Falls F. A. . . 
 Seymour Smith . . . . 
 
 (at Pine Plains) 
 
 Sherburne 
 
 Sherman 
 
 Silver Creek 
 
 Skaneateles 
 
 Smithville 
 
 Spencer 
 
 Spencertown ^ 
 
 Syracuse H. S 
 
 Ten Broeck F. A . . . 
 
 (at Franklinville) 
 
 Tonawanda 
 
 Troy H. S 
 
 Trumansburg 
 
 Ulster F. A 
 
 (at Rondout) 
 Utica F. A 
 
 Vernon 
 
 Wallkill 
 
 (at Middletown) 
 
 Walton 
 
 Warrensburg 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 Warwick F. Inst. . . 
 Washington (F.) A. 
 
 (at Salem) 
 
 Waterf ord 
 
 Waterloo 
 
 Watertown II. S 
 
 Waterville 
 
 Watkins Acad. U. S. 
 
 Waverly 
 
 Weedsport 
 
 Westchester U. S. 
 
 No. I 
 Westchester U. S. 
 
 No. 3 
 
 Westfield 
 
 West Hebron 
 
 Westport 
 
 Whitehall 
 
 Whitney's Point. . . . 
 
 Wilson 
 
 Windsor 
 
 Woodhull 
 
 Yates 
 
 (at Chittenango) 
 
 1870 (16) 
 i8S3 (30s) 
 
 '1861' (143)' 
 
 1862 (441) 
 
 1867 (353) 
 1854 (178) 
 
 1867 (389) 
 1864 (IS) 
 
 1848(238) 
 1860(357)' 
 1862 (353) 
 1868(162)1 
 
 1853 (272) 
 1865 (376) 
 
 1851 (206) 
 
 18SS (238) 
 186S (520) 
 
 1863 (69) 
 1858 (212) 
 
 1868 
 187s 
 
 1858 
 1874 
 1870 
 1862 
 1867 
 
 1869 
 1871 
 1877 
 
 1873 
 1871 
 1868 
 1856 
 
 1880 
 1873 
 1878 
 1868 
 1874; 1879 
 
 1867 
 1874 
 1880 
 1868 
 1879 
 i87S 
 1873 
 
 1877 
 1863 
 1879 
 
 1S53 
 1877 
 
 1871 
 (1877) 
 
 18SS 
 1868 
 I8S3 
 
 1871 
 I8S5 
 1866 
 1874 
 1864 
 1872 
 1873 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1870 
 1867 
 1873 
 1868 
 1870 
 1868 
 1879 
 1872; 1873 
 
 7: 303 
 
 R. R., 1876, 348... 
 
 6: 342 
 
 8: 138 
 
 8: 12 
 
 7: 84-8S 
 
 Sup't Rep't, 1904 
 549 
 
 8: 12 
 
 R. R., 1872, 357 
 8: 253 
 
 8: 125-26 
 8: 59 
 7: 303 
 6: 287-88 
 
 R. R.. 1881, 379 
 
 8: 125-26 
 
 8: 298 
 
 R. R., 1869,377. 
 Hough, 704 
 
 Sup't Rep't, 1865, 264. 
 Mer. A. of Dutchess 
 County 
 
 Mer. Rhinebeck A. 
 Mer. Richburg A. 
 Organized 1857. 
 Mer. Rome A. 
 
 Mer. Rushford A. 
 
 Mer. Sag Harbor Inst. 
 Later endowed as Pier- 
 son H. S. 
 
 Mer. Schoharie A. 
 Mer. Schuylerville A. 
 Mer. Seneca Falls A. 
 Endowed school 
 
 7: 275-76 Mer. Sherburne A. 
 
 164 Mer. Sherman A. 
 
 R. R., 1881, 375 
 
 7: 303 Mer. Skaneateles A. 
 
 8: 340 
 8: 199 
 R. R., 1874, 416... I Mer. Spencertown A. 
 
 7: 65-66 
 
 R. R., 1869, 419.. 
 8: 264 
 7: 103-4 
 
 8:313 
 
 R. R., 1880, 369 
 
 Utica Directory 
 1853. 1854. 
 
 8:253 
 
 R. R. 1869, 16 
 
 Manual 1870, 222.. 
 Sup't Rep't 1878 
 
 344 
 6: 168 
 
 Hough, 719 
 
 Hough, 719-21. . . . 
 
 8: 59 
 
 6:219 
 
 7: 209 
 
 8: 164 
 
 R. R., 1877, 708.. 
 
 8: 68 
 
 8: 104 
 
 8: 264 
 
 8: 298 
 
 R., 1869, 379- 
 R., 1871,351 
 
 242-44 
 
 120 
 
 303 
 
 38 
 
 R., 1869, 380. 
 
 340 
 
 90, 104 
 
 Endowed school 
 
 Mer. Trumansburg A. 
 
 Mer. Utica A. 
 
 Mer. Vernon A. 
 Mer. Wallkill A. 
 
 Mer. Walton A. 
 
 Mer. Warwick Inst. 
 Mer. Washington A.; par- 
 tial to 1905 
 Mer. Watorford A. 
 Mer. Waterloo A. 
 Mer. Jefferson Co. Inst. 
 
 Mer. Watkins A. 
 Mer. Waverly Inst. 
 Mer. Weedsport A. 
 
 Mer. Westfield A. 
 
 Mer. Whitehall A. 
 
 Mer. Wilson 0)11. Inst. 
 Mer. Windsor A. 
 Mer. Woodhull A. 
 Mer. Yates Polytechnic 
 Inst. 
 
 1 Special acts placing under Regents visitation. 
 
 Not reporting regularly, 1880 following. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 9I 
 
 Of the nearly two hundred schools given in table lo, the great 
 majority were bona fide institutions. The number reporting in 1880 
 is approximately 90 per cent as opposed to the number of incorpo- 
 rated and unmerged academies reporting, namely about 30 per cent 
 (see table 12). A few were nonreporting in the decade following 
 but high schools grew up in most of these same communities before 
 the end of the century. 
 
 In the majority of cases the individual histories have been traced 
 out. The reports of the school commissioners in the annual reports 
 of the State Superintendent through a large part of this period 
 proved a most useful supplement to the reports and minutes of the 
 Board of Regents. It has been comparatively difficult to ascertain 
 the exact date of establishment, inasmuch as in most cases growth 
 was steady and slow, beginning with some slight strengthening of 
 the curriculum of the consolidation of districts or classes of older 
 pupils long before the definite organization of a high school. More- 
 over the lack of any legal requirement or legal terminology as was 
 the case with Massachusetts, coupled with the great diversity of 
 terms applied to public secondary schools adds another type of dif- 
 ficulty. In fact for a considerable period the annual Regents reports 
 grouped well-known public high schools with academies because 
 they bore that name. In addition the records of the Regents as to 
 dates of establishment often proved contradictory or unverifiable. 
 The larger number of schools recorded for the years 1868 and 1873 
 is in part no doubt due to the fact that in the successive reports of 
 these years an eflfort was made to summarize the individual histories 
 of the schools briefly in a definite schedule or table. The term 
 recognition is used instead of admission in column 3 of table 10 
 because of the appearance of schools in these schedules without other 
 note in the minutes or in the body of the annual reports. On the 
 whole it seems that the variety of references used check each other 
 in such a way as to give a high degree of certainty as to the dates 
 given. This is even more true of the general development by quin- 
 quennial periods indicated in table 12. 
 
 In table 11 is given a summary of the establishment of schools 
 previous to 1881 based directly on table 10. In addition the con- 
 trast is more clearly brought out regarding the relative numbers 
 formed directly in connection with the elementary common school 
 system and those formed by merger with existing academies. A 
 great deal of irregularity is to be found in the history of the second 
 group: the building was. for instance, in some cases sold to the 
 
92 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 board of education and used for elementary classes, or academic and 
 public elementary classes might be taught in the same building with- 
 out formal transfer, or the building might be leased in whole or in 
 part, or a joint board consisting of the academy trustees and the 
 board of education might govern certain matters. Again amalgama- 
 tion might be extended through a considerable period of years 
 through differences of opinion and even litigation as to the best 
 adjustment of relationships. The fear that academic property might 
 be used for other purposes than that for which it was intended was 
 the source of numerous special acts. The figures offered here as 
 in the foregoing table dift'er somewhat from the Regents estimates ; 
 for example, a careful study of sources indicates 17 academical de- 
 partments in i860 as against ii reported; and 68 in 1869, of which 
 39 were formed by merger as against 53 and 23 reported respect- 
 ively."^ 
 
 Table it 
 Summary of high schools established by 1880 
 
 DENOVO MERGED TOTAL 
 
 DE NOVO MERGED 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 1851. 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 1854. 
 
 1857. 
 I8S8. 
 
 I8S9. 
 i860. 
 1861. 
 1862. 
 1863. 
 1864. 
 
 I 
 
 3 3 
 I 
 
 r 2 
 I 
 I 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 S 
 
 I 3 
 2 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 Totals 
 
 86 
 
 4 
 7 
 23 
 9 
 9 
 
 7 
 174 
 
 While there are numerous exceptions, the earlier schools on the 
 whole developed in the larger centers of population in which the 
 common schools early reached a relatively high degree of develop- 
 ment (see table 6). A few instances will make the significance of 
 the preceding statement more apparent. In the city of Syracuse, 
 incorporated by the union of three villages in 1847, a board of edu- 
 cation with powers of establishing and maintaining a high school was 
 legalized in 1848,"^ and when organized took over the 11 districts 
 
 " Regents Rep'ts, i860, p. 7 ; 1869, p. xvi-x\ ii. 
 "Laws of 1848, chap. 238. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 93 
 
 already established.'^ A clerk was appointed with duties similar to 
 a superintendent, reports were published from time to time and in 
 1850 a uniform list of textbooks was adopted which included 
 algebra, chemistry and drawing.'* In 1854 a principal of one of 
 the larger schools was appointed together with an assistant to teach 
 a high school in rented quarters."'^ Through a special act of i860 
 the " higher departments of the common school, . . . known as 
 the high schools" were placed under the Regents in i86i.^^ In 
 Buffalo the foundations of a school system were laid by special acts 
 of 1837 and 1838 and the school board was empowered to divide 
 the schools into higher and lower departments.'^^ By 1840 the larger 
 schools were divided into eight classes and many of the higher Eng- 
 lish branches were being taught. '^^ By 1846 these classes in some of 
 the stronger schools had been collected into two departments and a 
 third or higher department was established which had been urged by 
 the superintendents since 1843."'* An act of 1853 authorized the 
 establishment of a central high school,^" and a building was com- 
 pleted in the following year. In 1861 the school was placed under 
 the visitation of the Regents and received state aid. Similarly in 
 Rochester before the establishment of the free school system in 1841, 
 some of the stronger district schools were offering higher branches, 
 one at least Latin and French.^^ In 1857 a central high school was 
 established ; in 1862 it was admitted under special act and became 
 known as the Rochester Free Academy. ^^ In Oswego the high 
 school was formed as the highest of four departments under a 
 special act providing for a city school system in 1853.^^ It was ad- 
 mitted in 1859. In Utica and Poughkeepsie high schools were 
 formed by the adoption of the local academies. 
 
 Table 12 gives a comprehensive view of the whole high 
 school movement. The relative numbers of academies and 
 high schools admitted into the University, or received under 
 visitation, by quinquennials from 1836 when the academy move- 
 ment was at its height to 1910 are shown in parallel columns 
 
 " Smith, Edward, History of the Schools of Syracuse, p. 46-47. 
 
 'Mbid., p. 66. 
 
 " Ibid., p. 78, 83, 88. 
 
 " Laws of i860, chap. 357 ; Smith, op. cit., p. 266-67. 
 
 "Laws of 1837, chap. 392; 1838, chap. 63. See table 6. 
 
 " Assembly Documents, 1840, no. 307. 
 
 '• Sup't Rep't, 1863, p. 125-26. 
 
 ^''Laws of 1853, chap. 230. 
 
 " Assembly Documents, 1840, no. 307. 
 
 "Laws of 1861, chap. 143; Sup't Rep't, 1863, p. 118-20. 
 
 '"Laws of 1853, diap. 119; Sup't Rep't, 1866, p. 257. 
 
94 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 with the respective numbers of the two types of institutions report- 
 ing to the Regents in the years completing the quinquennial periods. 
 It should be remembered that the academy movement had been under 
 way a half century before the table begins. Miller finds 83 acad- 
 emies before 1836.'** His figures differ slightly as to the numbers 
 exhibited in table 12, due principally to slight diff'erences in interpre- 
 tation. In this report, such endowed schools as Ten Broeck Free 
 Academy, Seymour Smith Academy and Leavenworth Institute as 
 well as a few schools where control was divided between a board of 
 trustees and the board of education have been groviped with the high 
 schools as they seemed to be characterized by the same tendency to- 
 ward public free secondary education. The figures of the annual 
 reports of the Regents differ markedly. In the main this is due to 
 the failure to discriminate between schools alike in name, that is 
 termed, for example, academy, but quite unlike in control and pur- 
 pose. The errors were repeated year after year. From 1890 on a 
 small number of consolidations, for example in the suburbs of New 
 York City, were made and no attempt is made to take account of that 
 fact in this table. It is significant that the first period of marked 
 growth in the high school movement is the decade following the 
 close of the Civil War and is brought to a climax by a special effort 
 to secure aid in larger measure for the secondary system in 1873. 
 Then a period of fifteen years follows in which growth was relatively 
 slow numerically but in which the system as a whole was being 
 strengthened and centralized, followed by a like period wherein the 
 growth in number of schools was phenomenal and the opportunities 
 of secondary education were extended to the great body of villages 
 and smaller communities of the State as formerly to the cities and 
 Ihe larger villages. A factor in the slow growth from 1875 to 1890 
 was the fact that before this the high school movement had been 
 extended by half through the mergers of academies (see table 11) 
 while after this the number of such mergers was relatively insignif- 
 icant. It should perhaps be added that the period of new growth in 
 the old-line academy at the very end of the century was due to the 
 development of new types of schools, principally business schools 
 and church institutions of the Roman Catholic faith. In the above 
 table as in the study as a whole no account is taken of the academical 
 departments of normal schools which provided facilities for a con- 
 siderable number of children who were residents in the communities. 
 The omission is due to lack of data and to the fact that the function 
 of these schools was different from that of the high school proper. 
 
 "Op. cit. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 95 
 
 Table 12 
 Academies and high schools admitted and reporting, 1836-1910 
 
 ADMISSIONS BY 
 QUINQUENNIALS 
 
 Acade- 
 mies 
 
 High 
 schools 
 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 REPORTING 
 
 Acade- 
 
 High 
 schools 
 
 1836-40. . 
 1841-45. . 
 1846-so . . 
 1851-55. . 
 1856-60. . 
 1861-65. . 
 1866-70. . 
 1871-75. . 
 1876-80. . 
 1881-85. . 
 1886-90. . 
 1891-95. • 
 1896-1900 
 1901-05.. 
 1906-10. . 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 39 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 165 
 
 184 
 
 III 
 
 42 
 
 1840 
 184s 
 1850 
 18SS 
 i860 
 1865 
 1870 
 187s 
 1880 
 i88s 
 1890 
 1895 
 1900 
 1 90s 
 1910 
 
 141 
 
 153 
 
 162 
 
 157 
 
 170 
 
 168 
 
 122 
 
 95 
 
 84 
 
 70 
 
 lOI 
 
 131 
 140 
 138 
 164 
 
 22 
 34 
 73 
 121 
 IS6 
 191 
 234 
 373 
 565 
 66s 
 700 
 
 The marked increase in the number of high schools from 1893 on 
 was due^ as we have seen, to the twofold policy of bringing up the 
 standards of the schools, both reporting and nonreporting, and of 
 encouraging the establishment of less than four-year schools. Two 
 years were given for the adoption of the standards of grading set in 
 1894 (see table 9). As a supplement to table 12, and with a view to 
 setting forth the significance of the method of grading, table 13 gives 
 data showing the numbers of schools of each grade for different 
 years from 1896 to 1912.^^ 
 
 Table 13 
 
 Secondary schools reporting, 1896-1912, classified by grades 
 
 (Academical departments of public schools only) 
 
 HIGH 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 SENIOR 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 MIDDLE 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 JUNIOR 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 Jan. I, 1896" 
 
 Oct. 21, 1896 
 
 June 30, 1897 
 
 Dec. 22, 1897 
 
 Dec. 16, 1898 
 
 Nov. 17, 1899 
 
 Nov. 9, 1900 
 
 1903 
 
 1906 
 
 1909 
 
 1912 
 
 I2S 
 
 214 
 247 
 253 
 
 279' 
 311 ' 
 338 
 393 
 434 
 46s 
 S09 
 
 19 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 286 
 
 30 
 
 3S 
 
 S4 
 
 60 
 122 
 106 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 SO 
 
 51 
 
 67 
 
 6x1" 
 
 63 
 
 60 
 
 52 
 
 34 
 
 38 
 
 106 
 
 137 
 140 
 158 
 146 
 137' 
 124 
 126 
 122 
 66 
 65 
 
 2972 
 430' 
 46s' 
 
 487' 
 
 522' 
 
 S4I' 
 S62» 
 633 
 668 
 687 
 72s 
 
 1 Schools admitted previous to Feb. 8, 1894. 
 schools. » Including two special schools, 
 respectively, 25, 3, I7i 21, 33, i, 4, 14- 
 
 2 Including 9 schools below grade and two special 
 *-» Number deficient in library and apparatus, 
 
 "Resents Rep'ts, 1898, p. Tg2; 1899, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. 361; 1900, Rep't 
 H. S. Dep't, p. r20 ; Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1914, p. 856. 
 
96 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 In the decade from 1889 to 1898, the number of pubUc secondary 
 schools had increased two and one-half times. The classification of 
 1896 had placed considerably over one-half of the schools in other 
 than the high school class but there was rapid advancement from 
 grade to grade so that the number of high schools doubled from Jan- 
 uary I, 1896 to June 1897. Of 278 junior schools entering in the years 
 1893 to 1901 forming about S=, per cent of entering pubHc secondary 
 schools, 74 had by the end of the period become high schools, 26 
 had become senior schools and 40, middle schools.**" Naturally such 
 rapid growth meant a failure to rise to and maintain adequate stand- 
 ards, until the Regents system of inspection was v/ell organized. 
 Schools of junior rank were reported to be attempting to give the 
 full four-year course.®' A summary for 1893 of the status of the 
 ten lowest and ten highest of the academical departments in the 
 several items on which annual reports were made showed much 
 greater variability among them than among the academies and re- 
 vealed the fact that the average number of pupils of the ten lowest 
 was 8 while they had but one teacher each ; 74 others had but two 
 teachers each.®* In 1900 the average number of pupils for the same 
 group was ten and the number of schools having one teacher had 
 increased to 35.''''' In the meantime low standards of equipment were 
 reported in a large number of schools (see footnotes 4-1 1, table 13) 
 until the low mark in 1900, when 66 schools were found deficient in 
 required articles of library or apparatus."" Despite the rapid cor- 
 rection of the matter by the Board of Regents, the Department of 
 Public Instruction in the annual reports of 1903 and 1904, at a time 
 of much rivalry and even open hostility between the two depart- 
 ments, claimed that schools existed without academic pupils and 
 sought to discredit the work of the Regents, claiming that they 
 sought to extend their control over the whole educational system.^^ 
 
 5 Factors Conditioning the Development of High Schools 
 
 In the two preceding sections we have traced the growth of a body 
 
 of practice regarding the admission of public secondary schools into 
 
 The University of the State of New York and have traced the actual 
 
 development of these schools. It remains to note those factors that 
 
 '* Regents Rep't, 1902, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. ns; 1904, Rep't H. S. Dep't, 
 i:ri4-i6. 
 
 *^ Regents Rep't, 1900, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. rig; cf. Ed. Dep t Rep t, 1905, 
 p. 259. 
 
 ■^ Regents Rep t, 1894, p. r2s6-S7- 
 
 *• Regents Rep't, 1900, p. r56-57- 
 
 •"Regents Rep't, 1901, Rep't H. S. Dep't. p. ri8. 
 
 " Sup't Rep't, 1903, p. xii-xiii, xxvii ; 1904, P- xxxii-xxxvii. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 97 
 
 brought about the development of a highly centralized system of 
 secondary education, which has made New York typical of that 
 group of states w^ierein educational policies have been to a very 
 large extent initiated and directed by the State Department. Suc- 
 cessive chapters deal with the more significant lines of development 
 of state control of secondary education, namely, distribution of 
 state aid, reporting and inspection, and the system of examinations in 
 academic and preacademic subjects. In this section factors that 
 entered in to condition the otherwise more rapid growth of high 
 schools will be treated as follows : the character of the union free 
 school law, the slow growth of the tendency toward centralization 
 in the lower schools, the intrenchment of the academy system and 
 the tardy acceptance of the " free high school idea." 
 
 a Character of the Union Free School Law. We have seen that 
 before the middle of the century it had come to be rather generally 
 appreciated that public secondary school facilities could not be 
 offered even in the large communities with advantage except through 
 the consolidation of districts and the consequent extension of the 
 unit of taxation and control and the consequent increase in number 
 of pupils and teachers. Therefore following the experimentation of 
 the larger villages and cities in some number, the union free school 
 act of 1853 was framed to encourage and stimulate this tendency. 
 The law, however, and its successive amendments were permissive in 
 nature and, although intended to prevent the continuance of special 
 legislation, seemed rather to foster this in the first decade.^- Ques- 
 tions of legal interpretation proved very serious and included the 
 following matters: (i) doubt as to whether in the case of unincor- 
 porated villages or rural districts the board of education had any 
 power to levy taxes or whether it must wait upon a majority or two- 
 thirds vote of the inhabitants ; (2) failure of the act to make specific 
 provision for the disuse of the rate bill although the evident intent 
 of the law was sucli ; (3) the lack of guaranty of continued privileges 
 beyond a period of five years to the annual state apportionment of 
 common school moneys which was made on the basis of the number 
 of districts ; (4) lack of provision for the dissolution of union school 
 districts in case the taxpayers v,-ere displeased with consolidation, an 
 evident source of hesitation to undertake consolidation.^^ The first 
 difficulty was in part remedied by an amendment of 1863,^* the 
 
 *^ Sup't Rep't, 1856, p. 19; cf. the great number of special acts creating 
 union schools or city and village systems. 
 •^ Sup't Rep'ts, particularly, 1856, p. 19-20; i860, p. 15. 
 " Laws of 1863, chap. 328. 
 
 4 
 
98 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 second and third were made clear by the consolidated law of 1864,®^ 
 and the fourth by a special act of 1880.^*^ 
 
 Complete and accurate data are lacking as to the establishment of 
 union schools. The Superintendent of Public Instruction reported 
 after the lapse of two and one-half years that 25 districts had been 
 organized under the law.^' Within the first decade, that is by 1864, 
 there appear to have been 120 union schools in existence, including 
 those established under special acts but not the city systems.^'' Oc- 
 casional summaries in the annual reports of the State Superintend- 
 ent, always without substantiating data, are as follows: 1870, 250 
 schools under the act; 1884, 365 schools under the act and 65 under 
 special acts; 1893, 503 under the act as opposed to 10,667 common 
 district schools and 615 schools within about 40 city systems; 1905, 
 690 union free school districts, all by this time operating in most 
 features under the general act.^" It seems probable from these data 
 that the movement was comparatively uniform with perhaps the 
 greatest relative growth in the decade following the act of 1864. In 
 this period the attention of the school commissioners and the State 
 Superintendents was centered more largely upon this issue than upon 
 other problems that tended to be of larger concern later. In the 
 reports of both, the comments were made upon the successful estab- 
 lishment of individual schools and such advantages as the following 
 were repeatedly pointed out ; adequate grading and classification of 
 pupils, better equalization of the burden of taxation, gain in the 
 efificiency of the organization of the schools and progress toward 
 free schools throughout the State. ^ The reasons for the compara- 
 tively slow development of union schools in so far as they are not 
 suggested in the present discussion will further be seen in the two 
 following sections. 
 
 b Slow grozi'th of ccntralhation in the common school system. 
 At the time of the initiation of the high school movement the ad- 
 ministration of the lower schools was in the hands of the Secretan^ 
 of State. Furthermore the county unit of organization had been 
 
 *'Laws of 1864, chap. 555, title ix. 
 
 "Laws of 1880, chap. 514. 
 
 " Sup't Rep't, 1856. p. 19. 
 
 "Compiled from the tollowiiii.; sources: Sup't Rep't, 1863-65 (annual 
 reports of school commissioners appended in full "r in nart ) ; Laws of Kcw 
 York, 1846-64; French, Gazeteer of the State of New York, i86c. 
 
 '^ Sup't Rep't. 1870, p. 22-23, 60; 1S71. p. 25-26; 1884, p. 41-4^; 1893. P- 7- 
 Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1905, p. 41. 
 
 'Sup't Rep'ts, 1855, p. 12; 1856. p. 20; 1868. p. 59; 1869, p. 20. The Report 
 of 1862 (p. 16) favored making the act compulsory under certain limitations. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS 99 
 
 falteringly tried and abandoned and the effort to establish a system 
 of free schools throughout the State had failed to carry with it the 
 abolition of the " odious rate bill " and therefore had only partially 
 accomplished its purpose. This section aims to trace some of the 
 more important steps toward such centralization of control and sup- 
 port by the State as was essential before the lower schools could 
 attain a degree of effectiveness such as would promote adequate 
 secondary school developments. 
 
 The first important step in this direction other than the union 
 school law of 1853 was an act of 1854 providing for the creation of 
 the office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, which had been 
 demanded by the friends of education as a means to increased 
 efficiency of the schools and the lessening of political control." This 
 was soon followed by the establishment of the office of school com- 
 missioner. These officers elected within assembly districts were 
 given large powers of examination of teachers, and supervision and 
 inspection of schools. They were, however, required to make an- 
 nual reports to the State Superintendent, could be removed by him 
 for cause and were consequently in part paid out of the income of 
 the United States deposit fund.^ In the same year. 1856, the annual 
 state tax for the lower schools of $800,000 was changed to a three- 
 fourths mill tax,* and in 1867 the rate bill was abolished. Moreover 
 an act of 1856 and the consolidation act of 1864 changed the distribu- 
 tion of state school moneys from the basis of the district to that 
 of the teacher. 
 
 Following these very significant steps toward state control and 
 a more equitable and stimulating method of state support, bills were 
 passed in 1866 and 1867 supplementing the single state normal school 
 at Albany created in 1844 with five additional normal schools in 
 various parts of the State, ^ thus paving the way for a definite state 
 policy in the preparation of its teachers. In the decade of the 
 seventies, there were passed three acts providing for a greater degree 
 of state direction in school matters: (O a compulsory school attend- 
 ance act, which was largely ineffective because machinery adequate 
 for enforcement was not provided.® (2) an act providing for a sys- 
 tem of state examinations of candidates for teachers life certificates 
 
 *Laws of 1854, chap. 97. For discussions, see Randall, op. cit., p. 51, loi, 
 105 : New York Teacher, i :21s, 351-52, 363 ; Assembly Documents, 1854, no. 39. 
 'Laws of 1856, chap. 179- 
 * Laws of 1856, chap. 180. 
 "Laws of 1866, chap. 466; 1867, chap. 583. 
 'Laws of 1874. chap. 421. 
 
lOO THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 instead of the method of recommendation then in vogue," and (3) 
 an act enabling local boards of trustees or of education to adopt uni- 
 form textbooks for periods of five years. ^ 
 
 Just as the first and second quarters of the century had seen the 
 laying of the foundations of the common public school system and 
 the third had seen the experimental efforts to work out the problems 
 of teacher-training, state aid and state administration, the last quarter 
 of the century is marked by the knitting up of these various agencies 
 and the adoption of a conscious policy of centralized authority. It 
 can not be maintained that school developments were as remarkable 
 as the strides in the increase and concentration of population, the 
 increase of wealth and the development of industry and transporta- 
 tion, but the effects of the latter are clearly seen. 
 
 The office of State Superintendent remained the source of settle- 
 ment of school dispute," and particularly during the incumbency of 
 A. S. Draper, 1886 to 1892, became the clearinghouse for all sorts 
 of school problems. In 1887 lists of questions were prepared and 
 sent out to the school commissioners for their optional use in the 
 examination of teachers and in 1888 all the commissioners had sup- 
 planted their own lists with these. In 1889 the teachers training 
 classes in the academies and high schools were transferred from the 
 control of the Board of Regents to that of the Superintendent. In 
 1893 the commissioners began the practice of sending the examina- 
 tion papers to the State Department for rating. 
 
 Moreover Doctor Draper actively advocated the principle of cen- 
 tralization and put forward the theory that the schools of the State 
 were state and not local institutions, for which the State must work 
 out a program and policy and for which it must take the responsibil- 
 ity in regard to their efficiency.^'' In this he was borne out by 
 several important court decisions, ^^ so that just as the free school 
 triumph of 1867 had settled the question as to the right to use 
 state property to support free education of the children of the State, 
 by the close of the century it was generally understood and accepted 
 that the educational problems of each community were matters c^ 
 state concern and that state interference was certain in case loca' 
 officers or teachers grossly violated state laws or state educatioaa- 
 
 ^Laws of 1875, chap. 567. 
 
 *Laws of 1877, chap. 413. 
 
 '12,297 jippeals were settled from 1855 to 1875; Sup't Rep't, 1875, p. 53. 
 
 " Sup't Rep'ts, 1889, p. 72-73; 1890, p. 97-105; 1891, app. p. 147-64; also 
 Educational Review, 1:30; 15:100. 
 
 "Ridenour vs. Board of Education of Brooklyn, in N. Y. State Reporter, 
 72, p. 155; People ex rel., vs. Bennett, 54 Barb., 480; also Sup't Rep't, 1898s 
 1:103, 122-25. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS lOI 
 
 precedents. It is interesting to note in passing that this centrahzing 
 tendency was clearly seen in other branches of government within 
 the State and that the Board of Regents during the last decades of 
 the century was rapidly extending its authority in similar lines, 
 namely inspection, examination and distribution of finance. It was 
 this fact as much as anything, that at first made for lack of harmony 
 between the two departments and after the consolidation of 1904 
 made for ease of adjustment. 
 
 It will be seen that many of these developments would necessarily 
 react very slowly and very little upon the secondary schools, and 
 further that the really significant centralizing tendencies are late in 
 the century. Moreover in no case did this legislation concern itself 
 with other than the elementary schools. In addition it should be 
 said that much contemplated beneficent legislation failed of passage. 
 The best illustration is that providing for permissive township 
 organization of schools earnestly advocated by the superintendents 
 and other educational leaders of the State almost annually from 
 about i860 on.^- 
 
 c Intrcnchment of the academy system. Before the period 
 known as the " educational revival," the academy and similarly the 
 college were in New York State considered parts of the " system of 
 instruction."^^ While the conception persisted in some quarters 
 throughout the century, with the rise of the lower schools into a 
 measure of adequacy a changed viewpoint gradually came in. Peti- 
 tions were sent the Legislature asking the discontinuance of the prac- 
 tice of giving aid to the academies while common school advocates 
 urged that the academies tended to foster an undemocratic spirit and 
 encroached on the field of the common schools to such an extent that 
 the latter did not flourish in the same vicinity.^* On the other hand, 
 the academy advocates held that the prosperity of the common 
 schools depended directly upon the abihty of the academies to pro- 
 vide teachers and similarly to provide an educational leadership to 
 foster and promote the lower schools.^' In a special report in 1845 
 the legislative committee on colleges, academies and common schools 
 reviewed the principles which had directed educational legislation in 
 
 ^^ A bill actually passed the Senate in 1893 (see Regents Rep't, 1894, i :304) 
 and in 191 7 an act was passed only to be vigorously attacked and nearly 
 annulled in the following year. 
 
 "Governors Annual Messages in Senate Jour., 1837, p. 11: Assembly Jour., 
 1839, p. 29. See similarly Assembly Jour.. 1853, p. 15-16; Sup't Rep't, 1857, 
 p. 11-12 ; New York Teacher, 1:3, 80; Regents Rep't, 1863, P- ^7- 
 
 " Sup't Rep'ts, 1843, p. 274-75 ; 1865, p. 108. 
 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), 4:380; Regents Rep't, 1861, p. 8. 
 
102 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 the State and maintained that these included not only provision of 
 elementary instruction for all but also " facilities and encouragement 
 to those whose talents and aspirations urge them on to the acquiring 
 of a more complete and thorough education."^^ Inasmuch as such 
 facilities were at the time offered only by voluntary schools, this 
 report tended to strengthen the existing poHcies and " system." 
 
 Contemporaneously with the union free school law, the Superin- 
 tendent in his annual reports began the advocacy of a scholarship 
 plan as a solution of the matter. ^^ The Superintendent held that, as 
 it was a recognized principle that the many should not be taxed for 
 the benefit of the few and that consequently all money spent by the 
 State for educational purposes must be so spent as to make for equal- 
 ity of opportunity, there were but two alternatives, either the with- 
 drawal of state support from the academies or the requirement that 
 such money be given in the form of scholarships available to those 
 who showed special fitness for higher education. -Against the 
 former plan could be urged its possible unconstitutionality and the 
 further considerations that it meant that a large sum of money 
 already given to the academies by the State would have to be relin- 
 quished and also that the academies would then become even more 
 the monopoly of the well-to-do. In favor of the scholarships were 
 cited the city high schools of New York, Philadelphia and Utica, 
 where admission was through competitive examination. Nothing 
 came of the matter, however, as the State had as yet developed no 
 plan of examinations nor sufficient central authority for their admin- 
 istration. It is probable that the greatest value of the conception 
 was the initiation of the discussion of scholarships which had fruition 
 a half century later in providing opportunity for collegiate rather 
 than secondary education. 
 
 The problems of the academy were largely financial. As early 
 as 1840 the Regents found it necessary to pass an ordinance denying 
 aid from state funds to schools which leased their property to the 
 principal, thereby relaxing oversight completely.^^ The privilege of 
 granting dividends in the case of academies organized as stock com- 
 panies was given by the Legislature in 185 1 but withdrawn in 1857 
 because it was out of sympathy with the general practices of the 
 Regents.'^ The constantly noted evils of the frequent changes of 
 
 " Assembly Documents. 1845. 
 
 "Sup't Rep't, 1853. p. 13-19; 1854, p. 32-37; 1855, p. 21-27; 1856, p. 39-41- 
 Also Assembly Tour,, iSq.s. p. 21 ; 1856, p. 102, and Sup't Rep't, 1S70. p. 68. 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), 4:296 ff. ; cf. Regents Rep't, 1863, p. 15-16. 
 "Laws of 1851, chap. 544; 1857, chap. 527. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS IO3 
 
 principals and teachers together with their lack of qualifications, as 
 determined by the boards of trustees, had their root in the same 
 source.-'^ Voluntary endowments were considered the means of 
 relief to the academies and in 1867 a committee of the University 
 Convocation drafted a bill looking to the encouragement of these. "^ 
 The proposal failed as did the earlier plan to restrict the distribution 
 of existing state funds for secondary schools to the academies, pro- 
 vided a like sum be given to the rapidly growing number of high 
 schools. -- 
 
 In 1S73 representatives of the academies succeeded in framing 
 a bill and securing its passage, augmenting considerably the annual 
 appropriation, but the advantage worked equally to the high schools 
 and the bill lapsed after one year. In the controversy that arose, 
 interest centered largely in the question as to whether or not the 
 academy was a private institution. The Superintendent in a lengthy 
 discussion of the propriety of the appropriation held that the 
 academy was private and that the state tax, if such were to be 
 levied, should be restricted in its distribution to the public high 
 schools. ^^ The Regents in reply maintained that the academies weie 
 public institutions holding private property in trust but property de- 
 voted by the laws of the State and the constitution to public ends 
 only.-* They held further that three or four millions of endowment 
 of the academies was a means of relief to the State of an equivalent 
 in taxation. In this sum, however, as just as the position may have 
 been, all property of the academies was included, endowments alone 
 probably totalling not more than $800,000, about equally divided 
 between a few strong schools and a large number of weak schools.-^ 
 
 By this time the numerical strength of the high schools equalled 
 that of the academies and, after the temporary financial relief of the 
 one }ear, the academies in greater numbers than before merged with 
 
 ""Regents Rep't, 1882, p. xvii ; cf. Annals of Ed., 9:178. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1868, p. 691 ff. ; cf. 1870, p. 613-16. 
 
 "^Regents Rep't, i860, p. 7; 1875, p. xiv. 
 
 =^Sup't Rep't, 1873, p. 60-68. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1874, p. xii-xiii, 1875, p. xii ; cf. Senate Documents, 
 1870, no. 82, p. 4. This view was maintained up to the very year of unifi- 
 cation of the two systems; see Regents Rep't, 1904, p. no, ri6; Assembly 
 Documents, 1904, no. 25, p. 12-13; Ed. Dep't Rep't, 190S, p. 51. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1874, p. 472-79. A study of the property of the acad- 
 emies for that year shows that but 25 had plants and equipment worth 
 more than $25,000 and that only 35 had total property valued at that figure 
 or above. The endowments (entitled in the schedules "other academic 
 property") ranged as follows: i academy between $75,000 and $100,000; 
 I between $51,000 and $75,000; 3 between $21,000 and $25,000; 6 between 
 $16,000 and $20,000; 9 between $11,000 and $15,000; 8 between $6000 and 
 $10,000 ind the remaining 60, about 70 per cent of the number, $5000 or less. 
 
I04 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 the public schools. The Regents long justified their continuance, 
 particularly for two functions: (i) service to rural sections where 
 high schools were not established and were not likely to be, and (2) 
 preparation of pupils for colleges.-'' Apart, however, from some 
 of the stronger schools which persisted because a large endowment 
 enabled them to realize the above-mentioned functions, the academy 
 as a system of higher education was well set aside by 1880. Forces 
 in the broader economic and social life determined the change in 
 the institutional nature of secondary education despite the educa- 
 tional leadership of the State. In the next section supplementary 
 data will be brought out in a review of the literature on the high 
 school. 
 
 d Growth and acceptance of the "free high school idea." The 
 concept of a free high school supplementing the lower common 
 schools was a matter of relatively late growth in New York as com- 
 pared with New England. It is the purpose of this section to trace 
 the slow growth of this idea as a significant factor determining the 
 progress of the movement. 
 
 An abundant literature of the middle of the century, favoring 
 the introduction of higher subjects into the common schools and 
 the consolidation of schools, gives little evidence that most of those 
 who favored these changes either foresav/ the natural development 
 of the high school or free academy type of organization or the later 
 vigorous opposition to that institution. Bills for the creation of indi- 
 vidual schools on the whole seem not to have met with much oppo- 
 sition although in the one case of Brooklyn, actual defeat was met 
 with.^^ Both general and special acts left the questions of estab- 
 lishment and maintenance to the local electorate and its delegated 
 school officers. By the last quarter of the century the matter had 
 become a statewide issue. 
 
 In the local contests for the establishment of high schools, the 
 arguments that won the day were usually advanced along three 
 main lines: (i) Such institutions had a favorable effect upon the 
 lower schools. They stimulated the pupils to seek higher educa- 
 tion, in particular alleviating the problems of congestion and dis- 
 cipline in the upper grades. They prepared teachers for the lower 
 schools, especially the " female " schools, so that it came to be 
 the common practice to require graduation from the high school for 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts, 1870, p. xviii; 187.3, p. 597; 1882, p. xiv; 1885, p. 12-13; 
 1804, P- ryo, r65 ff. ; 1904, I, p. ris-i6. 
 
 "Assembly Jour., 1864, p. I94, 372, 584, 1121, 1141, 1238, 1246; Senate 
 Jour., 1864, p. 739- 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS IO5 
 
 admission to teachers examinations. The elementary curriculum 
 was extended and broadened and the interest of the better classes 
 so enlisted that the relative strength of the private schools declined. 
 (2) Opportunity for education was equalized and a corresponding 
 democracy in higher education established. Youth formerly unable 
 to attend higher schools could now do so and the basis of such 
 education was made scholarship merit and not wealth. Moreover 
 pupils of all classes worked side by side and thus the growing 
 tendenc}- toward class spirit and jealousy was reduced, a situation 
 paralleled by the earlier introduction of free school systems in the 
 cities. (3) Trained leadership was provided not only for the 
 professions but for the various pursuits of the business and com- 
 mercial life. Society in general thereby profited and advances were 
 made in the various lines of community need and interest.-^ 
 
 Objectors either to the foundation or maintenance of high schools 
 attacked these arguments and advanced counterarguments in the 
 following vein: (i) they were class schools as only a few could 
 or would attend them; (2) they therefore violated the principles of 
 equality of burden and equality of opportunity; (3) they withdrew 
 money needed for the lower schools or for the special care of the 
 unfortunate classes and their children ; (4) the right and obligation 
 of, as well as the advantages to, the State were in question when 
 the support of education extended beyond the elementary stages. 
 The latter was regarded generally as a necessity in preparation for 
 suffrage.-^ 
 
 As a result of local opposition without a state policy of manda- 
 tory secondary education, the temporary withdrawal of funds often 
 occasioned serious delay in the establishment of high schools or 
 the extension of their work.^° In other places boards of education 
 were often forced through niggardly policies of the council to reduce 
 the wages of teachers or reduce the number. Other cities, notably 
 Brooklyn and New York, had no local high school system until the 
 very end of the century. An additional source of difficulty was that 
 of jealousies within the staff of the school, especially between the 
 
 ^ Annual reports of the New York Free Academy and of the boards of 
 education of the various cities. New York, Rochester, Buffalo, Brooklyn 
 etc., especially from 1845 to i860. Kiddle and Schem, Cyclopedia of Edu- 
 cation, High Schools. See also Annual Rep'ts of Sup't of Pub. Inst., 
 1850, ff. 
 
 ™Ibid. See in particular, Annual Rep't Bd. of Ed. (New York City), 
 1850, p. 30-31 and Rep't of a Committee of the New York Municipal 
 Society, 1878. 
 
 "School Bulletin, 1:56; 4:184. 
 
I06 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 superintendent and the principal. Of the two the latter was typically 
 the best trained man professionally and in one case at least the towns- 
 people took sides, involving the question of the continuance of the 
 high school. Again difficulties arose in the adjustment of terms 
 between contracting trustees of academies and boards of educa- 
 tion when the merger of the two systems was contemplated which 
 resulted in delay over considerable periods of time in the adequate 
 reestablishment of proper secondary facilities. ^^ Another source of 
 difficulty was found in the tendency to continue to charge tuition in 
 the case of residents, a practice established under the academy 
 system, with the result that antagonism was encouraged on the part 
 of taxpayers. 
 
 Just as local sentiment passed through a stage of uncertainty and 
 skepticism as to the place of the high school, similarly the attitude 
 of the Regents was a matter of slow growth until they accepted the 
 high school as the logical successor of the academy. Immediately 
 upon the passage of the union free school act of 1853, which ushered 
 in the general high school movement, precautionary measures were 
 taken to safeguard the movement. In the same year an ordinance 
 was passed requiring notice to be given in the state and local papers 
 by any institution desiring a change in its charter.^'- This appears 
 to have been aimed at the merging of academies into high schools, 
 but no data are available as to its effectiveness. In 1855, on the day 
 of the first admission of a high school under the general act, a reso- 
 lution was adopted appointing a special committee to inquire int(^ 
 the " nature and extent of the privileges and immunities " of union 
 free schools, but again no data are available as to the committee's 
 work.^^ At no time was any ordinance or resolution passed definitely 
 hostile to the high schools, but during the rapid numerical develop- 
 ment of the sixties and early seventies, the Regents had occasion 
 to point out many of the inadequacies of these schools and their 
 administration. 
 
 Among the more frequent statements of the Regents, which indi- 
 cate at once the comparative inefficiency of the high schools and the 
 attitude of the Regents, are the following : ( i ) they withdrew from 
 the academies the funds needed for their support; (2) they 
 charged tuition to nonresident pupils, therefore not forming a com- 
 
 "^ Regents Rep't, 1877, p. 718-24; Sup't Rep't, 1868, p. 269-70; Regents 
 Minutes, 8:38. 
 *" Regents Minutes, 6 :46. 
 *° Regents Minutes, 6:166. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS IO7 
 
 plete substitute for the displaced academies;^'' (3) they were often 
 found poorly equipped in the matter of library and apparatus and 
 therefore often had to be admitted conditionally;^^ (4) they were 
 frequently created when the number of pupils and the promise of 
 support were inadequate;^''' (5) they were lacking in "thorough 
 management and control," for which a committee of investigation 
 was appointed in 1873;^^ (6) they did not appeal to a sufficiently 
 large number of youth of high school age, presumably because their 
 courses did not furnish " direct preparation for the practical and 
 active duties of life.'"^^ In part the Regents view of ihe work of the 
 high schools was determined by the long period of fosterage of the 
 academies discussed in the previous section. As the decay of this 
 system became evident in the seventies and eighties, a wave of con- 
 troversy swept the State and indeed the country as to the propriety 
 of the State participating in the provision of higher educational 
 facilities and from this point on the Regents had to defend alike 
 the academy and the high school. ^'^ 
 
 It remains therefore to trace out the more specific contest of the 
 quarter centur}- from 1870 on in which the issue was as to whether 
 or not the high school should be supported by the State. From the 
 first this question was bound up with another already discussed to 
 some extent, namely as to the public or private nature of the acad- 
 emy. In 1870 the problem was officially set forth in a report of the 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction in his answer to an Assembly 
 resolution asking his opinion on the propriety of the abolition of 
 the Board of Regents, a matter which had been vigorously discussed 
 for a number of years.**^ He held that the Board should be retained 
 but placed under the general control of the Superintendent and went 
 
 ^ Regents Rep't, 1871, p. xvii. 
 
 "^Regents Rep't, 1882, p. xiv; cf. Regents Minutes, 7:87, 230, 254. 
 
 '° Regents Minutes, 7:319. Regents Rep'ts, 1871. p. xix; 1873, p. xvi- 
 xvii ; 1874, p. xvi-xviii ; 1878, p. xi ; 1882, p. xiii ; 1885, p. 12. 
 
 "Regents Minutes, 8:121; cf. p. 2. 
 
 ™ Regents Rep't, 1S69, p. xviii-xx. A table on page xviii shows that in 
 nine cities having high schools but 2.88 per cent of youth ranging in age 
 from 12 to 21 3ears were in school as compared with 4.82 per cent in the 
 State as a whole. However, from the schedules of the same report less 
 damaging evidence is adducible. The number allowed as strictly academic 
 pupils and therefore counting in the distribution of the state funds con- 
 stituted for the cities included above 1.16 per cent of the total population 
 as against 1.37 per cent for the State as a whole. Similarly the number 
 allowed in the count constituted for these cities 40.2 per cent of the 
 total high school enrolment as against 28.4 per cent for the State, indicat- 
 ing that the secondary school population in the cities represented a much 
 more highly selected group. 
 
 *" Barnard's Tour, of Ed., 29 :lxxxi-lxxxviii. 
 
 '" Sup't Rep't, 1870, p. 59-74. 
 
I08 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 on to intei-pret the larger question of the duty of the State in regard 
 to secondary education. The academies were private institutions 
 and therefore without the pale of the public school system. The 
 State had never intended to provide free academic instruction and 
 it was an open question whether it should. Moreover he believed 
 there was evident an unwillingness of the people to establish and 
 maintain higher schools. The Regents in a reply to a similar resolu- 
 tion asking them to set forth their powers and the desirability of 
 their extension, urged the proposition that the colleges and academies 
 because of their support by means of voluntary subscriptions were 
 not amenable to the same detailed supervision as the common 
 schools. "^^ They considered their powers sufficient as they involved 
 the requirement of reports, incorporation and inspection. Strange 
 to say, neither report emphasized the essential distinction between 
 the academy and high school. 
 
 The special tax levied for the increased state support of higher 
 schools in 1873, ^^^^^ the occasion for a second statement of Superin- 
 tendent Weaver, who again maintained that a general tax for higher 
 education was a precedent of doubtful merit and worth.*- A 
 special report of the Regents in the following year reaffirmed the 
 principles formerly set forth and sought to answer the objections 
 to the sharing of the academies in the state tax by calling attention to 
 the fact that one-half of its benefit accrued to the high schools 
 because of their rapid growth.*^ 
 
 In the University Convocation of 1876, when it was still strongly 
 representative of the colleges and academies, one of the chief sub- 
 jects for discussion following a paper on the same subject was that 
 of Voluntaryism in Education.** The major contentions were that 
 support of schools by taxation should be limited to the common 
 schools and possibly the training of teachers therefor and that higher 
 education should be provided by " individual and corporate bene- 
 volence " under general state laws. A still more significant and 
 influential utterance was that of Regent Charles Fitch two years 
 later before the State Teachers Association, which laid down the 
 two propositions that ( i ) " the State has no right to foster . . . 
 scholarship " and that (2) " the vokmtary principle not only can, but 
 
 •" Senate Documents, 1870, no. 82. 
 
 "Sup't Rep't. 1873, p. 60-63; cf. Regents Rep't, 1874, p. 659-63. 
 
 *^ Assembly Documents, 1874, no. 78. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1877, p. 627-37. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS IO9 
 
 will take care of higher education."*^ A vigorous denial of these 
 views was made in the annual meeting of the Association of School 
 Commissioners and City Superintendents in a series of resolutions 
 w^iich were adopted.""^ Ex-Governor Seymour in an address before 
 the same body argued that the peculiar feature of the American 
 system was that it was diffusive in nature and that all institutions 
 belong to it. Simultaneously Governor Robinson in his annual mes- 
 sages of 1877 to 1879 attacked most viciously the support of higher 
 schools by taxation, decrying it as a "' violation of personal rights " 
 and as " legalized robbery." ^'' 
 
 Had such powerful and authoritative attacks been made a couple 
 of decades earlier, undoubtedly the course of the growth of the high 
 school might have been temporarily stopped at the source. As it 
 was, the period from 1875 to 1885 was one of very slow development 
 relatively of both types of secondary schools (Tables 11 and 12). 
 The literature of the period is replete with discussions of the issues 
 defined above. Of particular interest are the papers and reports of 
 discussions on the floor of the University Convocation. A large 
 number of these for this decade centered in the two related topics: 
 (i) the relation of the various schools of the State to one another 
 and to the State,*^ and (2) the specific function of the high schools 
 and of the academies.**^ The struggles of the academies to main- 
 tain their ancient position in secondary education and consequently 
 the supremacy of the voluntary principle were definitely affected 
 by the tvro f oUov/ing events : ( i ) the reorganization of the University 
 Convocation in 1882 and following, so that discussions of current 
 problems rather than learned papers became the general practice and 
 that consequently a wider appeal was made to the secondary 
 schools,'''^ and (2) the stipulation of the Legislature in 1887 that of 
 the $100,000 appropriation to secondary schools, the academies must 
 be restricted to $40,000.'^^ 
 
 Until about 1893 the matter rested so far as the office of the State 
 Superintendent was concerned. Incumbents of this office from 1874 
 
 ** School Bulletin, 3 :66-68. He reaffirmed these views in the University 
 Convocation of 1883 in a discussion concerning the place of the academies 
 in secondary education; Regents Rep't, 1884, p. 68. 
 
 "^School 'Bulletin, 4:98-99. 
 
 *' Senate Documents, 1877, no. 2, p. 19-20 ; 1878, no. 2, p. 20-21 ; 1879, 
 p. 15-16. 
 
 *' Regents Rep'ts, 1873, p. 541-44; 1875, p. 695-703; 1876, p. 603-15; 
 1877, p. 610-16; 1878, p. 401. Proc. of Univ. Convoc, 1884, p. 138-55- 
 
 '"Regents Rep'ts. 1873, p. 556-66; 1875, P- 7ii-i5; 1884. p. 58-75. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1882, p. 314-18; School Bulletin, 3:193-94; 7:17-18, 14L 
 
 "Laws of 1887, chap. 709. 
 
no THK NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 to 1893 were largely favorable to higher education in event it was 
 
 permissive and the lower schools did not suffer by the withdrawal of 
 
 funds.^- Superintendent Draper did indeed express the belief that 
 
 the higher schools were absorbing too much attention and perhaps 
 
 too large a portion of the state nioneys,^^ but in general his views 
 
 are indicated in the following statement from an address of 1890: 
 
 I entertain no doubt of the right and the propriety of the support of high 
 scliools at common cost at the option of qualified electors of each com- 
 munity. . . . High schools have come to acquire a legal status in our 
 system." 
 
 His successor in office, however, launched a vigorous and destruc- 
 tive criticism of the practice of giving state moneys to higher schools. 
 The following is from the report of 1893: 
 
 It is my position that a vast amount of the public moneys is diverted from 
 the original purpose in furnishing higher education to a small number of a 
 favored class, who, in most cases, are well able to obtain it without the aid 
 of the State." 
 
 The decade that followed revived the old question of the division 
 of labor between the two state departments which was only finally 
 settled by their unification. The rapid relative decline of the acad- 
 emy and the policy of extension of high school facilities of the earlier 
 part of the last decade of the century had won the Regents to a 
 new point of view, which was strengthened by the constant attacks 
 of the Superintendent during the same period. The Secretary of the 
 Board no doubt voiced their sentiments when he declared that there 
 were but three classes which opposed the high school ; aristocrats, 
 demagogues and the selfish rich.''^ Presumably the offending Super- 
 mtendent belonged to the second group. To set forth adequately the 
 conception of the free high school and to offset the activities of its 
 powerful enemies, a special bulletin was published entitled " High 
 Schools and the State " in which were assembled a number of 
 addresses of the State's foremost educators on the function of the 
 public high school and the supplementary problem of its support by 
 the State.'^ The University Convocation of 1894 devoted an after- 
 noon and evening to discussion of the same topics'® and at the sug- 
 gestion of the Secretary of the Regents, the School Bulletin, the most 
 widely read school paper of the State at the time, published a five 
 
 "Sup't Rep'ts, 1879, p. 27-28; 1884, p. 41-42. 
 
 "Sup't Rep'ts, 1887, p. 18, 29; 1891, p. xl-xli; 1892, p. 1\ 
 
 '-* Sup't Rep't, 1891, app., p. 2i8-i9- 
 
 " Sup't Rep't, 1893, p. 14. Cf. 1894, 1 :33, 35, 47- 
 
 '■* Regents Rep't, 1894, p. r26o. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1895, I, app. i, Bui. 26 
 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1895. I, app., p. 219-73. 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS III 
 
 page symposium on the same subject.^" Likewise the Associated 
 Academic Principals urged through a printed letter to the newspapers 
 that the fallacies of the Superintendent be laid bare."" It can 
 scarcely be said that new arguments were brought forth but the old 
 were reiterated until forced upon the attention of all. With the 
 establishment of a high school department by the Regents in 1898 
 and with increased aid in 1901, the work of public secondary educa- 
 tion went forward with remarkable strides. It is interesting to 
 note that at the century's end both the Secretary of the Regents in 
 an annual address before the University Convocation,^^ and the 
 Superintendent invhis annual reports,^- spoke in very similar lan- 
 guage of the high school as the capstone of the common school 
 system. The provoking issue by this time was that of control. This 
 was settled by the unification of the two state supervisory bodies and 
 thereby the consummation of the " free high school idea " was real- 
 ized in theory as it had been largely realized in practice during the 
 previous half century. 
 
 Summarv and Conclusions 
 
 1 The earlier use of the term high school in New York was in 
 connection with higher departments of the lower schools and the 
 monitorial schools of secondary grade. Tradition and law fixed 
 the term " academical department of union school " as the common 
 denotation although individual schools, especially in the larger cities, 
 by i860 adopted the term high school in its generally accepted usage. 
 In 1893 the classification of the public secondary schools into 
 four grades made the term appropriate only in regard to schools 
 of four years of work, with certain restrictions concerning equip- 
 ment, pupils and teaching stafif. 
 
 2 Typical early high schools are represented by the Lockport 
 Union School and the New York (City) Free Academy, both estab- 
 lished at the opening of the second half century. In general these 
 schools became the models for the other cities and villages of the 
 State and also of the general union free school law. The influence 
 of other states is seen in the rise of these two schools. In the matter 
 of curriculum, the latter followed the Philadelphia Central High 
 School and was soon elevated into college rank while the former as 
 
 School Bulletin, 20:197-201. 
 
 Regents Rep't, 1895, p. 615-17. 
 
 Repents Rep't, 1899, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i ■.662-So. 
 
 Sup'ts Rep'ts, 1899, p. xv-xvii; 1900, p. 51-53- 
 
112 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 also the other early high schools showed little deviation from the 
 academy curriculum of the time. 
 
 3 While high schools \\ere always established only through local 
 initiative, under general or special acts, they had the privilege of 
 coming " under the visitation of the Regents," that is, to member- 
 ship in The University of the State of New York, with the advan- 
 tage of participation in the distribution of the literature fund and 
 other available funds and also the obligation of obedience to the 
 Regents rules and regulations. Ordinances controlling " admis- 
 sion " had been devised before the beginning of the high school 
 movement and were revised to meet the slightly different status 
 of the high schools. In 1894 there was put into operation a perma- 
 nent plan of grading or classification of schools into four ranks 
 according to equipment and so forth under the direction of the 
 University inspectors. Schools had the privilege of raising their 
 rank without formal admission. 
 
 4 The actual establishment of high school facilities is in most 
 cases not easy to trace as it is to be found in the effort to expand 
 the curriculum or the consolidation of several districts without 
 formal action or simply the growth of an individual school into 
 higher grade. However, the dates of admission into the University 
 are in most cases easy of establisliment from the Regents Minutes 
 or Reports and in a large majority of cases coincide very closely 
 with what may be called the establishment of a local high school. 
 In the case of the merger of the common schools with a local acad- 
 emy the date is usually clear-cut. Data on the individual schools 
 show that the high school movement which began about 1850 went 
 steadily forward but that the period of slowest progress was in the 
 years 1875 to 1890 while this was succeeded by a period of phe- 
 nomenal growth, paralleled throughout the whole country but 
 influenced in New York by increased appropriations and a new 
 policy of expansion and encouragement on the part of the Regents. 
 
 5 While in Massachusetts and other states to the east and west 
 of New York the concept of the free high school was generally 
 accepted by the middle of the nineteenth century, in New York State 
 the victory could not be said to be fully Avon until near the end of 
 the century. Various factors entered in to retard the development 
 of the high school movement as follows: (i) the permissive nature 
 of the union school laws and their early lack of clarity and lack 
 of encouragement to weaker communities; (2) the decentralized 
 condition of the lower schools until Superintendent Draper, a strong 
 
ESTABLISHMENT AND ADMISSION OF HIGH SCHOOLS II3 
 
 centralizationist, came into the office in 1886, and was able to efifect 
 permanent reforms in and extensions of policies of state support 
 and control and also in regard to the training of teachers; (3) the 
 relatively strong hold that the academy maintained upon local edu- 
 cational leaders, upon the Regents and therefore upon state higher 
 educational polic}- ; and (4) the long contest between the Regents 
 and Superintendent for control of the secondary schools, which 
 involved two issues of large import, first, as to whether the academy 
 was or was not a private institution and therefore what its status 
 was as regards state aid. and second, whether the principle of volun- 
 taryism could be relied upon to finance higher education. In the 
 successive chapters are worked out the main lines of development 
 whereby the high schools became welded by the Regents into a 
 highly centralized system within the general state system of public 
 schools. 
 
PART ir — INTRODUCTION II5 
 
 PART 2 
 
 Introduction 
 
 In the preceding chapters there has been traced out in some detail 
 the account of the laying of the foundations of the New York 
 State pubHc secondary or high school system. It remains in the 
 chapters that follow to show how the state system developed into 
 its highly centralized form. This discussion is taken up under the 
 three topics, aid. examinations, and inspection. 
 
 Previous to 1863 the work of the Regents was so conducted that 
 there was little direct contact of the Board and its officers with 
 the schools. In that year a unanimous resolution was passed to call 
 together the teachers, principals and presidents of the schools within 
 the University. The committee on organization of this body, which 
 from the first was called the University Convocation, in a full state- 
 ment outlining the purposes, stressed among other matters, the 
 interchange of ideas, the perfecting of the " standards of education " 
 and the harmonious working of the system.^ The papers read and 
 the discussions provoked made this body a great clearing house for 
 educational thought that had its influence without the State as well 
 as within.- An ordinance of 1879 "lade the Chancellor and the 
 Secretary of the Regents, respectively, presiding officer and sec- 
 retary of the Convocation. For the first two decades of its existence 
 the body was conservative and its work was directed by a few 
 strong college teachers and academy principals. By 1882 the high 
 school principals and teachers came to take a more active part, and 
 discussion of current educational problems was more generally had. 
 
 In 1885 the principals of the secondary schools formed an 
 organization known as the Associated Academic Principals, an off- 
 shoot of the Convocation and in time a more active body in working 
 out solutions of state educational problems. It promoted the maga- 
 zine known as the Academy (1886-92), the first distinctly secondary 
 educational journal in the country. The Regents came to make it 
 a practice to consult the Principals Council on matters of academic 
 syllabus revision, inspection of schools and the like and the council 
 took a large part in obtaining additional financial aid. In other 
 
 ^ Hough, op. cit., p. 789-93; also given in introduction to annual proceed- 
 ings in annual reports of the Regenrts. 
 
 'For titles, see Hough, p. 794-834 (1863-83) ; also Handbook 6, Pt i, Gen- 
 eral Dep't Publications, 1891 ff. 
 
Il6 THE XEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 words, beginning with 1863 and still more definitely after 1885, 
 until the unification of the Board of Regents with the State Depart- 
 ment of Public Instruction in 1904, much of the educational progress 
 of the State in the secondary field was directed by these two volun- 
 tary organizations. 
 
 Just as A. S. Draper in the office of Superintendent from 1886 to 
 1892 and again as Commissioner of Education from 1904 to 1913 
 brought a high degree of centralization and efficiency into the one 
 system, so the name of Melvil Dewey, Secretary of the Board of 
 Regents, is associated with a corresponding development in the 
 secondary field from 1888 to 1899. It was during this period that 
 the Board of Regents became a definite factor in defending and 
 opposing legislation affecting secondary education. 
 
 From 1895 on the disposition of the Board of Regents has been 
 to make large use of the conclusions of various state and extra- 
 state educational bodies. Cases in point are the report of the com- 
 mittee of ten of the National Education Association and the annual 
 reports of the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of 
 the Middle States and Maryland, the New York State Science 
 Teachers Association and the College Entrance Examination 
 Board. Similarly the educational practice of other states and the 
 opinion of national leaders in education have gone far to shajDe 
 recent developments so that on the whole the New York system is 
 being modified through the influence of less highly centralized 
 systems and is tending to lose something of its uniqueness. 
 
STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION II7 
 
 Chapter 4 
 
 State Aid to High Schools and Its Distribution 
 
 Both the University acts of 1784 and 1787 made provision for the 
 Regents to hold funds. The latter stipulated that these were to be 
 applied as the Regents thought " most conducive to the promotion of 
 literature " and that the academies must use them for the purposes 
 for which they were granted.^ On this slender legal basis there was 
 developed early t^ie practice of granting state aid to the academies 
 and to a lesser degree to the colleges. While our interest is in the 
 matter of state support to high schools, it is essential to trace out the 
 foundations of practice in the academies both with respect to the 
 nature of the funds and the methods of distribution.^ 
 
 I State Funds and Appropriations 
 State aid to secondary schools in New York State was of three 
 kinds: (i) special grants, largely of lands, to individual schools, a 
 practice limited to the academies and coming largely to an end by 
 1826; (2) grants of land and stocks with a small amount of moneys 
 to form what was called the literature fund; and (3) direct appro- 
 priations of moneys from the state treasury. For one Aear a state 
 tax Vv'as levied for secondary schools alone. 
 
 In 1790 the Board of Regents asked for and obtained permission 
 to sell certain state lands and place the income from the proceeds 
 of the sale at the disposal of the academies.^ This was the nucleus 
 of the literature fund and the income was assured to the use of the 
 academies, that is secondary schools, by the Constitution of 1846. 
 Later additions were made, the largest in 181 3 and 1827, from 
 lotteries, sale of lands, arrears of quitrenls and the transfer of 
 canal stock. In 1830 this fund amounted to slightly more than 
 $250,000 and did not in all its history increase greatly beyond this 
 sum."* As a consequence the annual income usually varied from 
 $10,000 to $15,000 and the fund had its chief value in keeping alive 
 the tradition of state support to secondary education. In 1832 the 
 administration of the literature fund was transferred from the 
 Regents to the Comptroller,^ and in 1897 the fund itself was made 
 
 ^ Laws of 1784, chap. 51; 1787, chap. 82, especially sec. v. 
 
 'See chap. i. For a fuller treatment, see Miller, G. F., op. cit. ; of. Jones, 
 D. R. State Aid to Secondary Schools, p. 77-84, 117-20; also Regents Rep't, 
 1894, i:rS3-r65. 
 
 ' Hough, op. cit., p. 80-93. Laws of 1790, chap. 38. 
 
 ^Regents Rep't, 1895, p. r53, gives sum in 1893 as $284,201.30. 
 
 " Laws of 1832, chap. 8. 
 
Il8 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 a part of the general education fund though its identity was still 
 retained.^ 
 
 The same act which marked the inception of the literature fund 
 provided for the appropriation of looo pounds to assist the academies 
 and King's College, until the moneys from the sale of lands 
 were available. This precedent of appropriations as a mode of 
 assistance to the academies was very substantially followed in 
 1838. In that year $28,000, a part of the income from the United 
 States deposit fund, was added to the meager $12,000 income from 
 the literature fund. For a half century the annual grant remained 
 $40,000. At the outset it was sufficiently large to prove a real incen- 
 tive to academic development. 
 
 Two types of supplementary aid which did increase in amount 
 somewhat relieved the growing need of the secondary schools. 
 From 1834 on limited grants were made for texts, apparatus and 
 models. At the outset the sum distributed was $3000 and constituted 
 the excess revenue above the annually distributed sum of $12,000.' 
 This sum was later doubled and individual schools were in each 
 case required to raise equivalent sums before grants were made. 
 In the same year the practice was begun of aiding the academies in 
 their function of preparing teachers for the common schools.^ By 
 1853 the sum annually distributed to a limited number of schools, 
 approved by the Board of Regents, was fixed at $18,000 and in 
 1873 it was raised to $30,000.^ In the latter year, therefore, the 
 academies and high schools were receiving for various purposes 
 a total of $88,000. 
 
 By i860 the Regents noticed the drain upon the general appro- 
 priation because of the growth of high schools and suggested the 
 need of the restriction of the $40,000 to the academies and of the 
 appropriation of a like sum to the high schools. ^° In 1867 the 
 report called attention to the fact that in the thirty years preceding, 
 there had been no increase in the general funds available for dis- 
 tribution although the number of schools had increased threefold 
 and the number of pupils fourfold. ^^ In 1872 a committee of the 
 University Convocation enlisted the interests of the secondary 
 
 "Laws of 1897, chap. 413; revised 1905, chap. 587. See also Regents Rep't, 
 1898, i:r54-55- 
 'Laws of 1834, chap. 140; cf. Laws of 1863, chap. 48. 
 
 * Laws of 1834, chap. 241. For a full discussion, see Miller, G. F.. op. cit. 
 ' Laws of 1853, chap. 402 ; 1873, chap. 642. 
 "" Regents Rep't, i860, p. 7 ; cf. Regents Rep't, 1875, p. xiv. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1867, p. xxiii-xxiv. 
 
STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION II9 
 
 schools of the State and then made a successful campaign for 
 augmenting the annual appropriation.^- Upon the failure to obtain 
 the full $200,000 asked for, provision was made for a tax of one- 
 sixteenth mill or such as should yield the equivalent of $125,000." 
 The campaign had been largely waged by the advocates of the declin- 
 ing academy and the appropriation was attacked quite generally but 
 with especial effect by the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 The result was that in a year when $300,000 was embezzled from the 
 state treasury and corruption was at its height in both state and 
 city government, no provision was made for the continuance of the 
 appropriation.^* In 1875 a joint committee of the State Teachers 
 Association and the Convocation sought but failed to obtain the 
 unification of the two education departments and the appropriation 
 of sums of $61,000 each to the use of academies and high schools." 
 Similarly in 1886 a bill for the appropriation of $60,000 failed to 
 secure the approval of a hostile Governor although it seems to have 
 met little opposition in either house." 
 
 The first permanent step toward increasing the amount of state 
 aid to secondary schools was, however, taken in the following year 
 when the additional sum of $60,000 was granted, making the total 
 general appropriation $100,000.^' Of this sum, $12,000 was from 
 the income of the literature fund, $28,000 from the income of the 
 United States deposit fund and the remaining $60,000 was an 
 appropriation from the general funds. This act therefore had the 
 effect of establishing beyond all doubt the principle of a fixed state 
 policy to aid secondary as well as elementary schools from the 
 general funds. 
 
 In 1895 the principle of granting a definite quota of $100 to each 
 accredited school was established by law after a long period of 
 agitation by the Board of Regents." And by 1901 the number of 
 schools had grown so considerably that the total of annual available 
 funds was increased from $106,000 to $350,000 exclusive of special 
 appropriations for the expenses of the Board of Regents." As these 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1872, p. 477; 1873, p. 485, 494, 591-600. 
 
 "Laws of 1872, chap. 541, 736. 
 
 " Sowers. D., Financial History of the State of New York, p. 19-23. 
 
 " School Bulletin, 1875, p. 56, 92. 
 
 ^'Academy, 1:154, 192, 230; Regents Rep't, 1887, p. 262; see Governor's 
 Message in Senate Documents, 1886, no. 2, p. 22-24. 
 
 " Laws of 1887, chap. 709. See Rep'ts of Committee of Assoc. Acad. 
 Principals, in Academy, 3 129. 
 
 "Laws of 1895, chap. 341. 
 
 "Laws of 1901, chap. 498. 
 
I20 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 and successive acts took account of the methods of distribution, 
 further discussion is reserved for the following section. 
 
 2 Distribution and Apportionment of the Literature Fund and State 
 
 Appropriations 
 
 Of little less significance than the amount of state aid are the 
 methods of its distribution. The New York methods in both second- 
 ary and elementary education show continuous if interrupted 
 progress and also in general follow similar lines of development. 
 By the end of the century the State had taken its place in the fore- 
 front of the various states of the Union in this matter. In the 
 secondary field three general plans of distribution have been used: 
 (i) apportionment according to the number of pupils who met a 
 minimum requirement as to course of study, (2) payment by results 
 measured in terms of examination credentials, and (3) apportion- 
 ment by quota based on inspection. While these systems over- 
 lapped, they parallel in a general way three different methods in the 
 Regents supervision of secondary schools. Before 1865 they 
 depended almost wholly upon reports from the schools. Although 
 these were continued after that date, examinations were then begun 
 and came to be regarded as the best means of supervision and the 
 best basis for distribution of funds. By 1890 inspection was under- 
 taken seriously and with it came a great development in the number 
 of schools and therefore in standards that made the quota method 
 possible and effective. For a discussion of these types of Regents 
 supervision, see chapters 5 and 6. The further fact that institutions 
 must meet certain requirements of equipment, buildings and endow- 
 ment in order to be admitted to the University has been treated in 
 chapter 3. 
 
 Although at the very outset the basis of distribution in practice 
 as well as theory was that of the particular needs of the individual 
 schools, there v/as soon developed the plan of payment on the basis 
 of the number of pupils reported by the schools. In 1817 the Regents 
 passed an ordinance requiring pupils who were to be counted for the 
 distribution to pursue the branches considered preparatory to col- 
 lege. This practice worked the hardship of not giving recognition 
 to other than classical studies, although it proved a significant means 
 of differentiation between the academies and the common schools.^" 
 Consequently in 1827 the Legislature provided for extension of the 
 
 ** See chaps, i and 3. For history of academic fund with quotations from 
 sources, see Regents Rep't, 1894, i :r53 flF. 
 
STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION 121 
 
 distribution to include both higher Enghsh branches and classical 
 branches.'^ The legal definition of the " preHminary studies " for 
 these branches was revised from time to time by the Regents in their 
 instructions and the ruling was made that pupils should be eligible 
 to be counted as classical pupils if pursuing the elementary classi- 
 cal studies and the first book of Virgil.-- The law of 1827 further 
 laid down the requirement that pupils to be counted must have pur- 
 sued the required studies for a period of four months, a clause 
 which was not modified until the University Law was completely 
 revised in 1889. However the Regents in 1864 had defined this 
 requirement as meaning 13 full weeks of study,-^ a requirement 
 which fitted well enough the conditions of the first half of the 
 century when pupils went to school for short periods only, but which 
 had become antiquated by the time the high schools began to spring 
 up in any numbers. 
 
 From 1827 to 1864 the Regents were unable to conduct such 
 inspection as would provide them directly with information as to 
 whether pupils were meeting the requirements of the laws and 
 ordinances or indeed whether the academies themselves were 
 endeavoring to maintain the required standards. They devised 
 therefore more detailed forms for the annual reports which no 
 doubt gave a fairly true picture of the status of the schools. Refer- 
 ence to table 14 will show that the numbers of pupils claimed for 
 participation in the distribution from year to year from 1850 to 1865 
 bears an almost constant ratio to the total number of pupils in the 
 schools indicating that, while the school officials apparently were not 
 more prone with time to report falsely, the standard of the secondary 
 schools was not improving generally since the number taking ele- 
 mentary branches was too large. The same table gives evidence of 
 a tendency on the part of the Regents to eliminate an increasingly 
 larger number of those claimed by the principals, the causes com- 
 monly cited being " short time " or " insufficient studies." The 
 annual reports of the committee on the distribution of the literature 
 fund are full of evidence that gross carelessness prevailed among 
 the principals in the filling out of the blanks. In January 1866, 
 1 714 pupils were rejected out of 22,157 claimed. 
 
 "Laws of 1827, chap. 228. 
 ^Regents Instructions, 1849, p. 58. 
 ^ Manual of the Regents, 1864, p. 62. 
 
122 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Table 14 
 
 Statistics of attendance in secondary schools and of the distribution of 
 
 academic funds ^ 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 REPORTING 
 
 PUPILS 
 ENROLLED 
 
 
 
 ANNUAL 
 
 
 DISTRIBU- 
 
 
 TION 
 
 17 
 
 912 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 
 524 
 
 
 470 
 
 18 
 
 osi 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 I 
 
 030 
 
 2 
 
 239 
 
 22 
 
 235 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 3 
 
 153 
 
 4 
 
 702 
 
 20 
 
 443 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 3 
 
 885 
 
 6 
 
 610 
 
 6 
 
 049 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 2 
 
 661 
 
 17 
 
 222 
 
 7 
 
 577 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 4 
 
 888 
 
 2S 
 
 571 
 
 8 
 
 356 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 6 
 
 536 
 
 31 
 
 257 
 
 II 
 
 547 
 
 40 
 
 000 
 
 8 
 
 92s 
 
 25 
 
 189 
 
 21 
 
 SII 
 
 100 
 
 000 
 
 17 
 
 763 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 POPULA- 
 TION OF 
 STATE 
 
 ISSO 
 18SS 
 i860 
 186s 
 1870 
 i87S 
 1880 
 1885 
 1890 
 
 Total 164 
 
 High schools. ... 2 
 
 Total 165 
 
 High schools .... 8 
 
 Total 192 
 
 High schools. ... 22 
 
 Total 202 
 
 High schools. ... 34 
 
 Total 195 
 
 High schools. ... 73 
 
 Total 216 
 
 High schools. ... 121 
 
 Total 240 
 
 High schools. . . . 156 
 
 Total 261 
 
 High schools. ... 191 
 
 T9tal 335 
 
 High schools. . . . 234 
 
 31 S80 
 850 
 
 29 967 
 I 81S 
 
 36 951 I 
 6 983 I 
 
 36 133 
 6 573 
 
 30 775 
 12 509 
 
 30 254 
 22 no 
 
 31 254 
 19 261 
 
 37 043 
 25 656 
 49 514 
 34 S14 
 
 3 097 394 
 3 466 212 
 3 880 735 
 
 3 831 777 
 
 4 382 759 
 
 4 698 958 
 
 5 082 871 
 5 540 362 
 S 997 8S3 
 
 > Compiled from Regents Rep'ts, 1851, 1856, 1S61, 1866, 1872, 1876, 1881, 1886 and 1891. Com- 
 plete accuracy can not be claimed for these figures as schools were apt not to report on all items 
 in a given year. However the relative growth of the high school and the relation of the number of 
 schools and of pupils to the funds distributed and to the total population are clearly shown. The 
 annual sums distributed are approximate. 
 
 It was with a view to defining the standard of entrance upon 
 secondary instruction after vainly petitioning the Legislature for a 
 change in the requirements,-* that the Regents instituted the pre- 
 liminary examinations, in four elementary studies. At the outset 
 about a third of the enrolled pupils at the secondary schools took 
 these tests and the number rated as passing even in the three years 
 before the Regents required the sending of the papers to the office 
 was less than 5000. In 1867 they voted that pupils formerly counted 
 should still be counted and in the distribution of that year 9012 were 
 counted on the basis of the preliminary examinations of that year 
 and 4128 on the basis of former distributions. This total of 13,140 
 was opposed to 20,443 participating in the previous year and from 
 this point there was steady decline until 1872 when only 5783 pupils 
 shared in the funds, as against 22,685 ten years previously and 22,788 
 in 1854, the maximum record. Reference again to table 14 will show 
 that there was a decline in the total number so that, while from 1855 
 to 1865 the average was about 35,000, for the fifteen years follow- 
 ing it was about 30,000. By 1885 the number of pupils had risen 
 again to the former figure and about one-third were now regularly 
 
 *^ Regents Minutes, 6:306-8; Regents Rep't, 1858, p. 12-13. 
 
STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION I23 
 
 counted toward the distribution of the hterature fund as against 
 about two-thirds before the estabhshment of the preliminary 
 examinations. 
 
 However by 1880, two years after the establishment of the 
 advanced or academic examinations, and fifteen years after the 
 establishment of the preliminary examinations, the system of pay- 
 ment by results was extended, the Legislature in that year making 
 provision for a portion not to exceed one-fourth of the literature 
 fund to be distributed on the basis of the advanced examinations. 
 In the meantime the ratio per pupil counted in the appropriation 
 which had stood at $5.66 in 1838 and had declined to $1.95 in 1865, 
 had risen to $6.91 in 1872 and declined again to $4.76 in 1880.-^ 
 In three years more the amount granted on examination certificates 
 based on these higher examinations had risen to $10,000 at which 
 point it remained until 1887 when the restriction as to the amount 
 that could be distributed on this basis was removed and the annual 
 apportionment changed from $40,000 to $100,000. In six years 
 the payment for higher certificates usurped most of the fund and 
 the question of the advisability of continuing this form of distri- 
 bution was seriously raised. 
 
 The details of the allowance of a part of the fund for credentials 
 were modified from time to time. In 1880 the value set for the 
 intermediate certificate was $5 and for each of the diplomas, aca- 
 demic and college entrance, was $10.-*^ But in 1882, with the trans- 
 fer of plane geometry to the advanced part of the examination 
 schedule, the intermediate certificate was valued at $4, and the 
 academic diploma and the college entrance diploma, respectively 
 at $10 and $15 each.-' In case a pupil held the academic, and 
 obtained the college entrance diploma, an additional $5 was granted. 
 
 A new impetus was given secondary education in the latter part 
 of this decade, in part through the enlargement of activities of the 
 Board of Regents following the appointment of a new secretary 
 and also in part due to the increase to $100,000 of the annual 
 appropriation in 1887. From an annual sum of approximately $250 
 a school in 1850 and i860, there had been a decline to about $200 in 
 1870 rmd about $125 in 1880.-^ With this addition the new average 
 
 ^ The special one-sixteenth mill tax of 1872-73 had raised the total for that 
 year to approximately $30. See Sup't Rep't, 1873, p. 65, and Regents Special 
 kep't in Assembly Documents, 1874, no. 78. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1881, p. xvi. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1882, p. 264. 
 
 "* Regents Rep't, 1882, p. xv. 
 
124 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 was -$300 or very nearly that of 1840. A complete revision of the 
 examination schedule in the year 1890-91 added a number of new 
 subjects and an increase in the number of certificates issued. 
 
 On this basis a change was made in the apportionment on cre- 
 dentials. The nature and purpose of the changed system of grants 
 may be seen in the following quotation :-° 
 
 Schools are allowed $5 for each junior certificate or higher academic 
 credential issued, with $5 extra for the first diploma, and a second $5 extra 
 for the first classical diploma issued to each student. This rule gives a 
 premium for the balanced courses which lead to diplomas instead of cer- 
 tificates, as double payment, $10, is made for academic and English diplomas 
 and triple payment, $15, for classical and classical-scientific diplomas. . . . 
 The school is thus apportioned $5 when the junior certificate is allowed, but 
 not for any other 20-count certificate; $5 more for the 30-count; $5 more 
 for the 40-count; and for 50 counts, $5 if a 50-count certificate is earned; 
 $10 if an English or academic diploma is earned; $15 if a classical diploma 
 is earned. 
 
 For the first year under the new system there remained one-half 
 of the fund. This was reduced in the second year to about one-third 
 and in the third year it was practically wiped out. This remainder 
 was distributed on the basis of aggregate daily attendance of aca- 
 demic pupils who now were defined as those holding either the 
 preliminary certificate covering the elementary branches or in lieu 
 of this the 30-count certificate.^" 
 
 By this time opposition was developing to the system of payment 
 by results and there seems to have been doubt of its advantage at 
 times on the part of members of the Board of Regents. In the 
 conference of the Associated Academic Principals in 1889,^^ reso- 
 lutions were introduced, but not acted upon, favoring (i) the 
 discontinuance of the practice of publishing in the school journals 
 of the state lists of the secondary schools ranked according to the 
 amount of aid received,^^ and (2) a diflferent method for the dis- 
 tribution of the literature fund. In June 1892 there was published 
 in the last number of the Academy, a strong paper presenting 
 this opposition view and claiming that the results of the method were 
 as follows: (i) lowered standards of scholarship due to the pupil's 
 aim being centered in pass cards, (2) an unfortunate system of 
 coaching by principals whose tenure in many cases depended on the 
 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1892, p. 166-67. 
 
 *" Regents Rep't, 1892, p. 167-68. 
 
 " Academy, 5 :66-69. 
 
 "See columns of the Academy and School Bulletin, 1885-90. 
 
STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION I25 
 
 number of pupils passed and (3) neglect of real teaching and 
 dependence upon the Regents syllabus as a sort of maximum of 
 work.^^ 
 
 The crux of tlie whole matter was to be found in the rapid increase 
 of secondary schools with consequent decrease of moneys received 
 and the great danger of the lack of desirable uniformity in these 
 institutions.^* The secretary in his annual report for 1893 called 
 attention to these facts and to the need of a new system of appor- 
 tionment suggesting (i) the assignment of $100 each to the indi- 
 vidual schools which maintained a satisfactory academic course 
 and (2) scholarships for carefully selected pupils. ^^ During the 
 year there was prepared and sent out to each principal for his 
 criticism a detailed discussion of the various possible methods of 
 apportionment : number of schools, number of teachers, number of 
 pupils enrolled, total days of attendance, results as shown by exam- 
 inations and scholarships.-''*' The advantages and disadvantages of 
 each were stated but the weight of argument favored the last two 
 plans. On the basis of the responses of the principals, the Prin- 
 cipals Council drew up a set of working principles of distribution 
 as follows : recognition of the need of the State as a whole and 
 the largest number of citizens rather than of schools, aid to be so 
 apportioned as to give the advantage to progressiveness and to give 
 special opportunity to promising pupils. The report is best seen 
 in the following quotation : 
 
 After deducting for inspection, equipment grants, and $10,000 for aid to 
 the most promising students, it is recommended that the remainder of the 
 academic fund be apportioned on the basis of educational work accomplished 
 as shown in ofKcial inspection, sworn reports and regents' examinations.^'' 
 
 In April of the following year there was passed the so-called 
 Horton law,^^ which made up deficits and safeguarded their appear- 
 ance in the future and supplemented the existing appropriation with 
 the annual sum of $100 each to all secondar}'^ schools within the 
 University, a sum equivalent to that granted per teacher to the 
 elementar}' schools for some time.^^ 
 
 An oversight intentional or otherwise of the Legislature in 1897, 
 
 ^ Academy, 5 1293-97. 
 ^ See table 14- 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1893, p. r44-46; see also resolution of University Convoca- 
 tion, p. S48. 
 '■' Regents Rep't, 1894, i -^677-84. 
 "Log. cit. 
 
 **'Laws of 1895, chap. 341. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1896, 1 :r32-35, r70 ff. 
 
126 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 was followed by a successful lobby of the principals and the money 
 was forthcoming as usual.*" 
 
 The new ordinance based on the law read: 
 
 Besides $ioo, with one cent for each day's attendance of each academic 
 student, annually granted by law of 1895, ch. 341, to each secondary school 
 in the university, conforming to law and the regents' ordinances, there shall 
 also be granted pursuant to section 26 of the university law $5 for each 
 regular academic certificate or diploma issued and $5 extra for each pupil's 
 first diploma.*! 
 
 It will be seen therefore that in this year by law and ordinance 
 there were established the following principles of great importance 
 for the development of a sound and beneficent fiscal policy : ( i ) 
 equivalence of reward for all diplomas, classical and otherwise, and 
 thus equivalence of incentive for the pursuance of classical and non- 
 classical studies, and (2) such a distribution of moneys through the 
 annual quota that the need and effort of the poorer localities were 
 clearly recognized. The continuance of the distribution of a por- 
 tion of the fund on the basis of attendance stilled the opposition for 
 a time to the payment for results plan. In fact at the instance of 
 Secretary Dewey a vote was taken in the University Convocation 
 of 1896 and the plan was favored by two-thirds of those present.*- 
 
 The distribution of over $200,000 in 1898 was made as follows : 
 a little over one-third on credentials, nearly one-fourth on quota, 
 slightly less on attendance and the remainder for books and 
 apparatus.'*' 
 
 In the same year an important change was made in the method of 
 apportionment whereby the requirement of a certificate in the pre- 
 liminary branches in order that a pupil might be counted for the 
 attendance distribution was withdrawn, provided a University in- 
 spector ruled that the entrance requirements of the school were above 
 the requirements of the preliminary certificate.** This was un- 
 doubtedly the outgrowth of the conviction of Secretary Dewey, 
 former State Superintendent Draper, and some of the stronger prin- 
 cipals of the State and was in line with the recommendations of 
 President Eliot in 1890 favoring the supplementing of examinations 
 Avith inspection.*' 
 
 *• Regents Rcp'ts, 1897, p. 279; 1898, i : 8. 
 
 ^* Regents Rep't, 1895, 2:rii. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1897, i : 190-92. 
 
 ^ Regents Rep't, 1899, Rep't of H. S. Dep't, i -.332. 
 
 ** Op. cit., p. .^32-34. See chap. 5 and 6. 
 
 ** Regents Rep't, i8q8, Rep't of H. S. Dcp't. i : r26-27. 
 
STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION 127 
 
 In 1899 the amount granted on credentials approximated 40 per 
 cent, *° and in March of the next year the Board of Regents voted to 
 increase the grant for each day's attendance from i cent to 3 cents 
 after October i, 1901.*' No school was, however, to receive any 
 share of the academic fund for books and apparatus unless the aggre- 
 gate attendance had for two consecutive years amounted to 1000 
 days.** Nevertheless the amount granted on credentials had by 1900 
 risen to one-half of the annual apportionment,^^ and the revision of 
 the academic syllabus in that year gave the much-desired opportun- 
 ity to do away with the payment for results system. Probably the 
 practice of other states with highly centralized systems of secondary 
 education, in particular that of Minnesota, was a factor in its 
 elimination. ^° 
 
 At the opening of the century therefore, the principles involved in 
 the annual distribution of funds as typified in the act of 1901 were 
 as follows : ( i ) proportionately greater aid to the weak schools 
 through the uniform $100 quota; (2) the stimulation of local eflfort 
 in improving library and apparatus facilities through grants up to 
 $250, on condition of similar amounts raised by the communities, 
 and (3) the return to the plan of distribution of the bulk of academic 
 funds on the attendance basis. The examination system with the ac- 
 companying syllabuses and graded courses of study had therefore 
 completely lost its function of forming a basis for distribution while 
 inspection on the other hand had become essential to distribution 
 because it determined the status of schools as regards their ability to 
 meet the Regents standards. 
 
 In one feature, however, the charge for tuition to nonresident 
 pupils, equalization of opportunity had not yet been eflfected. In 
 fact it had been felt until late in the previous century that the old 
 academy system had the virtue at least of making no discrimination 
 in this regard. In 1902 it was found that while the smaller villages 
 were well provided with high schools, they enrolled (yj per cent of 
 the total number of nonresident pupils and had one nonresident in 
 every 4 pupils. ^^ Recent legislation in Massachusetts and the inter- 
 est of Governor Odell expressed in a Convocation address, led the 
 Regents to request an appropriation for this purpose and in 1903 an 
 
 "•Regents Rep't, 1900, Rep't of H. S. Dep't, i :r8-9. 
 
 ■"Regents Rep't, 1901, p. 209. 
 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1901, p. r48. 
 
 *° Regents Rep't, Rep't of H. S. Dep't, p. rio-13. 
 
 "• Regents Rep't, 1899- Rep't of H. S. Dep't, i :332-33- 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1903, p. ri5-i6. 
 
128 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 act was passed setting aside the sum of $100,000, to be distributed so 
 as to pay up to $20 a year of 8 months the academic tuition of pupils 
 living in communities not maintaining an academic department.^- 
 The only precedent was an act of 1873 which had failed of fruition 
 because of a failure to make appropriations.^^ Regulations were 
 adopted by the Chancellor of the University and the Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction governing ehgibility of pupils and of schools 
 and giving an approved list of the latter. °* 
 
 Sums apportioned to this woi"k were rapidly increased and the 
 requirements made more stringent, particularly in regard to the 
 studies. Of approximately $230,000 so distributed in 1910, the 
 smaller villages of 2000 and under were receiving 60 per cent, so that 
 the weaker schools were again being disproportionately aided. A 
 considerable amount of controversy centered about the fact that this 
 type of aid was refused the academies proper but this was largely 
 discontinued with the unification of the two state departments in 
 1904. Three significant defects of the method of distribution were 
 remedied in a revision act of 1912:^^ (i) pupils attending more than 
 8 weeks but less than 32 were given proportionate aid, (2) pupils 
 attending from localities ofifering less than 4 years of high school in- 
 struction were counted if desiring to attend schools of a higher 
 grade and (3) schools charging more than the stipulated $20 were 
 allowed their full fee, the additional sum being charged upon the 
 district from which the pupil came. The law with its amendments 
 proved of great value not only in providing secondary education 
 facilities to large numbers of worthy pupils but in encouraging the 
 school authorities to establish schools of a higher grade. ^^ 
 
 The last step in the use of state aid to encourage secondary edu- 
 cation was the provision in 1913 for a scholarship fund, enabling a 
 limited number of graduates of each county who attained the high- 
 est standings to secure scholarship aid in the colleges of the State." 
 It was believed that this would also prove to be a definite means of 
 coordinating the institutions of higher education and of disposing of 
 the constantly recurring question of a State University which should 
 teach as well as direct and control.^^ 
 
 " Laws of 1903, chap. 542. An act of 1902, chap. 502, had provided for free 
 tuition to nonresident academic pupils in towns of St Lawrence county 
 accepting the township system. 
 
 "^Laws of 1873, chap. 642. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1904, Rep't of H. S. Dep't, i :ri8-32. 
 
 " Laws of 1912, chap. 276. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1907, p. 233. 
 
 "Laws of 1913, chap. 292, sec. 71. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep'ts. 1911, p. 333-35; 1912, p. 187-90, 893. 
 
STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION 1 29 
 
 Summary and Conclusions 
 
 1 With the estabhshment of the University, provision was made 
 that the Regents might hold and distribute funds. The first result 
 of this legislation was the creation of a literature fund, the income of 
 which year by year amounted to sums of $10,000 to $15,000 and w^as 
 distributed among the academies. 
 
 2 In 1838 shortly before the high school movement began, a part 
 of the income of New York's share of the United States deposit 
 fund, $28,000, was^laced annually at the disposal of the Regents for 
 secondary education and for the next fifty years a total of $40,000 
 was annuall}- distributed to the University secondary schools. 
 
 3 At a time when the high schools equaled the academies in num- 
 ber and attendance of pupils, 1872-73, a legislative enactment for one 
 year only supplemented these funds with about $125,000. In 1887 
 the total annual appropriation was increased to $100,000 and in 1901 
 to $300,000 and has been increasing definitely and rapidly since that 
 time. 
 
 4 Shortly before the high school movement was under way, aid 
 for two special functions, the training of common school teachers 
 and apparatus and library equipment, began to be given, the former 
 to selected schools, the latter to schools raising equivalent sums up 
 to $250. Both types of aid have been maintained and have been 
 significant factors in high school development. 
 
 5 The early method of distribution of state aid had been wholly 
 on the basis of attendance, at first to all pupils, later to all classical 
 pupils meeting certain standards, then to all pupils studying classical 
 and higher English branches, the standard being determined by the 
 Regents ordinances and the law. Finding that the standard of in- 
 struction and of entrance to academic work did not improve, the 
 Regents as a means to the more adequate distribution of the state 
 funds, introduced examinations in preacademic and later in academic 
 subjects. During the last third of the nineteenth century these 
 served as the major factor in distribution, the attendance basis not 
 being entirely set aside. 
 
 6 In order to equalize the distribution to the rapidly increasing 
 number of smaller high schools, an act was passed in 1895 providing 
 for an annual quota of $100 to each school in addition to the attend- 
 ance and examination apportionments. At the opening of the cen- 
 tury, with the system of state inspection of secondary schools under- 
 going a marked growth in efficiency, the examination or payment for 
 results plan was dropped. 
 
130 THE XEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 7 More recently the tuition of nonresident pupils and of graduates 
 of less than four-year high schools has been paid, a beneficent 
 practice in extension of the principle of equalization of opportunity. 
 \\'hile scholarships to academic scholars were early advocated, no 
 general fund was set aside but a half decade ago a fund was provided 
 for a limited number of scholarships in New York colleges, for high 
 school graduates meeting the examination standards most fully. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I.^I 
 
 Chapter 5 ■ 
 
 State Academic Examinations and the High School Course 
 
 of Study 
 
 The New York law never established requirements in regard to 
 the school subjects except as to the recognized elementary subjects, 
 physiology and hygiene, and industrial drawing, which last was 
 limited to larger villages and cities. They did, however, early estab- 
 lish the requirements for entrance upon academic studies.^ Con- 
 sequently the power of regulation of the course of study was left 
 largely to the Regents who allowed for a time almost complete free- 
 dom to the academies. This resulted in a laxity of standard as to 
 admission into the higher subjects and a tendency for pupils to 
 crowd into them without adequate preparation. The remedy was 
 found in the Regents examinations which were tirst applied to ele- 
 mentary or '* preliminary " subjects in 1865 and to secondary or 
 academic subjects in 1878. The intention at the time was undoubt- 
 edly to extend them to all grades of instruction. They came 
 later to be applied to professional subjects but not to academic 
 college subjects. 
 
 These examinations soon became the major concern of the Coard 
 of Regents and formed until near the close of the century the main 
 point of contact with the academies and high schools. They 
 exercised a controlling influence similar to legal requirements in 
 shaping the curriculums of the schools and there gradually developed 
 a state course of study, outlined in more and more elaborate sylla- 
 buses, and revised quinquennially in the latter part of the century. 
 This chapter aims to deal rather fully with the progress of the 
 ■' examination system " and its significance. 
 
 I Period of Delegation of the Examining Pozvcr to the Academies, 
 
 1 8 28- 1 86 5 
 The University Act of 1787 had empowered the Regents to 
 " examine into the state and system of education and discipline " in 
 the academies which were under their visitation and therefore enti- 
 tled to share in the state funds.- The power to make by-laws for 
 the admission of pupils into the academies was left, however, to the 
 boards of trustees and corresponding powers were granted to the 
 
 ' See chap. i. 
 
 'Laws of 1787, chap. 82. 
 
132 Till: XKW YORK STATE II Kill SCIIOOT. SVSTiai 
 
 college faculties to examine graduates of the academies who sought 
 admission to their classes. A further section provided, " That to 
 entitle the scholars of any such Academy to the privileges aforesaid, 
 the Trustees thereof shall lay before the Regents of said University, 
 from time to time, the plan or system proposed to be adopted, for 
 the education of the students in each of the said academies, respec- 
 tively, in order that the same may be revised and examined by the 
 said Regents, and by them altered or amended, or approved and 
 confirmed, as they shall deem proper." 
 
 In 1 817 the distribution of state funds was made to academies for 
 pupils pursuing subjects " usually deemed necessary as preparatory 
 to the admission of students to well-regulated colleges." Ten years 
 later this requirement which had been irksome to many academies 
 which preferred to teach chiefly other subjects than the classics, was 
 modified by the Legislature, and pupils were allowed to participate 
 in the distribution if they were pursuing " higher English " 
 branches.^ Neither the law nor the subsequent ordinances of the 
 Regents defined the content of these branches, but both the ordi- 
 nances and the occasional instructions prescribed in more detail than 
 the law, the requisite " preliminary " studies.* 
 
 A system of free election of .subjects by academic pupils grew up 
 and it became generally known that there were great numbers of 
 pupils in the academies pursuing elementary subjects for a good 
 share of their time and also that many pupils were taking advanced 
 or academic subjects in order that they might be counted for state 
 aid when they had not mastered the fundamentals. Further explana- 
 tions of the law and the instructions of the Regents which were 
 sent out from time to time failed to secure the desired results.^ 
 In 1S34 the age of pupils participating in the state fund was raised 
 to 10 years and in 1853 it was raised to 12.® A further effort was 
 made to safeguard the Regents and the legal standards in 1853, 1\\- 
 the requirement that pupils pursuing classical studies must have 
 previously met the requirements of preliminary study formerly 
 definitely required only of English pupils,^ and an affidavit was 
 required of the principals to that effect. ■ Moreover in the instruc- 
 tions of 1828, 1834 and 1853, the basis of entrance upon higher 
 
 'Laws of 1827, chap. 228. 
 
 * Regents Instructions, 1834 and 1853. 
 
 ^Regents Minutes, 6:306-9. 
 
 •Regents Minutes (MS), 4:12. Regents Instructions, 1853, p. 59, 64. 
 
 ' Regents Instructions, 1853, p. 59> 63-64. 
 
 "Ibid, p. 77. Cf. Regents Minutes, 6:275-76. 
 
STATI-: EXAMIXATIOiXS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 133 
 
 English and, presumably by implication, also, upon classical studies, 
 was to be an examination on the part of the principal.^ 
 
 An interpretation of this requirement in 1856, made it clear that 
 the Regents considered this examination compulsory and that the 
 term " due proficiency " which had been used to describe the neces- 
 sary degree of attainment for the passing of a pupil should be the 
 equivalent of the requirements for entrance in the same subjects into 
 the colleges of the State.^° Moreover it was held that the examina- 
 tion should preferably be public before a committee of the trustees 
 as that would tend to influence scholarship. In the following year 
 the report of the committee on the distribution of the literature 
 fund showed that the principals' reports were a constant source 
 of irritation." Principals neither followed specific directions nor 
 reported even under oath the correct items. The chief difificulty 
 was in deciding what pupils in each school were entitled to a share 
 in the distribution and large numbers of pupils, especially from 
 certain schools, were not counted. The committee held that the 
 theory of the educational system, namely that the academies 
 should have a course of study advanced beyond the lower 
 schools, was not carried out and that this theory demanded that 
 admission to the secondary schools be upon examination as in the 
 case of the New York Free Academy and other prominent high 
 schools. They further recommended that the requirements which 
 had been unchanged for thirty years should be revised. 
 
 2 The Regents Preliminary Exauiinatious 
 
 Previous therefore to 1864, the Regents had maintained a sem- 
 blance of direct control over the curriculums of the academies 
 through occasional inspections, and more particularly through 
 detailed annual reports, the schedules of which had to be attested 
 by the principals and were expected to give evidence that pupils 
 had pursued the prescribed studies. These studies were either named 
 in or based upon the law of 1827. In the case of the preliminary 
 studies, however, the Regents had supplemented the legal require- 
 ment of arithmetic, geography and grammar with reading, writing, 
 composition and declamation. Also in the case of the statutory 
 definition of a classical scholar as one who " shall have advanced 
 as far at least as to have read the first book of the Aeneid of Virgil," 
 
 •Regents Instructions, 1S34, p. 25-26; 1853, p. 63. 
 "Regents Minutes, 6:274. 
 " Regents Alinutes, 6 :3o6-9. 
 
134 Tl"- -"^'EW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 they had in 1828, 1853 and 1864 made considerable change in the 
 \va\- of addition and substitution, due no doubt to changing college 
 entrance requirements.^^ When therefore the need of definite action 
 to save the standard of scholarship in the academies became apparent. 
 it was a logical step to secure this by strengthening the safeguard 
 then in use, namely the principals' examination in the preliminary 
 studies.^^ Accordingly in the report of 1864, Secretary Woolworth 
 urged upon the Legislature the " practicability and expediency of 
 making the distribution (i. e. of the literature fund) . . . depend 
 upon merit as ascertained by competitive and comparative examina- 
 tions," and asked for an appropriation of $5000.^* The recommen- 
 dation was based on the practice in Europe and in a number of the 
 leading cities of the Stale in which high schools were established. 
 Failing to secure legislative action, the Regents in the same year 
 revised their ordinances and made the following new requirements :^' 
 
 1 Scholars to be divided into two classes, preparatory and 
 academic. 
 
 2 Public examinations in the preliminary branches to be held at 
 the close of each term under the direction of a committee appointed 
 by the trustees of the academy. 
 
 3 Success in passing the examination to be rewarded by a certifi- 
 cate of a form prescribed by the Regents, which was to entitle the 
 holder to admission into the academic class. 
 
 4 Admission to this class together with the fulfillment of the 
 requirements in the classics and a time requirement to entitle the 
 academy to count such student for a share in the distribution of the 
 state funds.^** 
 
 Before this ordinance was put into efifect, numerous requests 
 from principals led the Regents to send out examination questions ; 
 a single copy was sent to each school the first year but thereafter 
 sets sufficient to supply all the pupils taking the examination.^^ The 
 examinations were given for the first time in November 1865, and 
 included arithmetic, geography, grammar and spelling. In the Uni- 
 versity Convocation of 1866 they were made a special topic for dis- 
 cussion, following the report of a committee of investigation 
 appointed by the Chancellor, and from this time on this body was a 
 
 "Regents Instructions, 1834, p. 24-25; 1853, p. 62-63; Manual of the 
 Regents, 1864, p. 61-62. A table of the changes in requirements is to be 
 found in Miller, G. F., op. cit. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1866, p. 18; 1868, p. xxxi-iii. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1864, p. ir>-22. 
 
 " Manual of the Regents, 1S64, p. 60-62. 
 
 " See chap. 4. 
 
 " Regents Rep't. 1868, p. xxxii. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I35 
 
 significant factor in h\\ the modifications of the system." As a 
 result of experience and the suggestions and criticisms of the next 
 few years, numerous minor changes were made, the most important 
 of which was the requirement that papers claimed as passing should 
 be sent to the Secretary of the University/® In 1882 pass cards 
 were first issued in each subject so that a pupil was not required to 
 pass in a subject a second time. From 1868 on, the examinations 
 were made the basis of participation in the literature fund and came 
 into general use. Several of the colleges came to accept the Regents 
 certificates in lieu of their entrance examination in the subjects 
 covered. -° The questions were published in book form after a 
 period of ten years, were officially recommended for use in reviews 
 and came to be quite generally used for that purpose throughout the 
 State and in many places outside of the State.^^ By a Regents ordi- 
 nance of 1881,-- and by an act of 1882,-^ these certificates were 
 made requisite for the holding of a diploma from the teacher-train- 
 ing classes of the academies and union schools. In the latter year 
 the Court of Appeals ruled that prerequisites to law clerkships should 
 include this certificate together with pass cards in certain advanced 
 subjects, namely American and English history, and English com- 
 position.^* 
 
 The purposes of the examinations were formally stated in the 
 annual reports of the Regents and the annual circulars sent out 
 in explanation of the privileges and requirements incident to the 
 giving of the examinations : 
 
 1 A uniform standard of scholarship in studies declared by the 
 statute to be preliminary to the classics and the higher branches of 
 English education, as a condition of the distribution of the literature 
 fund. 
 
 2 More thorough instruction and more exact scholarship in the 
 elementary branches.^"* 
 
 3 The eflfect of the system in elevating the general standard of 
 scholarship in all the public schools ; and the substantial value to the 
 pupil of a University certificate as an official testimonial of 
 scholarship.-^ 
 
 The annual reports of the Regents indicate that the system was 
 
 '' Reg:ents Rep't, 1867, p. 565-69. 
 "University Manual, 1870, p. 82-83. 
 ^^ Regents Rep't, 1877, p. xii. 
 
 ^' The Regents Questions, 1866-1876. See School Bulletin: 3:33, 204; 7:13, 
 126. 
 ^^ Regents Rep't. 1882, p. xxiii, 261. 
 ^"Laws of 1882, chap. 318. 
 
 "' Regents Rep't. 1882, p. 274. Cf. Hough, op. cit., p. 844. 
 "^ Regents Rep't. 1867, p. xxv. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1871, p. 426. 
 
136 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 in general favor within a few years of its establishment and had in 
 the main subserved the interests for which it had been devised. 
 Typical statements from the annual reports are the following : 
 
 1 The influence on scholarship and in securing a higher estimate 
 of those studies which are essential in preparation for the duties of 
 life, is positive beyond anything ever before experienced.-^ 
 
 2 This system of examinations, the most extensive in respect to 
 the number of institutions and scholars participating in it, and the 
 best established of its kind in the country, is steadily growing in 
 favor and influence as an educational agency .^^ 
 
 Numerous schools came to make special occasions of the distri- 
 bution of the certificates and their attainment was much sought 
 after.2» 
 
 When, however, after two years the examinations came to be the 
 sole test for participation in the literature fund and some of the 
 stronger schools had been forbidden the privilege of using their own 
 entrance examinations, which had been earlier established and were 
 no doubt somewhat better adapted to local conditions, as the Regents 
 examinations could not be, opposition arose.^° It seems probable 
 that the earlier laissez faire regime during which the Regents pre- 
 scribed but could not enforce the principals' examinations had 
 resulted in almost complete ignoring of the Regents ordinance. Con- 
 sequently the transition was hard, especially as many schools were 
 quite unable to keep their former rank in the sharing of the state 
 funds. However, as this requirement had been in vogue before the 
 high schools came into existence and they were either under the 
 general or special laws made subject to the Regents ordinances, 
 there was no redress. Among the more significant protests that 
 arose in the early history of the preliminary examinations and the 
 partial or complete answers of the Regents are the following : ( i ") 
 Injustice was worked upon certain academies which had a large 
 number of one-term winter pupils and extra-state pupils, as these 
 were unwilling to take the examinations and therefore the school's 
 loss in state funds was considerable. The establishment of the aca- 
 demic examinations m 1878 probably made the distribution more 
 equitable. (2) Lack of honesty in conducting the examinations 
 existed while of even more significance was the utter lack of a 
 uniform standard in the grading of papers. In 1870 and thereafter 
 
 '' Regents Rep't, 1874, p. xvii. 
 
 ^ Regents Rep't, 1877, p. xii. 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts. 1877. p. xii; 1878. p. 411-12. 
 
 "Regents Minutes, 7:291-92, 319. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I37 
 
 the papers considered as passing were reviewed at the Regents office. 
 (3) The questions were too difficult and too technical to be a fair 
 test. With experience there was considerable modification which 
 on the whole was more generally favored than was the abolition of 
 the examinations. In 1881 supplementary examinations were given 
 in arithmetic and geography. (4) There were tendencies to cram- 
 ming and to the concentration of attention upon the four subjects 
 in which examinations were given to the detriment of such subjects 
 as history and composition. The addition of reading and of the 
 academic subjects met the latter difficulty. The question of cram- 
 ming has always been a constant matter of debate.^^ 
 
 3 Establishment of Advanced or Academic Examinations: Relation 
 to College Entrance Requircjuents, 1864-188^ 
 
 It is evident that the Regents at the time of the establishment of 
 the preliminary examinations had in mind a more comprehensive 
 system including academic and higher examinations.'^ The Uni- 
 versity Convocation,^' had taken for its official functions, coopera- 
 tion in the securing of advanced standards of education and the 
 harmonization of the various parts of the state system.'* The 
 earlier reports of the annual conferences are replete, as are indeed 
 the contemporaneous reports of the other gatherings of the state's 
 educators, with discussions looking toward the accomplishment of 
 these ends.^^ The establishment of the academic examinations 
 in 1878 may be definitely attributed to the work of this body. 
 
 The consideration which led to these examinations was that of 
 college entrance requirements and their lack of uniformity. In the 
 period of rapid growth of higher schools in the second quarter of 
 the century, the Regents had failed to create a clear-cut differentia- 
 tion between the academies and high schools on one hand and the 
 colleges and universities on the other. The New York Free Acad- 
 emy had from the outset been more truly a college than a secondary 
 school, and this was characteristic of a number of the corporate 
 academies. This fact is evidenced by the parallel nature of the 
 
 ^'Univ. Convoc. Proc. in Regents Rep'ts, 1867, p. 565-69; 1877, P- 572-74- 
 Also School Bulletin. 2:63, 78-79. S6-87 ; 5:99-100; 7:126. 146-47- 
 
 ''^Regents Rep'ts, 1864, p. 19-22; 1868, p. xxii. For a later effort to bring 
 !lie colleges under a uniform system of examinations for graduation, see 
 the Report of a Joint Committee of Representatives of the Colleges and 
 the Regents, in Assembly Documents, 1877, no. 27. 
 
 " See Circular to Principals of Academies, in New York Teacher, t2:354-55. 
 
 "Regents Rep't. 1864, app., p. 3. Proc. of Univ. Convoc. of 1863. 
 
 " See annual reports of proceedings in the Regents Rep'ts, 1864-85. 
 
138 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 secondary school curriculunis with those of the colleges of the 
 State and the further fact that from 1795 to 1870, at least six of 
 these schools had actually become colleges. It was charged by the 
 academies that certain colleges admitted students which were not 
 of equal proficiency with the students of the academies."^ While 
 The University of the State of New York had failed despite vigorous 
 efforts at different times to become a university of instruction,"^ the 
 western states were developing their state universities and bringing 
 the various parts of the state system into a more coordinate whole. 
 Without a state university and without sympathetic relationships 
 betw'cen the two state departments of education, it was the oppor- 
 tunity of the Convocation to make the first essay in bringing about 
 a more advanced status of college instruction and a sharper differ- 
 entiation of the courses of the secondary and higher schools. 
 
 Upon the recommendation of a special committee of this body at 
 the third annual session in 1865 after full discussion in both the 
 academy and college sections, there was adopted a suggested pro- 
 gram of entrance requirements for the colleges of the State. The 
 list of subjects was as follows: 
 
 Mathematics ; algebra to equations of the second degree, and plane 
 geometry. 
 
 Greek : Xenophon's Anabasis, 3 books ; and Homer's Iliad, i book 
 with prosody. 
 
 Latin : Caesar's Commentaries, 4 books ; Virgil's Aeneid, 6 books ; 
 Cicero, 6 orations ; Sallust's Cataline ; Sallust's Jugurthine War or 
 Virgil's Eclogues; Arnold's Latin Prose Composition, 12 chs. 
 
 Prerequisites : arithmetic, English grammar, descriptive geogra- 
 phy, classical geography, History of the United States. Greek and 
 Roman antiquities.^® 
 
 This recommendation was based closely upon the existing practice, 
 which showed the following status as regards the 15 colleges in the 
 State: 14 required arithmetic and EngHsh grammar; 13, Caesar's 
 Commentaries; 11, modern geography. Greek grammar, Virgil, 
 Cicero, Latin grammar and algebra; 10, Anabasis and elementary or 
 United States history ; 9, Greek Reader ; 8, Latin prose composition.^^ 
 The exceptions are geometry and Greek antiquities which appear 
 but twice, Sallust and Virgil's Eclogues, and the Iliad which was 
 required by six colleges. Moreover the modal amount of subject 
 
 *" Academy, 3:36. Recrents Rep't, 1891, 1:456, 459. 
 
 " Rep't of a Select Committee, Apr. 21, 1857, in Regents Minutes, v. 6. 
 app. 2. 
 
 "* Regents Rep't, 1867, p. 555. 
 
 "Statistics of Collegiate Education, in Regents Rep't, 1866, p. 180-84. The 
 above is a compilation from this source. 
 
STATE KXA.MINATIONS AND 11 Kill SCIIOOI. COIKSI-: 139 
 
 matter was accepted m Cicero, Caesar, algebra, Latin prose com- 
 position and VhgW but the amount re(|uired by colleges exceeded the 
 recommendations of the Convocation in the Anabasis and the Iliad. 
 There is thus clear evidence of college domination, a natural con- 
 sequence of the fact that the hnal recommendations came almost 
 wholly from the college section of the Convocation.*" An able 
 report presented by an academy principal advocating uniform col- 
 lege entrance requirements under the control of the Regents and 
 additional entrance requirements in natural philosophy, chemistry, 
 rhetoric, geology and plane trigonometr\-, which were not at the linic 
 required by any college of the State, seems not to have been seriously 
 discussed.*^ 
 
 A committee report of the following year stated that nine of the 
 stronger colleges were in sympathy with the recommendations, three 
 taking exception only to the plane geometry requirement.*- At the 
 same session resolutions were unanimously adopted asking the 
 Regents to appoint a committee to consult with the colleges and 
 teachers of the State concerning the appointment of a special board of 
 examiners to conduct college entrance examinations, and to recom- 
 mend to the Regents the desirability of preparing written examina- 
 tions in higher English branches and classics for academies that 
 desired such examinations.*^ While nothing came of these recom- 
 mendations they indicate the trend of thought among the educational 
 leaders of the State. Moreover another issue that was before the 
 minds of the Regents was that of the desirability of a uniform course 
 of study for academies and union schools which should be rewarded 
 with Regents testimonials or certificates.** 
 
 At the Convocation of 1873 a resolution was passed requesting the 
 Regents to establish higher examinations "as a basis for entrance 
 into college." Again no action was taken and it is probable that the 
 colleges would have maintained exemption from the nature of the 
 law on the subject of admission, which placed that power in the 
 hands of the faculties.^^ In the meantime in 1875, certain of the 
 principals established the Inter-Academic Competitive Examinations 
 
 ''Regents Rep't, 1866, p. 3-4, 7-8, 11. 
 
 " Regents Reg't, 1866, p. 3. 
 
 *' Regents Rep't, 1867. p. 555-59- 
 
 *" Regents Rep't, 1867, p. 574. 
 
 "New York Teacher, 12:354-55; Regents Rep't. 1868, p. xxii. 
 
 *'Laws of 1787. chap. 82, sec. xvii. Cf. Regents Rep't, 1891, p. 457. 
 
T40 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 under the auspices of the Academic Literary Union and prizes ^vere 
 being offered in a number of the secondary school subjects.*" These 
 were a subject for discussion in the Convocation of 1876 and the 
 argument was advanced that the Regents safeguarded through the 
 preliminary examinations the entrance into the academies but made 
 no provision for incentives to high standards of scholarship within 
 these institutions nor for securing a high degree of merit for the 
 diplomas of these schools.*" At the same session resolutions similar 
 to those of previous years were passed,*^ and in June 1877, a law was 
 secured empowering the Regents to institute academic and profes- 
 sional examinations and setting aside the sum of $5000 for the con- 
 duct of the former.*^ The provision concerning academic examina- 
 tions runs as follows : 
 
 6 The Regents of the University shall establish in the academies and 
 academical departments of union schools, subject to their visitation, examina- 
 tions in such branches of study as are commonly taught in the same, and 
 shall determine the rules and regulations with which they shall be conducted ; 
 said examinations shall be prescrilied in such studies, and shall be arranged 
 and conducted in such a manner, as in the judgment of the Regents will 
 furnish a suitable standard of gradualion from the said academies and 
 academical departments of union schools, and of admission to the several 
 colleges of the State; and they shall confer such honorary certificates or 
 diplomas as they may deem expedient upon those pupils who satisfactorily 
 pass such examinations. 
 
 The above-quoted section is of particular interest because it indi- 
 cates the large degree of power placed in the Board of Regents and 
 because it recognizes the two functions of the academic examina- 
 tions, as considered in the discussions of the Convocation: (i) a 
 standard graduation requirem.ent from the secondary schools and (2) 
 a standard admission requirement to the colleges. An act of 1880,''^° 
 crystallized the views of some of the principals and enacted into law 
 a vote of the Regents by providing that a portion of the literature 
 fund iTiight be distributed on the basis of the advanced examina- 
 tions.^^ The University Act of 1889 renewed the provisions of 
 1877 and 1880 and set the maximum fee to be charged for each 
 branch at one dollar,^" 
 
 ** School Bulletin, 2:3; 4:147; 6:10-12, 157; 7:113, 157, 158. 
 
 *' Regents Rep't, 1877, p. 572-74. 
 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1877, p. 508-9. 515. 
 
 "Laws of 1877, chap. 425. 
 
 "'Laws of 1880. chap. 514. 
 
 "School Bulletin, 6:68. 
 
 "Laws of 1889, chap. 529. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AM) 11 Kill SCHOOL COURSE 141, 
 
 It seems certain that the advanced examinations were estabhshed 
 because of the success of the preHminary examinations and the con- 
 sequent interest of the principals. The first five years of their his- 
 tory was, however, distinctly one of trial and error. There was no 
 precedent in New York or elsewhere for this type of work while 
 the problem w?is very much more difficult than the testing of ele- 
 mentary work because of the diversified curriculums of the 
 academies. The only statutory requirement concerning secondary 
 studies provided that a classical student should be defined as one who 
 " had advanced as far at least as to have read the first book of the 
 Aeneid of Virgil in Latin. "°^ The Regents in their instructions had 
 defined and redefined this until in 1864, they interpreted the classical 
 requirement for one who was to be counted for the distribution, as 
 including the elementary works prior to the classics and the first 
 book of Virgil, or its equivalent in Caesar, Sallust or Cicero.^* More- 
 over, as we have seen, the college entrance requirements and the 
 recommendations of 1865 had taken no account of the sciences or 
 modern languages. 
 
 In table 15 are seen the changes made in the advanced examina- 
 tions program in the first five years. The first draft or what was 
 called the " first complete curriculum " was made in 1878. The 
 decision was reached by the Regents after the presentation of a paper 
 and discussion in the University Convocation of 1877.^^ The paper 
 outlined the general scope of the new examinations and suggested 
 seven major groups of study from which any four might be chosen 
 and made the basis of a diploma. It also suggested that the exami- 
 nations would form a basis for admission to college, a standard 
 for diplomas of equivalent value from the various secondary schools, 
 an incentive to pupils and a means of emphasis of the importance of 
 the fundamental fields of knowledge. With this basis a joint com- 
 mittee of the Convocation and the Regents submitted a program to 
 the Board, and this was put into force in the series of examinations 
 which was offered in the year 1878-79 in four parts.^*' In the latter 
 year the University Convocation took up the matter of revision and 
 decided upon two courses of study, one in English branches, called a 
 
 " Laws of 1827, chap. 228. 
 
 "Regents Manual, 1864, p. 62. Cf. Regents Instructions, 1834, p. 24, and 
 1853, p. 62. The establishment of the system of examinations practically 
 annulled the force of both the law and the Regents ordinances but they 
 stood without change in 1882. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1878, p. 373-74, 4ii-i7- 
 
 " Ibid., xiii, 376. 
 
J 42 
 
 Till-: XEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL S> ST1-:.M 
 
 Tarle 
 Academic examinations 
 
 PLAN OF 1878-701 
 
 Required subjects 
 Algebra 
 
 Amer. (and gen.) hist. 
 Chemistry 
 Nat. philosophy 
 Physiology 
 Plane geometry 
 Rhet. & Eng. comp. 
 
 Group I (any 4) 
 Bookkeeping 
 Botany 
 Geology 
 
 Mental philosophy 
 Physical astron. 
 Physical geog. 
 
 Group II (any 4) 
 Drawing (free & mech.) 
 English literature 
 General history 
 Moral philosophy 
 Plane trigonometry 
 Science of govt. 
 Zoology 
 
 PL.\N OF 1879-80 * 
 Intermediate certificate 
 
 Graduating course 
 Algebra 
 Amer. history 
 Physical geog. 
 Physiol. & hyg.' 
 Plane geometry 
 Rhet. & Eng. comp. 
 
 Academic diploma 
 Group I (any 4) ' 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Botany 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Geology 
 
 Moral philosophy 
 
 Plane trig. 
 
 Polit. economy 
 
 Science of govt. 
 
 Zoology 
 
 Group II (any 4) ' 
 'Astronomy 
 Chemistry 
 English literature 
 General history 
 Mental philosophy 
 Natural philosophy 
 Trig, (complete) 
 
 College enl. course 
 Algebra 
 Amer. hist. 
 Caesar, 2 books 
 Geog., desc. & class. ' 
 Greek grammar 
 Latin grammar 
 Plane geometry 
 
 College enl. diploma 
 
 Caesar, 2 addit. books 
 Cicero, 6 orations ' 
 Latin prose comp. 
 Sallust, Cataline 
 Sallust, Jugur. War, or 
 
 (Virgii, Eclogues) 
 Virgil, Aeneid, 6 books • 
 Greek & Roman antiq.' 
 Homer, Iliad, i book • 
 Xenophon, Anab. 3 bks." 
 
 Substitutes for group II Substitutes 
 French • French ' 
 
 German German 
 
 Greek « Greek 
 
 Latin » Latin 
 
 ' Regents Rep't, 1870, p. xi. 
 
 - The e.xamination in drawing was chiefly through specimens presented. 
 
 'The schedule of examinations, June 1878 to June 1870 (see Regents Rep't, 1879, p. xii) 
 provided for an elementary and advanced examination in these subjects. 
 
 « Regents Rep't, i88o,p. xi-xiii. Revised in conformity to Rep't of Committee of Convocation, 
 1879 (see Regents Rep't, 1879, p. 484-85). 
 
 ' For physiolog>' and hygiene, for i study of group I and i study of group II, i year's work in 
 foreign language could be substituted and for other courses in groups I and II, advanced language 
 credits. 
 
 ' These subjects were divided into two parts for the examinations which were given in year 
 1S79-80; Regents Rep't, 1880, p. xii -xiii. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 
 
 143 
 
 15 
 
 plans, 1878-83 
 
 PLAN OF 1881-82 ' 
 
 Intermediate certificate 
 
 Academic course 
 Algebra 
 Amer. hist. 
 Physical geog. 
 Physiology & hyg. 
 Plane geometry 
 Rhet. & Eng. comp. 
 
 College eni. course 
 Algebra 
 Amer. hist. 
 Caesar, 4 books 
 Plane geometry 
 
 PL.\N OF 1882-83 " 
 Intermediate certificate 
 
 Academic course 
 Algebra 
 Amer. hist. 
 Physical geog. 
 Physiology 
 Rhet. & Eng. comp. 
 
 College ent. course 
 Algebra 
 Amer. hist. 
 Caesar, 4 books 
 
 Academic diploma 
 Group I (any 4) 
 Bookkeeping 
 Botany 
 Geology 
 
 History of Greece 
 Moral philosophy 
 Polit. economy 
 Science of govt. 
 Zoology 
 
 Group II (any 4) 
 Astronomy 
 Chemistry 
 Eng. literature 
 History of England 
 Mental philosophy 
 Physics 
 Plane trig. 
 Roman history 
 
 Substitutes ' 
 Caesar (for 3 subjects) 
 French trans, (for 2 subjects) 
 German trans, (for 2 subjects) 
 Virgil, Aeneid (for 2 subjects) 
 Cicero, Orations (for i subject) 
 Sallust, Cataline (for i subject) 
 Virgil, Eclogues (for i subject) 
 
 Coll. ent. diploma '• 
 
 Cicero, 6 orations 
 Latin prose comp. 
 Sallust, Cataline 
 
 Virgil, Eclogues 
 Virgil, Aeneid 
 
 Homer, Iliad, 3 books 
 Xenophon, Anab. 3 bks. 
 
 Academic diploma 
 Group I (any 4) 
 Bookkeeping 
 Civil govt. 
 Eng. literature 
 History of England 
 History of Greece 
 History of Rome 
 Mental philosophy 
 Moral philosophy 
 Polit. economy 
 
 Group II (any 4) " 
 Plane geom. reqd. 
 Astronomy 
 Botany 
 Chemistry 
 Drawing 
 Geology 
 Physics _ 
 Plane trig. 
 Zoology 
 
 Substitutes ' 
 Caesar (for 3 subjects) 
 French trans, (for 2 subjects) 
 German trans, (for 2 subjects) 
 Virgil, Aeneid (for 2 subjects) 
 Cicero, Orations (for i subject) 
 Sallust, Cataline (for i subject) 
 Virgil, Eclogues (for i subject) 
 
 Coll. ent. diploma 
 
 Cicero, 6 orations 
 Latin comp. 
 Sallust, Cataline 
 
 Virgil, Eclogues 
 
 Plane geom. reqd. '2 
 Homer, Iliad, 3 bks. 
 Xenophon, Anab. 3 bks. 
 
 ' Combined in one examination, " Classical geog. and antiquities." 
 
 'Regents Rep't, 1881, p. 468-69; Instructions of 1881. 
 
 ' Substitutes allowed for all but algebra, American history, geometry and two subjects of group 
 I and two subjects of group II. 
 
 "> Classical geography and antiquities as well as Latin and Greek grammar, included in other 
 examinations, due to labor of preparing papers. 
 
 "Syllabus of examinations, Dec. 1882, in Regents Rep't, 1882, p. 269-77. 
 
 '2 Plane geometry no longer required for intermediate certificate but on recommendation of 
 University Convocation of 1882, placed later in course. 
 
144 TWE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 graduating course and one in classics, for college entrance/' The 
 recommendations of principals and the test of experience led the 
 Regents to bring about the moditied program of examinations of 
 i88i.^* A still different program was devised the following year 
 which was the product of the Convocation and a special committee 
 and grew out of two able papers which were presented.^^ One of 
 these detailed the history of the examinations and the other sum- 
 marized the views of about one-third of the principals of the State 
 in answer to a questionnaire. Their answers indicated that while 
 most favored the continuance of the examinations all favored 
 definite modifications. 
 
 The division of the curriculum into intermediate and advanced 
 studies and the further dilterentiation into the academic or graduat- 
 ing, and the college entrance courses were the more striking changes 
 made in the first year (see table 15). Completion of each course 
 gave the pupil a special diploma. Further than this, political 
 economy was added, American and general history were separated, 
 and the subject of trigonometry was divided. In addition a number 
 of changes were made in the grouping of courses. Reference from 
 the college entrance course to the admission requirements recom- 
 mended in 1865 reveals the fact that these subjects are identical 
 except for minor details within each subject. This course was made 
 required without any options. 
 
 We may now turn to tlie question of the origin of the examina- 
 tion plans and of their change from year to year. The first plan 
 was in the main made up by taking the subjects taught in the largest 
 number of secondary schools reporting. A comparison with the 
 schedule of textbooks given in the last report available at the time 
 shows that all the subjects listed in more than 25 per cent of the 
 schools that were considered secondary in nature were included 
 except Roman antiquities and the principles of teaching '^^ (table 16). 
 The former of these subjects could be cared for in the Latin 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1880, p. 474, 483-85. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1881, p. 490-97. 
 
 ••Regents Rep'ts, 1882, p. 285-86; 1883. p. 283, 307-37. 
 
 "^ Regents Rep'ts, 1877 and following. This summary gives the texts used 
 and not the subjects taught in the various schools, but a comparison with 
 earlier reports where the other practice was in vogue indicates that the 
 numbers parallel each other closely and that no considerable error is made. 
 The numbers slightly exceed the number of academies as a few schools 
 report two books. Nine subjects, taught in less than ten schools each, are 
 omitted from the first column. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 
 
 145 
 
 examinations and the latter was provided for in the special examina- 
 tion for teachers classes. However, presumably because they were 
 universally taught, two elementary subjects appeared in the list, 
 bookkeeping and geography, the latter as physical geography. Of 
 subjects taught in less than 25 per cent of the schools, drawing and 
 zoology were included. Similarly the seven required subjects in this 
 plan were obtained by taking the highest ten subjects and eliminating 
 the three foreign languages. 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Latin grammar. 
 
 Natural philosophy . . . 
 Physiology & hygiene. 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 Greek grammar 
 
 German 
 
 Botany , 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 U. S. history. . . 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 French 
 
 General history . 
 Geometry 
 
 Geology 
 
 Trigonometry 
 
 Law and government . 
 History of literature . . 
 
 Princ. of teaching 
 
 Roman antiquities. . . , 
 
 Moral philosophy 
 
 Surveying 
 
 Intel!, philosophy 
 
 Mythology 
 
 Anal, geometry , 
 
 Natural history 
 
 Criticism 
 
 Logic 
 
 Christianity 
 
 Zoology 
 
 Natural theology .... 
 Grecian antiquities . . , 
 
 Meteorology 
 
 Mineralogy 
 
 Navigation 
 
 Political economy 
 
 Physical geography. . 
 
 Drawing 
 
 History of Rome .... 
 History of Greece . . . , 
 History of England . . 
 Cicero's Orations .... 
 Xenophcn's Anab . . . 
 Caesar's Commen . . . 
 
 Homer's Iliad ._ 
 
 Sallust's Cataline .... 
 
 Latin comp 
 
 \^rgirs Eclogues 
 
 Virgil's Aeneid 
 
 
 Table 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 jxtbook 
 
 s in use 
 
 in the secondary schools^ 
 
 186^-66 
 
 1S75-76 
 
 1S77-7S 
 
 1S81-S2 
 
 1SS4-8S 
 
 
 222 
 
 226 
 
 231 
 
 249 
 
 243 
 124 
 
 Beginning 
 Higher 
 
 217 
 
 224 
 
 218 
 
 231 
 
 229 
 94 
 
 Grammar 
 Lessons 
 
 201 
 
 193 
 
 192 
 
 204 
 
 192 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 178 
 
 188 
 
 179 
 
 258 
 
 
 175 
 
 174 
 
 137 
 
 173 
 
 192 
 
 
 40 
 
 164 
 
 178 
 
 183 
 
 249 
 
 
 iss 
 
 155 
 
 ISS 
 
 160 
 
 107 
 
 147 
 
 Grammar 
 Lessons 
 
 115 
 
 146 
 
 160 
 
 147 
 
 202 
 
 
 146 
 
 146 
 
 147 
 
 164 
 
 144 
 
 
 94 
 
 145 
 
 153 
 
 118 
 
 IS6 
 
 
 IS7 
 
 134 
 
 185 
 
 197 
 
 238 
 
 
 145 
 
 130 
 
 133 
 
 120 
 
 144 
 
 
 184 
 
 130 
 
 131 
 
 84 
 
 121 
 
 
 07 
 
 113 
 
 122 
 
 100 
 
 57 
 
 
 I8S 
 
 103 
 
 189 
 
 213 
 
 235 
 83 
 
 Plane 
 Solid 
 
 69 
 
 94 
 
 104 
 
 100 
 
 129 
 
 
 109 
 
 93 
 
 91 
 
 75 
 
 61 
 
 
 59 
 
 87 
 
 106 
 
 176 
 
 338 
 
 
 32 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 no 
 
 157 
 
 
 108 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 59 
 
 70 
 
 
 62 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 
 83 
 
 SO 
 
 55 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 
 82 
 
 48 
 
 77 
 
 IS 
 
 SI 
 
 
 62 
 
 46 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 38 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 
 35 
 
 IS 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 II 
 
 s 
 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 159 
 
 60 
 
 52 
 
 so 
 40 
 
 65 
 218 
 
 52 
 
 80 
 64 
 
 118 
 
 III 
 98 
 
 191 
 70 
 58 
 54 
 51 
 
 137 
 
 
 1 Compiled from Regents Rep'ts, 1877, p. 453-66; 1879, p. 441-55; 1883, p. 270-73; 1886, p. 
 676-82. In the last two reports, books were omitted which appeared less than 10 times for a 
 period of 4 years. The order of subjects is that of the greatest frequency for 187S-76, in which 
 year 10 subjects are omitted as the total number of texts was less than 10. In 1882, natural 
 philosophy was called physics, and history of literature, English literature. 
 
146 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 In the Regents Report in 1882 occurs the statement that the ad- 
 vanced examinations are intended to " include the subjects usually 
 taught in academies and ... to form a suitable standard for 
 academic instruction." Comparison of the textbook schedules from 
 year to year (table 16) with the programs of examinations, shows 
 that to no small degree the examinations were shaping the secondary 
 standard. Political economy, as a subject for secondary instruction, 
 was presented as was also drawing in the Convocation of 1879, and 
 the former was placed in and retained in the course, although taught 
 in less than 25 per cent of the schools."* Similarly zoology, mental 
 philosophy and moral philosophy have failed to become at all gen- 
 erally taught but are retained. Natural philosophy, later called 
 physics, having been placed in the elective group lost in numbers of 
 schools taught while physical geography appeared in the list and was 
 taught in more than one-half of the schools. Also the subjects his- 
 tory of Rome, history of Greece and history of England appeared 
 simultaneously in the examination schedules and the academy curri- 
 culums, about one-fifth of the schools introducing these courses in 
 two }ears. Many other shifts in the relative place of subjects may 
 be noted by reference to table 16. Nothing is more interesting and 
 suggestive as proving the influence of the examinations than that 
 \vhile there are 16 subjects, largely scientific in nature, each taught 
 in more than ten of the reporting secondary schools in 1876 which 
 were not included in the examination schedule, but two such sub- 
 jects remained in 1882 despite the fact that the number of schools 
 reporting had increased nearly 20 per cent. 
 
 The changes made in the examinations in the classical and modern 
 foreign languages are of particular interest. After a trial of one 
 year of dividing all but the German into elementary and advanced 
 subjects for examination purposes, the following year saw a change 
 into nearly a score of subdivisions of these branches. This entailed 
 so much labor that the subject examination plan was adopted in 
 1881.®' At this time also Sallust's Jugurthine War was dropped, 
 and the Grecian and Roman antiquities and classical geography were 
 combined with other branches. Caesar was given as a whole in the 
 intermediate course and Homer's Tliad according to common college 
 practice was raised from one to three books. Moreover more weight 
 was given to the languages in the academic course so that a pupil 
 could elect to take that diploma with strictly classical work. The 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1880, p. 547-52, 618-33. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1880, p. xi-xiii. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I47 
 
 justice of the increased weight lay in the fact that the classics took 
 much more time than the science courses which in most cases were 
 taught from the Steele's fourteen weeks' series. The intention, how- 
 ever, seemed to have been to place a premium upon classical sub- 
 jects as the classical or college entrance diploma was rewarded with 
 a larger sum of money from the literature fund, and which as a 
 special incentive was printed in Latin. The intermediate certificate 
 was retained but plane geometry, though still required, was made a 
 part of the more advanced curriculum. The Regents preliminary 
 certificate remained a prerequisite for higher certificates but the re- 
 quirement was removed that it must be obtained before entrance 
 upon the study for higher certificates. 
 
 A paper read at the Convocation of 1878 presented a favorable 
 report on the adoption of a uniform admission requirement but the 
 discussion revealed the fact that sentiment was by no means unan- 
 imous.®' While the college entrance course continued for some time 
 to parallel closely the requirements of the colleges, the next decade 
 saw but one-fourth of the colleges announcing the acceptance of the 
 Regents pass cards or diplomas in lieu of entrance examinations.®* 
 In table 17 may be seen the status of college entrance requirements 
 in New York colleges during the period under discussion. In most 
 instances the data represent the classical or literary course. Of 27 
 subjects not listed in the table and occurring in three schools or less, 
 16 are in the field of the classics. Of the remainder, physics, natural 
 philosophy, civil government and drawing appear but once each 
 while rhetoric and physiology appear three times each. In the 
 report of 1877. but six colleges report the scientific course leading to 
 the B.S. degree while in 1883 the number has increased to eight.®^ 
 However the entrance requirements were the same except for one 
 school omitting Latin and Green, two omitting Greek and one 
 omitting the Greek and most of the Latin. As to the divergence of 
 the entrance requirements in 1880 from the plans of 1865 and 1879, 
 it may be seen that only Sallust's Jugurthine War and Virgil's 
 Eclogues have quite lost their place and that there is some decline in 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1879, p. 577-79. 
 
 ** See Regents Rep't, 1882, p. 261 ; the statement is made that most colleges 
 accept the Regents certificates in part or in whole. The Secretary (Regents 
 Rep't, 1892, app. 4, p. 401-2) a decade later held that most colleges accepted 
 these credentials although not all printed this fact in their catalogs. An 
 nnchallenged statement was made in the University Convocation of 1894 (see 
 Regents Rep't, 189?. i :326) that all the colleges of the State hut one were 
 arrepting Regents diplomas. 
 
 " See Regents Rep't, 1877, ff. for annual reports of colleges. 
 
148 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 the generality of the Greek requirement, three women's colleges 
 permitting French to be substituted. It was undoubtedly the change 
 in college practice that made the algebra requirement " through quad- 
 ratics " in the examinations plans as opposed to the program of 1865. 
 
 Table 17 
 Entrance requirements in New York colleges, 1880 ^ 
 
 SUBJECTS COLLEGES * 
 
 abed e f g It i j k Imnopqrstuv 
 
 Latin grammar xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 
 
 Latin prose composi- 
 tion XXXXXX X XX XX XX XX 
 
 Caesar, Commentaries, xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxx 
 
 Cicero, Orations xxxxxx xxxx x x x xx 
 
 Virgil, Aeneid xxxxxx xxxx x x x xxx 
 
 Virgil, Eclogues x xx xxx x x 
 
 Sallust, Cataline xxx xxx x x 
 
 Greek grammar xxxxxxxx'xx x'xxx 'xx 
 
 Greek prose compo- 
 
 ^ sition X X x x x 
 
 Xenophon, Anabasis ..xxxxxxxx'xx x x 
 
 Homer, Iliad xxxxxx x xx ' x 'x 
 
 Ancient geography ....xxxx x 
 
 Arithmetic xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 
 
 Algebra xx4 4xx xxxxxx * x * * <x 
 
 Plane geometry xxxxxx xxxx xxxxxx xx 
 
 English grammar xxxxxxx xxxx xxxxx xxx 
 
 Composition x x x x 
 
 Geography x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 
 
 History of the U. S.. . . x xxx xxxxx xx xxxx 
 
 1 Regents Rep't, 1883, p. x-xiv. Checked by less complete reports of 1877 and intervening years, 
 and showing very few changes during the period under discussion. 
 
 -Key is as follows: a, Columbia; b. Union; c, Hamilton; d, Hobart; e. New York University;; 
 /, Madison; g, St John's; h, Rochester; 1, Elmira; j, St Lawrence; k, Alfred; i,In£;ham; m,^t Stephen's' 
 n, St Francis Xavier; o, Yassar; p, Manhattan; q, Cornell; r, College of the City of New York: 
 i, Rutgers; /, Wells; u, Syracuse; v, St Bona venture's. 
 
 ' German or French might be substituted in these three colleges for women. 
 
 * Quadratics included in the requirement of seven colleges. 
 
 In 1880 the first syllabus \vas prepared and furnished to the 
 secondary schools. It covered 28 pages and included 36 branches of 
 study and attempted to " define the extent to which the examinations 
 will be carried in each branch and to furnish some suggestions as to 
 the best method of pursuing the study.""" In the preliminary state- 
 ment or foreword it was held that the chief purpose of the examina- 
 tions w*as as a means to the just distribution of the literature fund. 
 but that great advantages were evident in the elevation of standards 
 of scholarship and study. The necessity of written academic ex- 
 aminations was brought about because of the inability of the 
 Regents in practice to supervise personally the principals' examina- 
 tions. " The chief difficulty in the administration of the system has 
 been the lack of uniformity in the courses of study, in the textbooks 
 used and in the methods of instruction." However, many subjects 
 could not be included, and three reasons were given; the diversity of 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1881, p. xvii, 462-97- 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I49 
 
 methods, the lack of any common standard of treatment and tlie 
 difliculty in some subjects of testing by means of written examina- 
 tions. Among these subjects were Spanish and ItaHan, phono- 
 graphy, gymnastics and agriculture. It was hoped that the schools 
 would continue to *' give instruction in whatever additional studies 
 their peculiar circumstances demand." The further suggestion was 
 made that the subjects given in the examination progi-am should not 
 be crowded into too brief compass but arranged in a systematic 
 course. 
 
 The revised syllabus of 1882 had for its most distinct contribution 
 four suggested schedules for schools using the advanced examina- 
 tions."' The classical course was arranged on a four-year plan and 
 the graduating or academic course on a three-year plan, with three 
 differentiations to suit the desires of those who wished to give respec- 
 tively a mathematical, scientific or classical emphasis. These were 
 later incorporated in the Regents Manuals and also often copied in 
 the school catalogs as the curriculums of the schools. 
 
 In conclusion it is seen that by 1882 when the advanced examina- 
 tions had been in use for 5 years and the preliminary examinations 
 for 17 years, the system had become well intrenched and had passed 
 from the experimental stage. Coming in at a time when prizes and 
 rewards of merit were very commonly given, it received criticism 
 largely for features that could be and were eliminated by the test of 
 experience. The secondary schools were given an opportunity to 
 find their place in the educational system much more completely, the 
 preliminary examinations enabling them to dififerentiate the sec- 
 ondary course of study from the elementary, and the advanced ex- 
 aminations with the prepared syllabuses having a similar function, 
 and one of only slightly less importance, in putting a stop to unwise 
 competition with the colleges at a time when the latter were under- 
 going rapid adjustments and extending their curriculums and courses 
 of study. There came about a degree of fixity in the formerly fluid 
 and unstandardized secondary curriculum, a condition which had 
 been encouraged by the fact that state aid could be had in the past 
 for any high-sounding subject which seemed not to be elementary in 
 nature. In general, the practice of the better schools, academies 
 and high schools alike, was made the norm for all secondary schools 
 in the University. 
 
 '' See Regents Rep't, 1882, p. 261-77. The report gives a brief interpreta- 
 tive statement but not the syllabus proper. 
 
150 THE NKW YORK STATE HIGPI SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 4 Revision of i8po 
 
 Except for the addition and division of subjects/* and for the 
 revaluation of the substitutions of the classics, no sweeping changes 
 were made until 1891 when the practice of quinquennial revisions 
 was begun. The half decade preceding was characterized by vigor- 
 ous discussions of the examinations in the conferences of the Uni- 
 versity Convocation and the Associated Academic Principals. The 
 problem of chief concern was that of preparing academic pupils for 
 the nonclassical college courses. In 1887 the Associated Academic 
 Principals appointed a committee to confer with the colleges and 
 obtain suggestions as to the possibility of uniform entrance require- 
 ments. Responses largely favorable came from only eight of the 
 colleges and the committee was not continued.-'^ A second committee 
 was appointed in 1889, this time representative of the University, 
 the colleges and the principals, and in the following year is pre- 
 sented a report.'" The net result of the committee's work, of the 
 suggestions of over one-half of the principals in reply to a ques- 
 tionnaire and of the discussions of the conference of 1889 was tlie 
 indorsement of a new diploma. The old academic diploma was to 
 be called the English diploma and to be modified only by the addi- 
 tion of certain subjects in advanced mathematics and science. In the 
 classical diploma, substitution of Greek composition for plane 
 geometry was to be made, and the substitution values of the various 
 Latin subjects were to be changed. The new or modern diploma 
 was to give special attention to the modern languages, the neglect of 
 which resulted, according to the view of the colleges, in pupils being 
 unfitted for the entrance into the newer and scientific courses. 
 
 When, however, the Regents devised a complete new arrange- 
 ment of courses and credits which has become the basis of the 
 present system, little or no attention seems to have been paid to this 
 plan. In the new program which was adopted only after '' Proof 
 under Revision " had been sent to the principals for criticism twice,'^ 
 and discussed fully in the Associated Academic Principals Con- 
 ferences of 1890 and 1891, the number of subjects was greatly in- 
 creased and a new system of weighting of subjects in terms of counts 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1894, i :r64. To the 15 academic subjects of 1879, there 
 were the following additions: i in 1881, 3 in 1883, 2 in 1885, i in 1889, 16 in 
 1890, and 10 in 1892. 
 
 "Academy, 4:27-33, 37-40. 
 
 ■"Academy, 5:14-21, 72. 
 
 '* Regents Rep'ts, 1891, i :24i-49. 291-94, 402-31 ; 1892, p. 159-75. 271-78, 
 282-88, 307-9; 1893, p. 307-11. Academy, 6:40-41, 43. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 
 
 I=il 
 
 was adopted. The count was interpreted as representing lo weeks' 
 work in a course which a pupil pursued parallel with two other 
 studies and in which he recited five times a week/- The whole 
 number of branches in the nine groups of studies was increased to 
 68 and the counts were distributed as follows: ten were given 4 
 counts each; two, 3 counts each; forty-four, 2 counts each and 
 twelve, I count each, or a total of 146 counts. The precedent for 
 this system of evaluation was to be found in the earlier practice of 
 allowing language credentials to be substituted for more than single 
 credentials in other subjects. Table 18 indicates the range of sub- 
 jects, the extent of subdivision into branches and the weighting in 
 the revision of 1890 as against that in 1888 and 1895. 
 
 Table 18 
 Weighting of subjects in Regents examinations, 1888, 1890, 1895^3 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 1SS8 
 
 1S90 
 
 189s 
 
 BRANCHES 
 
 WEIGHTING 
 
 BRANCHES 
 
 COUNTS 
 
 BRANCHES 
 
 COUNTS 
 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 2 
 9 
 4 
 6 
 8 
 7 
 4 
 
 16 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 12 
 12 
 15 
 
 17 
 20 
 16 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 3 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 36 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 18 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 16 
 20 
 
 
 18 
 
 Others 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 40 
 
 47 
 
 68 
 
 146 
 
 71 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 The leadership of Cornell among the New York colleges and 
 the offering of scientific courses in a number of the colleges natur- 
 ally led to the largely increased values given to natural science and 
 mathematics. The greatest development, however, took place in 
 the English studies. Rhetoric and literature were broken up into two 
 branches each and courses were added as follows : elementary 
 English, advanced English, English reading and six reading courses. 
 The Regents definitely sought to change the emphasis from technical 
 grammar and rhetoric to reading and to popularize the subject.'* 
 
 ■^ Regents Rep't, 1892, p. 160. 
 
 '* Manual of the University, 1888, p. 72; Regents Rep'ts, 1892, p. 160; 
 1S05. II, p. 438. In 1888 and 1890 the preHminary branches are inckided. 
 '■' School Rev., 1 :229, 232. 
 
1^2 
 
 THE XEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 There was also among the principals and college faculties a general 
 feeling that much more attention should be paid to the subject both 
 in its practical and cultural phases.''^ 
 
 The values of the old certificates and diplomas were modified to a 
 greater or less extent and new ones were added. These changes 
 may be seen in table 19."*^ 
 
 Table 19 
 Required counts for each type of certificate, 1890 
 
 CERTIFICATES 
 
 TOTAL 
 COUNTS 
 
 English Foreign 
 
 M.\THE- 
 
 
 HIS- 
 
 M.\TICS 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 TORY 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 OTHER 
 STUDIES 
 
 Preliminary 
 
 Medical students • 
 
 Law students 
 
 Junior 
 
 Academic diploma ' 
 
 English diploma 
 
 Classical diploma 
 
 Classical-scientific diploma '. 
 
 ' This and the law students certificate are introductory to professional degrees. 
 
 ' This diploma, unlike the others, allowed a considerable freedom in election. The requirements 
 were the 14 counts in the preliminary subjects, 6 counts each in the language group, the mathe- 
 matics group, and the science group and 6 from the groups remaining. It could be taken in such 
 a way that if 12 or more counts were earned in one subject, the name would be attached, as Latin 
 academic, or if 6 were elected in each of two subjects, a similarly appropriate name, as Latin-sci- 
 entific. In every case 10 of the 12 counts must be in advance of the preliminary studies. The 
 20 units listed under English were really to be taken from the language group as a whole and 
 the 6 under history from history and other studies. 
 
 '' 'ihis diploma prepared for entrance into advanced classes in the State Normal College at Albany. 
 
 Other features of the new system may be noted here. Additional 
 subjects might be had in the examinations, if the request were gen- 
 eral enough and in the first year, 1890-91, fifteen such subjects were 
 included.'^'^ Pass cards continued to be issued and without restric- 
 tion as to the sequence of subjects.'^^ However, in contrast to this 
 apparent policy of laissez faire in the matter of sequence in studies, 
 two programs were suggested, one for the classical and one for the 
 English diploma. Each covered three years and was arranged in 
 quarters so as to accommodate the giving of 36 counts, additional to 
 the 14 counts in preliminary' subjects. '^^ A study of these programs 
 
 "Academy. 5:43; Regents Rep'ts, 1891, 1:232, 379-402; 1892, p. 308-9. 
 '' Regents Rep't, 1892. p. 162-66. An evident error in the case of the Eng- 
 lish requirement in senior English certificate is corrected. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1891, i -.21$. 
 " Ibid. 
 '* Regents Rep't, 1892, p. 169-70. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I53 
 
 as well as of the requirements for the various certificates clearly in- 
 dicates that the Regents were utilizing the better organized courses 
 of study of the larger high schools and the recently developed 
 courses of study of the colleges much more than at the outset.*'' 
 
 Syllabus. Brief summaries or outlines of the major topics of each 
 of the studies in which the Regents examinations w-ere held were 
 made in 1880 and 1882. The intention had been to offer a guide to 
 method as well as subject matter, and the statements appear to have 
 been the result of the queries and suggestions of principals and 
 teachers. A more extended treatment was given in 1888, and the 
 new branches of that year were added.®^ The next syllabus is 
 dated April 1891 and followed the rather radical changes described 
 in the preceding section.^- Sixty-two separate subjects with sixty- 
 nine branches, thirty-four of which were required for the English 
 or classical diplomas, were treated. The amount of detail varied 
 from a statement in two lines concerning Virgil's Eclogues to a 
 50-page statement wath illustrations in drawing and form-study 
 which the Board had decided to require for the junior certificate.*^ 
 A relatively large amount of attention was given to the sciences. 
 History followed in amount of space given and then mathematics, 
 and then English and the foreign languages. In at least two cases 
 credit was given to individual principals who helped in the revision. 
 In fact the Associated Academic Principals Conference became a de- 
 termining factor in the whole matter of organization and administra- 
 tion of the examinations.** The following quotation is perhaps the 
 best statement that can be made concerning the intended functioning 
 of the syllabus : 
 
 The detailed syllabus which is given below has been prepared with the 
 view of indicating more definitely the scope and character of the examina- 
 tions in the several subjects. It is hoped that in this way the diversity in 
 preparation which tends to arise from the use of different text-books, and 
 from the different methods of instruction may be obviated. It is not the 
 design to interfere with that freedom and flexibility which ought to exist in a 
 system of instruction so extended as that conducted in the academies of the 
 state; but only to specify, with such exactness as may be practicable, the 
 subjects and the extent in each subject from which the candidates in these 
 examinations will be held responsible ... It will be expected . . . that the 
 instruction in the various subjects of examination will be kept up with the 
 advance made in them. The deficiencies of particular text-books must not 
 
 Regents Rep't, 1892, p. 182, 163 (footnote), 291-93. 
 
 Regents Rep't, 1892. app. I, p. i. 
 
 Regents Bulletin, no. 5, April 1891, in Regents Rep't, 1892, app. I, p. 1-158. 
 
 Regents Rep't, 1893. P- 347-49, 549-51- 
 
 Regents Rep't, 1895, i 792. 
 
154 I'm- ^'EW YORK STATE IIKUl SCHOOL SVSTKM 
 
 be pleaded in extenuation of inadequate knowledge, but must be supplemented 
 by the enterprise of the teacher.^s 
 
 The nature and scope of the suggestions made may be seen best by 
 ilhistration with some of the subjects of study. 
 
 English language and literature. The objects of these courses 
 were defined as skill in oral and written expression of thought and 
 the cultivation of a taste for good reading. The supplementary 
 statement, however, is made and borne out in the later pages of de- 
 tailed treatment that the courses in literature and rhetoric were 
 planned to make the pupil familiar with literary criticism and to 
 enable him to pass upon the merits of the great masterpieces. In 
 the examination in reading and to a large extent in writing the prin- 
 cipals were allowed a free hand. Spelling was to be tested by a 
 prepared list of lOO words. In elementary English the general 
 statement that the course should be made practical and include com- 
 position work, dictation etc., was followed by a list of subordinate 
 topics: general topics (largely grammatical), prefixes and suffixes, 
 stems, practical exercises. Advanced English followed the same 
 general lines but was also to include an outline of the history of the 
 English language. English composition and rhetoric were similarly 
 graded to each other, both treating of the general principles of the 
 sentence, paragraph and theme. In the case of rhetoric three pages 
 were devoted to qualities of style, figures of speech, kinds of dis- 
 course, versification and poetry. The courses in American and Eng- 
 lish literature were outlined in even more detail and had three gen- 
 eral features, the study of lives and works of authors, reading of 
 certain listed works of a large number of writers, and the detailed 
 study of certain prescribed classics for each year. 
 
 Other subjects. German and French only were divided into 
 courses to cover three years. In physiology and hygiene, fifteen 
 topics were given of which all had to do with physiology except two, 
 emergencies and diseases. General history for the first time in the 
 syllabus was outlined in detail under three heads, ancient, medieval 
 and modern. Civics, which took the place of civil government, was 
 divided into principles and forms of government, national govern- 
 ment, state governments and laws relating to American citizens. 
 Economics, which took the place of political economy, included 
 definitions, production, distribution and exchange. In stenography 
 the divisions of the subject for the three separate counts were to be 
 made on the ability to write 50, 75 or 100 words a minute and to 
 transcribe these in longhand or on the typewriter. 
 
 Resjents Rep't, 1S03, p. 7-8. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COLKSE I55 
 
 5 Revision of i8pj 
 
 The next revision of the examination program and syllabus came 
 in 1895. It followed therefore the report of the Committee of Ten 
 of the National Education Association and was adoj^ted only after 
 full consideration of that report/'' Principal Robinson of the 
 Albany High School, one of the two secondary school men on the 
 committee, was a leader in the conferences and also caused to be pub- 
 lished in the School Review an extensive correspondence between 
 himself and Dr Charles Eliot, chairman of the committee.**' In the 
 discussions and correspondence objection was made to the following 
 actual or implied features of the committee's report: (i) the idea 
 that preparation for college necessarily constituted also the best 
 preparation for life; (2) the lack of comparative evaluation of the 
 various subjects of study; (3) the lack of any place given to drawl- 
 ing, music, political economy and manual training and an undue 
 emphasis on mathematics and language; (4) the limitation in the 
 proposed schedules to 15 hours of recitation a week while many 
 schools required a larger number. 
 
 The revision did not bind the schools closely to the program of 
 ihe Committee of Ten. In fact little change was made in the posi- 
 tion of subjects in the earlier suggested schedules. An exception 
 was made in the case of English composition which was changed 
 from the last to the first year. A careful and detailed explanation 
 was made of the divergence from the recommendations in the order 
 of subjects in the schedules.'*^ Physiology was to be given in the 
 first year because it was required by law of all pupils and on account 
 of the importance of hygiene. The histor}^ of the United States was 
 to be given in the first year because contrary to the anticipation of 
 the committee it w^as not ordinarily required for entrance. Physics 
 was given in the third year so that mathematics could precede and 
 chemistry follow^ 
 
 This so-called fourth revision of the syllabus did, however, give 
 opportunity for a rather thorough working over of all phases of the 
 examination system. Among the more significant changes were the 
 following: 
 
 I The number of diplomas was reduced to one, the academic, and 
 
 "'Regents Rep'ts, 1893, p. 531-40; 1895, 1:272-33^, 397-99. 703-11. 72i- 
 " School Rev., 2 -.366-72. This magazine was in a sense the successor to the 
 Academy and was during this period the best clearing house for the discus- 
 sions of problems regarding the New York secondary schools. 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1895, 2 -.273-77. 
 
156 TIIR NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 consequently the premium of $5 for the classical diploma was dis- 
 continued. 
 
 2 The counts for various subjects were increased or decreased to 
 suit their supposed importance or difficulty. 
 
 3 A four-year high school course was planned instead of the three- 
 year course of the preceding syllabuses and the basis of the year's 
 work was increased from 10 to 12 counts. 
 
 4 One of the four annual examinations was dropped and the 
 schools were urged to consider the possibility of only two instead of 
 three. 
 
 5 United States history, physiology and drawing were absolutely 
 specified for the first year certificate. 
 
 6 A three-year English course was mapped out and English made 
 a requirement to the extent of one-sixth of the total amount of each 
 year of high school work. 
 
 7 Emphasis was thrown on the longer and more continuous courses 
 favoring treatment of a less superficial kind. 
 
 8 Psychology (mental science) and ethics (moral science) were 
 dropped and home science added.^° 
 
 The policy of the Regents during the interval since the last revision 
 had been to obtain the best thought of the principals and letters were 
 sent out in 1892 and following years, inquiring as to the length and 
 difficulty of the examinations and affording opportunity for com- 
 plaints or recommendations. This established a growingly more 
 favorable attitude of the teachers and principals and the growth of 
 the numbers taking the examinations w'as more rapid relatively than 
 that of the numbers of academic pupils. It was held also that small 
 schools sought admittance to the University for the advantage of the 
 examinations. Vigorous discussions continued to be held before the 
 various state meetings, this topic consuming a disproportionate 
 amount of attention. The annual reports of the Regents discussed 
 at some length the value of the system, reviewing discussions in the 
 current educational literature of this and foreign countries and 
 answering in detail objections that continued to be raised against the 
 narrowing tendencies of the examinations. As early as 1889 the 
 work of conducting and reviewing the examinations made necessary 
 the creation of a separate department and in 1895, with the thirtieth 
 annual report concerning examinations, a complete volume of Soo 
 pages was given to this topic. 
 
 Just as the preceding revision had done most in effecting a stand- 
 ardization of subjects by means of the count system, the present 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1895, 2:i-6-ri2, 265-67, ^tz-^A; Regents Rep't, H. S. Dep't, 
 I :5-7. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE I57 
 
 re\isioii gave a substantial impetus to the development of systematic 
 four-year courses. The center of interest was in the courses in 
 English which had grown so numerous and varied that the premium 
 had been placed on short and unrelated courses. Little stress had 
 been placed upon the subject in the early plans, but after a period of 
 nearly two decades the colleges were coming to set definite and 
 increased requirements. 
 
 The Convocation of 1895 considered as its major topic the ques- 
 tion " \A''hat do the colleges want of the secondary schools ?" and 
 devoted the time to English, mathematics, sciences, Latin, Greek and 
 modern languages.'''' The Association of Colleges and Preparatory 
 Schools of the Middle States and Maryland appointed a committee 
 to inquire into the status of English teaching. The report stated 
 that the great lack was that of " unity of effort and harmony of 
 method in teaching."^^ An English inspector was appointed in 1896, 
 and in December of that year a questionnaire was sent out to ascer- 
 tain what the colleges of the State were requiring for entrance. The 
 results showed a great variety of practice and the report brought the 
 matter home to the minds of all by the quotation of sample sets of 
 examination papers of the various colleges.®- A canvass of the sec- 
 ondary school teachers showed them about equally divided between 
 two major aims of teaching English, (i) habits of good oral and 
 written expression and (2) taste for and acquaintance with good 
 literature.®^ 
 
 In the January 1893 number of the School Review there had ap- 
 peared a paper by Professor Hart of Cornell on the " Regents 
 diplomas and school certificates in English." On the basis of a 
 study of the poorest 32 students in a freshman class of 179, he 
 argued that the admission of pupils by certificate or Regents 
 credentials in English should be abolished. He held that the 
 tendency was to give cram courses and that many schools lacked a 
 specific plan for English. As a result of the paper and the growing 
 interest in the matter, a small conference of secondary and college 
 teachers was held in the same year.®* and the Convocation gave a full 
 afternoon to the discussion of a three-year course in English and 
 voted favorably upon it.®^ In the meantime the Cornell faculty 
 
 *'Res:ents Rep't. 189s, 1:787-829. 
 
 "Ibid., p. 788. 
 
 "'" Resents Rep't. tSo", Rep't of Exam. Dep't, p. ^-^2 
 
 ^ Ibid., p. 536. 
 
 '* School Rev., i :2q6-300. 
 
 "* Regents Rep't, 1894, p. 411-50. 
 
158 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 voted not to accept students on school certificates and the Regents 
 a few days later adopted the following resolution : 
 
 That the Regents require satisfactory teaching of the English language, 
 especially in composition, for at least 3 hours each week during the academic 
 course, as a condition of admission to the University or of retention on the 
 list of institutions in good standing and entitled to receive apportionment 
 from the academic fund." 
 
 As interpreted by the Regents, this meant three periods of 40 
 minutes each or four of 30 minutes in work in composition and 
 literature, reading, writing, rhetoricals etc.'-*^ The Regents at the 
 same time voted to ask the principals to consider the advisability of 
 making legible and accurate English a necessity for pass cards and 
 certificates and also for a special inspector in English. 
 
 The most definite reform in the English program for 1895 was 
 therefore the establishment of a permissive three-year course in 
 English in addition to the other fifteen separate braitches.^^ This 
 course was determined in part by the curriculums of the stronger 
 New York high schools and in part by the efforts of different state 
 and national associations to create a graded and unified course in 
 English. Its subject matter included rhetoric, composition and liter- 
 ary classics. The problem continued to be a major topic of discus- 
 sion at state educational gatherings and the field was unorganized, 
 " an undiscovered country."^^ In 1898 a study was made of the 
 opinions of the principals as regards the advantages of the new 
 arrangement over the old and the few replies received showed that 
 there were real gains educationally, although the tiine element was 
 greater and this made teachers loath to try it out.^ 
 
 A brief review of the general movement toward uniform college 
 entrance requirements which attracted so inuch attention in the first 
 quinquennial of the century is in place here, when it is remembered 
 that the New York acadeinic examinations had largely grown out 
 of this conception. By 1896 it was practically the sole topic for 
 discussion at the various conferences on secondary and higher edu- 
 cation in New England and elsewhere. In February of that year 
 representatives from Cornell, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Princeton, 
 Yale and Harvard met at New York at the call of President Seth 
 Low. Detailed recommendations were made concerning Greek, 
 
 ** School Rev., 1:195, 232. The Cornell faculty then voted to accept the 
 Kecents requisites in English; see School Rev., 2:36. 
 " School Rev., i :226. 233. 
 ** Regents Rep't, i8qs, 2 •.2gi-g4. 
 "Regents Rep't, 1898, 1:12-37, 281-84. 
 ' Regents Rep't. 1899, p. 15, 365 ; Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :350. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COL^KSE I59 
 
 Latin, histury, mathematics and natural science.^ In the same year 
 a more representative committee was appointed by the National 
 Education Association with the following purpose : " To investigate 
 entrance requirements and to report on ways and means of securing 
 such uniformity in extent and method as will be conducive to the 
 best interests of both higher and secondary education.''^ The com- 
 mittee's report is a mine of information as to the existing practice in 
 the leading colleges of the country.* 
 
 In New York State the problem took concrete form in a contro- 
 versy about the change of policy in Cornell, which after the opening 
 of the century was to give but one, instead of five degrees, namely 
 the A.B. Resolutions were tabled in the 1896 meeting of the Asso- 
 ciated Academic Principals both favoring and opposing this action/^ 
 In a long discussion defending the change President Schurman held 
 that any study as well as the classics could give real discipline and 
 that a student's time should be distributed among the various fields 
 of learning.'' The counter argument was to the effect that the A.B. 
 had always stood for classical subjects and that the change meant a 
 definite lowering of standard.'^ 
 
 Neither the Academic Principals nor the Regents were able to 
 work out a program to which the colleges could agree.^ All recog- 
 nized more fully than hitherto the interests of secondary schools 
 and the fact that the high school could serve its local constituency 
 better, if given freedom from restrictions looking toward uniformity. 
 In a discussion of the elective system in the Convocation of 1898. 
 President Eliot and Dean Butler held that the tendency in New York 
 even more than elsewhere was to allow interest in an established 
 course of study and a uniform curriculum to overshadow the 
 problem of the needs of adolescent children for a practical educa- 
 tion.^ 
 
 A further specific indication of the influence of the revised ex- 
 amination requirements was the extension of time of various courses 
 so that, for example, the typical physics or chemistry course covered 
 40 weeks as opposed to 12 or 13, the course in United States history. 
 
 'Ibid., p. 419, 460. 535-38. 
 
 ' Proceedings of N. E. A., 1896, p. 558-59. 
 
 * School Rev., 4 :34i-46o. 
 
 'Regents Rep't, 18^98, 1:12-13, 185-^. 
 
 •Ibid., p. 64-78. 
 
 'Ibid., p. 103-8. 
 
 ' The former voted to ask the Association of Colleges and Preparatory 
 Schools to consider the question of uniform college entrance requirements ; 
 Reerents Rep't, 1895, i :6i2. 
 
 * Regents Rep't, 1899, i :2i8-5o. 
 
l6o THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 similarly, while Caesar and geometry were raised to 40 as opposed to 
 20 weeks. ^° Furthermore on account of the increased attention to 
 correcting the defects of English, the Regents were enabled so to re- 
 vise their ordinances as to withhold full credit, when papers were 
 deficient in English. As a general view of the efficacy of the sys- 
 tem, may be quoted the statement of Doctor Harris, then United 
 States Commissioner of Education : 
 
 The Regents have proved that a state examining board can exercise a stimu- 
 lating, elevating and unifying influence upon hundreds of institutions of 
 secondary education scattered over a large state, and can wield that power 
 with machinery which, considering the scale of operations, may fairly be 
 called simple and inexpensive." 
 
 6 Revision of 1900 
 
 The revision of 1900 was little less significant than that of 1895 
 except that the changes on the whole were somewhat less radical. 
 An unusually large part was taken by the Associated Academic Prin- 
 cipals and the contribution of various state and national associations 
 of teachers was more specifically used than hitherto. 
 
 A committee of the principals was appointed in 1895 and began 
 work in 1898. During that year two letters were sent out to the 
 principals of the State relative to revision. Numerous suggestions 
 were sent in by scattering replies but these did not indicate any 
 definite agreement or unanimity of opinion.^- With this beginning 
 the committee decided that any changes should be recommended 
 only after full discussion in the meetings of the whole body. In a 
 preliminaiy report the committee held that too many subjects were 
 being pursued by secondary pupils, that they were insufficiently 
 correlated and that the classical course was regarded as preparing 
 for college but that the general course led nowhere. ^^ An advanced 
 position was taken in the expression of the view that any good 
 four-year course should prepare for college and that, if it did not. 
 the college was at fault. 
 
 In 1898 a new committee was appointed consisting of two of the 
 three members of the former committee and five others and under- 
 took the specific task of preparing and recommending parallel 
 courses of study, academic, commercial, manual training, and 
 domestic science as well as mapping out a program for history and 
 
 Regents Rep't, 1897, i :r50-5i. 
 
 Ibid., p. r73. 
 
 Regents Rep't, 189Q, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. 367-68. 
 
 Ibid., p. 369-74. 789-96. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND niGII SCHOOL COURSE l6l 
 
 science.^* A letter was sent out in November of the same year 
 asking the. schools to report on what they considered ideal courses 
 and what were their actual courses of study. Out of io8 schools re- 
 porting the results were as follows : 2 reported an actual and 9 an 
 ideal general course; 71 reported an actual and 14 an ideal classical 
 course; 81, an actual and 13 an ideal Latin-scientific course; 31, an 
 actual and 8 an ideal modern language course ; 57, an actual and 8 
 an ideal English course. Sixty-seven different subjects or branches 
 of subjects appeared in the actual classical course, 68 in the actual 
 Latin-scientific course and 67 in the actual English course. A com- 
 parable study of the entrance requirements of 25 colleges showed, 
 as was to be expected, a less wide range as follows: 40 subjects or 
 branches in the classical course, 42 in the Latin-scientific, 45 in the 
 scientific course and 41 in the English course.^^ 
 
 Partial reports of the committee were made to the Associated 
 Academic Principals in 1898, and to the Convocation in 1898 and 
 1899. The final report was printed in December 1899 and became 
 the basis of detailed discussion in the meeting of the former body in 
 that year.^" Its recommendations were taken up separately and 
 voted upon. They were so closely followed in the final revised 
 syllabus that an analysis here is unnecessary. It should be noted, 
 however, that the result is clearly a product of the discussion of the 
 bodies of teachers and principals of the secondary schools and 
 colleges and yet was representative of the University in its effort to 
 work out the programs desired by that body and in the inclusion of 
 one of the inspectors in the membership of the committee. Special 
 committees reported on business subjects, English, mathematics, 
 science and history,^^ In general their reports were accepted by 
 the committee on revision. The history committee secured the 
 postponement of this matter until 1905. Of especial interest were 
 the recommendations of the committee for courses or working 
 programs of studies for each of four years of the high school course 
 and for specific courses of study, the liberal, including ancient lan- 
 guage, modern language, and combined ancient and modern lan- 
 guage courses, the professional, including courses preparatory to 
 law, medicine and teaching, and the technical, including courses in 
 manual training, commercial and home science.^* The Regents took 
 
 " Ibid., p. 374-75, 404-15. 
 "Ibid., p. 376-79, 416-22. 
 
 ^'Printed in full in Regents Rep't, 1900, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :r28-32. For 
 discussion, see p. 439-64. 
 "Ibid., p. 338-439. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1900, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. r32-42. 
 
l62 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 no action in this matter probably because the step was too much in 
 advance of the status of the great majority of secondary schools. 
 
 The new syllabus which went into effect in August 1900 differed 
 essentially from earlier syllabuses in the following respects : 
 
 1 The much-debated system of payment for results was aban- 
 doned. 
 
 2 Fourteen subjects and branches were dropped or combined with 
 others. 
 
 3 The work in English and history was reorganized and more 
 carefully graded, six of the seventeen branches in English being 
 eliminated. 
 
 4 New laboratory courses were planned in physics, chemistry, 
 botany and zoology, the courses and notebooks to be certified by the 
 inspectors. 
 
 5 A syllabus was prepared for state business certificates including 
 nine new subjects, and one in manual training with home science with 
 four new subjects.^® 
 
 A discussion of the more pertinent of these matters follows, 
 namely, the reorganization in English, history and science. 
 
 We have seen that the revision of 1895 had provided for the 
 permissive adoption of a systematic three-year Englisli course, based 
 on a very general feeling that the courses in English were of pecu- 
 liar importance and were also peculiarly unrelated in most courses of 
 study. We also saw that the agitation for reform grew out of the 
 long-standing problem of college entrance requirements. As early 
 as 1893, at its first meeting the Association of College and Prepara- 
 tory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland had appointed a 
 committee which had for its purpose the consideration of uniform 
 entrance requirements in English, and which began in the following 
 year a series of conferences on this matter.-^ These conferences 
 resulted in the adoption of lists of literary classics foi reading and 
 for study, which might be the basis of entrance examinations. The 
 adoptions were in terms of each academic year but were made for 
 some years ahead. After the first meeting other associations of 
 New England and the North Central States sent delegates. At the 
 spring meeting in 1897 in a definite effort to get representative views 
 concerning the teaching of English and especially concerning col- 
 lege entrance requirements, three New York State inspectors met 
 with the association. At the spring meeting in 1899 the University 
 was represented by one of its inspectors as delegate. 
 
 When therefore the 1900 syllabus was published, these reading 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1901, p. 11 and Rep't H. S. Dep't, 1:8-12. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1899, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :840-55. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 163 
 
 and study lists were set with but one slight change in each, and were 
 indicated for i;se in 1900-1, 1901-2 and 1902-3 for the subject of 
 English reading.-^ This subject had been announced in 1895 ^s an 
 appropriate fourth year study following the graded three-year 
 course. In 1900, however, the option was still left of this four- 
 year course or a more or less parallel series of studies as follows : 
 rhetoric, composition, English and American selections, advanced 
 English, ad\anced English composition and the history of litera- 
 ture.'- As indicative of the purpose of this revision of the subject 
 of English reading, and of the common practice in New York high 
 schools to allow pupils to work up these classics outside of class, the 
 following statement was made : 
 
 The texts for study call for close instruction in the study of literature. 
 The text should be explored both in its large factors and for the full thought 
 of each sentence. All enrichment by figure and allusion should be considered. 
 All peculiarities in form and expression, whether characteristic of the indi- 
 vidual or of the age, should be noted. 
 
 In history less had been accomplished. The special committee on 
 this subj'xrt, under one of the inspection staff as chairman, took as 
 its starting point the graded course of the Committee of Seven of 
 the American Historical Association which presupposed elementary 
 United States history in the grades.^^ The committee suggested 
 and secured, against the recommendations of the general committee 
 on revision, the postponement until 1905 of the placement of this 
 subject in the preacademic list. The subject of history as a whole 
 was found by the committee as far as the offering in New York 
 schools to have less recitation time than any of the languages, science 
 or mathematics. The tendency was believed to be more or less preva- 
 lent to read up and cram the courses for examinations. The net 
 results of the work of the committee and the consequent revised 
 syllabus were the development of a more balanced course somewhat 
 comparable with those that had been developed in English, mathe- 
 matics and Latin ; the division of United States history into ele- 
 mentary and advanced courses; and the omission of the courses in 
 general, French, and New York history. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting and progressive changes were made 
 in the scientific subjects. In 1896 the first meeting was held of the 
 New York State Science Teachers Association, as an offshoot of 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1901, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. 4S-49; for discussion, see 
 Rep^ents Rep't 1900, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :338-68, 449-50. 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1901, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. 49-54. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1900. Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :369-94. 441-49, 45^-62. 
 
164 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 ihe department of natural science instruction of the National Edu- 
 cation Association held in Buffalo in that year.-* The first two 
 sessions considered the general values and aims of science and such 
 problems as the laboratory, organization of courses and the require- 
 ments for college entrance. At the third meeting in 1898 there was 
 appointed a committee of nine which was broken up into subcom- 
 mittees. Reports of these subcommittees, which practically 
 amounted to syllabuses, were made in the subjects of biology, 
 botany, earth science and physics. The discussion centered largely 
 in biology, zoology and chemistry.-^ The next session, that of 1899, 
 was held in part conjointly with that of the Associated Academic 
 Principals, and the science committee of the latter reviewed the sug- 
 gestions for laboratory work of the committee of nine as well as 
 similar suggestions from other bodies. A questionnaire sent out to 
 the principals supplemented these data with opinions as to the ap- 
 propriate sciences for the high school course, their order of sequence 
 and the proper time allotment.-*^ 
 
 The syllabus therefore was the joint result of these various sources 
 of information. Outlines for physics and physical geography were 
 based definitely upon the work of the committee of the State Science 
 Teachers Association, foiTning the most definite illustration of a 
 growing tendency on the part of the Regents to go outside of their 
 body and the two long-standing bodies of teachers of the higher 
 schools for guidance in professional matters. Of the greatest 
 significance was the provision for the approval of laboratory courses 
 by the inspectors and for the counting of notebook work to the ex- 
 tent of 20 credits toward the examination upon the certification of 
 the inspectors. In the new manual training syllabus a similar prac- 
 tice was allowed, shopwork and home science being accredited on 
 the certificate of the principal with the approval of a University in- 
 spector in lieu of an examination.^^ This marked at once the 
 avowal of the Board to change the emphasis to laboratory rather 
 than textbook work in the sciences and to extend the function of 
 inspection to include part of that formerly assigned to the examina- 
 tions. 
 
 The requirement by the Regents of laboratory work as a condition 
 to credit in the natural sciences did not meet with complete favor on 
 
 " Regents Rcp't, 1899, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :62i-3i. 
 
 " Repents Rcp't, 1899, p. 447-621. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1900, Rep't H. S. Dcp't, p. 418-39, 456-59, especially p. 432 
 
 '• Regents Rep't. 1901, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i -.229-84. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 165 
 
 the part of many principals, especially those of the smaller schools, 
 used to obtairiing credits under the former plan, and now, as they 
 thought, lacking the time, place and money to meet the new de- 
 mands. The Associated Academic Principals in 1801 took the 
 matter under discussion with particular reference to physics and 
 chemistr}-.'-* The statement frequently made that the laboratory re- 
 quirements would drive physics out of the state schools was answered 
 by Inspector Cobb with the statement that no apparent elimination 
 had come about. The arguments presented were largely favorable 
 to the change, indicating a wholesome prospect that the movement 
 was not made in advance of general opinion in the matter. Exhibits 
 of apparatus in physics and chemistry were made and much was 
 accomplished in the way of bringing about cooperation on the part 
 of the secondary schools, the colleges and the Regents working 
 through their inspectors. For the first time in the history of sec- 
 ondary education in New York the sciences were placed upon some- 
 thing of an equivalent as regards the rigidity of courses and definite- 
 ness of state requirements. Moreover the secondary schools could 
 be said to be in advance of the entrance requirements in science in 
 most of the colleges of the State. 
 
 It was expected that the new requirements and the rapidly de- 
 creasing value of the appropriations, due to the increase of num- 
 bers of pupils and particularly accelei-ated by the additions of the 
 high schools of New York City, would cause a falling off of the 
 numbers taking the examinations. In addition (see table 20) the 
 percentage of pupils who were allowed out of the number claimed 
 by the principals had fallen below that of any year since 1888, duo 
 to increased rigor in the standards of the readers in the examinations 
 department. The gain was, however, steady and even relatively ex- 
 ceptional in the years 1901 and 1902. Table 20 also indicates the 
 very interesting growth in the numbers of schools taking the ex- 
 aminations, and percentage of papers both claimed and allowed of 
 pupils writing the examinations. 
 
 Repents Rep't, 1902, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :364-83, 439-54. 
 
1 66 
 
 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Table 20 
 Statistics of academic examinations, 1889 to 1905 ^ 
 
 YEAR 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 TAKING 
 EXAMS. 
 
 PAPERS 
 WRITTEN 
 
 PAPERS 
 CLAIMED 
 
 PAPERS 
 ALLOWED 
 
 PER CENT 
 
 OF 
 
 PAPERS 
 
 CLAIMED 
 
 PER CENT 
 
 OK 
 
 PAPERS 
 
 ALLOWED 
 
 PER CENT 
 
 CLAIMED 
 
 PAPERS 
 
 ALLOWED 
 
 1889 
 
 1892 
 
 1893 
 
 1894 
 
 189s 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 1899 
 
 1900 
 
 I9OI 
 
 1902 
 
 1903 
 
 304 
 357 
 393 
 
 417 
 467 
 517 
 
 557 
 608 
 639 
 672 
 699 
 726 
 730 
 
 193 197 
 278 907 
 302 471 
 357 908 
 388 945 
 396 760 
 421 588 
 446 837 
 481 482 
 
 511 020 
 
 538 833 
 
 558 301 
 
 539 241 
 
 107 149 
 176 SI6 
 
 i8s 677 
 
 238 319 
 259 932 
 
 256 599 
 268 953 
 303 361 
 333 970 
 374 392 
 411 039 
 438 047 
 418 230 
 
 99 079 
 
 155 869 
 
 l6s 676 
 211 533 
 231 231 
 224 403 
 239 671 
 271 999 
 296 994 
 345 117 
 353 939 
 382 855 
 358 015 
 
 55 
 63 
 61 
 67 
 67 
 64 
 64 
 
 68 
 69 
 73 
 70 
 78 
 78 
 
 51 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 59 
 59 
 S6 
 57 
 61 
 62 
 68 
 66 
 69 
 66 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 89 
 89 
 89 
 87 
 89 
 90 
 89 
 92 
 86 
 87 
 86 
 
 7 Recent Developments in the Examination System 
 Subsequent to 1900 there have been two general revisions of the 
 examinations, in 1905 and 1910. In the latter year it was decided 
 that in the future, revisions would be made by sections where there 
 was definite need.^'' As a result, at the usual time for revision in 
 1913-14, the subjects of drawing and music were made a matter of 
 careful study and reorganization by special committees of experts, 
 and special syllabuses and requirements were worked out. The 
 discussion following makes no attempt to treat fully the development 
 of the last fifteen years but rather to indicate the general tendencies. 
 Perhaps the most important change during this period was an 
 administrative one, the creation of a State Examinations Board. 
 This was the third step historically. At first the whole burden had 
 fallen upon the Secretary. In 1889, a separate examinations de- 
 partment was established because of the volume of work and num- 
 ber of people required to prepare the questions and read the papers. 
 This new board of twenty members had equal representation from 
 the State Education Department, college teachers, secondary school 
 teachers and elementary school teachers. ^^ The committee worked 
 through a large number of subcommittees in the preparation of the 
 examination questions and acted to some extent as a reviewing com- 
 
 " Regents Rep'ts, 1901. Rep't H. S. Dep't, iirig; 1902. Rep't H. S. Dep't, 
 i:ri.^; 1903. Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :r20-2i ; 1904, Rep't H. S. Dep't i :r40. 
 Statistics of earlier and later years are not piven because the changes in 
 methods make them incomparable with these figures. 
 
 '"Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1915, p. 254. 
 
 " Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1907, p. 236. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 167 
 
 niittee. In 1907 a committee of seven, including tlie tliree Assistant 
 Commissioi>ers of Education, was appointed to revise the examina- 
 tion questions.^- The first examination under the board was held 
 in June 1907. It seems safe to conclude from the results of the 
 next decade that the time was ripe for this step and that the work of 
 the board has very definitely increased the effectiveness of the sys- 
 tem and its adjustment through the work of the special committees 
 to the secondary school needs. At times perhaps the requirements 
 are set too high but this readily happens under any system. 
 
 It will be remembered that one of the problems that gave rise to 
 the establishment of the examinations was that of the adjustment of 
 the secondary schools and colleges and that it was hoped that the 
 college entrance diploma would be generally accepted within the 
 State. Had not the college course at about this time undergone 
 great differentiation, this hope might have been realized. As it was, 
 some colleges accepted the diploma and more accepted pass cards in 
 certain subjects. 
 
 At its thirteenth annual conference in 1899, the Association of 
 Colleges of the Middle States and Maryland took under considera- 
 tion the question of the lack of uniformity among the requirements 
 of the various coUeges,^^ and as a result the College Entrance Ex- 
 amination Board was instituted as an offshoot of the association. 
 Within a year twelve colleges, six of them located in New York, 
 accepted the plan of joint college entrance examinations. It was 
 believed that the secondary schools would profit in two respects : a 
 standard of graduation would be set and cooperation with the col- 
 leges would be possible to the extent that uniform preparation could 
 be made. This latter would save much time and energy as against 
 the former need of duplication of subjects in the secondary schools.^* 
 
 The interest of the Board of Regents and its staff was definitely 
 given to these examinations. It was even suggested that the 
 Regents examinations could be utilized for the purpose. ^^ It was 
 later hoped that some plan of cooperation might be worked out be- 
 tween the State Education Department and the College Entrance Ex- 
 amination Board.^® In this way economy of time, labor and expense 
 could be had. Nothing came of this scheme although the State 
 
 '' Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1908, p. 256. 
 
 '' Regents Rep't, 1901, p. 43 flf. 
 
 " Reeents Rep'ts, 1902, p. 51-52; 1904; Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. 338. 
 
 "^'Regents Rep'ts, 1901, p. 87: 1903, p. 116-21. 
 
 '^ Ed Dep't Rep't, 1906, p. 471-74. 
 
l68 THE NEW YORK STATE IIIGIT SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Examinations Board voted in 1907 to accept the ratings of the Col- 
 lege Entrance Board in lieu of all or part of the state credentials.^' 
 
 Simultaneously the Board of Regents at the suggestion of the 
 State Examinations Board adopted a new college entrance diploma 
 in lieu of the old classical diploma and divided it into two depart- 
 ments, science and arts.^^ This step was an outgrowth of a con- 
 ference of the colleges and the Department of Education in 1906,^^^ 
 and resulted in a large majority of the colleges of the State and a 
 numher of extrastate colleges accepting the Regents admission cre- 
 denials for college entrance.*'^ In 1914 the State Examinations 
 Board recommended three college entrance diplomas, leading to 
 courses in arts, science and engineering.'*^ The Regents accepted 
 this plan and prescribed for each course required preferential and 
 elective subjects totalling 70 counts. This plan is far more com- 
 prehensive and adjustable than any earlier one and is likely to make 
 for closer cooperation of the secondary and higher schools. 
 
 Turning now to the syllabus or state secondary course of study, 
 certain features are outstanding; a tendency to utilize more widely 
 the conclusions of various voluntary associations and the effort to 
 encourage longer and better organized courses. 
 
 In mathematics, the reports of committees of the American 
 Mathematical Society and the Society for the Promotion of Engi- 
 neering and committee reports of the National Education Associa- 
 tion were utilized. In the various natural sciences, the State Science 
 Teachers and certain national organizations had prepared sylla- 
 buses which were accepted with only slight modilications. The 
 history syllabus was built rather definitely upon the work of the 
 American Historical Association.'*- In the case of other subjects, 
 and indeed in all, some of the best experts in the State were called in 
 to assist. 
 
 Eaflier syllabuses had been accompanied by suggestive three- 
 year and four-year courses of study. However, the great develop- 
 ment of the number of courses and the application of the count 
 system in 1890, had tended to militate against systematic organized 
 courses and to stimulate pupils taking a large number of unrelated 
 
 ^' Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1908, p. 256. Accepted in 1914; sec Ed. Dep't Rep't, 
 191 5, p. 288. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1908, p. 237-39. 
 
 '• Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1907, p. 295-96. 
 
 *" Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1909, p. 255. Cf. 1910. i 1257. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep'ts, 1914, p. 169-70; 1915, p. 2S5-88. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep'ts, 1907, p. 26-247; 1910, 3:39, 50, 63, 73, I43, 148, 152, 
 169, 171, 442. 
 
STATE EXA.MIXATIOXS AND HIGH SCflOOL COURSE 169 
 
 short courses. Each of the late syllabuses aimed in one way or 
 another to correct the evil. Nevertheless it was stated in the annual 
 report of 1907 that comparatively little had been accomplished.*'' 
 Of all pupils taking the examinations in 1903-4, the work of two- 
 thirds was founded on the short courses of the syllabus. A more 
 definite effort was therefore made in the general revision of 1905 to 
 encourage longer courses and the more important changes made 
 were as follow's : half-year courses except three in biology were 
 abolished, the six short English courses were dropped, the English 
 course was extended to four years and an additional year was added 
 to each of three modern foreign 'languages. 
 
 The syllabus has continued to be viewed more broadly and, it is 
 to be hoped, followed more wisely.** The interpretation in connec- 
 tion with the revision of 1910 was to the effect that its purpose was 
 that of a " concise statement of a scheme of study prepared to indi- 
 cate the general scope and character of the instruction to be given by 
 the teachers and the work to be done by the students."*' The great 
 attention given to the reorganization of the secondary school curri- 
 culum in the last few years can not as yet be said to have gone far 
 enough to offer material for use by the Education Department, but 
 if one may judge from past history, it will be used when it is avail- 
 able. 
 
 Of peculiar interest are the changes made in the preacademic 
 field.**' The syllabus has been revised to provide for a six-year 
 elementary or preacademic course of study for the elementary school 
 and a supplementary course for the seventh and eighth grades. It 
 is not unlikely that this may result in a plan calculated to encourage 
 the junior high school movement.*' The subjects have been so 
 extended as to include elementary English, geography and ele- 
 mentary United States history with civics. Grade examinations 
 which had been established under the Superintendent of Public In- 
 struction as well as the preacademic or preliminary examinations 
 are now so definitely questioned that it seems probable that they 
 will be discontinued in the near future.*^ 
 
 The tendency to leave the reading of papers to the principals and 
 teachers of the school has entered the secondary field. Since 1918 
 
 "^Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1907, p. 259-61. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1908, p. 450, 451. 
 
 ** Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1910, p. 426. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep'ts, 1906. p. 11; 1910, 1:6-7. 
 
 *' Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1914, p. 204-5. 
 
 ^Ed. Dep't Rep'ts, 1913, p. 308; 1914, p. 90-96. 
 
170 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 this principle has cooperated with another, that of examining pupils 
 only in the last one or two years of a three-year or four-year course 
 in a subject, which together have lightened the won-: of the State 
 Department and tended to throw the emphasis less upon examina- 
 tions. It has come to be felt that a Regents diploma is now given 
 on the basis not only of examinations but also of inspection and 
 reports. 
 
 It is not yet possible to predict whether in the near future the 
 academic examinations will play a larger or smaller part in the 
 administration of secondary education. The more recent annual 
 reports indicate a broad attitude regarding them and a clear recog- 
 nition of the inadequacies and dangers of the system. In 1913 with 
 reference especially to preacademic examinations, the statement was 
 made: 
 
 Our almost insatiable desire for examinations in the State makes us over- 
 look at times the very right of the victim of them. The inertia of a state 
 system once inaugurated is colossal, and it is infinitely harder to discontinue 
 an outworn policy than it is to begin a wholly new movement."' 
 
 The more common view is expressed in the annual report for 
 1914: 
 
 It yearly becomes more and more evident that our system of i^cademic 
 examinations, thoroughly established as it is in our educational scheme, will 
 serve increasingly useful ends only in so far as it emphasizes the undesira- 
 bility of absolute uniformity and of arbitrary procedure and recognizes by 
 a more elastic administration the varying local needs of differently organized 
 schools. Effort is constantly being made to guard against the dangers of liie 
 purely mechanical processes inherent in any public examination system and 
 to characterize the operation of our own system by its elasticity and adapta- 
 bility rather than by its mere mechanical uniformity and formality.'^ 
 
 In this connection it is interesting to note that the intimate con- 
 nection at the outset of the exaininations with the distribtition of 
 academic funds which was broken between 1900 and 1906 was re- 
 established in that year by a vote of the Regents so that schools 
 sharing in the $100 quota and in apportionments for equi})ment and 
 nonresident tuition must take the state academic examinations.'^^ 
 
 In concluding this review of recent tendencies, it may be well to 
 show something of the comprehensiveness of the system. Examin- 
 ations now include the following: grade, preliminary, academic, 
 
 ' Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1913, p. 309. 
 'Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1914, p. 154. 
 ' Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1907, p. 235. Cf. Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1903, p. 231 ff. 
 
STATE EXAMINATIONS AND HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 17I 
 
 academic for professional students, teachers and professional 
 examinations-. The number of questions annually prepared runs up 
 to approximately 1000. Thirty readers alone are required in Eng- 
 lish branches and large numbers of part-time readers are used during 
 the summer months. In 1913-14, over 800,000 papers were written. 
 Moreover in academic examinations alone, nearly 1000 schools are 
 concerned. 
 
 Summary and Conclusions 
 
 1 Until 1864, the Regents supervision of the courses of study in 
 the secondary schools was principally limited to the annual reports 
 of the schools. The requirement for entrance upon academic 
 studies as legally established had been modified from time to time 
 and instructions sent out explaining the changes. It was evident, 
 however, that principals were lax or dishonest in the counting of 
 pupils and rejections had to be made in increasing number. 
 
 2 With a view to establishing a more adequate and impersonal 
 basis for the distribution of the academic fund, examination ques- 
 tions were issued in four elementary subjects in 1865. Not only 
 was the line thereby clearly drawn between elementary and academic 
 pupils and aid more justly distributed but a new and powerful 
 machinery of state administration of secondary schools was set in 
 motion. 
 
 3 In 1878-79 the first examinations were given in secondary sub- 
 jects and within the next five years a state secondary course of 
 study was comparatively well organized and interpreted in a syllabus 
 or explanatory statement regarding the use of the examinations. 
 
 4 The syllabus has been revised from time to time, quinquennially 
 from 1890 to 1910, and elaborated into a very comprehensive out- 
 line of materials and methods in secondary and elementary subjects. 
 More recently these revisions have been made only in such subjects 
 as are in need of revision. The utilization in recent years of the 
 best thought of state and national educational associations has greatly 
 increased the comprehensiveness and value of the syllabuses. 
 
 5 The problem of better adjustment of the secondary school and 
 the college has from 1865 to the present been most carefully con- 
 sidered. Through the larger part of the period two diplomas were 
 ofifered, the academic or general and the college entrance or classical. 
 The development of college curriculums along scientific lines caused 
 the Regents solution to become outworn, and the work of such 
 bodies as the College Entrance Examination Board, applicable to 
 schools and colleges without as well as within the State, has made 
 
172 THE NEW YORK STATE II 1011 SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 the problem less vital. I\Ioi"e recently, however, three college en- 
 trance diplomas have been devised, in arts, science and engineering, 
 and most New York colleges and some others accept these. 
 
 6 The examinations served as a means for the partial or total 
 distribution of academic funds until 1900. The criticism of this 
 method of payment for results and the general criticism of the ex- 
 aminations in this period caused their elimination from the distri- 
 bution. In 1906, however, the requirement was made that schools 
 receiving the various types of aid must hold the examinations. 
 
 7 The establishment of a system of counts, or units of credit, for 
 the various branches of study in 1890 tended at once to standardize 
 the quantity and quality of work in the studies, but also to place a 
 premium upon short and unrelated courses. By the gradual encour- 
 agement of courses of study, in English first and later in other 
 branches, which involved three or four years of work, and later by 
 the removal from the examinations list of most of the short courses, 
 this evil has largely been eliminated. 
 
 8 Opinion within the State has always been more or less divided 
 as to the value of the examinations in themselves. The frequent 
 revisions have corrected many defects and prevented a certain 
 amount of undue standardization. More recently the practice of ac- 
 ceptance by the State Department of the ratings of the high schools 
 in the more elementary courses promises a decrease in emphasis 
 upon the specific preparation for examinations in the schools. In 
 addition there are abundant indications that the work of the state 
 supervisors is cooperating to make of the examinations a supple- 
 mentary method rather than the only method of determining the 
 standing of schools in the matter of adequacy of courses of study 
 and methods of instruction. 
 
REPORTTXG AND INSPECTION 1/3 
 
 Chapter 6 
 
 Reporting and Inspection 
 
 The evident intention of the legislation which gave rise to the 
 University and the system of academies, namely the act of 1787, 
 was to provide for regular inspection of the schools, as a basis for 
 the annual report to the Legislature. The first report in 1788 was 
 largely the record of visits to the two academies then in existence 
 and gave information as to finance, number of pupils, course of 
 study and student morale.^ As no funds were provided for the 
 purpose, and schools were rapidly established in parts of the State 
 difficult of access, the Regents came to depend almost wholly upon 
 the reports of the schools both for data for distributing state funds 
 and for compiling the annual reports. During the first one hun- 
 dred years of the history of the University, " visitation " was there- 
 fore made only occasionally and was not an effective instrument of 
 control. During the last decade of the nineteenth century systema- 
 tic inspection was begun and has so rapidly developed as to become 
 one of, if not the greatest, means to efficacious distribution of 
 funds and adequate direction of the work of instruction in the 
 several schools. 
 
 I Reporting and Inspection, jypo-i8po 
 The University Act of 1787 referred in three different sections to 
 the Regents relation to the academies and colleges as a board of 
 visitation : ( i ) visitations were to be made by the officers or a com- 
 mittee of the Regents as " often as they see proper," (2) inspection 
 was to include an examination of the curricukim and administra- 
 tion of the schools, and (3) admission to the University or incor- 
 poration was designated as making an institution " subject to the 
 visitation of the Regents."- Visits were made from time to time, 
 probably a few every year, but with the rapid increase of academies 
 in the early part of the next century and their extension over a 
 territory that was not traversed by good lines of communication, the 
 substitute for personal inspection was found in annual reports to the 
 Regents.^ Printed blanks for these were first made out in 1804 and 
 the returns were made the basis of more detailed reports from year 
 
 'Regents Rep't, 1883, p. 444. 
 ^ Laws of 1787. chap. 82, sec. 3, 12 and 16. 
 
 'Regents Rep't. 1856, p. 18. Cf. Ordinance of 1794, in Hough p. 409-10. 
 Also Assembly Documents, 1859, no. 45. 
 
1/4 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 to year/ The Regents Report of 1825 indicates, however, that in- 
 spection was not wholly discontinued for it states that " most of the 
 academies of this State have been visited by individual members of 
 the Board " while full reports were also received.^ In the revision 
 of their ordinances in 1828 after the Legislature had extended the 
 amount of annual aid, had caused the higher English branches to be 
 included in the distribution and had prescribed the general nature of 
 the reports,^ the Regents prescribed a more detailed form of report. 
 Because of the constant tendency to omissions and errors and the 
 failure of the principals either to make the required affidavits or to 
 secure the sanction of the trustees, subsequent revisions were made 
 in 1830, 1845 and 1853.* 
 
 The status of the reporting requirement at the time of the entrance 
 of the first high schools into the University is best seen in the 
 ordinance of the year 1853 in which appear twenty-five items, includ- 
 ing among others, property of various kinds, departments of instruc- 
 tion, subjects studied and texts used, tuition charges, revenues and 
 expenditures. High schools were either specifically or generally 
 placed under the rules of the Regents as regards reports, as in all 
 other matters, although this requirement held strictly only in edu- 
 cational and not in financial matters.* While the Regents Manuals 
 of 1864 and 1870 show a great development in the requirements in 
 the number of details required, little change was or could well be 
 brought about in the general content, for the early requirements 
 were very comprehensive. It was through these individual reports 
 that the Regents were largely enabled to prepare the elaborate re- 
 ports which, though required by the Legislature, went far beyond 
 the requirement and by 1850 had become substantial volumes, only 
 to continue increasing in size and detail of information so that before 
 the close of the century they were often published in three volumes. 
 Their distribution to the reporting academies must have had a very 
 satisfactory influence by affording opportunity for comparative 
 study.® 
 
 Meanwhile the Board did not wholly neglect the duty of inspec- 
 tion, although funds for that purpose were largely lacking. In the 
 ^linutes for 1830 we find a resolution to the effect that an ordinance 
 be passed providing the appointment of " competent persons to visit 
 
 * Hough, op. cit., p. 70. 
 
 ' Senate Tour., 1825, p. 380. 
 
 'Laws of 1827, chap. 228. Cf. Revised Statutes, 1829, pt i, chap. IS, art. I. 
 title I, sec. 26-29. 
 
 ' Regents Instructions, 1834: 1845, p. 33-43; 1849. p. 44-59; 1853. P- 66-82. 
 ' Regents Rep't, 1881, p. xiii. 
 
 • ^^anual of the Regents, 1864. p. 167-68. 
 
REPORTING AND INSPECTION 175 
 
 the academies and report on their visits."^" Again in 1838 at the 
 time of the first significant agitation for uniting the two state depart- 
 ments, the University and the Department of Common Schools," 
 Governor Seward defined the duties of the Regents as visitors of 
 ihe academies " by virtue of their office." As a remedy for the 
 neglect of supervision in Doth secondary and higher schools he sug- 
 gested the appointment of boards of visitors to serve voluntarily and 
 although action was taken by the Legislature, the duties of these 
 boards was confined almost wholly to the lower schools.^^ The 
 Regents in 1840 and again in 1843 appointed committees to consider 
 the feasibility of personal visits with a view to securing compliance 
 with the University ordinances. ^^ The minutes of the Board reveal 
 considerable evidence of occasional visits, apparently usually made 
 in the case of irregularities of one kind or another in academy ad- 
 ministration or reporting.'* As an indication of the attitude of the 
 Board, it is interesting to note that when in 1847 Salem Town 
 offered to act as a visitor of academies in towns where he was 
 addressing and organizing teachers institutes, it was ruled that there 
 was doubt as to whether visitors could be appointed outside of the 
 Board.'' 
 
 In the month following the passage of the union free school act 
 of 1853, the Rev. Dr Luckey, a member of the Board, who appears 
 to have done inspection service before, was appointed to visit " such 
 academies in the northern and western parts of the State, as may be 
 agreed upon between him and the secretary of the Board."''' For 
 remuneration for visitation in the years of 1853 and 1854, Regent 
 Luckey was reimbursed at the rate of $50 and $75 a month respec- 
 tively, his traveling expenses v^^ere paid and the Regents inspections 
 were the most extensive that had been made up to that time." A 
 new interest was taken by the Board from this time on. One im- 
 portant factor in this was undoubtedly the fact that the reorganiza- 
 tion of the common school department in 1854 under the headship 
 of the Superintendent of Public Instruction gave that official the nev 
 power of visitation of the academies and other higher schools.^' 
 While he was even less able than the Regents to carry out this pro- 
 
 '" Regents Minutes (MSS), 3:340 ff. 
 
 " Assembly Documents, 1838. no. 236, p. 17. 
 
 "Assembly Jour., 1839, p; 30-31. 
 
 ''Regents Minutes (MSS), 5:296 ff., 390. 
 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), 4:390, 42^. 
 
 "Regents Minutes (MSS), 5:187. The same position is reiterated in a 
 report of a special committee of the Board in 1856; see Regents Minutes, 6; 
 app. 2. p. 21, 25. 
 
 '' Regents Minutes, 6 :S9. 
 
 ''Ibid., 6:59. no, 129. 147-48, 152-53. 
 
 '" Laws of 1854, chap. 97. 
 
1/6 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 vision, successive reports discussed the additional requirement with 
 recommendations relative thereto. These recommendations looked 
 largely toward the creation of free scholarships with the state aid 
 which was being given, as the best means of making the schools 
 serve the State's purpose in aiding thcm/^ Such a scheme presum- 
 ably seemed both radical and undesirable to the Regents although 
 they left no permanent record as to their official view of the matter. 
 On January 7, 1856, a draft of the first ordinance concerning visita- 
 tion was brought in by Mr Hawley and after some modification was 
 passed.-^ 
 
 As this ordinance is unique in regard to this function of the 
 Regents, it has seemed best to summarize its most important pro- 
 visions. These are as follows : 
 
 1 Committees of the Board, with the assistance of the Secretary so 
 far as he was able, were to visit all secondary and higher institutions 
 at least once inevery two years. 
 
 2 This visitation was to extend to all matters over which the 
 Regents had jurisdiction and the visitor was to compare the actual 
 state of the academy with its report of the previous year. 
 
 3 The condition of nonreporting institutions was to be made a 
 matter of special concern and the effort made to find out whether 
 they were extinct or not. 
 
 4 Reports were to be transmitted to the Regents and the results 
 to be made the basis of appropriate action and of reports to the 
 Legislature. 
 
 Under this ordinance visitations were pressed with more vigor. 
 The Secretary's continually increased duties prevented any large 
 activity on his part,-^ and the greater amount of this work was 
 performed by three clerical members of the Board. In the year 
 1852-53 nearly all the 200 institutions within the University were 
 visited but the labor was found to be too great to be repeated every 
 year and it was felt that the system of reporting made it more or 
 less unnecessary. 
 
 Before another decade had passed the Regents preliminary ex- 
 aminations had been put in operation to be followed in 1878 by the 
 academic examinations, and these came to be generally considered 
 by the Board as a substitute for personal inspection.^- In the 
 
 *• Sup't Rep'ts. 1853-58. 
 
 "Regents Rep't, 1856. p. 19-20. Cf. Regents Minutes, 6:236-38 for discus- 
 sion and first draft of the ordinance. The chief modification was that of 
 changing the obligation of visitation from the Secretary to committees of the 
 Board. 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts, 1857, p. 24; 1858, p. 18; Regents Minutes, 6:232, 252-56; 
 Assembly Documents, 1859, I :i-3. 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts, 1886, p. xii; 1887, p. 249. 
 
REPORTING AND INSPECTION 177 
 
 iiterim a flood of petitions was sent to the Constitutional Convention 
 of 1867, some favoring and some opposing the aboHtion of the 
 Regents. Similar petitions were presented to the Legislature in 
 1870. This body sought the opinion of the Superintendent of Pub- 
 lic Instruction but sent to the Regents the following resolution: 
 
 Resolved, That the Regents of the University be instructed to report to the 
 next Legislature what in their judgment, should be the power of a Board of 
 Visitation of the Colleges and Academies of the State, and whether any change 
 in the organization of that Board is desirable to render it more effective in 
 the supervision of those institutions. 
 
 The report made to the Legislature defined the powers of the 
 Regents, as delegated to them from time to time by the Legislature, 
 and held that they were as large as required by any visiting Board.-^ 
 As far as colleges and secondary schools were concerned these 
 powers were held to be as follows: (i) to incorporate schools under 
 general laws, (2) to require reports, (3) to make special investiga- 
 tions when deemed necessary and (4) to make personal visitations 
 through its officers and committees. It is of interest to note that 
 these personal visits of the Board were, if made at all, not reported 
 but two or three years longer and were renewed again only after the 
 vigorous attack of the Governor in his message of 1887 which sought 
 the abolition of the Regents. 
 
 In the absence of detailed statistics which are available in the 
 Regents annual reports in most phases of academic administration, 
 conclusions as to the results of inspection must necessarily be in- 
 complete. In general the minutes of the Board indicate that all too 
 scanty attention was given to the reports when made.-* They were 
 placed on file, and in most cases were lost in the great fire of 191 1. 
 One exception is to be made in the report of Doctor Luckey made 
 January 13, 1854.-^ This brief statement of about six printed pages 
 is divided into the six heads: title papers, apparatus and libraries, 
 academy buildings, records of trustees, teachers and instruction and 
 government, and the law library of Rochester. The appended table 
 of visits to 105 higher institutions in the northern and western parts 
 of the State includes one high school, the Lockport Union School. 
 Much interesting light is thrown upon the general status of the 
 academies, upon their comparative laxness in some matters concern- 
 ing which the Regents ordinances were very definite and upon the 
 
 " Senate Documents. 1S70. no. 82. A resolution was passed hy the Board, 
 Tan. 13, 1870, providing for the visitation of the high schools. Xo report 
 has been found (Regents Minutes, 7:8). 
 
 ^ Regents Minutes, 6 :64, 84, 306-9. 
 
 *° Regents Minutes, v. 6, app. i. 
 
178 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 possibilities of such inspection as was made in this year. One 
 specific instance is cited where a school failing in proper attention to 
 the library ordinance was brought into line and two instances are 
 cited where definite orders were made as to necessary modifications 
 of the apparatus equipment. Later brief and very general state- 
 ments in the annual reports bear out the impression that such inspec- 
 tion, while lacking in the rigor of modern methods and oftentimes 
 no doubt made only at special occasions or celebrations of the school, 
 must have reacted very favorably upon the schools which were 
 visited. In one respect a gain was clearly made. Most of the non- 
 reporting academies, amounting in 1856 and 1857 to about 20 per 
 cent, were either declared extinct or caused to be revived and made 
 to report. 
 
 The Regents annual reports from 1857 to 1874, with the excep- 
 tions of two years, give lists of the academies and colleges visited. 
 During this period, the range of number of academies and high 
 schools visited is from 16 to 74, with the median number at 45, out 
 of a possible 200, indicating that the intention of the Regents 
 ordinance that they be visited once every other year was very poorly 
 carried out. An exhaustive study of the visits paid to high schools 
 proper shows that no discrimination was shown in regard to them 
 but that there was great irregularity in the number of visits paid to 
 the different schools. Of high schools established five years or 
 more, eight seem not to have been visited at all. One high school 
 was visited but once in 17 years, another once in 13 years and one 
 twice in 15 years. On the other hand, one school was visited nine 
 times in 14 years, one six times in 9 years, and one 13 times in 18 
 years, counting two visits in each of 4 years. In the absence of 
 records, it seems probable from a study of the individual schools 
 visited most often that accessibility more than need was the source 
 of favoritism in visitation. 
 
 Presumablx' the deaths, in the year 1869-70, of the veteran 
 Regents Hawley and Luckey, who had alike favored inspection as a 
 means of the more efficient administration of the University's func- 
 tions, accounted in large part for the almost complete discontinu- 
 ance of the practice. When inspection was resumed in 1882, it was 
 in connection with the classes for common school teachers.-" The 
 annual report in that \ear noted that these classes offered a peculiar 
 problem to the princij)als because of their professional nature and 
 urged closer inspection.-^ As a result a law was secured which in 
 
 For a detailed account of these classes, see Miller, G. F., op. cv* 
 Regents Rep't, 1882, p. xxiii, xxiv. 
 
REPORTING AND INSPECTION 1/9 
 
 addition to other changes in the administration of these classes 
 specifically'brought them under the inspection of the school commis- 
 sioners with whom lay the final power of certification but also under 
 that of the Regents, with the provision that the academic appropria- 
 tions from the State should cover this special inspection.-'* As a 
 result an important precedent was established of appointing an in- 
 spector from without the Board and although the classes were in 
 1889 transferred to the Department of Public Instruction the rela- 
 tionship of the University to the various institutions under its charge 
 had been strengthened decidedly. Abuses were corrected which 
 had arisen in the eagerness of schools to receive the bonus offered 
 for the instruction of prospective teachers.-^ The number of visits 
 grew from 52 in 1882 to 176, in 147 different schools, in 1888.^" By 
 1 886 'instructions were issued to the visitors to give special attention 
 to the library and equipment of the schools and the later reports 
 indicate that in spite of the brevity of many of the visits, these 
 features of academic administration were very definitely improved 
 and at the same time the way was paved for the appointment of an 
 apparatus inspector in 1892.^^ Furthermore, in the years 1888 and 
 1889 the assistant secretary and the chief examiner also made a 
 much smaller but significant number of inspections so that charges 
 against the Board for failure in this respect were now no longer 
 valid. ^- There was evidence that the schools welcomed the visits of 
 state officials,^^ so that the transition in the next decade to systematic 
 inspection was not hard to make. 
 
 2 Establishment of Systematic Inspection 
 During this whole period, reports had been required and with each 
 revision of the Regents instructions or University manual, modifica- 
 tions were made to suit the growth and changing conditions of 
 academic instruction. One of the most significant revisions was in 
 1 881, when a more complete set of returns was required from the 
 schools, although the high schools, unlike the academies, were not 
 required by law to report their financial condition.^* 
 
 In 1890 with the new policy of extension of secondary schools 
 under the new Secretary, the most definite eflfort in the history of 
 the Board was made to secure complete and detailed statistics. In 
 
 " Laws of 1882 chap. 378. 
 
 "* Regents Rep't, 1883, p. 155, 403. 
 
 '"Regents Rep'ts, 1883, p. 115; i88g. p. 822. 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts, 1886, p. n-12; 1889, p. 823. 
 
 '' Senate Documents, 1886. no. 2, p. 23. 
 
 ^' Regents Rep't, 1888, p. 643. 
 
 ^ Regents Rep't, 1882, p. xvi. 
 
I<So THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 fact at this time over 400 items were included in the annual Regents 
 reports. Great difficulty was found in getting accurate statements 
 from the schools and in many instances totals were quite misleading 
 because of the large numbers of omissions. Principals were charged 
 with lack of intelligence, carelessness, and even falseness of reports. ^^ 
 Stress was constantly laid on the fact that the report, if accurate 
 and trustworthy, had great value inasmuch as it stood alone as a 
 complete report of secondary schools in any state and Avas a valuable 
 aid in meeting arguments of opposition, in a comparative study of 
 schools and in the direction of state and local educational activities. ^"^ 
 The obligation of accurate reporting was held to compare with that 
 of banks, railways and other concerns receiving aid from the State. 
 
 Upon the transfer of the teachers classes to the Department of 
 Public Instruction, Secretary Dewey began agitation for continued 
 systematic inspection, such as had recently been inaugurated in 
 Massachusetts. The Associated Academic Principals ratified his 
 plans by a resolution in the conference of 1889,"' and upon a vote of 
 the Regents, it w^as brought before the Legislature. No action was 
 taken but the Board in 1891 made an appointment for immediate 
 work.^* 
 
 The revision of the general University Law in 1892 incorporated 
 this mode of supervision to the extent that inspection by a University 
 officer was made a prerequisite to sharing in the academic funds.'*'' 
 The reason later given for such legislation was that some schools 
 were receiving aid without conforming to the University ordinances 
 and the legal requirements.^" During the first year the inspectors, 
 due to the increase of work in the examination department, were 
 called upon to spend a large portion of their time at other work. 
 Before the year was over, two had resigned, one to go into nonnal 
 school work and one into the Department of Public Instruction.*^ 
 New inspectors, however, w^ere soon appointed. 
 
 Statements of the good accruing and the principles underlying 
 the early inspection may be found in reports of the Regents and their 
 inspectors and are as follows : 
 
 I To ascertain whether the institutions were maintaining the re- 
 quired standards of equipment, teaching force and plant. 
 
 " Academy, 2:126; 5 :4g6. 
 
 "Academy, 5:496-98; Regents Rep'ts. 1891, 1^37-40; 1893, p. r33-34. 
 
 " Academy, 5 :30-32. 
 
 ^Regents Rcp't, 1S91, p. ri5-i6. 
 
 ^ T.aws of 1892, chap. 378, sec. 26. 
 
 *" Regents Rep'ts, 1894, p. r65 ; 1895, I, p. r62. 
 
 *" Regents R.ep't, 1892, p. r2i ff. 
 
REPORT J. \r, AXl) IXSI'KCTION 
 
 i8i 
 
 2 To inspect classroom work and study its scope and quality. 
 
 3 To give friendly criticism with a view to correcting found de- 
 fects. 
 
 4 To enable schools lo profit by satisfactory experience in other 
 schools. 
 
 5 To establish more sympathetic and close relations between the 
 University and its various schools. 
 
 6 To explain the rules and regulations of the Regents and to give 
 explanations, particularly of the examinations which were radically 
 modified in 1890.*^ 
 
 Results are not easy to measure, except in the number of institu- 
 tions visited. This slighdy exceeded 100 in the first year and gradu- 
 ally increased until in 1895 it was announced that for the first time 
 all the institutions were visited. Shortage of help in this depart- 
 ment made it impracticable for the inspectors to make but one visit 
 a year and these visits in 1895 averaged less than a day in length. 
 Many schools were found to be failing to meet the requirements in 
 equipment and buildings, libraries were found generally unavailable 
 for pupils' use and apparatus was ill assorted and often in a state of 
 decay.*^ Inspectors reported, however, that they found an excellent 
 spirit of cooperation in remedying the deficiencies and that they were 
 welcomed back. Sometimes special meetings were held where the 
 inspector might have full opportunity to make explanations con- 
 cerning the Regents rules and ordinances. The more than doubling 
 of the number of institutions in this decade and the need for the use 
 of v/ell-trained men in other departments than inspection made it 
 impossible for the inspectors to keep up with the needs. If the 
 more or less hostile reports of the inspectors of the Department of 
 Public Instruction w^ere taken at face value, many very inadequate 
 high schools were passed by and the Regents ordinances were ob- 
 serv^ed but little better in the majority of schools than before. 
 However, Secretary Dewey continued to urge this work as one of 
 greatest importance,** and by 1894 it was made an independent 
 division of the executive department, responsible for a written re- 
 port based on personal inspection of every institution in the Univer- 
 sity at least once each year.*^ 
 
 By this time inspectors came to be required in examinations and 
 other work only during vacations. They met once a month and 
 
 ** Regents Rep'ts, 1892, p. r2i ; 1895, p. 200-2. Cf . revision in Regents 
 Rep't, 1903, p. r28. 
 
 *" Regents Rep't, 1891. p. ri6-i7. 
 
 ** Regents Rep'ts, 1891, p. ri5-i8; 1892, p. r2i-26; 1893, p. r26-33 ; 1894, 
 I :ri38-i63. 
 
 *" Regents Rep'ts, 1894, p. ri39; 1895, i :r62. 
 
1(52 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 compared notes and at all limes the office kept in touch with them 
 through a daily report and through the sending of all University 
 literature to them. The inspectors were provided with a four-page 
 form for detailed reports on the following topics : grounds, build- 
 ings, library, apparatus, teachers, pupils, course of study, student 
 organizations, opinions of teachers and general remarks.*" In addi- 
 tion a beginning was made of the specialization of inspection, one 
 inspector devoting his time to science.*^ His work in repairing ap- 
 paratus, directing teachers in making repairs and arousing the inter- 
 est of boards of education to increase the facilities was the most 
 appreciated and most frequently commented upon in questionnaires 
 sent out by the Regents. It was estimated that in a period of a little 
 over a year, $12,400 were saved, or about five times the cost to the 
 State.*^ 
 
 The natural result was an extension of the number of inspectors 
 and improved methods of inspection. Honorary inspectors were 
 appointed in 1894 largely from the faculties of the colleges and uni- 
 versities. Their services were paid by the schools visited. Two 
 years later the paid service was so extended and so specialized that 
 there were on the staff seven inspectors, including a literature in- 
 spector, a composition inspector, an apparatus inspector, while there 
 were urged a drawing and a science inspector.*^ The first specializa- 
 tion we noted grew out of recognized laxness in the schools in pro- 
 viding the required scientific apparatus ; the appointment of the 
 inspectors in English resulted from a concentrated effort to improve 
 the teaching of that subject. Interest in drawing had been increas- 
 ing rapidly and Massachusetts was at this time providing out of 
 seven state agents or inspectors two in drawing alone.^° A large 
 amount of the time of the inspectors was devoted to special calls 
 from principals, trustees and teachers and the point of view was 
 now taken by the Regents that the insi^ection ought to be specialized 
 for the best and wisest investment of salaries and time.''^ 
 
 Their work was by no means limited to the actual visits upon the 
 schools but much help was given through correspondence and in 
 consultations at the various slate meetings of teachers. ^^ The ex- 
 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1894, p. ri4i-3. 
 " Regents Rep't, 1893, p. 227-31. 
 
 ** Regents Rep't, 1894, p. ri46. Cf. Regents Rep'ts, 1893, i:r26-3i; 1899, 
 Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :362-66. 
 '• Regents Rep't, 1897, i •.237-39. 
 °" Regents Rep't, 1897, i :225. 
 " Ibid., p. 238-39. 
 "Regents Rep'ts, 1897, i:r48; 1899, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :3S9- 
 
REPORTING AND INSPECTION 183 
 
 tremely rapid growth of small high schools and the classitication into 
 four grades/ led to a new need of inspection, namely, to decide 
 whether schools applying for admission had the requisite equipment 
 for admission and whether those seeking an advanced grade had 
 made the requisite changes therefor. In 1896 seventy applications 
 for admission were made and two or three visits were made to each 
 so that the full time of one inspector was taken for that work.^^ 
 In spite of this care, for the next few years large numbers of schools 
 were reported deficient in library and apparatus. The Regents, 
 however, passed numerous supplementary ordinances prescribing 
 the minimum equipment, teaching force and number of pupils. 
 
 As early as 1892, the opinion was ventured in the inspection report 
 that "no better instrumentality for the betterment of schools exists 
 than inspection."^* After the examination revision of 1895, in 
 which encouragement was given for the longer and better balanced 
 courses of study, inspection came to be recognized more and more 
 as an essential feature of tlie system and one without which state 
 aid and state syllabuses might accomplish very little either in rais- 
 ing the standards of individual schools or of the system as a whole. 
 
 Perhaps the most elaborate reports of inspection are those for the 
 years 1897 and 1898.^^ It was at this time that the premium was 
 so far placed upon inspection that if two University inspectors held 
 that the standards of local examination for entrance into an academi- 
 cal department were higher than the requirements of the examina- 
 tion for the preliminary certificate, entering pupils might be counted 
 in the distribution of state funds without that certificate. While the 
 report of the former year insisted that the records of this work must 
 necessarily be largely qualitative rather than quantitative, yet de- 
 tailed statements are given under each of the general heads of the 
 forms in use. During the former year 758 visits were made in spite 
 of the fact that a considerable amount of the time of the inspectors 
 was as in former years devoted to preparing and reading the 
 examinations. This practice w^as held to be valuable not only to 
 the school but also to the examination and inspection departments 
 through a better understanding and adjustment of the various types 
 of work to each other and to the needs of the schools.^*' 
 
 Many interesting facts and suggestions were made in these re- 
 ports. ( I ) Libraries were found to be very inadequately cataloged 
 
 " Rej^ents Rep't, 1897, P- H9- 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1893, p.r26. 
 
 "Regents Rep'ts, 1898 i:r86-Q6; 1899, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. 355-66. 
 
 "■Regents Rep't. 1901, Rep't H. S. Dep't, p. ri7-i8. 
 
184 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 and sometimes locked up. Accession books and greater wisdom in 
 the choice of books were the most common needs. (2) Schools on 
 the whole had required the requisite amount of apparatus but it 
 was greatl}- out of repair and without cases for its protection. (3) 
 Special inspection of science and the more rigorous examination in 
 English were resulting in more attention to these subjects and sub- 
 sequently would react upon the teaching staff. In science the ten- 
 dency was away from the short textbook course. (4) The teaching 
 staff was gradually improving so that there were a number of 
 schools where only college graduates were employed and others 
 where special fitness for the subjects to be taught was considered. 
 It was recommended that a special certificate for academic teachers 
 be required. (5) Great variety was still found both in the admis- 
 sion requirement of various schools and in the requirement for 
 graduation and the suggestion was made that, with allowance for 
 individuals, the Regents preliminary certificate and academic diploma 
 be respectively made the general standards. (6) The work in the 
 classification of schools was reported as probably the most valuable 
 single influence upon secondary education. Opposed to the danger 
 of the small schools attempting too much, facilities were now being 
 brought to many small villages and 190 schools of the two lower 
 grades were caring for 7988 pupils who otherwise would have had 
 no opportunity for secondary education. (7) Courses of study 
 were feeling the influence of the Committee of Ten report and other 
 studies and were clearly becoming standardized and better balanced. 
 These items continued to appear in the annual reports and prog- 
 ress was indicated and recommendations were made along these 
 several lines. But new obligations were added with each syllabus 
 revision. The most important work following the 1900 syllabus was 
 that of accrediting courses in science. The new requirement was 
 printed in a circular to the principals and read as follows: 
 
 A laboratory course previously approved by an inspector, with notebook 
 certified by the principal, may receive 20 credits toward the examination, in 
 which case only eight questions are to be answered. An approved laboratory 
 course must consist of at least 70 exercises a year, 35 a half year, of at least 
 40 minutes each, and the school must provide adequate facilities and super- 
 vision for individual work. Schools wishing their laboratory courses approved 
 should file as early as possible a request to that effect." 
 
 The premium placed upon relief from one-fifth of the regular 
 examination caused 237 schools to apply for the approval of courses 
 
 Regents Rep't, 1902, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :r8. 
 
REPORTING AND INSPECTION Ibj 
 
 and 1 80 courses were definitely approved in physics, botany, zoology 
 and chemistry. The values of this new step were clearly seen to be 
 the increase of pupils in science, the larger emphasis on laboratory 
 work and the attempt of a large number of schools to remove their 
 deficiencies of equipment. On the side of the state administration 
 it represented a definite acceptance of the principle that inspection 
 might displace examinations as a means to determining the adequacy 
 of the standards of the schools both in matters of equipment and 
 courses of study .^^ But one visit a year was possible as late as 
 1904; yet, because of the frequent changes in numbers of teachers 
 and pupils and in the equipment, the approval was granted for one 
 year only.^^ In 1903, 329 applications were made for the approval 
 of courses and 261 were granted. The Regents summed up the 
 effects of the method as follows : " better rooms for laboratories, 
 facilities for individual work, insistence on the preparation of good 
 notebooks by the students and adequate supervision of the work 
 while it is in progress.""" Printed instructions concerning the ap- 
 proval of courses were supplemented with detailed suggestions con- 
 cerning the method of keeping notebooks, the amount of time to be 
 devoted to laboratory work and the minimum equipment for each 
 science. 
 
 With the amalgamation of the University and the Department of 
 Public Instruction in 1904, came the establishment of a single system 
 of inspection. The meager reports of the next five years indicate a 
 tendency to give the larger amount of attention to the elementary 
 schools and to problems of the more adequate correlation of the 
 elementary and secondary systems, a matter which had been very 
 much neglected. With the aim of fostering local independence in 
 supervision and therefore of attending less to matters of detail than 
 hitherto, it came to be felt by the State Department that the great 
 problem centered in more definite and intelligent supervision by the 
 principals."^ The provision at this time for professional certificates 
 of secondary teachers and the rising standards of the profession 
 have recently removed many of the minor needs of st-ate supervision. 
 However, the work of the inspectors has been more highly special- 
 ized from time to time, and the tendency has grown to secure 
 through inspection results formerly sought through examinations. 
 
 '' Regents Rep't, 1901, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :ri8. Cf. Regents Rep't, 1899, 
 Rep't H. S. Dep't, 2:333- 
 "^ Regents Rep't, 1904, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :ri2-i4. 
 " Ibid., p. ri3. 
 *^ Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1911, 1:109. 
 
l86 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Summary and Conclusions 
 
 1 During the first century of the history of secondary education 
 ni New York, visitation or inspection of the schools by the Univer- 
 city was carried on irregularly and sporadically. For the most 
 part, members of the Board went on short trips to nearby schools or 
 attended the more important school events. An exception should 
 be made in regard to the period from 1853-74 when visits were 
 made more frequently and some definite results were obtained, 
 particularly the determination of the status of a large list of non- 
 reporting schools. 
 
 2 During the first three-quarters of this century it was believed 
 that much the same purpose was served by the detailed annual re- 
 ports of the schools which were summarized in the annual Regents 
 reports. From 1864 on, the Regents examinations were agreed upon 
 as an adequate substitute for inspection, especially as the detailed 
 reports were still required. 
 
 3 The experiment was made in the eighties, however, of appoint- 
 ing an inspector from without the Board for the teachers training 
 classes in the secondary schools. Soon after this work was shifted 
 to the Department of Public Instruction, but in 1890, general in- 
 spectors were appointed. The step was favorably regarded by the 
 Lchools as well as by professional people in general and rapidly was 
 extended and differentiated, beginning with inspectors in natural 
 science and English. 
 
 4 More recently many of the functions formerly served by reports 
 and also by examinations have been definitely cared for by inspec- 
 tion. The policy of the past ten years is clearly one of making the 
 effort to put this department on a basis of expert supervision and 
 of making it a means to directing also the supervisory duties of 
 secondary school principals. 
 
INTERPRETATION OF TENDENCIES 187 
 
 Chapter 7 
 
 Summary of Conclusions: Interpretation of Tendencies 
 
 I Educational Conditions and Influences of Period Prior to Rise of 
 
 the High School 
 In chapter i the more pertinent educational tendencies up to the 
 middle of the nineteenth century were traced in some detail. A 
 brief summary is given here as a basis for further interpretations 
 and conclusions. 
 
 Public Secondary Education in Colonial New York 
 Unlike Massachusetts and, to a lesser extent, the other New Eng- 
 land colonies, the Latin grammar school never flourished in New 
 York. At least three attempts made by the Dutch to establish such 
 public schools, were very short-lived and two similar attempts by 
 the English in the first half of the eighteenth century were no more 
 significant in creating an educational tradition. All these schools 
 were limited to New York City. In the case of the Dutch the domi- 
 nance of trading interests and the continual state of war with the 
 Indians, and in the case of the English the acceptance of the volun- 
 tary principle, accounted in large part for this lack of provision of 
 secondary educational facilities. In addition two other factors were 
 significant: (i) the lack of the stimulus of higher educational facili- 
 ties such as those afforded by Harvard and Yale in New England 
 and by William and Mary in Virginia and (2) the essentially com- 
 mercial and practical needs, especially of the metropolis, such that 
 private schools, in which were taught navigation, surveying, arith- 
 metic and the like, were in greater demand. 
 
 b The Place of the Academy in Nczv York Education 
 Contemporaneously with the establishment of peace at the close of 
 the Revolution, the recently founded King's College was rehabili- 
 tated and the academy system was initiated under the Board of 
 Regents of The University of New York State. This conception of 
 a nonteaching, supervisory university may have been derived from 
 reform ideas projected in France at this time.^ The academies grew 
 in numbers so rapidly that by 1820, 48 had been incorporated; by 
 1830, 48 more; and by 1840, 114 more; and by 1850, or contem- 
 poraneously with the first high schools, 76 more, a total of 286.^ Of 
 these, somewhat more than one-half were reporting in 1850 and per- 
 
 ' Sherwood, S., T'he University of the State of New York. 
 'See table i; cf. Inglis, table 2 (for Massachusetts). 
 
l88 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 haps a third had never been founded or were defunct. Even at 
 that the growth in numbers of schools and pupils was truly 
 phenomenal, as was also that in the teaching staff and financial 
 status.^ From this point on there was a decline correlative with the 
 rise of the high school, except for a period of acceleration subse- 
 quent to 1885 due to the incorporation of Roman Catholic academies 
 and commercial schools.* By 1875 the numerical superiority of the 
 high school over the academy was established both as regards 
 schools and pupils.^ The educational leadership of the State in 
 secondary education, however, may scarcely be said to have passed 
 to the high schools for a decade or so more, due to the persistence of 
 the academy tradition, the permanence of the stronger schools and 
 the high quality of scholarship and ability of a few academy 
 principals. 
 
 The State's encouragement of the academies through aid, the 
 definition of standards and the actual incorporation into the Uni- 
 versity, made them to all intents and purposes public institutions, ex- 
 cept that on the whole local support and control were vested in self- 
 perpetuating boards of trustees. Their contributions to theory and 
 practice in New York education, which bear upon this discussion, 
 include the following: (i) a conception of secondary education as 
 preparing directly for various life callings, including, in the earlier 
 part of the century, the professions; (2) specialized training for 
 teachers of the lower schools, the earliest development in any state 
 of secondary courses preparing directly for this work; (3) a diversi- 
 fied curriculum, not well organized but including a wide range of 
 materials in sciences and languages ; (4) the practice of extending 
 equivalent educational opportunities to girls so that for practically a 
 century their number has been in excess of that of the boys in New 
 York secondary schools; (5) the devotion to secondary education 
 of a large sum of money mainly in buildings and equipment, which 
 were transferred to the high schools upon their merging;" (6) a 
 local tradition of higher education extending out into the rural com- 
 munities in many cases, making the transition to the high school in 
 some cases difficult and in others easy; (7) the view that the full 
 establishment of a secondary school involved formal recognition by 
 the Board of Regents and admission to the privileges of the Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 It must, however, be clearly stated that the successful working of 
 
 * See table 2. 
 
 * See table 12. and graph introducing Part II. 
 " See table 14. 
 
 * See table 11 
 
INTERPRETATION OF TENDENCIES 189 
 
 the academy system made its intrenchment in some respects inimical 
 to the development of the high school. The insistence by the 
 Regents, as late as 1900, that they were public, and not private, in- 
 stitutions and that in all respects they should share equally in all 
 academic appropriations operated alike in their persistence as a 
 system and in the final knitting up of the elementaiy and secondary 
 systems. The generic name academies is still used in legal and other 
 state documents to cover the whole field of secondary education and 
 that of academical departments to denote the high school, but the 
 old-line academy had largely accomplished its work by 1875-80. 
 
 c The Development of the Elementary School 
 The so-called common school system feebly initiated in 1795 was 
 really established in 1812 about a quarter of a century later than the 
 University and was placed under a different jurisdiction until 1904. 
 The lack of articulation between the two systems and the slow 
 progress of centralization in the lower schools, particularly from 
 1 82 1 to 1854 when administered by the Secretary of State, were 
 definite factors in the tardy extension of common school studies into 
 the secondary field, cooperating with the complete lack of a con- 
 tinuous tradition of public school education in the colony and state. 
 This extension of studies did begin to become significant in the 
 forties after the increased state aid through the United States 
 deposit fund. This tendency was reenforced by voluntary and 
 official encouragement, at this time of culmination of the " educa- 
 tional revival " in the State.'' 
 
 Of great significance was the recognition of the failure of the 
 district system with its decentralizing tendencies and its placement of 
 the premium upon small classes, poorly prepared teachers and inade- 
 quate equipment. To some extent the town school commissioners 
 stemmed the tide but simultaneously the conception of the union 
 school district arose, probably brought in from Massachusetts, and 
 proved to be the general method of solution of the difficulty. By 
 1845 numerous villages had adopted this method in part or whole, 
 finding that economy supplemented efficiency and in 1853 the union 
 school act was passed. This act with subsequent revisions provided 
 a unique form of organization which was supplemented only very re- 
 cently with the long-advocated township system. Provisions of 
 this law facilitated at once the improvement of the lower schools, the 
 establishment of academical departments or high schools and the 
 absorption of the academies therewith. 
 
 ' See table 5- 
 
190 THE NEW VORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 2 A Comparative View of the Establishment of High Schools: Dis- 
 tribution of High Scliools and of Pupils 
 
 a The establishment and admission of high schools. As previ- 
 ously stated, the study of local records has been comparatively im- 
 practicable because of the number of high schools, approximately 
 seven hundred, and of academies, between five hundred and six hun- 
 dred, which were little less significant for the study, as their history 
 indicated tendencies toward a more completely public form of edu- 
 cation. The body of special and general legislation for a century 
 and a third, and the legal documents for a considerable part of this 
 same period, were studied in detail. In addition the school reports 
 of the cities were studied for a period from about 1840 to i860, at 
 the time of initiation of high schools in most of them. The data 
 that were more largely used and w^hich fitted best the general pur- 
 poses of this study were found principally in the annual and special 
 reports of the Board of Regents and the State Superintendent, and 
 the minutes of the former. On the whole therefore the dates as- 
 signed to individual schools do not indicate the first offering of 
 higher subjects or the initial steps of organization, but the actual 
 admission into the University, which was so generally considered 
 desirable that most schools sought it as soon as organization was at 
 all complete. In fact in the periods of most rapid growth from 1865 
 to 1875 and in the nineties, it was a matter of grave concern to the 
 Regents, particularly without means of inspection in the earlier 
 period, to prevent schools with inadequate equipment from entering 
 the University. Specifically therefore the establishment of a high 
 school means that, under the direction of the school trustees or a 
 board of education and usually with the type of organization known 
 as the union school, provision was made by tbe community for 
 higher or academic studies and for a library and apparatus, all sub- 
 ject to the ordinances and requirements of the Regents, and that 
 therefore the school was entitled to the various privileges of the 
 University, the most coveted of which was participation in the dis- 
 tribution of state funds. 
 
 With this more or less definite standard we find that no high 
 schools were established before 1845, only 2 before 1850, but 21 by 
 i860, but that from 1855 on, that is, with the passage of the permis- 
 sive union school law providing a form of organization and admis- 
 sion, growth went ahead at a fair rate. The phenomenal growth 
 in the nineties when one-half of the total number of schools was ad- 
 mitted was, as seen in table 21, paralleled by a corresponding de- 
 
INTERPRETATION OF TENDENCIES 
 
 191 
 
 velopment in the country as a whole but was accelerated in New 
 York by a poHcy of encouragement of less than three-year and four- 
 year high schools. 
 
 Table 21 
 
 Comparative statistics of establishment of high schools in New York 
 
 and elsewhere 
 
 Before 1820. 
 1821-1830. . 
 1831-1840. . 
 1841-1850. . 
 18S1-1860. . 
 1861-1870. . 
 i87i-if8o. . 
 1881-1890. . 
 1891-1900. . 
 
 FKOM U. S. commissioner's 
 REPORT 1 
 
 United 
 States 2 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 43 
 
 108 
 
 177 
 
 479 
 
 829 
 
 I 320 
 
 Mass. 
 
 New 
 York 
 
 CORRECTED 
 
 New 
 York 3 
 
 72 
 
 349 
 
 Mass.* 
 
 3 
 IS 
 29 
 6S 
 
 'For 1904, 2: p 1782-1989. 
 
 2 Compiled from same source, by Dexter, History of Education in the United States, p. 173, 
 dates given being 1820-29, 1830-30, 1840-49, etc. 
 
 3 See table 12. 
 
 * See Inglis, op. cit., p. 46. 
 
 b Comparative view of rise of high school in New York and 
 elseit'here. From table 21 certain conclusions may be drawn: (i) 
 the relative accuracy of the data as reported by individual schools 
 in the Commissioner's Report in indicating the trend of high school 
 development but the relative inaccuracy as to the numbers of schools 
 for a given state during any period of time, (2) the smallness of 
 the number of schools for the whole country such that the sum of 
 the corrected numbers for two states was by i860 but little short of 
 the total reported for the whole country, and (3) a considerably 
 earlier development in Massachusetts than in New York,^ 
 
 The general conclusion is that any statements available as yet con- 
 cerning the number of high schools previous to the Civil War or to 
 1850 are estimated too low.^ For example, Dexter finds but 17 
 high schools previous to 1850 while the writer, by supplementing 
 Inglis's findings in Massachusetts with a study of scattered records, 
 finds no less than 60, of which New York furnished but 2. More- 
 over, of the twenty schools listed in the Commissioner's Report for 
 New York for the period, only one appears to be reported for the 
 right year, and three others are within a guinquennial of the accurate 
 
 ' Cf . Inglis, p. 155; table 35 for Ohio. 
 • Cf. Inglis, p. 154-56. 
 
192 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 date, the reference apparently being to some special law. The 
 remaining dates are those of the establishment of an elementary 
 school or s}stem, or of a local academy, so that the dates given do not 
 correspond, one being a whole century too early. Of 23 schools 
 reported to have been established in the fifties, only 8 are reported 
 approximately correctly but in the next decade, out of 28, 22 are so 
 reported. As regards the corrected column in table 21 it should be 
 added that Inglis regarded but 68 of the 112 schools established be- 
 fore the Civil War in Massachusetts as bona fide high schools," while 
 of the 595 New York schools, 565 reported to the Regents in 1900. 
 
 c Distribution of schools and pupils. In Massachusetts, both the 
 Latin grammar school legislation and the early high school legisla- 
 tion had made the establishment of these higher schools compulsory 
 upon towns having a certain population. In New York, without 
 mandator}^ legislation, there was great irregularity in the distribu- 
 tion of schools. In the year of the passage of the union free school 
 act in 1853, four counties had no high schools or academies and 
 this remained true of Hamilton county, as also of New York county, 
 after the Free Academy became a college, until practically the cen- 
 tury's end. The distribution in 1853 was such that aside from the 
 counties without secondary schools, the great majority had from one 
 to four schools. The median number was 3, and the highest num- 
 ber was 13. Each section of the State was characterized by a 
 diversity of secondary school facilities but the counties of the Upper 
 Hudson and the Mohawk River valleys ranked highest and the 
 northern and southern counties ranked lowest. ( See map, frontis- 
 piece.) 
 
 The result was that facilities varied to such an extent that one 
 county had a reporting secondary school for every 5000 inhabitants 
 and one, New York, had only one for every 140,000, with the 
 median at approximately one for every 13,000. The average for 
 the State as a whole with about 200 academies was one school for 
 every 16,000 or if the actual number of academies reporting year by 
 }ear be taken, one for every 19,000. Naturally this general view 
 needs to take into account the diversity of size of these schools such 
 that a number reported 15 to 20 pupils while one reported 811. 
 Over half, 87 out of 165, reported from 50 to 150 pupils; 44 per 
 cent reported less than 100 pupils, 66 per cent less than 150 and all 
 but 17 per cent less than 200. The ratio of pupils to the population 
 of the State taken as a whole was i to 100. Reference to table 
 14 will show, however, that not more than one-half, perhaps even 
 
 '" Ibid., p. 153. 
 
INTERPRETATION OF TENDENCIES 193 
 
 one-fourth, were secondary pupils according to the Regents stand- 
 ards. 
 
 A vigorous protest was raised in an address before the New York 
 State Teachers Association in 1858 against the ahnost complete 
 lack of any rational plan in the incorporation of academies. ^^ The 
 argument was advanced that the determining factors should be 
 population, valuation, area and accessibility. A comparison was 
 drawn of two counties and the following differences were noted : one 
 with a population of 107,749 and taxable property worth $811,193 
 had 22 secondary schools while another with 19,669 inhabitants and 
 taxable property worth $2,751,172 had but one such school. This 
 meant that with similarly adequate traveling facilities, one county 
 had one academy for every 51 square miles and the other one for 
 evei"y 911 square miles. By reference to table 14 it may be seen that 
 the number of pupils enrolled did not rise and stay at a higher figure 
 for any length of time until 1885 and that the numlers rated as 
 academic pupils did increase through the next decade only to fall 
 off then and not exceed the total for 1850 for a period of forty 
 years when the state academic fund was increased from $40,000 to 
 $100,000. 
 
 Although successive as well as earlier reports of the Regents gave 
 schedules grouping the secondary schools by counties, the matter of 
 distribution of schools was left untouched until 1890 when at the 
 beginning of a period of rapid expansion a map was published show- 
 ing the location of the secondary and higher schools.^^ The schedule 
 mentioned above was extended in the report of 1894 to include addi- 
 tional data and the principle was enunciated that attention should "be 
 paid to the distribution of schools by counties and groups of coun- 
 ties as to the establishment of individual schools.^^ An analysis of 
 this matter in the same report showed that for the localities support- 
 ing schools and including therefore about two-thirds of the popula- 
 tion of the State, practically i out of 100 of their population was 
 in attendance in the secondary schools. Several counties exceeded 
 this average considerably, the best being St Law^-ence and Madison. 
 The latter enrolled 3 per cent of the total population, while on the 
 basis of local population, Yates county led with 9 per cent. Five 
 counties ran under the average, Rensselaer, Westchester, Erie, 
 Kings and New York, the last two having but about one-hundredth 
 of I per cent in secondary schools.^* Eliminating Kings and New 
 
 "New York Teacher, 8:7-8. 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1801, v. 3. ff. p. 2506. See Regents Rep't, 1898, ff. p. rigo. 
 
 ^' Regents Rep't, 1894, i :r239-4i. 
 
 " Ibid., p. r244. 
 
 7 
 
194 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 York, the two lowest counties, the above ratio became 2.2 out of 100, 
 a much fairer estimate, or i out of 180 of the total population. 
 Valuable data was also given in regard to the taxable property and 
 the rank of each county shown in this respect as also in population 
 and pupils, and the percentage of pupils to local and total popula- 
 tion. In 1898, a comparative study showed that i out of 11 of the 
 public high schools in the United States was situated in New York 
 and that the State had one Regents school for every 10,000 inhabi- 
 tants while Ohio had a secondary school for every 8000.^^ 
 
 The publication of such data showed that the criticism of thirty- 
 five years ago was now being seriously considered and, although 
 no legislation was passed or other direct action taken, it no doubt 
 had its influence. Regard was had by the Board, and particularly 
 by the inspectors, of the needs of given localities. Moreover, the 
 publication of the names of incorporated villages without Regents 
 schools was very effective in inducing such localities to greater 
 efforts. ^*^ Table 22 indicates briefly the progress made in this re- 
 gard in the next ten years. 
 
 Table 22 
 Incorporated villages having no Regents schools " 
 
 Population 1892 1902 
 
 Over 10,000 2 
 
 5000-10,000 4 
 
 2000-5000 15 
 
 1000-2000 18 
 
 500-1000 38 14 
 
 200-500 41 23 
 
 100-200 2 I 
 
 The Regents had in the meantime adopted a system of classifica- 
 tion or grading of schools which resulted in the establishment in 
 great numbers of one-year and two-year high schools. In 1903 the 
 pa}anent of nonresident tuition was begun, one of the most forceful 
 arguments used being that a relatively large number, from one- 
 fourth to one-third, of these pupils were in attendance upon village 
 high schools.^® The equalization of opportunity was thus probably 
 carried as far as feasible under a permissive system. Interesting 
 developments may be expected from recent legislation providing for 
 
 " Regents Rep't, 1898, i :r82. 
 
 "Ibid., p. r25i-54. . , , J 
 
 "Resents Rep'ts 1894, i:r25o; 1903, p. ri5. In the latter year 203 second- 
 ary schools in rural districts were reported. 
 "Regents Rep't, 1904, Rep't H. S. Dep't, i :ri6. 
 
INTERPRETATION OF TENDENCIES 195 
 
 two variant forms of consolidated districts, the central rural school 
 and the toWnship system. 
 
 In 1904, the committee on unification of the two state departments 
 made an exhaustive study of conditions.^" While many inadequate 
 high schools of junior and middle rank were still found, it was 
 evident that the Regents were pursuing a policy of elimination and 
 consolidation which together with inspection was making these 
 smaller schools of at least equal merit with similar schools in other 
 states. The advantage of these schools was indicated by the lessen- 
 ing of distances of secondary educational facilities from the pupils. 
 At this time it was found that 19 were less than 3 miles apart; 28 
 were 3 to 5 miles apart; 87, 5 to 10 miles ; 55, 10 to 15 ; 7, 20 to 25. 
 Their discontinuance would have meant that pupils on the average 
 would have 9 miles to go for academic instruction. 
 
 3 The State System of Secondary Education 
 
 The rise of the system of secondary education in New York has 
 already been traced briefly. It was perhaps inevitable from these 
 beginnings in the late eighteenth century that the Regents system, in- 
 cluding at first the academies and later both the academies and high 
 schools, should take its place as the earliest and strongest of the 
 state systems.-" With the consolidation with the Department of 
 Public Instruction in 1904, its strengths were conserved and its 
 weaknesses to a large extent eliminated by the organization of con- 
 trol of the secondary schools under an assistant to the State Com- 
 missioner. The discussion that follows is in part a summary regard- 
 ing phases of the state system, and in part a critical interpretation 
 of these and other administrative methods and problems. 
 
 a Classification and standardisation of schools. This subject has 
 already been fully treated in so far as the standards set and main- 
 tained and the consequent establishment of secondary schools of the 
 various grades. It remains to note that this means of encourage- 
 ment to communities unable to give four years of work became the 
 source of more definite rulings as to the equipment, library, length 
 of session, and minimum number of pupils and teachers of all 
 schools. In particular the subjects that were required for each 
 grade became the basis of a standard curriculum. 
 
 ^' Senate Dociiments, 1904, no. 25, p. 53-56. 
 
 ^ Goodwin. E. J., The New York System of Secondary Schools, in Ed. 
 Rev., 35:491-500. 
 
196 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 The requirements, however, as to standard equipment have been 
 very Httle changed since the estabhshment of the ranliing in 1894 
 and have remained practically uniform for the past two decades.-^ 
 In another regard also the standard remains in doubt, namely the 
 number of pupils. Out of 524 high schools in 1914, 7 had less than 
 20 pupils ; of 108 senior schools, 24 had less than 20 ; of 45 middle 
 schools, 21 less than 20; also 43 out of 55 junior schools.-^ Those 
 having 10 or less pupils included i high school, 2 senior schools, 5 
 middle schools and 22 junior schools. It seems probable, in light of 
 this and the fact that in other respects many of these schools are 
 barely meeting the required standards, that some other solution 
 might to advantage be found, as, for example, transportation to 
 other schools where more adequate facilities could be afforded. It 
 might be indeed doubtful whether the junior or one-year school, un- 
 less reorganized with the upper grades into a junior high school, 
 should be "considered as at all a permanent type. 
 
 b Distribution of state aid to high schools. It has been seen that 
 state aid to secondary schools dated practically from the establish- 
 ment of the University and passed through several stages. In the 
 matter of sources of aid, appropriations became by the end of the 
 last century to be the principal means of aid and, when the two state 
 systems were joined, the academic funds were transferred to the 
 general education fund. 
 
 The basis of distribution of the major part of the academic funds 
 until 1895, ^^''^s the attendance of academic pupils, mea'^'red in 
 terms of subjects pursued first as indicated in the principal s report 
 and later as determined by the Regents examinations. Since thai 
 time the quota of $100 has been given to all schools in recognition 
 of the principle of need and more recently the payment of large sums 
 for nonresident tuition has cooperated to equalize opportunity to all 
 parts of the State. Supplementary sums are still given for teacher- 
 training and apparatus, showing that the policy of granting special 
 aid for special services is evidently recognized. 
 
 On the whole, it would appear that in methods of distribution 
 more progress has been made than in the adequacy of the amount 
 distributed which has, as in most states, not increased proportion- 
 ately to the needs. Moreover, the quota operates to a certain extent 
 against the elevation of lower grade schools into higher grade 
 schools. Neither does the State recognize in it the ranges of taxa- 
 tion value nor the number of teachers employed. 
 
 Ed. Dep't Rep't, 191 5, p. 247-49. 
 Ibid., 1915, p. 872-901. 
 
INTERPRETATION OF TENDENCIES 197 
 
 c The Regents examinations and the state course of study. The 
 various stages in the history of the examination system have been 
 traced in some detail. Owing to the lack of adequate methods of 
 determining what pupils should share in the annual apportionment 
 of academic funds and to the lack of acciracy in the reports of the 
 principals, the Regents in 1865 had hit upon this plan, which vv'as in 
 vogue abroad and had been used by various school boards to fix 
 a standard of high school entrance. In 1878 high school subjects 
 were included. It was soon discovered that the examinations 
 proved an excellent means of improving the general status of high 
 school work and of supervising in an impersonal way the instruc- 
 tion within these schools. 
 
 Wilh this realization the Regents began to outline in more detail 
 the content and method of courses in syllabuses which from 1890 
 to 1910 were revised every five years. In these revisions and also 
 in the various supplementary regulations for the administration of 
 the examinations, the work of the Secretar}^ of the Board came more 
 and more to be supplemented, first by the consensus of opinion of 
 the academic principals of the State and later by the action of 
 various voluntary associations within and without the State. The 
 next and final step up to this time has been the creation of a State 
 Examinations Board with full powers in the preparation of the ex- 
 amination questions and with large legislative responsibility in their 
 administration, subject to the vote of the Board of Regents. 
 
 Within recent years, it has become evident that too much stress 
 might easily be placed upon the examinations, and an earlier defen- 
 sive position has been largely abandoned. The method of payment 
 for results has been entirely abandoned. Elementary branches of a 
 number of subjects are no longer examined and the placing of the 
 correction of papers in elementary branches in the hands of the 
 principals will undoubtedly be extended to some degree to the high 
 school subjects. A spirit of inquiry and investigation into every 
 phase of the problem is clearlv indicated in the more recent annual 
 state reports. 
 
 Certain other well-defined problems still maintain. For example, 
 the interest from the time of establishment of the academic examina- 
 tions in defining college entrance standards and of ariiculating 
 thereby the colleges and high schools has given rise to the provision 
 for three types of college entrance diplomas, namely in arts, science 
 and engineering.'^ A limited range of election is allowed in each 
 course but the inevitable v.-ould seem to be too large a shaping of high 
 
 Ed, Dcp't Rep't, 1015, p. 285-S7. 
 
198 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 school courses in terms of the coheges. The system of counts which 
 was originally based on a plan of dividing the year into four 
 quarters and which tended for a considerable period of time to 
 promote the already established short courses, has been effectively 
 readjusted. It remains unique, however, and apparently might well 
 give place to such a standard as the unit of the Carnegie Founda- 
 tion.-* 
 
 In conclusion it may be asked whether the services of the 
 academic examination in standardizing the courses of study, in 
 articulating the secondary schools with the colleges and in providing 
 a temporary means of supervision, may not perhaps have been so 
 effectively rendered that the resources now devoted and the labor 
 now involved in their conduct might well be gradually turned to 
 other accounts, in particular supervision or inspection.-^ 
 
 d Reporting and inspection of schools. The history of these two 
 means of state control has already been traced. The former was 
 until 1864 the only systematic means of a semblance of state control 
 and maintenance of Regents standards. As previously indicated 
 the system accomplished a great deal in providing most valuable 
 data for the comparative study of school conditions throughout the 
 State but the examinations proved much more eft'ective in indicating 
 the actual status of the schools. 
 
 Annual reports are still required but since 1890 systematic in- 
 spection has gradually devolved into a most promising means of 
 supervision. The early functions of determining the ranking of 
 schools and of the specific inspection and repairing of apparatus 
 have been extended until a staff of nearly a score of supervisors 
 with special assignments has been created. As an illustration of 
 this specialization may be cited the work of the modern language in- 
 spector whose duty it is to determine the adequacy of oral instruc- 
 tion for special credit to the i)upils. Close contact has always been 
 had with the Examinations Division so that the two might not be 
 working at cross purposes and that the examinations might profit by 
 the findings of inspectors in their visits. Similarly the status of 
 schools, as to their maintenance of the standards of the University 
 and their meriting of general or special forms of academic aid, is 
 now determined by the inspectors. In this work, moreover, the 
 University secures its most personal and vital form of contact with 
 the schools and has its best opportunity for constructive direction of 
 their work. 
 
 "Ed. Dep't Rep't, 1913, p. 121-22. 
 
 "See Ed. Dep't Rep't 1915. p. 36-44, for statistics and graphs indicating 
 the relative cost to the State for salaries, and other expenses. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The largest sources of information used in this study were the 
 reports of the University of the State of New York, and of the 
 Department of Common Schools, and the legislative enactments, 
 supplemented by the documents and journals of the Assembly and 
 Senate. Of very considerable value also were the numerous edu- 
 cational journals, official, semi-official, and unofficial. The fol- 
 lowing bibliography includes materials which in one way or another 
 contributed to the study and which are in most cases referred to 
 at some point throughout the study. 
 
 Documents 
 
 I. Legislative Documents. 
 
 Assembly Journals; 1691, 1773, 1784, 1820, 1837, 1864, 1904. 
 
 Assembly Documents; 1831, 1837-1864, 1904. 
 
 Constitution of the State of New York; 1821, 1846, 1894. 
 
 Laws of Colonial New York, I, II, 
 
 Laws of the State of New York; 1782-1916. Revised Stat- 
 utes, 1829, 1836. 
 
 Messages of the Governors (edited by C. Z. Lincoln) ; also 
 in Assembly and Senate Journals. 
 
 New York Colonial Documents ; Vols. VII, XIV. 
 
 Senate Documents; 1845, 1870, 1886, 1889, 1904. 
 
 Senate Journals; 1793-5, 1808, 1825, 1837, 1845, 1852, 1864. 
 
 II. State Reports. 
 
 Annual Reports of the New York State Department of 
 Education; 1904-1915. 
 
 Annual Reports of the Regents of the University of the 
 State of New York (Regents' Reports) ; 1 788-1904. (In 
 this study the date of the publication of the report is used 
 although practice for a brief period was to use the year 
 for which the data was compiled.) 
 
 Annual Reports of the Superintendent of Common Schools, 
 1814-1853; Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1854- 
 1904 (Supt. Reports). 
 
 Dix, John. Common School Decisions (1837). 
 
 Finegan. Thomas. Judicial Decisions of the State Super- 
 intendent, 1822-1914. 
 
 Letter of Commissioner Finley to the Legislature, 191 5. 
 
 [199] 
 
200 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 II. State Reports — Continued. 
 
 Handbook 6, Pt. i, General Dept. Publications, 1891. 
 
 Manuals of the University; 1864, 1870, 1888. 
 
 Pratt, Daniel. Annuals of Public Education in the State of 
 
 New York, in Convocation Proceedings of 1869, 1870, 
 
 1873, 1874, 1876, 1883. 
 Proceedings of Associated Academic Principals, 1885-1915. 
 
 (vide Ed. Dept., Kept., 1915, pp. 274-5, for reference as 
 
 to location of these reports.) 
 Proceedings of the University Convocation, 1 863-1 91 5. 
 
 (Printed separately and also in Regts. Repts.) 
 Regents' Bulletins, in Regents' Reports. 
 Regents' Instructions ; 1834, 1845, 1853. 
 Regents' Minutes; 1788-1904. (In manuscript to 1853 at 
 
 State Education Department, Albany.) 
 Regents' Questions, 1 866-1 876. (Published by C. W. Bar- 
 
 deen, Syracuse.) 
 
 III. Local Reports. 
 
 Annual Reports of the Controllers of the Public Schools, 
 
 Philadelphia, 1838-185 1. 
 Annual Reports of the New York High School Society, 
 
 1825-1833. 
 Annual Reports of the New York Free Academy, 1849- 
 
 1866. 
 Annual Reports of the Public School Society of New York 
 
 City, 1 806-1853. 
 Minutes of the Board of Education of New York City, 
 
 1 848- 1 864. 
 Register of Lockport Union School, (MS) 1848-1856. 
 Report of a Committee appointed by the High School 
 
 Society of New York, 1924. 
 Report of a Committee of the New York Municipal Society, 
 
 1878. 
 
 Educational Journals 
 
 Academician ; Vol. I. 
 
 Academy; Vols. I-VII. 
 
 American Journal of Education ; Vols. I-IV. 
 
 Annals of Education ; Vols. I-VII. 
 
 Bardeen, C. W. History of Educational Journalism in the 
 
 State of New York. 
 Barnard, Henry. Journal of Education; Vol. XXIX. 
 Common School Assistant; Vols. I-II. 
 District vSchool Journal ; Vols. I-XII. 
 New York Teacher ; Vols. I-IV. 
 School Bulletin; Vols. I-XX. 
 School Review; Vols. I-V. 
 
BIBLIOGKAlMn' 201 
 
 General Works 
 
 I. Education in the United States. 
 
 Aurner. History of Education in Iowa. 
 Cubberley. Public School Administration. 
 Edmunds. History of the Central High School of Phila- 
 delphia. 
 Griscom, John. A Year in Europe. 
 Griscom, John. Monitorial Instruction. 
 Griscom. J. H. Memoirs of John Griscom. 
 Inglis. Rise of the High School in Massachusetts. 
 Jones. D. R. State Aid to Secondary Schools. 
 Kiddle and Schem. Cyclopedia of Education. 
 Proceedings of National Education Association, 1896. 
 Stevens. The History of the Edinburgh High School (App.) 
 
 II. Education in New York. 
 
 Boese. Public Education in the City of New York. 
 
 Bourne. History of Public School Society. 
 
 Catalog of Lockport Union School, 1897-8. 
 
 Chronicles of Erasmus Hall Academ}-. 
 
 Dunshee. History of the School of the Collegiate Reformed 
 
 Dutch Church in the City of New York. 
 Fairlie. Centralization of Ad^ministration in New York 
 
 State. 
 Fitzpatrick. The Educational Views and Influence of De Witt 
 
 Clinton. 
 French. Gazeteer of the State of New York, i860. 
 History of Oneida County. 
 Hough. Historical and Statistical Record of the University 
 
 of the State of New York, 1885. 
 Kemp. The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by 
 
 the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
 
 Parts. 
 Kilpatrick. The Dutch School of New Netherlands and 
 
 Colonial New York. 
 Longworth's New York Register. 
 Miller. The History of the Academ\- Swstem of the State 
 
 of New York. 
 Mosenthal and Horn. City College ; Memoirs of Sixty Years. 
 Palmer. New York Public Schools. 
 O'Callaghan. Colonial History'; Vol. IV. 
 Randall. History of the Common School System of the 
 
 State of New York, 1871. 
 Renwick. Life of De Witt Clinton. 
 
202 THE NEW YORK STATE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 II. Education in New York — Coyitinucd. 
 
 Seybolt. Apprenticeship and Apprenticeship Education in 
 
 Colonial New England and New York. 
 Smith. History of the Schools of Syracuse. 
 Sherwood. The University of the State of New York. 
 Sowers. Financial History of the State of New York. 
 Spafford. Gazeteer of the State of New York. 
 Swift. A History of the District in New York State. 
 Utica Directory; 1828, 1833.