';v 
 
 1 
 
 Max MtJLLER 
 
 AND TI 
 
 Philosophy of Language i 
 
 LUDWIG NOIRE 
 
university of 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 libraries 
 
 "Hi r 
 
 OF LANGUAGE 
 
 3 T153 ODOanfi? 2 
 
 "'UlAHSOtlli 
 
MAX MULLEE. 
 
LOSDOS : PRINTED BT 
 
 6.P0TTISW00DE AXD CO., NEW-STREET SQCAUE 
 
 AND PARLIAilENT STREET 
 
^? 
 
 MAX MtJLLEE a\i 
 
 AND THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 HJDWIG NOIEE. 
 
 iVo speech njUhout yeuson. 
 No tenson without speech. 
 
 Max MUller. 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 
 
 1879. 
 
 A/l liqhls y,. wired. 
 
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ADVEKTISEMENT. 
 
 In my book on ' The Origin of Language,' before 
 proposing my own solution of the great problem, I 
 endeavoured to trace its historical development from 
 the earliest times down to those latest achievements 
 of scientific research upon which my own theory is 
 founded, and without which, indeed, its conception 
 would have been impossible. 
 
 In this summary, as I have since become aware, 
 I was far from doing justice to the great merits of 
 Max Mliller, and the researches by which he has 
 cleared the way for future investigators. And it was 
 to rectify this error that I liastened to publish in 
 a German review (Nord und Slid) an article in which, 
 to the best of my judgment and belief, the simvi 
 cuique was more equally apportioned. 
 
 The serious importance and wide bearings of the 
 subject have induced me to make tliis article, in an 
 enlarged form, accessible to the English reader. 
 
 LUDWICI NOIRE. 
 
 Mainz : Jaimary 1, 1879. 
 

 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. DARWIN AND MAX MULLER 1 
 
 II. MAX MTJLLER AXD THE DOCTRINE OF DEVELOPMENT . . . 16 
 
 III. SPEECn AND REASON 32 
 
 IV. MAX MULLER AND THE PROBLEM OF THE ORIGIN OP LANGUAGE 50 
 
 V. MX OAVN THEORY ON THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE . . .72 
 
MAX MULLEE 
 
 AND THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 DARWIN AND MAX MtJLLER. 
 
 The idea of cosmic evolutioD, in my oj^inion the 
 greatest conception ever formed by the hmnan intellect, 
 is at the present day stirring and agitating the minds 
 of all. The name of Darwin suggests the idea of 
 mighty opposing forces, and the passionate controversy 
 which inflames the minds of men spreads from the 
 sphere of science down to the regions of daily talk, 
 and is fought out in a gigantic ever-growing mass of 
 popular literatm^e. Just as formerly there used to be 
 no department of science that did not at some point or 
 other come in collision with religious tradition and 
 ecclesiastical orthodoxy, so that a clear understanding 
 with and emancipation from these powders became the 
 first condition of life and action to the awakening 
 sciences, so at the present day there is no department 
 
 B 
 
2 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 of human knowledge but is compelled to bring its o^vn 
 supreme and ultimate problems into relation with the 
 idea of evolution ; nay, even to regard itself as a mere 
 branch of the great tree w^iose roots are lost in the 
 immeasurable past, while its topmost shoots reach into 
 the broad bright space of heaven, and its blossoms give 
 gay promise of the fruit that is to ripen for later gene- 
 rations. This mighty tree is the science of Man. 
 
 It is only by the study of its own past that the 
 human mind is enabled to solve the great riddle, and 
 attain a clearer understanding of itself and its place in . 
 the universe, and at the same time to acquire a guiding 
 star, a compass in the dark kingdom of futiu-ity, 
 which will preserve it from the vain wanderings and 
 useless expenditure of force so frequent and fatal in 
 the past. With a clear consciousness of the aim and a 
 firmer grasp of the means, the future development of 
 the human race will leave all previous attainments far 
 behind. Indeed, it is hardly too much to affirm that 
 the coiu"se of a few more centuries will enable our 
 race to look back upon this enlightened, cultivated 
 and refined nineteenth century of oiu-s as a period of 
 barbarism and ignorance. 
 
 The idea of development, as has often been re- 
 marked, is by no means a novel one. Its germs may 
 be traced back to that chosen people whose enlightened 
 glance first sought to trace the presiding influence of 
 reason in creation, back to the earliest Greek philoso- 
 phers ; among whom notably the deep-souled Heraklei- 
 tos., ' the Obscure,' conceived the world as an eternal 
 
Darwin and Max Mil Her. 3 
 
 Becoming, with upward striving and downward fall 
 (this is how I understand 73 6%^ a-vw xarco) : 2,400 
 years before Schopenhauer and Darwin, he proclaimed 
 their most characteristic doctrine in their own words : 
 'HpuxXsirog (xlv yap avTixpug TroXsfJLov ovofjioti^si Trarspa 
 xa) /3a<riAea xa) xvpiov ttolvtwu. Hate and strife lead to 
 generation, all being proceeds from discord, the struggle 
 for existence rules the world and is its vital principle ; 
 the sxTTvpcoo-ig, or reconversion into the primitive ele- 
 ment of fire, alone promises concord and peace, like the 
 ' negation of the w^ill ' or the Nu-vana of Schopenhauer 
 and the Buddhists. Like Schopenhauer and Darwin, he 
 failed to recognise the presence, beside and above the 
 hatred which breeds divisions and strife, of the other 
 great universal principle, almighty Love, soiu-ce of each 
 new perfection, uniting and combining all things, suffer- 
 ing and enduring, pardoning and atoning, devoting and 
 sacrificing all — even life itself 
 
 In the classical literature of Germany, the idea of 
 development presents itself from time to time with more 
 or less clearness and conscious precision. In his lectiu-es 
 upon empirical anthropology Kan^ did not hesitate to 
 assume as self-evident the descent of man from beings 
 of inferior grade, i.e. from the lower animals. The 
 mind of Lessing, impregnated as it was with the ideas 
 of Spinoza, could not possibly pm-sue any course which 
 was inconsistent with the education of the human race, 
 by natural means and forces, into steadily developing 
 enlightenment and independence. Herders ' Thoughts 
 on the Philosophy of History ' are simply a sketch of 
 
4 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 the development of the human race towards a gradually 
 progressive perfection. He too bestows penetrating and, 
 so far as the then state of empirical science allowed, 
 comparative consideration upon the physical difference 
 betAveen man and animals, though he lays much more 
 stress — and in this many modern Darwinians might take 
 a lesson fi'om him — upon the inner principle, the 
 mental development, w^hich is after all the chief thing, 
 though, strange to say, it is almost entirely ignored, 
 or only incidentally mentioned, by the modern school 
 of evolutionists. 
 
 The question has been vigorously debated, whether 
 Goethe can be claimed as a supporter of the Darwinian 
 theory of descent, w^hether he is to be quoted, as by 
 Haeckel, as one of the founders of the doctrine, or 
 regarded, on the contrary, as an adherent of the theory 
 of types. I must confess the controversy seems to me 
 an idle one. The juvenile enthusiasm which took pos- 
 session of the octogenarian poet when he heard how 
 the French Academy had listened with lively spupathy 
 and interest to the controversy between Cuvier and 
 Geoffroy de St. Hilaire, Avhile the political storms of the 
 July Eevolution were raging outside their walls, this 
 very enthusiasm itself shows that the question for him 
 lay not merely between one scientific theory and 
 another, but between the victory or defeat of a whole 
 system, namely, of a view of the universe, in which 
 mind as well as matter was allowed its place. This 
 may sound paradoxical wlien Darwinism is the subject 
 of discussion, but it will only do so to the thoughtless 
 
Darwin and Max Aliillcr. 5 
 
 majority who make no distinction between materialism 
 and monism, which are as far apart as the poles. To 
 show that this was the case, I will quote Goethe's own 
 significant expressions, together with Lazarus Geiger's 
 comments upon them : ^ — 
 
 ' When the July Eevolution broke out, and the faithful 
 Eckermanu found his master in a lively state of excitement 
 about the great events which were taking place in Paris, he 
 began to talk about the errors of the fallen ministry ; upon 
 which Goethe replied : " We don't seem to understand each 
 other ; I have nothing to say about those people, my concern 
 is about a very different matter. I am speaking of the con- 
 troversy, of such supreme scientific importance, between 
 Cuvier and Greoffroy de St. Hilaire, which has at last broken 
 out openly in the Academy. From henceforward, in France 
 as elsewhere, natural science ivill recognise the supremacy 
 of mind over matter; the great maxims of creation will 
 reveal themselves, and we shall penetrate the mysteries of the 
 divine laboratory. This event is incredibly precious to me, 
 and I have a right to rejoice that I am alive to witness the 
 victory won at last by the cause to which my life has been 
 devoted, and which I have made peculiarly my own." The 
 idea of which Groethe already witnessed the victory in the 
 spirit, of which he hailed the proclamation by G-eoffroy de 
 St. Hilaire, — the idea of cosmic evolution^ — will, I doubt not, 
 do as much for the world's freedom as any other great world- 
 historical thought of the past. For sooner or later we shall 
 learn from it what man may expect and demand from him- 
 self, from humanity and from nature.' 
 
 Anyone who, like Schiller, makes the specific cha- 
 racter of mankind to consist in freedom, and like hiin 
 regards liberty and authority as the two great subjects 
 
 ' Zur EnUvickelungsgeschichte der Meiischheif, p. 1 14, 
 
6 The Philosophy of Laiii^uagc. 
 
 of humau interest,^ is necessarily compelled to reject 
 the notion that the humau will is guided or influenced 
 by any superhuman or extra-himian will, however 
 exalted, noble, and pure the conception of it may be. 
 The fact that man is his own creator is alone able to 
 lend value, dignity, and elevation to his being : the 
 abundant powers which have procured him supremacy 
 over the rest of the planet interest us alone if they are 
 the product of his own efforts, not if they are merely 
 cast into his lap by fortune ; and in no other light can 
 we regard any higher bemg to whose favoiu: man may 
 be assumed to owe his precedence. The true kernel 
 and substance of universal history in Schiller's eyes 
 was the image of the human race wrestling its way to 
 an ever higher level of liberty, force and morality. 
 In this sense was the sketch conceived of that Jena 
 Inaugural address of which Carlyle has said : ' There 
 has perhaps never been in Europe another coiu-se of 
 history sketched on principles so magnificent and philo- 
 sophical.' After he had carried the picture of primaeval 
 savagery back to its remotest stage, and contrasted with 
 it the glittering image of contemporary culture, he says 
 in conclusion : — 
 
 ' What opposite pictures I Who would suspect the refined 
 European of the eighteenth century of being a brother — 
 a few more steps advanced — of the modern Canadian, or 
 the ancient Kelt. All these powers and experiences, these 
 aesthetic impulses, these creations of reason, have been 
 implanted and developed in man during the progress of 
 
 • ' Freiheit und Ilerrschaft, der Meuschheit grosse Gegenstande.' 
 
Darivin and Max Mil Her. 7 
 
 a few centuries ; all tliese wonders of art, these colossal 
 triumphs of industry, have all been educed from this begin- 
 ning. What roused those to life, what lured these into 
 being ? What conditions had the human race to pass 
 through between the two extreme points : how did man, the 
 unsociable troglodyte, develope into the intelligent thinker, 
 the cultivated man of the world ? This is the question to 
 which Universal History supplies the answer.' 
 
 The few centuries of which Schiller speaks in this 
 passage are no longer enough for the historian of 
 mankind. Pre-historic science allows us to glance into 
 a vast abysmal past, for which the measures of former 
 chronology are as inadequate as a mundane foot-rule 
 for the distances of Sirius. The further we recede into 
 obsciu-ity, the slower naturally we must expect to find 
 the course of progress. There was a time when men 
 did not know the use of fire, when they were destitute 
 of the very simplest instruments such as we can now 
 hardly dissever from the conception of humanity ; and 
 yet even then man was already himself — for man had 
 the gift of speech. 
 
 It seems, then, that, with the exception of one 
 short luminous period, the actual realm of human 
 history is enveloped in profound obscurity : an immea- 
 surable past, replete with riddles and mystery, for the 
 interpretation of which only a few dumb witnesses 
 spring from the bosom of earth, forces itself upon the 
 mind of the enquirer as a problem only to be worked 
 out with difficulty and by slow degrees. What then, 
 we may well ask, is the need, where the sense of 
 venturing rashly beyond these distant borders, and 
 
8 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 seeking to discover connecting links common to human 
 kind with other beings (in whom the characteristic of 
 humanity — reason — is wanting), in order that man may 
 be brought into genealogical relationship with the latter? 
 And yet this is the question which does most to stimu- 
 late our curiosity, and the consideration of this question 
 — which for us is the supreme one, since it concerns the 
 genesis of man — is not to be evaded; however often we 
 may set it aside as presumptuous and unanswerable, so 
 often it will present itself anew, and refuse to be silenced 
 till the ghost of the problem is laid by its solution. 
 
 The ideas of Lamarck and Darwin are founded 
 upon a comparison of the innumerable organic forms 
 which cover the surface of our globe, and possess, in 
 spite of almost infinite variation, a kind of internal 
 coherence or similarity of nature which it is impossible 
 to deny. Schiller says of the savage tribes whose 
 customs and mode of life were brought to the know- 
 ledge of Europe by modern voyages of discovery : — 
 
 ' We see nations in the most various stages of civilisation 
 encamped around us, like children of different ages clustered 
 round a grown-up person, who remind him by their example 
 of what he once was himself, and of the point from which he 
 started. A wise hand seems to have spared these tribes until 
 the exact moment when our own culture has made sufficient 
 progress to allow of our making a useful application of the 
 discovery to ourselves, and by the help of this mirror restoring 
 the lost beginnings of our race.' 
 
 What Schiller here maintains to be possible and de- 
 sirable within the limits of the specific notion of 
 
Darwin and Max Miiller. 9 
 
 humanity — namely, to explain and interpret the present 
 as a vast development of the past — is extended by Dar- 
 winism so as to include man as the last hnk of a much 
 greater, almost invisibly prolonged, chain of develop- 
 ment, of which the first link would have to be sought 
 in the most rudimentary form of animal life, the, to all 
 appearance, formless and structureless Amcebse. What 
 Schiller says of primitive, wholly uncivilised races, is 
 applied by the theory of descent to the countless forms 
 of the animal kingdom ; these answer to the real infancy 
 of our race, the chrysalis state, the stages which it had 
 to pass through before it could attain to human cultm-e 
 and thereby to its present height of development. A 
 brilliant Frenchman spoke of a posterite contemporaine, 
 referring to the judgment of foreigners upon the pro- 
 ductions of domestic literature ; and we might describe 
 the manifold forms of animal life as an antiquiU con- 
 temporaine, since Nature herself seems to have preserved 
 in them an image of our own original embryonic state, 
 and to have spread out before us innumerable copies of 
 it only to encourage reflective comparison and earnest 
 meditation on our origin. 
 
 While acknowledging ungrudgingly the high scien- 
 tific value of Darwinism, the philosophic thinker has 
 no right to close his eyes to its foibles, its incomplete- 
 ness and its one-sidedness ; and it should also be 
 expressly and emphatically distinguished from the 
 Monistic doctrine of development. 
 
 Praise has often, and rightly, been bestowed upon 
 the calm caution of Darwin's proceedings, who, like a 
 
lo The Philosophy of Langiiage. 
 
 true naturalist, only began to draw his conclusions after 
 he had collected together an imposing mass of materials, 
 based upon observations carefully sifted and verified. 
 And it seems to me that we may fairly expect the 
 gallant band of natiu-alists who fight under his banner 
 to accept all the obligations imposed by their own 
 motto, Natura non facit saltus. As it serves for the 
 Alpha and Omega of their practical observations and 
 theoretic inferences ; as it is the tacit premise and the 
 avowed conclusion of all their labours, it ought also to 
 be rigidly respected in their whole procedure, and we 
 ought not to have to complain of rash guesses by which 
 things heretofore divided by immeasiurable chasms and 
 abysses are brought together or deduced one from the 
 other. 
 
 The one-sidedness of contemporary Darwinism con- 
 sists mainly in its endeavour to refer everything to 
 external causes, while internal qualities, as it seems, are 
 ignored or undervalued. 
 
 To take an illustration : when it is observed that 
 white foxes are to be met with mostly in the Polar 
 regions, the phenomenon admits of an obvious expla- 
 nation upon Darwinian principles. The white colour 
 is an example of protective mimicry ; the animal escapes 
 the piursuit of its natiu-al enemies more easily when it 
 is the coloiu" of the surrounding snow ; and if we assume 
 the same conditions to continue unchanged for a suffi- 
 cient time, it is easy to imagine how foxes of every 
 other coloiu" might die out and the white alone survive. 
 In this case external circumstances alone are considered ; 
 
Dariuni and Max JMiillcr. 1 1 
 
 for the gradual protective adaptation to the conditions 
 given is simply the result of a selection accomplished 
 under the compulsion of these same conditions. The 
 will, the inner disposition of the animal itself, need not 
 be taken into consideration at all. Here, accordingly, 
 Darwinism is within its rights, though, if we are to be 
 perfectly candid, it must be confessed that the word 
 used to explain the fact — that is to say, heredity— \s itself 
 an unsolved mystery, or a mere word of which the 
 meaning is still to seek. 
 
 But the case is altogether different when the animal 
 escapes from the dangers which threaten it on all sides 
 by the development of appropriate mental qualities, to 
 borrow human expressions, such as caution or cunning, 
 or by the increasing delicacy of its sense-perceptions, 
 or whatsoever else, when this development is the result 
 of continuous practice in encountering and avoiding 
 those dangers : for here we have to do with a conjoint 
 physical and psychic progress, effected by the will, or 
 individual effort, by the energetic impulse of self-asser- 
 tion and self-preservation, which in the course of gene- 
 rations rises to astounding heights. 
 
 Is not the first result like a gift of chance, or the 
 lucky number of a lottery, while the latter may be 
 compared with the wealth acquired by painful industry ? 
 Those who refer only to external, purely mechanical 
 causes, when dealing with cases of the latter kind, have 
 hardly understood, let alone mastered, the great prob- 
 lem of the doctrine of development, and they have 
 certainly no right to a voice in matters of philosophy. 
 
1 2 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 The heretical assumption that mind and conscious- 
 ness can be traced back to material forms, and the 
 consequent confusion of the external and internal 
 qualities of things, have hindered Darwinism from 
 entering on a serious philosophic examination of its 
 true principles and speculative premises ; this want 
 of critical reserve has made itself fatally visible in the 
 rash inferences and thoughtless disregard of real dis- 
 crepancies which characterise their attempts to compare 
 and connect things radically heterogeneous in their 
 nature and circumstances. 
 
 If the whole animated world is to be derived from 
 an organised cell, and yet the assumption only slipped 
 in, as it w^ere by the way, with a cavalier ' Accordez- 
 nous seulement ce petit bout, nous en deduirons le reste,' 
 the proceeding betrays as complete and naive ignorance 
 of the magnitude and difficulty as well as of the real 
 gist of the problem, as that of Sir William Thomson 
 and his disciple Helmholtz, who would have the germs 
 of organic life imported by meteorites from distant 
 worlds, or that of Haeckel, who suspects carbon itself 
 to be the actual vehicle of life : the latter, indeed, a 
 very instructive illustration of modern myth-making — 
 nomina = numina. 
 
 Is it really so hard to understand the impossibility 
 of finding the starting-point for a theory of the 
 universe in matter, the conception of which is only the 
 secondary element of our knowledge, while the im- 
 mediate element of certainty is given by consciousness, 
 feeling, will ? 
 
Darwin and Max Milller. 1 3 
 
 It is time to recognise the truth that, when a chemist 
 shows us how oxygen and hydrogen, acids and alkalies, 
 rush into combination, he is only exliibiting a process 
 which remams absolutely unintelligible to us as long 
 as we regard it from a merely mechanical point of view, 
 whilst it becomes plain and simple as soon as we compare 
 it with analogous processes in ourselves, e.g. with the 
 functions of respiration or nutrition, since the mental 
 qualities, the feeling, impulse, or will, which we asso- 
 ciate with those processes, are what we are best ac- 
 quainted with in ourselves. 
 
 Still more grave is the error or self-deception of 
 the Darwinians who attempt to explain the nature of 
 man, the eternal riddle of the Sphinx, the great mystery 
 of the universe, partly by external, i.e. negative, causes, 
 partly out of mere corporeal factors. ' Love's Laboiur's 
 Lost,' or ' Much Ado about Nothing,' are the com- 
 ments that suggest themselves when we contemplate 
 the ant-like industry of the anthropologists who fill 
 the world with their appeals, and imagine themselves 
 to be on the verge of discoveries when they have col- 
 lected a few more cranial measurements or statistics 
 about blue and black eyes, and dark or fair hair. The 
 whole affair will be brought to an end by its own 
 excesses, and will only serve to raise a smile when 
 posterity looks back on the pitiful disproportion be- 
 tween the means employed and the result aimed at. 
 
 Still less, however, can the gap which severs man 
 from other animals be bridged by ingenious physio- 
 logical terms, such as brachycephalous or makroce- 
 
14 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 plialous, or arbitrary classifications, like homo alalus^ 
 a compound wliich reminds us strongly of the traditional 
 xylosideros, or ' wooden iron,' or even by the observa- 
 tion that the bodily structure of man is not distinguished 
 from that of beasts by any specific anatomical mark. 
 The latter argument indeed may be used directly 
 against the theory of Darwinism. For it is an obvious 
 retort, that if the notorious superiority of man is un- 
 attended by any marked bodily divergence from the 
 animal t}^3e, the superiority must have some other 
 cause ; and this brings us round directly to the assump- 
 tion of some self-subsisting substance independent of 
 the body, i.e. the human soul. 
 
 At this point it is necessary to notice the attitude 
 which Professor Max Muller has taken up and hitherto 
 maintained in relation to Darwinism. All those who, 
 with more or less skill and candour, have taken up 
 arms against the Darwinian theory, have put the name 
 of Max Miiller in the front rank as a crushing argu- 
 ment, a mighty bulwark, entrenched behind which 
 they could discharge their o^\m feeble shafts against 
 the great disturber of the pubhc peace. And in this 
 they are not, from one point of view, much to blame, 
 for it is my firm conviction that Max Muller is the only 
 equal., not to say superior^ antagonist, who has entered 
 the arena against Darwin. 
 
 ' There is in man a something, I am not afraid to 
 call it for the present an occult quality, which distin- 
 guishes him from every animal without exception. We 
 call this something reason when we think of it as an 
 
Darwin and Max Mil Her. 1 5 
 
 internal energy, and we call it language when we 
 perceive and grasp it as an external phenomenon. No 
 reason without speech, no speech without reason. 
 Language is the Eubicon which divides man from 
 beast, and no animal will ever cross it. I may express 
 my conviction that the science of language will yet 
 enable us to withstand the extreme theories of the 
 Darwinians, and to draw a hard and fast line between 
 man and brute. Let the experiment be tried, and the 
 most intelligent of apes be reared and trained among 
 men : he will not speak, he will remain brutish ; while 
 the rudest human waif from the most savage tribe will 
 promptly acquire from human intercom^se this first cha- 
 racteristic of humanity.' 
 
 With these weighty arguments our hero confronted 
 undauntedly all the onslaughts of irate Darwinians, 
 and concluded resolutely his defence of the seemingly 
 abandoned fortress. 
 
 ' Here is reason, here language, here humanity. 
 None shall pass here ; none penetrate into the sanc- 
 tuary who cannot tell me first how reason, how speech, 
 was born.' 
 
 And the shouting bands of the assailants were 
 struck dumb, for they could give no answer. 
 
1 6 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MAX MtJLLER AND THE DOCTRINE OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The principles of development as applied to language 
 have found no more determined advocate than Max 
 Miiller in his letter to Chevalier Bunsen ' On the 
 Turanian Languages,' published in 1853, and in several 
 chapters of his lectures on the science of language. But, 
 as already intimated, I distinguish expressly between 
 Darwinism and the monistic theory of development. 
 
 In his otherwise admirably luminous and profound 
 ' Lectures on Darwin ' there is one vulnerable point, 
 namely, when he lays down the alternative : ' Either 
 Kant is in the right or Darwin; one excludes the other,' 
 It is true that Kant regards reason as what is given 
 immediately, as the necessary, indisputable base of all 
 knowledge, so that it might natiurally be inferred 
 that he admitted it to be an irreducible, special gift 
 vouchsafed to man by the divine influence. But in 
 many passages of his writings he lets it be clearly seen 
 that human reason has not existed from eternity, and 
 therefore must be conceived as having arisen from 
 natiu-al causes through the co-operation of natiu-al 
 forces. When he lays down the distinction between 
 * receptive sensation ' and ' spontaneous thought,' ac- 
 cording to which animal life and human reason appear 
 
Max Mailer and the Doctrine of Development. 1 7 
 
 to occupy two distinct camps, on the one hand, as 
 Schopenhauer has pointed out, he took the matter too 
 easily ; while, on the other, he expressly conceded that 
 both sensation and thought, by the co-operation of 
 which all knowledge is effected, might after all prove 
 to be derived from a common root. 
 
 Still, the reference to Kant may be justified, espe- 
 cially in England, where the great discoveries made by 
 the author of the ' Kritik der reinen Vernunft ' continue 
 for the most part a terra incognita. The same, indeed, 
 may be said of many, if not of most of the German 
 representatives of Darwinism, who seem to know about 
 Kant only just what serves thek own piurpose ; e.g. the 
 theory of the origin of the solar system, which under 
 the name of the La Place-Kantian cosmogony is taught 
 even in secondary schools. The important fact is 
 overlooked or ignored, that materialism, as long as 
 Kant was alive or the influence of his spirit active 
 among the teachers of philosophy, did not so much as 
 dare to open its mouth. 
 
 Eeason, the peculiar gift of man, -which marks him 
 ofi" from every other being, is the soiu*ce and starting- 
 point of all knowledge. So Kant affirms, and Max 
 Mliller coincides, only adding that reason and the gift 
 of speech are accorded to man at the same moment. 
 Ratio et oratio are one, they are related to each other 
 like body and raind, the outer and the inner ; they are 
 distinguishable but not separable. Without speech 
 there can be no thought, as the Greeks felt when they 
 used the same word T^oyag for both. Speech is there- 
 
1 8 The Philosophy of LangiLagc. 
 
 fore' the most faithful mirror of the human mind ; it 
 contains a wealth of wisdom in itself, and throws much 
 valuable light both upon the intellectual life of the 
 primitive world and upon the degrees of external culture 
 reached by the race in a hoary antiquity of which every 
 other remaining trace has been obhterated. The 
 treasure chest is there, and the key to open it is 
 comparative philology. No praises, no glorification of 
 this science can exaggerate its real importance. 
 
 ' I make bold to say that during the last hundred, and 
 still more during the last fifty years. Oriental studies have 
 contributed more than any other branch of scientific research 
 to change, to purify, to clear, and intensify the intellectual 
 atmosphere of Europe, and to widen our horizon in all that 
 pertains to the science of man, in history, philology, theology, 
 and philosophy. We have not only conquered and annexed 
 new worlds to the ancient empire of learning, but we have 
 leavened the old world with ideas that are already ferment- 
 ing even in the daily bread of our schools and universities.' ^ 
 ' But let us look at what has been achieved by the 
 masters of comparative philology, and many others, who 
 followed their banners. The East, formerly a land of dreams, 
 of fables, and fairies, has become to us a land of unmis- 
 takable reality : the curtain between the West and the 
 East has been lifted, and our old forgotten home stands 
 before us again in bright colours and definite outlines. 
 Two worlds, separated for thousands of years, have been 
 reunited as by a magic spell, and we feel rich in a past 
 that may well be the pride of our noble Aryan family. We 
 say no longer vaguely and poetically Ex Oriente Lux, but 
 we know that all the most vital elements of our knowledge 
 and civilisation — our languages, our alphabets, our figures, 
 
 ' Max Miiller: Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iv. p. o22. 
 
Max Mailer and the Doctrine of Develop77tent. 19 
 
 our weights and measures, our art, our religion, our tradi- 
 tions, our very nursery stories — come to us from the East ; 
 and we must confess that but for the rays of Eastern light, 
 whether Aryan or Semitic or Hamitic, that called forth the 
 hidden germs of the dark and dreary West, Europe, now the 
 very light of the world, might have remained for ever a 
 barren and forgotten promontory of the primeval Asiatic 
 continent. We live, indeed, in a new world ; the barrier 
 between the West and the East, that seemed insurmountable, 
 has vanished. The East is ours; we are its heirs, and claim 
 by right our share in its inheritance. We know what it was 
 for the Northern nations, the old barbarians of Europe, to be 
 brought into spiritual contact with Eome and Grreece, and to 
 learn that beyond the small, poor world in which they had 
 moved, there was an older, richer, brighter world, the ancient 
 world of Rome and Athens, with its arts and laws, its poetry 
 and philosophy, all of which they might call their own, and 
 make their own by claiming the heritage of the past. We 
 know how, from that time, the classical and Teutonic spirits 
 minglied together, and formed that stream of modern thought 
 on whose shores we ourselves live and move. A new stream 
 is now being brought into the same bed, the stream of 
 Oriental thought, and already the colours of the old stream 
 show very clearly the influence of that new tributary. Look 
 at any of the important works published during the last 
 twenty years, not only on language, but on literature, 
 mythology, law, religion, and philosophy, and you will see 
 on every page the working of a new spirit. I do not say 
 that the East can ever teach us new things, but it can place 
 before us old things, and leave us to draw from them lessons 
 more strange and startling than anything dreamt of in 
 our philosophy. 
 
 ' Before all, a study of the East has taught us the same 
 
 lesson which the Northern nations once learnt in Eome and 
 
 Athens, that there are other worlds beside our own, that 
 
 there are other religions, other mythologies, other laws, and 
 
 c 2 
 
20 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 that the history of philosophy from Thales to Hegel is not 
 the whole history of human thought. In all these sub- 
 jects the East has supplied us with parallels, and with all 
 that is implied in parallels; viz., the possibility of com- 
 paring, measuring, and understanding. The comparative 
 spirit is the truly scientific spirit of our lage, nay, of all ages. 
 An empirical acquaintance with single facts does not con- 
 stitute knowledge in the true sense of the word. All human 
 knowledge begins with the Two or the Dyad, the comprehen- 
 sion of two single things as one. If in these days we may 
 still quote Aristotle, we may boldly say that " there is no 
 science of that which is unique." A single event may be 
 purely accidental ; it comes and goes, it is inexplicable, it 
 does not call for an explanation. But as soon as the same 
 fact is repeated, the work of comparison begins, and the first 
 step is made in that wonderful process which we call general- 
 isation, and which is at the root of all intellectual knowledge 
 and of all intellectual language. This primitive process of 
 comparison is repeated again and again, and when we now 
 give the title of Comparative to the highest kind of know- 
 ledge in every branch of science, we have only replaced the 
 old word intelligent (i.e. interligent), or inter-twining, by 
 a new and more expressive term, comparative.^ ' 
 
 As Greek was the language of humanity in the 
 •fifteenth century and onwards till the eighteenth, till 
 the age of Lessing, Goethe and Schiller, so Sanskrit is 
 the language of the world for the nineteenth century 
 and its immediate successors. 
 
 ' The fact is, the time has not yet come when the full 
 importance of Sanskrit philology can be appreciated by the 
 public at large. It was the same with Grreek philology. 
 When Greek began to be studied by some of the leading 
 
 ' Chips from n (j'rrman IVorkshnp, vnl. iv. p. 314. 
 
Max Mailer and the Doctrine of Development. 2 i 
 
 spirits of Europe, the subject seemed at first one of purely 
 literary curiosity. When its claims were pressed on the 
 public, they were met by opposition, and even ridicule ; and 
 those who knew least of Greek were most eloquent in 
 their denunciations. Even when its study had become more 
 general, and been introduced at universities and schools, it 
 remained in the eyes of many a mere accomplishment — its 
 true value for higher than scholastic purposes being scarcely 
 suspected. At present we know that the revival of Greek 
 scholarship affected the deepest interests of humanity, that it 
 was in reality a revival of that consciousness which links 
 large portions of mankind together, connects the living witli 
 the dead, and thus secures to each generation the full intel- 
 lectual inheritance of our race. Without that historical 
 consciousness, the life of man would be ephemeral and vain. 
 The more we can see backward, and place ourselves in real 
 sympathy with the past, the more truly do we make the life 
 of former generations our own, and are able to fulfil our own 
 appointed duty in carrying on the work which was begun 
 centuries ago in Athens and at Eome. But while the 
 unbroken traditions of the Eoman world, and the revival of 
 Greek culture among us, restored to us the intellectual patri- 
 mony of Greece and Eome only, and made the Teutonic race 
 in a certain sense Greek and Eoman, the discovery of 
 Sanskrit will have a much larger influence. Like a new 
 intellectual spring, it is meant to revive the broken fibres 
 that once united the South-eastern with the North-western 
 branches of the Aryan family ; and thus to re-establish the 
 spiritual brotherhood, not only of the Teutonic, Greek, and 
 Eoman, but likewise of the Slavonic, Celtic, Indian, and 
 Persian branches. It is to make the mind of man wider, his 
 heart larger, his sympathies world-embracing ; it is to make 
 us truly humaniores., richer and prouder in the full percep- 
 tion of what it is meant to be. This is the real object of the 
 more comprehensive studies of the nineteenth century ; and 
 though the full appreciation of this their true import may be 
 
2 2 The Philosophy of La^iguage. 
 
 reserved to the future, no one who follows the intellectual 
 progress of mankind attentively can fail to see that, even 
 now, the comparative study of languages, mythologies, and 
 religions has widened om" horizon ; that much which was lost 
 has been regained ; and that a new world, if it has not yet 
 been occupied, is certainly in sight.' ' 
 
 And what is it after all that thus suddenly stirs the 
 heart of the grave student, the dihgent laboiu-er in the 
 toilsome quarries of pliilology, so that with poetic 
 enthusiasm, Hke Moses looking down upon the Land of 
 Promise, he proclaims to children and children's children 
 the advent of a new, glorious, unimagined era of intel- 
 lectual light ? How comes he to this role of new 
 inspired prophet? It is because he knows that through 
 these newly disclosed treasiures, which his own labours 
 have done so much to bring to Hght, men will be 
 enabled ' to reconstruct the lost beginnings of oiu: race,' 
 and to draw up into the light of day, link by link and 
 centiuy by century, the chain wliich unites our life 
 to-day with the long-forgotten generations of the past, 
 and to free at least a portion of it from the obsciu:- 
 ing debris of ages ; in fact, to cast new light upon 
 the great riddle of the world, the human mind, the 
 human race and its miique and marvellous destiny upon 
 earth. 
 
 Max Miiller's services with regard to the publication 
 of the Vedas are too well known for me to dwell on 
 them here. On September 14, 1874, he laid the last 
 sheets of the ' Eig-Veda with the Commentary of 
 
 1 M. Miiller : Chips, vol. iv. p. 361. 
 
Max Mailer and the Doctrine of Development. 23 
 
 Sdyaw^Mrya ' before the Congress of Orientalists, then 
 sitting in London, only alluding briefly to the labours 
 of which this gigantic work was the fruit. He himself 
 said of this oldest book of the Aryan world : 
 
 ' Its publication would have been simply impossible with- 
 out the enlightened liberality of the Indian Grovernment. 
 For twenty-five years I find, that taking the large and small 
 editions of the Eig-Veda together, I have printed every 
 year what would make a volume of about six hundred pages 
 octavo. Such a publication would have ruined any book- 
 seller ; for it must be confessed that there is little that is 
 attractive in the Veda, nothing that could excite general 
 interest. From an aesthetic point of view no one would care 
 for the hymns of the Kig-Veda. . . . Nothing shows the 
 change from the purely aesthetic to the purely scientific 
 interest in the language and literature of India more 
 clearly than the fact that for the last twenty-five years the 
 work of nearly all Sanskrit scholars has been concentrated on 
 the Veda. But I say again, there is little that is beautiful, 
 in our sense of the word, to be found in the hymns of the 
 Rig- Veda, and what little there is has been so often dwelt 
 on, that quite an erroneous impression as to the real nature 
 of Vedic poetry has been produced in the mind of the 
 public. . . . When some years ago I had to publish the first 
 volume of my translation, I intentionally selected a class of 
 hymns which should in no way encourage such erroneous 
 opinions. 
 
 ' It was interesting to watch the disappointment. What, 
 it was said, are these strange, savage, grotesque invocations of 
 the Storm-gods, the inspired strains of the ancient sages of 
 India ? Is this the wisdom of the East ? Is this the 
 primaeval revelation ? Even scholars of high reputation 
 joined in the outcry, and my friends hinted to me that they 
 would not have wasted their life on such a book. 
 
 ' Now, suppose a geologist had brought to light the bones 
 
24 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 of a fossil animal, dating from a period anterior to any in 
 which traces of animal life had been discovered before, would 
 any young lady venture to say, by way of criticism, " Yes, 
 these bones are very curious, but they are not pretty ? " Or 
 suppose a new Egyptian statue had been discovered, belong- 
 ing to a dynasty hitherto unrepresented by any statues, would 
 even a schoolboy dare to say, " Yes, it is very nice, but the 
 Venus of Milo is nicer ? " Or suppose an old MS. is brought 
 to Em-ope, do we find fault with it because it is not neatly 
 printed ? If a chemist discovers a new element, is he pitied 
 because it is not gold ? If a botanist writes on germs, has he 
 to defend himself because he does not write on flowers? 
 Why, it is simply because the Veda is so different from 
 what it was expected to be, because it is not like the Psalms, 
 not like Pindar, not like the Bhagavadgita, it is because it 
 stands alone by itself, and reveals to us the earliest germs of 
 religious thought, such as they really were, it is because it 
 places before us a language, more primitive than any we 
 knew before, it is because its poetry is what you may call 
 savage, uncouth, rude, horrible, it is for that very reason that 
 it was worth while to dig and dig till the old buried city was 
 recovered, showing us what man was, what ^we were before we 
 had reached the level of David, the level of Homer, the level 
 of Zoroaster, showing us the very cradle of our thoughts, our 
 words and our deeds.' • 
 
 No comment is needed to sliow that the writer of 
 these words has found in the history of human develop- 
 ment, from its first tottering steps to its self-conscious 
 matiuity, a task to stimulate and an aim to employ the 
 utmost energy and the richest gifts. His keen sight was 
 able to detect traces of humanity in the recesses of 
 an impenetrable past, where feebler eyes could see 
 
 ' Chips, vol. iv. p. 374. 
 
Max Mailer and the Doctrine of Development. 2 5 
 
 nothing but indistinguishable mist, and for that very 
 reason thought the boimdary between man and beast 
 had disappeared. 
 
 The importance of the subject warrants me in 
 adding yet a few more quotations from another writer, 
 intellectually akin to Miiller, in which, after having 
 reached by an independent path substantially similar 
 conclusions, he expresses his admiration for the newly 
 breaking light in almost identical terms. I refer to 
 Lazarus Geiger, 
 
 ' The study of languages,' says this distinguished thinker,' 
 ' has attained in our days to incomparable philosophical 
 importance, since it provides a key to a side of the world 
 and of life which natural science could not have reached, and 
 casts light both upon what we are and what we have been, 
 upon human reason and human history. . . . The eye ranges 
 in imagination, through unfathomable distances, towards the 
 moment of creation, and the great secret, the secret of 
 human development, begins to stir in our minds with a dim 
 promise of revelation.' 
 
 ' We ask how the imagination of a people can be con- 
 stituted, by what motives it can be governed, when we 
 find the Persians tending dogs with such anxious care, 
 and the Egyptians building sepulchres for the embalmed 
 corpses of the sacred Apis, of which sixty-four generations 
 were preserved at Memphis ; and this question occupies us so 
 much that the wiser doctrines of the same periods, which are 
 not wanting either if we cared to hear them, meet with com- 
 parative neglect. This reminds us of an anecdote told by 
 Max Miiller about that, in our eyes, most important portion 
 of Sanskrit literature, the Vedic writings. When the gifted 
 Rosen, who died while in the prime of youth, was occupied 
 
 ' Geiger: Zv/r Entwickelungsgeschichte der Menschheit, pp. 2, 'i'2, 14. 
 
26 The Philosophy of La?igttage. 
 
 in the British Museum in copying the Vedic poems, which 
 he began to publish in the year 1838, the Brahmin Earn 
 Mohun Eoy, who was in London at the time, could not contain 
 his astonishment at such an undertaking. The Upanishads 
 were the most important part of the Veda to him, and 
 seemed much more worthy of publication ; for the latest 
 portions of the Vedas contain a kind of mystical philosophy, 
 in which it is possible to discover an approach to monotheism 
 or pantheism, which seemed to the Hindoo reformer, as to 
 so many others, to be the ne plus ultra of religious wisdom. 
 But the primitive Vedic hymns, altogether heathenish, some- 
 times naive and often simply quaint, in which the youth of 
 mankind breathes with such delightful freshness, these are 
 to us the true treasure of Indian literature, notwithstanding 
 the secret feeling of shame with which the modern civilised 
 Hindoo might be tempted to regard them. They contain no 
 religious system that can be of value to us, but they are 
 themselves a text book for the religious history of mankind.' 
 ' Especial attention should be paid to the germs of specu- 
 lation contained in the primitive collection of sacred poems, 
 known as Eig-Veda Sanhita, the existence of which until 
 the present day must be regarded as a piece of rare good 
 fortune, if the human race is right in regarding the knowledge 
 of its own origin and of the laivs of its groivth as an object 
 of longing and desire. Unlike all other known literatures, in 
 which we find everywhere new forms either rising from the 
 ruins of an expiring past, or resulting from intercourse and 
 the intermixture of ideas proper to distinct nations, in the 
 Vedic hymns we seem to have to do with an original inde- 
 pendent growth, not a secondary formation built up by the 
 destruction of what went before, but a manifestation of fresh 
 young human life, springing in full bloom directly from the 
 bosom of nature, a spiritual form with words and deeds not yet 
 petrified, and allowing us to watch in the act of becoming what 
 elsewhere is only to be met with as finished and completed. 
 Hence it is that these hymns contain the key, not only to 
 
Max Mailer aftd the Doctrine of Development. 27 
 
 the subsequent development of India, nor even only to that 
 of the kindred nations who started to a certain extent from 
 the same root, but also in virtue of the natural unity which 
 characterises the common course of development throughout 
 its species, to all the creations of speculative energy which 
 the world has seen, or, in other words, to the whole domain of 
 reason, to all the lasting conquests won by it since the first 
 moment when man began to form convictions out of retained 
 jperce'ptions, and manifold thought, belief and knowledge 
 became a possibility.' ^ 
 
 ' The rise of philology as an independent science, apart 
 from any outer or practical aim, as a science of the pre- 
 historic condition of mankind, which dates from the begin- 
 ning of the present century, is an event of incredible im- 
 portance to the history of humanity. Comparative philo- 
 logy overturned the former confused ideas relating to the 
 earliest civilisation and migration of primitive populations. 
 Related and non-related nations were distinguished from 
 each other, and a more delicate and unerring instrument was 
 provided for the classification of races than that afforded by 
 the indication of natural history or anthropology. Even the 
 remotest distances of the past seemed by the light of hope 
 to promise precise knowledge of the circumstances of periods 
 of primitive antiquity, the very existence of which had 
 hitherto been unrevealed by history.' ^ 
 
 This complete agreement between two of the most 
 distinguished intellects of the centiu-y, this unanimous 
 tone of enthusiasm in referring to the new and abun- 
 dant spring of knowledge which has broken out in oiu: 
 days from undreamt-of depths, is a sufficient testimony 
 to the importance of the subject with which we are 
 
 ^ Geiger : Urspi-ung und Entwickelung der memcklicken Sprache und 
 Vernunft, p. 1 19. 
 
 ^ Geiger, Ursjn-ung der Sjn-ache, p. 16. 
 
28 The Philosophy of Langjcage. 
 
 concerned. This is nothing less than the history of 
 human development, the sokition, that is to say, of the 
 most ancient and most sacred problem, a solution which 
 for the first time seemed to come within the range of 
 possibihty when the discoveries of comparative philo- 
 logy revealed the stores of information preserved in 
 the genealogies of words and notions, respecting the 
 primitive ages of himian thought, and the origin, growth 
 and matiu-ity of the supreme distinguishing mark of 
 humanity, that which explains and makes possible all 
 the rest — reason and speech ("Koyag). 
 
 Whoever wishes to explain humanity must under- 
 stand what is human ; he must know the points upon 
 which everything else tiurns, and from which every- 
 thing else must be derived. Language contains the 
 key to the problem, and whoever seeks it elsewhere 
 will seek in vain. 
 
 Max Muller's aim and object, then, is to elucidate 
 the doctrine of human development ; only he has 
 sought this doctrine where alone it was to be foimd, in 
 the mind, in thought, that is to say, in language. The 
 question as to the origin, the germ, the first beginning 
 of this wonderful gift, he was content for the present 
 to leave open or imanswered. As a philologer he 
 was only concerned to use the materials provided by 
 linguistic research to pave the way back to that past 
 which had been hitherto lost in impenetrable night, 
 and from this point of view he might consider that it 
 would be time enough, when the primitive state of 
 mankind had assumed a clearer outline in the light of 
 
Max Mailer and the Doctrine of Development. 29 
 
 philology, to begin to think of exploring the other side 
 of the mountain range where the clue of philology- 
 begins to fail. 
 
 It might have been supposed that the modest 
 caution of such a plan would have received the appro- 
 val of every intelhgent thinker ; to begin by under- 
 standing the problem in its relation to the human 
 mind, to verify every step by a reference to the real 
 body of thought, and to pursue this back to its ultimate 
 root — what could be simpler or more scientific ? But 
 temperate reasoning fails to make itself heard above 
 the storm of passionate controversy ; and thus it came 
 to pass that the violent Darwinians, who, after the 
 manner of disciples, went far beyond the boundaries set 
 by their master's judgment, began a camjDaign against 
 Max Miiller, in which first one philologer and then 
 another was exalted at his expense, till compelled to 
 retire before the successful defence of one who, in 
 self-defence, was defending truth rather than himself. 
 
 The dignified candour of the words with which 
 Max Miiller begins his protest against the premature 
 and inverted reasoning of the hyjDcr-Darwinists shows 
 to the more advantage by contrast with those violent 
 attacks. He lays down, as the only test and standard, 
 the one interest by which all scientific labourers alike 
 should be inspired : 
 
 ' The question is not, whether the belief that animals so 
 distant as man, a monkey, an elephant, and a humming 
 bird, a snake, a frog, and a fish, could all have sprung- from 
 the same parents is monstrous, but simply and solely whether 
 
30 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 it is true. If it is true, we shall soon learn to digest it. 
 Appeals to the pride or humility of man, to scientific 
 courage, or religious piety, are all equally out of place.' ^ 
 
 I believe that in what precedes I have indicated 
 with sufficient clearness, though but in general outline, 
 what is the attitude assumed by Max Miiller in relation 
 to the theory of Development, and to Darwinism in 
 particular. He severs himself from the followers of 
 Darwin, and indeed begins a critical attack, when, 
 overlooking or dismissing offhand man's real charac- 
 teristic, — reason and speech, — they treat external 
 causes and structural transitions as a sufficient scien- 
 tific explanation of the greatest marvel and mystery of 
 creation. The narrowness of this view has been 
 emphatically characterised by Lazarus Geiger also : 
 
 ' We may obtain some idea of the skeleton and even of the 
 external appearance of a lost animal species by the help of 
 geological fragments ; we can draw general inferences 
 respecting an imperfectly developed race of men from primi- 
 tive cranial remains, but it would be hard to form any idea, 
 from the appearance of the fragments which we find in the 
 Neanderthal, in what way the head, of which they formed 
 part, carried on the business of thinking when it was alive.' ^ 
 
 'Fortunately ' (continues this gifted writer), ' the history 
 of the mind also has its primaeval remains, its deposits and 
 petrefactions of another kind. They offer more instructive 
 information than will perhaps be anticipated ; if carefully 
 pursued, they lead to unexpected, but, as I am persuaded, 
 none the less assvu-ed results.' 
 
 1 M. Miiller : Lectures on Darwin. 
 
 * Zur Entioickehmgsgeschivhte der Menschheit, p. 45. 
 
Max Mailer and the Doctrine of Development. 3 1 
 
 To cast light upon the vast background of our past, 
 the past of the human mind, as it is developed in 
 language, and may be disclosed and interpreted by 
 science, this has been the lifelong task, the supreme 
 goal of all the labours of Max Miiller. He himself has 
 spoken plainly enough to this effect : 
 
 ' Every man forms his own scheme of life, and every 
 student must belong to some army and carry the plan of the 
 campaign in his head to determine and direct the choice of 
 his own march. I belong to those who say with Pope, " The 
 proper study of mankind is man;" and when I set before 
 myself the question, which was the right, or at least the most 
 fruitful method for the study of mankind, the conviction soon 
 formed itself in my mind that in order to know what man 
 is now, we must first of all observe and establish what man 
 has been and how he became what he is.' 
 
The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SPEECH AND REASON. 
 
 The words ' origin of species ' were the charm with 
 which Darwin stirred men's minds, and roused into a 
 flame the glowing ashes of dormant curiosity about the 
 question, whether things in general and organic beings 
 in particular have existed from all times as now, or 
 whether they came into existence as it were, historically, 
 by virtue of natural causes, and if so, of w^hich. 
 
 This question, when transplanted into the realm of 
 natural science and proposed for solution, with the help 
 of the vast mass of materials fiu-nished by accumulated 
 observations, had the great recommendation of restoring 
 philosophic thought and deductive method to the place 
 of pure empiricism ; though this had its justification in 
 the vagaries of the philosophy of nature ; and, indeed, 
 as the exact method of sense-perception, must always 
 form the indispensable and sohd foundation of all na- 
 tiu-al science. 
 
 The natiure of a species consists, as the name already 
 indicates, in what is special, i.e. pecuHar to itself. The 
 particular marks itself off from the general, it becomes 
 more independent, more original ; it gains in character, 
 in individuality. Accordingly, the doctrine of develop- 
 
speech and Reason. 33 
 
 ment has for its object, in concert with historical enquiry, 
 to trace back each particular appearance to its most 
 nearly universal form ; that is to say, in the case of 
 living beings, to trace the species to its most general 
 type, to pursue the stream of development backwards 
 from the familiar and infinitely manifold data of the 
 present to its earliest beginning, so far as may be pos- 
 sible to the ever limited power of human reason. And 
 the final goal of its efforts will always be that moment, 
 hid in the twilight of an immeasurable past, when our 
 system, then a gigantic globe of vapour, broke from the 
 deathlike slumber of universal oneness, and those first 
 modifications accomplished themselves, out of which 
 hereafter the Wille zum Lehen wrestled its way to the 
 joys and sorrows of mortal being in the person of 
 countless individuals. 
 
 In the midst of this vast process of development, 
 which fills the imagination with awe-struck wonder, 
 and which is accomplished so silently and tranquilly 
 that our reason, aware of the closer causal connection 
 which binds the being of one moment to the becoming 
 of the next, is forced towards the view that all is hap- 
 pening by the fixed, inexorable laws of necessity, — in 
 the midst of this we see one star dawn on the horizon, 
 within which is concealed the sacred mystery of a new 
 species, called to a higher measure of freedom, con- 
 sciousness and perfection, and occupying a place apart 
 from all the rest of nature, since in it are laid the 
 foundations of the kingdom of conscious mind, of the 
 life which is ordered by individual foresight and choice. 
 
 D 
 
34 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 This species is the human race ; the dawning hght 
 which heralds its advent upon earth is reason. The 
 contrast between this and the nearest analogues we can 
 find for it among beings of any other kind is so strong 
 that we are always ready to set the latter aside offhand 
 as mere natm^al impulse or instinct, which leaves us 
 only the wiser by a word, a word to which any meaning, 
 possible or impossible, may be attached or not attached 
 at discretion. 
 
 Still, reason, or the mental life of man, constitutes 
 a new specific distinction, without an exact parallel in 
 any other part of nature, a differentiation which we 
 must seek to derive from more general natural causes. 
 No problem is at once so difficult and so well worthy 
 of solution, except, perhaps, the kindred question re- 
 garding the first origin of organization and life. 
 
 The great law of progressive individualisation and 
 specialisation, by which alone the unceasing course of 
 cosmic development is to be explained and elucidated, 
 must supply the foundations also of the life and growth 
 of reason. 
 
 That whereby the functions of reason are accom- 
 pUshed, the inner organic tissue, the means whereby 
 the whole of the material and spiritual universe is 
 embraced, constructed and expressed, is afforded by 
 those mysterious entities which have formed the object 
 of study in every healthy system of philosophy up to 
 the present day ; sometimes they are called, in Platonic 
 phrase, ideas, sometimes notions, but, for the most part, 
 concepts or conceptions. They are the exclusive pro- 
 
speech and Reason. 35 
 
 perty of man — no other animal can ever participate in 
 them ; and it is, therefore, either crass misconception 
 of the nature of the case, or simple misuse of language, 
 when modern materialists speak of the ' thinking power 
 of animals.' 
 
 Concepts cannot be formed without the help of 
 words. The sound, the word, is the body of the con- 
 cept ; language is thus the external side, the body of 
 thought or reason. Thus it was that the one essential, 
 which may, however, be considered from the two aspects, 
 from without and from within, was designated by the 
 Greeks by a single word, Xo'yo^, which does not dis- 
 tinguish them, but includes them both. 
 
 There are certain truths which, in the earlier stages 
 of development, are taken for granted by primitive 
 thought as given directly and certainly in consciousness, 
 which, however, become lost in the age of reflection, in 
 consequence of a peculiar one-sidedness which has come 
 to characterise the progress of thought, so that much 
 mental effort has to be expended in rediscovering them. 
 To this number must be reckoned the great and im- 
 portant truth that thought is accomplished by means 
 of words alone, that thought is just as little possible 
 without language as language without thought. 
 
 I said that this truth was matter of direct conscious- 
 ness to the childlike thought of primitive peoples. As 
 a confirmation of this I may quote the graphic expres- 
 sion of the Polynesians, who, according to Farrar, 
 describe thinking as ' talking in the stomach,' i.e. 
 D 2 
 
36 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 internally. But the divine Plato also had no other 
 definition to put into the mouth of Sokrates. 
 
 * " What do you mean by thinking ? " asks Theaetetus. 
 Sokrates : " I mean the conversation which the soul holds 
 with herself in considering of anything. I speak of what I 
 scarcely know ; but the soul when thinking appears to me 
 to be just talking — asking questions of herself and answering 
 them, affirming and denying." ' ' 
 
 And how then does mankind come to lose this 
 instinctive certainty? Because, in the first age of 
 systematisation and reflection, men accustom themselves 
 to speak of the idea or thought as sometliing inward and 
 spiritual with which the formal sound of the mere word 
 is to be contrasted. And thus the error gained ground 
 that thought was the frius, and had an independent 
 existence in the human mind, before the existence of 
 words as a token to express the process that was going 
 on without them. ' The Philosophers,' says Hamann, 
 ' have in all ages given truth a letter of divorce, in that 
 they have put asunder those things which nature has 
 joined together, and conversely.' 
 
 ' The conception of cause,' says Goethe, ' is the 
 source of infinite error.' If we look closely we shall 
 see that this sentence applies to all the fundamental 
 errors in which the human mind has been entangled 
 ibr ages, and from which it will seek in vain to escape 
 so long as it does not recognise their deep metaphysical 
 root. From Demokritus and Epikurus onwards mate- 
 rialists continue credulously to repeat that the body is 
 
 ' Plato, Thrfet. l>^n. 00. Jowetf? translation, vol. iii. p. 41G. 
 
speech and Reason. 3 7 
 
 the cause of mind ; they are unable to understand that 
 causal relations cannot be established between things of 
 altogether disparate quahty any more than they can be 
 affirmed of what is one and indivisible. And from Plato 
 onwards, the ideahsts repeat that mind is the cause of 
 bodies, so that they have no choice but to regard the 
 world as a phantom, a creature of their own imagina- 
 tion, or else to bridge the chasm between mind and 
 body by such tours de force as the concursus divinus, 
 pre-established harmony and the like rash inventions. 
 On the other hand, Spinoza's monism, Kant's criticism, 
 and Schopenhauer's theory of will contain the key of 
 the problem in their hidden depths, for these great 
 thinkers made the metaphysical base or conditions of 
 the knowledge of the world the object of their investi- 
 gations. 
 
 Whenever we start from one side of a thing and 
 endeavom- to deduce the other side of it causally from 
 this, we land oiurselves in hopeless contradictions : 
 there is no escaping the vicious circle. The explanation 
 of the most important, most truly human quality of 
 mankind has not escaped this fate. The wheel of 
 Ixion continues its giddy revolutions, bringing to the 
 top in turn the words now 'Eeason and therefore 
 speech,' now agam, 'Speech and therefore reason.' 
 The truth that the two, ratio and oratio, are one and 
 the same being, only conceived from different points of 
 view, that one is the inner and spiritual, the other the 
 outer and corporeal side of the monad, this truth, not- 
 withstanding its distinct and convincing advocacy by 
 
38 The Philusophy of Language. 
 
 the most illustrious thinkers of the last half century, 
 has hardly begun to take root in the minds of those 
 who have chosen as their especial study to imriddle the 
 great problem of the human mind, and a fortiori has 
 had no influence on the thoughts of the general edu- 
 cated pubhc. 
 
 The most influential champion of this idea is Max 
 Miiller. As formerly Spinoza's great disciple, Goethe, 
 formulated the fimdamental monistic doctrine in the 
 simple words, as indubitable as imambiguous : ' No 
 mind without matter, no matter without mind,' so Max 
 Miiller with equal clearness and confidence : ^ 
 
 ' Without speech no reason, without reason no speech. 
 It is curious to observe the unwillingness with which many 
 philosophers admit this, and the attempts they make to 
 escape from this conclusion, all owing to the very influence 
 of language, whicli in most modern dialects has produced two 
 words, one for language, the other for reason ; thus leading 
 the speaker to suppose that there is a substantial difference 
 between the two, and not a mere formal difl'erence.' 
 
 Fiurther on he comments upon some acute obser- 
 vations of Locke, who appears to have been the first, 
 before Herder, to call attention to the inseparable 
 connection between speech and thought, and ac- 
 cordingly insisted on the need of serious philological 
 criticism, in the interests of reason itself, in order that 
 the speaker and the listener may no longer be misled by 
 phrases of which they do not understand the sense : ^ 
 
 'In all this there is no doubt great truth, yet, strictly 
 
 ' Lectures on the Science of Lanqnnge, vol. ii. p. 7;^ 
 2 lb. p. 76. 
 
speech and Reason. 39 
 
 speaking, it is as impossible to use words without thoiiglit, as 
 to think without words. Even those who talk vaguely about 
 religion, conscience, &c., have at least a vague notion of the 
 meaning of the words they vise ; and if they ceased to connect 
 any ideas, however incomplete and false, with the words they 
 utter, they could no longer be said to speak, but only to 
 make noises. The same applies if we invert our proposi- 
 tion. It is possible, without language, to see, to perceive, 
 to stare at, to dream about things ; but without words not 
 even such simple ideas as white or black can for a naoment 
 be realised.' 
 
 All want of clearness, all confusion, all the inter- 
 minable debates as to whether thought and reason 
 shall be ascribed to animals, to babies, and to untaught 
 deaf-mutes, are merely verbal disputes, and proceed 
 from the fact that the words used have not had asso- 
 ciated with them the clear and definite matter of 
 conception which belongs to them, but are employed 
 in a general, vague and misty fashion. 
 
 ' A child knoivs as certainly before it can speak the differ- 
 ence between sweet and bitter (i.e. that sweet is not bitter), 
 as it knows afterwards (when it comes to speak) that worm- 
 wood and sugar-plums are not the same thing. A child 
 receives the sensation of sweetness ; it enjoys it, it recollects 
 it, it desires it again : but it does not know what sweet is ; 
 it is absorbed in its sensations, its pleasures, its recollections; 
 it cannot look at them from above,^ it cannot reason on them, 
 it cannot tell of them.' ^ 
 
 ^ I have expressed this thoiight in the words : ' Language gives man- 
 kind a standpoint exterior to things and above them,' and I have given the 
 grounds of it in detail in my Emleitung und Begi-iindung einer tnonis- 
 tisehen Erkenntnisstheorie, p. 95, sq. 
 
 ^ Max Miiller, loc. cit. p. 77. 
 
40 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 Similarly Lazarus Geiger : 
 
 ' It is easy to see that blood is red and milk white ; but 
 to abstract the redness of blood from the collective impres- 
 sion, to find the same notion again in a red berry, and, in 
 spite of its other differences, to include under the same head 
 the red berry and the red blood — or the white milk and the 
 white snow — this is something altogether different. No 
 animal does this, for this.) and this only., is thinking.'' ^ 
 
 We thus arrive at the apparently paradoxical 
 proposition : the so-called general conceptions are 
 something special, something pecuharly and exclusively 
 proper to the human reason ; they embrace and com- 
 prehend the whole world, so far as this is within the 
 scope of human powers of perception ; they can, how- 
 ever, only become realised by means of their bodily 
 equivalents, sensible sounds or words. Speech is not 
 the garment, it is the body of reason. 'Without 
 speech no reason, without reason no speech.' 
 
 After this it should not be difficult to perceive why 
 all previous attempts to explain human reason and 
 establish a satisfactory system of psychology and per- 
 ception have proved abortive. The reason is that in 
 all of them human reason was conceived as something 
 absolute and hreducible, while its history and its past, 
 which might have supplied the desired solution, were 
 neglected, although a priceless instrument for the piu-- 
 pose lay ready to hand in comparative philology, which 
 is nothing but the study of the history of this same reason 
 itself. Take any animal away from its place in the 
 
 ^ Geiger: Ursprung der Sprache, p. 110. 
 
speech and Reason. 4 1 
 
 chain of organic life, and its nature will remain for 
 ever an insoluble problem ; but viewed as a link in the 
 progressive chain of development, we find its explana- 
 tion in all that has gone before it. 
 
 What is required, then, is to apply what Darwin 
 has done for organisms to that department of organic 
 life to which we give the name of human notions, 
 rational concepts or words. We want, in fact, a new 
 ' origin of species.' Every notion, every word which 
 presents itself in the coiu-se of the development, is 
 something new and special, a fresh step towards spe- 
 ciahsation and individualisation, which can never be 
 conceived by itself nor thought of as breaking forth 
 out of nothing by some generatio cequivoca ; but as a 
 new element of reason, generated by unbroken filiation 
 from earher elements, it serves to exalt, to heighten, 
 and enrich the inner mental force which we call 
 reason ; and at the same time as a principle of ex- 
 planation, as a token and monument of the growth of 
 this reason, it serves to raise for a moment the thick 
 veil of mystery in which it is enveloped. 
 
 Upon this track and thus retracing our steps towards 
 the past, we arrive at more and more simple elements, 
 corresponding to the elementary state of the reason, 
 till at last by the hght of philological research, in 
 conjunction with deductive philosophic speculation, w^e 
 approach boldly towards the narrowing circle within 
 which as yet there is neither thought nor speech, and 
 where therefore the cradle and origin of reason is 
 to be found. 
 
42 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 Etymology, or the study of roots, a science founded 
 and admirably worked out by German diligence, may 
 form the pride and joy of an age otherwise to all 
 appearance estranged from such ideal piu-suits ; and 
 it is this science which may claim to furnish, from its 
 hidden stores, the richest and most starthng infor- 
 mation about our proper nature, oiu" prehistoric past, 
 and the paths by which the human mind has attained 
 to its present vigoiu-, enlightenment, and perfection. 
 
 In language we possess, as it were, a magic mirror 
 of the past of our race, and its external cu'cumstances 
 and vicissitudes. The science of language casts its rays 
 into the primaeval night from whence no other evidence 
 can reach us. From this point of view she is a worthy 
 sister of palseanthropology, the science of prehistoric 
 man ; for himian thought attaches itself also to the dwel- 
 lings, tools, arms and implements of human action, and 
 where thought has left its vestiges, its voice is still heard 
 by the keen and discerning senses of the investigator. 
 But the words, the vestiges of language give clearer 
 and more valuable information than any other rehcs, 
 for they extend back to a time where even the threads 
 of prehistoric research are broken off, when man was 
 without tools, without fire, without any of those con- 
 trivances which we are now accustomed to regard as 
 indispensable attributes of humanity. 
 
 ' There is a peculiar charm,' says Max Miiller,' ' in watch- 
 ing the various changes of form and meaning in words 
 
 ' Lectures, vol. ii. p. 274. 
 
speech and Reason. 4 3 
 
 passing down from the Ganges or the Tiber into the great 
 ocean of modern speech. In the eighth century B.C. the 
 Latin dialect was confined to a small territory. It was but 
 one dialect out of many that were spoken all over Italy. But 
 it grew — it became the language of Rome and of the Eomans, 
 it absorbed all the other dialects of Italy, the Umbrian, the 
 Oscan, the Etruscan, the Celtic, and became by conquest 
 the language of Central Italy, of Southern and Northern 
 Italy. From thence it spread to Graul, to Spain, to Germany, 
 to Dacia on the Danube. It became the language of law and 
 government in the civilised portions of Northern Africa and 
 Asia, and it was carried through the heralds of Christianity 
 to the most distant parts of the globe. It supplanted in its 
 victorious progress the ancient vernaculars of Gaul, Spain, 
 and Portugal, and it struck deep roots in parts of Switzer- 
 land and Wallachia. When it came in contact with the 
 more vigorous idioms of the Teutonic tribes, though it could 
 not supplant or annihilate them, it left on their surface a 
 thick layer of foreign words, and it thus supplied the greater 
 portion in the dictionary of nearly all the civilised nations 
 of the world. Words which were first used by Italian 
 shepherds are now used by the statesmen of England, the 
 poets of France, the philosophers of Germany; and the faint 
 echo of their pastoral conversation may be heard in the 
 Senate of Washington, in the cathedral of Calcutta, and in 
 the settlements of New Zealand. 
 
 ' We thus see how languages reflect the history of nations, 
 and how, if properly analysed, almost every word will tell 
 us of many vicissitudes through which it passed on its way 
 from Central Asia to India or to Persia, to Asia Minor, 
 Greece, and Italy, to Russia, Gaul, Germany, the British 
 Isles, America, New Zealand, nay, back again, in its world- 
 encompassing migrations, to India and the Himalayan 
 regions from which it started. Many a word has thus gone 
 the round of the world, and it may go the same round again 
 
44 '^^i^ PJiilosophy of Language, 
 
 and again. For although words change in sound and 
 meaning to such an extent that not a single letter remains 
 the same, and that their meaning becomes the very opposite 
 of what it originally was, yet it is important to observe, that 
 since the beginning of the world no new addition has ever 
 been made to the substantial elements of speech, any more 
 than to the substantial elements of nature. There is a con- 
 stant change in language, a coming and going of words, but 
 no man can ever invent an entirely new word. We speak to 
 all intent and purpose substantially the same language as 
 the earliest ancestors of om- race, and guided by the hand of 
 scientific etymology we may pass on from century to century 
 through the darkest periods of the world's history, till the 
 stream of language on which we ourselves are moving 
 carries us back to those distant regions where we seem to feel 
 the presence of our earliest forefathers, and to hear the 
 voices of the earthborn sons of Man.' • 
 
 But it is not the history of the outer world alone, 
 nor, so to speak, the mere material conditions of human 
 life in prehistoric ages which are mirrored for us in 
 language and the strata so carefully distinguished and 
 explored by our science. It is even more important 
 to us as a record, a document revealing to us the 
 emotions, the thought, and the feeling of a world long 
 smce mouldered into dust. And in this respect philo- 
 logy stands alone, and neither requires the help of any 
 other science, nor can concede to any other the right 
 to the work which is reserved for itself alone. 
 
 The history of language, as I have already said, is 
 the history of the growth of human reason. And 
 from this point of view the science of language has not 
 
 ^ Lectures, vol. ii. p. 286. 
 
speech and Reasoji. 45 
 
 only afforded precious information respecting the past 
 history of reason, but it will also, we may hope, de- 
 liver us from the indescribable and vexatious blundering 
 which verbal ambiguities, and confused thought issuing 
 in the misuse of words, have brought upon the human 
 race. To quote once more the words of Max Miiller ; 
 
 ' He who would examine the influence which words, mere 
 words, have exercised on the minds of men, might write a 
 history of the world that would teach us more than any 
 which tve yet possess.^ 
 
 ' I do not speak hereof tliat downright abuse of language 
 when writers, without matm-ing their thoughts and ar- 
 ranging them in proper order, pour out a stream of hard and 
 misapplied terms which are mistaken by themselves, if not 
 by others, for deep learning and height of speculation. This 
 sanctuary of ignorance and vanity has been well-nigh 
 destroyed ; and scholars or thinkers who cannot say what 
 they wish to say consecutively and intelligibly have little 
 chance in these days, or at least in this country, of being- 
 considered as depositaries of mysterious wisdom. Si non vis 
 infelligi debes negligi. I rather think of words which 
 everybody uses, and which seem to us so clear that it looks 
 like impertinence to challenge them. Yet, if we except the 
 language of mathematics, it is extraordinary to observe how 
 variable is the meaning of words, how it changes from cen- 
 tury to century, nay, how it varies slightly in the mouth of 
 almost every speaker. Such terms as Nature, Law, Free- 
 dom, Necessity, Body, Substance, Matter, Church, State, 
 Revelation, Inspiratio7i, Knowledge, Belief, are tossed 
 about in the wars of words, as if everybody knew what they 
 meant ; and as if everybody used them exactly in the same 
 sense ; whereas most people, and particularly those who 
 represent public opinion, pick up these complicated terms as 
 ' Lectures, vol. ii. p. 573. 
 
46 The Philosophy of Language, 
 
 children, beginning with the vaguest conceptions, adding to 
 them from time to time, perhaps correcting, likewise at hap- 
 hazard, some of their involuntary errors, but never taking stock, 
 never either enquiring into the history of the terms which they 
 handle so freely, or realising the fulness of their meaning 
 according to the strict rules of logical definition. It has been 
 frequently said that most controversies are about words. This 
 is true ; but it implies much more than it seems to imply. 
 Verbal differences are not what they are sometimes supposed to 
 be — merely formal, outward, slight, accidental differences, that 
 might be removed by a simple explanation, or by a reference 
 to " Johnson's Dictionary." They are differences arising from 
 the more or less perfect, from the more or less full and 
 correct, conception attached to words : it is the mind that is 
 at fault, not the tongue merely. 
 
 ' Here ' (continues our author, after showiug by a num- 
 ber of well-chosen instances to what curious self-deceptions 
 reason is exposed through her own creations) ' a large field is 
 open to the student of language. It is his ofBce to trace 
 the original meaning of each word, to follow up its history, 
 its changes of form and meaning in the schools of philosophy, 
 or in the market-place and the senate. He ought to know 
 how frequently different ideas are comprehended under one 
 and the same term, and how frequently the same idea is ex- 
 pressed by different terms. ... A history of such terms as 
 to knoiv and to believe,, Finite and Injinite, Real and Neces- 
 sary,, would do more than anything else to clear the philoso- 
 phical atmosphere of our days.' ' 
 
 An historical criticism of language is alone able to 
 furnish an empirical criticism of human reason. The 
 fact that Max Miiller fully recognised the nature of 
 the task he proposed to himself, justified him in the 
 profound utterance which has hitherto been so little 
 
 ' Lectures, vol. ii. p. H21. 
 
speech and Reason. 47 
 
 understood : ' All future phifosopliy will be a philo- 
 sophy of language.' 
 
 This great truth, ripened in the consciousness of 
 the age, though first revealed in ftill to a single brain, 
 and first proclaimed by a single eloquent voice with 
 all the force of truth and conviction, still could not 
 appear suddenly in the world hke a creation out of 
 nothing. It is not an uncommon thing for two kindred 
 minds to give expression simultaneously to the same 
 thought without knowing of each other's existence. 
 The history of science contains more than one instance 
 of this kind, from the controversy about priority be- 
 tween Newton and Leibniz down to the interpretation 
 of hieroglyphs, from the discovery of oxygen to the 
 formula of the principle of the conservation of force, 
 about which such a dust has been raised of late, though 
 at last the credit of it has been rightly assigned to the 
 modest and illustrious thinker, Eobert Mayer, In the 
 same way, independently of Max MiiHer, the writer 
 already quoted, Lazarus Geiger, has expressed with 
 equal definiteness the essential point of future philo- 
 sophy — ' an empirical criticism of human reason 
 through the criticism of language,' while the mam 
 outhnes of the fixture edifice have been boldly traced in 
 his thoughtful and profound works. 
 
 But such a thought must have precursors as well ; 
 it flashes more or less distinctly across the works of all 
 those who are striving after the common goal, tiU at last 
 it breaks like a thunder cloud and clears the atmosphere 
 of the fogs and vapours of secular error and prejudices. 
 
48 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 Among these precursors of Miiller and Geiger, the 
 first place belongs to Theodor Waitz, whose writings 
 unfortunately were httle regarded and less esteemed 
 during his lifetime, when all minds were under the spell 
 of the Schelling-Hegelian phrase-mongering, and all 
 healthy thought was stifled. A few quotations will 
 suffice to show that the idea of a history of the develop- 
 ment of thought and reason had occurred to him. 
 
 ' In common with Kant ' (he says), ' I can only conceive 
 the task of philosophy as that of establishing a science which 
 should explain the foundations of experience. 
 
 'Neither criticism nor construction, nor any combined 
 application of the two, will lead to the desired goal ; 
 nothing can do this but a history of the development of 
 thought. 
 
 ' I have tried to found psychology upon unquestionable 
 physiological facts, in order that it, and philosophy in 
 general, might be made independent for the future of the 
 wrangling of philosophical schools, which turns upon vague 
 general notions as to which it is eas3'^ to dispute, because 
 every one may attach a different meaning to them, mitil a 
 preliminary history of development establishes the distinc- 
 tion between sound and unsuccessful attempts towards the 
 formation of concepts. Speculation, which does not reach a 
 ground of direct experience, is, and always will be, a subject 
 of dispute.' ' 
 
 In his lectm-es on psychology Waitz expresses 
 himself still more clearly ; he lays down that, ' the 
 fimction of psychology, in relation to other philosophic 
 studies, is that of foundation, for \hQ formation of our 
 ideas has a collective history^ upon which their sub- 
 
 ^ Grundleguvg der Psychologie. Preface. 
 
speech and Reason. 49 
 
 stance is dependent. They only become scientifically 
 serviceable when it appears that they are not merely 
 individual or accidental products of an unconscious 
 process, but the necessary results of development, the 
 products of laws of universal application, i.e. of laws 
 to which the cultivation of the inner hfe must be always 
 and entirely subject.' 
 
 Waitz was thus well aware of what was required ; 
 he was only uncertain as to the means by which the 
 goal was to be attained. With inexhaustible zeal he 
 turned first to physiology, then to comparative psycho- 
 logy, and lastly to anthropology, as a contribution to 
 which his epoch-making work, ' Die Anthropologic 
 der Naturvolker ' was compiled. 
 
 But he passed unsuspectingly by the richest, clearest, 
 most trustworthy source upon which the historian of 
 the development of human reason can draw. The 
 discovery of ' this source was reserved for Max Miiller 
 and L. Geiger. 
 
50 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MAX MtJLLER AND THE PEOBLEM OF THE ORIGIN OF 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 ' However paradoxical it may seem, I maintain that we 
 cannot possibly know individuals, or discover any means of 
 accm-ately determining the individuality of a particular 
 thing. 
 
 ' Greneral terms are not only influential in bringing lan- 
 guages to perfection, but also simply indispensable to their 
 existence. Continuous speech would be absolutely impossible 
 if there were only the proper names {nomina propria) of 
 individual things, and no general names (nomina appella- 
 tivay 
 
 In enunciating these weighty truths in his ' Nou- 
 veaiix Essais sur I'Entendement humain,' Leibniz threw 
 fresh hght upon the natiu-e of language and thought. 
 His precursor was Locke, who had declared that 'what 
 words serve to denote are general ideas.' 
 
 ' In this manner ' (continues Leibniz, speaking of the 
 formation and origin of general ideas), ' the whole doctrine 
 of genera and species — about which so much ado is made in 
 the schools, and which has so little influence outside them — 
 might be reduced wholly and solely to the formation of 
 abstract ideas of greater or less comprehensiveness to which 
 certain names are given.' 
 
The ProblcDi of the Origin of Language. 51 
 
 Are not these words still worthy of laying to 
 heart ? Do they not contain the great doctrine that, 
 before disputing about how the genera and species in 
 the world are constituted, we should first come to an 
 understanding as to what is meant by the words, and 
 how such conceptions arise in thought, or in our mind ? 
 But tills by the way. 
 
 If w^e look the problem of human language in the 
 face, we shall be surprised and dazzled by the same 
 marvel as in all the other creations of nature ; namely, 
 the vast and extravagant abundance and variety of 
 forms joined with the incredible simphcity and paucity 
 of the means. Who would believe, before his atten- 
 tion was called to it, that all human language has been 
 produced by the various combinations of an insignificant 
 number of sounds, and that all human thought is 
 inseparably bound up with this seemingly unpromising 
 instrument, and is accomplished solely tlirough this 
 simple, mechanical apparatus of articulate sound-pro- 
 duction ? 
 
 But, we have still to ask, what is the mental coun- 
 terpart to this mechanism, to the word considered as a 
 sound ? What is the idea, the meaning of the words ? 
 And how does it come to pass that particular ideas 
 come to be expressed by particular sounds and made 
 intelligible thereby ? Are they things of the outer 
 world, which are simply retained by phonetic signs, 
 and reproduced in the mind by their help, something 
 in the manner of Cicero's dictum : ' Vocabula sunt 
 not£e rerum,' a dictum which seemed to all antiquity, 
 
 E 2 
 
52 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 down to the age of Leibniz and Locke, to exhaust the 
 whole problem ? 
 
 If new hght is to be thrown upon the important and 
 obscure problem of the origin of language, these 
 questions must be submitted to renewed and serious 
 criticism. And the time seems to have arrived when 
 they must be more energetically and fruitfully at- 
 tacked if the magnificent results of comparative 
 jDhilology are not to remain a mere heap of scientific 
 material, but to prove a valuable possession for humanity 
 and contribute to decide the ultimate and supreme 
 questions of philosophy and anthropology. 
 
 The profound insight and philosophic temper of 
 Max Miiller is nowhere more evident than in his having 
 been the first among the students of language to dive 
 into these obscm*e abysses with the torch of empirical 
 knowledge, which he himself had been among the first 
 to kindle, in search of a satisfactory answer, such as is 
 to be found nowhere else, to the question what is the 
 origin of the human mind. 
 
 Miiller took as his starting-point the view of Locke, 
 quoted above, respecting the natiu-e and essence of 
 human speech. He quotes the words of the great 
 Enghsh thinker, who, after having shown how imiversal 
 ideas arise, how the mind, after having observed the 
 same colour in chalk, in snow, and in milk, compre- 
 hends these several perceptions under the general idea 
 of white, thus continues : — 
 
 ' This I may be positive in, that the power of abstraction 
 is not at all in brutes, so that the having of general ideas is 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Language. 53 
 
 that which puts a perfect distinction between man and 
 brutes. For it is evident we observe no footsteps in these of 
 making- use of general signs for universal ideas ; from which 
 we have reason to imagine that they have not the faculty of 
 abstracting or making general ideas, since they have no use 
 of words., or any other general signs.' ' 
 
 This power of abstraction, or having general ideas, 
 Max Miiller continues, is reahsed by means of language 
 and language only, which is the exclusive property of 
 mankind, in virtue of its humanity. That which is 
 language seen from without is reason seen from within. 
 It is the obvious mark of distinction between man and 
 beast. The origin of human development can there- 
 fore only be elucidated by the discovery of the origin 
 of language. And if we ask what new contributions 
 have been brought to light from the materials hitherto 
 examined by comparative philology, in aid of this 
 enquiry, 
 
 ' The result,' says our author, ' if we look back on our former 
 lectures, is this. After we had explained everything in the 
 growth of language that can be explained, there remained 
 in the end, as the only inexplicable residuum, what we called 
 foots. These roots formed the constituent elements of all 
 languages. This discovery has simplified the problem of 
 the origin of language immensely. It has taken away all 
 excuse for those rapturous descriptions of language which 
 invariably preceded the argument that language must have 
 a divine origin. We shall hear no more of that wonderful 
 instrument which can express all we see, and hear, and taste, 
 and touch, and smell ; which is the breathing image of the 
 whole world ; which gives form to the airy feelings of our 
 souls, and body to the loftiest dreams of our imagination ; 
 ' Lectures on the Science of Lanyuarje, vol. i. p. 405. 
 
54 The Philosophy of Langtmge. 
 
 which can arrange in accurate perspective the past, the pre- 
 sent, and the future, and throw over everything the varying 
 hues of certainty, of doubt, of contingency. All this is per- 
 fectly true, but it is no longer wonderful, at least not in the 
 Arabian Night's sense of that word. " The speculative 
 mind," as Dr. Ferguson says, " in comparing the first and 
 last steps of the progress of language, feels the same sort of 
 amazement with a traveller, who, after rising insensibly on 
 the slope of a hill, comes to look from a precipice of an al- 
 most unfathomable depth to the summit of which he scarcely 
 believes himself to have ascended without supernatural aid." 
 To certain minds it is a disappointment to be led down again 
 by the hand of history from that high summit. They prefer 
 the unintelligible which they can admire, to the intelligible 
 which they can only understand. But to a mature mind 
 reality is more wonderful than complication. Eoots may 
 seem dry things as compared with the poetry of Goethe. 
 Yet there is something more truly wonderful in a root than 
 in all the lyrics of the world. 
 
 ' What, then, are these roots ? In our modern languages 
 roots can only be discovered by scientific analysis, and, even 
 as far back as Sanskrit, we may say that no root was ever 
 used as a noun or as a verb. But originally roots were thus 
 used, and in Chinese we have fortunately preserved to us a 
 representative of that primitive radical stage which, like the 
 granite, underlies all other strata of human speech. Eoots, 
 therefore, are not, as is commonly maintained, merely scien- 
 tific abstractions, but they were used originally as real words. 
 
 ' What we want to find out is this. What inward mxental 
 phase is it that corresponds to these roots, as the germs of 
 human speech ? ' 
 
 How much fresh and vivid truth in a simple form ! 
 How much to instruct and stimulate philosophic 
 thought — but alas, for the majority of the philosophers 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Langicage. 55 
 
 of to-day only the voice of one crjdng in the wilderness ! 
 The problem of the origin of language is brought into 
 a simple and concrete shape, and a narrow path pointed 
 out which, even though its coiu-se lie through dim and 
 tangled thickets, cannot fail to lead us to the goal at 
 last. Seek the origin of these roots, of the residuum 
 left in the crucible of the analyst ; comparative phi- 
 lology will show you the development of linguistic 
 life out of the germ-cell. Omne vivum ex ovo ; and the 
 ova which the physiology of languages has discovered 
 in its empirical researches are roots. By their develop- 
 ment and uninterrupted growth all the kno^vn languages 
 of the world have reached their marvellous stature, 
 and become the body of reason and the instrument of 
 mind. By the help of these roots and their intellectual 
 equivalent man has taken spiritual possession of the 
 whole creation, as he, at the same moment, cast it in 
 their mould and stamped it with their impress. 
 
 But once more, whence these roots ? How were 
 they formed? How made into a lasting jDossession? 
 How did they receive their significance ? When Max 
 MUUer's Lectures were delivered, two theories were 
 chiefly in vogue among students of the theory of 
 language, both of which he has the merit of having 
 driven out of the temple of philological science. 
 
 These two theories, however, rested upon one 
 common, general, and widely-spread error, an error so 
 natural as to be readily excusable. As language 
 expresses everything by sounds, the first thing seemed 
 to be to discover the causal connection which was 
 
56 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 assumed to exist between the soimd and its meaning, 
 at least in the case of elementary sounds or roots. 
 
 The theory of onomatopoeia, or the imitation of 
 natural sounds, had always been a favoiu-ite with the 
 philologist of ancient and modern times, and it was 
 this to which Max Miiller gave the name of the ' Bow- 
 wow theory.' ' As any process in the external world,' 
 observes Geiger, ' is only comparable with a word in 
 so far as it is itself audible, and indeed only entirely 
 comparable with a word of similar sound to its own, 
 it is intelligible that this hy]3othesis should have been 
 regarded as especially luminous and attractive.' 
 
 Even the divine Plato^ in his incomparable dialogue 
 the ' Kratylos,' had referred to the possibility of such 
 an origin for languages, though he immediately adds, 
 with deeper insight : ' To imitate the voices of animals is 
 by no means tlie same thing as to name them.' Leibniz 
 also wished to have the imitation of sounds recognised 
 as a fruitful source of verbal roots, especially with 
 reference to the voices of animals. 
 
 ' To this number belongs the Latin word coaxare ; which 
 is used of frogs, and answers to the Grerman quaken. The 
 cries and noise of these animals seem to have furnished the 
 origin of a number of other German words. Because of the 
 noise made ' y frogs the word is applied nowadays to the 
 empty tall md chatter of those who are called in the 
 diminutive %ackeler. As, however, the cry or sound of an 
 animal is a sign of life, by which the presence of a living 
 animal is recognised without its being seen, the old German 
 word queck (English " quick ") is also derived from the same 
 source; other still surviving traces of it are met with in 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Langttage. 57 
 
 guic^-silver, in the G-erman erquicken, to strengthen or 
 refresh ; while the weed that no efforts are able to extirpate 
 from the field is called Quecke or quick-gvass.' ^ 
 
 It is hardly necessary to observe that these com- 
 parisons are untenable in substance. 
 
 Herder embraced the same view ; he held that the 
 observant human mind adopted the cries of animals as 
 signs. Men said to the sheep, ' Thou art the bleater,' 
 and proceeded to associate the cry of the animal with 
 the idea of it. W. von Humboldt too, in his suggestive 
 work, ' Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen 
 Sprachbaus,' assumes the imitation of natural sounds to 
 have been at least an important factor in the origin of 
 language, though he was not blind to the difficulties 
 and inadequacy of an hypothesis which would turn 
 human language into a concert of animal cries : — 
 
 ' This representation is in a way pictorial ; as an image 
 represents the way in which an object appears to the eye, 
 language represents the way in which it is perceived by the 
 ear. As the imitation here has always to deal with inarti- 
 culate tones, there is a constant struggle between articulation 
 and this kind of representation, and according to the result 
 of the contest the inarticulate element predominates so as 
 hardly to deserve the name of language, or disappears so far 
 as to be um-ecognisable For this reason it cannot be denied 
 that there is a degree of rudeness about an language in 
 which this element is conspicuous ; it is feeble hen there is 
 a free and vigorous linguistic feeling, and it tc is gradually 
 to disappear with the progressive development and refinement 
 of language.' 
 
 ' Xouveaux Essais, liv. iii. chap. 3. 
 
58 The P hilosophy of Language. 
 
 This theory, however plausible and seductive it may 
 seem at first sight, is directly opposed to the facts of 
 any language yet examined. This truth was clearly 
 and resolutely maintained by Max Miiller, until at 
 length there was an end of these recurring attempts to 
 find the origin of language in a source which, on 
 approaching, proves to be a mirage in the desert sand. 
 
 * Our answer is,' he says,^ ' that though there are names 
 in every language formed by mere imitation of sound, yet 
 these constitute a very small proportion of our dictionary. 
 They are the jplaythings, not the tools., of language, and any 
 attempt to reduce the most common and necessary words to 
 imitative roots ends in complete failure. . . . We cannot 
 deny the possibility that a language might have been formed 
 on the principle of imitation ; all we say is that as yet no 
 language has been discovered that was so formed. . . . There 
 are of course some names, such as cuckoo, which are clearly 
 formed by an imitation of sound. Bat words of this kind are, 
 like artificial flowers, without a root. They are sterile, and 
 are unfit to express anything beyond the one object which 
 they imitate. ... As the word cuckoo predicates nothing 
 but the sound of a 'particular bird, it could never be applied 
 for expressing any general quality in which other animals 
 might share. . . . Cuckoo could never mean anything but 
 the cuckoo, and while a word like raven has ever so many 
 relations, from a rumour down to a row, cuckoo stands by 
 itself like a stick in a living hedge. . . . Many more instances 
 might be given to show how easily we are deceived by the 
 constant connection of certain sounds and certain meanings 
 in our own languages. . . . Most of these onomatopoeias 
 vanish (as in the case of thunder, katze, squirrel, &.c.) as 
 soon as we trace our own names back to Anglo-Saxon and 
 Gothic, or compare them with their cognates in Greek, Latin, 
 or Sanskrit. The number of names which are really formed 
 
 ' Lectures on the Science of Lnnt/uage, vol. i. p. 400. 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Language. 59 
 
 by an imitation of sound dwindle down to a very small 
 quotum, if cross-examined by the comparative philologist, 
 and we are left in the end with a conviction, that though a 
 language might have been made out of the roaring, fizzing, 
 hissing, gobbling, twittering, cracking, banging, slamming, 
 and rattling sounds of nature, the tongues with which we are 
 acquainted point to a different origin.' 
 
 The second theory, which also has numbered dis- 
 tinguished representatives, deduced language from the 
 natural cries expressive of human feeling, following in 
 this the precedent of Epicurus, and among the moderns, 
 of De Brasses ^ and Condillac. This view, which re- 
 garded the cries of joy and pain as the starting-point 
 of human language, was aptly characterised by Max 
 Miiller as the ' Pooh-pooh ! ' or interjectional theory. 
 
 The conclusions of comparative philology were as 
 fatal to this theory as to the preceding one. To quote 
 again from Max Miiller : ^ 
 
 ' There are, no doubt, in every language interjections, and 
 some of them may become traditional, and enter into the 
 composition of words. But these interjections are only the 
 outskirts of real language. Language begins where interjec- 
 tions end. There is as much difference between a real word, 
 
 ' Traite de la Formation mccanique des Lanr/ues, 1756. As lliis theory, 
 in spite of its complete refutation by Max Miiller, still possesses numerous 
 adherents among naturalists, it may be mentioned, to save them from 
 needless exercise of their imaginative powers, that this ingenious work 
 contains everything in the semblance of reason which it is possible to put 
 together upon an absurd foundation. They may read there how the 
 lif.era canina, r, betokens what is disagreeable ; how the tone of pain is 
 deep, oh, heu, helas ; that of surprise higher, oh, ah ; of joy short and re- 
 curring, ha, ha ha, he, he, he ; of displeasure and contempt labial, _^, v(B, 
 puh, pfui; that of doubt and negation nasal, hum, ham, non, ^-c; and that 
 all the most necessary words are derived from these sources. 
 
 ^ Lectures on, the Science of Language, vol. i. p. 420. 
 
6o The Philosophy of Language: 
 
 such as " to laug-h," and the interjection ha, ha I between " I 
 suffer " and oh ! as there is between the involuntary act and 
 noise of sneezing and the verb " to sneeze." We sneeze and 
 cough, and scream and laugh, in the same manner as 
 animals ; but if Epicurus tells us that we speak in the same 
 manner as dogs bark, moved by nature, our own experience 
 will tell us that this is not the case. 
 
 ' An excellent answer to the interjectional theory has been 
 given by Home Tooke, 
 
 ' " The dominion of speech," he says, " is erected upon the 
 downfall of interjections. Without the artful contrivances of 
 language, mankind would have had nothing but interjections 
 with which to communicate, orally, any of their feelings. 
 The neighing of a horse, the lowing of a cow, the barking of 
 a dog, the purring of a cat, sneezing, coughing, groaaing, 
 shrieking, and every other involuntary convulsion with oral 
 sound, have almost as good a title to be called parts of speech 
 as interjections have. Voluntary interjections are only em- 
 ployed where the suddenness and vehemence of some affection 
 or passion returns men to their natural state, and makes 
 them for a moment forget the use of speech ; or when, from 
 some circumstance, the shortness of time will not permit 
 them to exercise it." 
 
 ' One short interjection may be more powerful, more to the 
 point, more eloquent than a long speech. In fact, interjections, 
 together with gestures, the movements of the muscles of the 
 mouth and the eye, would be quite sufficient for all purposes 
 which language answers with the majority of mankind. 
 
 ' As to the attempts at deriving some of our words etymo- 
 logically from mere interjections, they are apt to fail from 
 the same kind of misconception which leads us to imagine 
 that there is something expressive in the sounds of words.' 
 
 Both theories, alike the Bow-wow and the Pooh- 
 pooh theory, were finally demohshed by the same 
 philosophical reflection, the germ of which is contained 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Language, 6i 
 
 in the words of Leibniz cited at the beginning of this 
 chapter : ^ 
 
 ' If the constituent elements of human speech were either 
 mere cries or the mimicking of the cries of nature, it would 
 be difficult to understand why brutes should be without 
 language. There is not only the parrot, but tbe mocking- 
 bird and others, which can imitate most successfully both arti- 
 culate and inarticulate sounds ; and there is hardly an animal 
 without the faculty of uttering interjections, such as huff, hiss, 
 baa, &c. It is clear also that if what puts a perfect distinc- 
 tion betwixt man and brutes is the having of general ideas, 
 language, whi(;h arises from interjections and from the imita- 
 tion of the cries of animals, could not claim to be the outward 
 sign of that distinctive faculty of man. All words, in begin- 
 ning at least (and this is the only point which interests us), 
 would have been the signs of individual impressions and 
 individual perceptions, and would only gradually have been 
 adapted to the expression of general ideas. The theory 
 which is suggested to us by an analysis of language, cairied 
 out according to the principles of comparative philology, is 
 the very opposite. We arrive in the end at roots, and every 
 one of these expresses a general, not an individual, idea. 
 Every name, if we analyse it, contains a predicate by whieli 
 the object to which the name applies was known.' 
 
 In other words, it is not an account of the essence 
 of language to say that a definite external object 
 elicits a particular sound or cry from a sensitive, per- 
 ceptive being — a view corresponding to Steinthal's 
 theory of reflex-sounds : the essence of language lies 
 in the fact that the sound serves to say something, 
 that with the saying something is thought, and that 
 something is predicated of the object thought and spoken 
 about. 
 
 ' Lectures on the Science of Lamjunije, vol. i. p. 424. 
 
62 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 And in reference to tliis Max Mliller enunciates a 
 truth of incalculable importance, which will procure 
 him the epithet, with the judicious, of ' the Darwin of 
 the mind : ' for he puts forward, as an unquestionable 
 result of philological enquiry, the filiation of ideas which 
 is met with uninterruptedly in continuous develop- 
 ment. 
 
 ' Never,' be observes, ' in the history of language, so far as 
 we are able to trace the course of its development, do we find 
 an object or an idea associate itself all at once with a sound, 
 for no apparent reason, as if by a kind of generatio OGquivoca. 
 The object exists only by the idea which we have of it, and 
 to our consciousness the idea itself only exists by means of 
 the sound which is the body, the symbol, so to speak, of the 
 thought.' 
 
 Exactly the same results have been reached by 
 Geiger ; and to afford still further confirmation of Max 
 Miiller's view, I may quote some of the most important 
 passages of his ' Ursprung der Sprache : ' 
 
 ' In the nature of the mind, as in that of the body, there 
 is no saltus ; the one is developed out of as minute elements 
 as the other. 
 
 ' Slow development, differentiation of opposites from im- 
 perceptible variations, is historically the only cause of 
 changes, on the one hand, in the meaning given to a word, 
 and, on the other, in the meaning attached to the notion desig- 
 nated. ... I have not succeeded in discovering any point at 
 which a conception appears that cannot he traced to some 
 otJier conception, and for which, therefore, the mind would 
 be compelled to seek a sign outside, e.g. in a noise, nor yet 
 any new impression giving occasion to a new vocal move- 
 ment.' 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Language. 63 
 
 Geiger rests his view, as appears from these words, 
 upoa the favourite idea of Leibniz — natura non facit 
 saltum ; that, on the contrary, all changes are effected 
 rather as transitions to the infinitely little — a thought 
 which, as Leibniz expressly notes, involves the question 
 as to the interval between man and beast, which, how- 
 ever remote and inconceivable its existence, still must 
 have been lived through, and which it is the especial 
 object of the science of language and pliilosophy to 
 reconstruct by their joint efforts as they try to reopen 
 the choked-up source of the origin of speech. 
 
 The capital idea of the filiation or genealogical 
 connection of all human conceptions had certainly 
 presented itself to the versatile mind of the great 
 Leibniz, though not with the clearness possible to later 
 students with a more abundant supply of scientific 
 material. Indeed, there is scarcely any thought which 
 agitates the minds of the present day but may be found 
 in the germ in the writings of Leibniz. Take, as an 
 example, his refutation of the Lockian doctrine that all 
 ideas have their roots in sensations and are derived from 
 thence : 
 
 ' Have you already forgotten, dear Philalethes, that our 
 ideas reside originally in the soid, and that all thoughts pro- 
 ceed originally from that original base, without any other 
 creature being able to exercise any direct influence upon the 
 soul ? ' ' 
 
 If this idea is sound — and all philological observation 
 and research confirms and advocates it, and indeed 
 
 ' A^ouvefiii.v J^ssrn's, iv. chap. 4. 
 
64 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 could only become possible as a science by assuming its 
 truth — then a foundation of inestimable solidity has 
 been secured for fiurther investigation, and the problem 
 of the origin of language, which has hitherto hovered 
 before us in the remote haze of distance, is brought at 
 once within the attainable, clearly circumscribed boun- 
 dary of the horizon. 
 
 The inferences which Max Miiller deduced from 
 this important elementary truth are, in their main 
 features, somewhat as follows : 
 
 1. The sounds of language are at all times and 
 everywhere significant. It is in virtue of this quality 
 alone that they form a part of speech. The interjec- 
 tional and imitative theories are herewith condemned. 
 
 2. Nothing in language is dead that has not once 
 been alive. This explains and sets aside the apparent ex- 
 ceptions presented by inflection-terminations, infixes, 
 affixes, and the whole formal apparatus of language. 
 The word fimchthar could not be formed unless the 
 second syllable had a meaning, and though that meaning 
 is lost to the feeling of contemporary speech, science 
 shows us that it originally meant fruit-bearing. 
 
 3. Language passed from the simplest beginnings — 
 monosyllabic, primary roots — first to secondary and 
 tertiary roots, and then, through the luxuriant abun- 
 dance of forms belonging to the polysynthetic or agglu- 
 tinative stage, to the clearness and precision, to the 
 wonderful richness of thought and expression belonging 
 to modern and inflected languages. The cradle of 
 speech is the goal of the science of language. 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Language. 65 
 
 4. The mental counterpart of roots are certain fixed 
 rational elements, nearly all of the nature o^ predicates, 
 though a few, the pronominal class, are demonstrative. 
 And as the roots, considered as sounds, are phonetic 
 types, so their rational counterparts in the mind are 
 rational types ; those are phonetical types, these con- 
 ceptual types, or rational concepts. These, we repeat, 
 are the fixed forms or norms with which language — 
 that is to say, rational thought — has stamped as its own 
 the whole of creation. 
 
 5. The original mental content of the roots, their 
 earliest meanings, so far as comparative philology can 
 trace them, prove to have been only sensible perceptions 
 or impressions. 
 
 As the last paragraph contains the boundary to 
 which Max Miiller has led his troops, and where he has 
 left them encamped in view of the impregnable fortress, 
 some fm-ther discussion must be allowed me here. For 
 Max Miiller himself ventured on an attack from this 
 point, which could not but end in failure since tliis last 
 proposition, though true as far as it goes, is not the 
 whole truth. 
 
 His words are : 
 
 ' All roots, i.e. all the material elements of language, are 
 expressive of sensuous im-pressions, and of sensuous im- 
 pressions only.' ' 
 
 ' The only definition we can give of language during that 
 early state is, that it is the conscious expression in sound of 
 tTupressions received by all the senses.^ ^ 
 
 ^ Lectures on the Science of Language, 0th edit. ii. p. 372. 
 ^ Chijis from n German Wo7'kshop, ii, p. 54. 
 F 
 
66 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 I said that, starting from this position, Max Muller 
 has hazarded an onslaught upon the mysterious fortress 
 which hides the origin of reason and language from the 
 eyes of mortals. The theory which he advances in 
 conformity with this leading principle is as follows : ^ 
 
 ' There is a law which runs through nearly the whole of 
 nature that everything which is struck rings. Each sub- 
 stance has its peculiar ring. We can tell the more or less 
 perfect structure of metals by their vibrations, by the answer 
 which they give. Grold rings differently from tin, wood 
 rings differently from stone ; and different sounds are pro- 
 duced according to the nature of each percussion. It was 
 the same with man, the most highly organised of nature's 
 works. Man, in his primitive and perfect state, was not only 
 endowed, like the brute, with the power of expressing his 
 sensations by interjections, and his perceptions by onoma- 
 topoeia, he possessed likewise the faculty of giving more 
 articulate expression to the rational conceptions of his mind. 
 That faculty was not of his own making. It was an instinct, 
 an instinct of the mind, as irresistible as any other instinct. 
 So far as language is the production of that instinct, it 
 belongs to the realm of nature. Man loses his instincts as 
 he ceases to want them. His senses become fainter when, as 
 in the case of scent, they become useless. Thus the creative 
 faculty which gave to each conception, as it thrilled for the 
 first time through the brain, a phonetic expression, became 
 extinct when its object was fulfilled. The number of these 
 phonetic types must have been almost infinite in the begin- 
 ning, and it was only through the same process of natural 
 elimination which we observed in the early history of words, 
 
 1 Lectures, vol. i. p. 440. It should be remembered here that Professor 
 Max Muller himself was never fully satisfied with this approximation to 
 Hej'se's theory, but regarded it rather in the light of a makeshift, and 
 indeed in his lectures upon Darwiu's philosophy of language has pursued 
 the search for some other issuR. 
 
The Problem of the Oi^igiu of Language. 67 
 
 that clusters of roots, more or less syuonymous, were gradually 
 reduced to one definite^ type. Instead of deriving language 
 from nine roots, like Dr. Murray, or from one root, we must 
 suppose that the first settlement of the radical elements of 
 language was preceded by a period of unrestrained growth — 
 the spring of speech — to be followed by many an autumn." 
 
 I believe it will be in accordance with the purpose 
 of the present essay if I mention here those (compara- 
 tively few) points on which Geiger separates himself 
 from Max Muller, and enters upon what I venture to 
 regard as a truer and more direct course towards the 
 desired goal. These two points are : 
 
 1. A more consistent adherence to the vital princi- 
 ple that language is only able to develope or derive 
 ideas from ideas. Geiger observes, with special refer- 
 ence to Max Mliller's hypothesis : 
 
 * The assumption of a now exhausted power of linguistic 
 creation, and the kindred one of a perfect condition for 
 primaeval man, is a resort to the incomprehensible, and not 
 far removed from a confession that it will abvays in the 
 nature of things be impossible for us to discover the true 
 sense of primitive roots, or to explain the process of the 
 formation of language.' 
 
 Geiger himself remains faithful to the principle that 
 the process must have been the same at the origin as 
 in all subsequent development of language, only 
 indefinitely slower in operation. Accordingly he does 
 not assume a number of vocal sounds with correspond- 
 ing ideas to have existed in the beginning, but a single 
 sound., excited by one definite idea. 
 
68 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 ' The key to the meaning of a word lies only in a pre- 
 ceding one. ... The mass of meanings really contained in 
 existing words converge at last to a single centre, but this 
 can lie nowhere except in the first origin of language itself. 
 . . . Why is it that words begin by meaning so little and in 
 general mean less and less the further back we trace them ? 
 I can give no other answer than this : Because in the begin- 
 ning the sum of man's perception was not greater. ' ' 
 
 2. Max MUller treats the ' impressions received 
 by all the senses ' as a source of the first workings of 
 language, while Geiger allows tliis to hold good only 
 of perceptions derived from the sense of sight. 
 
 ' A conviction which has forced itself irresistibly on my 
 mind, after consideration of all the linguistic material I have 
 })een able to obtain, is that the perception to the growth of 
 which language bears witness in mankind is that which takes 
 place through the sensation of sight. . . . The most essential 
 characteristic of man is his power of distinguishing, and his 
 interest in the distinction of, objects by visual perception.' ^ 
 
 But in spite of these new and undeniably fruitful 
 explanations, it was not reserved for Geiger to reach 
 the final goal, as he hoped, and indeed, as appears 
 from some indications, beheved himself to have done. 
 Comparative philology could not accomphsh this by 
 its own unaided methods ; it was necessary for philo- 
 sophy, the science of mind, to approach the problem 
 simultaneously from another side, and then only the 
 victorious advance could be made by the alhed troops 
 under the supreme command of pliilosophic thought. 
 
 After reading my book, ' On the Origin of Language,' 
 
 ' Unsprung der Sprache, p. l^^O. ' lb. p. 142. 
 
Tlie Problem of t lie Origin of Language. 69 
 
 Max Mtiller wrote to me, and while acknowledging the 
 progress made, continued : 
 
 ' Now I come to my difficulties. The real problem seems 
 to me to lie in the origin of thought, or, to put it briefly, in 
 the transition from perception to conception. Explain to me 
 how man becomes able to conceive " two," and you will have 
 explained to me the origin of language.' 
 
 This is both true and profound. It is altogether 
 impossible to pass from perception, that is to say, from 
 a purely sensuous impression, to thought, just as it is 
 impossible to derive mind from matter in motion. 
 Cosmic evolution can only be conceived by assuming 
 feeling, the origin of reason can only be reached by 
 assuming conception. 
 
 Thus while all preceding writers on the philosophy 
 of language, Max Muller and Geiger included, have 
 followed the universal tradition in deriving language 
 and thought from the passive element of perception, 
 I have entered upon the opposite course, and affirmed : 
 
 ' Language is the child of will, of an active, not of a 
 passive state ; the roots of words contain the proper activity 
 of men, and receive their significance from the effects of this 
 activity in so far as it is phenomenal, i.e. visible. Human 
 thought arises from a double root, the subjective activity, or 
 the will, and the objective phenomenon which is accessible to 
 the senses.' 
 
 Max Muller has since expressed his full assent to this 
 view. 
 
 The task upon which philosophy and comparative 
 philology are engaged is one of supreme importance. 
 
7*^ The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 though only duly understood and estimated by the 
 more intelhgent few. The work is nothing less than 
 to renew, to reconstruct, and complete on an empirical 
 base the gigantic work done by Kant, to fathom and 
 interpret the origin and growth of that supreme 
 miracle of creation, the human reason. Such a task 
 is far higher in importance even than theories of 
 the rise and fall of planetary systems.^ 
 
 ^ If this assertion seems too bold, I will quote an unimpeachable wit- 
 ness to its truth. Buckle, to my thinking the most pronounced and 
 logical of modern determinists, i.e. of the philosophical school which 
 recognises everywhere only an iron system of natural laws, even Buckle 
 found himself compelled to make the following admissions, which from 
 Ms point of view are certainly not a little remarkable. ' The highest of 
 our so-called laws of nature are as yet purely empirical. You are 
 startled at that assertion ; but it is literally true. Not one physical dis- 
 covery that has ever been made has been connected with the laws of the 
 mind that made it ; and until that connection is ascertained, our know- 
 ledge has no sure basis. On the one side we havemmfZ; on the other 
 side we have matter. These two principles are so interwoven, they so 
 act upon and perturb each other, that we shall never really know the laws 
 of the one, unless we also know the laws of both. Everything is essential ; 
 everything hangs together and forms part of one single scheme, one grand 
 and complex plan, of which the universe is the theatre. They who dis- 
 course to you of the laws of nature, as if those laws were binding on 
 nature, or as if they formed part of nature, deceive both you and them- 
 selves. The laws of natm-e have their sole seat, origin, and function in 
 the human mind.' (A. Buckle : The Influence of Women on the Proffress 
 of Knowledge. — Lecture delivered 1858.) And to discover the laws of 
 this mind in its essential function, thought, is the lofty aim of the science 
 of language. For the rest these words of Buckle point unmistakably 
 to a very welcome fact, which is accomplishing itself in the consciousness 
 of the »ge, namely, that the reign of materialism is drawing to its close, 
 and that a higher, nobler, and more worthy theory of the universe will 
 take its place. Every indication seems to promise that the great syn- 
 thesis which has been from all times the supreme goal of philosophy 
 will accomplish itself, even before the close of the century. 1 may quote 
 in proof of this another passage, from a recently published article in the 
 Revue des Deux Mondes upon the doctrines of Epicurus : ' Epicure est le 
 premier dans I'antiquite qui ait m€ resolument ce qui ^tait hors des 
 
The Problem of the Origin of Language. 7 1 
 
 And when the sohition has been uttered, in accor- 
 dance with the conviction so confidently expressed by- 
 Max MUUer, and fully shared by the present writer, all 
 future philosophy will be exclusively the philosophy 
 of language. 
 
 prises directes et de la portee des sens. A ce titre, il pent etre considere 
 comme I'expression confuse et inconsciente du positivisme qui declare 
 qu'il n'y a pas d'objet pour I'esprit humain en dehors des lois de la nature. 
 II a le premier creuse le fosse qui s'elargit tous les jours et qui separe la 
 m^tapliysique de la science de la nature Pour les esprits speculatifs les 
 questions d'origine et de fin sont les plus importantes de toutes, celles 
 Huxquelles tout le reste se rapporte; pour les autres il n'y a qu'une seule 
 etude, celie des phenomenes et de leur dependance reciproque. , . ., de- 
 mandant seulement a la nature morte les secrets qu'elle lui revele pour 
 eclairer le jeu et les ressorts de I'organisme vivant. Cette separation date 
 d'Epicure : si une telle gloire a ete reservee a celui qui a divise I'esprit 
 humain en deux parties presque irrecouciliaLles, quelle gloire n'attend pas 
 celui qui fera cesser ce divorce et qui, pa?- la mefaphysique et la physique 
 7-econciliees dans une juste mesure d'independance et de services reci- 
 proques, reconstruira Vunite scientifique de Vesprit huvuiin. — (E. Oaro: 
 Eevue des Deux Mondes, Nov. 1878, p. 112). 
 
72 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MY OWN THEORY ON THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Although it is not the primary object of the present 
 pages, the reader will perhaps not take it amiss if I 
 venture to indicate briefly what is the solution of the 
 problem suggested in my own work 'Der Ursprung 
 der Sprache.' Ibeheve the best way of doing this will 
 be to take the concluding words of the first series of 
 Max Miiller's ' Lectures on the Science of Language,' 
 which contain the last results of his varied and profound 
 investigation into what he so strikingly calls ' the body 
 of human thought,' and which he recommended to the 
 attention of philosophic students as a starting-point 
 for further inferences. 
 
 The reader will see from his own words how near 
 he was to the real solution, and may indeed wonder 
 how it was that he failed to force the last barrier 
 which divided him from the mysterious birthplace of 
 human thought, and to bring it into the full light of a 
 satisfying and self-supporting explanation. 
 
 As we have already seen, one of Max Miiller's 
 chief merits is the emphatic and consistent opposition 
 and successful resistance which he offers to the ancient 
 and inveterate error, that things as such naturally 
 
My own TJicory on the Origin of Language. 73 
 
 connect themselves in the human mind with sounds, 
 which then, in some inexplicable way, turn into names, 
 or audible tokens of the things.^ 
 
 This error is the harder to exterminate,'^ as it rests 
 upon an immovable conviction that the objective world, 
 the world of things, which we perceive with our 
 external senses, supphes the primary and indispensable, 
 because the most natural, material for human know- 
 ledge, and therefore also contributes chiefly to the for- 
 mation of human language ; that, accordingly, people 
 talked about the bright shy before they talked about a 
 bright intelligence, of breath before life, of blows before 
 
 ' ' Vocabula sunt notce rerum ' bad been said as long ago as by Cicero, 
 and Herder cbose tbis dictum for tbe motto to bis epocb-maJdng essay, 
 On the Oriffin of Language. 
 
 ^ How deeply rooted tbis error is, appears from tbe fact tbat an other- 
 wise meritorious pbilologist like M. Breal relapses into it again and again, 
 notwithstanding Max Miiller's conclusive refutation. Tbus, in connection 
 with the root hkar he raises the question : * Designait-il le porteur d'un 
 fardeau, ou \%fardeau lui-meme . . . . ou V enfant que la mere porte dans 
 son sein ? ' And again : ' II n'est pas vraisemblable que dans la periode 
 monosyllabique il n'y eut pas encore de termes pour designer le soleil, le 
 tonnerre, X^Jiamme. Mais du moment que ces mots sont entres en con- 
 tact avec les elements prouominaux, pour former les verbes, leur sens est 
 devenu plus fluide, et ils se sont resolus en racines siguitiant briller, re- 
 tentir, bruler.' (M. Breal : Les Haeines des Langues Indo-LJuropeennes, 
 p. 3, 4.) Tbis is indeed inverting tbe order of things, and planting a tree 
 with its leader in tbe ground, tbat tbe roots may grow upwards. The 
 remark on p. 6, that tbe root sarp points to tbe name of a reptile, and 
 tbat the names of tbe parts of tbe body, pad foot, was nose, dant tooth, 
 cat-d heart — all corresponding to tbe simplest ideas — must have existed 
 before the verbal roots to which they are related, calls to mind Pott's 
 jest and tbe remark appended to it by Cm-tius {CIriech. Etym. p. 108), 
 ' Pott gives as a ludicrous example of this method of proceeding, tbat the 
 root gen, drawn out of genu, should have tbe signification " to be a cheek" ; 
 and, indeed, if we bad to translate tbe root as, which Leo Mayer extracts 
 from asinus, the only meaning that could be proposed for it would be in- 
 deed " to be an ass." ' 
 
74 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 punishment., as the image must be known and named 
 before the imagination. It is an undoubted truth, 
 which philosophy and philology agree in admitting, 
 that speech and language arrive far later at the point 
 of designating mental qualities than sensible objects.^ 
 But it is one thing to maintain that these objects were 
 the first material, the earliest objects of human thought 
 and speech, and quite another thing to profess to 
 answer the question how they first came to be known 
 and named. 
 
 Let us hear Max Miiller speak himself now : ^ 
 
 ' There is a petrified philosophy in language, and if we 
 examine the most ancient word for naTYie, we find it ndman 
 in Sanskrit, nomen in Latin, namo in Grothic. This ndman 
 stands for gndman, and is derived from the root gnd, to 
 know, and meant originally that by which we know a thing. 
 
 'And how do we know things? 
 
 ' The first step towards the real knowledge, a step, which, 
 however small in appearance, separates man for ever from all 
 other animals, is the naming of a thing, or the making a 
 thing knowable. All naming is classification, bringing the 
 individual under the general ; and whatever we know, whether 
 empirically or scientifically, we know it only by means of our 
 general ideas. 
 
 ' ' Thus the fact that all words expressive of immaterial concepts are 
 derived from words expressive of sensible ideas was for the first time 
 clearly and definitely put forward by Locke, and is now fully confirmed 
 by the researches of comparative philologists. All roots, i.e. aU the 
 material elements of language, are expressive of sensuous impressions ; 
 and as all words, even the most abstract and sublime, are derived from 
 roots, comparative philology fully endorses the conclusions arrived at by 
 Locke.' — Max Miiller : Lectures on the Science of Language, vol. ii. p, 
 372. 
 
 * Max Miiller : Lectures on the Science of Language, i. p. 432, sq. 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Langnage. 75 
 
 ' At the very point where man parts company with the 
 brute world, at the very first flash of reason as the manifesta- 
 tion of the light within us, there we see the true genesis of 
 language. Analyse any word you like, and you will find 
 that it expresses a general idea peculiar to the individual to 
 which the name belongs. 
 
 ' What is the meaning of moon ? The measurer. 
 
 * What is the meaning of sun ? The begetter. 
 
 ' What is the meaning of earth ? The ploughed. 
 
 ' If the serpent is called in Sanskrit sarpa, it is because it 
 was conceived under the general idea of creeping, an idea 
 expressed by the word sarp. An ancient word for man was 
 the Sanskrit marta, the Grreek brotos, the Latin raortalis. 
 Marta means " he who dies," and it is remarkable that 
 where everything else was changing, fading, and dying, 
 this should have been chosen as the distinguishing name 
 for man. 
 
 ' There were many more names for man, as there were 
 many names for all things in ancient languages. Any 
 feature that struck the observing mind as peculiarly charac- 
 teristic could be made to furnish a new name. In common 
 Sanskrit dictionaries we find 5 words for hand, II for 
 light, 15 for cloud, 20 for moon, 26 for snake, 33 for 
 slaughter, 35 for fire, 37 for sun. The sun might be 
 called the bright, the warm, the golden, the preserver, the 
 destroyer, the wolf, the lion, the heavenly eye, the father of 
 light and life. Hence that superabundance of synonyms 
 in ancient dialects, and hence that struggle for life carried 
 on among these words, which led to the destruction of the 
 less strong, the less happy, the less fertile words, and ended 
 in the triumph of one word, as the recognised and proper 
 name for every object in every language. On a very small 
 scale this process of natural selection, or, as it would better 
 be called, rational elimination, may still be watched, even 
 in modern languages, that is to say, even in languages so old 
 and stricken in years as English and French. What it was 
 
7 6 The P/i ilosopJiy of L a nguage. 
 
 at the first burst of dialects, we can only gather from such 
 isolated cases as when von Hammer counts 5,744 words all 
 relating to the camel. 
 
 * The fact that every word is originally a predicate — Utat 
 names, though signs of individual conceptions, are all, 
 WITHOUT EXCEPTION, derived fr 0111 general ideas — is one of 
 the most important discoveries in the science of language. 
 It was known before that language is the distinguishing 
 characteristic of man ; it was known also that tlie having of 
 general ideas is that which puts a perfect distinction 
 between man and brutes ; but that these two were only 
 different expressions of the same fact was not known till 
 the theory of roots had been established as preferable to the 
 theories both of Onomatopoeia and of Interjections. But 
 though oiu- modern philosophy did not know it, the ancient 
 poets and framers of language must have known it.^ For in 
 Grreek, language is logos, but logos means also reason, and 
 alogon was chosen as the name, and the most proper name, 
 for brute. No animal thinks and no animal speaks, except 
 man. Language and thought are inseparable. Words 
 without thought are dead sounds, thoughts without words 
 are nothing. To think is to speak low, to speak is to think 
 loud. The word is the thought incarnate. 
 
 ' Now, the last question of all in our science is this : How 
 can sound express thought? How did roots become the 
 signs of general ideas ? How was the abstract idea of 
 measuring expressed by md, the idea of thinking by man ? 
 How did gd come to mean going ; sthd standing ; sad sitting ; 
 da giving ; mar dying; l^ar walking ; kar doing? 
 
 ' The 400 or 500 roots which remain as the constituent 
 elements in different families of language are not mere 
 interjections, nor are they mere imitations. They may be 
 called phonetic types, and whatever explanation the psycho- 
 
 ^ Ancient philosopliy, too, knew no higher term for the supreme 
 ruling principle of order in the world than the two similarly related 
 words vovi and \6yos. 
 
My own TJicory on tJic Origin of Language. 77 
 
 legist or the metaphysician may propose, to the student of 
 language these roots are simply ultimate facts.' 
 
 Here follows the attempt quoted in the preceding 
 chapter to account for the origin of roots in accordance 
 with Heyse's method. But tlie author adds immedi- 
 ately, with wise insistence on the distinction between 
 what has been scientifically established and what is 
 still mere hyj^othesis : 
 
 ' There may be some value in speculations of this kind, 
 but I should not like to endorse them, for we have no right 
 to say that a vague analogy is an ex'planation of the 
 problem of the origin of roots. If there is any truth in the 
 results at which we have arrived after a careful and unpre- 
 judiced analysis of all the facts before us, all that we have 
 a right to assert is that language begins with roots, and 
 that these roots are neither Inore nor less than phonetic types 
 or typical sounds. What lies beyond them is no longer, or, 
 if we speak historically, is not yet language, however inter- 
 esting it may be for psychological researches. But whatever 
 exists in real language is the upshot of these roots. 
 
 ' Words are various impressions taken from those phonetic 
 moulds, or, if you like, varieties and modifications, perfectly 
 intelligible in their structure, of those typical sounds, which, 
 by means of unerring tests, have been discovered as the 
 residuum of all human speech.' 
 
 It was thus that Max Miiller spoke and wrote in 
 1860 ; eighteen years later he was able to say with 
 truth : 
 
 ' Those who have read the " Lectures on the Science of 
 Language " will remember how strongly I opposed any 
 attempt on the part of the students of language to go beyond 
 roots, such as we actually find them as the result of the 
 
78 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 most careful phonetic analysis. It was thought at the time 
 that my protests against all attempts to ignore or skip those 
 roots, and to derive any word or any grammatical form 
 straight from mere cries or from imitations of natural sounds, 
 were too vehement. But I believe it is now generally ad- 
 mitted, even by some of my former opponents, that the 
 slightest concession to what, not ironically, but simply 
 descriptively, I called the bow-wow and pooh-pooh theories 
 in the practical analysis of words would have been utter 
 ruin to the character of the science of language.'' ' 
 
 He continues : 
 
 'But to show that a certain road, and the only safe road, 
 leads us to a mountain wall, which from our side can never 
 be scaled, is very different from saying that there is, or that 
 there can be nothing behind that mountain wall. To judge 
 from the manner in which some comparative philologists 
 speak of roots, one would imagine that they were not only 
 indiscernibilia , but Palladia fallen straight from the sky, 
 utterly incomprehensible in their nature and origin.^ It 
 was in order to guard against such a view, that at the end 
 of my Lectures I felt induced to add a few lines, just as a 
 painter when he has finished a landscape dots in a few 
 lines in the background to show that there is a world beyond. 
 The science of language, I felt, had done its work when it 
 had reduced the vague problem of the origin of language to 
 a more definite form, viz. What is the origin of roots? 
 
 1 Contemporary Review, February 1878 : On the Origin of Reason, 
 p. 466. 
 
 ^ This onesidedness and stubbornness prevails equally in the opposite 
 camp among philosophers, who cannot make up their minds to recognise 
 the dependence of thought upon language, and never abandon the received 
 theory : ' That at some time or other in the history of the world, men had 
 accumulated a treasure of anonymous general conceptions, to which, 
 when the time of intellectual and social intercourse had arrived, they 
 skilfully attached those phonetic labels which we call words.' — Max 
 Muller : Lectures on the Science of Language, ii. p. 371. 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language. 79 
 
 How much has been gained by that change of front, those 
 will best be able to appreciate who have studied the history 
 of the innumerable attempts at discovering the origin of 
 language during the last century. 
 
 ' Beyond that point, however, where the student of 
 language is able to lay the primary elements of language at 
 the feet of philosophers, the science of language alone, 
 apart from the science of thought, will not carry us. We 
 must start afresh, and in a different direction ; and it was 
 in order to show to what quarter I looked for a solution of 
 the last problem, the origin of roots, that I appealed to the 
 fact that everything in nature when set in motion or struck, 
 reacts, that it vibrates, and causes vibrations. This seemed 
 to me the highest generalisation and at the same time 
 the lowest beginning of what is meant by language. The 
 two problems, how mere cries, whether interjectional or 
 imitative, could develop into phonetic types, and how mere 
 sensations could develope into rational concepts, I left 
 untouched, trusting that philosophers by profession would 
 quickly perceive how some of the darkest points of psycho- 
 logy might be illuminated by the electric light of the science 
 of language, and fully convinced that they would eagerly 
 avail themselves of the materials placed before them and 
 ready for use to build up at last a sound and solid system 
 of philosophy.' 
 
 This appeal to the professed philosophers should 
 have received, the candid reader might imagine, an 
 immediate and hearty resjDonse. What a magnificent 
 undertaking — worthy at once of its former develop- 
 ment and useful and necessary to its futiure achievements 
 — was here set before philosophy. How eagerly such 
 an opportunity must be seized of rehabilitating herself 
 in the eyes of the world, which for something like the 
 
So The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 last fifty years has looked upon all philosophy as simply 
 a bore, a mass of indigestible quibbling, chaff by which 
 no old birds are to be caught, only fit to stuif the 
 empty heads of the professors with self-conceit and 
 arrogance, and those of the students with nonsense and 
 vain imaginations ! Hie Rhodus., hie salta ! Now is 
 the time to prove yoiu- mettle! A philosophy that 
 can solve such a problem as the present has given a 
 pledge of substantial value^ and established an un- 
 assailable claim to universal respect. But what actually 
 occurred ? Max Miiller will tell us : 
 
 ' I confess I have often wondered at the apathy, parti- 
 cularly of the students of psychology, with regard to the 
 complete revolution that has been worked before their eyes 
 in the realm of language. They simply looked on as if it 
 did not concern them. Why, if language were only the out- 
 ward form of thought, is it not clear that no philosophy, 
 wishing to gain an insight into the nature of thought and 
 particularly into its origin, could dispense with a careful 
 study of language ? What would Hobbes or Locke have 
 given for Bopp's ' Comparative Grammar ' ? What should we 
 say if biologists were to attempt to discover the nature and 
 laws of organic life without ever looking at a living body ? 
 And where are we to find the li\dng body of thought, if not 
 in language ? What are the two problems left unsettled at 
 the end of the Science of Language : 
 
 ' How do mere cries become phonetic types ? and 
 ' How can sensations he changed into concepts f 
 ' What are these two, if taken together, but the highest 
 problem of all philosophy, viz. : 
 
 ' What is the origin of reason ? ' 
 
 The position from which 1 started to attempt the 
 
My ozvu Theory on the Origin of Langiiage. 8i 
 
 solution of this problem may be stated, in accordance 
 with the widest possible generahsations, in somewhat 
 the following manner : 
 
 1. Language is a product of association, and of the 
 community of feeling which is developed, intensified, 
 and finally carried to perfection by community of hfe. 
 
 2. Language is a product of an active, not of a 
 passive process ; it is the child of vnll, not of sensation. 
 In the place of sensations, the mere sense-impressions, 
 from which it is and always will be impossible to 
 extract anything in the nature of rational concepts — i.e. 
 permanent typical classifications of reason always 
 capable of being summoned up anew by the appro- 
 priate word — in the place of these we must set the 
 active will, or spontaneous activity, which is indeed 
 commonly recognised as present in the phenomena of 
 animal life, but which the Monistic philosophy afiirms 
 to be at the root of all phenomena without exception. 
 
 3. From these two points we proceed to the 
 following conclusion : There is not only a sympathy of 
 joy and a sympathy of sorrow expressing themselves 
 in the specific human forms of laughter and tears, as 
 well as in the impulses towards common movements, 
 out of wliich dancing, singing, and music develope 
 themselves later, but there is also a sympathy of the 
 will, of activity directed outwards which only becomes 
 phenomenally apparent in its effects. 
 
 4. This common sympathetic activity was originally 
 accompanied by sounds, which, as in games and dances, 
 
82 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 broke out from the violent stress or excitement of the 
 common action, and as they recurred with every 
 repetition of the particular form of activity they 
 became so intimately associated with it as to acquire 
 the power of recalling the memory of the action. This 
 is the origin of human thought, for it is the origin of 
 phonetic types (roots). 
 
 5. It follows of itself from the foregoing propo- 
 sitions that human thought has a double root : ^ first, 
 the individual activity which, bound up with the man 
 himself, is at his disposal always, to produce as much 
 of the resolved efiect as its development allows ; and 
 secondly, this efiect itself, which becomes apparent, and 
 as grasped in common by the sense of sight, lays the 
 foundations for the possibility of a mutual understand- 
 ing. It is only by means of this visible effect that the 
 sounds acquire their meaning, and the more the effects, 
 i.e. the activities of the speech-constructing race, are 
 
 ^ Tliis fact, which has been overlooked by all precedinfr philosophers, 
 is nevertheless of supreme, I may even say of fundamental importance for 
 all philosophy. For here for the first time we find a terminus medius 
 between those two ever-distant poles, subject and object, the union of the 
 activity and its effect in the action. Though this is necessarily most 
 clearly apparent in that creation of the human mind, language, yet it was 
 by no inconsiderable labour that I was enabled to discover it there. This 
 is due to the fact that the first, or subjective root, is obscured by the 
 preponderance and brilliancy of the second, or objective root, so that it is 
 either overlooked or treated as immaterial. At any rate, that which we 
 now see so clearly in the life of the mind, lies at the base of all existence, 
 and must serve us for a torch to illuminate and interpret the last and 
 deepest secret of the world, the life of the individual. And already 
 intimations of this truth are dawuing upon the most distinguished 
 scientific thinkers of the day. Thus the admirable Claude Bernard ob- 
 serves : * Matiere vivante et conditions exterieures : la vie reSulte con- 
 stamment du rapport reciproque de ces deux facteurs.' 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language. 83 
 
 specialised, the more significance will belong to their 
 verbal roots. 
 
 6. Hence it is that the hfe of language stands in an 
 indissoluble relation to the development of human 
 action. And it is by no means a casual coincidence 
 that, at the very time when the magnificent science of 
 comparative philology is pursuing the origin of human 
 conceptions to the roots buried beneath the accumu- 
 lations of thousands of years, the science of Anthropo- 
 logy should have applied itself with equal zeal to the 
 primaeval history of human industry, as it is to be 
 traced by the rudest stone implements, the earliest 
 evidences of the existence of what Franklin called the 
 tool-making animal, and which we call the not merely 
 gregarious^ but cooperative animal. And there is an 
 equally significant and instructive parallel to be drawn 
 between the matter of the two sciences, for just as 
 when we go back to primitive ages the tools become 
 more and more imperfect and undeveloped, so that 
 the rough-hewn stone is the germ at once of hatchet, 
 wedge, knife, hammer, saw, &c., so among words, the 
 farther we trace their history backwards, the less 
 significance they possess, the more molluscous their 
 structure becomes, and instead of being able to grasp a 
 single precise meaning, the philologist finds as it were 
 a jelly-like mass slipping through his hands. 
 
 7. About this, however, there is no doubt : the 
 
 earliest meanings of verbal roots referred to human 
 
 action. Philology might have arrived at this conclusion 
 
 without extraneous help, for the most famihar, known, 
 
 G 2 
 
84 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 and intelligible of objects must always have been the 
 self-determined action of man. An impartial glance 
 at any dictionary of roots will serve to verify this 
 assertion. We do not find there Sun and Moon, Nose 
 and Mouth, Thou and I, nor yet anything about shining, 
 flashing, or burning — no thoughtfid etymologist, even 
 if he found them, would allow them to pass as primitive 
 intuitions ; such is the power of truth I — what we do 
 find are words signifying to dig, strike, scrape, scratch, 
 to tear, numerous roots denoting to rub, and starting 
 from that conception, to smear, anoint, and coloiu", 
 others again for plaiting and binding, and others again 
 which mean to share, or to divide. 
 
 If we consider for a moment seriously how thought, 
 or in other words how language, could arrive at such 
 a conception as that of shining, or flashing, we might 
 imagine this to be one of the simplest and most natural 
 intuitions. But this is not the case. Primitive man 
 was dumb in the face of light, he could not name it, for 
 the act of naming is not a mere outbreak of meaning- 
 less sound, it consists in assigning a known quahty to 
 the thing named. One of the two sources of thought 
 is wanting in this case, and it is only when the element 
 of personal activity has been added that it becomes 
 possible to attain to such a conception.^ Accordingly 
 
 ' Jacob Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik (ii. 80) speaks of the 
 transitions from notions derived from one sense into those derived from 
 another, as in the case of sound and colour, e.g. heUan (sonare) hell 
 (sonorus, later lucid us), old high German hraht (strepitus), new high 
 German pracht (splendor) &c. and observes : ' It is a remarkable fact 
 that in most of these cases the earlier meaning is taken from sound, the 
 later from colour.' According to our theory, this is not at all surprising. 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language. 85 
 
 we find in language that light and darkness, day and 
 night, fire and sun, are only a colour, or rather some- 
 thing coloured., a conception at last intelligible to 
 primitive man, who coloured, or painted, himself. To 
 colour, however, goes back to smearing, or anointing, 
 and these to rubbing, or grinding. How far we are 
 still overshadowed by this line of primitive thought 
 may be judged from the fact that even at the present 
 day we speak of the colouring of the sky. 
 
 8. But not by any means everything that w^e are 
 in the habit of regarding as human activity will find 
 an equivalent expression in the most primitive collec- 
 tion of verbal roots. A naive but highly unscientific 
 theory of language, the direct descendant of the easy, 
 rough and ready mode of explaining everything in 
 vogue in the eighteenth century, which has numerous 
 representatives even at the present day, supposes the de- 
 velopment of language to have begim with such notions 
 as 'papa ' and 'mamma,' eating and drinking, and the 
 
 What comes into evidence in these words is the element of force, energy, 
 and this can only he reached hy proceeding from the subjective root of 
 voluntary activity. And it is the world of sound not of light that falls 
 within this department. I can express a loud sound {Schall, Hall, — skal) 
 by a violent blow, Schlag, which brings out the sound {ci. Donneischlag), 
 but I cannot produce a bright light by my own action, and accordingly 
 we meet in various languages with such expressions as schreiende, or 
 criant, while in colloquial English we speak of ' loud ' colours, or a 
 ' noisy ' taste. Similarly in the Rig- Veda we find, ' The fire cries with 
 light' (vi. 3, 6), and ' The sun cries like a new-born child ' (ix, 74, 1 ; cf. Max 
 Miiller, Chijys, ii. p. 100). And so also the poet sings: 'La dove 1 so^ 
 tace ' (Dante, Inf. i. 63) and ' lo venni in loco d'ogni luce muto ' (ib. v. 28). 
 And from these indications we may learn to what root and fundamental 
 signification the Latin clarus must be traced. The original form is not, 
 as the dictionaries have it, ciara luce, but clara voce. 
 
86 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 like, from wliicli origin the rest of language is to have 
 grown. This hypothesis also may be completely refuted 
 by the study of roots. Such conceptions as hunger 
 and thirst make their way into language, and there- 
 fore into thought, by long and circuitous paths only. 
 For how is eating conceived? As a division. The 
 German Metzger (butcher) and Messer (knife) take us 
 back to the root mat, to divide, mats in Gothic is food 
 (meat), matjan, is to eat. The German Fleischer is the 
 Latin carnifex,^ the Greek hairpog, that is to say, one 
 who carves, or distributes portions, and to these words 
 belong also Zalvv^ai, to feast, and SaiV, a meal. The 
 Homeric verse : 
 
 ^lolpas BaaadfjbSvoL haivvvr ipiKvBsa Balra. — Od. 7 66. 
 
 offers an interesting example of the specialisation of 
 different words out of one original rational concept. If 
 in this sentence we take hairv[x6vsg as a subject, the 
 thought in its original form would run somewhat thus : 
 ' The chviders divided the parts, and divided the 
 glorious division : ' ^ that is to say, the guests divided the 
 portions and feasted on the glorious banquet. Similarly, 
 the Hebrew akal, to eat, and maahelet, sacrificial knife, 
 are related, not by any means that the latter is regarded 
 as an instrument for eating, but that both words point 
 to an earlier meaning of akal, the dividing or portion- 
 ing out of food. 
 
 How is this to be explained ? According to our 
 
 ^ In wJiat we must presume to have been the original signification of 
 the word. 
 
 - More easily in German : Die Theiler theilten die Theile uud theilten 
 die herrliche Theiluny. 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language. 87 
 
 theory, which, indeed, receives a remarkable confirma- 
 tion from the fact, for the simple reason that the object 
 which received a name in the first instance was not 
 individual eating and drinking ; these are animal 
 functions which are necessary to the preservation of 
 life, and can be carried on without language ; it was 
 not till these actions were brought into the focus of 
 common attention, just because they began to be carried 
 on in common, so that the meal became a ' dividing ' 
 among the different members of the assembled commu- 
 nity, that they were for the first time attended to, 
 conceived^ and named by the community, or, in other 
 words, became the object of rational thought. 
 
 In the same way it is easy to understand how the 
 ideas of dividing and of pasturing flocks came to run 
 into one another : e.g. in the Greek vs^od, in reference 
 to which Jacob Grimm gives numerous examples of the 
 connection between the ideas of taking and grazing : ^ 
 how the peasant calls the fields of the community the 
 Gemarkung, a fact wliich throws new light on the old 
 German mark= wood, which should on no account be 
 explained, as by J. Grimm and Weigand, as ' the dark,' 
 but referred with mark, merken, &c., to a word of 
 (boundary-) marking : how the Gothic faihu, cattle. 
 Sanskrit paqa (pecu, pecu-nia), originally meant the 
 cattle that was tied up (from pa^, paga, bond) ; or, as 
 Geiger has it, ' possession,' the same transition appear- 
 ing in the Hebrew miqneh, the Gothic skatts (treasure) 
 =Slav. skot (cattle), cattle itsel{= capitale. 
 
 ' Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache, p. 29. 
 
88 The Ph ilosophy of La nguage. 
 
 All this proves afresh the perversity of the view 
 Avhich traces language to the imitation of natiu-al noises, 
 since, in the earliest utterances of the human tongue, 
 instead of meeting with bellowing bulls and rustling 
 woods, we find rather what we are accustomed to call 
 abstractions, but which are, in fact, nothing but the 
 impress of human thought. 
 
 9. Human thought, human thinking, is an active 
 process, a self-conscious, self-confident activity, not as 
 a crude materiahsm imagines, the accidental play of 
 unconscious atoms. Common action is the source to 
 which we have traced it, the foimdation upon which it 
 has rested ever since the first entrance of mankind into 
 the kingdom of reason. Diu"ing the hundreds of thou- 
 sands of years which the human race must have passed 
 through before reaching its present height of develop- 
 ment, the union between the two has only become 
 closer and more intimate. Language is the voice of 
 the community. Even now the highest achievement 
 possible is to order, direct, and apply the forces of 
 individuals to a common end, in imited, organised 
 activity, that is to say, in work — for work is nothing 
 but organised activity, whence it is that idlers excite 
 the scorn of the community — whereby also the count- 
 less wonders of industry have become possible, and all 
 the changes of the earth's surface which turn it into a 
 lordly residence for man. It is, indeed, a marvellous 
 rertection that all these results depend upon a feeble 
 breathing, a spoken sound : that is to say, upon a slight 
 vibration of the air ! 
 
My own Theory ou the Origin of Language. 89 
 
 The space allotted here only allows me to give a 
 brief and meagre sketch of the arguments on which I 
 have based the solution of the problem as stated by 
 Max Miiller ; if, however, I have been successful in 
 doing so, I shall have shown : 
 
 How rational concepts could and must arise by 
 natural means ; 
 
 How they could unite with sounds, which, though 
 originally only utterances of an instinctive impulse, 
 thereby acquire significance, and so become transformed 
 into phonetical types^ or roots ; 
 
 And it will not be permissible to evade the con- 
 cluding question : How the world of things, which we 
 always assume to have its appropriate qualities charac- 
 terised and denoted in language, w^as brought into the 
 illuminated space of rational thought, or, w^hat comes 
 to the same thing, into the storehouse of hnguistic 
 expression ? My theory must stand or fall with the 
 answer to this question : if it is not borne out by the 
 facts of the case, it is irretrievably condemned, if, 
 however, it is in harmony with them, it receives a 
 conspicuous confirmation which approaches to the 
 highest degree of human certainty attainable. 
 
 But in order to answer this question aright, there 
 is another belonging more properly to the domain of 
 metaphysics wliich should be dealt with first ; the 
 question namely : What is a thing ? Not to weary the 
 reader with a prolonged metaphysical discussion, it 
 will be enough to quote the definition given by Albert 
 Lauge in his meritorious ' History of Materialism : ' ' We 
 
90 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 give the name of thing to a group of phenomena, which, 
 making abstraction of remoter relations and internal 
 changes, we grasp and conceive as one.' ^ 
 
 It follows undoubtedly from this definition that 
 things have no existence for animals ; for even the 
 most extreme Darwinian will hardly venture to main- 
 tain animals to be capable of this. 
 
 To men a tree is a single being or thing which 
 grows from the root upwards and has a trunk and 
 branches ; but this is just what it can never be even 
 to the most highly endowed ape that climbs about its 
 stem and has accustomed dwellings and places of refuge 
 under the well-known leafy roof. It is beyond the 
 limits of possibiUty that any monkey tribe should ever 
 endeavoiu- to take up a tree by the roots and plant it 
 in another spot. And if we find accounts in modern 
 books of natural history of agricultural ants who sow 
 their seeds and wait patiently till they come up, the 
 mildest expression for such vagaries of the imagination 
 is scientific lunacy. 
 
 How then does it come to pass that there are things 
 for men ? 
 
 Simply because he has the gift of speech, because 
 he can give them a name. And I will add, that this, 
 his highest faculty, is also the source of his most fatal 
 errors, since he imagines whenever he finds a word 
 that a real being or thing must exist to be designated 
 by it. As Lazarus Geiger well observes : 
 
 ' Lange: Qpschichte des MaterinJumus, 3rd edit. ii. p. 217. 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language. 91 
 
 ' We see, in fact, words and thoughts wrestling together, 
 and the latter hardly escape bondage ; ^ nay, we see from 
 the earliest known time to the present day how the nature of 
 beings has been made the object of inquiry when the beings 
 themselves had no other reality than that lent them by the 
 intuitions of the remote past which associated them with 
 these magic sounds.' ^ 
 
 Naming a thing is not the same as designating or 
 denoting it. I can describe something quite unknown 
 to me, e.g. a place, in such a way that I could recog- 
 nise it again ; but naming is always significant, the 
 attributing of an already known quality, an act of 
 generalisation, of classification. 
 
 Faming also serves the purpose of indicating 
 objects which are recognised in thought ; the only 
 essential is that the differentiw of the thing should be 
 already known objectively, in order that the name 
 may be applied to them, that it may be classed by their 
 help, or as Kant expresses it, that the thing may be 
 recognised in the notion, i.e. the word. (Kant divides 
 perception into sensation, reproduction in the imagina- 
 tion, and recognition in the idea.) 
 
 We have, however, no right to assume that man, 
 in his primitive state, was ah-eady possessed of this 
 wonderful intellectual faculty, this power of rational 
 
 ' The same was said by Bacon (quoted by Max Miiller, Lectures, i. 
 Preface) : * Men believe that their reason is lord over their words, but it 
 happens, too, that words exercise a reciprocal and reactionary power over 
 our intellect. Words, as a Tartars bow, shoot back upon the under- 
 standing of the wisest, and mightily entangle and pervert their judg- 
 ment.' 
 
 ^ Geiger : Urspi-ung und Entivickelung der memcMichen Sprache und 
 Vernunft, i. p. 100. 
 
92 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 thought that rules us now with supreme sway and 
 forms our truest nature, while by its help we grasp all 
 the objects around us, conceive, explore, and at the 
 same time indicate and name them. Such a course 
 would be too easy, or indeed rather a mere petitio 
 principii, an explanation by means of that which itself 
 stands in most need of explanation. 
 
 No ; man did not call names for the sake of naming, 
 or use signs for the sake of signifying ; but he used 
 signs, and thereby attained to the power of using names 
 also ; or, in other words, of betokeniiig again by a sou7id 
 what he had noted before. How the latter step was 
 taken has been pointed out above, and is indeed the 
 most important part of my theory. 
 
 And how and why, we must inquire next, did men 
 come to use signs for things ? Simply because they 
 modified them for the purposes of their own life by 
 their own action, by their associated efforts. Men dug 
 caves, plaited twigs, stripped the beasts of their skin, 
 the trees of their bark. Hence was developed the 
 marvellous hitherto unexplained gift of abstraction, 
 and this in the most natural way. Man learnt to con- 
 ceive a thing as he learnt to create things. His own 
 creations were the first things for him. These things 
 became possessed, for him, of an independent existence 
 in his consciousness by means of the word associated 
 with them. The period of spiritual creation began ; 
 the light glimmered feebly and inconspicuously at first 
 which now illumines earth and heaven with its rays — 
 the divine fight of reason. 
 
My ozuji Thcoiy on the Origin of Language. 93 
 
 I will quote, in elucidation of what has been said 
 above, a passage from my book ' On the origin of 
 Language ' : 
 
 ' The thing which derives its fixity from language is an 
 object of human action, and the first germ of the newly 
 created world of abstraction must always lie in the asso- 
 ciated labour expended in changing or modifying surround- 
 ing natures. A den or cave is already an abstract idea, for 
 it may be large or small, excavated in stone or sand, situated 
 in one place or another ; it may have been met with twice or 
 thrice, and still it is always a thing of the same kind, and 
 with the same word corresponding to it. When such a 
 change in the external world has been effected, and has 
 entered and been made at home in human consciousness never 
 more to disappear,' the first step is herewith hewn, by the 
 
 ^ For what contributes to the fulfilment of life's work is spontaneous 
 and of certain recurrence : ' Not every random perception is raised to the 
 dignity of a general notion, but only the constantly recumng, the strongest, 
 the most useful ; and out of the endless number of general notions that 
 suggest themselves to the observing and gathering mind, those only sur- 
 vive and receive definite phonetic expressions which are absolutely 
 requisite fw carrying on the ivork of life.^ — M. Muller, Lectures, ii. 340. 
 
 When Locke remarked that all words expressive of immaterial ideas 
 are derived from words expressive of material subjects, he added : ' By 
 which we may give some kind of guess what kind of notions thev were, 
 and whence derived, which filled their minds who were the first be- 
 ginners of language.' ' Nothing,' says Max Miiller in the above cited 
 article {Contemporary Review), 'is more likely than that their daily 
 occupations should have supplied the first concepts through which the 
 framers of language gradually laid hold of everything that attracted 
 their attention. If they had a word for plaiting, they could derive from 
 it not only the name of the spider, but likewise of the poet who weaves 
 words and thoughts together. I agree with Aufrecht that we should 
 derive from a root vabh, to spin, the Sanskrit urnavdhhi, spider, Greek 
 v0oy, web, and i^ivos, poem ; while Greek expressions, such as ^oKovi Ka\ 
 fJLrjTiv, fivdovs Koi fXTjSea, olKoSonrjfiara, ok^ov, KT)p6v iKpatveiJ', show how 
 many branches spring from one single stem.' Cf. also the Latin, con^iere 
 dolos, texere fraudes ; the Homeric, kukci (})pea-l ^vaao8oi2.fv(ov {Od.l7, 66) ; 
 
94 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 joint toil of reason and speech, in the hard rock, where a second 
 and then others must follow, till seons hence the lofty sum- 
 mit is reached, and reason enthroned on high sees all the 
 world heneath as the theatre where her might and glory is 
 displayed, and ventures forth upon new flights through the 
 unexplored realms of heaven not even here without a clue, 
 any more than at the hour of her birth, afforded by her own 
 — but now purely ideal— constructions.' ^ 
 
 And now I may say that my theory certainly 
 tallies remarkably with and is confirmed by the fact 
 that things are brought witliin the horizon of the human 
 reason, or first grow into things, in proportion as they 
 suffer the effects of human action and have names as- 
 signed to them accordingly. This law applies invariably 
 to the oldest substantives, which, as we have seen, all 
 belong necessarily to the objective world. Things 
 were, so to speak, ticketed by the human action that 
 spent itself upon them, and drew an ever increasing 
 number of them witliin its range, and modified them in 
 accordance with human requirements. The things 
 
 the German, Riinke Schmieden ; and innumerable other instances of what 
 we call the metaphorical life of language. 
 
 We have but to look at the most abstract sciences, at mathematics 
 and astronomy, to see how even at the present day, remote as they seem 
 to be from the fresh hues of reality, the same doom falls upon them. 
 AVhat is an arc, a chord, a radius, a circle ? Take the first sentence that 
 comes, e.g. the beginning of Kepler's first law : ' The areas swept out by 
 the vector drawn from the sun, ifcc' What is 'area ' ? A space made dry 
 and stamped hard — a floor. What ' swept ' is we know. What is ' vector ' ? 
 one who rides or moves in a vehicle. What is to draw ? Anglo-Saxon 
 dray an, old high German tracan, to drag or carry. And if we ask why 
 these notions are so deeply rooted in our consciousness and our memory, 
 the answer is not hard to see, all that is wanted is— the will, 
 
 ^ L. Noir6 : Der Ursprmu/ der Sprache, p. o4G. 
 
My ozun Theory oji the Origin of Language. 95 
 
 thus marked out receive their names forthwith from 
 the action of which they are made the object. 
 
 Thus a tree is characterised in primitive language 
 as wood upon which some work has been spent, as 
 something split, or barked, or to be burnt. Grain is that 
 which we crush, pound, or grind ; ground, and terra, 
 take their names from grinding, crumbling ; and the 
 sea (meer, mare, mor,) in like manner cannot disown 
 its relationship with moor, morass, a mass of the con- 
 sistence of liquid mud. An animal is meat, spoil of 
 the chase, or something flayed. The root for flay, or 
 strip off", denotes at the same time either skin, fm-, or 
 flesh, for both are the work of human action and cha- 
 racterise a produced or phenomenal result. Thus again 
 the scales of fishes are named from the idea of shelling ; 
 tlie shell of a fruit from that of cracking and shelling 
 (skar, skal), after which the word came, by way of a 
 drinking bowl (TrinJcschale), to signify a human skull, 
 because skulls as well as shells were used for drinkincr 
 
 o 
 
 vessels. 
 
 Geiger, who was familiar with this law of the 
 development of meanings, though he did not succeed 
 in deducing the necessary conclusions from it, has 
 summed up his statement in a single sentence, which I 
 transcribe, with notable modifications derived from my 
 own theory : 
 
 ' The process of naming- advances from the common actions 
 which exclusively interest the language-making race, and 
 which are the one chief root of thought, to those things which 
 are affected by human action, either in the way of generation 
 
96 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 or transformation, which is the second root. A multitude of 
 implements are named genetically ; the tree is traced, from 
 the first moment of its treatment by human hands, through all 
 the stages of its successive transformations to beams, boards, 
 and tables. Passing steadily through every form, language 
 reaches each one when, and only when, it is brought directly 
 into passive relation with the special ever-stimulating subject 
 of the linguistic faculty, the action of men.' ' 
 
 The fact that Geiger did not draw the last and 
 most important of conclusions on this subject leads 
 him often to express sm-prise at the discovery of start- 
 Hng instances which are perfectly in accordance with 
 the above law, but can only be certainly and adequately 
 explained by my theory. Thus he says : 
 
 ' Wood, the name of which in vXt] and materia has come 
 to furnish the substratum of every idea of matter in general, 
 was the prevailing material in primitive times, and is derived 
 from shaving, e.g. in ^vXov ; and shaft, Bopv, likewise named 
 by the ancients from the fundamental notion of breaking off 
 or stripping {Bslpo)), came to designate wood as a material. 
 An especially important point about this word is its wide diffu- 
 sion througliout all the branches of the Indo-germanic stock 
 of languages. (Hollun-cZf'?', tree 2). Two reasons maybe 
 given why the notion of wood should be reached through 
 that of stripping off the bark rather than from that of felling 
 the tree ; both have probably had a share in the result. In 
 the first place the notion of wood is undoubtedly earlier than 
 the possession of tools for felling trees ; and in the second 
 place, the phenomenal principle of naming holds good here, 
 for the wood is the flesh of the tree which becomes visible 
 
 ' Geiger : Urspi-un// und Entn-ichelung der menscldichen Spi-ache und 
 Vemunft, i. p. 42. L. Noir^, loc. cit. p. 311. 
 
 ^ Sk. (??'MS wood and tree, <7aru wood spear; Goth. ^n« tree; Irish, 
 daur. Old Slav, drevo. 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language. 97 
 
 when the bark is torn or flayed off. But it is in the highest 
 degree remarkable that the tree takes its name from its 
 wood, and thus borrows its designation as living wood from 
 a mode of human activity.^ ' 
 
 The reader who accepts ray theory will see nothing 
 wonderful in this, nor be surprised at the analogous 
 transition of ideas in wood and tree. 
 
 He says elsewhere : 
 
 ' In almost all cases we observe that the words for body 
 are taken from the dead body, or corpse. Sw/i-a as, indeed, 
 had been observed by Aristarchos, is used by Homer for the 
 dead body only. Whence this eccentricity of language to 
 start from the notion of the corpse in order to name the 
 human body itself ? ' ^ 
 
 I must confess that this seems to me so far from 
 strange that I should be surprised ratlier if the case 
 were otherwise. The rational perception of man 
 starts from the objective world, and he ended by giving 
 to his own body the name first applied to the disjointed 
 limbs of animals or human beings. We speak now of 
 our own flesh, skin, bones, &c., without thinking of the 
 source of these conceptions, and yet the most cursory 
 reflection will show that they could have no other 
 natural origin than this. For the same reason we find 
 most members of the human body conceived by lan- 
 guage as joints, and accordingly etymologies like that 
 
 1 L, Geiger : Ursprung unci Entwickelung der mensc/dichen Hprache 
 und Vernunft, ii. p. 27. 
 ^ rb. p. L'?G. 
 
 H 
 
98 The Philosophy of Langtiage. 
 
 given by Bopp for the ' doing organ ' are impossible ; 
 kara^ the hand, as Geiger justly observes, cannot be 
 derived from kai\ to make. Nor can Bauch (stomach) 
 be the scientific osso-phag-us, its relations are rather 
 with Bug, Eng. bow, bowels. 
 
 These few examples will suffice to show that my 
 theory is in complete accordance with the facts of 
 etymology ; that language does not — as would follow 
 from the interjectional theory — conceive objects in so 
 far as they excite pleasure or disgust, even less, as the 
 mimetic theory imagined, in as far as they are howling 
 and roaring; nor yet, at least not in its earliest creations, 
 in so far as they are active, but simply in so far 
 as human action has touched, modified, reconstructed 
 them : in a word, in so far as they have received fo7^m. 
 
 This is one of the most important and fruitful con- 
 clusions of comparative philology, and it agrees with 
 this that even such things as are removed by nature 
 from the reach of human influence nevertheless become 
 objects of human thought in the same way as the rest, 
 that is to say, they are named as they would be if the 
 human hand had formed them. 
 
 Thus Teich (ditch, to dig), lacus, Lache and Loch, like 
 the Celtic loch, all attach themselves to the fundamental 
 notion of that which is dug ; from the root ku or sku 
 we have both the German Hohle, hole and hollow, as 
 well as the Greek xoTT^og and the Latin cceliim, i.e. the 
 vault of heaven ; similarly we still speak of the highest 
 point of a mountain, though this point (Spitze) is only 
 what has been pointed, made into a point ; so again 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language. 99 
 
 the ideas of weaving, plaiting, and binding are applied 
 not only to the mechanical acts of man, but to anything 
 offering an analogous appearance, e.g. Ranke., Winde, 
 Schilf (runners, bindweed and sedge). Thus face comes 
 from fades, originally the make or shape of a thing, an 
 expression repeated in modern languages, feature being 
 evidently a mere corruption oifactura, the make ; thus 
 the significant word figure is directly related to fingo 
 and fgulus, and points to a derivation from the potter's 
 art ; so, also, forma, if we compare it with Sk. gharma 
 (pot), and formaceics (clayey). Thus we find that man 
 could not designate his own form, nay, not even that 
 dearest and most familiar object, the human countenance, 
 except by associating it with an action of his own, and 
 conceiving it as a product of the same. 
 
 This power of conceiving the world of things 
 according to their forms, this division of the inter- 
 changing appearances of the outer world by sharp and 
 definite outlines — a faculty which has been so developed 
 that the scientific eye now discerns qualities of things 
 which are still invisible to the material eye reinforced 
 by the most powerful instruments — this power is the 
 distinguishing human gift of intuition. It is wanting, 
 except in a rudimentary degree, to animals, and in man 
 Mmself is one of the fruits of language, and the creative, 
 formative activity so closely connected therewith. The 
 reader will easily reahse how this is if he recalls the 
 differences that exist between different kinds of human 
 vision, between the way in which the products of his 
 H 2 
 
lOO The Philosophy of Langtmge. 
 
 art appear to the eye of the master who is wont to 
 create them hunself, whether he be locksmith, mechanic, 
 builder, or sculptor, and to that of the uninstnicted 
 layman. 
 
 Form is a general factor in all things ; every pro- 
 gressive step towards the perfecting of human order 
 and activity manifests itself thus. Nothing else touches 
 the reason so closely as this, which is the mode oi filling 
 space, and appeals to the most intellectual of the senses, 
 that of sight. For thought is the sight of the mind, 
 and language, as I have said elsewhere, is woven of 
 light and tones. Unceasing, unbroken progress in the 
 formation of things is the fundamental rule of develop- 
 ment ; and even more unceasing, more unbroken, less 
 obvious but not less certain progress is of the essence 
 of language. 
 
 I have sketched in its most general traits the earliest 
 period in the growth and development of language. 
 There was a time when man, or, at least, the thought 
 of man, knew neither man nor wife nor child, neither 
 sun nor moon, no beast, no tree, no I nor thou, no here 
 nor there, but instead a Hmited store of soimds with 
 which he accompanied his action, and which associated 
 themselves with the objects produced or modified by 
 the action. This is the period of the objective creation 
 of language. 
 
 A vast revolution must have been effected in the 
 mental life of man when he began to lift his eyes, 
 hitherto fixed upon the ground, upwards to the eternal 
 stars, to the heavens standing fast for ever while he 
 
My own Theory on the Origin of Language, loi 
 
 himself grew and withered and passed away, to the rosy 
 dawn ushering in another day and chasing away the 
 horrors of the night, to the clouds, chased by the storms, 
 who after long languishing drought — 
 
 gnadig ernst den langerflehten Eegen 
 Mit Donnerstimmen und mit Windesbrausen 
 In wilden Stromen auf die Erde schiitten. 
 
 Such a revolution must have been effected — not 
 necessarily on a sudden and without preparation, but 
 slowly and gradually like every other development ; 
 the forces of nature must have been sympathetically felt 
 and conceived by the kindling fancy as animated active 
 beings, while objects passed imperceptibly into subjects, 
 and language and thought assumed the character they 
 wear to-day, wdiich seems to us so natural that we delude 
 oiu"selves it must have been the same always. 
 
 This period coincides with the origin of religion, 
 which, as Geiger says, has exercised an incredible and 
 almost boundless influence upon the development of 
 human sentiment and feeling. The rise of mythology 
 is a necessary and highly important stage in the de- 
 velopment of language, that is to say, of the intellectual 
 life of humanity. Linguistically, it may be described 
 as the period in which subjects began to mark themselves 
 off from the indefiniteness of the thought-process, and 
 began to form themselves into independent existences. 
 
 Otfried Miiller foresaw the truth of this : 
 
 'The mythological mode of expression, (he says) which 
 turns everything into persons, and every relation into an act, 
 
1 02 The Philosophy of Language. 
 
 is something so unique that we are forced to assume for its 
 growth a special period in the civilisation of nations.' ' 
 
 And at this point I must stop, for here the master 
 has begun to speak,^ from whom we have to learn, and 
 for the present only to learn. 
 
 ^ Otfried Bliiller : Trolexjomena zu cine)- ivissenschaftlichen Mytho- 
 loyie, p. 73. 
 
 ^ Max Miiller : Introduction to the Science of Religion. Four Lec- 
 tures delivered at the Royal Institution. (Longmans, 1878.) On the 
 Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Religions of India. 
 (Longmans, 1878.) 
 
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 INDEX 
 
 Abncy's Photography 11 
 
 Acton's Modern Cookery 21 
 
 Alpine Club Map of Switzerland 17 
 
 Alpine Guide (The) 17 
 
 Amos' s Jurisprudence 5 
 
 Primer of the Constitution 5 
 
 A?iderson's Strength of Materials 11 
 
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 Nation 3 
 
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 Miscellaneous Works 7 
 
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 (T.) Manual of English Litera- 
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 Arnott's Elements of Physics 10 
 
 Atelier (The) du Lys 18 
 
 Atherstone Priory 18 
 
 Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson ... 7 
 
 /i_)'/-i;'j Treasury of Bible Knowledge 20 
 
 Bacon's Essa.ys, hy Aihdi 6 
 
 by IV/iaUdy 6 
 
 Life and Letters, by .S/(;(^«?/«^ ... 5 
 
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 Bailey's Festus, a Poem 19 
 
 Bain's Mental and Moral Science 6 
 
 on the Senses and Intellect 6 
 
 Emotions and Will 6 
 
 Bakers Two Works on Ceylon 18 
 
 5<i//'j Guide to the Central Alps 17 
 
 Guide to the Western Alps 17 
 
 Guide to the Eastern Alps 17 
 
 /?iir/-/ on Railway Appliances 11 
 
 Barry &= Brannucll's Lectures on Railways 
 
 and Locomotives 14 
 
 Bcaconsfield's (Lord) Novels and Tales ... 18 
 
 Beesly's Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla 3 
 
 5/izc^'5 Treatise on Brewing 20 
 
 Blackley's German-English Dictionary...... 8 
 
 Blaine's Rural Sports 19 
 
 Bloxain's Metals 11 
 
 Bolland and Laiig's Aristotle's Politics 6 
 
 Boiiltbce on 39 Articles 15 
 
 Bournes Catecliism of the Steam Engine . 14 
 
 Handbook of Steam Engine 14 
 
 Treatise on the Steam Engine ... 14 
 
 1 mprovements inthesame 14 
 
 Bawdier s Family Shakespeare 19 
 
 Bramley-Moore s Six Sisters of the Valleys . 18 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, 
 
 and Art ^ 12 
 
 ^raw^j/'j Voyage of the Sunbeam ,, 17 
 
 Browne's Exposition of the 39 Articles 15 
 
 i?ri?ro«//V^'j Modern England 3 
 
 Buckle's History of Civilisation 2 
 
 r.Posthumous Remains 7 
 
 Buckion's Health in the House 13 
 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers 2t 
 
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 Bull's Maternal Management of Children. 21 
 
 Biillinger's Lexicon to the Greek Testament 8 
 
 Burgomaster's Family (The) 18 
 
 ^«r/j£'j Vicissitudes of Families 4 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer 20 
 
 Campbell's Norway 17 
 
 Capes' s Age oi \he Antonines 3 
 
 — '■ Early Roman Empire 3 
 
 Carpenter on Mesmerism, Spiritualism, &c. 6 
 
 Cates's Biographical Dictionary 4 
 
 Cfl>'/^y5 Iliad of Homer 19 
 
 Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths ... 7 
 
 Chesney's Indian Polity 2 
 
 0««<?v'.f Waterloo Campaign 2 
 
 Church's Beginning of the Middle Ages ... 3 
 
 Colenso on Moabite Stone &c 17 
 
 's Pentateuch and Book of Joshua. 17 
 
 Commonplace Philosopher in Town and 
 
 Country 7 
 
 CVjot/^'j Positive Pohty S 
 
 Cow^r^i^'e'j Politics of Aristotle 6 
 
 Conington's Translation of Virgil's ^neid 19 
 
 -, Miscellaneous Writings 6 
 
 Contanseati s Two French Dictionaries ... 8 
 Conybeare and Howson s Life and Epistles 
 
 of St. Paul 15 
 
 Corderys Struggle against Absolute Mon- 
 archy 3 
 
 Cotta on Rocks, by Lmorence 12 
 
 Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit... 7 
 
 Cox's (G. W.) Athenian Empire 3 
 
 Crusades 3 
 
 > Greeks and Persians 3 
 
 Creightoti's Age of Elizabeth 3 
 
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 .^ Tudors and the Reformation 3 
 
 Cresy's Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering 14 
 
 Critical Essays of a Country Parson 7 
 
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 Chemical Analyses 13 
 
 Dyeing and Calico-printing 15 
 
 Cr«/;«/'i Manual of Banking 21 
 
 Culky's Handbook of Telegraphy 14 
 
 Car^m'j Macedonian Empire 3 
 
 Z>'/i«^/;f«/j Reformation 16 
 
 De Caisne and Le Maout's Botany 12 
 
 De Tocquevillc's Democracy in America... 5 
 
 ZJ/^fi^yj Indian Famine Campaign 2 
 
 Dobson on the Ox 20 
 
 Dove's Law of Storms 9 
 
 /?(7a»^//'5 History of Taxes 5 
 
 Doyle s{'R.) Fairyland 13 
 
 Z)r«wwzo7/(f J Jewish Messiah 15 
 
 Eastlake's Hints on Household Taste 14 
 
 Edwards's Nile 17 
 
 .• Year in Western France 17 
 
 Ellicott's Scripture Commentaries 15 
 
 Lectures on Life of Christ 15 
 
 Elsa and her Vulture 18 
 
 Epochs of Ancient History 3 
 
 English History 3 
 
 Modem History 3 
 
 Evans' (J.) Ancient Stone Implements ... 12 
 
 (A. J.) Bosnia & Illyrian Letters ... \j 
 
 £w(7/^^ History of Israel 16 
 
 Antiquities of Israel 16 
 
 Fairbairn's Applications of Iron 14 
 
 — 2 Information for Engineers 14 
 
 Life 4 
 
 Fairbairn's Mills and Millwork 14 
 
 Farrar's Language and Languages 7 
 
 Fiizwygratn on Horses and Stables 19 
 
 Frampton's (Bishop) Life 4 
 
 Francis' sY'\^\ngV,ook 19 
 
 Frebishers YAieh^^ J ones 4 
 
 /^TO«(//j English in Ireland i 
 
 History of England i 
 
 Short Studies 6 
 
 Gairdner's Houses of Lancaster and York 3 
 
 Richard III. & Perkin Warbeck 3 
 
 Ganot's Elementary Physics 10 
 
 ■ Natural Philosophy 10 
 
 Gardiner's Buckingham and Charles 2 
 
 Personal Government of Charles I. 2 
 
 First Two Stuarts 3 
 
 Thirty Years' War 3 
 
 Geffcken on Church and State 7 
 
 German Home Life 7 
 
 Goldziher's Hebrew Mythology 16 
 
 Goodeve's Mechanics 11 
 
 Mechanism 11 
 
 Gore's Art of Scientific Discovery 13 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy 11 
 
 Grant's Ethics of Aristotle 6 
 
 Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 7 
 
 Gr^z'z//^' J Journal i 
 
 Griffin's Algebra and Trigonometry 11 
 
 Grove (Sir W. R.) on Correlation of Physi- 
 cal Forces 10 
 
 Gwilt's Encyclopsedia of Architecture 14 
 
 //a/tf'j Fall of the Stuarts 3 
 
 Handbook on Gold and Silver 21 
 
 //ar//t^ on the Air g 
 
 Hartwig's Aerial World 11 
 
 Polar World 11 
 
 Sea and its Living Wonders ... 11 
 
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