Please handle this volume with care. The University of Connecticut Libraries, Storrs BF 870.C64 1839 System of phre.n.?!99y- T153 0D^E^^^4 Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2011 witii funding from Boston Library Consortium IVIember Libraries littp://www.arcliive.org/details/systemofplirenoloOOcomb I 111 i| (1( U \l 01 f \A'^ FJCTl I 1 I / IJ \ I I. !■ n I'Ti \ \ 1 1 1 a 1 r 1 2 Jniiihii-n / ! / / // 1' ni/,r''''j ' tn 1 // J > 77 .'i C'liiTnt: 1 II <• / / / iti II ■/ A.f/u-sn-, , 7 7 1 1 fninhn/ix II // 1 1 / 6 Pcxtriirm II 7 7ii t .llimcnnx II / / 1 r 7 Si-crefiWii r / 77/ ■f J,\/iii. 56 Hindoos, skulls, 167, 190, 236, 567 Swiss, skull. - 580 Jervis, head, 244, 336 Tasso, head, (1) - 294 Locke, head, (1) - - 310 Wurmser, General, skull. - 150 *The figures marked (1) are copied from engraved portraits in general circulation; those marked (2) are from modelled busts; — the others are taken from real skulls, or from casts from nature, in the collection of the Phrenological Society. The whole figures were intended to be drawn to a scale ; but the engraver has neglected this in the case of those having a black ground. The outlines, however, accurately exhibit the forms, which are represented as they exist in the originals, without foreshortening. f This figure was copied by the engraver, by mistake, from an old plate, put into his hands merely to show the manner in which the brain was to be represented. The minute de- tails are not perfectly correct, and the figure is too long; but it exhibits the general appearance ot the parts with sufficient accuracy for the purpose mentioned on p. 65 ( xiv ) CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANS. Order I.— FEELINGS. Genus I, — Propensities. 1. Amativeness. Alimentiveness. 2. Philoprogenitiveness. Love of Life. 3. Concentrativeness. 7. Secretiveness. 4. Adhesiveness. 8. Acquisitiveness. 5. Combativeness. 9. Constructiveness. 6. Destructiveness, Genus IL — Sentiments common to Man with the Lower Animals. 10. Self-Esteem. 12. Cautiousness. 11. Love of Approbation. Genus III. — Superior Sentiments. 13. Benevolence. 18. Wonder. , 14. Veneration. 19. Ideality. 16. Firmness. 20. Wit or Mirthfulness. 16. Conscientiousness. 21. Imitation. 17. Hope. Order II.— INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. . , , Genus I, — External Senses. Feeling or Touch. Hearing. Taste. Sight. Smell. Genus II. — Intellectual Faculties which perceive Existence AND Physical Qualities. 22. Individuality. 25. Weight. 23. Form. 26. Coloring. 24. Size. Genus III. — Intellectual Faculties which perceive rela- tions OP External Objects. 27. Locality. 31. Time. 28. Number. 32. Tune. 29. Order. 33. Language. 30. Eventuality. Genus IV. — Reflecting Faculties. 34. Comparison. 35. Causality. ( XV ) CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANS ACCORDING TO SPURZHEIM. Order T.— FEELINGS, OR AFFECTIVE FACULTIES. Genus I. — Propensities. f Desire to live. 5. Inhabitiveness. * Alimentiveness. 6. Combativeness. 1. Destructiveness. 7. Secretiveness. 2. Amativeness. 8. Acquisitiveness. 3. Philoprogenitiveness. 9. Constructiveness. 4. Adhesiveness. Genus II. — Sentiments. 10. Cautiousness. 16. Conscientiousness. 11. Approbativeness. 17. Hope. 12. Self-Esteem. 18. Marvellousness. 13. Benevolence. 19. Ideality. 14. Reverence. 20. Mirthfulness. 15 Firmness. 21. Imitation. Order II.— INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. Genus I. — External Senses. Voluntary motion. Smell. Feeling. ' Hearing. Taste. Sight. Genus II. — Perceptive Faculties. 22. Individuality. 28. Order. 23. Configuration. ' 29. Calculation. 24. Size. 30. Eventuality. 25. Weight and resistance. 31. Time. 26. Coloring. 32. Tune. 27. Locality. 33. Artificial language. Genus III. — Reflective Faculties. 34. Comparison. 35. Causality. DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. The Plate of the Phrenological Bust faces the Title-Page. The Plate, representing Ideality in Chaucer, &c., faces p. 310. SYSTEM OF PHRENOLOGY, INTRODUCTION. Phrenology, derived from cpQ7jv mind, and Uyog discourse, pro- fesses to be a system of Philosophy of the Human Mind, and, as such, it ought to throw light on the primitive powers of feeling which incite us to action, and the capacities of thinking that guide our exertions till we have attained the object of our desires. It was first presented to public consideration on the Continent of Europe in 1796, and in Britain in the year 1814. It has met with stren- uous support from some individuals, and determined opposition from others, while the great body of the public remain uninstructed in its merits. On this account, it may be useful to present, in an intro- ductory form, 1st, A short notice of the reception which other dis- coveries have met with on their first announcement ; 2dly, A brief outline of the principles involved in Phrenology ; 3dly, An inquiry into the presumptions for and against these principles, founded on the knovm phenomena of human nature ; and, 4thly, A historical sketch of their discovery. I shall follow this course, not with a view of convincing the read- er that Phrenology is true, because nothing short of patient study and extensive personal observation can produce this conviction, but for the purpose of presenting him with motives to prosecute the mvestigadon for his own satisfaction. 1st, Then, one great obstacle to the reception of a discovery is 2 OPPOSITION TO DISCOVERIES. the difficulty which men experience of at once parting with old no- tions which have been instilled into their minds from infancy, and become the stock of their understandings. Phrenology has en- countered this impediment, but not in a greater degree than other discoveries which have preceded it. Mr. Locke, in speaking of the common reception of new truths, says, "Whoever, by the most cogent arguments, will be prevailed upon to disrobe himself at once of all his old opinions and pretensions to knowledge and learn- ing, which, with hard study, he hath all his lifetime been laboring for, and turn himself out stark naked in quest of fresh notions.'' All the arguments that can be used, will be as little able to prevail as the wind did with the traveller to part with his cloak, which he held only the faster." (Book iv. c. 20. § 11.) Professor Playfair, in his historical notice of discoveries in physical science, published in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, observes, that "in every society there are some who think themselves interested to maintain things in the condition where- in they have found them. The considerations are indeed sufficiently obvious, which, in the moral and political world, tend to produce this effect, and to give a stability to human institutions often so little proportionate to their real value, or to their general utility. Even in matters purely intellectual, and in which the abstract truths of arithmetic and geometry seem alone concerned, the prejudices, the selfishness, or the vanity of those who pursue them, not unfrequently combine to resist improvement, and often engage no inconsiderable degree of talent in drawing back, instead of pushing forward, the machine of science. The introduction of methods entirely new, must often change the relative place of the men engaged in scien- tific pursuits, and must oblige many, after descending from the sta- tions they formerly occupied, to take a lower position in the scale of intellectual improvement. The enmity of such men, if they be not animated by a spirit of real candor and the love of truth, is likely to be directed against methods by which their vanity is mor- tified, and their importance lessened." — Dissertation, part ii. p. 27. Every age has afforded proofs of the justness of these obser- vations. " The disciples of the various philosophical schools of OPPOSITION TO DISCOVERIES. 3 Greece inveighed against each other, and made reciprocal accusa- tions of impiety and perjury. Tlie people, in their turn, detested the philosophers, and accused those who investigated the causes of things, of presumptuously invading the rights of the Divinity. Pythagoras was driven from Athens on account of his novel opin- ions ; and for the same reason Anaxagoras was confined in prison. Democritus was treated as a fool by the Abderites for endeavor- ing to find out the cause of madness by dissections ; and Socrates, for having demonstrated the unity of God, was forced to drink the juice of hemlock. "—Dr. Spurzheim's Physiog. Syst. But let us attend in particular to the reception of the three great- est discoveries that have adorned the annals of philosophy, and mark the spirit with which they were hailed. Mr. Playfair, speaking of the treatment of Galileo, says : " Gal- ileo was twice brought before the Inquisition. The first time, a council of seven cardinals pronounced a sentence which, for the sake of those disposed to believe that power can subdue truth, ought never to be forgotten ; viz. That to maintain the sun to be immovable, and without local motion, in the centre of the world, is an absurd proposition, false in philosophy, heretical in religion, and contrary to the testimony of Scripture ; and it is equally absurd and false in philosophy to assert, that the earth is not immovable in the centre of the world, and, considered theologically, equally erroneous and heretical. " Mr. Hume, the historian, mentions the fact that Harvey was treated with great contumely on account of his discovery of the circulation of the blood, and in consequence lost his practice. An eloquent writer, in the 94th Number of the Edinburgh Review, when adverting to the treatment of Harvey, observes, that "the discoverer of the circulation of the blood — a discovery which, if measured by its consequences on physiology and medicine, was the greatest ever made since physic was cultivated — suffers no diminu- tion of his reputation in our day, from the incredulity with which his doctrine was received by some, the effrontery with which it was claimed by others, or the knavery with which it was attributed to former physiologists, by those who could not deny and would not 4 OFl'OSITION TO DISCOVERIES. praise it. The very names of these envious and dishonest enemies of Harvey are scarcely remembered ; and the honor of this great discovery now rests, beyond all dispute, with the great philosopher who made it." This shows that Harvey, in his day, was treated exactly as Dr. Gall has been in ours ; and if Phrenology be true, these, or similar terms, may one day be apphed by posterity to him and his present opponents. Again, Professor Playfair, speaking of the discovery of the composition of light by Sir Isaac Newton, says, "Though the discovery now communicated had every thing to recommend it which can arise from what is great, new, and singular ; though it was not a theory or system of opinions, but the generalization of facts made known by experiments, and though it was brought for- ward in a most simple and unpretending form, a host of enemies appeared, each eager to obtain the unfortunate pre-eminence of be- ing the first to attack conclusions which the unanimous voice of posterity was to confirm." (P. 56.) "Among them, one of the first was Father Pardies, who wrote against the experiments, and what he was pleased to call the Hypothesis of Newton. A sat- isfactory and calm reply convinced him of his mistake, which he had the candor very readily to acknowledge. A countryman of his, Mariotte, was more difficult to be reconciled, and though very conversant with experiment, appears never to have succeeded in repeating the experiments of Newton." Here, then, we see that persecution, condemnation, and ridi- cule, awaited Galileo, Harvey, and Newton, for announcing three great physical discoveries. In mental philosophy, the conduct of mankind has been similar. Aristotle and Des Cartes "may be quoted as examples of the good and bad fortune of new doctrines. The ancient antagonists of Aristotle caused his books to be burned. Afterwards, these books were received with a veneration equal to that due to inspira- tion itself; and even so late as the time of Francis I., the writings of Ramus against Aristotle were publicly burned, his adversaries were declared heretics, and, under pain of being sent to the gal- leys, philosophers were prohibited from combating his opinions OPPOSITION TO DISCOVERIES. 5 At the present time the philosophy of Aristotle is no longer spoken of. Again, Des Cartes was persecuted for teaching the doctrine of innate ideas ; he was accused of Atheism, though he had written on the existence of God ; and his books were burnt by order of the University of Paris. A short time after, the same University adopted the doctrine of Des Cartes in favor of innate ideas ; and when Locke and Condillac attacked it, there was a general cry of materialism and fatalism. Thus, the same opinions were considered at one time as dangerous because they were new, and at another as useful because they were ancient. What is to be inferred from this, but that man deserves pity; that the opin- ions of contemporaries, in respect to the truth or falsehood, and the good or bad consequences of a new doctrine, are altogether suspicious ; and that the only object of an author ought to be that of pointing out the truth?" — Dr. Spurzheim^s Physiog. Syst. p. 488. To these extracts many more might be added of a similar na- ture ; but enough has been said to demonstrate, that, by the ordi- nary practice of mankind, great discoveries are treated with hos- tility by the generation to whom they are addressed. If, therefore. Phrenology be a discovery at all, and especially if it be also important, it must of necessity come into colhsion, on the most weighty topics, with the opinions of men hitherto vener- ated as authorities in physiology and the philosophy of mind ; and, according to the custom of the world, nothing except opposition, ridicule, and abuse, could be expected on its first announcement. If we are to profit, however, by the lessons of history, we ought, after surveying these mortifying examples of human weak- ness and wickedness, to dismiss from our minds every prejudice against our present subject, founded on its hostile reception by men of established reputation of the present day. He who does not perceive that if Phrenology shall prove to be true, posterity will view the contumelies heaped by the philosophers of this gen- eration on its founders as another dark speck in the history of scientific discovery, and he who does not feel anxious to avoid all participation in this ungenerous treatment, has reaped no moral im- 6 THE BRAIN THE ORGAN OF THE MIND. provement from the records of intolerance which we have now contemplated : but every enlightened individual will say, Let us dismiss prejudice, and calmly listen to evidence and reason ; let us not encounter even the chance of adding our names to the melan- choly list of the enemies of mankind, by refusing, on the strength of mere prejudice, to be instructed in the new doctrines when sub- mitted to our consideration ; let us inquire, examine, and decide. These, I trust, are the sentiments of the reader ; and on the faith of their being so, I shall proceed, in the second place, to state very briefly the principles of Phrenology itself. It is a notion inculcated, often indirectly no doubt, but not less strongly, by highly venerated teachers of intellectual philosophy, that we are acquainted with Mind and with Body, as two distinct and separate entities. The anatomist treats of the body, and the logician and moral philosopher of the mind, as if they were sepa- rate subjects of investigation, either not at all, or only in a remote and unimportant degree connected. In common society, too, men speak of the dispositions and faculties of the mind, without its occurring to them that they are in close connexion with the body. But the Human Mind, as it exists in this world, cannot, by it- self, become an object of philosophical investigation. Placed in a material world, it cannot act or be acted upon, but through the medium of an organic apparatus. The soul sparkling in the eye of beauty does not transmit its sweet influence to a kindred spirit, but through the filaments of an optic nerve ; and even the bursts of eloquence which flow from the lips of the impassioned orator, when mind appears to transfuse itself almost directly into mind, emanate from, and are transmitted to, corporeal beings, through a voluminous apparatus of organs. If we, trace the mind's progress from the cradle to the grave, every appearance which it presents reminds us of this important truth. In earliest life the mental powers are feeble as the body, but when manhood comes, they glow with energy, and expand with power ; till, at last, the chill of age makes the limbs totter, and the fancy's fires decay. Nay, not only the great stages of our infancy, vigor, and de- THE BRAIN THE ORGAN OF THE MIND. ~ cline, but the experience of every hour, remind us of our alliance with the dust. The lowering clouds and stormy sky depress the spirits and enerve the mind ; — after short and stated intervals of toil, our wearied faculties demand repose in sleep ; famine or dis- ease is capable of levelling the proudest energies in the earth ; and even the finest portion of our compound being, the Mind itself, ap- parently becomes diseased, and, leaving Nature's course, flies to self-destruction to escape from wo. These phenomena must be referred to the organs with which, in this life, the mind is connected ; but if the organs exert so great an effect over the mental manifestations, no system of philosophy is entitled to consideration, which would neglect their influence, and treat the thinking principle as a disembodied spirit. The phre- nologist, therefore, regards man as he exists in this sublunary world ', and desires to investigate the laws which regulate the con- nexion between the organs and the mind, but without attempting to discover the essence of either, or the manner in which they are united. It may be demonstrated, therefore, that the popular notion that we are acquainted with mind unconnected with matter, is founded on an illusion, that, in point of fact, we do not in this life know mind as one entity, and body as another ; but that we are familiar only with the compound existence of mind and body, which act constantly together, and are so intimately connected that every state of mind involves a corresponding state of certain corporeal organs, and every state of these organs involves a certain condition of mind. A few remarks will suffice to place this doctrine in its proper light. 1st, We are not conscious of the existence and functions of the organs by which the mind operates in this life, and, in conse- quence, many acts appear to us to be purely mental, which experi- ment and observation prove incontestably to depend on corporeal organs. For example, in stretching out or v/ithdrawing the arm, we are conscious only of an act of the will, and of the consequent movement of the arm, but have no consciousness of the apparatus by means of which the volition is carried into execution. Experi 8 THE BRAIN THE ORGAN OF THE MIND. ment and observation, however, demonstrate the existence of bones of the arms curiously articulated and adapted to motion, of muscles endowed with powers of contraction, and attached with infinite skill to the bones so as to put them in motion with the least effort, and in the most beneficial manner ; and, lastly, three sets of nervous fibres all running in one sheath, namely, one which com- municates feeling, a second which transmits motion, and a third which communicates to the mind information of tlie state of the muscles when acted on by the other two ; and all these organs must combine and act harmoniously before the arm can be moved by the will on any one occasion. All that a person uninstructed in anatomy knows is, that he wills the motion, and that it takes place; the whole act appears to him to be purely mental, and only the thing moved, namely, the arm, is conceived to be corporeal. Nevertheless, it is positively established by anatomical and physi- ological investigation, that this conclusion is erroneous — that the act is not purely mental, but is accomplished by the instrumentality of the various organs now enumerated. In like manner, every act of vision is connected with a certain state of the optic nerve, and every act of hearmg, with a certain state of the tympanum, and other parts of the auditory apparatus, of the existence and func- tions of which we are altogether uninformed by consciousness. Now, I go one step farther in the same path, and state, that every act of the will, every flight of imagination, every glow of affection, and every effort of the understanding in this life, is per- formed by means of an apparatus of organs unknown to us through consciousness, but which are capable of demonstration by experi- ment and observation ; in other words, the brain is the organ of the mind. The greatest anatomists admit this proposition without hes- itation. The celebrated Dr. CuUen of Edinburgh states, that " the part of our body more immediately 'connected with the mind, and therefore more especially concerned in every affection of the intel- lectual functions, is the common origin of the nerves ; which I shall, in what follows, speak of under the appellation of the Brain." Again, the same author says, " We cannot doubt that the opera- tions of our intellect always depend upon certain motions taking THE BRAIN THE ORGAN OF THE MIND. 9 place in the brain." The late Dr. Gregory, when speaking of memory, imagination, and judgment, observes, that " Although at first sight these faculties appear to be so purely mental as to have no connexion with the body, yet certain diseases which obstruct them prove, that a certain state of the brain is necessary to their proper exercise, and that the brain is the primary organ of the in- ternal powers." The great physiologist of Germany, Blumen- bach, says, " That the mind is closely connected with the brain, is demonstrated by our consciousness, and by the mental distur- bances which ensue upon affections of the brain." (Elliotson's translation, 4th edit. vol. i. p. 196.) Magendie, a celebrated French physiologist, says, "The brain is the material instrument of thought. This is proved by a multitude of experiments and facts." Dr. Neil Arnott, in his recent work on Natural Philosophy, writes thus : " The laws of mind which man can discover by rea- son, are not laws of independent mind, but of mind in connexion with body, and influenced by the bodily condition. It has been believed by many, that the nature of mind separate from body, is to be at once all-knowing and intelligent. But mind connected with body, can only acquire knowledge slowly, through the bodily organs of sense, and more or less perfectly, according as these or- gans and the central brain are perfect. A human being born blind and deaf, and therefore remaining dumb, as in the noted case of the boy Mitchell, grows up closely to resemble an automaton ; and an originally misshapen or deficient brain, causes idiocy for life. Childhood, maturity, dotage, which have such differences of bodily powers, have corresponding differences of mental faculty : and as no two bodies, so no two minds, in their external manifestation, are quite alike. Fever, or a blow on the head, will change the most gifted individual into a maniac, causing the lips of virgin in- nocence to utter the most revolting obscenity, and those of pure religion, to speak the most horrible blasphemy : and most cases of madness and eccentricity can now be traced to a peculiar state of the brain." (Introduction, p. xxiii.) Let it be observed that these authors are nowise inclined to support Phrenology. 2 10 THE BRAIN THE ORGAN OF THE MIND. The fact that the mental phenomena of which we are conscious are the result of mind and brain acting together, is farther establish- ed by the effects of swooning, of compression of the bram, and of sleep. In profound sleep, consciousness is entirely suspended : this fact is explicable on the principle of the organ of the mind being then in a state of repose ; but altogether mconsistent with the idea of the immaterial principle, or the mind itself, being capa- ble of acting independently of the brain ; for if this were the case, thinking should never be interrupted by any material cause. In a swoon, blood is rapidly withdrawn from the brain, and conscious- ness is for the moment obhterated ; again, where part of the brain has been laid bare by an injury inflicted on the skull, it has been found that consciousness could be suspended at the pleasure of the surgeon, by merely pressing on the brain with his fingers, and that it could be restored by withdrawing the pressure. A valuable authority on this point is furnished by the Edinburgh Review. The author of the article on the nervous system in the 94th Number of that work, says, " Almost from the first casual inspection of animal bodies, the brain was regarded as an organ of primary dignity, and more particularly in the human subject — the seat of thought and feeling, the centre of all sensation, the messen- ger of intellect, the presiding organ of the bodily frame." "All this superiority (of man over the brutes,) all these faculties which elevate and dignify him, this reasoning power, this moral sense, these capacities of happiness, these high aspiring hopes, are /eZf, and enjoyed, and manifested, by means of his superior nervous system. Its injury weakens, its imperfection limits, its destruc- tion (humanly speaking) ends tliem." In addition to these authorities, I may remark, that conscious- ness or feeling localizes the mind in the head, and gives us a full conviction that it is situated there ; but it does not reveal what substance is in the interior of the skull. It does not tell whether the mind occupies an airy dome ; a richly furnished mansion ; one apartment, or many ; or in what state or condition it resides in its appointed place. It is only on opening the head that we discover the skull to contain brain ; and then, by an act of the understand- THE BRAIN THE ORGAN OF THE MIND. U operations. It is worthy of observation also, that the popular notions of the independence of the mind on the body are modern, and the off- spring of philosophical theories that have sprung up chiefly since the days of Locke. In Shakspeare, and our older writers, the brain is frequently used as implying the mental functions ; and, even in the present day, the language of the vulgar, which is less affected by philosophical theories than that of polite scholars, is more in accordance with nature. " A stupid person is vulgarly called a numb-sfctf/Z, a thick-head, or said to be addle-pated; badly furnished in the upper-story ; while a clever person is said to be strong-headed, to have plenty of brains ; a madman is called wrong in the head, touched in the noddle, &c. When a catarrh chiefly affects the head, we complain of stupidity, because we have such a cold in the head," &c. (Elliotson's Blumenbach, 4th edit. p. 66.) The principle which I have so much insisted on, that we are not conscious of the existence and functions of the organs by which the mind acts, explains the source of the metaphysical notion which has affected modern language, that we know the mind as an entity by itself. The acts which really result from the combin- ed action of the mind and its organs, appear, previous to anatomi- cal and pathological investigation, to be produced by the mind exclusively ; and hence have arisen the neglect and contempt with which the organs have been treated, and the ridicule cast upon those who have endeavored to speak of them as important to the philosophy of mind. After the explanations now given, the reader will appreciate the real value of the following statement by Mr. Jeffrey, in his strictures on the second edition of this work, in the 88th number of the Edinburgh Review. His words are, "The truth is, we do not scruple to say it, that there is not the smallest reason for supposing that the mind ever operates through the agency of any material organs, except in its perception of ma- terial objects, or in its spontaneous movements of the body which 12 THE BRAIN THE ORGAN OF THE 3IIND. it inhabits." And, " There is not the least reason to suppose that any of our faculties, but those which connect us with external objects, or direct the movements of our bodies, act by material organs at all ;" that is to say, that feeling, fancy, and reflection, are acts so purely mental, that they have no connexion with organiza- tion. Long before Mr. Jeffrey penned these sentences, however. Dr. Thomas Brown had written, even in the Edinburgh Review, that " Memory, imagination, and judgment, may be all set to sleep by a few grains of a very common and simple drug ;" and Dr. Cullen, Blumenbach, Dr. Gregory, Magendie, and, in short, all physio- logical authors, had published positive statements that the mental faculties are connected with the brain. What, then, does the proposition that the brain is the organ of the mind imply? Let us take the case of the eye as somewhat analogous. If the eye be the organ of vision, it will be conceded, first. That sight cannot be enjoyed without its instrumentality ; secondly, That every act of vision must be accompanied by a cor- responding state of the organ ; and, vice versa, that every change of condition in the organ must influence sight ; and, thirdly. That the perfection of vision will be in relation to the perfection of the organ. In like manner, if the brain be the organ of the mind, it will follow that the mind does not act in this life independently of its organ ; and hence, that every emotion and judgment of which we are conscious, are the result of mind and its organ acting to- gether. Secondly, That every mental affection must be accompa- nied with a corresponding state of the organ; and, vice versa, every state of the organ must be attended by a certain condition of the mind. And, thirdly, That the perfection of the manifesta- tions of the mind will bear a relation to the perfection of its organ, just as perfection of vision bears a relation to the perfection of the eye. These propositions appear to be incontrovertible ; and to follow as necessary consequences, from the simple fact that the mind acts by means of organization. But if they be well-founded, how important a study does that of the organ of the mind become' I PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. 13 It is the Study of mind itself, in the only condition in which it is known to us. And the very fact that in past ages, mind has been studied without reference to organization, accounts for the melan- choly truth, that up to the present day no philosophy of mind suited to practical purposes exists. Holding it then as established by the evidence of the most es- teemed physiologists, and also by observation, that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that the state of the brain influences its state, the next question which presents itself is. Whether the mind in every act employs the whole brain as one organ, or whether separate faculties of the mind are connected with distinct portions of the brain as their respective organs? The following considera- tions may enable us to solve this question : 1st, In all ascertained instances, different functions are never performed by the same organ, but, the reverse : each function has an organ for itself : thus, the stomach digests food, the hver se- cretes bile, the heart propels the blood, the eyes see, the ears hear, the tongue tastes, and the nose smells. Nay, on analysing these examples, it is found that wherever the function is compound, each element of it is performed by means of a distinct organ ; thus, to accomplish taste there is one nerve, whose office is to move the tongue, another nerve whose duty it is to communicate the ordina- ry sense of feeling to the tongue, and a third nerve which conveys the sensations of taste. A similar combination of nerves takes place in the hands, arms, and other parts of the body, which are the organs of feehng ; namely, one nerve gives motion, another feeling, and a third conveys to the mind a knowledge of the state of the organ; and, except in the case of the tongue, all these nerves are blended in one common sheath. In the economy of the human frame, there is no ascertained example of one nerve performing two functions, such as feeling and communicating motion, or seeing and hearing, or tasting and smelling. In the case of the brain, therefore, analogy would lead us to expect, that if reasoning be an act different from loving or hating, there will be one organ for reasoning, another for loving, and a third for hating. 14 PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. 2dly, * It is an indisputed truth, that the various mental powers of man appear in succession, and, as a general rule, that the re- flecting or reasoning faculties are those which arrive latest at per- fection. In the child, the powers of observing the existence and qualities of external objects arrive much sooner at their maturity than the reasoning faculties. Daily observation shows that the brain undergoes a corresponding change ; whereas we have no evidence that the immaterial principle varies in its powers from year to year. If the brain, as a whole, is the organ of the mind, this successive developement of faculties is utterly at variance with what we should expect a priori;, because, if the general organ is fitted for manifesting with success one mental faculty, it ought to be equally so for the operation of all, which we see is not the case. Observation, indeed, shows that different parts of the brain are really developed at different periods of life. In infancy, according to Chaussier, the cerebellum forms one-fifteenth of the encephalic mass ; and in adult age, from one-sixth to one-eighth, its size be- ing thus in strict accordance with the energy of the propensity of which it is the organ. In childhood, the middle part of the fore- head generally predominates ; in later life, the upper lateral parts become more prominent, which facts also are in strict accordance with the periods of unfolding of the knowing and reasoning powers. Sdly, Genius is almost always partial, which it ought not to be, if the organ of the mind were single. A genius for poetry, for mechanics, for drawing, for music, or for mathematics, sometimes appears at a very early age in individuals, who, in regard to all other pursuits, are mere ordinary men, and who, with every effort, can never attain to any thing above mediocrity. 4thly, The phenomena of dreaming are at variance with the sup- position of the mind manifesting all its faculties by means of a single organ, while they are quite consistent with, and explicable by, that of a plurality of organs. In dreaming, the mind experiences nu- merous vivid emotions, such as those of fear, joy, affection, arising, *The following instances are taken from Dr. Andrew Combe's Observations on Dr. Barclay's Objections to Phrenology, published in the Transactions of the Phrenological Society, page 413. PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. 15 succeeding one another, and departing without control from the intellectual powers ; — or, it is filled with a thousand varied con- ceptions, sometimes connected and rational, but more frequently disjointed and absurd, and all differing widely from the waking operations of the mind, in wanting consistency, and sense. These phenomena harmonize remarkably with the doctrine of a variety of faculties and organs, some of which, being active, communicate those disordered ideas and feelings which constitute a dream, while the repose of others permits the disordered action characteristic of the fancy in sleep. Were the organ of mind single, it is clear that all the faculties should be asleep or awake to the same extent at the same time ; or, in other words, that no such thing as dreaming could take place. 5f/i/y, The admitted phenomena of Partial Idiocy and Partial Insanity, are so plainly and strongly in contradiction with the notion of a single organ of mind, that Pinel himself, no friend to Phrenology, asks if their phenomena can be reconciled to such a conception. Partial Idiocy is that state in which an individual manifests one or several powers of the mind with an ordinary degree of energy, while he is deprived to a greater or less extent of the power of manifesting all the others. Pinel, Haslam, Rush, Esquirol, and, in short, every writer on insanity, speaks of the partial develope- ment of certain mental powers in idiots ; and Rush in particular not only alludes to the powers of intellect, but also to the partial possession of the moral faculties. Some idiots, he observes, are as remarkable for correct moral feelings as some great geniuses are for the reverse. In his Traite du Goitre et de la Cretinisme, Fodere thus speaks, p. 133 : — "It is remarked, that, by an inex- plicable singularity J some of these individuals (cretins,) endowed with so weak minds, are born with a particular talent for copying paintings, for rhyming, or for music. Ihave known several who taught themselves to play passably on the organ and harpsichord ; others who understood, without ever having had a master, the re- pairing of watches, and the construction of some pieces of mechan 16 PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. ism." He adds, that these powers could not be attributed to the intellect, "for these individuals not only could not read books which treated of the principles of mechanics, but Us etaient derou- tes loTsqxCon en parlait et ne se perfectionnaient jamais." It must be observed also, that these unfortunate individuals differ very much in the kind as well as quantity of mental power possessed. For example, an instance is given by Pinel of an idiot girl who manifested a most wonderful propensity to irnitate whatever sne heard or saw, but who displayed no other intellectual faculty in a perceptible degree, and never attached an idea to the sound she uttered. Dr. Rush particularizes one man who was remarkable for his religious feelings, although exceedingly deficient in intel- lectual power, and other moral sentiments; and, among the cretins, many are to be found who scarcely manifest any other faculty of the mind except that of Amativeness. One is all kindness and good nature, another quarrelsome and mischievous. One has a lively perception of harmony in music, while another has none. It ought also to be observed, that the characteristic features of each particular case are strictly permanent. The idiot, who to- day manifests the faculty of Tune, the feeling of Benevolence, of Veneration, or of Self-esteem, will not to-morrow, nor in a year, change the nature of his predominant manifestations. Were the deficiency of the single organ the cause of idiocy, these phenom- ena ought not to appear ; for the general organ being able to mani- fest one faculty, ought, according to the circumstances in which the individual is placed, to be equally able to manifest all others, whose activity may be required, and thus the character of the idi- ocy ought to change with every passing event, which it never does. Fodere calls these " inexphcable singularities," and, no doubt, on his theory they truly are so. To the Phrenologist, however, they offer no difficulty, for they are in perfect harmony with his views. The difference in the kind of powers manifested in cases of partial idiocy, between the capacity for mechanics, for insiance, and the sentiment of Veneration, Self-esteem, or Benevolence, is as great as between the sensations excited by the perception of a sound, a taste, or a smell To infer, therefore, that one organ serves for PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. 17 the manifestation of all these faculties, is really much the same in point of logic as if we were to suppose all the external senses to communicate with the mind through the medium of only one nerve, in spite of the facts of many individuals being blind who are not deaf, or deaf and still able to see and smell. Partial insanity, or that state in which one or more facuhies of the mind are diseased, without affecting the integrity of the remain- der, is known by the name of Monomania, and appears equally whh the former to exclude the possibility of one organ executing the functions of all the mental facuhies ; for the argument constantly recurs, that if the organ be sufficiently sound to manifest one facul- ty in its perfect state, it ought to be equally capable of manifesting all, — which, however, is known to be in direct opposition to fact. On this subject, I shall confine myself to the statement of a very few instances, merely in illustration. Of folie raisonnante Pinel thus speaks : — " Hospitals for the insane are never without some example of mania marked by acts of extravagance, or even of fury, with a kind of judgment preserv- ed in all its integrity, if we judge of it by the conversation ; the lunatic gives the most just and precise answers to the questions of the curious ; no incoherence of ideas is discernible ; he reads and writes letters as if his understanding were perfectly sound ; and yet, by a singular contrast, he tears in pieces his clothes and bedcovers, and always finds some plausible reason to justify his wandering and his fury. This sort of mania is so far from rare, that the vulgar name oi folie raisonnante has been given to it." — P. 93. An- other equally interesting case from the same author may be cited. "It is difficult to conceive," says he, "the nature of one species of alienation of mind. It consists, as it were, of a combination of reason and extravagance, of discernment and actual delirium, which appear so inconsistent as reciprocally to exclude each other." " One lunatic," he continues, " whose malady is of seven years' standing, is perfectly aware of his state, and forms as sound a judgment of it as if it were a thing which did not immediately concern himself. He tries to make efforts to free himself from it ; but, on the other hand, he is convinced that it is incurable. If 18 PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. any one remarks the incoherence in his ideas in his talking, he readily acknowledges it, but answers, that this inchnation overpow- ers him so much, that he cannot but submit. He adds, that he does not guarantee the soundness of the judgments which he forms, but that it is not in his power to rectify them. He believes, for example, that if he wiped his nose, that organ would remain in his handkerchief ; that if he shaved himself, he must of necessity cut his throat, and that, at the first attempt to walk, his legs would break like glass. He sometimes subjects himself to rigorous abstinence for several days, under the impression, that if he took aliments, they would suffocate him. What are we to think of an aberration of intellect so regular and so singular ?" — P. 94. It would be easy for me to multiply such instances as these of the partial affection of the mental faculties, but it is needless to occupy time with more, and the above are amply sufficient to show the nature and bearing of such cases. Here again the difficulty recurs of reconciling such facts with the idea of one organ execut- ing all the functions of the mind. How comes that organ to be able to manifest one, but not all the faculties ? 6thly, Besides the phenomena of idiocy and insanity, there is also another class of facts (to which, however, I shall only allude) equally at variance with the supposition of a single organ of mind, viz. partial injuries of the brain, which are said to have occurred without injury to the mental faculties. I merely observe, that if every part of the brain is concerned in every mental act, it appears strange that all the processes of thought should be manifested with eqvMl success, when a great part of the brain is injured or destroy- ed, as when its whole structure is sound and entire. If the fact were really as here stated, the brain would form an exception to the general laws of organic structure ; for although a part of the lungs may be sufficient to maintain respiration, or a part of the stomach to execute digestion, in such a way as to support life, there is no instance in which these functions have been as ruccess- fully performed by impaired organs as they would have been by lungs and a stomach in their natural state of health and activity. The Phrenologists are reduced to no such strait to reconcile the PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. 19 occurrence of such cases with their system ; for as soon as the principle of a plurality of organs is acknowledged, they admit of an easy and satisfactory explanation. From the preceding considerations, then, it appeal's that any theory, founded upon the notion of a single organ, is uniformly at variance with all that is ascertained to be fact in the philosophy of mind : and that, on the other hand, the principle of a plurality of organs, while it satisfactorily explains most of these facts, is consis- tent with all of them. Its truth is thus almost demonstrated, not by far-fetched or pretended facts, which few can verify, but by facts which daily "obtrude themselves upon the notice of the senses." This principle, indeed, bears on the face of it so much greater a degree of probability than the opposite one, as to have long since forced itself on the minds of many inquirers. Fodere himself a very zealous opponent of Phrenology, after recapitulating a great many reasons similar to those already mentioned, which had been employed by philosophers antecedent to Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, for believing in a plurality of mental organs, is constrained to admit, that "this kind of reasoning has been employed by the greater number of anatomists, who, from the time of Galen, down to those of our own day, and even by the great Haller, who expe- rienced a necessity for assigning a function to each department of the brain. Pinel also (in the article Manie in the Encyclopedic Methodique) after relating some cases of partial insanity, asks, whether all this collection of facts can be reconciled with the opinion of a single faculty and a single organ of the understand- ing?" Farther, the Edinburgh Reviewer, also already referred to, commends Mr. Charles Bell for "attacking the common opinion, that a separate sensation and volition are conveyed by the same nerves, and for asserting ' the different functions of different parts of the cerebrum and cerebellum. ' " These considerations early impressed reflecting men with the conviction, that particular mental powers must be connected with particular parts of the brain ; and accordingly, before the eighteenth century, when modern metaphysics sprung up, we find traces of this opinion common, not only among eminent anatomists and 20 PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. physiologists, but among authors on human nature in general. Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy, says, " Inner senses are three in number, so called, because they be within the brain-pan, as common sense, phantasie, and memory :" of common sense, "the fore part of the brain is his organ or seat ;" of phantasie or imagination, which some call aestimative or cogitative, his " organ is the middle cell of the brain ;" and of memory, " his seat and organ, the back part of the brain." This was the account of the faculties given by Aristotle, and repeated, with httle variation, by the writers of the middle ages. In the thirteenth century, a head divided into regions, according to these opinions, was designed by Albert the Great, bishop of Ratisbon ; and another was published by Petrus Montagnana, in 1491. One published at Venice, in 1562, by Ludovico Dolci, a Venetian, in a work upon strength- ening and preserving the memory, is here represented : — REFERENCES TO FIGURE. 1 Fantasia. 2 Cogitativa. 3 Vermis. 4 Sensus Communis. 5 Imagina. 6 ^stimativa. 7 Memorativa. 8 Olfactus. 9 Gustus. In the British Museum is a chart of the universe and the elements of all sciences, in which a large head so delineated is conspicuous. It was published at Rome so late as 1632.* If, then, the majority of anatomists, for the last two thousand years, and such illustrious physiologists as Haller, and the others above referred to, were led to the beUef of a plurality of mental organs, by a perception of the contradiction and inconsistency Elliotson's Blumenbach, p. 205. PLURALITY OF FACULTIES AND ORGANS. 21 existing between the phenomena, and the supposition of the whole brain being the single organ of mind, I cannot be far wrong in say- ing, that the latter notion, so far from being self-evident, appears so improbable as to require even stronger facts to prove it than the opposite view ; and that the presumptions are all in favor of a plurality of mental faculties, manifesting themselves by means of a plurality of organs. I have now endeavored to show, first, That the ridicule and abuse with which Phrenology was treated at its first announce- ment, and its continued rejection by men of established reputation, whose opinions it contradicts, afford no presumption that it is untrue, for all great discoveries have met with a similar fate : Secondly, That we are really unacquainted with the mind, as an entity distinct from the body, and that it is owing to the mind not being conscious of its organs, that metaphysicians have supposed their feelings and intellectual perceptions to be emanations of pure mind, whereas they are the results of mind and its organs acting in combination. Thirdly, That the greatest anatomists and physiolo- gists admit the brain to be the organ of the mind, and common feeling localizes the mind in the head, although it does not inform us what substance occupies the interior of the skull : Farther, That the very idea of the mind having an organ, implies that every mental act is accompanied with an affection of the organ, and vice versa; so that the true philosophy of the mind cannot be discovered without taking the influence of the organs into account at every step. Fourthly, That the analogy of the nerves of feeling and motion, of the five senses, and other parts of the body, all of which perform distinct functions by separate organs ; also the suc- cessive appearance of the faculties in youth ; the phenomena of partial genius, of dreaming, of partial insanity, of monomania, and of partial injuries of the brain, furnish presumptive evidence that the mind manifests a variety of faculties by means of a variety of organs, and exclude the supposition of a single power operating by a single organ. The next inquiry, therefore, naturally is, What effect does the condition of the organs produce on the states of the 22 INFLUENCE OF SIZE mind ? Is it indifferent whether the organs be large or small, well or ill constituted, in health or in disease ? I submit the following facts to prove that in other departments of organized nature, size in an organ, other conditions being equal, is a measure of power in its function, i. e. that small size indicates weak power, and large size strong power, all other circumstances being alike.* In our infancy, we have been delighted with the fable of the old man who showed his sons a bundle of rods, and pointed out to them how easy it was to snap asunder one, and how difficult to break the whole. The principle involved in this simple storv pervades all material substances ; for example, a muscle is com- posed of a number of fleshy fibres, and hence it follows that each muscle will be strong in proportion to the number of fibres which enter into its composition. If nerves be composed of parts, a nerve which is composed of twenty parts must be more vigorous than one which is constituted of only one. To render this princi- ple universally true, however, one condition must be observed, namely, that in comparing parts with each other, or with the whole, all shall be of the same quality; for example, if the old man in the fable had presented ten twigs of wood tied up in a bundle, and desired his sons to observe how much more difficult it was to break ten than to sever one ; and if his sons, in refutation of this assertion, had presented him with a rod of iron of the same thick- ness as one twig, and said that it was as difficult to break that iron rod, although single, as his whole bundle of twigs, although tenfold, the answer would have been obvious, that the things compared differed in kind and quality ; and that if he took ten iron rods, and tried to break them, the difficulty would be as great compared with that of severing one, as to break ten twigs of wood compared with that of breaking one. In like manner, nerves, muscles, brain, and * This subject is fully treated of by Dr. Andrew Combe in an Essay on the In- fluence of Organic Size on Energy of Function, particularly as applied to the Organs of the external Senses and Brain, in the Phrenological Journal, vol. iv p. 161. ON THE POWER OF ORGANS. 23 all other parts of the body, may be sound, or they may be diseas- ed ; they may be of a fine structure or a coarse structure ; they may be old or young ; they may be almost ^dissolved with the burning heat of a tropical sun, or nearly frozen under the influence of an arctic winter ; and it would be altogether irrational to expect that the influence of size was to stand forth as a fixed energy to overrule all these circumstances, and to produce effects constantly equal. The strength of iron itself and adamantine rock depends on temperature, for either will melt with a certain degree of heat, and at a still higher point they will be dissipated into vapor. The true principle then, is, that constitution, health, and outward cir- cumstances being the same, a large muscle, or large nerve, com- posed of numerous fibres, will act with more force than a small one comprehending few. Let us, however, trace the influence of this law in animated beings. It will scarcely be disputed, that the strength of the bones is always, other circumstances being equal, proportioned to their size. So certain is this, that when nature requires to give strength to a bone in a bird, and, at the same time, to avoid increasing the weight of the animal, the bone is made of large diameter, but hollow in the middle ; and, on mechanical principles, the increase of volume adds to its strength. That the law of size holds in regard to the bloodvessels and heart, is self-evident to every one who knows that a tube of three inches diameter will transmit more water than a tube of only one inch. And the same may be said in regard to the lungs, liver, kidneys, and every other part. If a liver, suppose of four square inches, can secrete four ounces of bile, it is perfectly manifest, that one of eight square inches will be able, all other things being equal, to secrete a quan- tity greater in proportion to its greater size. If this law did not hold true, What would be the advantage of large and capacious, over small and confined lungs .'' There could be none. Speaking, generally, there are two classes of nerves distributed over the body, those of motion and those of sensation or feeling. In motion, the muscle is the essential or chief apparatus, and the nerve is required only to communicate to it the impulse of the 24 INFLUENCE OF SIZE will ; but in sensation the reverse is the case, — the nerve itself is the chief instrument, and the part on which it is ramified is merely a medium for putting it in relation with the specific quaUties which it is destined to recognise. To show the effect of size in regard to these nerves, the follow- ing cases may be mentioned, and they are stated on the authority of Desmoulins, a celebrated French physiologist, when no other authority is given. The horse and ox have much greater muscular power, and much less intensity of sensation in their limbs than man ; and, in conformity with the principle now under discussion, the nerves of motion going to the four limbs in the horse and ox are at least one-third more numerous than the nerves of sensation going to the same parts ; whereas in man the nerves of motion going to the legs and arms are a fifth or a sixth part less than the nerves of sensation distributed on the same parts. In like manner, in birds and reptiles which have scaly skins and limited touch, but vigorous powers of motion, the nerves of sensation are few and small, and the nerves of motion numerous and large. Farther, wherever nature has given a higher degree of sensation or touch to any particular part than to the other parts of an animal, there the nerve of sensation is invariably increased ; for example, the single nerve of feeling ramified on the tactile extremity of the proboscis of the elephant exceeds in size the united volume of all the muscu- lar nerves of that organ. Some species of monkeys possess great sensibility in the tail, and some species of bats possess great sensi- bility in their wings, and in these parts the nerves of sensation are increased in size in proportion to the increased function. Birds require to rise in the air, which is a medium much lighter than their own bodies. To have enlarged the size of their muscles would have added to their weight, and increased their difficulty in rising. Nature, to avoid this disadvantage, has bestowed on them large nerves of motion which infuse a very powerful stimulus into the muscles, and increase their power of motion. Fishes live in water which is almost in equihbrium with their bodies. To them Nature has given large muscles, in order to increase their locomo- tive powers, and in them the nerves of motion are less. In these ON THE POWER OF ORGANS. 25 instances, nature curiously adds to the power of motion, by increas ing the size of that part of the locomotive apparatus which may be enlarged most conveniently for the animal ; but either the muscle or the nerve must be enlarged, otherwise there is no increase of power. In regard to the external senses, it is proper to observe that every external sense is composed, first. Of an instrument or medium on which the impression is made ; the eye for example ; and, secondly, A nerve to conduct that impression to the mind or brain. The same law of size holds as to them ; a large eye will collect more rays of light ; a large ear more vibrations of sound ; and large nostrils more odorous particles than small ones. This is so obvious, that it scarcely requires proof; yet, as Mr. Jeffrey has ridiculed the idea, I may mention that Monro, Blumenbach, Soemmering, Cuvier, Magendie, Georget, and a whole host of physiologists, support it. Blumenbach, when treating of smell, says, " While animals of the most acute smell have the nasal organs most extensively evolved, precisely the same holds in regard to some barbarous nations. For instance, in the head of a North American Indian (represented in one of his plates), the internal nostrils are of an extraordinary size," &c. And again, " The nearest to this in point of magnitude, are the internal nos- trils of the Ethiopians, from among whom I have seen heads very different from each other, but each possessing a nasal organ much larger than that described by Soemmering. These anatomical observations accord with the accounts given by the most respecta- ble travellers, concerning the wonderful acuteness of smell pos- sessed by these savages." In like manner. Dr. Monro primus^ no mean authority, in treating, in his Comparative Anatomy, of the large organ of smell in the aog, says, "The sensibility (of smell) seems to be increased in proportion to the surface ; and this will also be found to take place in all the other senses." The same author states, "that the external ear in different quadrupeds is differently framed, but always calculated to the creature's manner of life ; thus hares and such other animals as are daily exposed to insults ^rom beasts of 4 26 INFLUENCE OF SIZE prey, have large ears directed backwards, their eyes warning them of danger before." These observations apply to the external portion of the organs of sense. The inner parts or nerves are likewise subject to the same law of size. Georget, a late physiological writer, in treating of the nerves, says, " The volume of these organs bears a uniform relation, in all the different animals, to the extent and force of the sensations and movements over which they preside. Thus, the nerve of smell in the dog is larger than the five nerves of the exter- nal senses in man." The nerve of smell is small in man and in the monkey tribe ; scarcely, if at all, perceptible in the dolphin ; large in the dog and the horse, and altogether enormous in the whale and the skate, in which it actually exceeds in diameter the spinal marrow itself. In the mole it is of extraordinary size, while the optic nerve is very small. In the eagle the reverse is observ- ed, the optic nerve being very large, and the olfactory small. Most of the quadrupeds excel man in the acuteness of their hear- ing, and accordingly it is a fact that the auditory nerve in the sheep, the cow, the horse, &c., greatly exceeds the size of the same nerve in man. In some birds of prey, which are known to possess great sensibility of taste, the palate is found to be very copiously supplied with nervous filaments. But the organ of sight affords a most interesting example of the influence of size. The office of the eye-ball is to collect the rays of light. A large eye, therefore, will take in more rays of light, or, in other words, command a greater sphere of vision, than a small one. But to give intensity or power to vision, the optic nerve is also necessary. Now, the ox placed upon the surface of the earth is of a heavy structure and ill fitted for motion, but he has a large eye-ball which enables him to take in a large field of vision without turning ; but as he does not require very keen vision to see his provender on which he almost treads, the optic nerve is not large in proportion to the eyeball. The eagle, on the other hand, by ascending to a great height in the air, enjoys a wide field of vision from its mere physical position. It looks down from a point over an extensive surface. It has no need, therefore, of 8 ON THE POWER OF ORGANS. 27 large eyeball to increase artificially its field of vision ; and, accord' ingly, the ball of its eye is comparatively small, but it requires, from that height, to discern its prey upon the surface of the earth, and not only is the distance great, but its prey often resembles in color the ground on which it rests. Great intensity of vision, therefore, is necessary to its existence. Accordingly, in it the optic nerve is increased to an enormous extent. Instead of form- ing a single membrane lining only the inner surface of the posterior chamber of the eye, as in man and animals of ordinary vision, and consequently only equalling in extent the sphere of the eye to which it belongs, the retina or nerve of vision in these quick-sight- ed birds of prey is found to be composed of a great number of folds, each hanging loose into the eye, and augmenting, in an extraordinary degree, not only the extent of nervous surface, but the mass of nervous matter, and giving rise to that intensity of vision which distinguishes the eagle, falcon, hawk, and similar animals. In the case of all the senses, then, the law holds, that power of function is in proportion to size of the organ, other cir- cumstances being equal. Let us now attend to the brain. Were I to affirm that differ- ence of size in the brain would produce no effect on the vigor of its functions, — or that a small brain in perfect health, and of a sound constitution, is equal in functional power and efficiency to a large one in similar condition, Would the reader, after the evidence which has been laid before him of the influence of size in increasing the power of function in all other parts of the body, be disposed to credit the assertion ? He would have the utmost difficulty in "be- lieving it, and would say that if such were the fact, the brain must form an exception to a law which appears general over organized nature ; and yet the phrenologists have been assailed with every species of vituperation, for maintaining that the brain does not form an exception to this general law, but that in it also vigor of function is in proportion to size, other conditions being equal. I shall proceed to show some evidence in proof of this fact ; but the reader is requested to observe that I am here expounding only general principles in an introductory discourse. The conditions 28 INFLUENCE OF SIZE and modifications under which these principles fall to be applied in practice, will be stated in a subsequent chapter. First, The brain of a child is small, and its mental vigor weak, compared with the brain and mental vigor of an adult.* Second^, Small size in the brain is an invariable cause of idiocy. Phrenolo- gists have in vain called upon their opponents to produce a single instance of the mind being manifested vigorously by a very small brain. Deficiency of size, however, in the brain is not the only cause of idiocy. A brain maybe large and diseased, and mental imbecility arise from the disease ; but, although disease be absent, if the size be very deficient, idiocy will be invariable. Thirdly, Men who have been remarkable, not for mere cleverness, but for great force of character, such as Napoleon Bonaparte, have had large heads. Fourthly, It is an ascertained fact, that nations in whom the brain is large, possess so great a mental superiority over those in whom that organ is small, that they conquer and oppress them at pleasure. The Hindoo brain, for example, is considera- bly smaller than the European, and it is well known that a few thousands of Europeans have subdued and keep in subjection millions of Hindoos. The Native American brain is smaller also than the European, and the same result has been exemplified in that country. Lastly, The influence of size is now admitted by the most eminent physiologists. Magendie says, "the volume of the brain is generally in direct proportion to the capacity of the mind. We ought not to suppose, however, that every man having a large head is necessarily a person of superior intelligence, for there are many cases of an augmentation of the volume of the head beside the size of the brain, but it is rarely found that a man dis- tinguished by his mental faculties has not a large head. The only way of estimating the volume of the brain, in a living person, is to * It is certified by practical hatters, that the lower classes of the community, who are distinguished for muscular vigor much more than mental capacity, re- quire a smaller size of hat than those classes whose occupations are chiefly men tal, and in whom vigor of mind surpasses that of body. But the Phrenologist does not compare mental power in general with size of brain in general; and, besides, the hat does not indicate the size of the whole head. The reader will find details on this point in the 4th volume of the Phrenological Journal. ON THE POWER, OF ORGANS. 29 measure the dimensions of the skull ; every other means, even that proposed by Camper, is uncertain." — (Compendium of Physiolo- gy, p. 104. edition 1S26). The following passage which occurs in the 94th Number of the Edinburgh Heview, also implies not only that different parts of the nervous system, including the brain, have different functions, but that an increase of volume in the brain is marked by some addition to, or amplification of, the powers of the animal. "It is in the nervous system alone that we can trace a gradual progress in the provision for the subordination of one (animal) to another, and of all to man ; and are enabled to associ- ate every faculty which gives superiority with some addition to the nervous mass, even from the smallest indications of sensation and will, up to the highest degree of sensibility, judgment, and expres- sion. The brain is observed progressively to be improved in its structure, and, with reference to the spinal marrow and nerves, augmented in volume more and more, until we reach the human brain, each addition being marked by some addition to, or ampli- fication of, the powers of the animal, — until in man we behold it possessing some parts of which animals are destitute, and wanting none which theirs possess." There is here, then, pretty strong evidence and authority for the assertion, that the brain does not form an exception to the general law of organized nature, that other conditions being equal, size of organ is a measure of power of function. The circumstances which modify the effects of size fall next lo be considered. These are constitution and health. The question naturally presents itself. Do we possess any index to constitutional qualities of brain? The temperaments indicate them to a certain extent. There are four temperaments, accom- panied with different degrees of activity in the brain — the Lympha- tic, the Sanguine, the Bilious, and the Nervous. The tempera- ments are supposed to depend upon the constitution of particular systems of the body ; the brain and nerves being predominantly active from constitutional causes, produce the nervous tempera- 30 TEMPERAMENT AND DISEASE raent; the lungs, heart, and blood-vessels being constitutionally predominant, give rise to the sanguine; the muscular and fibrous systems, to the bilious ; and the glands and assimilating organs, to the lymphatic. The different temperaments are indicated by external signs, which are open to observation. The first, or Lymphatic, is dis- tinguishable by a round form of the body, softness of the muscular system, repletion of the cellular tissue, fair hair, and a pale clear skin. It is accompanied by languid vital actions, with weakness, and slowness in the circulation. The brain, as part of the system, is also slow, languid, and feeble in its action, and the mental mani- festations are proportionally weak. The second, or sanguine constitution, is indicated by well defin- ed forms, moderate plumpness of person, tolerable firmness of flesh, light hair, inclining to chestnut, blue eyes, and fair complex- ion, with ruddiness of countenance. It is marked by great activ- ity of the blood-vessels, fondness for exercise, and an animated countenance. The brain partakes of the general state, and is active. The Bihous temperament is recognised by black hair, dark skin, moderate fulness, and much firmness of flesh, with harshly expressed outline of the person. The functions partake of great energy of action, which extends to the brain, and the counte- nance, in consequence, shows strong, marked, and decided fea- tures. The Nervous temperament is recognised by fine thin hair, thin skin, small thin muscles, quickness in muscular motion, paleness of countenance, and often delicate health. The whole nervous system, including the brain, is predominantly active, and the men- tal manifestations are proportionally vivacious.* It it thus clearly admitted, that constitution or quality of brain * The American reader will find a very elegant and instructive account of the temperaments, by that distinguished Phrenologist Dr. Charles Caldwell, of Lexington, in a volume published there in 1831, unde'- the title of " Essays on Malaria and Teraperainent." MODIFY THE EFFECTS OF SIZE. 31 has a great influence on the mental effects of size ; but let us at- tend to the consequences. As a general rule, all the parts of the same brain have the same constitution, and if size be a measure of power, then in each head the large organs will be more powerful than the small ones. This enables us to judge of the strong and the weak points in each head. But if we compare two separate brains, then we must recollect that the size of the two may be equal ; and, nevertheless, the one from possessing the finest tex- ture, and most vigorous constitution, may be exceedingly active, while another, from being inferior in quality, may be naturally inert. The consequence will be, that the best constituted brain will manifest the mind with most vigor. That size is nevertheless the measure of power, may be proved by contrasting the manifes- tations of a small and of a large brain, possessing the same combi- nation of organs, and equally well constituted ; the power or energy will then be found greatest in the latter. This is what is meant by other natural conditions being equal. As the temperaments are distinguishable by the countenance, and the general make of the body, and as the brain partakes of the general constitution, we possess an index to its natural qualities. I repeat that these re- marks apply only to the case of comparing one brain with another. The same brain has in general the same constitution, and on the principle that size is a measure of power, the largest organs in each individual will be naturally the most vigorous. If the temperament be lymphatic, all the organs will act slowly, but the largest will be most powerful and most active, on account of their superior size. If the temperament be active, all will be active, but the largest will still take the lead. It is on this account that a student of Phrenol- ogy in search of evidence, should not compare the same organ in different brains. Further, the brain must possess a healthy constitution, and that degree of activity which is the usual accompaniment of health. Now, the brain, like other parts of the body, may be affected with certain diseases which do not diminish or increase its magnitude, and yet impair its functions. The Phrenologist ascertains the health by inquiry. In cases of disease, great size may be present, 32 TEMPERAMENT AND DISEASE. and very imperfect manifestations appear ; or it may be attacked with other diseases, such as inflammation, or any of those particu- lar affections whose nature is unknown, but to which the name of Mania is given in nosology, and which greatly exalt its action ; and then very forcible manifestations may proceed from a brain com- paratively small ; but it is no less true, that when a larger brain is excited to the same degree by the same causes, the manifestations become increased in energy, in proportion to the increase of size. These cases, therefore, form no valid objection to Phrenology ; for the phrenologist ascertains, by previous inquiry, that the brain is in a state of health. If it is not, he makes the necessary hmit- ations in drawing his conclusions. Let us turn our attention to the point of the argument at which we are now arrived. We have seen that the brain is the organ of the mind, — that it is not a single organ, but that the analogy of all the other organs, the successive developement of the faculties, — the phenomena of partial genius, — partial insanity, — monomania, — dreaming, — and partial injuries of the brain, indicate that it is a congeries of organs manifesting a plurality of faculties ; we have seen also, that, in the case of the bones, muscles, nerves of motion, nerves of sensation, and nerves of the five senses, size has an influ- ence on vigor of functions ; and from the analogy of these organs, and also from direct facts and physiological authorities, we have come to the same conclusion regarding the brain, that vigor of function bears a relation, other circumstances being equal, to size in the organ. From these premises, it follows as a necessary con- clusion, that, in the manifestation of the mental faculties, it will not be indifferent in what direction the brain is most or least developed ; for example, if different parts of the brain possess different functions, and if the strength of function be in proportion to the size of the part, the vigor of the faculties connected with a brain in which the frontal region predominates in size, must neces- sarily be different from that which would proceed frcm a brain in which the predominance of size was in the posterior portion ; and a difference would hold also in cases of preponderance in the superior or inferior portions. CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR 33 Raphael. New Hollander. ^^^J Here we have a representation of the skull of Raphael, and of the skull of a native of New Holland ; both taken from casts in the collection of the Phrenological Society. The difference in the forehead is very conspicuous. If the part of the brain lying in that region have any function connected with intellect, and if size be a measure of power, the two beings should form a strong contrast of power and weakness in that department. And, accordingly, the case is so. Raphael died at thirty-three years of age, and has left an imperishable memory on account of his genius in art. Sir Walter Scott describes the other as follows : — " The natives of New Holland are, even at present, in the very lowest scale of hu- manity, and ignorant of every art which can add comfort or decen- cy to human life. These unfortunate savages use no clothes, construct no cabins or huts, and are ignorant even of the manner of chasing animals, or catching fish, unless such of the latter as are left by the tide, or which are found on the rocks ; they feed upon the most disgusting substances, snakes, worms, maggots, and what- ever trash falls in their way. They know, indeed, how to kindle a fire ; in that respect only they have stepped beyond the deepest ignorance to which man can be subjected ; but they have hot learned how to boil water ; and when they see Europeans perform this ordinary operation, they have been known to run away in great terror." We have now arrived, by a fair and legitimate induction, at strong presumptive proof in favor of the grand principles of Phrenology, viz. that the brain is the organ of the mind, that differ- ent parts of it are connected with different faculties, and that the size of the organ, other conditions being equal, exerts an influence on the power of manifestation. Here, then, the inquiry presents 5 34 FACULTIES AND ORGANS. itself. What faculties and what parts of the brain are mutually con- nected ? This is the grand question remaining to be solved, in order to render our knowledge of the functions of the brain and the organs of the mind precise and practically useful. Let us inquire what progress the metaphysician and anatomist have made in elucidating this point. It is of importance to take a view of the past efforts of philosophers in the science of mind on this subject, that we may be able correctly to appreciate both what remains to be accomplished, and how far Phrenology presents means capable of attaining it. The mind has been studied, by one set of philosophers, with too little reference to the body ; and the laws of thought have been expounded with as much neglect of organization as if we had already " shuffled off this mortal coil." From this erroneous practice of many distinguished authors, such as Locke, Hume, Reid, Stewart and Brown, a prejudice has arisen against the physi- ology of man, as if the mind were degraded by contemplatrng it in connexion with matter ; but man is the work of the Creator of the world, and no part of his constitution can be unworthy of regard and admiration. The whole phenomena of life are the result of mind and body joined, each modifying each; and how can we ex- plain a result, without attending to all the causes which combine towards its production ? <> Another set of philosophers, in avoiding Scylla, have thought it necessary to dash into Charybdis, and have taught, that the mind is nought but a combination of matter ; and have endeavored to explain its functions by supposed mechanical motions in its parts ; but, as we shall hereafter see, this course of proceeding is equally erroneous as the other. Li surveying the phenomena of mind, we are struck with the variety of faculties with which it appears to be endowed. Philo- sophers and the vulgar equally admit it to be possesse'd of different powers. Thus it is by one faculty that it reasons ; by another that it imagines, and, by a third, that it discriminates between right and wrong. EFFORTS OF METAPHYSICIANS. 35 If, however, we inquire what progress has hitherto been made Dy metaphysicians in ascertaining the primitive mental powers, and rendering the philosophy of man interesting and practically useful to persons of ordinary understanding, we shall find a lamentable deficiency indeed. From the days of Aristotle to the present time, the most powerful intellects have been directed, with the most persevering industry, to this department of science, — and system after system has flourished, fallen, and been forgotten, in rapid and melancholy succession. To confine our attention to modern times, Dr. Reid overturned the philosophy of Locke and Hume ; Mr. Stewart, while he illustrated Reid, yet differed from him in many important particulars ; and, recently, Dr. Thomas Brown has attacked, with powerful eloquence and philosophical profundity, the fabric of Stewart, and it already totters to its fall. The very existence of even the most common and familiar facul- ties of the mind is still in debate among these philosophers. Mr. Stewart maintains Attention to be a faculty, which these other philosophers deny. They, again, state Imagination to be a pri- mitive power of the mind, while Mr. Stewart informs us, that " what we call the power of Imagination, is not the gift of nature, but the result of acquired habits, aided by favorable circumstances. " [Elements, Chap. 7. § 1.) Common observation informs us, that a taste for music, and a genius for poetry and painting, are gifts of nature, bestowed only on a few ; but Mr. Stewart, by dint of his philosophy, has discovered that these powers, and also a genius for mathematics, " are gradually formed by particular habits of study, or of business." (Outlines, p. 16.) On the other hand, he treats of Perception, Conception, and Memory, as origi- nal powers ; while Dr. Thomas Brown denies them to be entitled to that appellation. Reid, Stewart, and Brown, admit the exist- ence of moral emotions ; but Hobbes, Mandeville, Dr. Paley, and many others, resolve the sentiment of Right and Wrong into a regard to our own good, into perceptions of utility, obedience to the laws, or to the Divine command. Thus, after the lapse and labor of more than two thousand years, philosophers are not yet agreed concerning the existence of many of the most important 36 EFFORTS OF METAPHYSICIANS. principles of action, and intellectual powers of man. While the philosophy of mind shall remain in this uncertain condition, it will be impossible to give to morals and natural religion a scientific foundation ; and until these shall assume the stableness and preci- sion of sciences, education, political economy and legislation, must continue empirical in their principles and application. If, there- fore. Phrenology could introduce into the philosophy of mind even a portion of the certainty and precision which attend physical investigations, it would confer no small benefit on this interesting department of science ; and that it is fully competent to do so, shall be shown after we have attended to a few preliminary points requiring consideration. In the next place, supposing the number and nature of the prim- itive faculties to be ascertained, it is to be remarked, that, in actual life, they are successively developed. The infant feels fear, love, attachment, before it is alive to the sublime or the beautiful ; and it observes occurrences long before it reasons. A correct theory of mind ought to unfold principles to which these facts also may be referred. Farther, even after the full maturity of age is attained, how dif- ferent the degrees in which we are endowed with the various men- tal powers. Admitting each individual to possess all the faculties, the assemblage of which constitutes the human mind, in what a variety of degrees of relative strength do they appear in different persons ? In one, the love of glory is the feeling which surpasses all ; another is deaf to the voice of censure, and callous to the accents of applause. The soul of one melts with softest pity at a tale of wo ; while the eye of another never shed a sympathetic tear. One individual spends his life in an ardent chase of wealth, which he stops not to enjoy ; another scatters in wasteful prodigal- ity the substance of his sires, and perishes for want from a mere mcapacity to retain. One vast intellect, like Newton's, fathoms the profundities of science ; while another feeble mind scarce- ly gropes its way through the daily occurrences of life. The towering imagination of a Shakspeare, or a Milton, soars be- yond the boundaries of sublunary space ; while the sterile fancy EFFORTS OF METAPHYSICIANS. 37 of another sees no glory in the heavens, and no loveliness on earth. A system of mental philosophy, therefore, pretending to the truth of nature, ought not only to unfold the simple elements of thought and of feeling, but to enable us to discover in what proportions they are combined in different individuals. In chemical science, one combination of elementary ingredients produces a medicine of sovereign virtue in removing pain ; another combination of the same materials, but differing in their relative proportions, brings forth a mortal poison. In human nature, also, one combination of faculties may produce the midnight murderer and thief; and another, a Franklin, a Howard, or a Fry, glowing with charity to man. If, however, we inquire at the philosophers on the mind, for rules by which to discriminate the effects upon the character and conduct of individuals, produced by different combinations of the mental powers, what information do we receive ? Instead of light upon this interesting subject, we find in their works only disputes, whether such differences exist in nature, or are the result of edu- cation and other adventitious circumstances ; many maintaining the one opinion, while some iew advocate the other. This de- partment of the philosophy of man, in short, is a perfect waste. Mr. Stewart is aware equally of its importance and forlorn condi- tion. The varieties of intellectual character among men, says he, present another very interesting object of study, which, " consid- ering its practical utility, has not yet excited, so much as might have been expected, the curiosity of our countrymen." (Dissert. Part ii. p. 198). The reason appears sufficiently obvious. The common modes of studying man afforded no clew to the discovery desired. In thus surveying the philosophy of man, as at present exhibited to us in the writings of philosophers, we perceive, first, That no ac- count is given of the influence of the material organs on the manifest- ations of the mental powers ; that the progress of the mind from youth to age, and the phenomena of sleep, dreaming, idiocy and in- sanity, are left unexplained or unaccounted for, by any principles 38 EFFORTS OF MORALISTS. admitted in their system : Secondly, That the existence and functions of some of the most important primitive facuhies are still in dispute ; and, thirdly, That no light whatever has been thrown on the nature and effects of combinations of the primitive powers, in different de- grees of relative proportion. It is with great truth, therefore, that Monsieur De Bonald, quoted by Mr. Stewart, observes, that "di- versity of doctrine has increased from age to age, with the number of masters, and with the progress of knowledge ; and Europe, which at present possesses libraries filled with philosophical works, and which reckons up almost as many philosophers as writers ; poor in the midst of so much riches, and uncertain with the aid of all its guides, which road it should follow ; Europe, the centre and focus of all the lights of the world, has yet its philosophy only in expect- ation." While philosophers have been thus unsuccessfully engaged in the study of mental science, human nature has been investigated by another set of observers, — Morahsts, Poets and Divines. These have looked upon the page of life merely to observe the characters there exhibited, with the view of tracing them anew in their com- positions : and certainly they have executed their design with great felicity and truth. In the pages of Shakspeare, Addison, Johnson, Tillotson and Blair, we have the lineaments of mind traced with a perfect tact, and exhibited with matchless beauty and effect : But these authors had no systematic object in view, and did not aim at founding their observations on principles vi^hich might render them subservient to the practical purposes of hfe. Hence, although in their compositions we find ample and admirable materials for the elucidation of a true system of the philosophy of man, yet, without other aids than they supply, we cannot arrive at fundamental prin- ciples sufficient to guide us in our intercourse with the world. The charge against their representations of human nature is, not that they are incorrect, but that they are too general to be useful. They draw striking pictures of good men and of bad men, but do not en- able us to discover, prior to experience, whether any particular in- dividual with whom we may wish to connect our fortunes, belongs to the one class or the other, a matter of the first importance, be- EFFORTS OF POETS. 39 cause, in the course of gaining experience, we encounter the risk of suffering the greatest calamities. In short, Poets and Novelists describe men as they do the weather ; in their pages they make the storm to rage with terrific energy, or the sun to shine with the soft- est radiance, but do not enable us to discover whether, to-morrow, the elements will war, or the zephyrs play; and without this power, we cannot put to sea with the certainty of favoring gales, nor stay in port without the risk of losing winds that would have wafted us to the wished-for shore. Phrenology, therefore, if a true system of human nature, ought not only to furnish to the popular reader the key of philosophy, to unlock the stores of intellectual wealth con- tained in the volumes of our most gifted authors, but also to render their representations of human character practically useful, by en- abling him to discover the natural qualities of living individuals prior to experience of their conduct, and thus to appreciate their tenden- cies before becoming the victim of their incapacity or passions. The causes of the failure of the metaphysician are easily recog- nised. He studied the mind chiefly by reflecting on his own con- sciousness ; he turned his attention inwards, observed the phenom- ena of his own faculties, and recorded these as metaphysical science. But the mind is not conscious of organs at all ; we are not informed by feeling of the existence of muscles, of nerves of motion, nerves of taste, nerves of smell, of an auditory apparatus, of optic nerves, or of any mental organs whatever. All that consciousness reveals is, that the mind inhabits the head ; but it does not inform us what material substances the head contains ; and hence it was impossible for the metaphysician to discover the organs of the mind by his method of philosophising, and no metaphj^'sical philosopher pretends to have discovered them. The imperfection of this mode of inves- tigation accounts for the contradictory results obtained by different metaphysicians. Suppose an individual possessed of a brain like a New Hollander, to turn philosopher ; he would never, by reflecting on his own consciousness, find an instinctive faculty for art ; and, therefore, he would exclude it from his system. Another philoso- pher, constituted like Raphael, on the other hand, would feel it strongly, and give it a prominent place. 40 LABORS OF PHYSIOLOGISTS. When we turn our attention to the works of Physiologists, we discover the most ceaseless, but fruitless, endeavors to ascertain and determine the parts of the body, with which the several mental powers are most closely connected. Some of them have dissected the brain, in the hope of discovering in its texture an indication of the functions which it performs in relation to the mind ; but success has not hitherto crowned their efforts. When we examine, with the most scrupulous minuteness, the form, color, and texture of the brain, no sentiment can be perceived slumbering in its fibres, nor half-formed ideas starting from its folds. It appears to the eye only as a mass of curiously convoluted matter ; and the understand- ing declares its incapacity to penetrate the purposes of its parts. In short, we cannot, by merely dissecting any organ of the body, discover its functions. For example, anatomists, for many cen- turies, dissected the nerves of motion and feeling, and saw nothing in their structure that indicated the difference of their functions ; and, at this moment, if the nerves of taste and of hearing were pre- sented together on the table, we might look at them for ages with- out discovering any traces of their functions from their structure alone. Simple dissection of the brain, therefore, could not lead to the discovery of the functions of its different parts. The obstacles which have hitherto opposed the attainment of this information have been many. Imagination has been called in to afford information which phil- osophy withheld, and theories have been invented to supply the place of knowledge founded on fact and legitimate induction. " The greater number of physiologists, physicians and philosophers," says Dr. Spurzheim, " derive the moral sentiments ^'01x1 various viscera. or from the nervous plexus and ganglia of the great sympathetic nerve, that is, from the nerves of the abdomen and thorax ; but comparative anatomy and physiology entirely contradict this opinion. There are animals endowed with faculties attributed to certain bow- els or viscera, which do not possess these viscera. Insects, for instance, become angry, and have neither liver nor bile. Oxenj horses, hogs, &c. have many viscera in structure analogous to those of man, and yet they want many faculties which are attributed to LABORS OF PHYSIOLOGISTS. 41 these viscera, and with which man is endowed." The heart is supposed to be the seat of the tender affections ; but the heart of the tiger and of the lamb are alike in structure, and the one ought to be the organ of cruelty, and the other of meekness, if this sup- position were true. [Jfew Phys. Syst. p. 133). Other physiol- ogists have compared the size of the brain of man with that of the lower animals ; contrasting at the same time their mental powers ; and have been led to the conclusion that it iS the organ of the mind, and that its superior developement in man indicates his men- tal superiority over the brutes ; but these philosophers have not succeeded in determining the functions of the different parts of this organ, and have not been able, in any important degree, to connect their discoveries with the philosophy of mind. Camper, in order to measure the extent of the brain, and, as he imagined, the corresponding energy of the intellectual faculties, drew a verti- cal hne, touching the upper lip and the most prominent part of the forehead ; and also a horizontal hne, crossing the former, and touching the tips of the upper front teeth, and the external opening of the ear, or, at least, corresponding to these points in its direc- tion ; and he thought that man and animals have more understanding, the more the upper and inner angle formed by the two lines, or that including the upper jaw, nose, &c. is obtuse ; and, on the contrary, that man and animals are more stupid, the more this facial angle is acute. But tiiis manner of measuring the intellectual faculties is not more correct than those previously mentioned. The facial angle applies only to the anterior parts of the brain situ- ated in the forehead, and is inapplicable to all the lateral and pos- terior parts ; hence it could, even if there were no other objection, indicate only those faculties whose organs constitute the forehead. Besides, in many Negroes, the jaw-bones are extremely prominent, and the facial angle acute ; while their foreheads are in fact largely developed, and their intellectual faculties powerful, although, by Camper's rule, they ought to be inferior to many stupid Europeans, whose foreheads are deficient, but whose jaws recede. Hence, the facial angle cannot serve as a means of measuring the moral senti- ments and intellectual faculties. (JVew) Phys. Syst. p. 197, 198, 199.) 6 42 LABORS OF PHYSIOLOGISTS. " Some physiologists, as Soemmering and Cuvier, have com- pared the size of the brain in general with that of the face ; and, according to them, animals are more stupid as the face is larger in proportion to the brain." But that this rule is not infallible, is easily proved, because Leo, Montaigne, Leibnitz, Haller, and Mirabeau, had large faces and very considerable brains. Bossuet, Voltaire, and Kant, had, on the contrary, small faces and also large brains. (JVeio Phys. Syst. p. 200.) The cerebral parts have likewise been compared with each other, in order to ascertain their functions, as, the brain with the cerebel- lum, the brain with the medulla oblongata, with the nerves, &c., but these modes also have led to no satisfactory results. The elder writers, such as Aristotle and his followers, who assigned different faculties to different parts of the brain, proceeded on fan- cy, or on notions of supposed suitableness of the place in the head to the nature of the power ; and their views have been entirely abandoned both by physiologists and metaphysicians. In short, it is well known, that no theory of the functions of the brain is yet admitted and taught as certain science, such as the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, and the functions of the muscles, nerves, and bones. Dr. Roget, an opponent of Phrenology^ freely confesses that " the brain is still as incomprehensible in its functions, as it is sub- tle and complex in its anatomy." [Cranios Sup. to Enc Brit.); and the writer in the 94th Number of the Edinburgh Review, says, — " Even within our own time, although many great anatomists had devoted themselves almost exclusively to describing the brain, this organ used to be demonstrated by the greater number of teach- ers, in a manner which, however invariable, was assuredly not particularly useful. It was so mechanically cat down upon, in- deed, as to constitute a sort of exhibition connected with nothing. The teacher and the pupil were equally dissatisfied with the per- formance, and the former probably the most ; the latter soon gave up the painful attempt to draw any kind of deductions from what he witnessed, and disposed of the difficulty as he best could, when he had to render an account of what he had seen. Up to this day, LABORS OF PHYSIOLOGISTS. 43 our niemoiy is pained by the recollection of the barbarous names and regular sections of what was then the dullest part of anatomical study ; which, although often repeated, left no trace but of its ob- scurity, or its absurdity. Here an oval space of a white color, and there a line of gray or curve of red, were displayed ; here a cineritious, there a medullary mass ; here a portion white without and gray within ; there a portion white within and gray without ; here a gland-pituitary ; there a gland like grains of sand ; here a ventricle; there a cul-de-sac; with endless fibres, and hnes, and globules, and simple marks, with appellations no less fanciful than devoid of meaning." "The anatomist dissected, and toiled on in this unpromising territory, and entangled himself more in proportion to his unwilling- ness to be defeated ; and he succeeded, no doubt, in making out a clear display of all these comphcated parts, which few, however, could remember, and fewer still could comprehend. Then came the physiologist in still greater perplexity, and drew his conclu- sions, and assigned offices to the multiplied portions and ramifica- tions of nervous substance, by arbitrary conjecture for the most part, and often with manifest inconsistency. Although the brain was generally allowed to be the organ of the intellectual faculties, it was supposed to give out, from particular portions of the mass, but quite indifferently, nerves of sensation, general and specific, nerves of motion, and nerves of volition ; the single, double, or multiplied origin of nerves, which had not escaped notice, not be- ing supposed to be connected with these separate offices." " Such, so vague, so obscure, so inexact, so unsatisfactory, was the kind of knowledge communicated to the student, until a very recent period ; and the impression left by it was that of confused and unintelligible profusion in the distribution of nerves, of intrica- cy without meaning, of an expenditure of resources without a par- allel in the other works of nature." Pages 447, 448. Unless, then, Dr. Gall could boast of some other method of investigation than those of the ordinary physiologist and metaphysi- cian, he could offer no legitimate pretensions to the solution of the question. What parts of the brain, and what mental faculties, are 44 HISTORY OF DR. GALL'S DISCOVERY. connected ? but he, by great good fortune, was led to adopt a different and superior mode of inquiry ; and this leads me to state shortly a few particulars of the history of the science which is now to be expounded. Dr. Gall, a physician of Vienna, afterwards resident in Paris,* was the founder of the system. From an early age he was given to observation, and was struck with the fact, that each of his broth- ers and sisters, companions in play, and schoolfellows, was dis- tinguished from other mdividuals by some peculiarity of talent or disposition. Some of his schoolmates were characterized by the beauty of their penmanship, some by their success in arithmetic, and others by their talent for acquiring a knowledge of natural his- tory, or languages. The compositions of one were remarkable for elegance ; the style of another was stiff and dry ; while a third connected his reasonings in the closest manner, and clothed his argument in the most forcible language. Their dispositions were equally different ; and this diversity appeared also to determine the direction of their partialities and aversions. Not a few of them manifested a capacity for employments which they were not taught ; they cut figures in wood, or delineated them on paper ; some devoted their leisure to painting, or the culture of a garden ; while their comrades abandoned themselves to noisy games, or traversed the woods to gather flowers, seek for bird-nests, or catch butter- flies. In this manner, each individual presented a character pecu- liar to himself, and Dr. Gall never observed, that the individual, who in one year had displayed selfish or knavish dispositions, be- came in the next a good and faithful friend. The scholars with whom Dr. Gall had the greatest difficulty in competing, were those who learned by heart with great facility ; and such individuals frequently gained from him by their repeti- tions the places which he had obtained by the merit of his original compositions. Some years afterwards, having changed his place of residence, * Born at Tiefenbrun, in Suabia on 9th Marchj 1757, died at Paris, 22d Au- gust, 1828 HISTORY OF DR. GALL'S DISCOVERY. 45 he still met individuals endowed with an equally great talent of learning to repeat. He then observed, that his schoolfellows, so gifted, possessed prominent eyes, and recollected, that his rivals in the first school had been distinguished by the same peculiarity. When he entered the University he directed his attention, from the first, to the students whose eyes were of this description, and found that they all excelled in getting rapidly by heart, and giving correct recitations, although many of them were by no means dis- tinguished in point of general talent. This observation was recog- nised also by the other students in the classes ; and although the connexion betwixt talent and external sign was not at this time established upon such complete evidence as is requisite for a phi- losophical conclusion, Dr. Gall could not beheve that the coinci- dence of the two circumstances was entirely accidental. From this period, therefore, he suspected that they stood in an important relation to each other. After much reflection, he conceived, that if memory for words was indicated by an external sign, the same might be the case with the other intellectual powers ; and, there- after, all individuals distinguished by any remarkable faculty became the objects of his attention. By degrees, he conceived himself to have found external characteristics, which indicated a decided disposition for Painting, Music, and the Mechanical Arts. He became acquainted also with some individuals remarkable for the determination of their character, and he observed a particular part of their heads to be very largely developed. This fact first sug- gested to him the idea of looking to the head for signs of the Moral Sentiments. But in making these observations, he never conceiv- ed, for a moment, that the skull was the cause of the different talents, as has been erroneously represented ; for, from the first, he referred the influence, whatever it was, to the Brain. In following out, by observations, the principle which accident had thus suggested, he, for some time, encountered difficulties of the greatest magnitude. Hitherto he had been altogether ignorant of the opinions of Physiologists touching the brain, and of Meta- physicians respecting the mental faculties. He had simply observ- ed nature. When, hoAvever, he began to enlarge his knowledge 46 HISTORY OF DR. GALL'S DISCOVERY. of books, he found the most extraordinary conflict of opinions every where prevailing, and this, for the moment, made him hesi- tate about the correctness of his own observations. He found that the moral sentiments had, by an almost general consent, been consigned to the thoracic and abdominal viscera: and that while Pythagoras, Plato, Galen, Haller, and some other Physiologists, placed the sentient soul or intellectual faculties in the brain, Aris- totle placed it in the heart, Van Helmont in the stomach, Des Cartes and his followers in the pineal gland, and Drelincourt and others in the cerebellum. He observed also, that a great number of Philosophers and Physiologists asserted, that all men are born with equal mental faculties ; and that the differences observable among them are owing either to education, or to the accidental circumstances in which they are placed. If differences were accidental, he infer- red, that there could be no natural signs of predominating faculties ; and consequently that the project of learning, by observation, to distinguish the functions of the different portions of the brain, must be hopeless. This difficulty he combated by the reflection, that his brothers, sisters, and schoolfellows, had all received very nearly the same education, but that he had still observed each of them unfolding a distinct character, over which circumstances appeared to exert only a limited control. He observed also, that not un- frequently those whose education had been conducted with the greatest care, and on whom the labors of teachers had been most assiduously bestowed, remained far behind their companions in attainments. "Often," says Dr. Gall, "we were accused of want of will, or deficiency in zeal ; but many of us could not, even with the most ardent desire, followed out by the most obstinate efibrts, attain, in some pursuits, even to mediocrity ; while in some other points, some of us surpassed our schoolfellows without an effort, and almost, it might be said, without perceiving it ourselves. But, in point of fact, our masters did not appear to attach much faith to the system which taught equality of mental faculties ; for they thought themselves entitled to exact more from one scholar, and less from another. They spoke frequently of natural gifts, or HISTORY OF DR. GALL'S DISCOVERY. 47 of the gifts of God, and consoled their pupils in the words of the Gospel, by assuring them that each would be required to render an account, only in proportion to the gifts which he had re- ceived." * Being convinced by these facts, that there is a natural and con- stitutional diversity of talents and dispositions, he encountered in books still another obstacle to his success in determining the ex- ternal signs of the mental powers. He found that, instead of faculties for languages, drawing, distinguishing places, music, and mechanical arts, corresponding to the different talents which he had observed in his schoolfellows, the metaphysicians spoke only of general powers, such as perception, conception, memory, im- agination, and judgment ; and when he endeavored to discover external signs in the head, corresponding to these general faculties, or to determine the correctness of the physiological doctrines taught by the authors already mentioned, regarding the seat of the mind, he found perplexities without end, and difficulties insur- mountable. Dr. Gall, therefore, abandoning every theory and preconceived opinion, gave himself up entirely to the' observation of nature. Being a friend to Dr. Nord, Physician to a Lunatic Asylum in Vienna, he had opportunities, of which he availed himself, of making observations on the insane. He visited prisons, and re- sorted to schools ; he was introduced to the courts of princes, to colleges, and the seats of justice ; and wherever he heard of an individual distinguished in any particular way, either by remarkable endowment or deficiency, he observed and studied the develope- ment of his head. In this manner, by an almost imperceptible induction, he at last conceived himself warranted in believing, that particular mental powers are indicated by particular configurations of the head. Hitherto he had resorted only to physiognomical indications, as a means of discovering the functions of the brain. On reflec- tion, however, he was convinced that Physiology is imperfect * Preface by Dr. Gall to the " Anatomie, &c. du Cerveau," from which other facts in this work are taken. 48 HISTORY OF DR. GALL'S DISCOVERY. when separated from Anatomy. Having observed a woman of fifty-four years of age, who had been afflicted with hydrocephalus from her youth, and who, with a body a little shrunk, possessed a mind as active and intelligent as that of other individuals of her class, Dr. Gall declared his conviction, that the structure of the brain must be different from what was generally conceived, — a remark which Tulpius also had made, on observing a hydrocepha- lic patient who manifested the mental faculties. He therefore felt the necessity of making anatomical researches into the structure of the brain. In every instance, when an individual, whose head he had ob- served while alive, happened to die, he used every means to be permitted to examine the brain, and frequently did so ; and found, as a general fact, that, on removal of the skull, the brain, covered by the dura mater, presented a form corresponding to that which the skull had exhibited in life. The successive steps by which Dr. Gall proceeded in his dis- coveries, are particularly deserving of attention. He did not, as many have imagined, first dissect the brain, and pretend, by that means, to discover the seats of the mental powers ; neither did he, as others have conceived, first map out the skull into va- rious compartments, and assign a faculty to each, according as his imagination led him to conceive the place appropriate to the pow- er. On the contrary, he first observed a concomitance between particular talents and dispositions, and particular forms of the head ; he next ascertained, by removal of the skull, that the figure and size of the brain are indicated by these external forms ; and it was only after these facts had been determined, that the brain was minutely dissected, and light thrown upon its structure. At Vienna, in 1796, Dr. Gall, for the first time, delivered lec- tures on his system. In 1800, Dr. J. G. Spurzheira * began the study of Phrenology under him, having in that year assisted, for the. first !ime, at one of his lectures. In 1804, he was associated with him in his labors ; and, since that period, has not only added many valuable discov- * Born at Longuich, near Treves, on the Moselle, 31st December, 1776. HISTORY OF DH. GALL'S DISCOVERY. 49 eries to those of Dr. Gall, in the anatomy and physiology of the brain, but formed the truths brought to light, by their joint observa- tions, into a beautiful and interesting system of mental philosophy. In Britain we are indebted chiefly to his personal exertions and printed works for a knowledge of the science. In the beginning of his inquiries, Dr. Gall did not, and could not, foresee the result to -which they would lead, or the relation which each successive fact, as it was discovered, would bear to the whole truths which time and experience might bring into view. He perceived, for instance, that the intensity of the desire for pro- perty, bore a relation to the size of one part of the brain ; he an- nounced this fact by itself, and called the part the organ of Theft, because he had found it largest in thieves. When he had discov- ered that the propensity to destroy was in connexion with another part of the brain, he announced this fact also as an isolated truth, and named the part the organ of Murder, because he had found it largest in criminals condemned for that crime. In a similar way, when he had discovered the connexion between the sentiment of Benevolence and another portion of the cerebral mass, he called the part the organ of Benevolence ; and so on in regard to the other organs. This mode of proceeding has nothing in common with the formation of an hypothesis ; and, so far from a disposition to invent a theory being conspicuous, there appears, in the disjointed items of information which Dr. Gall at first presented to the pub- lic, a want of even an ordinary regard for systematic arrangement. His only object seems to have been to furnish a candid and unco- lored statement of the facts in nature which he had observed ; leav- ing their value to be ascertained by time and farther investigation. As soon, however, as observation had brought to light the great body of the facts, and the functions of the faculties had been con- templated wdth a philosophical eye, a system of mental philosophy appeared to emanate almost spontaneously from the previous chaos - When the process of discovery had proceeded a certain length, the facts were found to be connected by relations, which it was im possible sooner to perceive. Hence, at first, the doctrines appear- ed as a mere rude and undigested mass, of rather unseemlv mate 7 50 HISTORY OF DR. GALL'S DISCOVERY. rials ; the public mirth was, not unnaturally, excited, at the display of organs of Theft, Murder, and Cunning, as they were then named; and a degree of obloquy was brought upon the science, from which it is only now recovering. At this stage the doctrine« were mere- ly a species of physiognomy, and the apparent results were neither very prominent nor inviting. When, however, the study had been pursued for years, and the torch of philosophy had been ap- plied to the facts discovered by observation, its real nature, as the science of the human mind, and its high utility, became apparent ; and its character and name changed as it advanced. The follow- ing observations of Mr. Locke are pecuharly applicable to its histoiy and prospects. " Truth (says he) scarce ever yet carried it by vote any where, at its first appearance. JVeio opinions are always suspected, and usually opposed without any other reason, than because they are not common. But truth, like gold, is not the less so, for being newly brought out of the mine. 'Tis trial and examination must give it price, and not any antique fashion ; and, though it be not yet current by the public stamp, yet it may, for all that, be as old as nature, and is certainly not the less genuine." Having now unfolded the principles and method of investigation of Phrenology, I solicit the attention of the reader to one question. We have heard much of Antiphrenologists ; and I would ask, What does Antiphrenologist mean .'' Does it mean a person who, like Mr. Jeffrey, denies that the mind in feeling and reflecting uses organs at all ? To such a one I reply, that he ought to call himself an antiphysiologist ; because, as already mentioned, every physiologi- cal writer of eminence, in Europe, maintains, that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that injuries of it impair the mental func- tions. Or does Antiphrenologist mean one who admits the brain to be the organ of the mind, but contends that the whole of it is essen- tial to every mental act ? then I request of him to reconcile with his theory the phenomena of dreaming, partial genius, partif 1 idiocy, partial insanity, partial lesion of mental functions arising from par- tial injuries of the brain, and the successive developement of the mental powers in youth. If Antiphrenologist means a person who OF THE SPINAL MARROW AND NERVES. 51 admits the mind to manifest a plurality of faculties by a plurality of organs, but denies that Phrenologists have ascertained any of them, I ask him, Whether he disputes the three grand propositions, first, That dissection alone does not reveal functions ; second, That reflection on consciousness does not reveal organs ; and, thirdly, That mental manifestations may be compared vi^ith developement of brain? If he denies these principles, then he is beyond the reach of reason ; while, if he admits them, I would ask him to state what forms of brain, and what mental manifestations he found con- comitant in his observations ? because, until he shall make such a statement, his denial of the correctness of the observations of others is entitled to no consideration. But an Antiphrenologist, in any of these senses, has never yet appeared. The word, In its common signification, seems to indicate only an individual who is pleased to deny that Phrenologists are right, without knowing either their principles or facts, or having any pretensions to advance the cause of truth, by propounding sounder data or correcter observa- tions of his own. IIENERAL VIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL MARROW AND NERVES. Before entering on the discussion of the Brain, it may be useful to give a brief account of Mr. Charles Bell's discoveries d the functions of the Nerves. Dr. Spurzheim, and many authors before him, very early published the conjecture, that there must be different nerves for sensibility and motion, because one of the pow- ers is occasionally impaired, while the other remains entire. Mr. Bell has furnished demonstrative evidence of this being actually the fact. He has also given due prominence to the philosophical prin- ciple, so urgently insisted on by Phrenologists, That, in all de- partments of the animal economy, each organ performs only one function ; and that wherever complex functions appear, complex organs may be safely predicated, even anterior to the possibility of demonstrating them. The present section is derived from Mr. Bell's Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body, vol. ii., 7th o2 GENERAL VIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS edition, 1829 ; and, in as far as possible, I have adhered to his own expressions. My object is to introduce general readers to a know- ledge of his discoveries, which form parts of an extensive System of Anatomy, or of Philosophical Transactions, or of professional publications, which they seldom peruse. I shall omit all details necessary only for medical students, as Mr. Bell's work is the proper source of instruction for them. Even the general reader will probably resort to Mr. Bell's pages, after being informed of their interesting contents ; he will find them clear, instructive, and most ably supported by evidence. Any errors or inaccuracies in the following condensed abstract, are chargeable against myself ; for although in general I have followed Mr. Bell's own expressions, the arrangement is greatly altered, and, occasionally, sentences of my own are introduced. A nerve, says Mr. Bell, is a firm white cord, composed of nerv- ous matter and cellular substance. The nervous matter exists in distinct threads, which are bound together by the cellular membrane. They may be likened to a bundle of hairs or threads, inclosed in a sheath composed of the finest membrane. The figure represents a nerve greatly magnified, for the sake of illustration, and consisting of distinct filaments ; A, the nerve, en- veloped in its membranous sheath; B, one of the threads dissected out. The nerves in thickness vary from the diameter of a small thread to that of a vAdiip-cord. They are dispersed through the body, and extend to every part which enjoys sensibility or motion, or which has a concatenated action with another part. The matter of a nerve in health, and in the full exercise cf its in- fluence, is of an opaque white ; it is soft and pulpy, betwixt fluid and solid, and drops from the probe. When putrid, it acquires a green color ; when dried, it is transparent. Corrosive sublimate OF THE SPINAL MARROW AND NERVES. 53 and muriate of soda harden it ; alkalis dissolve it. Each fibril of a nerve is convoluted, and runs not in a straight line, but zig-zag, like a thread drawn from a worsted stocking, which has by its form ac- quired elasticity that it would not otherwise have possessed. By ■want of use, the matter of a nerve is either not secreted in due proportion, or it changes its appearance ; for the nerve then acquires a degree of transparency. There is no evidence that any fluid or spirit circulates in the nerves ; nor is there any that the nervous fibrils are tubes. Nerves are supplied with arteries and veins, and their dependence on the supply of blood is proved by the fact, that if a limb be de- prived of blood, the nerves lose their powers, and sensibility is lost. If a nerve be partially compressed, so as to interrupt the free entrance of the blood into it, both the power over the muscles and the reception of sensation through it are interrupted ; and when the blood is admitted again, painful tingling accompanies the change. It is not the compression of the tubes of a nerve, but the obstruc- tion of its blood-vessels, which produces the loss of power conse- quent on tying it. The brain, the nerve of the eye, the ear, the nerves of sense and motion, are all affected by changes in the circulation ; and each organ, according to its natural function, is variously influenced by the same cause — the rushing of blood into it, or the privation of its proper quantity. A nerve consists of distinct filaments ; but there is nothing per- ceptible in these filaments to distinguish them from each other. One filament serves for the purpose of sensation ; another for muscular motion ; a third for combining the muscles, when in the act of res- piration. But the subserviency of any of all these filaments to its proper ofiice, must be discovered by following it out, and observ- ing its relations, and especially its origin in the brain and spinal marrow. In their substance there is nothing particular. They all seem equally to contain a soft pulpy matter, enveloped in cellular membrane, and so surrounded with a tube of this membrane as to present a continuous track of pulpy nervous matter, from the near- est extremity in the brain to the extremity which ends in a muscle or in the skin. 54 GENERAL VIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS The key to the system will be found in the simple proposition, that each filament or track of nervous matter has its peculiar en- dowment, independently of the others which are bound up along with it ; and that it continues to have the same endowment through- out its whole length. There is no interchange of powers betwixt the different filaments ; but a minute filament of one kind may be found accompanying a filament of a different kind, each giving a particular power to the part in which it is ultimately distributed. Some nerves give sensibility ; but there are others, as perfectly and delicately constituted, which possess no sensibility whatever. Sensibility results from the particular part of the brain which is affected by the nerve. If the eye-ball is pressed, the outward integ- uments feel pain, but the retina gives no pain, only rings of light or fire appear before the eye. In the operation of couching the cat- aract, the needle must pierce the retina; the effect, however, is not pain, but to produce, as it were, a spark of fire ; and so, an impression on the nerve of hearing, the papillae of taste, or any organ of sense, does not produce pain. The sensation excited has 'ts character determined by the part of the brain to which the nerve is related at its root. But there are nerves which have no relation to outward impression. There are nerves purely for governing the muscular frame, these being constituted for conveying the mandate of the will, do not stand related to an organ of sense in the brain ; hence no sensibility and no pain will be produced by them. Each of these may be said to be a nerve of exquisite feeling in one sense, that is, it may be a cord which unites two organs in intimate sym- pathies, so as to cause them to act in unison ; yet, being bruised or injured, it will give rise to no perception of any kind, because it does not stand related to a part of the brain, whose office it is to produce either the general impression of pain, or heat, or cold, or vision, or hearing : It is not the office of that part of the brain to which it is related to produce perception at all. At the conflux of the nervous filaments, small reddish tumours appear, which are named ganglions (See D in fig. p. 56). A gan- glion resembles in form the circular swellings which appear on the stalk of a straw or of a cane ; but ganglions do not rise at regular OF THE SPINAL MARROW AND NERVES. 55 intervals on the nerves like these swellings. Ganglions are laid in a regular succession in the whole length of the body, and, in the vertebral animals, form a regular series down each side of the spinal marrow ; the nerve of communication among them is the great sym- pathetic nerve. There are other ganglions seated in the head, neck, and cavities of the chest and belly, which are very irregular in their situation and form. The color of the ganglions differs from that of the nerves ; it is redder, which is owing to the greater number of blood-vessels : They consist of the same matter with the brain. Wherever we trace nerves of motion, we find that, before enter- mg the muscles, they interchange branches, and form an intricate mass of nerves, which is termed a plexus. A plexus is intricate in proportion to the number of muscles to be supplied, and the variety of combinations into which they enter. The filaments of nerves which go to the skin, and have the simple function of sensation, regularly diverge to their destination, without forming a plexus. From the fin of a fish to the arm of a man, the plexus increases in complexity, in proportion to the variety or extent of motions to be performed in the extremity. It is by the interchange of filaments that combination among the muscles is formed. Different columns of nervous matter combine to form the spinal MARROW, (A B, p. 56.). Each lateral portion of the spinal marrow consists of three tracks or columns ; one for voluntary motion, one for sensation, and one for the act of respiration. So that the spinal marrow comprehends in all six rods, intimately bound together, but distinct in office ; and the capital of this compound column is the medulla oblongata. The anterior column of each lateral division of the spinal mar- row is for motion ; the posterior column is for sensation ; and the middle one .s for respiration. The two former extend up into the brain, and are dispersed or lost in it ; for their functions stand related to the sensorium : but the last stops short in the medulla oblongata, being in function independent of reason, and capable of 'ts office independently of the brain, or when separated from it. 5Q GENERAL VIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS A B the spinal marrow seen in front ; the division into lateral portions appearing at the line A B. The nervous cord C arises from the posterior lateral division, and gives sensibility. The swelling D is its ganglion. The nervous cord E arises from the anterior lateral division, and gives motion. It has no ganglion. These two cords combine at F, and proceed under one sheath to their destina- tions. Mr. Bell struck a rabbit behind the ear, so as to deprive it of sensibility by the concussion, and then exposed the spinal marrow. On irritating the posterior roots of the nerve, he could perceive no motion consequent on any part of the muscular frame ; but on irritating the anterior roots of the nerve, at each touch of the forceps there was a corresponding motion of the muscles to which the nerve was distributed. These experiments satisfied him that the different roots and different columns from which those roots arose, were devoted to distinct offices, and that the notions drawn from the anatomy were correct. Mr. Bell performed certain interesting experiments on the fifth pair of nerves, which originates from the brain. In his Plate I. he represents this nerve rising from two roots, one of them coming from the cms cerebri, corresponding to the anterior column of the spinal marrow ; and the other from the cms cerebeUi, correspon- ding to the posterior column of the spinal marrow. There is a ganglion on the latter branch, and none on the former ; which cir- cumstance also is in exact correspondence with the nerves rising from the spinal marrow. The two branches combine at a short distance from their origin, and are universally distributed to the head and face. Mr. Bell conceived that this nerve is the upper- OF THE SPINAL MARROW AND NERVES. 57 most of those nerves which confer motion and bestow sensibility. To confirm this opinion, he cut across the posterior branch, or that which has a ganglion, on the face of an ass, and it was found that the sensibility of the parts to which it was distributed was entirely destroyed. Again, he exposed the anterior branch of the fifth pair at its root, in an ass, the moment the animal was killed ; and on irritating the nerve, the muscles of the jaw acted, and the jaw was closed with a snap. On dividing the root of the nerve in a living animal, the jaw fell relaxed. Thus its functions were no longer matter of doubt : it was at once a muscular nerve and a nerve of sensibility. And thus the opinion was confirmed, that the fifth nerve was to the head, what the spinal nerves were to the other parts of the body. The muscles have two nerves, v^hich fact had not been noticed previously to Mr. Bell's investigations, because they are commonly bound up together ; but whenever the nerves, as about the head, go in a separate course, we find that there is a sensitive nerve and a motor nerve distributed to the muscular fibre, and we have reason to conclude that those branches of the spinal nerves which go to the muscles, consist of a motor and a sensitive filament. The nerve of touch or feeling, ramified on the skin, is distinct from both. It was formerly supposed that the office of a muscular nerve is only to carry out the mandate of the will, and to excite the muscle to action ; but this betrays a very inaccurate knowledge of the action of the muscular system ; for before the muscular system can be controlled under the influence of the will, there must be a con- sciousness or knowledge of the condition of the muscle. When we admit that the various conditions of the muscle must be estimated or perceived, in order to be under the due control of the will, the natural question arises, Is that nerve which carries out the mandate of the will, capable of conveying, at the same moment, an impression retrograde to the course of that influence, which, obviously, is going from the brain towards the muscle ? If we had no facts of anatomy to proceed upon, still reason would declare to us, that the same filament of a nerve could not convey 8 58 GENERAL VIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS a motion, of whatever nature that motion may be, whether vibra- tion or motion of spirits, in opposite directions, at the same mo- ment of time. Mr. Bell has found, that, to the full operation of the muscular power, two distinct filaments of nerves are necessary, and that a circle is established between the sensorium and the muscle : that one filament or simple nerve carries the influence of the will to- wards the muscle, which nerve has no power to convey an impres- sion backwards to the brain ; and that another nerve connects the muscle with the brain, and, acting as a sentient nerve, conveys the impression of the condition of the muscle to the mind, but has no operation in a direction outward from the brain towards the muscle, and does not therefore excite the muscle, however irri- tated. There are four nerves coming out of a track or column of the spinal marrow, from which neither the nerves of sensation, nor of common voluntary motion, take their departure. Experiment proves that these nerves excite motions dependent on the act of respiration. Under the class of respiratory motions, we have to distinguish two kinds : first, the involuntary, or instinctive ; secondly, those which accompany an act of volition. We are unconscious of that state of alternation of activity and rest which characterises the in- stinctive act of breathing in sleep ; and this condition of activity of the respiratory organs, we know by experiment, is independent of the brain. But, on the other hand, we see that the act of respiration is sometimes an act of volition, intended to accomplish some other operation, as that of smelling or speaking. Mr. Bell apprehends that it is this compound operation of the organs of breathing which introduces a certain degree of complexity into the system of respiratory nerves. A concurrence of the nerves of distinct systems will be found necessary to actions, which, at first sight, appear to be very simple. If we cut the division of the fifth nerve, vi^hich goes to the lips of an ass, we deprive the lips of sensibility ; so that, when the animal presses the lips to the ground, and against the oats lying OF THE SPINAL MARROW AND NERVES 59 there, it does not feel them ; and consequently there is no effort made to gather them. If, on the other hand, we cut the seventh nerve, where it goes to the lips, the animal feels the oats, but it can make no effort to gather them, the power of muscular motion being cut off by the division of the nerve. Thus we perceive that, in feeding, just as in gathering any thing with the hand, the feeling directs the effort ; and two properties of the nervous system are necessary to a very simple action. After the investigation of the regular system of nerves of sensa- tion and voluntary motion, the question that had so long occupied Mr. Bell, viz. What is the explanation of the excessive intricacy of the nerves of the face, jaws, throat, and breast? became of easy solution. These nerves are agents of distinct powers, and they combine the muscles in subserviency to different functions. As animals rise in the scale of being, new organs are bestowed upon them ; and, as new organs and new functions are superadded to the original constitution of the frame, new nerves are given also, and new sensibilities, and new powers of activity. Mr. Bell remarks, that we understand the use of all the intricate nerves of the body, with the exception of the sixth nerve, which stands connected with another system of nerves altogether, namely, the system hitherto called the Sympathetic, or sometimes the Ganglionic System of Nerves ; and of this system we know so little, that it cannot be matter of surprise, if we reason ignorantly of the connexion of the sixth with it. PRINCIPLES OF PHRENOLOGY. In the Introduction, I have shown that the Brain is admitted by- Physiologists in general, to be the organ of the Mind ; but that two obstacles have impeded the discovery of the uses of its particular parts. 1st, Dissection alone does not reveal the functions of any organ. No person, by dissecting the optic nerve, could predicate that its office is to minister to vision ; or, by dissecting the tongue, could discover that it is the organ of taste. Anatomists, therefore, could not, by the mere practice of their art, discover the functions of the different portions of the brain. 2dly, The mind is not directly conscious of acting by means of organs ; and hence the material instruments, by means of which It performs its operations in this life, and communicates with the external world, cannot be discovered by reflection on consciousness. The phrenologist compares developement of brain with manifest- ations of mental power, for the purpose of discovering the func- tions of the brain, and the organs of the mind. This course is adopted, in consequence of the accidental discovery made by Dr. Gall, that certain mental powers are vigorously manifested, when certain portions of the brain are large, and vice versa, as detailed in the Introduction. It is free from the objections attending the anatomical and metaphysical modes of research, and conformable to the principles of inductive philosophy. No inquiry is instituted into the substance of the Mind, or into the question. Whether the mind fashions the organs, or the organs constitute the mind ? If dissection of organs does not reveal their functions, and if reflection on consciousness does not disclose the nature of the mind's connexion with matter, no means remain of arriving at philosophical conclusions on these points ; and specula- 62 ON THE PRINCIPLES live reasoning concerning them, although it may amuse the fancy, cannot instruct the judgment. Mr. Stewart justly observes, "that the metaphysical opinions which we may happen to have formed concerning the nature either of body or of mind, and the efficient causes by which their phenomena are produced, have no necessary connexion with our inquiries concerning the laws according to which the phenomena take place." "Whether, for example, the cause of gravitation be material or immaterial, is a point about which two Newtonians may diffef, while they agree perfectly in their physical opinions. It is sufficient if both admit the general fact, that bodies tend to approach each other, with a force varying with their mutual distance, according to a certain law. In like manner, in the study of the human mind, the conclusions to which We are led by a careful examination of the phenomena it exhibits, have no necessary connexion with our opinions concerning its nature and essence.''^ — Elements, vol. i. Introduction. The object of phrenology is to discover the Faculties of the Human Mind ; the organs by means of v>^hich they are manifested ; and the influ- ence of the organs on the manifestations. It does not enable us to predict actions. A mental organ is a material instrument, by means of which the Mind in this life manifests a particular power. Dr. Gall's discov- ery leads us to view the Brain as a congeries of such organs, and in the Introduction, reasons have been assigned for regarding this proposition as sufficiently probable, to justify an inquiry into the direct evidence by which it is supported. For the purpose of comparing mental faculties with cerebral developement, it is neces- sary to show, 1st, That the mental qualities of individuals can be discovered ; and, 2dly, That the size of different parts of the brain can be ascertained during life. 1st, Discrimination of mental Dispositions and Talents. — In regard to the Feelings, men practised in the business of ^.ife have observed, that one individual is strongly addicted to covetousness, — another to cruelty, — another to benevolence, — another to pride, —another to vanity; and they are accustomed to regard these dis- OF THE SYSTEM. 63 positions as natural, uniform, and permanent. They have never believed, that a man, by an effort of the will, can totally change his nature, or that the true character is so little manifested, that a person may be prone to benevolence to-day, who yesterday was addicted to avarice ; that one who is now sinking in the lowest abasement of self-humiliation in his own eyes, may to-morrow be- come conceited, confident and proud ; or that to-day an individual may be deaf to the voice of censure or of fame, who yesterday was tremblingly alive to every breath that was blown upon his charac- ter. Nay, they have even regarded these dispositions as indepen- dent of one another, and separable ; for they have often found that the possession of one was not accompanied with the presence of the whole. Hence, in addressing any individual, they have been in the custom of modifying their conduct, according to their pre- vious knowledge of his dispositions or genius, obtained by observ- ing his actions. To the covetous man they address one motive ; to the benevolent another ; to the proud a third ; and to the vain a fourth. When they wish to move such individuals to act, they speak to the first, of his personal interest ; to the second, of the pleasure of doing good; to the third, of the necessity of preserving his oion dignity; and to the fourth, of the great praise that will attend the performance of the action recommended. As to intellectual endowments, a person who has heard, for the most fleeting moment, the bursts of melody which flow from the throat of Catalani, cannot be deceived as to the fact of her possessing a great endowment of the faculty of Tune ; he who has hstened but for a few minutes to the splendid eloquence of Chal- mers, can have no doubt that he is gifted with Ideality; and he who has studied the writings of Dr. Thomas Brown, cannot hesitate as to his having manifested profound discriminative and analytic talent. In surveying the prodigies performed by some individuals in mechanics, poetry, painting, and sculpture, it is equally impos- sible to doubt the existence of particular powers, conferring capa- cities for excelling in these different branches of art. It is equally easy to find individuals, in whom these various powers are as indu- bitably deficient. Hence the difficulties of determining the exist- ence of particular intellectual talents, and their degrees of strength. 64 ON THE PRINCIPLES are not unsurmountable; especially if extreme cases be sought for, and these, as the instantia ostentiva^ ought to be first resorted to. Men of observation have acted on these principles without hesita- tion, and without injury to themselves. They have not designed for the orchestra, the individual whom they found incapable of distinguishing betwixt a rude noise and a melodious sound, on the notion, that "a genius for music'''' might be "acquired by habits of study or of business." They do not place in difficult situations, requiring great penetration and much sagacity, individuals who cannot trace consequences beyond the stretch of three ideas ; nor do they conceive, that a man, who has no intellectual capacity to-day, may become a genius to-morrow, or in ten years hence, by an effort of the will. They, no doubt, have always observed, that the faculties are developed in succession ; that the child is not in possession of the powers of the full grown man ; and that, hence, a boy may be dull at ten, who may turn out a genius at twenty years of age, when his powers are fully unfolded by time. But they do not imagine that every boy may be made a genius, by habits of study or of business ; nor believe, that, after the faculties are fully developed, any individual may, by exertions of the will, become great in a de- partment of philosophy or science, for which he had previously no natural capacity. They have observed, that cultivation strengthens powers, in themselves vigorous ; but they have not found that education can render eminently energetic, dispositions or capacities which nature has created feeble. On the other hand, they have remarked, that, where Nature has bestowed a powerful disposition or capacity of a particular kind, it will hold the predominant sway in the character during life, notwithstanding every effort to eradi- cate or subdue it. They have noticed, too, that where Nature has bestowed, in an eminent degree, the faculties which constitute genius, the individual will manifest his native superiority, in spite of great obstacles arising from circumstances or siaiatiou. The lives of poets, painters, and artists, in every age, display examples of the truth of this observation. An individual, no doubt, may do particular actions, or even for a time follow a course of action, the same in external appearance, . OF THE SYSTEM. 65 from different internal motives. But few men can pass their whole lives in disguise, or acquire the art of acting in the business ana enjoyments of life, so habitually and so skilfully, as not to allow their true characters to appear to those who are placed in a favorable situation to observe them ; or, if there be persons who do possess this power of dissimulation, it forms the predominant feature in their mental constitution ; and, as will afterwards be shown, it is indicated by a particular form of organization. But, farther, let it be observed, that it is only in so far as the propensities and senti- ments of our nature are concerned, that disguise is possible, even in a single case. In every act that depends on the knowing and reflecting faculties, it is absolutely impracticable. No man can either write logical discourses, or trace profoundly an abstract principle, who has not powerful reflecting faculties. No one can compose exquisite music, who has not the faculty of Tune, or write exquisite poetry, who has not the sentiment of Ideality. When, therefore, we perceive, even with the most transient glance, such acts to be performed, we have evidence, insuperable and irresist- ible, of the existence of the faculties which produce them. These opinions have been entertained by persons conversant with society, not in consequence of logical deduction or metaphys- ical investigations, but from the observation of plain facts, pre- sented to the cognizance of their understandings. Thus fortified, I venture to conclude that the first point is estab- lished in favor of Phrenology, viz. that it is possible, by accurate, patient, and continued observation of actions, to discover the true dispositions and capacities which individuals possess. As this phi- losophy is founded on a comparison betwixt the manifestations of these faculties, and the developement of the brain, the second point to be ascertained is, Whether it be possible, in general, to discover the true form of the brain, by observing the figure of the head. OF THE BRAIN, CEREBELLUM, AND SKULL. The Anatomy of the Brain is minutely described by Dr. Spnrzheim, in his anatomical work. It is not indispensably neces- 9 66 OF THE BRAIN, CEREBELLUM, sary, although highly advantageous, to become acquainted with it, in order to become a practical phrenologist. A brief description of its general appearance will suffice to convey an idea of it to the non-medical reader. The proper subjects for observation are healthy individuals below the middle period of life. The brain, stript of its outer covering, the dura mater, is represented in figures 1. and 2. These figures and the accompanying descriptions, are not intended for anatomical purposes ; the sole object of them is to convey some conception of the appearance of the brain, to readers who have no opportunity of seeing it in nature. Figure 1 represents the upper surface of the brain, stript of membrane ; the skull; through the middle part of which a horizontal section is made, surrounds it The front is at A ; and the line A B is the division between the two hemis pheres. A strong membrane called the falciform process of the dura mater AND SKULL. 67 represented on page 72, descends into it ; and forms the partition. It goes down only about two-thirds of the depth ; below which the two hemispheres are join- ed together by fibres which cross, forming what is called the corpus callosum. The waving lines are the convolutions, the furrows between which descend from half an inch to an inch in depth. When water collects in the internal parts they are unfolded, and the brain presents a uniform surface of great extent. The parts seen in this figure are all composed externally of cineritious substance. Fig. 2. Figure 2. represents the base of the brain taken out of the skull. This figure has been copied from a different brain from that represented in figure 1. It is longer and narrower. The division into hemispheres does not descend to the base. Anatomists, for the sake of giving precision to descriptions, divide the brain into three lobes, called the anterior, middle, and posterior. The parts before AA are called the frontal or anterior lobe ; the parts behind CC, the posterior lobe; and the parts between them, the middle lobe. Anatomists draw lines from AA and CC directly up the sides, and over the upper surface of the brain, till they meet at the top, and include in the different lobes the whole parts so mapped out ; but the lines are imaginary, and like those of latitude and longitude on a globe, are introduced merely to indicate the local- ities of the parts. The convolutions before AA lie chiefly on the bones which 68 OF THE BRAIN, CEREBELLUM, form the* roofs of the sockets of the eye-balls. The convolutions between A and C lie chiefly above the ear. DD is the cerebellum. E is the medulla oblongata, which during life descends almost perpendicularly from the brain, and joins with the top of the spinal marrow. The Brain is a mass of soft matter, not homogeneous, but pre- senting different appearances. Part of it is white in color, fibrous or striated in texture, arranged in lines distantly resembling the outer surface of a cockle-shell. This is generally named medullary substance, and abounds most in the interior. The other matter is of a gray color, and has no fibrous appearance. It is called cineri- tious, from the similarity of its hue to that of ashes, and sometimes cortical, from its supposed resemblance to bark. It forms the outer part of the brain. The cineritious substance does not blend gradu- ally with the white medullary matter, but, on the contrary, the hne, of distinction is abrupt. The cineritious seems to have a greater proportion of blood circulating in it than the medullary. There is no fat or adipose substance within the skull, although it pervades every other part of the body. The brain consists of two hemispheres, separated by a strong membrane, called the Falciform process of the dura mater. Each hemisphere is divided into three lobes, the anterior, middle, and posterior. The cerebellum is distinct from, but connected with, the brain. Mr. Bell observes,* that " whatever we observe on one side has a corresponding part on the other ; and an exact resemblance and symmetry f is preserved in all the lateral divisions of the brain. And so, if we take the proof of anatomy, we must admit, that, as the nerves are double, and the organs of sense dou- ble, so is the brain double ; and every sensation conveyed to the brain is conveyed to the two lateral parts, and the operations per- formed must be done in both lateral portions at the same moment. '' The two hemispheres, and of course the organs of each side, * Anatomy of the Brain, ii. 381. t This statement of Mr. Bell is not rigidly correct. There is a general corres- pondence between the parts on the opposite sides of the brain, but not " an exact symmetry," in the strict sense of these words. The approximation to symmetry is about as great as between the blood-vessels in the right and left arms. AND SKULL. 69 are brought into communication and co-operation by fibres running transversely ; these are called the corpus callosum, and the Ante- rior and Posterior commissures. The cerebellum and brain ai-e only slightly and indirectly connected. The greater part of the brain is destitute of sensibility : It may be pierced or cut without the patient being aware, from any feeling of pain, that it is suffering injury. Mr. Bell mentions, that he "had his finger deep in the anterior lobes of the brain, when the patient, being at the same time acutely sensible, and capable of expressing himself, complained only of the integument." So far from think- ing the parts of the brain which are insensible, to be parts inferior in function (as every part has its use,) Mr. Bell states, that, even from this, he should be led to imagine that they had a higher office, namely, that they v\^ere more allied to intellectual operations. The wide difference of function betwixt a part destined to receive impressions, and a part which is the seat of thought, is in accord- ance with the presence of sensibility in some parts of the brain, and its absence in others. The external substance of the brain is arranged in convolutions or folds. The convolutions appear intended for the purpose of increasing the superficial extent of the brain, with the least possible enlargement of its absolute size ; an arrangement analogous to that employed in the eye of the eagle and falcon, in which the retina does not form a continuous line, as in man and quadrupeds, but is presented in folds to the rays of light, whereby the intensity of vision is increased in proportion to the extent of nervous surface exposed to their influence. The rolling up of the substance of the brain "in folds in a similar manner, strongly indicates that extent of surface is highly important to its functions. In certain low classes of the inferior animals, there are no convolutions. As we ascend in the scale of beings, they increase, " and in man above all other animals, are the convolutions numerous, and the sulci (or furrows) deep, and, consequently, the cineritious mass great, and its extension of sur- face far beyond that of all other' creatures." — Bell's Anat. ii. 386. The cineritious matter is extended over all the upper, lateral, and over part of the inferior surfaces of the brain : the white or 70 OF THE INTEGUMENTS medullary matter lies within it, and in some places in intimate com- bination with it. Medullary fibres run from the convolutions of the brain upon one side to the convolutions on the other. These are called commissures. " Unless," says Mr. Bell, " the cineritious masses were important organs, why should there be commissures or nerves forming a distinct system, arising and terminating in no- thing ^ But if we take them as commissures, i. e. bonds of union betwixt the corresponding sides of the great organ of the mind, we at once perceive how careful nature is to unite the two lateral organs together, and out of two organs to make one more per- fect."— P. 386. Each side of the brain, and also the cerebellum, are supplied with separate arteries conveying the blood to them ; but the sinuses or canals, by means of which the blood is returned to the heart, are common to them all. The cerebellum is composed of the same nervous matter with the brain, and presents both cineritious and medullary matter ; but, in form and internal arrangement, it is quite unlike the brain. The cerebellum is separated from the brain by a strong membrane, call- ed the tentorium: in animals which leap, as the cat and tiger, the separation is produced by a thin plate of bone. Its fibres, however, originate in that part of the medulla oblongata called the corpora restiformia, from which also the organs of several feelings or pro- pensities arise ; so that the brain and cerebellum, although separated by the tentorium, are both connected with the medulla oblongata^ and through it with each other. The MEDULLA OBLONGATA is somctimes spoken of as one of the three great divisions of the brain. It is, in fact, the part from which the fibrous matter of the brain and cerebellum proceeds, and it forms, as it were, the capital of the column of the spinal marrow. OP THE INTEGUBIENTS OF THE BRAIN. The brain is formed before the bones which invest it. The ossification of the bones of the skull is a gradual process. The brain already formed is invested with strong membranes, and OF THE BRAIN. 71 betwixt the coats of the outer membrane the points of ossification commence, which process is not completed until the ninth year. During life, the brain is embraced in its whole peripheral extent by a very thin transparent and delicate membrane called the pia mateVj which sinks down into its furrows, and serves to convey the blood-vessels to its different parts. Immediately above the pia mater, is an extremely thin membrane, named the tunica arach- noideuj on account of its extreme tenuity, resembling a spider's web. It covers the surface of the brain uniformly without passing into its folds or cavities. It secretes matter, to lubricate the sur- faces of the pia and dura mater. ' The dura raater is also a thin but strong opaque membrane lining and strongly adhering to the inner surface of the skull, and which embraces the outer surface of the brain above the membrane last mentioned. When in health it does not possess sensibility, and has been pricked without causing pain. All these membranes are pliant in the highest degree, and accommodate themselves precisely to the figure of the brain. The brain, enclosed in them, fills exactly the interior of the skull ; so that a cast, in plaster, of the interior of the skull, is a/ac simile of the brain, covered by the dura mater. Between the dura mater and brain a very small quantity of fluid is said to exist ; but not exceeding a line in thickness. This fluid does not, in any degree that can be distinguished by the hand or eye, cause the form of the interior of the skull to differ from the form of the exterior of the brain enveloped by the dura mater. The skull is not an adamantine barrier, confining the brain within specific boundaries ;, but a strong, yet yielding covering, shielding it, and accommodating itself to its size, while in the progress of its growth. It resembles, in this respect, the shell of a crab or of a snail. At birth, it is small ; it increases as the brain increases; and it stops in developement, when the brain has attained its full size. A .process of absorption and deposition goes continually on in its substance; so that, if the brain presses from within, the renovating particles arrange themselves according to this pressure, and thus the figure of the skull and of the brain in general correspond. The figures (on p. 72) represent the skull at birth and at maturity respectively. 72 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Skull at Birth. Adult Skull A B AA sutures. B mastoid process or bony projection behind the ear. C process of the occipital spine. The skull is composed of eight bones, for the most part joined by indented edges (AA in the figures above), like dovetailing in carpenter- work. The lines of junction are named Sutures.* A This figure represents the two sides of the skull cut away, down nearly to the level of the eyebrow, leaving a narrow ridge in the middle of the top stand- ing. AAA is the edge of the skull, resembhng an arch. The outer surface is called the outer table, the inner surface the inner table; the fine waving lines or net- work between them, like cells in a marrow-bone, is the diplog. The substance hanging down from the skull, having delicate lines traced on it, like tlie sap-vessels in leaves, is the membrane which separates the two halves of the brain. It is called the falciform process of the dura mater, from its resemblance to a scythe. The lines are the blood-vessels; the blood re- turning from the brain to the heart, goes up these vessels into a canal formed by the membrane all along the line of its attachment to the skull. The course of the blood through the canal is from the front backwards, and then down- wards. The two hemispheres of the brain are completely separated, as far as this membrane extends in the cut : At the lower edge of it a white space appears, and the commissure, or collection of fibres which unites the two sides, goes through that space. The cerebellum lies at C, in a part of the skull not opened. The membrane, on reaching the point at C, spreads out to the right and left, and runs forward, and separates the cerebellum from the * There is a cast of the skull, accompanied by an explanatory card, pointing out all the bones, sutures, and processes, with their names; which will render the subject more intelligible than any description. This cast will soon be for sale by the Publishers — 133 Washington St. Boston. OF THE BRAIN. 73 brain ; -the brain lying above, and the cerebellum below it. B is the mas- toid process, or bone to which the mastoid muscles of the neck are attached. It lies immediately behind the opening of the ear, and is not connected with the brain. The external and internal smooth surfaces of the bones of the skull, ai-e called their external and internal tables, or plates^ to dis- tinguish them from the intermediate part called the diploe-, which is of a looser and somewhat cellular texture, resembling the inter- nal structure of the bones. As the diploe is nearly equally thick in every part, it follows that the two tables of the skull are nearly parallel to each other. The internal, indeed, bears some slight impressions of blood-vessels, glands, &c., which do not appear externally, but these are so small as not to interfere with phrenolo- gical observations. The departure from perfect parallelism, where it occurs, is hmited to a line, ^th or |th of an inch, according to the age and health of the individual. The difference in develope- ment between a large and a small organ of the propensities and some of the sentiments, amounts to an inch and upwards ; and to a quarter of an inch in the organs of intellect, which are naturally smaller than the others. The integuments which cover the skull on the outside, indis- putably lie close upon its surface, and are so completely parallel, as to exhibit its true figure. Thus, then, there is no obstacle in gen- eral to the discovery of the figure of the brain, by observations on the form of the skull. This doctrine has been disputed by many opponents of phrenol- ogy ; but the greatest anatomists have taught it. Magendie, in his Compendium of Physiology, says, that " the only way of estimat- ing the volume of the brain in a living person, is to measure the dimensions of the skull ; every other means, even that proposed by Camper, is uncertain." — JWilligan^s Translation, p. 104. Mr. Charles Bell also observes, " Thus, we find that the bones of the head are moulded to the brain, and the peculiar shapes of the bones of the head are determined by the original pecuharity in the shape of the brain.* Dr. Gordon, also, in the 49th Number of * Bell's Anat. ii. 390. Mr. Bell adds in foot note, " Certainly the skull is adapt- ed to the form of the brain, but there is a deeper question, which our craniolo- 10 74 OF THE INTEGUMENTS. the Edinburgh Review, has the following words : " But we will acquiesce implicitly for the present in the proposition (familiar to physiologists long before the age of Gall and Spurzheim) , that there is, in most Instances, a general correspondence between the size of the cranium and the quantity of cerebrum ; that large heads usually contain large brains, and small heads small brains." — P. 246. There are, however, cases in which it is not possible to dis- cover the form of the brain by examining the skull. These are instances of disease and old age. In disease, the skull may be enlarged or diminished in volume, by causes other than the developement of the brain ; and in old age, the inner table of the skull sometimes sinks, while the outer table preserves its original size; in such individuals, the true developement of the brain cannot be accurately inferred from the developement of the head. There are parts at the base of the brain, in the middle and posterior regions, the size of which cannot be discovered during life, and whose functions in consequence are still unknown. From analogy, and from some pathological facts, they are supposed to be the organs of the sensations of Hunger and Thirst, Heat and Cold, and of some other mental affections, for which cerebral organs have not been discovered ; but demonstrative evidence to this effect being wanting, this conjecture is merely stated to incite to farther investigation. The sutures also interrupt the absolute parallelism ; but their situation is known, and only one of them, called the Lambdoidal, where it passes over the organ of Concentrativeness, presents any gists have forgotten, — Is the brain constituted in shape with a reference to the future form of the head?" It is difficult to see the importance of this question. Phrenologists maintain that, de facto, at every period previous to the decline of life, the skull is adapted to the form of the brain ; that it increases in size when the brain enlarges, and decreases when it diminishes. I have seen one striking instance of the skull decreasing with the brain ; it occurred in an individual who died at the age of thirty-two, after having labored under chronic insanity for upwards of ten years, and whose mental weakness augmented in proportion to the diminution of his brain and shrinking of the skull. The diminution of his head in size attracted his own attention during life. His brain was dissected by Dr. A. Combe after death. — See this case fully reported in the Phrenological Journ. vol. iv. 495. SUTURES— FRONTAL SINUS. 75 difficulty to the student. The sagittal suture, which runs longi tudinally from the middle of the crown of the head forwards and downwards, sometimes so low as the top of the nose, occasionally presents a narrow prominent ridge, which is sometimes mistaken for developeraent of the organs of Benevolence, Veneration, Firm- ness, and Self-esteem. It may, however, be easily distinguished by its narrowness and isolation, from the full broad swell of cere- bral developement. In anatomy, projecting bony points are called Processes. The mastoid process of the temporal bone, B in figure, p. 72., which is a small knob immediately behind the ear, serving for the attachment of a muscle, is sometimes mistaken for the indi- cation of large Combativeness. It is, however, merely a bony pro- minence, and is to be found in every head, and does not indicate developement of brain at all. Another process C, called in anat- omy the spinous process of the transverse ridge of the occipital bone, requires to be known. Phrenologists generally name it shortly the occipital spine, and its situation is indicated by C in the figure, p. 72. There is one part of the skull where the external configuration does not always indicate exactly the size of the subjacent parts of the brain, and upon which objections have been raised, viz. at the top of the nose. THE FRONTAL SINUS. The frontal sinus is the dark hole above the nose. This represents it in one individual. It is sometimes larger and sometimes smaller. At the part of the frontal bone immediately above the top of the nose, a divergence from parallelism is sometimes produced by the existence of a small cavity called the frontal sinus. It is formed between the two plates or tables of the bone, either by the external table swelling out a little, without being followed by the internal, and presenting an appearance like that of a blister on a biscuit, or 76 FRONTAL SINUS. by the internal table sinking in without being followed by the external ; and hence, as the outer surface does not indicate the precise degree of developement of brain beneath, it has been argued that the existence of a frontal sinus is an insuperable objec- tion to Phrenology in general, because it throws so much uncer- tainty in the way of our observations as completely to destroy their value ; other opponents, however, more rationally, confine their objection to those organs only over which the sinus extends. The first objection is manifestly untenable. Even granting the sinus to be an insuperable obstacle in the way of ascertaining the developement of the organs over which it is situated, it may be observed, first^ That, in ordinary cases, it interferes with only a few, viz. Form, Size, Weight, Individuality, and Locality ; and, 2dly^ It cannot interfere with the other thiity or thirty-one organs, the whole external appearances of which it leaves as unaltered as if it did not at all exist. It would be quite as logical to speak of a snow-storm in Norway obstructing the high road from Edinburgh to London, as of a small sinus at the top of the nose concealing the developements of Benevolence, Firmness, or Veneration, on the crown of the head. To enable the reader to form a correct estimate of the value of the objection as applicable to the individual organs particularly refer- red to, I subjoin a few observations. In the first place. Below the age of twelve or fourteen, the sinus, if it exists at all, rarely extends so high as the base of the brain ; 2dly^ In adult age, it fre- quently occurs to the extent above admitted ;* and, Qdly^ In old age, and in disease, as chronic idiocy and insanity, it is often of very great extent, owing to the brain diminishing in size, and the inner table of the skull following it, while the outer remains station- * This may seem at variance with a statement given in the first edition of this Tvork, on the authority of a friend in Paris, who, in the course of many months' dissections, had never found a frontal sinus except in old age and in disease. In ■sawing open the skull for anatomical purposes, the section is almost always made horizontally through the middle of the forehead, or over the urgans of Tune, Time, and Eventuality; and in all the cases alluded to by the gentleman in Paris, this line was followed, and as the sinus rarely extends so high up, he could not, and did not, meet with it. On examining vertical sections, however, for the purpose of seeing the sinus, he has since frequently found it to the extent mentioned in the text. FRONTAL SINUS. 77 ary. Now, the first cases present no objection, for in them the sinus does not exist so as to interfere with the observation of the size of the brain; the third are instances of disease, which are uniformly excluded in phrenological observations; and thus our attention is limited solely to the cases forming the second class. In regard to them the objection is, that large developement oi brain, and large frontal sinus, present so nearly the same appear- ance that we cannot be sure which is which, and, therefore, that our observations must be inconclusive. To this the following answer is given : — 1st, We must distin- guish betvi^een the possibility of discovering the functions of an organ, and of applying this discovery practically in all cases, so as to be able, in every instance, to predicate the exact degrees in which every particular mental power is present in each individual. The sinus does not in general extend as high as the base of the brain until after the age of twelve or fourteen, before which is pre- cisely the period when Individuality is most conspicuously active in the mind. If, then, in children, in whom no sinus exists, that mental power is observed to be strong when the part of the head is large, and weak when it is small, we ascertain the function, whatever may subsequently embarrass us. If, in after-life, the sinus comes to exist, this throws a certain impediment in the way of the practical application of our knowledge ; and, accordingly, phrenologists admit a difficulty in determining the exact degree of mental power, which, in adult age, will accompany any particular developement of the organs lying immediately above the top of the nose, except in extreme instances, in which even the sinus itself will form but a small fraction of the difference between great devel- opement and deficiency. In the next place, the objection applies only to one set of cases. If there be a hollow or depression in the external surface of the skull at the situation of the organs in ques- tion, and the sinus be absent, then the organ must necessarily be deficient in proportion to the depression. If, with such an exter- nal appearance, the sinus be present, which is not generally the case, but which, for the sake of argument, I shall suppose, then it must be formed by the inner table receding more than the outer table ; and hence a greater deficiency of organ will actually exist 78 FRONTAL SINUS. than is externally indicated ; and, of course, the deficiency of men- tal power will be at least equal to the external indication of defi- ciency in the organ. In cases of this kind, therefore, the sinus forms no objection. Thus the only instances in which it can occa- sion embarrassment are those in which it causes a swelling of the parts of the skull in question outward, to which there is no corres- ponding developement of brain within. Now if, in all cases in youth, when no sinus exists, and in all cases in mature age in which a depression is found, the mental power is ascertained to corres- pond with the external developement ; and if, in certain cases, in adult age, an external indication appears to which the mental power does not correspond, what conclusion falls to be drawn according to the rules of a correct logic? Not that the functions of the parts are uncertain ; because they have been ascertained in cases not liable to impediment or objection; but only that, in the particular cases in mature age, in which the external developement is large, and the corresponding power absent, there must be a frontal sinus. Finally, by practice in observing, it is possible, in general, to distinguish between external appearances produced by frontal sinus, and those indicating a large developement of organs. In the first instance, the forms of the elevations are irregular; in the second, they are symmetrical, and correspond to the shapes of the organs delineated on the busts. If, then, men in general manifest their true and natural senti- ments and capacities in their actions ; and if, in healthy individuals, the form of the brain may be discovered, by observing the figure of the head, it follows that the true faculties, and the true develope- ment, may be compared in living subjects ; and, on these grounds, the proposition is established, That the Phrenological mode of philosophizing is competent to enable us to attain the results sought for. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PHRENOLOGY. It has already been mentioned, that there are two hemispheres of the brain, corresponding in form and functions. There are. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. 79 therefore, two organs for each mental power ; one in each hemis- phere. Each organ extends from the medulla oblongata, or top of the spinal marrow, to the surface of the brain or cerebellum; and every individual possesses all the organs in a greater or lesser degree. When the two organs of a faculty are situated immedi- ately on the sides of the middle Hne separating the hemispheres, they are included in one space on the busts and plates. To save circumlocution, the expression, " organ " of a faculty will be used, but both organs will be thereby meant. The brain is not divided by lines corresponding to those delin- eated on the busts; but the forms assumed by its different parts, when extremely large or small, exactly resemble those there repre- sented. Each part is inferred to be a separate organ; because its size, ceteris paribus, bears a regular proportion to the energy of a particular mental power. As size, cceteris paribus, is a measure of power,* the first object ought to be to distinguish the size of the brain generally, so as to judge whether it be large enough to admit of manifestations of ordinary vigor; for if it be too small, idiocy is an invariable consequence. The second object should be to ascertain the relative proportions of the different parts, so as to determine the direction in which the power is greatest. It is proper to begin with observation of the more palpable dif- ferences in size, and particularly to attend to the relative propor- tions of the different lobes. The size of the anterior lobe is the measure of intellect. In the brain it is easily distinguished, and in the living head it is indicated by the portion lying before Construc- tiveness and Benevolence. Sometimes the lower part of the fron- tal lobe, connected with the perceptive faculties, is the largest, and this is indicated by the line before Constructiveness, extending farthest out at the base; sometimes the upper part, connected with the reflecting powers, is the most amply developed, which occurs when the line extends farthest in the upper region; sometimes both are equally developed. The student is particularly requested to resort invariably to this mode of estimating the size of the anterior *See Introduction, p. 22, 23, 24, &c. 80 REGIONS OF THE BRAIN. lobe, as the best for avoiding mistakes. In some individuals, and in some Peruvian skulls in particular, the forehead is tolerably- perpendicular, so that, seen in front, and judged of without attend- ing to depth, it appears to be largely developed ; whereas, when viewed in the way now pointed out, it is seen to be extremely shallow; in other words, the mass is not large, and the intellectual manifestations will be proportionately feeble. The posterior lobe is devoted chiefly to the animal propensities. In the brain its size is easily distinguished; and in the living head a line may be drawn perpendicularly to the mastoid process, and all behind will belong to the posterior lobe. Wherever this and the basilar region are large, the animal feelings will be strong, and vice versa. The coronal region of the brain is the seat of the moral senti- ments; and its size may be estimated by the extent of elevation and expansion of the head above the organs of Causality in the forehead, and of Cautiousness in the middle of the parietal bones. When the whole region of the brain rising above these organs is shallow or narrow, the moral feelings will be weakly manifested ; when high and expanded, they will be vigorouslv displayed. PROFILE OP BURKE. REGIONS OF THE BRAIN. 81 PROFILE OF REV. MR All that lies before line AA is the anterior lobe, or organs of the intellectual faculties. It is larger in the Reverend Mr. M. than in the other two The space above the horizontal dotted line B marks the region of the moral sentiments : The space fron A backwards, below B, indicates the region of the propensities, which in Burke and Hare is much larger in proportion to the size of the moral and intellectual regions than in the Rei^erend Mr. M. 11 82 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. These figures were drawn by Mr. Joseph, by the Camera lucida, from casts from nature. If deduction be made for the thickness of the integuments and skull in all the three, the proportion of the moral regions in Burke and Hare to the R,nimal region will be very small. By observing the proportions of the different regions, it will be discovered, that, in some instances, the greater mass of the brain lies between the ear and the forehead ; in others between the ear and the occiput ; and in others above the ear in perpendicular height. Great differences in breadth are also remarkable ; some heads being narrow throughout, and some broad. Some are nar- row before, and broad behind, and vice versa. The busts of the Reverend Mr. M., Mary Macinnes, Pallet, and Haggart, may be contrasted with this view.* After becoming familiar with the general size and configuration of heads, the student may proceed to the observation of individual organs; and, in studying them, the real dimensions, including both length and breadth, and not the mere prominence of each organ, should be looked for. In estimating the size of the organs, both length and breadth must be attended to. The length of an organ is ascertained by the distance from the medulla oblongata to the peripheral surface. A line passing through the head from one ear to the other, would nearly touch the medulla oblongata, and hence the external open- ing of the ear is assumed as a convenient point from which to esti- mate length. The breadth of an organ is judged of by its peri- pheral expansion ; and it is a general law of physiology, that the breadth of any organ throughout its whole course, bears a relation to its expansion at the surface : the optic and olfactory nerves are examples in point. It has been objected that the breadth of the organs cannot be ascertained, because the boundaries of them are not sufficiently determinate. In answer, I observe, that although the boundaries of the differ- ent organs cannot be determined with mathematical precision, like those of a triangle, a square, or rhomboid ; yet, in a single case, an accurate observer may make a very near approximation to the * The Casts and Skulls, referred to in the subsequent pages, will soon be for sale by the publishers, M. C. & L. LENGTH AND BREADTH OF ORGANS. 83 truth ; and, in a great multitude of cases, the very doctrine of chances, and of the compensation of errors, must satisfy any one that these boundaries may be defined with sufficient precision for all practical purposes. Even in the exact sciences themselves, an approximate solution is frequently all that is attainable ; and if the opponents would only make themselves masters of the binomial theorem, or pay a little attention to the expansion of infinite series, they would not persist in calling for a degree of accuracy which is impossible, or in neglecting an important element in a calculation, because it is involved in a certain liability to error within very narrow limits. The absurdity of the reason assigned for this omis- sion, is rendered still more apparent by the case of the prismatic spectrum, which I conceive to be exactly in point. Now, what is it that this beautiful phenomenon displays.'' The seven primary colors, arranged in a peculiar order, and glowing with an almost painful intensity. But each of these colors occupies a certain space in relation to the whole, the boundaries of which it may be impossible for the hand or eye to trace with geometrical precision, although the relative space in question has nevertheless been made the "subject of measurement, and a very close approximation ob- tained from the mean of a vast number of trials. According to the principle followed by some antiphrenologists, however, breadth should be altogether neglected, because the boundaries of the res- pective colors are, forsooth, " purely ideal," as if a mathematical line were not the most perfect idealism or abstraction which the mind of man can possibly form. This idealism or abstraction, however, has no more to do with those approximations which may be obtained practically by repeated trials, than the mathematical definition of a line with a metallic rod ; and it is a mere quibble to pretend, for example, that we ought not to measure the length of the rod, because it may not correspond with the definition of the line. Upon the strange principle which some opponents have adopted, they must be prepared to maintain, that the boundaries of a hill or hillock are purely ideal, and depend in every instance on the fancy of the measurer.* * Caledonian Mercury, 11th June, 1829. 84 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. The science of Geology affords another illustration. The lead- ing rocks bear so many characteristic marks of distinction, that no ordinary observer can mistake them, yet particular specimens approach the same standard so nearly that the most skilful observers Vv^ill sometimes err, and believe basalt to be clay-stone, or gneiss granite. In teaching this science, however, the leading features of the rocks are found sufficient to guide the student to knowledge of the principles ; and his own sagacity, improved by experience, enables him in due time to deal successfully with the intricacies and difficulties of the study. The same rule ought to be followed in cultivating phrenology. An organ may thus be likened to an inverted cone, with its apex in the medulla, and its base at the surface of the brain ; the broader the base and longer the distance between it and the apex, the greater will be the size, or the quantity of matter which it will contain.* This simile, however, is introduced merely as an illustration, and I do not assert that the organs may be seen regu- larly disposed in the brain in the shape of cones. Hence, if the line from the ear to the forehead be much larger than from the ear backward, and the breadth nearly the same, we infer that the *" There are many convolutions," says Dr. Spurzheim, "in the middle line between the two hemispheres of the brain, and others at the basis and between the anterior and middle lobes, which do not appear on the surface ; but it seems to me that a great part, at least, of every organ does present itself there, and further, that all the parts of each organ are equally developed, so that, though a portion only appear, the state of the whole may be inferred. The whole cerebel- lum does not reach the skull, yet its functions may be determined from the part which does. The cerebral parts, situated in the middle line between the hemis- pheres, seem proportionate to the superincumbent convolutions ; at least I have always observed a proportion in the vertical direction between them." — Phre- nology, p. 121. The cerebral parts, situated around " and behind the orbit, also require some care and experience on the part of the phrenologist, to be judged of accurately. Their developement is discoverable from the position of the eye-ball, and from the figure of the superciliary ridge. According as the eye-ball is prominent or hidden in the orbit, depressed or pushed sideward, inward, or outward, we may judge of the developement of the organs situated around and behind it." — Ihid. Particular directions for observing the parts there situated will be given, when treating of the relative organs. PHRENOLOGICAL BUST. 85 organs in the forehead predominate. If, on the other hand, the forehead be very narrow, as in Thurtell, and the hindhead very broad, we hold the posterior organs to predominate, although the length be the same in both directions. The whole organs in a head should be examined, and their rela- tive proportions noted. Errors may be committed at first ; but without practice, there will be no expertness. Practice, with at least an average endowment of the organs of Form, Size, and Locality, are necessary to qualify a person to make observations with success. Individuals whose heads are very narrow between the eyes, and little developed at the top of the nose, where these organs are placed, experience great difficulty in distinguishing the situations and minute shades in the proportions of different organs. (See Note as to Dr. Gall, No. I. of Appendix.) If one organ be much developed, and the neighbormg organs very little, the devel- oped organ will present an elevation or protuberance ; but if the neighboring organs be developed in proportion, no protuberance can be perceived, and the surface is smooth. The student should learn from books, plates, and casts, or personal instruction (and the last is by far the best,) to distinguish the form of each organ, and its appearance, when developed in different proportions to the others, because there are slight modifications in the position of them in each head. The phrenological bust shows the situations of the organs, and their proportions, only in one head ; and it is impossible by it to communicate more information.* The different appearances in all * Attempts have been mado by opponents to represent certain changes, in the numbering and marking of the organs in busts recently published, as " a Revolu- tion in Phrenology." A brief explanation will place this matter in its true light. The phrenological bust sold in the shops is an artificial head, the utihty of which depends on the degree in which the delineation of the organs on it approaches to the appearances most generally presented by the organs in nature. The first bust sold in this country exhibited the organs as they would be found in a partic- ular head, not very common in this country, the bust having been imported from the Continent, and national heads being modified as much as national features. On 1st October, 1824, a new bust was published in Edinburgh, in which the delin- eation approached nearer to the appearance and relative proportions presented by the organs in this country. Subsequent observations showed that this bust 86 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. the varieties of relative size, mu-st be discovered by inspecting a number of heads ; and especially by contrasting instances of extreme developement with others of extreme deficiency. No adequate idea of the foundation of the science can be formed until this is done. In cases of extreme size of single organs, the form delineated in the bust is distinctly perceived. The question will perhaps occur, If the relative proportions of the organs differ in each individual, and if the phrenological bust represents only their most common proportions^ how are their boundaries to be distinguished in any particular living head ? The might be brought still more closely to resemble the most common proportions of the organs in Britain ; and, on 1st April, 1829, certain modifications were made on it accordingly. Tlie nature of this operation may be explained by a simple illus- tration. Suppose that, in 1819, an artist had modelled a bust, resembling, as closely as his skill could reach, the face most commonly met with in Scotland, and that, to save the trouble of referring to the different features by name, he had attached numbers to them, beginning at the chin, and calling it No. 1., and so on up to the brow, which we may suppose to be No. 33. In this bust he would necessarily give certain proportions to the eyes, nose, cheek, mouth, and chin. But suppose he were to continue his observations for five years, it is quite conceivable he might come to be of opinion that, by making the nose a little shorter, the mouth a little longer, the cheeks a little broader, and the chin a little sharper, he could bring the artificial face nearer to the most general form of the Scottish coun- tenance ; and that he might arrange the numbers of the features with greater philosophical accuracy; and suppose he were to publish a new edition of his bust with these modifications of the features, and with the numeration changed so that the mouth should be No. 1., and the chin No. 5., and the brow No. 35., what should we tliink of a critic who should announce these alterations as " a revolution " in human physiognomy, and assert that, because the numbers were changed, the nose had obliterated the eyes, and the chin had extinguished the mouth ? This is what the opponents have done in regard to the new phrenolo- gical bust. In the modifications which have been made on it, the essential forms and relative situations of all the organs have been preserved, and there is no instance of the organ of Benevolence being turned into that of Veneration, or Veneration into Hope, any more than, in the supposed new modelled face, the nose would be converted into the eyes, or the eyes into the mouth. In regard to the numeration, again, the changes are exactly analogous to those which are before supposed to take place in regard to the features : The organ of ideality formerly was numbered 16, and now it is numbered 19, but the organ and function are nothing different on this account. Dr. Spurzheim adopted a new order of numbering, from enlarged observation of the anatomical relation of the organs, and his improvements have been adopted in Edinburgh and Dublin FORMS OF ORGANS. 87 answer is, By their forms and appearances. Each organ has a form, appearance, and situation, which it is possible, by practice, to distinguish, in the Uving head, otherwise Phrenology cannot have any foundation. When one organ is very largely developed, it encroaches on the space usually occupied by the neighboring organs, the relative situations of which are thereby slightly altered. When this occurs, it naay be distinguished by the greatest prominence being near the centre of the large organ, and the svv^elling extending over a portion only of the other. In these cases the shape should be attended to; for the form of the organ is then easily recognised, and is a sure indication of the particular one which is largely developed. The observer should learn, by inspecting a skull, to distinguish the mastoid process behind the ear, as also bony excrescences some- times formed by the sutures, several bony prominences which occur in every head, from elevations produced by developement of brain. In observing the appearance of individual organs, it is proper to begin with the largest, and select extreme cases. The mask of Mr. Joseph Hume i^ay be contrasted with that of Dr. Chalmers for Ideality ; the organ being much larger in the latter than in the former. The casts of the skulls of Raphael and Haggart may be compared at the same part ; the difference being equally conspic- uous. .The cast of the Reverend Mr. M. may be contrasted with that of Dempsey, in the Love of Approbation ; the former having this organ large, and the latter small. Self-Esteem in the latter being exceedingly large, may be compared with the same organ in the skull of Dr. Hette, in whom Love of Approbation is much larger than Self-Esteem. The organ of Constructiveness in Ra- phael may be compared with the same organ in the New Holland skulls. Destructiveness in Bellingham may be compared with the same organ in the skulls of the Hindoos ; the latter people being in general tender of life. Firmness large, and Conscientiousness defi- cient, in King Robert Bruce, may be compared with the same organs reversed in the cast of the head of a lady (Mrs. H.), which is sold as illustrative of these organs. «8 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. these contrasts is to obtain an idea of the different appearances presented by organs, when very large and very small. The terms used to denote the gradations of size in the different organs, in an increasing ratio, are Very small Moderate Rather large Small Rather full Large Rather small Full Very Large. Captain Ross has suggested, that numerals may be applied with advantage to the notation of developement. He uses decimals ; but these appear unnecessarily minute. The end in view may be attained by such a scale as the following : 1. 8. Rather small 15. 2. Idiocy 9. 16. Rather large 3. 10. Moderate 17. 4. Very small 11. 18. Large 5. 12. Rather fall. 19. 6. Small 13. 20. Very large. 7. 14. Full The intermediate figures denote intermediate degrees of size, for which we have no names. The advantage of adopting numerals would be, that the values of the extremes being known, we could judge accurately of the dimensions denoted by the intermediate numbers ; whereas it is difficult to apprehend precisely the degrees of magnitude indicated by the terms small, full, large, &c. unless we have seen them applied by the individual who lises them. The terms small, moderate, full, &c. indicate the relative pro- portions of the organs to each other in the same head ; but as the different organs may bear the same proportions in a small and in a large head, these terms do not enable the reader to discover, whether the head treated of be in its general magnitude small, mod- erate, or large. To supply this information, measurements by cal- lipers are resorted to ; but these are used not to indicate the dimen- sions of particular organs, for which purpose they are not adapted, but merely to designate the general size of the head. TERiMS DENOTING SIZE. 80 The following are a few measurements from nature taken pro- miscuously from many more in my possession. Table of Jlleasurements by Callipe Males between 25 and 50. 3.i pi u OS B From Ear to In- dividuality. 5 111 III ^3 .2-2 li III u 11 1. 71 41 4i 51 51 51 51 2. 6| 31 41 51 51 51 41 3. 8| 41 51 61 61 6 51 4. 71 4 5 51 6 51 51 5. 8 4^ 51 61 61 6 51 6. 8 41 4| 51 51 51 51 7. 71 41 41 51 61 51 51 8. 71 41 4| 51 51 51 51 9. 71 41 41 6 51 51 51 10. 81 5 51 51 61 51 51 11. 71 41 5 51 51 51 41 12. 71 4i 5 6 51 51 41 13. 71 4| 4| 51 51 51 51 14. 7| 3i 41 51 61 51 5 15. 7| 4| 4| 61 6 6 5 16. 7i 41 51 6 61 51 51 17. 7g 41 51 61 61 61 51 18. 7^ 4| 5 5i 51 51 41 19. 8 41 5| 61 6 6 41 20. Total di- vided by 20 gives 7 4i 4| 51 5| 51 4| ■ 151| 861 99| 118| 119| 1131 1031 Ui 41 4i 5i CIS ^25 5i 51. average. ^ These measurements are taken above the muscular integuments, and show the sizes of the different heads in these directions ; but 1 repeat that they are not given as indications of the dimensions of 12 90 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. any particular organs. The callipers are not suited for giving this latter information, for they do not measure length from the medulla oblongata, nor do they indicate breadth, both of which dimensions must be attended to, in estimating the size of individual organs. The new craniometer is preferable for ascertaining length, and the breadth may be judged of by means of the hand or eye. The average of these twenty heads will be higher than that of the natives of Britain generally, because there are several large heads among them, and none small. It ought to be kept constantly in view, in the practical application of Phrenology, that it is the size of each organ in proportion to the others in the head of the individual observed, and not their abso- lute size, or their size in reference to any standard head, that de- termines the predominance in him of particular talents or dispo- sitions. Thus, in the head of Bellingham, Destructiveness is very large, and the organs of the moral sentiments and intellect are small in proportion ; and according to the rule, that, cczteris paribus, size determines energy, Bellingham's most powerful tendencies are inferred to have been towards cruelty and rage. In the skulls of several Hindoos, the organ of Destructiveness is small in propor- tion to the others, and we conclude, that the tendency of such individuals would be weakest towards the foregoing passions. But in the head of Gordon, the murderer of the pedlar boy, the absolute size of Destructiveness is less than in the head of Raphael ; yet Raphael was an amiable man of genius, and Gordon an atrocious murderer. This illustrates the rule, that we ought not to judge by absolute size. In Gordon, the organs of the moral sentiments and intellectual faculties are small in proportion to that of Destructive- ness, which is the largest in the brain; while in Raphael, the moral and intellectual organs are large in proportion to Destructiveness. On the foregoing principle, the most powerful manifestations of Raphael's mind ought to have been in the department of sentiment and intellect, and those of Gordon's mind in Destructiver.ess and animal passion ; and their actual dispositions corresponded. Still the dispositions of Raphael would be characterised by the large size of this oreran. It would communicate that warmth and vehemence ABSOLUTE SIZE NO CRITERION, 91 of temper, which are found only when it is large, although the higher powers might restrain it from abuse. It is one object to prove Phrenology to be true, and another to teach a beginner how to observe organs. For the first purpose, we never compare an organ in one head with the same organ in another ; because, it is the predominance of particular organs in the same head-, that gives ascendency to particular faculties in the individuals ; and, therefore, in proving phrenology, we compare the different organs of the same head. But in learning to observe, it is useful to contrast the same organ in different heads, in order to become familiar with its appearance in different sizes and com- binations. With this view, it is proper to begin with the larger organs ; and two persons of opposite dispositions, in the particular points to be compared, ought to be placed in juxtaposition, and their heads observed. Thus, if we take the organ of Cautiousness, we should examine its developement in those whom we know to be remarkable for timidity, doubts and hesitation. We should contrast the appear- ance of the organ in such cases with that which it presents in indi- viduals remarkable for precipitancy, and into whose minds doubt or fear rarely enters : or a person who is unable to distinguish one note from another, may be compared, in regard to the organ of Tune, with another who has a high natural genius for music. No error is more to be avoided, than beginning with the observation of the smaller organs, and examining these without a contrast. An objection is frequently stated, that persons having large heads have " little wit," while others with small heads are " very clever. ''' The phrenologist never compares mental ability in general with size of brain in general; for the fundamental principle of the science is, that different parts of the brain have different functions, and that hence the same absolute quantity of brain, if consisting of intel- lectual organs, may be connected with the highest genius ; while, if consisting of the animal organs, lying immediately above and behind the ears, may indicate the most fearful energy of the lower propensities. The brains of Charibs seem to be equal in absolute size to those of average Europeans, but the chief developement of 92 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. the former is in the animal organs, and of the latter in the organs of sentiment and intellect; and no plirenologlst would expect the one to be equal in intelligence and morality to the other, merely because their brains are equal in absolute magnitude. The proper test is to take two heads, in sound health, and of similar tempera- ment and ages, in each of which the several organs are similar in their proportions, but the one of which is large, and the other small; and then, if the preponderance of power of manifestation is not in favor of the first. Phrenology must be abandoned aa destitute of foundation. In comparing the brains of the lower animals with the human brain, the phrenologist looks solely for the reflected light of anal- ogy, to guide him in his researches, and never founds a direct argument in favor of the functions of the different parts of the human brain from any facts observed in regard to the lower animals; and the reason is, that such different genera of animals are too dissimilar in constitution and external circumstances, to authorise him to draw positive resuUs from comparing them.* Many phi- losophers, being convinced that the brain is the organ of mind, and having observed that the brain of a man is larger than that of the majority of tame animals, as the horse, dog, ox, have attributed the mental superiority of man to the superiority in absolute size of his brain ; but the phrenologist does not acknowledge this conclusion as in accordance with the principles of his science. The brain in one of the lower creatures may be very large, and, nevertheless, if it be composed of parts appropriated to the exercise of muscular energy, or the manifestation of animal propensities, its possessor may be far inferior in understanding or sagacity to another animal, having a smaller brain, but composed chiefly of parts destined to manifest intellectual power. f Whales and elephants have a brain larger than that of man, and yet their sagacity is not equal to his ; but nobody pretends that the parts destined to manifest intellect are larger, in proportion to the convolutions intended to manifest * Dr. Vimontof Paris,in his work on Human and Comparative Phrenology, has made an admirable and splendid contribution to the science in this department. t Spurzheim's Physiognomical System, chap. 4. BRAINS OF LOWER ANIMALS. 93 propensity, in these animals than in man ; and hence the superior intelligence of the human species is no departure from the general analogy of nature. In like manner, the brains of the monkey and dog are smaller than those of the ox, ass, and hog, and yet the former approach nearer to man in regard to their intellectual faculties. To apply the principles of Phrenology to them, it would be necessary to dis- cover what parts manifest intellect, and what propensity, in each species ; and then to compare the power of manifesting each fac- ulty with the size of its appropriate organ. If size were found not to be a measure of power, then, in that species, the rule under discussion would fail ; but even this would not authorise us to conclude that it did not hold good in regard to man ; for human Phrenology is founded, not on analogy, but on positive observa- tions. Some persons are pleased to affirm, that the brains of the lower animals consist of the same parts as the human brain, only on a smaller scale ; but this is highly erroneous. If the student will procure brains of the sheep, dog, fox, calf, horse, or hog, and compare them with the human brain, or the casts of it sold in the shops, he will find a variety of parts, especially in the convolutions which form the organs of the moral sentiments and the reflecting faculties, wanting in the animals. In commencing the study of Phrenology, it is of great import- ance to have a definite object in view. If the student desire to find the truth, he will consider first the general principles, devel- oped in the introduction, and the presumptions for and against them, arising from admitted facts in mental Philosophy and Phys- iology. He will next proceed to make observations in nature, qualifying himself by previous instruction in the forms, situations, appearances, and functions of the organs. The circumstances which modify the efiiects of size, are consti- tution, health, and exercise; and the student ought never to omit the consideration of these, for they are highly important. The first and second have already been considered on pages 29, 30, and 31, to which I beg leave to refer. In addition to what is there stated, I observe that the temperaments rarely occur simple in any 94 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. individual, two or more being generally combined. The bilious and nervous is a common combination, which gives strength and activity; the lymphatic and nervous is also common, and produces sensitive delicacy of mental constitution, conjoined with indolence. The nervous and sanguine combined give extreme vivacity, but without corresponding vigor. Dr. Thomas of Paris has published a theory of the temperaments to the following effect. When the digestive organs filling the abdominal cavity are large, and the lungs and brain small, the individual is lymphatic; he is fond of feeding, and averse to mental and muscular exertion. When the heart and lungs are large, and the brain and abdomen small, the individual is sanguine; blood abounds and is propelled with vigor: he is therefore fond of muscular exercise, but averse to thought. When the brain is large, and the abdominal and thoracic viscera small, great mental energy is the consequence. These proportions may be combined in great varieties, and modified results will ensue. In some individuals the brain seems to be of a finer texture than in others; and there is then a delicacy and fineness of manifestation, which is one ingredient in genius. A harmonious combination of organs gives justness and soundness of perception, but there is a quality of fineness distinguishable from this. Byron possessed this quality in a high degree. If, in each of two individuals, the organs of propensity, senti- ment, and intellect, are equally balanced, the general conduct of one may be vicious, and that of another moral and religious. But the question here is not one of poioer, for as much energy may be displayed in vice as in virtue, but it is one of direction merely. Now, in cases where an equal developement of all the organs exists, direction depends on external influences, and no phrenologist pre- tends to tell to what objects the faculties have been directed, by merely observing the size of the organs. Suppose that two individuals possess an organization exactly similar, but that one is highly educated, and the other left entirely to the impulses of nature; the former will manifest his faculties with higher power than the latter; and hence it is argued, that size is not in all cases a measure of energy. POWER AND ACTIVITY. 95 Here, however, the requisite of cceteris paribus does not hold. An important condition is altered, and the phrenologist uniformly allows for the effects of education, before drawing positive con- clusions.* It may be supposed, that, if exercise thus increases power, it is impossible to draw the line of distinction between energy derived from this cause, and that which proceeds from size in the organs, and hence that the real effects of size can never be determined. The answer to this objection is, that education may cause the faculties to manifest themselves v/ith the highest degree of energy which the size of the organs loill ■permit^ but that size fixes a limit which education cannot surpass. Dennis, we may presume, received some improvement from education, but it did not render him equal to Pope, much less to Shakspeare or Milton: therefore, if we take two individuals whose brains are equally healthy, but whose organs differ in size, and educate them alike, the advantages in power and attainment will be greatest in the direct ratio of the size, in favor of the largest brain. Thus the objection ends in this, — that if we compare brains in opposite conditions, we may be led into error — which is granted; but this is not in opposition to the doctrine that, ccsteris paribus, size determines power. Finally — extreme deficiency in size produces incapacity for education, as in idiots; while extreme developement, if healthy, as in Shakspeare, Burns, Mozart, anticipates its effects, in so far that the individuals educate themselves. In saying, then, that, cceteris paribus, size is a measure of power, phrenologists demand no concessions which are not made to physiologists in general ; among whom, in this instance, they rank themselves. There is a great distinction between power and activity of mind ; and, as size in the organs is an indication of the former only, it is proper to keep this difference in view. In physics, poioer is quite distinguishable from activity. The balance-wheel of a watch moves with much rapidity; but so slight is its impetus, that a hair would suffice to stop it; the beam of a steam-engine traverses slowly and ponderously through space, but its power is prodigiously great. * Phrenological Transactions, p. 308. 96 APrLICATIOP