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 BOOK 372.89.M298 c. 1 
 MALTBY # MAP MODELING IN 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
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 3 T1S3 OOllflbMfl 7 
 
This Book may be kept out 
 
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 It will be due on the day indicated 
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MODELING BOARD WITH MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
Map Modeling in Geography 
 
 INCLUDING THE USE OF 
 
 SAND, CLAY, PUTTY, PAPER PULP, 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS, AND 
 
 OTHER MATERIALS 
 
 CHALK MODELING 
 
 IN ITS ADAPTATION TO PURPOSES OF ILLUSTRATION 
 
 FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BY 
 
 Dr. ALBERT ELIAS MALTBY, A.M., C.E. 
 
 Principal of Slippery Rock State Normal School, Pa. 
 
 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO : 
 
 E. L. KELLOGG & CO, 
 

 Copyright, 1894 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT E. MALTBY 
 All rights reserved 
 
TO 
 
 MY MOTHER 
 
 RACHEL EMELINE MALTBY 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED AS A 
 
 TRIBUTE OF LOVE AND HONOR 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The use of modeling as a means of symbolizing the various 
 land forms in geography has become so valuable in these days of 
 advanced methods in teaching, that it is thought these abstracts 
 from the practical methods of a schoolroom may be found help- 
 ful to many teachers. Any application of the anthropomorphic 
 idea of fashioning or making will follow the law of all child-thought 
 in that the unknown is assimilated to the known. The child is 
 really and directly familiar with only one mode of origin, and 
 that is the making of things. One of the great joys of children 
 is to be able to make things ; and this desire, which is indeed very 
 great, should be utilized in their instruction. 
 
 All the elements of geographical science are found near every 
 schoolhouse ; therefore the home district should be studied first. 
 Ritter says, " Wherever our home is, there lie all the materials 
 that we need for the study of the entire globe." 
 
 The available language of geography can alone render these 
 home elements valuable ; and modern educators are almost unani- 
 mous in the claim that speech, modeling, pictures, sketches, and 
 maps form the primal language of the science. These symbols, 
 however, are of use only when they fix a mental picture of the 
 thing represented, and do not fix attention upon themselves. 
 Through the constructive phase of the imagination, unseen places 
 and peoples must be brought vividly before the mind, and the 
 pupils may then translate them into the language of models, chalk 
 models, pictures, and maps. 
 
 Geogra'phy is truly a study of the earth as the home of man, 
 
 5 
 
6 Preface, 
 
 and should become '' a school of culture for the human race, and 
 an essential Hnk in the chain of sciences." All molding or draw- 
 ing that simply reproduces the form of the map, without enlarg- 
 ing and completing the pupil's concept of surface structure, fails 
 of its intended object. It becomes a hindrance rather than an 
 aid, since it fails to build up in the mind a concept of the country 
 or continent as a unit. 
 
 The teacher will, however, use modeling as a means, not as 
 an end, and thus make it a power in good instruction. 
 
 A. E. M. 
 
 State Normal School, Slippery Rock, Pa., 
 May 10, 1895. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dedication 4 
 
 Preface 5 
 
 A. Map Modeling in Geography 9-1 5 1 
 
 Elementary Geography 9 
 
 Materials in Sand-modeling 11 
 
 Value of Relief-maps 14 
 
 Primary Work 16-44 
 
 I. The Fields 17 
 
 II. The Slope 19 
 
 III. The Hill 21 
 
 IV. A Primary Lesson on Hills 22 
 
 V. Local Geography 24 
 
 VI. The Spring 28 
 
 VII. A Brook Basin 30 
 
 VIII. Mountains 31 
 
 IX. A River Valley 34 
 
 X. An Active Volcano. 1 36 
 
 XL Volcanoes II. Vesuvius 39 
 
 XII. Volcanoes III. The Middle Seas 43 
 
 Nature Study 45-65 
 
 I. An Observation Lesson 46 
 
 11. The Common Rocks 47-50 
 
 1. Scale of Hardness 47 
 
 2. Quartz 48 
 
 3. Granite 48 
 
 4. Sandstone 49 
 
 5. Hornblende 49 
 
 6. Limestone 49 
 
 7. Marble 50 
 
 III. A Lesson on Coal 50 
 
 IV. A Field Lesson 52 
 
 V. Children's Report of the Lesson 56 
 
 7 
 
8 Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 VI. The Great Father of Waters 58 
 
 VII. A Line upon the Sand 61-65 
 
 1. From the School-yard to the Stars 61 
 
 2. A Meridian Line 62 
 
 Advanced Work in Sand-modeling 66 
 
 I. From the Predominant Mountain Sj^stem 66 
 
 J . North America 68 
 
 II. Modeling from the Flat Layer of Sand 72 
 
 I . Africa 76 
 
 III. Molding upon an Outline 76 
 
 IV. Molding from a Central Mass 76-105 
 
 1. A Lesson with the Molding-board (South America) yj 
 
 2. A Progressive Sand-map: South America 82 
 
 3. Directions for Molding North America 85 
 
 4. Africa 88 
 
 5. Australia 90 
 
 6. Asia 92 
 
 7. Europe 94 
 
 8. How to Mold Europe in Sand. (Pupils' Work.) 96 
 
 9. Contrasts and Resemblances 100-105 
 
 1. North America and South America 100 
 
 2. Europe and Asia loi 
 
 3. Northern Continents and Southern Continents 103 
 
 4. The Old World and the New World (Tate) 104 
 
 Advanced Modeling in Papier-mache 106-129 
 
 I. Pulp-making 106 
 
 II. Folding a Map-scale 108 
 
 III. Molding North America in Papier-mache 109 
 
 IV. Modeling South America 114 
 
 V. Molding Africa , 118 
 
 VI. Modeling Australia 120 
 
 VII. Molding Asia 123 
 
 VIII. Molding Europe 125 
 
 Advanced Modeling in Other Media 130 
 
 I. Putty molding 130 
 
 1. Plain Putty. , 130 
 
 2. Colored Putty 130 
 
Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 II. Molding in Plaster of Paris 135 
 
 III. Maps of Finest Finish 136 
 
 IV. One Use of Relief-maps , 137 
 
 Chalk-modeling 143 
 
 1. Map Drawing 143 
 
 2. Illustrative Sketching. 149 
 
 B. Map Modeling in History 1 52-223 
 
 I. Lessons in Home Geography 155-197 
 
 1. The Spring in the Pasture 155 
 
 2. Forms of Land 1 59 
 
 3. Products 1 64 
 
 4. Occupations 169 
 
 5. Underground Products 172 
 
 6. Manufacturing 178 
 
 7. Bird Trades 182 
 
 8. Buying and Selling 184 
 
 9. Races of Men 187 
 
 10. Other Occupations 192 
 
 11. Local Products 196 
 
 II. Some Studies in Associated Lines 198-223 
 
 1. A Myth — The Stepmother Flower 198 
 
 2. The Little Plant That Longed to be Useful 201 
 
 3. What the Young Oak Said 207 
 
 4. A Queer Counting Device 212 
 
 5. A Study of the History of a State 213 
 
MAP MODELING IN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 If there is any study in which it is especially important that a 
 proper and intelligent beginning should be made, that branch is 
 geography. Teachers often fail to make proper presentation of 
 the subject because they do not study their pupils, and therefore 
 cannot understand what the children need. The author of Eviile 
 says : '' Nature requires children to be children before they are 
 men ;" and also, "A child has neither the strength nor the judg- 
 ment of a man, but he is capable of feeling and hearing as well, 
 or at least nearly so." Teachers fail through neglect of the 
 proper study of the natural propensities of children. In children 
 the creative faculty is strongly developed, and is manifested in an 
 infinite number of ways. Watch that httle child as he plays in 
 his father's garden. He has no knowledge of geography as a sci- 
 ence, yet he has gained what the Gemans call Erdkunde — earth- 
 knowledge. Here he has represented the course of a stream by 
 his furrows and ditches in the soft and yielding soil ; there he ex- 
 amines into the effect of water upon his little wheel placed at the 
 fall made in the stream which he has dammed up to form a minia- 
 ture pond. Everything must subserve to this impulse toward 
 formation. Here a splendid mansion stands in all its glory of 
 colored blocks ; there a thriving village extends along the plain. 
 Roads of sawdust or of sand lead from the mansion to the vil- 
 lage, while a miniature forest of beautiful green moss crowns the 
 neighboring hill. Even an artificial sea is not forgotten ; and, 
 
lo Map ModeUng in Geography. 
 
 perhaps, a little brother leads out the whole menagerie of Noah's 
 ark to graze upon the surrounding meadows. Rivers and canals, 
 bridges, dams, mills, seaports, — all are there. Who can demon- 
 strate the many-sided significance, the glorious possibilities of the 
 proper application of these plays of childhood } Play, which is 
 the poetry of childhood, is an activity which ministers to the 
 needs of the child, but it is also a guide to the teacher in deter- 
 mining upon a method of instruction. It is a powerful force to be 
 used in the work of education. The true teacher learns some of 
 his best lessons from his pupils. Let us learn a lesson here. Let 
 us remember with Rousseau that our first instructors are our feet, 
 hands, and eyes. Substituting books for the natural means of 
 obtaining knowledge is not teaching us to reason, but teaching us 
 to use the reasoning of others ; it is teaching us to believe a great 
 deal, and never to kiwzu anything. 
 
 How then should elementary geography be taught in our 
 schools ? The answer seems obvious. Utilize from the start the 
 natural creativ^e longing of the child. We shall gain if we let the 
 children lead us. We know that a proper exercise of the crea- 
 tive power produces most happy results in their education. This 
 is especially true when the thing made takes some definite form. 
 Bring the sand-table into the scJioolrooni. The molding-board 
 then becomes a powerful means of cultivating the idea of form. 
 It aids in teaching the children to see. Seeing, as an art, has been 
 much neglected. Children must be taught to observe accurately, 
 and then to reflect on their observations. Open their eyes to the 
 beautiful things of the world in which they live. The teaching 
 them becomes objective; the children acquire ideas from the ob- 
 ject of thought, and learn to express them correctly. By far too 
 many people go through life without ever realizing that the eyes 
 must be educated to see, as well as the tongue to speak. 
 
 With young children, especially, it will not do for the teacher 
 
Map Modeling in Geography, ii 
 
 to adopt the lecture system of recitation. No amount of words, 
 however simple and well chosen, will avail much unless the child 
 is brought to express himself on the subject in his own language. 
 Short, clear, and intelligible questions should be given in order 
 to excite him to observe what is before him, to recollect what he 
 has learned, and to bring together his stock of knowledge for the 
 materials for an answer. *' From observation and memory there 
 is only one step to reflection, "says Pestalozzi. 
 
 Karl Ritter, who first brought geography to the rank of a sci- 
 ence, says : " The most natural method is the one which makes 
 the child famiHar with reality first ; which lays a sound founda- 
 tion of geographical knowledge, gained through actual observa- 
 tion of that part of nature which surrounds the child. Here he 
 is to learn to see. Whether he lives in the city or in the hamlet, 
 on the mountain or in the valley, it is certainly not within the 
 four walls, not from maps, and not from text-books, but in nature 
 alone that knowledge of nature will be gained by him. Nature 
 ever remains the same ; she knows no typographical errors, no 
 blunders in drawing, no want of discretion. Nature's teaching 
 is always perfect." This elementary method combines all the 
 requirements of science ; it furnishes the stratum of concrete 
 knowledge from which abstract ideas are drawn. Amid nature 
 the child learns to knov/ the country in all its various conditions, 
 and learns to recognize it even on the flat-surfaced representation, 
 the map. When this genuine elementary instruction is given, all 
 difficulties of subsequent instruction in geography are removed. 
 
 MATERIALS IN SAND-MODELING. 
 
 In many respects the sand-heap of the playground is the ideal 
 form for the presentation of this medium of symbolizing, and its 
 introduction into the kindergarten in this primitive form is fre- 
 
12 
 
 Map Modeling in Geography. 
 
 quently seen. The needs of the ordinary public school demand 
 a more convenient form, however, and this need, is met by the 
 use of the molding-table, the molding-board, and the modeling- 
 pan. 
 
 In order that good work may be done in the classroom, it is 
 necessary that provision be made for at least one large modeling- 
 board. A small table, with strips of board t^Mee inches \vide 
 nailed around the edges, will make a very good molding-board 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 for use in a school. The top of the table should have its width 
 and length in the proportion of four to five (Fig. i). A very ser- 
 viceable movable molding-table is shown in the frontispiece. Any 
 carpenter can make one readily from the details shown in the 
 illustrations. The board shown in Fig. 2 is 32 inches wide and 40 
 inches long. 
 
 In order to use the following plans in molding the conti- 
 nents, the space within which the modeling is to be done may be 
 marked off upon the board when the dimensions of the molding- 
 
Map Modeling in Geography. 
 
 13 
 
 table are not as four to five. If the board permits, mark an ob- 
 long rectangle 32'' X 40", and divide the sides according to the 
 directions given in the m^odeling of the several continents. 
 
 The individual molding-board found most serviceable in gen- 
 
 ==iai 
 
 Fig. 2, 
 
 eral use is about 16 inches wide and 20 inches long. A strip of 
 wood about one inch wide should be nailed around the edp:es in 
 order to hold the sand in place (see Fig. 3). 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Modeling-pans, somewhat smaller than the modeling-boards, 
 are in use in some schools. The important point to be observed 
 is to individualize the work wherever it is possible so to do. 
 
14 Map Modeling in Geography. 
 
 The sand used should be either the molding-sand used in the 
 foundry, or clean sharp sand from the lake or river. It should 
 be kept in a convenient box, and moistened occasionally. Do 
 not attempt to stir or mix the sand, but pour over it a small 
 quantity of Avater a few hours before the material is wanted for 
 use. The water will soak evenly into the mass, and the sand 
 will remain in position when placed upon the board in the model 
 of the hill or continent. 
 
 Some teachers prefer to use dry white sand, meal, salt, and 
 other materials. These substances may be used in place of the 
 moist sand without any considerable changes in the mode of 
 using. Pebbles from the brook or beach, fragments of minerals, 
 and many other materials will be suggested by the child. To him 
 the world itself is one big house where everything has been made 
 by somebody, or at least fetched from somewhere. 
 
 The teacher must call to her aid the children and their parents. 
 The supply of useful material will then be limited only by the 
 resources of the various homes represented in the school. 
 
 Value of Relief-maps. — The objection is sometimes made 
 against the use of relief-maps that they do not correctly repre- 
 sent the surface of the earth, since the altitudes, in comparison 
 with horizontal distances, are of necessity very much exagger- 
 ated. The same reasoning would prevent the civil engineer from 
 using profiles to represent the elevations obtained in his topo- 
 graphical surveys, for the exaggeration of elevation in the profile 
 is exactly that which attains prominence in the relief-map. The 
 diagrams that geographers have long employed to represent ele- 
 vations are sivn^ly profiles, and must be abandoned in all teaching 
 if this objection to the relief-map is valid. But the fact is that 
 such objections are in reality baseless. We must seek after gen- 
 eral concepts of continental outline and organization. The flat map 
 is, in respect to elevation at least, unmixed untruth; and even 
 
h4ap Modeling in Geography. 15 
 
 the coast-lines in many places must necessarily be very imper- 
 fect. Compare these shore-lines, as given in any school geogra- 
 phy, with a topographical m.ap of a small portion of the shore ; 
 the inaccuracy is seen at once, yet the value of the school map is 
 not in reality impaired. The general truth of oiitli?ie is impressed, 
 and zve leave the details in their proper relation. So, in reference 
 to the third dimension of form, it becomes necessary to avoid the 
 error of the entire absence of elevation by the smaller error of 
 exaggeration. The apparently excessive prominence given to 
 the elevations in modeling is, however, exactly that which the 
 eye gives to all objects when seen in their natural relation to 
 the horizontal distance. The height of any hill appears much 
 greater than the facts of measurement of base and altitude will 
 warrant. The eye naturally neglects horizontal distance. No- 
 tice the effect of close approach to an object in the picture of 
 Satan's Tower, Wyoming (Fig. 4). 
 
 No teacher would insist that a general truth in regard to the 
 base and the altitude of a given triangle could not be shown with- 
 out the accurate construction of the lines and angles in their 
 relations. Still, that is exactly the problem that we have before 
 us. We wish to show the slopes of a river-basin, and exhibit the 
 effects of elevation. We step to the blackboard and draw two 
 lines meeting at an angle, and ask that these may be supposed to 
 represent the slopes of the basin. Is it a valid objection to state 
 that if the two slopes were actually platted to scale the eye could 
 not distinguish where the tingle appeared ? 
 
 Relief-maps have been used by the best geographers to illus- 
 trate the facts of the science, and objections to such use are most 
 apt to come from those teachers who are afraid of anything in- 
 volving any expenditure of energy. '' It is no wonder," says 
 Locke, '' if those who make the fashion suit it to what they have, 
 and not to what their pupils need." 
 
i6 Map Modeling in Geography, 
 
 PRIMARY WORK. 
 
 The use of the sand-heap and sand-table in the primary grades 
 should be made definite in purpose. The more we are able to 
 make the modeling a means whereby the child symbolizes what 
 he has observed, the greater will be the mental gain of the child 
 through the use of the medium. The child has already gained 
 many ideas about fields, hills, roads, streams, clouds, storms, 
 trees, animals, and people. These must be used in obtaining 
 ideas regarding remote regions. Let the teacher and pupil talk 
 together as the modeling progresses, the child forming a mental 
 picture as the slope or hill is molded by his hands. Thus the 
 relief form comes into its true relation as a symbol, and the child 
 sees the slope, hill, range, or chain. He outlines the continent, 
 makes mountains here and valleys there ; now he sees high cliffs, 
 and sandy beaches, harbors and mouths of rivers. He shows the 
 lines of watercourses, marks the places of swamps and deserts, 
 forest glades, and all the varied panorama that one would behold 
 while making the actual journey. To him — t/ie continent-builder 
 — the living world-mass rises up in miniature. What he has seen 
 of streams and lands, of roads and cities, forms the basic m.ate- 
 rial for picturing to himself the distant places. 
 
 Having first become acquainted with nature as it exists under 
 different conditions of surface, climate, and culture, the child 
 knows the thing to be symbolized ; the symbol then has value, and 
 not till then. 
 
Map Modeling in Geography. 
 
 17 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 ULtnnnn K* 
 
 The Fields. 
 
 1. The children are gathered around the large molding-board 
 or sand-table. 
 
 2. A quantity of sand sufficient to cover an oblong space near 
 the centre is placed on the table. 
 
 3. Some of the children are allowed to make it look like [re- 
 present] the meadow. They will smooth it out flat, and perhaps 
 suggest the placing of a fence around it. 
 
i8 
 
 Map Modeling in Geography, 
 
 4. Let them build a fence around it, using sticks, shoe-pegs, 
 pebbles, or other available material. 
 
 Let them divide it into smaller fields, marking them to denote 
 the various kinds, — the corn-lands, meadows, and wheat-fields. 
 Houses may be represented by paper forms or kindergarten 
 
 ^ w 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 blocks. The bridge over the stream, and many other representa- 
 tions may be made by the employment of paper-folding. 
 
 Use blue yarn or string to represent the stream or brook. Draw white 
 string over a piece of blue crayon. 
 
 When the children have modeled the level fields, arranged 
 the houses, bridges, etc., each child should draw with the side of 
 the crayon a chalk model (Fig. 5) of the field. The details may 
 then be drawn into the gray mass. The pencil may be used in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Chalk-modeling has been largely used in the illustration of 
 this little book. The sketches have in all cases been copied from 
 the blackboard work, and are intended to show the general effects 
 that may be produced by the use of the flat side of the crayon. 
 The pictures are drawn in less than one minute each, with effects 
 requiring much longer time when the attempt is made to repro- 
 duce them. 
 
Map Modeling in Geography. 
 
 19 
 
 '^^^^^^f^^. 
 
 m^ 
 
 Fig 
 
 Hcsson )IK. 
 
 The Slope. 
 
 1. Children mold the side of a hill, or a slope of ground. 
 
 2. Let the pupils pour some Avater down the slope. 
 
 Did you ever see water flowing down a slope ? In the rain. 
 
 Each little rill wears its furrow in the surface. 
 
 Uniting, they form a rivulet, and wear a broader and deeper 
 channel. 
 
 Where does the rain come from ? 
 
 But how did the clouds gather rain and let it come down to 
 the earth ? 
 
 See how muddy the water has become in the little stream. 
 
 Did you ever see the pools of muddy water formed in the 
 hollows of the road ? 
 
 Water flows from a higher to a lower level. 
 
20 Map Modeling in Geography. 
 
 The water carries the fine soil down the slope. Does it take 
 the sand so far ? The little rills cannot move the larger pebbles. 
 But the large stream along the roadside may move quite large 
 stones. Where will the mud of the water be left ? 
 
 Is there a long slope near the school ? What kind of soil 
 covers the surface. Do you know what is underneath ? 
 
 Find some sand ; some fine loam of the meadow. Bring clay 
 from the banks of the stream. Here is sova^ gravel. 
 
 Some day when the dark water is rushing down the slope of 
 the roadway, go out and dip up a glassful of the water. Let it 
 stand all night in the glass. What is it that you find at the 
 bottom ? 
 
Mjp Modeling in Geography. 
 
 21 
 
 Fig. 
 
 The Hill. 
 
 1. The child may now be led to represent the hill by model- 
 ing it in the sand. 
 
 2. Let him model some hill known to him by name. 
 
 3. Call attention to the different kinds of slopes. 
 
 4. Show that the hills and valleys must occur together. 
 How are hills covered ? Can you describe White's hill ? 
 What does water do to hills ? 
 
 How many slopes must the bed of a stream have ? 
 
 The drops of rain make the r///, and the rill its little fiirroiv. 
 Rills make rivulets^ and rivulets make a gully in the hillside. 
 Rivulets make torrents, and these, working with greater force, 
 tear out deep gorges in the slopes of the hills. 
 
 Valleys in plains are mainly the result of the wear of the sur- 
 face by running water. 
 
 But the great valleys of the earth were formed by folds in 
 the crust. 
 
 Such a lesson on local geography is here shown : 
 
22 Mclp Modeling in Geography. 
 
 A Primary Lesson on Hills. 
 
 The purpose of the lesson may be to make a beginning in the 
 study of the science of geography, and to engage the young 
 children in the important operation of learning how to observe 
 the facts in nature. To this work the children will be able to 
 bring all their knowledge obtained through previous observation 
 of the earth's surface differences ; also their constructive tenden- 
 cies will be utilized. The teacher should bring to the work her 
 own experiences as a child, her acquired knowledge of child 
 nature, and her personal knowledge of each individual in the 
 class. 
 
 "■ All the little boys and girls in Johnny's class may go to the 
 sand-table and work in the sand until I have finished the number 
 lesson with Charley's class. Let me see how quiet you can be, 
 and what you can do with the sand." 
 
 During the lesson in number, the little children to whom per- 
 mission has been given are busily but quietly engaged in heaping 
 up the sand in piles. After the dismissal of the class in number, 
 and when all the older pupils are provided with work, the teacher 
 passes to the back part of the room and begins the lesson in 
 geography. 
 
 '' Mabel, what have 3^ou been making?" I have been making 
 a sand-pile. '' John and Robert have made two large heaps. 
 What do you call yours, boys ? " Mine looks like a big hill. 
 This is the hill near grandfather's house. '' Agnes has made a 
 hill, too." It is a little hill. A small hill. A. low hill. '' We 
 will call it a low hill, but what shall we say of this one that 
 Henry has molded ? " It is a tall hill. We may call it a large 
 hill. It is a narrow hill. I made it for a very high hill. '' Let 
 us call it a high hill. Tell me something about yours, Ida." My 
 
Map Modeling in Geography, 23 
 
 hill is steep. This hill is flat on the top. '' Robert, what can 
 you say about yours ? " Mine is a long, steep hill like grand- 
 father's hill. It is a good hill to slide down in the winter. 
 
 '• Did you ever slide down a steep hill ? " Tom Jones took me 
 with him. "I would be afraid to go down," says Agnes. "■ Did 
 you go down on a sled ? " '' We went down in the old cutter, 
 — oh, so fast ! " says Robert. " That was not a very safe thing 
 to do, I should think. What made the cutter go so fast, Edith ? " 
 The hill was so high and steep. We went down the side of the 
 hill. In the winter, when the snow is on the ground, we may 
 slide down the side of the hill. Water runs down the hill and 
 carries the sand and pebbles along, too. In the summer. ^' Your 
 sled made a track in the snow when you were carried so swiftly 
 to the bottom. Does the water make a track in the side of the 
 hill ? Let us try it on these Httle hills." 
 
24 
 
 Primary Molding in Sand. 
 
 Fig. io. 
 
 arsson v. 
 
 Local Geography. 
 
 The large molding-board is covered with a thin layer of damp sand. 
 
 Teacher. — Children, you see that the sand on this board is spread out 
 flat; how many of you have ever seen any land which was flat or level? 
 Hands rise. 
 
 Charles. — Y2X\\^r?> meadow-lot is level. 
 
 Henry. — Our sheep-pasture is flat. 
 
 Eddie. — Uncle pastures his sheep on the hill back of the barn. 
 
 Teacher. — So all pastures are not alike, it seems. Etta, what do we call 
 land which is quite flat and even? 
 
 Etta. — A large piece of land which is level or even is called a plain. 
 
 Teacher. — Eddie may make the sand in the molding-board look some- 
 what like his uncle's sheep-pasture. Wi^at did he call the pasture, Etta? 
 
 Etta. — He said that it was a hill, (While Eddie is working, the other 
 children watch closely. Eddie finishes.) 
 
 Teacher. — How did you make the hill, Eddie ? 
 
 Eddie. — I heaped the sand in a pile, and made it rise a little at a time 
 until it reached this steep place where I have put in these little bits of 
 stone for rocks. One of Uncle Frank's sheep fell over the rocks last spring. 
 
Primary Molding in Sand, 25 
 
 Teacher. — What do we call those places at which the land rises up ? 
 Dick. 
 
 Dtck.—WWXs. 
 
 Teacher. — How many ever saw a hill as steep as this one which Eddie 
 has molded ? (Many hands rise.) Charlie. 
 
 Charles. — The hill by Mr. White's house is nearly as steep as one side 
 of that. 
 
 James. — Dry Hill is steeper. 'Tis fun to slide down there in the winter. 
 Teacher. — Annie, what do we call the sides of hills } 
 
 Annie. — We call them slopes. 
 
 Teacher. — James, what shall we call this slope on the left? 
 
 James. — A gentle slope. 
 
 Teacher. — And this one on the right, Gertie.'^ 
 
 Gertie. — A sharp slope. 
 
 Teacher. — Better, an abrupt slope. Eddie, where did the sheep fall 
 over } 
 
 Eddie (pointing out the place on the molded hill). — Here, where it goes 
 straight down. 
 
 Teacher. — What do we call a place where the slope is not gradual, but 
 seems to go straight down ? Florence. 
 
 Florence. — 1 do not know. 
 
 Teacher. — Lottie may tell us. 
 
 Lottie. — It is called a precipice. 
 
 Teacher. — Eddie's uncle pastures sheep on the hill ; with what do you 
 think that hill is covered, Dick.^ 
 
 Dick. — There must be plenty of grass. 
 
 Eddie. — But there are bushes and young trees, too. 
 
 Teacher. — What else do we find on hills, very often } Charles. 
 
 Charles. — The top of White's hill is covered with large trees. 
 
 Teacher. — James. 
 
 Ja7nes. — Dry Hill has no covering at its very top — nothing but dry rocks. 
 
 Teacher. — Here are some little pebbles and bits of stone. James may 
 mold Dry Hill. Eddie. 
 
 Eddie. — He must make it near mine, for Dry Hill is near Uncle Frank's 
 pasture. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes. Let us call the sheep- pasture Uncle Frank's hill. Now, 
 how does Dry Hill differ from Uncle Frank's hill } Etta. 
 
 Etta. — It is much higher. 
 
 James, — The slopes are steeper. 
 
26 Primary Molding in Sand, 
 
 Gertie. — It has no grass at the top. 
 
 Dick. — The rocks are larger. 
 
 Teacher.— Q\i2.x\^s may mold White's hill. Here are some spruce twigs 
 for trees. Florence may mold a hill too. James may describe Dry Hill. 
 
 Ja7ne5.—T\i& hill is broad and high, and the slopes are steep. The top 
 is dry and rocky. 
 
 7>^r//<?r.— Eddie may describe Uncle Frank's hill. 
 
 ^^^/^._The hill is long and low, and is covered with grass, bushes, and 
 small trees. 
 
 Teacher.— Yio^^ does White's hill differ from Uncle Frank's hill? 
 
 Charles.— \X. is larger and higher. 
 
 Annie. — The slopes are not so steep. 
 
 Florence. — It is covered with trees. 
 
 Dick. — And the trees are large. 
 
 Teacher. — Charles may describe White's hill. 
 
 Charles. — It is a large and high hill, but the slopes are not very steep. 
 It is covered with trees, which are very large. 
 
 Teacher. — Hills have many uses. You may not know a great many of 
 them now, but you can tell me some. Eddie. 
 
 Eddie. — They are often used as pastures. 
 
 Charles. — Lumber is made from the trees which grow upon them. 
 
 Gertie. — Papa says that the stones used in building the church came 
 from the side of Dry Hill. 
 
 Jajnes. — That is so; and I think that the lime used in making the 
 mortar was made by burning some of the same rock. 
 
 Teacher. — Did you ever see masons make mortar, James? What was 
 mixed with the lime ? 
 
 James. — Sand. 
 
 Teacher. — Some hills are formed wholly of sand. What is Uncle Frank's 
 hill made of, Eddie ? 
 
 Eddie. — Dirt and stones, just the same as the one which I molded. 
 
 Teacher. — Annie may bring me a cup of water. I pour some water here 
 on the top of this hill. Where does the water go ? Dick. 
 
 Dick. — It runs down along the slope to the bottom. 
 
 Teacher. — Charles. 
 
 Charles. — The sand runs along too. 
 
 Teacher. — When does water fall upon the real hills, Gertie? 
 
 Gertie. — When it rains. 
 
 Teacher. — Eddie. 
 
Primary Molding in Sand, 27 
 
 Eddie. — Sand is carried down the real hill, too. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes. Water wears away the large hills, just as it destroys this 
 little hill which you molded. Dick, did the water stop when it reached the 
 bottom of the hill? 
 
 Dick. — It did not stop, but ran along in a little stream between Dry Hill 
 and the hill which Florence molded. 
 
 Teacher. — We will call the little stream "Rocky Brook." Class may 
 tell me how many slopes are wetted by the water. 
 
 Class. — Three slopes are wetted by Rocky Brook. 
 
 Teacher. — James may name one. 
 
 Jaines. — One slope of Dry Hill. 
 
 Eddie. — A slope of of Florence Hill. 
 
 Gertie. — The water ran down the hill which Eddie molded. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes, the water always runs along one slope ; what are the 
 other slopes for } Lottie. 
 
 Lottie. — To keep the water in at the sides. 
 
 Teacher, — You must look carefully at all the streams after this. You 
 will always find three slopes. To-morrow we shall study some high hills. 
 They are called 
 
 Class. — Mountains. {Dismissed.) 
 
28 
 
 Primary Molding in Sand. 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 The Spring. 
 
 1. The child is allowed to pour some water upon sand, and to 
 find that the moisture soon passes through it. 
 
 The water sinks through the sand freely. There are empty 
 spaces between the little grains of sand, and the water readily 
 passes among such spaces. 
 
 Sand is loose and porous [pervious], and may become like a 
 kind of sponge, filled with the water from the surface of the 
 ground. 
 
 2. Let the children pour some water upon a quantity of clay, 
 and find that the tough clay does not allow the water to pass 
 through. 
 
 The little particles of clay fit close to each other. 
 Water cannot pass through the mass of clay. 
 Clay is impervious. 
 
 Many rocks are porous, and are also cracked or broken. 
 Water may pass down through the beds of many close-grained 
 
Primary Molding in Sand. 
 
 29 
 
 rocks, such as limestone or sandstone, because there are many- 
 joints or cracks. 
 
 3. The children are allowed to build up a hill of clay, and 
 
 'Q!s^^^^ 
 
 "-''^''.^^\VWh 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 make its slopes quite smooth. Then they may cover it with a 
 layer of mixed sand and gravel. 
 
 4. At the base of the hill, scoop out a part of the sand down 
 to the layer of clay. Pour the water on the slope at the top, and 
 after a few hours some will be found collected in the little hollow 
 at the base. 
 
 5. Where does the rain go ? 
 
 Some of the rain soaks down into the ground and finds its way 
 through the loose soil and sand, or even between the crevices in 
 the harder rocks, down to the layers of clay. Here it will follow 
 the line until it comes to some outlet at the lower surface, and 
 then gushes out as a spring. 
 
 When this water does not appear at the surface, we may dig 
 holes called wells, and catch the water. 
 
30 Primary Molding in Sand. 
 
 A Brook Basin. 
 
 The relief form of the school district should be studied 
 through actual observation. Land surfaces consist of slopes, long 
 or short, abrupt or gradual. Model such slopes in sand. Water 
 partings are formed by the meeting of slopes at their upper edges. 
 Find such water partings, mold and describe them. How is the 
 water parting related to drainage ? Slopes meet at their lower 
 edges and give valleys and river beds. Why do we find the 
 water here ? 
 
 Do you know where you can find a brook-basin ? Is it large 
 or small ? From how far is the water drained into this brook ? 
 Why does the water move so fast ? So slow ? What determines 
 the direction in which the brook flows ? The size ? Of what use 
 is a brook? Can you describe the banks and the mouth of the 
 stream ? Make a sand model of the brook-basin. 
 
 The value of the work in molding will be increased if the 
 teacher can give the children the advantage of numerous " Field 
 Lessons " as exemplified on page 52 under " Nature Study." The 
 child will collect the individual details of various observations, 
 and see the mutual relations existing among them. The brook 
 basin will become an intelligible unit of measure in practical geo- 
 graphical study. The work in the open air need not degenerate 
 into mere romping rambles, but must have definite plan and 
 purpose. A successful field lesson is able to give an impetus to 
 the whole school-life of the child. Remember that formal lessons 
 are not absolutely necessary in nature study. Much can be done 
 at odd moments, and the child will often do much more at home 
 than at school. Each ramble in field and in wood becomes a 
 true communion with nature. Tell nothing that the children can 
 find out for themselves. 
 
Intermediate Molding in Sand. 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Mountains. 
 
 [A good supply of clay or sand should be in the molding-board.] 
 
 Teacher. — Lottie, what are very high hills called ? 
 
 Lottie. — Very high hills are called mountains. 
 
 Teacher. — Elevations of land rising less than 2000 feet above the sur- 
 rounding country are called hills ; those 2000 feet or more in height are 
 called mountains. How high is the steeple of the Presbyterian church, 
 Charlie ? 
 
 Charlie. — My brother Ben says that it is 100 feet high. 
 
 Teacher. — How many such steeples would it take to reach 2000 feet into 
 the air ? Gertie. 
 
 Gertie. — Twenty. 
 
 Teacher. — How high the mountams must be As high as twenty stee- 
 ples, one over the other. Lottie. 
 
 Lottie. — I have seen a mountain. 
 
 Teacher. — Tell us about it. 
 
 Lottie. — Papa and I went to the top of Mount McGregor last summer. 
 
32 Intermediate Molding in Sand, 
 
 Teacher. — How did you reach the top ? 
 
 Lottie, — We went up in the cars. It took us a long time to go up to 
 the top, but we could then see the river, and it seemed very near. 
 
 Teacher. — What is the name of the river? 
 
 Lottie. — The Hudson. Papa said it was not near to us, but was miles 
 away. 
 
 Teacher. — Why do so many people visit Mount McGregor.^ Class. 
 How many know? (Hands rise.) Dick. 
 
 Dick. — Because General Grant died there. 
 
 Teacher. — Who was General Grant ? Lottie. 
 
 Lottie. — He was a great Union general, papa said. 
 
 Teacher. — Well, what is it, Charlie? 
 
 Charlie.— Wv^^ Cameron, I wish you would let Lottie mold Mount 
 McGregor. 
 
 Teacher. — Lottie may mold it. (She molds the mountain.) 
 
 Lottie. — It is a large one. 
 
 Teacher. — When we go up a hill or mountain, where do we b:gin to as- 
 cend ? Class. 
 
 Class. — At the base or bottom. 
 
 Teacher. — You may call that part of the base at which we begin to as- 
 cend, the foot. Point out some parts of the mountain, Gertie. 
 
 Gertie. — This is the top (touching it). 
 
 Teacher. — You may call that part the sumjnit. What part do you see, 
 Etta ? 
 
 Etta. — I see the sides. 
 
 Teacher. — The sides are often called the slopes. Class may name with 
 me the parts of a mountain. 
 
 Class and Teacher. — Slopes, base, foot, and summit. 
 
 Teacher. — Lottie has finished molding the mountain, and it is well done. 
 Did you see any other mountains ? 
 
 Lottie. There were others near it. 
 
 Teacher. — Who wants to mold one or two mountains near Mount Mc- 
 Gregor ? 
 
 (Every hand up, including Lottie's, although the little girl seems to have 
 changed places with the teacher.) 
 
 Teacher. — All of you, of course. Eddie may mold one on this side, and 
 Annie one on the left. Now what shall we have ? Class. 
 
 Class. — A row of mountains. 
 
 Teacher. — Such a line of mountains is called a range or chain. Well, 
 little critic ? 
 
Intermediate Molding in Sand, 33 
 
 Lottie. — Eddie's mountain is more like a hill ; it should be higher. 
 
 Eddie. — I can make it larger and higher. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes, I would do so. Most mountains are joined closer to- 
 gether at their bases than you have made these ; more like the links of a 
 chain. Dick may now fill in some clay between the mountains. 
 
 Dick. — That will make them look like the roof of a house. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes, the mountains are the roof of our home, the world- 
 That will do, Dick. Do not fill in too much, but leave the three summits 
 or peaks. 
 
 Charles (who wishes to be useful too). — May I bring the water. Miss 
 Cameron } 
 
 Teacher. — In a few minutes, Charlie. If I should pour some water on 
 the top, as I did with the hills that we molded, where would it run } 
 
 Charlie, — It would run down the two sides of the chain or range. 
 
 Teacher. — Can any one tell what the top of this ridge looks like .'* Ger- 
 tie. 
 
 Gertie. — Something like a roof with the chimneys. 
 
 Teacher. — We call the top of the ridge the crest. Annie, if you lived on 
 this side of the ridge and Ella lived on the other side, how would you go to 
 her.? 
 
 Annie. — I should pass between the peaks. 
 
 Teacher. — Why ? 
 
 Annie. — Because it is lower there. 
 
 Teacher. — Sometimes these low places or notches become deep furrows 
 down the slopes, and are then Q.2\\^di passes. You may tell me why, Annie. 
 
 Annie. — I suppose because people /^jj through at those places. 
 
 Teacher. — Charlie may bring the water, now. (Pouring some on the 
 ridge between the mountains.) You see that this water makes such a pass 
 in our little mountain chain. When a river flows through a mountain 
 chain, the cut is called a gap or gorge. There are many in this country. 
 Class may tell me what becomes of the water which flows down the moun- 
 tain sides. 
 
 Class. — It forms rivers. {Dismissed.) 
 
34 Intermediate Molding in Sand. 
 
 A River Valley. 
 
 It is altogether probable that the actual geographical unit of 
 practical study, after the simpler study of the brook basin, will 
 be found to be the rzver valley. Around the valley the elements 
 of geographical life will cluster, and this natural home of man will 
 become the historical unit as well. A true concentration of ef- 
 fort and correlation of study will thus be effected. The special 
 study of a small portion of the earth will be of more value to the 
 student in geography than a less specialized study of extended 
 areas. This is true at least in regard to the earlier efforts in the 
 attainment of such geographical concepts as are necessary to the 
 
 KEWWOI^LD ^-r^^- OLD WORLD 
 
 earnest student of the science. To. the pupils in the schools of 
 Western Pennsylvania, the study of either the Alleghany or the 
 the Monongahela River will be of greater value educationally 
 than the study of more distant streams. All of the main facts of 
 physical and commercial geography may be developed and illus- 
 trated with little apparent effort, because with the child you are 
 proceeding in a strictly logical manner. The natural historical 
 associations may be brought out in their proper relations, and the 
 whole unit be used as a knoiwn quantity by which other units, to 
 the child unknown, may be brought into his mental horizon. 
 
 If we work upward and outward in this manner, the final and 
 grander concept of the world itself— as a great valley with its 
 
Intermediate Molding in Sand. 35 
 
 ocean river, the Atlantic — comes upon the mind, to unify not only 
 the geography, but the history of the world (Fig. 14). 
 
 '' Rivers are the most important aqueous agents in modifying 
 the surface of the earth. Springs, as they issue into open day, 
 naturally seek a lower level ; and numbers of them meeting in 
 one channel form streams, which again join in some lower valley 
 and produce rivers of various sizes. Rivers thus form a species 
 of natural drains by which the excess of moisture that falls upon 
 the land is returned to the sea. They are of all dimensions ; in 
 breadth from a few feet to many miles ; so shallow that a boy 
 could wade them, or so deep as to float the largest ships. In 
 length of course, they range from forty miles to as many hundred 
 miles." 
 
36 
 
 Intermediate Molding in Sand. 
 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 ILtuuon X. 
 
 Volcanoes. — I. 
 
 ** What goes into the head through the eyes never comes out again." — German 
 Proverb. 
 
 An Active Volcano. 
 
 Procure some molder's clay, and dampen it until it will pack 
 when pressed in the hand. Sand or common red clay will do 
 very well in place of the other, but molder's clay is cleaner. Pul- 
 verize an ounce of chlorate of potash, and then mix it thoroughly 
 with half an ounce of dry white sugar. Procure a small quantity 
 of sulphuric acid (H^SO^). 
 
 Now build up a small pile of the clay, and scoop out from the 
 centre a part, as in this figure. (Fig. 15.) 
 
 Put a piece of paper, about four inches in diameter, in the 
 bottom of this hole ; then put in the mixed potash and sugar. 
 
 Take a pencil or pen-holder (Fig. 16), and run it through a 
 circle of paper about as large as the first one ; press it down upon 
 the mixture. Pack the clay carefully down upon the paper and 
 about the pencil, turning the pencil around now and then in 
 order that it may be removed at last. 
 
 The volcano will now be complete (Fig. 17), with the mixture 
 
Intermediate Molding in Sand. 
 
 37 
 
 three or four inches from the top, and a clear hole leading down 
 to it. 
 
 To light the volcano, take a long straw or a piece of glass tub- 
 ing and drop a small quantity of the sulphuric acid down the hole. 
 
 ■I^'^^&M^,. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Do not look into the hole to see about the eruption. It will generally 
 occur in a minute or less after the acid is poured in. If it does 
 
38 Intermediate Molding in Sand. 
 
 not go, put in more acid. A very little cold water, added to the 
 acid just before it is used, will generally expedite matters. Try 
 a little of the mixture in a shovel before you build a volcano, and 
 the acid can thus be adjusted. With the ordinary commercial 
 sulphuric acid, however, no trouble should be experienced. 
 Sometimes the acid is too strong, and should be diluted by pour- 
 ing some of the acid into a small quantity of water. 
 
Intermediate Molding in Sand, 
 
 39 
 
 iScKi* 
 
 Fig. i8. 
 
 Volcanoes. — II. 
 
 Vesuvius, A.D. 79. 
 
 Model upon the molding-board the details of Vesuvius and its 
 surroundings, including the bay of Naples and the Islands Ischia 
 and Procida. After the volcano has been prepared according to 
 the plan before given, mold the ridge S, of Mount Somma the 
 companion peak as seen from Naples (N). Pieces of blue string 
 may be laid to represent the streams upon which Naples and 
 some of the other towns are situated (Fig. 18). Naples may be 
 represented by a square of colored paper, and the buried cities 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum by stars or triangles cut from paper 
 of a different color. The modeHng should be done while the at- 
 tention of the class is held at each point, the teacher placing the 
 pieces of paper in position, or allowing the children to place them 
 according to instructions. Following will be the lesson some- 
 what in detail : 
 
40 Intermediate Molding in Sand, 
 
 The teacher asks questions about the shape of volcanoes, and 
 develops the difference between mountains and volcanoes. These 
 " send out fire, smoke, and ashes from the top." Yes, John is 
 right, " sometimes hot stones, gases, steam, and lava are thrown 
 out too." And Mabel says that these " do not always come out 
 at the top, but may sometimes burst out at the sides." Can 
 any of you tell me what lava is ? Yes, *• melted rock." Did you 
 ever see any.^ Here are three pieces. This hard piece John's 
 " father brought from Italy," and here is a softer piece which 
 came from Iceland. But James ** found this soft, light piece 
 down in Mr. Grove's marble-shop." It is so light that it will float 
 on the water. " Mr. Grove said it would float, and that it was 
 used to polish marble." Yes ; what did he call it ? ** Pumice." 
 Most pumice-stone comes from the Lipari islands, where there 
 is a hill of pumice looo feet high. (Find these islands on the 
 map, and to-morrow tell me where they are.) 
 
 Where is the volcano Vesuvius, Charles ? *' In Italy, near the 
 Bay of Naples." Very well. More than 1800 years ago there 
 were two very beautiful cities just at the base of Mount Vesuvius. 
 They were just here at the foot, one where I put this blue paper 
 star (P), the other where I put my finger. Mabel may put the 
 red star there (H). 
 
 One bright day the people in these cities were working away. 
 The soldiers were on guard at the gates ; the baker was baking 
 bread ; the miller was grinding wheat ; the tailor making 
 clothes ; and some of the ladies were combing their hair with 
 queer little combs of bone, and looking into little hand-mirrors 
 of polished steel. Suddenly Vesuvius sent out streams of lava 
 and clouds of ashes, and the two cities were buried out of sight. 
 (The modeled Vesuvius may be ignited now.) Our little hill of 
 fire was not much like the great mountain in power, but the fire 
 came out somewhat as it comes from Vesuvius. 
 
Intermediate Molding in Sand. 
 
 41 
 
 ipK 
 
 
 :s. v:;'\ 
 
 
 *::5^r- 
 
42 Intermediate Molding in Sand, 
 
 Would you like to know the names of the two cities ? Here 
 they are upon the blackboard, and you may all repeat them with 
 me: 
 
 POMPEII. 
 HERCULANEUM. 
 
 What a strange word the first is, with two i's at the end. Not 
 many words are like that. Let us pronounce it : 
 
 Pom-pa'-ye. 
 This city was partly uncovered some years ago, and travelers 
 can now go into many of the houses in which the people lived so 
 long ago. 
 
 Can you tell me the name of a modern city near Vesuvius ? 
 Yes, '' Naples." Let us make a little outline upon the board. 
 Charles may write the names of the two buried or dead cities ; 
 James, the modern city ; and Jennie the names of the volcano 
 and country. 
 
 [ Buried or dead cities^ 79 A.D, 
 
 Pompeii, 
 
 herculaneum, 
 
 Naples, Modern City. 
 
 Vesuvius, Volcano. 
 
 Italy, Country. 
 
 Lipari Islands, (?) Answer to-morrow^ 
 
Intermediate Molding in Sand. 43 
 
 ILesson XKK. 
 
 Volcanoes. — III. 
 
 Teacher. — How many can tell me something about the Lipari Islands? 
 
 Several of the pupils mention the points which they learned in the preceding lesson. 
 
 Etta. — I asked brother Tom to show me where to find them, and he told 
 me to look on the map of Europe, a little north of Sicily. 
 
 Teacher. — That is right. Point them out upon the map, Etta. James. 
 
 James. — Father says that we get currants and figs from some of these 
 islands. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes. I am glad that your parents and brothers are so much 
 interested in your work. Some of the islands produce many fruits. One, 
 however, is a volcanic cone in the midst of the sea. It is called Stromboli, 
 and has been constantly in eruption for more than 2000 years. Helen, 
 can you tell me the name of the sea which surrounds this volcano ? 
 
 Helen. — The Mediterranean. 
 
 Teacher. — What two grand divisions does this sea separate, Charles.? 
 
 Charles. — The Mediterranean separates Europe from Africa. 
 
 Teacher. — Hope may find on the large map another sea which separates 
 two grand divisions. 
 
 The pupil points to the Red Sea ; and thus the Caribbean Sea and the East Indian Seas are suc- 
 cessively found. If the dividing seas of Asia and Australia are not seen as such, the teacher calls at- 
 tention to them. 
 
 Teacher. — Dick may name the largest ocean. 
 
 Z>/<f/^.— The Pacific. 
 
 Teacher. — Now, most of the volcanoes of the world are in the Pacific 
 Ocean, or near its borders, and nearly all of the other volcanoes are in these 
 middle seas, or very near them. Indeed, the Pacific has been called the sea 
 of fire. Can you tell me why, Gertie } 
 
 Gertie. — Because it has so many volcanoes. 
 
 Teacher. — I will write on the blackboard an outline, and you may copy 
 it into your blank-books afterwards, but do not forget what it means. 
 I. Volcanoes are found : 
 
 1. In the Pacific. 
 
 2. Along the borders of the Pacific. 
 
 3. In the Middle Seas. 
 
 4. A few in the other oceans. 
 
 Lottie may tell us the names of three volcanoes in the Mediterranean. 
 Lottie, — Vesuvius, Etna, and Stromboli. 
 
44 
 
 Intermediate Molding in Sand. 
 
 Teacher. — When you find the names of more valcanoes as you study 
 geography, you may write them in your books in the proper place. Thus : 
 
 II. Volcanoes in the Mediterranean (Middle Sea). 
 
 1 . Vesuvius. 
 
 2. Etna. 
 
 3. StromboU. 
 
 I will now show you something about one of the gases sent forth by 
 volcanoes. (Fig. 20.) 
 
 The teacher here puts some small pieces of marble or old mortar into a common pickle-bottle, and 
 fits into the mouth of the bottle a cork through which a f iece of 
 glass tubing has been pushed. A short piece of rubber tubing is 
 fitted to the glass tubing. The cork with its tubing is then taken 
 out, and a gill of mixed sulphuric acid and water is poured over the 
 marble. The teacher replaces the cork, and then collects the gas by 
 inserting the rubber tube into the mouth of another bottle. (The 
 apparatus may be prepared by one of the bright boys. Try one.) 
 
 James may light the candle. Now pour out the gas 
 directly over the flame. Class, what has happened ? 
 Class. — The gas has put out the candle. 
 Teacher.— Why could James pour the gas down 
 upon the candle, Lottie } 
 
 Lottie. — Because the gas is heavier than air. 
 Teacher. — I have now collected some more of 
 the gas. Charles may pour this clear lime-water 
 into the bottle of gas. What change has taken 
 place, Dick ? 
 
 Dick. — The water is now white. 
 Teacher. — This gas is called carbonic acid gas, and may be detected by 
 its power to turn clear lime-water white. Here is a tumbler filled with 
 lime-water. Florence may blow through this glass tube into the water. 
 Helen. — Oh, it turns white ! 
 
 Teacher. — But is Florence a little volcano ? The same gas is given off 
 by the lungs. We shall learn more about this in Physiology. You may 
 copy this sentence : 
 
 Some volcanoes send forth carbonic acid gas, and the same kind of gas 
 is exhaled by animals. 
 
 Class may take Lesson XVI., subject, "Mountains and Mountain 
 Ranges." Turn to the map of South America, and learn the names of the 
 principal ranges. Locate the volcanoes. 
 Lottie. — I have found one already. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
Nature Study. 45 
 
 There should be a series of lessons upon the character of the 
 surface, the relation of slopes, brook basins, river basins, valleys, 
 hills, and the other ways in which the correlation of form and 
 geography is manifested. It has been said that a grain of sand is 
 a thought of God. We need not call the attention of the child 
 to the distant and seemingly more marvelous things in nature 
 before he gains some knowledge of the marvels under his feet. 
 The real miracles lie nearest at hand. Let him study the sand, 
 the gravel, and the clay. How were these materials formed, 
 whence were they derived, and by what means were they laid 
 down in their present position ? How came the different rocks 
 to occupy their places in the earth ? Are there any changes now 
 going forward on the face of the globe ? Study the action of 
 brooks and rivers as they bear away the mud, the sand, and the 
 gravel in one place, and deposit them in another. Do not the 
 rains and frosts, the winds, and other agents act upon the solid 
 rocks of the earth, and make them crumble down, thus forming 
 new soil? Open the eyes of the child to some of the wonders 
 that lie all around him. Perhaps we may not be able to teach 
 them to "see nature," but we can lead them so that they may 
 not lose the love of nature they already have. Every child has a 
 quick eye for the curious and interesting things in the fields and 
 woods. Keep up the curiosity of the child, and let the interest 
 — that Herbartian basis of all success in teaching — keep well 
 ahead of the knowledge. Encourage the children to bring to 
 you whatever to them seems curious and interesting from their 
 
46 Nature Study. 
 
 walks in the fields and woods. A well-known naturalist has said : 
 *' One throb of love of nature which you can awaken in the 
 child's heart is worth any number of dry facts which you can put 
 into his head." 
 
 " O Nature, gracious mother of us all ! 
 Within thy bosom myriad secrets lie 
 Which thou surrenderest to the patient eye 
 That seeks and waits." 
 
 STUDIES. 
 
 (Specimens of children's work in Model School.) 
 
 The work here given is by the pupils of the Practice School 
 of a State Normal School in Pennsylvania. The ages range from 
 eight years to ten years. The lessons concern that which may 
 be presumed to be most familiar to the children — their own lo- 
 cality. 
 
 An Observation Lesson. 
 
 Watching a Crane. 
 
 Paul and Carl went to spend an afternoon playing along the 
 creek. When they came within sight of the water, they saw a 
 large bird standing in the water near a large rock. " Oh look," 
 said Paul, "there is a goose standing in the water." "Where?" 
 said Carl. " Don't you see it over there by the large rock ? " 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 ** It must be asleep ioK it stands so still." 
 
 Pearl Watson, 8 yrs. 
 
Nature Study. 47 
 
 (Fig. 21.) " It must be asleep, for it stands so still." " Oh, I see it 
 now ; but it is too large for a goose. See its long legs and neck. 
 It is too tall for a goose." '' Oh, yes," said Paul, "so it is. I won- 
 der what bird it is, and why it stands there on one foot." " I 
 think it is looking down into the water after something." " It 
 can't be a goose, or duck, or chicken," said Paul. " I believe," 
 said Carl, "that is the same kind of a bird my father shot some- 
 where along Wolf Creek one day. It was very tall, and he called 
 it a crane'' "Oh see," cried Paul, "it has caught something 
 and has it in its mouth. I thought the bird was asleep, but it 
 must have been watching for what it has just caught." " The 
 bird has caught a young frog," said Carl, " and it is about to fly 
 away." The crane became frightened, and flew away as the boys 
 came up. It went to some place where it could eat the frog in 
 peace. 
 
 The Study of the Common Rocks. 
 
 Lessons should be given on minerals, including soils, dust, 
 common rocks, metals, etc. The child must be taught to grade 
 the various substances in regard to common properties, such as 
 color, touch, weight, hardness, etc. For instance, under the lat- 
 ter, the judgment is cultivated by estimates based upon compara- 
 tive degrees of hardness of certain substances, others being taken 
 as standards. 
 
 SCALE OF HARDNESS. 
 
 No. I. May be readily scratched with the ^;2!^^r ;/^//. [Clay, 
 etc.] 
 
 No. 2. Is not impressed with finger nail ; but does not 
 scratch a plate of copper. [Rock salt.] 
 
 No. 3. Scratches a piece of copper^ but does not scratch glass, 
 [Limestone.] 
 
48 Nature Study, 
 
 No. 4. Scratches glass. [Quartz, sandstone, etc.] 
 
 No. 5. Would scratch quartz. [Diamond.] 
 
 The pupils are encouraged to collect specimens of the com- 
 mon rocks, and to attend to the proper labeling of the various 
 pieces of rock, etc. Under this head coal is studied, although of 
 vegetable origin. Drawings of all important specimens should 
 be made. 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Quartz is very hard, and will scratch glass easily. 
 There are many kinds of quartz. I know six kinds. There 
 are crystal, milky, smoky, glassy, flint, and moss agate. 
 Smoky quartz looks like smoked glass. 
 Milky quartz is almost pure white. 
 Glassy quartz looks like glass, but is much harder. 
 Some flint looks like ashes, because it is gray. 
 The crystal is very clear and beautiful. 
 Quartz is the hardest of the common minerals. 
 
 Granite. 
 
 Three minerals are found in common granites, and they are 
 quartz^ feldspar^ and 7nica. 
 
 I can find the hard quartz in the granite. 
 
 Mica splits into very thin layers. I can pick up the scales 
 with the blade of my knife. 
 
 This mineral is used in the doors of the stove to let the light 
 shine through. 
 
 I cannot scratch the quartz with my knife, for the mineral is 
 harder than steel. 
 
 Steel will make a slight impression on feldspar. 
 
 I can see the edges of the crystals of feldspar. 
 
 This piece of granite has cream-colored feldspar, but the min- 
 eral is often red. 
 
Nature Study. 49 
 
 Granite is a fine building stone. 
 
 True granite is not arranged in layers. It is unstratified. 
 
 Gneiss is a rock resembling granite. It is a stratified rock. 
 
 Sandstone. 
 
 Here is a piece of sandstone. 
 
 It is formed of small grains of quartz. The little grains will 
 scratch glass. 
 
 Some of them are quite sharp, but some are rounded and dull. 
 They are really very small pebbles. 
 
 This sandstone has a yellow color, and is streaked with rust 
 marks. 
 
 There is iron in this rock, and such sandstone is not good for 
 building purposes. 
 
 Here is a fine gray stone brought from Berea, Ohio. 
 
 It is a fine sandstone of excellent quality. 
 
 Grindstones are made from fine sandstone. 
 
 Sandstone is found arranged in layers. 
 
 Hornblende. 
 
 Here is some hornblende. 
 
 It is dark like the black mica, but will not scale off when I 
 test it with my knife-blade. 
 
 This hornblende is greenish black in color. 
 
 The streak of this mineral is pale bluish green. 
 
 There is some quartz in this other rock besides the horn- 
 blende. 
 
 I can find, also, some feldspar. 
 
 This rock is syenite^ but quarrymen call it granite. It came 
 from Quincy in Massachusetts. 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 Here is a large piece of limestone. 
 
 It has no grains like those of the granite and gneiss. 
 
50 Nature Study, 
 
 The knife will scratch the stone. 
 
 This piece of the stone is very soft, but some kinds of lime- 
 stone are hard. 
 
 There are some shells in this piece of limestone. 
 
 Lime is made from this kind of stone. Mortar is made of 
 lime and sand. 
 
 When I poured some acid upon the limestone, white bubbles 
 were formed on the top of the stone. 
 
 We call this action effervescence. 
 
 Limestone is a very useful kind of rock. 
 
 Marble, 
 
 Marble is one kind of limestone. 
 
 This piece is white, but there are many kinds of marble that 
 are not white. 
 
 Marble is used for monuments, mantels, and the most beauti- 
 ful buildings. 
 
 Sculptors use fine white marble. 
 
 Some kinds of marble are gray, blue, black, or red. 
 
 A Lesson on Coal. 
 
 In the work of this lesson, specimens of the different kinds of 
 coal were brought into the class-room by the pupils. A general 
 talk between teacher and pupils developed the appearance, uses, 
 kinds, modes of obtaining, and other facts concerning the sub- 
 stance. A few experiments were performed to show how gas 
 and coke are derived from coal. A common clay pipe was filled 
 with soft coal, and then the top of the bowl was covered with 
 clay to prevent the escape of the gas. This was then heated, 
 and when the gas began to escape through the stem, a lighted 
 match was applied. The alcohol lamp was used to furnish the 
 heat necessary. After the gas was burned, the bowl of the pipe 
 was broken, and the coke taken out. 
 
Nature Study. 
 
 51 
 
 Some facts to be brought out in the lesson are : 
 
 1. Pennsylvania is the Great Coal State. 
 
 2. Two principal kinds of coal are anthracite (Fig. 22), and 
 bituminous (Fig. 23). 
 
 Fig. 22. — Anthracite Coal. 
 
 Alice Wilson, 10 yrs. 
 
 3. Anthracite coal is found in eastern Pennsylvania and in 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 4. It is much harder than bituminous coal. 
 
 5. Sulphur is often found in bituminous coal, and causes the 
 yellow streaks in some coal. 
 
 Fig. 23. — Bituminous Coal. 
 
 Clare Leighner, 9 yrs. 
 
 6. Cannel coal (Fig. 24), burns with a very steady flame, and, 
 indeed, was first called candle coal from this cause. 
 
 7. Some coal contains much shale and slate. 
 
 8. Coke is made by burning good bituminous coal in ovens. 
 
52 Nature Study, 
 
 9. It is a most valuable fuel for use in furnaces for the making 
 of fine grades of iron and steel. 
 
 Fig. 24. — Cannel Coal. 
 
 Clarence Kiester, 8 yrs. 
 
 10. Many coal products are very useful. 
 
 11. Coal is composed largely of carboUy of which graphite, 
 used in making pencils, is a purer form. 
 
 12. Diamonds are pure carbon. 
 
 A Field Lesson. — I. 
 
 When Agassiz held the greatest American school of science 
 on that little Island of Penikese off the south coast of Massachu- 
 setts, he stated vital truth when he said, *' Study nature, not 
 books." So, also, in his reply to the publisher, " It is not school- 
 books we want, but students," he showed the crying need of a 
 return to natural methods in the acquisition of true scientific 
 knowledge. To the teacher of geography the open book of na- 
 ture is the best text-book to use in rendering children familiar 
 with many geographical terms, and giving primary notions which 
 may be expanded through the exercise of the natural modifying 
 imagination. 
 
 Results obtained from field lessons will depend in a great 
 measure upon the degree of school spirit kept among the children 
 during the work. Children are apt to be led aside from the les- 
 son, and the teacher must have very definite purpose in order 
 
Nature Study. 
 
 53 
 
 to give effective instruction in the field. The study of a brook 
 and its basin was the object in view in the lesson here reported, 
 but rain interfered with the comfortable completion of the work. 
 Still, this may have fixed certain ideas concerning rainfall. Ob- 
 servations were made during one hour. The children were told : 
 
 1. To keep sharp and open eyes, 
 
 2. To note in their blank-books things seen, 
 
 3. To draw pictures of subjects observed, 
 
 4. To trace the brook in its course, 
 
 5. To make a written report next day. 
 
 From the mass of reports handed in at beginning of class- 
 work next day the following observations have been selected : 
 
 There are three slopes forming the basin of the brook. 
 The source of this brook is a large spring. 
 The source of the brook, Fig. 25. 
 
54 
 
 Nature Study. 
 
 The spring is walled about, and supplies a watering-trough 
 with pure, cold water. 
 
 Mr. Grine owns the spring. 
 
 The brook crosses the road, and runs through the fields into 
 the woods. 
 
 It is joined by a smaller stream that rises in a swamp, and by 
 another which rises in a small pond. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 In some places the brook flows through swampy land, and in 
 others through rich brown land. 
 
 We saw a farmer ploughing the land. 
 
 Corn was planted in that field last year, but this year the man 
 said he would plant potatoes. 
 
 Farmers do not plant the same crops in a field each year. 
 
 The brook gives plenty of good water to all the plants of the 
 field. 
 
Field Lessons, 55 
 
 The raimlrops fall upon the dry ground, and we do not see 
 where they go. 
 
 Once we lost the brook itself, for it went under the ground 
 for a long distance. 
 
 But we could see the green grass over it, and so we still fol- 
 lowed it. 
 
 Soon we found two places where the water came bubbling out 
 of the ground, and the brook ran on and on. 
 
 When the raindrop falls upon the ground, it soaks through the 
 spongy soil and joins other drops to flow into the brook, or to 
 come out at the spring. 
 
 In the woods two brooks came together and formed one large 
 stream. 
 
 We went into the woods, and saw the falls of this stream. 
 (Fig. 26, " The Falls.") 
 
 The stream divided below the falls, and we saw a small island. 
 
 A large tree had fallen across the stream and made a fine bridge. 
 
 The boys and girls crossed the brook by this bridge. 
 
 In the woods the banks of the stream became steep. 
 
 Soon the rain came down very fast and we started home. 
 
 We saw streams of water running along the road. When the 
 rain cannot soak into the ground, the water runs off along the top. 
 
 There was some sand in the brook, and many small pebbles. 
 The pebbles were smooth and rounded. 
 
 The water in the brook soon became muddy. 
 
 We could not trace the brook any farther than the falls, be- 
 cause the day was very unpleasant. But we did not loose our fun. 
 
 The flowers looked up at the rain. 
 
 We leave to the teacher the working-up of the material obtained for language-work, geography, etc. 
 On some pleasant afternoon we shall go farther down the stream. The pictures are by a lad of four- 
 teen and a girl nine years of age. 
 
56 Field Lessons, 
 
 A Field Lesson. — II. 
 
 [children's report of the same.] 
 
 The children were taken out by their teachers for a geographi- 
 cal ramble or " Field Lesson." The purpose was the tracing of 
 a brook from source to mouth. Rain interfered with the comple- 
 tion of the work, but some data of importance were obtained. 
 Written reports of observations made were the order for next 
 day in the language classes ; while in the geography class, tabu- 
 lated statements of the points noted were written upon the 
 board. Pictures drawn in pencil were mdidQ from the rough field 
 sketches of the note-books. 
 
 Our Walk. 
 
 When we went for our walk, we saw a farmer plowing his 
 field to plant corn. After a while he stopped, and leaned upon 
 the handle of the plow. An old man and a little boy were stand- 
 ing by the fence watching the man plow the field. A basket of 
 potatoes was near by. The potatoes were cut into small pieces, 
 ready to be planted. We walked along the road and soon came 
 to a new house and barn that some men were still working at. 
 We stopped and talked about what the men were doing. They 
 were carpenters and painters. Then we went down the road, 
 over a large hill, until we came to a large spring belonging to Mr. 
 Grine. The spring was walled about with stone (Fig. 27). The 
 water ran out of the spring, down a trough, and into a large wa- 
 tering-trough. Then it went across the road, under a bridge, and 
 into the field. The water ran through the field under the fences, 
 and we followed it a great distance down. The brook ran 
 through another plowed field, past an old tumble-down barn. 
 Here the brook ran under the ground, and we could only follow 
 it by the green grass above it. There were many trees near the 
 
Field Lessons. 
 
 57 
 
 barn, and the brook ran into the woods. Nearly all the trees 
 were very large and old. After awhile we came to a place where 
 the stream divided into two parts and formed a small island. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 "The spring was walled about with stone." 
 
 Alice Bard, 8 yrs. 
 
 The girls ran along the left bank of the stream, and nearly all 
 the boys along the right. We were going from the source to the 
 mouth of the brook, so we were on the left-hand side going down- 
 
 FlG. 28. 
 
 "The water came down as a water-fall." 
 
 Kate Bard, 10 yrs. 
 
 stream. The boys found a place where the water came down as 
 a waterfall (Fig. 28). There was a log lying across the brook, 
 
58 A River Basin, 
 
 and we crossed over upon it. Up the hill there was a large old 
 tree that had fallen down upon the ground. The rain came 
 down, and the boys crawled under the log to keep dry. We girls 
 stayed down by the falls, and held umbrellas over us. When we 
 started for home it began to rain harder, and the water ran in 
 streams along the road. We enjoyed our walk, but if it had not 
 been for the rain it would have been more pleasant. Our teach- 
 ers went with us. Edna McCalmont, 12 yrs. 
 
 The Great Father of Waters. 
 
 The following lesson was given by Mary L. Smith, a senior in charge of the third and fourth grade 
 classes in Geography. The report is largely her own, being made from the data furnished by her 
 lesson-plan and her verbal report of the answers obtained during the lesson. The children range 
 from nine to eleven years of age. 
 
 Motive. — To give and fix in the mind of the pupils a picture 
 of the Mississippi river and its branches. 
 
 Lesson. — i. The surface of North America was rapidly re- 
 viewed, emphasizing the eastern and western slopes. 
 
 2. Pupils at the board and at seats were asked to represent 
 their ideas of hills and of slopes ; then of two slopes and a valley 
 between. What do we always find in valleys? Do you know of 
 any valley without a stream of water? Now make a very wide 
 valley with one slope higher than the other. James may mold 
 the slopes and valley in the sand on the molding-board. Those 
 at seats and at the blackboard may draw the picture (Fig. 29). 
 
 3. The tendency of bodies to roll down-hill was discussed. 
 John, if you were on this slope with a basket of apples, and Paul 
 were on the other and had a bucket of water and a basket of 
 stones, and both of you should empty the baskets and bucket, 
 what would happen ? '' The stones, apples, and water would 
 travel down-hill." " Until they came to a level place." '' Some 
 would run down faster than others," Suppose Rosetta and Edna 
 
A River Basin, 
 
 59 
 
 should start some other little travelers ? " The same thing would 
 happen." 
 
 Now I know of a great many little travelers whose home is 
 higher than the mountains. Very, very often the houses in which 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 "Two slopes and a valley between." 
 
 they live refuse to hold them any longer, so down they come to 
 the earth. *' Do a great many fall upon the slopes ? " " Yes, 
 Charles. Now what happened to the stones and apples?" 
 
 Fig, 30. 
 "They rolled down the hill slopes." In just the same manner 
 the little travelers that I am thinking about came tumbling one 
 over the other until they reached the valley below. Now how 
 many know the name of these little travelers ? *^ Drops of water." 
 
6o A River Basin. 
 
 " Home in the clouds." '' No drops like to stay alone." *' They 
 flow together and wash out gullies in the hills." '' They unite 
 and form springs, brooks, creeks, and rivers." '' The farther the 
 streams run, the larger they grow." Now what is the name of 
 this stream ? " Mississippi." The Indians called this river Mishi 
 — great, sipi — river ; or the GREAT Father of Waters. One 
 Httle stream touches another stream, then both join another. We 
 
 'WjLUE HoWClL. 
 
 Fig. 3t. (From Memory.) 
 
 might say one stream catches the hand of the next until all 
 gather around old father Mississippi and give everything to him. 
 " Like little children coming to their parents." Suppose the 
 smaller rivers should stop bringing water to the old father river. 
 Let us look at the map of the river. Take your books. " A 
 whole family of rivers." Yes, that is so. Here is the "Old 
 Father of Waters." ''The grandfather." And the Missouri, the 
 
A Meridian Line, 6i 
 
 Arkansas, the Ohio. " Sons and daughters." " Children of the 
 Mississippi." We shall call them children. And these two which 
 form the Ohio? " The Monongahela and Alleghany." " Grand- 
 children." 
 
 The pupils now seem pleased to speak of the Mississippi river 
 system as a grandfather with his children and grandchildren. 
 
 4. Books are now closed, and each pupil takes paper and draws 
 from memory the picture of the river system as it appears upon 
 the map (Fig. 31). 
 
 Questions by the teacher and pupils follow, such as " How 
 many children live west ? " " How many east ? " '' Name them." 
 ** Down which slope do they run to their father.^" ''Name all 
 the grandchildren who live on the east." " On the west." 
 
 From the School-yard to the Stars. 
 
 An old Mexican engineer said, '' You may carry me blind- 
 folded to any part of the earth's surface, and leave me there with 
 two sticks and a bit of looking-glass or a mirror, and I will deter- 
 mine accurately my location in latitude and longitude." School- 
 teachers are not engineers, and may not see readily how such 
 results could be reached, but the old Mexican was right as to the 
 utility of seemingly insignificant things in the truly scientific ob- 
 servation of phenomena. 
 
 Long before the solar compass and the other appliances of 
 modern surveying were brought into use, the Romans used very 
 simple means for finding the meridian line and laying out the 
 streets of their cities. It is to an application of these means to 
 the study of geography that we invite the attention of the teach- 
 ers in our schools. 
 
 It is in general granted in the study of geography that the 
 beginning should be made at home ; that is, we should go from 
 
62 
 
 A Line Upon the Sana. 
 
 the known to the unknown. Teach the child that the meridian 
 of any spot upon the earth can be found ; in fact, may be made 
 as definite in direction as any road, street, or Hne-fence (Fig, 32). 
 Take a straight stake and nail to it a piece of tin having a 
 circular hole near its center. Tie a stone to a long string and 
 fasten this plumb-line to the tin through the hole, which should 
 be about three fourths of an inch in diameter. Go out upon the 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 playground in the forenoon, and, facing the shadow on level 
 ground, drive the stake into the earth, inclining somewhat toward 
 the shadow. Put a peg, C^ directly under the plumb-line, and 
 also drive one, Wy into the ground just where the light through 
 the hole in the tin strikes upon the ground. Note the time until 
 noon — say one hour. At noon return and put another peg, Z, 
 where the light comes through the shadow of the tin. At one 
 o'clock in the afternoon put a peg, E, where the light strikes at 
 that time. The Hne 6^ Z is a north and south line or meridian, 
 
A Meridian Line. 63 
 
 and, if E and Wh^ joined by a straight line, we shall have a line 
 running east and west. If the work is carefully done, WL will 
 be equal to EL. 
 
 Where the place is far from the standard meridian, local time 
 should be calculated and used. How could the practical work of 
 the problems in longitude and time given in our arithmetics be 
 better illustrated ? Thus, near Pittsburg, in finding a recent 
 meridian laid down by a group of students, the longitude 80° 
 west was taken from the geography ; and since the clock was 
 keeping standard eastern time (75th meridian), the difference in 
 longitude was 5 degrees. Since one degree of longitude marks 4 
 minutes of time, 5 degrees would show a difference of 20 minutes, 
 and local noon would not come until 12 : 20 P.M., standard Phila- 
 delphia time. At 1 1 A.M., standard time, the peg was put at W. 
 Then one hour and 20 minutes afterward, or at 12:20 P.M., the 
 peg L was placed and the meridian CL secured. At i : 40 P.M. 
 the peg E was placed, and the meridian checked by comparing 
 the length of EL with WL. 
 
 By such means a good meridian line may be obtained, and it 
 will be exactly true if made June 21 or December 22. At other 
 times, if greater accuracy is desired, the amount that the sun is 
 " fast " or " slow " may be found from the almanac, and proper 
 allowance made. 
 
 At all times very good results may be obtained by putting the 
 stake upright, and, without any plumb-line or perforated tin, not- 
 ing where the end of the shadow strikes at noon. A line drawn 
 from the foot of the stake to the end of the shadow will mark the 
 north-and-south line ; that is, the shadow will be on the meridian. 
 
 If the windows open toward the south, a good north-and-south 
 line can be found by continuing the- path of the beam of light 
 passing through the window at local noon. Draw a line upon the 
 floor to mark the position of the meridian (Fig. 33). If teachers 
 
64 
 
 A Line Upon the Sand. 
 
 would devote a portion of theii time to work of this kind, we be- 
 lieve that the pupils would obtain much better ideas of direction 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 and distance. Allow the children to determine the direction of 
 the common roads (Fig. 34), and to mark upon the maps which 
 they construct the changes in direction which such roads make. 
 It is remarkable what progress in accurate work the pupils will 
 make under such instruction. We have in mind the animated 
 looks of a large class of boys when they were told by their teacher 
 that we would learn the table of Surveyors' Measure by actual 
 practice in the field. The following Saturday was named for the 
 exercise. Promptly at the time appointed every lad appeared ; 
 and no band of U. S. engineers ever worked with more energy 
 than did that class of practical geographers. They surveyed 
 
A Meridian Line. 
 
 65 
 
 lines, measured distances, estimated areas, and calculated the 
 height of trees from the shadows ; and if they did not then pass 
 to the study of Polaris, the north star, it was not the fault of the 
 boys. None of them afterwards could be puzzled by questions 
 about units of length, surface, and direction. The relation be- 
 
 FiG. 34. 
 tween Surveyors' Measure and Long Measure was discovered ; 
 and when we took up Cubic Measure, they calculated the cubic 
 capacity of all things, from the corn-crib to the wash-tub, either 
 in cubic feet, bushels, or in gallons. 
 
 Costly apparatus may not be within the reach of the teachers in 
 our common schools, but in reality the simplest apparatus is best. 
 In these days we can afford to disregard the sneer at "home-made 
 apparatus" so plainly marked in a recent educational journal. 
 
66 Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 
 
 atibanceti morfi \xi ^anti ittoDeling* 
 
 MODELING NORTH AMERICA, BEGINNING WITH ITS PRE- 
 DOMINANT MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. (See Frontispiece.) 
 
 In the hands of the skilful teacher, the possibilities of sand 
 modeling in giving correct ideas of the great continental land- 
 masses cannot well be over-estimated. The working method 
 may differ according to individual preferences, but the model 
 must grow under the hands of the teacher, as the child either 
 looks on or assists in the modeling. The good effects resulting 
 from the mere inspection of relief maps, modeled while the chil- 
 dren are absent, will not stand comparison with the results of the 
 work when the children watch the modeler, or, better still, assist 
 in the modeling of the relief form. 
 
 Perhaps the most finished and elegant process of modeling 
 the continent is to proceed from the molding of the primary- 
 highland of the mass. This is certaining a proper plan of pro- 
 cedure, because, in general, the central land mass gives tone and 
 character to the entire continent. If geologists are right, how- 
 ever, we may not claim that it is the way in which our own con- 
 tinent first rose from the bosom of the great earth sea. In North 
 America, at the close of Archaean time and in the beginning of 
 the Cambrian age, the emerged portion of the continent consisted 
 of one or more large islands in the northeastern part, lying mostly 
 in the present Dominion of Canada, and having the shape of the 
 letter V. One arm of this wedge-shaped body of land reached 
 northeastward to Labrador, while the other extended north- 
 westward from Lake Superior to the Arctic. To this great 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 67 
 
 northern nucleal region of the continent belong the Adirondack 
 region of New York and the copper region of Michigan, each of 
 which was an island in the great continental sea. In this early- 
 time, the western and southern sides of the great continental tri- 
 angle lay mostly beneath the level of the sea. Still, the great 
 plan upon which the continent was to be built was in a general 
 way determined by chains of islands occupying the lines of the 
 Appalachians of the east and the Rocky Mountains of the west. 
 There were also several isolated regions in the western part of 
 the Mississippi basin. The great continental nucleus, therefore, 
 is marked at present by the least considerable of the elevations 
 of the continent. This plan of the continental growth may well 
 be employed in giving the brief statement of a great geological 
 truth to an advanced class in geography ; and thus an important 
 chapter in the story of our continent may be studied. Geography, 
 however, is largely a study of present land forms and surfaces. 
 It seems logical, therefore, to begin the modeling with the Pacific 
 highlands, the great axis of the continent. 
 
 The essential idea that the child is now to grasp is this : The 
 continent is to be studied as a solid — as having height as well as 
 length and breadth. The conception of the continent as a solid 
 must be made clear to the pupils, for upon this fact of sohdity 
 will depend the drainage and many of the climatic conditions. 
 
68 Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 
 
 Modeling North America. 
 
 Let us now proceed to the lesson upon North America. Tilt 
 the molding-board slightly at an angle toward the pupils, and put 
 a quantity of moist sand upon it. Draw the sand rapidly out to 
 represent the broad Pacific highland as a mountainous plateau, 
 with the Rocky Mountains resting on the eastern side ; and the 
 Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and lower mountains on the western 
 edge. Spread out the sand into the broad triangular mass of the 
 continent, and model rapidly the narrow eastern or Atlantic 
 highland. Separate this into the Appalachian system of moun- 
 tains along the eastern coast, and the highlands of Canada and 
 Labrador north of the St. Lawrence. Describe and question as 
 you proceed, bringing out the main points here indicated directly : 
 
 Here are the Primary Highlands occupying the entire western 
 two-thirds of the continent, and extending in one long line of 
 elevations from northwest to southeast, from the Arctic Ocean 
 to the Isthmus of Panama. It is 5700 miles long, and is known 
 as the Cordilleras of North America, or sometimes the Pacific 
 System. It is part of the greater system extending from Cape 
 Horn to the Arctic Ocean, and called the Cordilleras of the New 
 World. This is the longest mountain system in the world. In 
 North America it also becomes the broadest ; it is the greatest in 
 all respects except height. 
 
 The top of the great mass of the Pacific highlands is sur- 
 mounted on either side by mountain ranges. The outer system 
 comprises the Cascade, Sierra Nevada, and the Coast Range of 
 mountains. The inner mountain system is formed of the Rocky 
 Mountains and the Sierra Madre Mountains. This is the main 
 watershed of North America, and really marks the culmination 
 
Advanced Work in Sand- Modeling, 69 
 
 of the continent, from which there is a general descent to the 
 Atlantic on the east and to the Pacific on the west. The 
 western slope keeps at nearly the same general level from the 
 base of the Rockies to the Sierra Nevada, and then rapidly de- 
 scends to the Pacific. The eastern slope is almost continuous 
 from the base of the mountains to the Atlantic. From these 
 two distinctly marked slopes we may see that the division of the 
 waters by this great watershed is as natural as the division of the 
 rain that falls upon the roof of a house by the central ridge. The 
 waters will follow these slopes eastward and westward. What 
 angle do you think they will make with the dividing line ? 
 
 Let us now model the shorter and much narrower highlands 
 of the eastern part of the continent. The broad valley of the St. 
 Lawrence divides this region into two parts. One, the Alleghanies, 
 consists of a number of low parallel mountain ranges. Here are 
 long folds or ridges of the earth's surface, and not the wild peaks of 
 the Rockies. As the swell gradually descends toward the interior 
 of the continent, it becomes a series of undulations consisting of 
 hills, then a plateau, and finally the river valley. The northern 
 part of the eastern mountain system is known as the Laurentian 
 Mountains. It consists of low, rounded elevations, only the high- 
 est points reaching an altitude of 4000 feet. This system is contin- 
 uous with the plateau of Labrador, and with the Arctic plateau. 
 
 Here we find the Great Central Plain, resulting from the pro- 
 longed inner slopes of the two great highlands of the continent. 
 As these two mountain lines approach each other at the south, 
 and diverge at the north, they give to North America its char- 
 acteristic triangular form. A great depression separates them at 
 the south, and thus we find here the great Mediterranean, the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Far to the north the central depression falls 
 again below the level of the sea, and gives to the continent its 
 great northern Mediterranean, Hudson's Bay. 
 
70 Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 
 
 Nearly all of the lowland of the continent is found in this 
 great plain formed by the long eastern slope of the primary 
 highland and the long western slope of the secondary highland. 
 This is one of the largest valleys in the world. Near the great 
 lakes a swell, called the Height of Land, extends across the 
 central plain, dividing it into a northern and a southern slope. 
 The Height of Land rises imperceptibly from the plain and impels 
 the waters northward and southward. The northern slope be- 
 comes the Arctic plain ; the southern slope is the Mississippi 
 Valley. 
 
 Where do you think the main rivers of this continent may be 
 found ? Open your geographies to the map of North America. 
 Where is the principal river of the continent ? In what direction 
 does it flow ? Which main river flows eastward ? Name its 
 slopes. Mark it upon the model by this bit of string. Locate 
 the largest river by strewing some of this salt to mark the river's 
 course. What right has this river to give name to the system ? 
 Why does it flow in that direction ? Why do not its tributaries 
 flow into it at right angles to the course ? Name the principal 
 tributaries of this river. Find the three great water-partings or 
 watersheds of the continent. Trace the continental axis as 
 shown upon this map. 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 
 
 71 
 
 ILejsson XK» 
 
 Elevations and River Basins. 
 
 Other river systems and the remarkable lake regions should 
 be studied. Cross-sections of the continent as molded should 
 be drawn at various latitudes. Cut through the sand along the 
 given line, exposing enough of the elevation to allow the pupils to 
 draw correctly (Fig. 35). Call for other drawings without the 
 making of the actual cut on the model. Let one of the cross- 
 
 Lst 60° 
 
 Xat ^5' 
 
 I. at. 38 
 
 Zat.30' 
 
 
 Fig. 35- 
 sections made be in latitude 38°, from San Francisco to Wash- 
 ington, D. C. ; another in latitude 45°, from Portland, Oregon, to 
 Halifax ; another at latitude 30°, Rosario [Lower California], 
 New Orleans, and St. Augustine ; another across Mexico and 
 Yucatan at 19,° the approximate latitude of Vera Cruz. Make 
 sections also from north to south. 
 
 Study the slopes, and speak of the two inner slopes forming 
 the great basin of the Mississippi. 
 
72 Elevations and River Basins, 
 
 How many water-partings has a river basin ? 
 
 Opposed to the hne of meeting of the slopes at their upper 
 
 edges the water-parting — find the river-bed forming the Hne of 
 
 meeting of the slopes at their lower edges. 
 
 Study the relative amounts of water contributed by the two 
 slopes of this great basin. 
 
 Where are the great water centers of the continent ? [A, B, C] 
 
 (Fig. 36). 
 
 The slopes in this continent of North America are such as 
 develop the germs of civihzed life. In other lessons we may 
 study : 
 
 1. The fertile soil. 
 
 2. Abundant waters. 
 
 3. Excellent harbors. 
 
 4. Luxuriant vegetation. 
 
 5. Position across the currents of air and ocean. 
 
 6. Across the trend of migration. 
 
 7. The centers of industry. 
 
 8. The mines of gold, silver, platinum, mercux-y, and lead. 
 
 (Western highlands.) 
 
 9. The mines of coal, iron, and nickel. (Eastern highlands.) 
 
 10. The mines of copper. (Lake Superior.) 
 
 11. Where salt is found. Petroleum. 
 
 12. The river systems and water centers. 
 
 MODELING FROM THE FLAT LAYER OF SAND. 
 
 Some teachers prefer to commence the work of map-molding 
 by spreading a thin layer of sand over the board, and then out- 
 lining the continent in the sand by means of a pointed stick or 
 pencil. The excess of sand beyond the shore lines is then 
 brushed carefully away, and the mountains and river basins lo- 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 
 
 73 
 
 yi offL/\7K<T ) ^\.^ 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
74 Modeling from the Flat Layer of Sand. 
 
 cated and modeled. A small sieve may be used in spreading the 
 even layer of sand, while common paint-brushes may be used in 
 taking away the sand around the outline. Give the ingenious 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 boy a hammer and a small nail, and he will soon make an excel- 
 lent sieve from a common tin basin. In all of this work in the 
 schoolroom there must be adaptation to conditions ; and the re- 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 
 
 75 
 
 suits reached will be gauged by the teacher's power to utilize the 
 material that lies nearest. 
 
 Dry white sand is the best for use in this method of modehng. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Salt, meal, and some other substances have been successfully em- 
 ployed for the same purpose. The plateaus and mountain ridges 
 are modeled by increasing the thickness of the layer at the vari- 
 
76 Molding upon an Outline. 
 
 ous points necessary (Fig. 38). The sand will not be raised so 
 high, but in some respects this is an advantage. In modeHng 
 a continent the teacher should make use of profiles carefully 
 
 A A^ 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 drawn (Fig. 39). The pupils should make drawings of sections 
 of the continents, taking first a cross-section from east to west, 
 and then from north to south. 
 
 MOLDING UPON AN OUTLINE. 
 
 A method in much favor in the molding of the continents is 
 that in which the outline of the continent is first sketched or sten- 
 ciled upon the molding-board, or upon a large sheet of paper 
 placed upon the board. The relief-map (Fig. 40) is then molded 
 in sand spread outward to the outlines as thus marked. The 
 sheets of manila paper upon which the outlines have been drawn 
 may be preserved for use from day to day, and the maps repro- 
 duced as occasion may demand. Such a series of stencil outlines 
 may be made from the basal lines given in this book for each of 
 the continents. If the maps be constructed to a uniform scale, 
 many valuable comparisons may be made. 
 
 MOLDING FROM A CENTRAL MASS. 
 But che most valuable method of sand modeling is that in 
 which the freedom and power of the pupil are combined in the 
 search after the mass-form of the continental relief. In such 
 modeling the work proceeds from a central mass of the material, 
 gathered near the center of the board, A few approximate di- 
 

 
 V 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
Molding from a Central Mass, 77 
 
 mensions are taken in the division of the sides of the board into 
 halves, thirds, quarters, etc., and then the work of modehng pro- 
 ceeds in the drawing out of the sand in hnes, broad or narrow, ac- 
 cording to the rehef and contour of the continent. 
 
 The outHne of the shores of the continent is then formed by 
 pushing the sand back along the lines at the proper places, ac 
 cording to any good outline map of the continent. The high- 
 lands and mountain ranges are then modeled, and the map fin- 
 ished according to the details previously given. 
 
 The plans here given for the molding of the various conti- 
 nents are the results of the best class-room work in molding these 
 forms. Other plans will suggest themselves to both pupils and 
 teachers, but these may serve as examples of plans that have 
 been successfully employed. 
 
 Care should be taken that the directions for individual model- 
 ing be given slowly, so that each pupil may follow the move- 
 ments as planned, and thus the results may be uniform and satis- 
 factory. 
 
 A Lesson with the Molding Board. 
 
 This lesson is designed to show one way in which the mold- 
 ing-board may be used in the advanced class in geography. A 
 lesson on South America has been assigned and studied. (Har- 
 per's Geography.) 
 
 The teacher is provided with a molding-board constructed 
 according to the directions previously given, and shown in ac- 
 companying figures. 
 
 The board itself is two feet eight inches wide and three feet 
 four inches long, and is mounted upon a stand so as to be about 
 three feet two inches from the floor. The board may be placed 
 horizontally, or inclined, as shown. 
 
 Each member of the class is provided with a small lap-board, 
 
78 A Lesson with the Molding Board, 
 
 sixteen inches by twenty inches, having strips of inch-molding 
 tacked around the edges. Two handfuls of molder's clay com- 
 plete the outfit. A somewhat larger amount of sand is placed in 
 the large molding-board. 
 
 Teacher. — Class will give strict attention to the directions, 
 and carry them out carefully. 
 
 a. Gather the sand in a conical pile near the center of the 
 board (Fig. 43). 
 
 
 
 jd 
 
 
 ^^■^ 
 
 ^%^^-=^ /w 
 
 y^ 
 
 W^^^ // 
 
 
 -^^^ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 r — ~ 
 
 =; — :=! 
 
 — v 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 b. Divide the right-hand side of the board into thirds, and 
 mark the upper third with a pinch of sand. 
 
 c. Bisect the lower side, CD, and mark the central point. 
 
Advanced iVork in Sand Modeling. 
 
 19 
 
 I. Place the hands upon the top of the pile, and draw the 
 sand in a narrowing and somewhat curved band toward the point 
 at the bottom of the board. 
 
So Molding from the Central Mass. 
 
 2. Return to the center, and draw the sand in a broad mass 
 nearly out to the point on the right. 
 
 3. Place the hands again at the center, and draw the sand in 
 a broad oval mass toward the upper left corner at y3,half the dis- 
 tance from 5 to ^. 
 
 4. Draw out a narrow line toward the point A. 
 
 5. Complete the outHne of South America by pushing the 
 sand back at the proper points along the coast line. Follow the 
 large outline map. 
 
 It will be noticed that move (i) molds roughly the narrow 
 main axis of the continent ; the next, (2), gives the broad expan- 
 sion of Brazil and its secondary highlands ; while (3) and (4) ex- 
 tend the main axis northward, and give the highlands of Guiana. 
 
 The main highland system in the west, the extended low table- 
 lands of Brazil in the east, the smaller mountainous region of 
 Guiana on the north, and the great central plain along the foot 
 of the Andes and between the eastern highlands, together with 
 its three great river systems, form the fundamental features of 
 the continental structure. This structure is characteristic, and is 
 not repeated in any other continent. 
 
 The class has now an outline map of South America, made in 
 much less time than is taken in reading these directions. 
 
 Teacher. — What mountain range extends along the western coast of the 
 grand division ? 
 
 Ans. — The Andes. 
 
 The Andes mountains are molded in place. 
 
 Teacher. — What are the secondary systems ? 
 
 Ans. — The mountains of Brazil and of Guiana, both in the eastern part. 
 
 The secondary mountains are molded. 
 
 Teacher. — What have we now between the mountain systems ? 
 Ans. — Three great plains, or three sections of one grand plain. 
 Teacher. — What great rivers drain this grand plain } 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 8i 
 
 Ans. — The Amazon, the Orinoco, and the La Plata. 
 
 Teacher, — The central section of this grand plain is drained by what 
 river ? 
 
 Ans. — The Amazon. 
 
 Teacher. — This great " Swamp River" runs through the largest forest in 
 the world. What name is given to this region } 
 
 Ans. — The Selvas of the Amazon. 
 
 Teacher. — What is the meaning of the term selvas? 
 
 Ans. — Woods. 
 
 Teacher. — Can any one tell me why this region is almost unoccupied 
 by civilized man .'' 
 
 Ans. — The climate is unhealthful, being hot and moist. 
 
 Teacher, — Yes, malarial fevers prevail in such climates. 
 
 Class here roughly outlines the Amazon by means of pieces of blue twine laid on the surface of the 
 central plain. 
 
 Teacher. — What river drains the northern part of the grand plain } 
 
 Ans. — The Orinoco. 
 
 Teacher. — What name is given to this region ? 
 
 Ans. — It is called the " Llanos," meaning plains. 
 
 Teacher. — This section is called by the natives the "Sea of Grass." 
 It is one vast meadow during the rainy season ; but at the end of the dry 
 season it is a scorched desert, swept by hot winds. What use do the inhabi- 
 tants make of these plains } 
 
 Ans. — Large numbers of horses and cattle are raised. 
 
 Teacher. — What other section of South America is suitable for the sup- 
 port of cattle } 
 
 Ans. — The third or southern portion of the grand plain. This is drained 
 by the La Plata, and is called " the Pampas." 
 
 Teacher.— Th&se animals constitute the chief wealth of the inhabitants 
 of the llanos and the pampas, and determine the occupations and exports. 
 What are some of these exports ? 
 
 Afts. — Hides, wool, beef, and tallow. 
 
 Teacher, — Where is the great desert region of the grand division } 
 
 Ans. — The northern part of the western coast is a dry desert. 
 
 Teacher. — Why is this section desert ? 
 
 Ans. — The trade-winds from the east lose their moisture in crossing the 
 Andes, and, passing down to the Pacific, cause the great rainless coast, 
 eighteen hundred miles long. 
 
82 A Progressive Sand Map, 
 
 Teacher. — What can you say of the southern portion of the western 
 coast ? 
 
 Ans. — The counter trade-winds of the South Pacific cause this portion 
 to be shrouded in clouds and drenched with rains, 
 
 (Bell rings.) 
 
 Teacher. — Class may study for to-morrow the vegetation and animals of 
 South America. Also consider the political geography in its principal 
 points. The boards may be placed near the door as you pass out. 
 
 A Progressive Sand-Map: South America. 
 
 The teacher has by his side the map of South America molded 
 during the lesson of the day preceding, and the sand-map is tilted 
 so that the entire class may see it plainly. The small molding- 
 boards are not used during this lesson. A number of specimens 
 of various plants, a picture of an animal, and a few pieces of stone 
 or other mineral matter may be used as aids in development. 
 Attention is called to the roots, stems, and leaves of the plants, 
 and to the head and limbs of the animal, while a short time is 
 devoted to the development of their nature and uses. It will be 
 found in many cases that even some of the older pupils will need 
 the development of the term organ. 
 
 Teacher. — In what respects do plants and animals resemble each other? 
 
 A71S. — Both have life, dependent upon organs or parts fitted for special 
 uses. 
 
 Teacher. — I break this stone into two parts; why are not these pieces 
 organs } 
 
 Ans. — Because each piece is like the other in its qualities, and the whole 
 stone has no life. 
 
 Teacher. — What are some of the organs of plants } 
 
 Ans. — Roots, stems, and leaves. 
 
 Teacher. — How are plants nourished ? 
 
 Ans. — Plants are nourished by inorganic substances taken from the soi' 
 and from the air. 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 83 
 
 Teacher. — Upon what does vegetable life depend ? 
 
 Ans. — Heat and moisture are essential, and should be aided by light. 
 
 Teacher. — Turning now to the examination of South America, in which 
 part should we find the greatest richness and variety in vegetation ? 
 
 Ans. — In those parts having the greatest heat with the greatest mois- 
 ture. The lowlands of the northern part are within the torrid zone, and 
 are hot. 
 
 Teacher. — How is the other condition fulfilled ? 
 
 Ans. — The easterly trade-winds and the water-courses supply abundant 
 moisture. 
 
 Teacher. — What is the nature of the resulting climate } 
 
 Ans. — The climate is damp and unhealthy. 
 
 Teacher. — The sickly climate is the cause of the undeveloped condition 
 of the region of the great Swamp River, which drains an area more than 
 double that of any other river system of the globe. What is the general 
 character of the animal life of this region.'* 
 
 Ans. — On account of the great amount of moisture and the luxuriant 
 vegetation, those animals are most abundant that by their mode of life arc 
 connected most closely with the vegetable kingdom and the water. 
 
 Teacher. — Mention some of them. 
 
 Ans, — Insects are very numerous, and are noted for size of body and 
 brilliancy of coloring. There are many reptiles, such as the alligator, liz- 
 ard, and boa-constrictor. 
 
 Teacher. — Name some of the land animals. 
 
 Ans. — The puma, jaguar, monkey, armadillo, and tapir. 
 
 Teacher. — What people dwell on the Amazon.^ 
 
 Ans. — Many tribes of Indians; some half-civilized, others savages. 
 
 Teacher. — What are some of the forest products of the section ? 
 
 Ans. — Rosewood, mahogany, tortoise-shell wood, various dye-woods. 
 Brazil-nuts, cocoanuts, and caoutchouc or India-rubber. 
 
 Teacher. — Pronounce that word again, Charles. 
 
 Charles. — Caoutchouc (koo-chook). 
 
 Teacher, — Use the dictionary in all such cases. What country of South 
 America includes the Amazonian region } 
 
 Ans. — Brazil. 
 
 Teacher. — How large is Brazil ? 
 
 Ans. — It comprises more than two-fifths of the continent, or more than 
 three and one-fourth million square miles. 
 
84 Sand Map of South America, 
 
 Teacher. — Where do we find most of the cities of the republic? 
 
 Ans. — All of the large cities are seaports on the Atlantic. 
 
 Teacher. — In what other parts of South America are important cities 
 found? 
 
 Ans. — In the tablelands of the Andes, and along the northern coast. 
 
 Teacher. — Notice that nearly all of the civilized people in South America 
 may be found in a broad band which surrounds the continent and crosses 
 the southern portion a little south of the mouth of the La Plata. Com- 
 mencing at the Isthmus of Panama, let us name and locate on the sand-map 
 the cities in this band or chain, using these little colored squares and trian- 
 gles to mark the proper locations. Anna may name and locate the first 
 city. 
 
 Anna. — Aspinwall, on the northern shore of the Isthmus. (Places a 
 triangle in position), (i). 
 
 Teacher. — What can you say of this city ? 
 
 A7is.—\\. is the northern terminus of the Panama Railroad, which con- 
 nects the Atlantic with the Pacific. 
 
 Thus the following are located and described : Cartagena, Maracaybo, 
 Caracas (capitals located by squares), (2), La Guayra, Georgetown, Paramar- 
 ibo, Cayenne, Para, Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio Janeiro, Ascencion, Monte- 
 video, Buenos Ayres, Cordova, Santiago, Valparaiso, Sucre, La Paz, Potosi, 
 Arequipa, Lima, Callao, Quito, Guayaquil, Bogota, and Panama. 
 
 Teacher.— \ hold in my hand some little strips of wood covered with 
 gilt paper. Clara may take them and locate the places in which gold is 
 found. 
 
 Clara places one in Colombia, and others in Peru, Chili, Brazil, and French Guiana (3). Thus, also, 
 the great silver, copper, tin, iron, salt, coal, and diamond districts are located. If time permits, the 
 same plan may be used in locating the districts in which wheat, sugar, wool, etc., are produced, 
 
 7>^^//^r.— Where are the great coffee regions of South America? 
 
 Ans.—V>X2.T:\\ produces more than half of the coffee consumed in the 
 world. Colombia, Venezuela, and Guiana produce large quantities of 
 coffee. 
 
 Teacher. — In what parts is cotton raised ? 
 
 Ans. — Cotton is raised in Guiana and Brazil. 
 
 Teacher.— Yox the next lesson the class may determine the wheat, cocoa, 
 sugar, wool, and cattle regions of South America; also, tht characteristic 
 plants and animals of the plateaus. This outline, which James has prepared, 
 may be used in the study of Brazil. 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 85 
 
 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 I. 
 
 Location. 
 
 6. Occupations of Inhabitants. 
 
 2. 
 
 Boundaries. 
 
 7. Characteristic Animals. 
 
 3. 
 
 Extent. 
 
 8. Cities. 
 
 4. 
 
 Population. 
 
 {a) Capitals. 
 
 5- 
 
 Products. 
 
 {b) Seaports. 
 
 
 {a) Animal. 
 
 9. Commerce. 
 
 
 (b) Vegetable. 
 
 10. Government. 
 
 
 {e) Mineral. 
 
 II. History. 
 
 Outlines of this kind should be assigned to pupils as part of 
 their regular work. 
 
 The lesson as here given was used for advanced pupils, but 
 the same general plan may be followed in all grades. The blocks 
 used in the kindergarten may take the place of the colored 
 squares and triangles, and other supplies be used for the location 
 of the metals, etc. However, all the material necessary may 
 readily be prepared by any of the brighter pupils. As the map 
 grows from day to day, the interest increases, and strong impres- 
 sions are made. In one recitation, a little girl brought for the 
 purpose of locating the coffee regions a number of strips of card- 
 board to which roasted coffee beans were attached. Her idea 
 might be extended, and the cotton regions, wheat regions, etc., 
 be similarly located. 
 
 North America. 
 
 The board upon which these maps are molded Is 32 inches 
 wide and 40 inches long, or in the proportion of four in width to 
 five in length. The sand is gathered in a conical heap near the 
 center of the board. Lessons similar to those given on South 
 An^ericc^ should accompany the modeling. 
 
86 Sand Map of North America. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR MODELING. 
 
 a. Divide the right side of the board into thirds and mark the 
 upper one (Fig. 44). 
 
 b. Divide the lower side into halves and mark the center. 
 
 c. Gather the sand in a conical pile a little above the center 
 of the board. 
 
 1. Draw the material in a broad band toward the corner A^ 
 narrowing the line of sand as it approaches the corner, and giv- 
 ing it a slight bend to the south. 
 
 2. Draw the sand from the center, in a gradually diminishing 
 band, toward the middle point at the bottom, and then draw it 
 in a curve toward the corner D. 
 
 3. Return to the center, and draw some of the sand nearly 
 out to the upper third marked on the right-hand side of the 
 board. 
 
 4. Draw some of the sand in a broad oval toward the lower 
 corner at C, 
 
 5. Do the same in a smaller oval toward the lower right-hand 
 corner at D. 
 
 6. 7, 8, 9. Model the peninsulas of Florida, California, and 
 Yucatan, and remove the circular mass, 6, to form Hudson Bay. 
 
 10. Model the coast-line according to any good outline map. 
 
 11. Model the primary and secondary mountain ranges, and 
 locate the rivers, etc. 
 
 In this plan for molding North America, the first movement 
 and the second, i and 2, give the main axis of the continent. 
 The triangular form is then obtained by 3 ; while 4 broadens 
 the western plateau, and 5 gives the secondary highlands of the 
 east. Hudson Bay and Labrador are modeled in 6, while the 
 other peninsulas are given by 7, 8, and 9. 
 
 The characteristic features of this continent are the great 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 
 
 87 
 
 highland system on the west, forming half of the entire conti. 
 nent; the narrow highland region of the east ; the great central 
 
 Jf 
 
 /--^ 
 
 1^^. 
 
 ^ \2\JI 
 
 ■A 
 
 •2 ii 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 plain resulting from the union of the inner slopes of these two 
 systems ; the remarkable chain of lakes ; the two inland seas ; 
 
88 Molding Africa in Sand, 
 
 and the union of the waters into a few great systems. The pre- 
 dominant character of the vast main highland of the continent is 
 that of immense plateaus, while the eastern highland consists of 
 parallel ridges or folds. The western highland is of vast extent, 
 and of great height ; it is unbroken from the Arctic to the 
 isthmus of Tehuantepec. The low eastern highland is broken 
 entirely across by two valleys, through either of which the heart 
 of the continent is reached. 
 
 The Rocky Mountain system forms the great watershed of 
 the continent, and is its controlling feature. All that is charac- 
 teristic of the continent is alhed to this great land mass in 
 greater or less degree. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR MODELING. 
 
 a. Bisect the upper, lower, and left-hand sides of the board, 
 and place the proper marks. 
 
 b. Mark the upper third of the right-hand side. 
 
 c. Gather the sand a little above the center of the board. 
 
 1. Draw the sand in a broad, increasing mass toward the 
 corner A^ and carry it nearly to the centers of the upper and left 
 sides (Fig. 45). 
 
 2. Pull the sand in a broad and slightly-decreasing mass from 
 the center nearly to the middle point at the bottom of the board. 
 
 3. Draw the line of sand, with an upward sweep and a narrow- 
 ing mass, nearly out to the upper third on the right. 
 
 4. Draw the sand in an oval mass slightly toward the upper 
 right corner at B. 
 
 5. Model the shore by any good outline map. 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 
 
 89 
 
 6. Locate the main axis and the other mountain ranges, the 
 rivers, the deserts, and other natural features of the continent. 
 Africa somewhat resembles South America in form, but its 
 
 3i 
 
 6 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 / 1 
 
 I^--.4 
 
 c 
 
 2. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 0) 
 
 plan of structure combines that of the Old World and of the New. 
 It may be considered in two parts, the southern having, like the 
 American continents, its greatest extent from north to south ; 
 
90 Sand Map of Australia. 
 
 while the northern part extends from east to west. The whole 
 continent forms one vast plateau, which is surmounted by short, 
 irregular mountain ranges. 
 
 The first movement, i, extends the northern part as a broad 
 plateau, and introduces the new east and west axis ; while in 2 
 the north and south line of the main axis appears. The other 
 movements, 3 and 4, are simple extensions modifying the main 
 form. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR MODELING. 
 
 a. Divide the upper side of the board into thirds and mark 
 the right-hand division. 
 
 b. Bisect the left side, and then bisect the lower half of the 
 side, placing the proper marks. 
 
 c. Gather the material at the center. 
 
 1 . Draw the sand in a broad oval toward the lower right-hand 
 corner at D (Fig. 46). 
 
 2. Draw the material in a broad, angular band nearly out to 
 the two points on the left. 
 
 3. Scoop out a small quantity of the sand at the top, and 
 draw it in a tapering band toward the point on the upper side. 
 
 4. Model the shore-Hne and axes of the continent, and locate 
 the main river basin. 
 
 Australia resembles Africa more closely than any other 
 continent. The primary mountain system is in the east, and 
 is for the most part composed of broad plateaus. The sec- 
 ondary systems are in the west and north. Africa terminates 
 in a plateau, while Australia is terminated by a great low 
 plain which descends by long slopes from the interior of the 
 continent. 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 91 
 
 In modeling this continent, the first movement, i, gives 
 the predominant system, the second, 3, gives the western 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 plateau, while the third, 3, completes the main axis by add- 
 ing York peninsula. 
 
92 Molding Asia in Sand. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR MODELING. 
 
 a. Divide the upper, lower, and left sides into two parts, and 
 place the usual markers. 
 
 b Bisect the lower half of the left side. 
 
 c. Trisect the right-hand side, and place pinches of sand at 
 the points. 
 
 1. Draw the sand in a broad, angular band toward the corner 
 B and the central point at the top, narrowing as the sand is 
 drawn out nearly to B (Fig. 47). 
 
 2. Draw the material in a wide, flat band toward the two 
 points on the left. 
 
 3. Draw the sand in a broad mass toward the lower third of 
 the right-hand side and the lower corner at Dy drawing it out in a 
 narrow line toward the corner D. 
 
 4. Draw the material in a short, pointed mass toward the cen- 
 tral point of the lower side. 
 
 5. Pull the sand in an oval toward the upper third on the 
 right. 
 
 6. 7. Model narrow bands of the material to show the penin- 
 sulas of Kamtchatka and Corea. 
 
 8. Model the indentation for the Persian Gulf, and complete 
 the outline of the continent. 
 
 9. Mold the mountains of the great central mass, and locate 
 the secondary ranges. Indicate the rivers, lakes, basins, deserts, 
 peaks, and other features of the great continent. 
 
 Asia is characterized by the immense mass of elevated land 
 forming the interior of the continent ; by a series of great pro- 
 jections along the eastern and southern coasts ; and by its band of 
 islands and narrow peninsulas parallel to the coasts of the eastern 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 
 
 93 
 
 projections, and inclosing remarkable border seas. It forms 
 with Europe one double continent, with one general plan of 
 structure, but with differences in the details of the two continents. 
 
 .Jk. 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 ""\k 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 \^^ 
 
 -"'mm^m 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 12 
 
 ■'V - 
 
 3 ;' 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 D 
 
 The pile of sand at S will represent the great central mass of 
 elevated land ; so the first move, i, is to draw the sand north- 
 ward in a broad band to represent the almost uninterrupted slope 
 
94 Molding Europe in Sand. 
 
 which descends to the Arctic ocean on the north. The second 
 move, 2, will mark the westward extension of the main axis of 
 the continent by the Hindoo Koosh mountains, while the width 
 of this band will represent the slope toward the Caspian and Aral 
 seas on the west. At 3 we extend the main axis in the moun- 
 tains of southern China. Move 4 marks the peninsula of Hin- 
 dostan, one of the remarkable series of projections that charac- 
 terize the continent. One of the secondary axes is molded in the 
 movement of the sand at 5. The peninsulas of Kamtchatka, 
 Corea, and Arabia are molded by 6, 7, and 8. 
 
 The Ural and Soliman mountains mark the line of separation 
 between the two parts of the one great continental mass of 
 Eurasia. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR MODELING. 
 
 a. Bisect the right and left sides, and mark as usual. 
 
 b. Bisect the upper half of the right side, and the lower half 
 of the left side. 
 
 c. Gather the sand in a conical pile to the right of the center 
 of the board. 
 
 1. Draw the sand toward the corner B, and outward to the 
 lower point on the right ; and let the upper part of the mass ex- 
 tend to the upper right-hand mark (Fig. 48). 
 
 2. Draw the material in a band toward the quarter-point on 
 the left, and then make a sharp bend toward the corner C. 
 
 3. Draw a portion of the sand toward the corner Dy and make 
 it extend only a very short distance. 
 
 4. Draw a pointed mass toward the center of the lower side. 
 
 5. Mold a part of the sand by drawing it first toward the corner 
 A, and then with a sharp curve drawing it toward the corner (7. 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling, 
 
 95 
 
 6, 7, 8. Model the peninsulas of Italy and Jutland, and the in- 
 dented Bay of Biscay. Complete the outline. 
 
 
 •' ^ -'"' N^ V'' 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 jj 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 9. Model the central mass of the Alps, and the mountains of 
 Spain and Scandinavia. Locate the river basins. 
 
 Europe resembles Asia in the number and position of its 
 southern peninsulas. It may be divided into two parts. High 
 
96 Original Work in Sand Modeling, 
 
 Europe and Low Europe. The highlands are in the interior, 
 with a belt of plains west, north, and east of them, while their 
 peninsulas prolong them to the south. 
 
 The first move, i, spreads out the sand toward the north in 
 the great low plain without a single mountain range. The low 
 swell of the Valdai Hills forms the principal watershed of the 
 continent. Move 2 draws the heap of sand westward to repre- 
 sent the main axis of the continent, and the great Iberian penin- 
 sula. 
 
 The third move, 3, extends this main axis of the continent in 
 a curve which reaches from the Straits of Gibraltar to the shores 
 of Asia Minor. The central Alps form the highest point of the 
 continent. 
 
 The fourth move, 4, molds the basis of the Turco-Grecian 
 peninsula ; while 6 outlines the Italian peninsula. 
 
 The secondary systems of the continent are modeled by move- 
 ments 5 and I, while the seventh movement 7, gives the pen- 
 insula of Jutland. 
 
 HOW TO MOLD EUROPE IN SAND. 
 
 These plans for modeling this continent were prepared by the 
 pupils. In the plans the long sides of the lap-boards are as- 
 sumed to extend from right to left. At any one recitation the 
 entire class modeled according to a plan dictated by one of 
 the pupils. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Divide the western side into three equal parts, marking the 
 points of division i and 2. 
 
 Divide the eastern side into three equal parts, 3 and 4. 
 
 Divide the northern side into sixths, marking the points, be- 
 ginning at the left, 5,6, 7, 8, 9. 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 97 
 
 Divide the southern side into halves, and the eastern half into 
 thirds ; mark the points lo, ii, 12, beginning at the left. 
 
 Place the soil in the center, the long sides of the board being 
 horizontal. 
 
 Draw the soil in a somewhat narrow line toward the point 2 
 on the west. 
 
 Draw the soil in a broad band northeast toward points 3 and 
 9 ; also southeast toward point 4. 
 
 Draw the soil toward 7 and 8, and then push it southward in 
 a curve, not extending farther west than point 6. 
 
 Draw some of the soil in narrow bands toward points 11 and 
 12 on the south, forming the Italian and Turco-Grecian penin- 
 sulas. 
 
 Finish by outline map, marking the mountains and river sys- 
 tems. 
 
 Lottie Kimple. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Divide the northern side of the board into halves, the eastern 
 side into thirds, the western side into fourths, and the southern 
 side into halves, and bisect the eastern half. 
 
 Placing the hands upon the central pile, push some of the 
 sand toward the northeast corner of the board. Returning the 
 hands to the center of the sand, draw out a narrow band to the 
 lowest mark on the west. Push the sand in a mass toward the 
 center of the northern side, and from that point draw some sand 
 in a narrow strip toward the southwest, to form the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. Now draw the sand toward the most southern marker 
 on the east. Draw out two narrow bands toward the marks on 
 the south. Shape the coast-lines carefully according to outHne 
 map. 
 
 S. M. Ely. 
 
98 Plans by Pupils. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Turn the board so that the longest sides shall be horizontal. 
 
 Divide the northern side into halves, and bisect the eastern 
 half. 
 
 Divide the eastern side into two equal parts, and then bisect 
 the southern half. 
 
 Divide the southern side of the board into fifths. 
 
 Divide the western side into two equal parts, and then bisect 
 the southern half. 
 
 Place the hands upon the clay at the center, and draw it to 
 the most easterly marker on the northern side. Draw the clay 
 in a broad band toward the two points on the east. 
 
 Draw out the clay in a narrowing line toward the lower point 
 on the western side. 
 
 Draw out the clay in two short lines toward the extremities of 
 the central fifth on the southern side. 
 
 Mold in the shore-hne carefully according to a good outline 
 map. Represent the mountains-chains, and principal rivers. 
 
 Dorothea M. Loucks. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Draw the molding-clay into a heap a Httle to the west of the 
 center. 
 
 Divide the northern and the eastern borders into fourths. 
 
 Divide the southern border into halves. 
 
 Divide the west side into thirds, and then trisect the lower 
 third. 
 
 1. Place the hands upon the mold at the center and draw the 
 clay southward, ending in a narrow band at the bisecting point 
 on the southern border. 
 
 2. Next draw the mold toward the southwestern corner, the 
 
Advanced Work in Sand Modeling. 99 
 
 southern limit of Spain being in a straight line with the most 
 southern point of division on the western border. 
 
 3. Then push the mold toward the most eastern fourth on the 
 northern border, terminating just east of that point. 
 
 4. Push the clay north and west about one-third the distance 
 from the center to the western border. 
 
 5. Draw the molding-clay in a band toward the southern 
 fourth of the eastern side. 
 
 6. Complete the coast, making the eastern end of the Cauca- 
 sus mountains, the southern point of the Crimea, and the shore 
 of the Gulf of Genoa all in line with the southern fourth on the 
 eastern border. 
 
 Make the northern extremity of the Baltic Sea in line with 
 the most northern fourth on the eastern border. 
 
 A. E. White. 
 
loo Comparative Study of Continents. 
 
 dPeosmpi^ical Contracts! anti Kejsemblancesi. 
 
 In connection with the work in modeHng the continents the 
 students should be called upon to make comparisons for finding 
 the likenesses and differences between the various continents. 
 The following samples of such work are taken from the class- 
 room, except the last, which is from Tales Philosophy of Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 COMPARISON OF NORTH AMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 RESEMBLANCES. 
 
 1. Both are triangular in shape. 
 
 2. '* " wide at the north. 
 
 3. " " narrow at the south. 
 
 4. " have the primary highland in the west and near the 
 
 largest ocean. 
 
 5. " " a secondary highland in the east. 
 
 6. " " a central plain divided into two parts by a 
 
 transverse water-parting. 
 
 7. " " their rivers collected into large systems. 
 
 8. They are alike in the position of their large rivers, as 
 
 in the case of the 
 
 Mississippi and La Plata, 
 St. Lawrence " Amazon, 
 MacKenzie ^* Orinoco, 
 Yukon " Magdalena. 
 
 9. They are alike in the position of their highest mountains. 
 
 Mt. Logan in British America, 
 Mt. Illampu in Bolivia. 
 10. Both have a set of islands off the southeastern coast. 
 
Comparative Study of Continents. loi 
 
 DIFFERENCES. 
 
 1. The coast of North America is deeply indented, while that 
 of South America is not. 
 
 2. The transverse mountain range in North America is low, 
 while in South America it is much higher. 
 
 3. The ranges of the secondary highland in North America 
 are close together ; those of South America are spread apart. 
 
 4. The largest river of North America flows south ; that of 
 South America flows east. 
 
 5. The central plain of North America is thickly inhabited, 
 while that of South America is almost uninhabited. 
 
 6. North America was settled by people from northern and 
 central Europe, while South America was settled by people from 
 southern Europe. 
 
 7. The cities of North America are found all over the coun- 
 try ; those of South America are near the coast. 
 
 8. North America is principally in the North Temperate Zone, 
 while South America lies mostly in the Torrid Zone. 
 
 Louise M. Weller. 
 
 Nov. 8, 1894. 
 
 COMPARISON OF EUROPE AND ASIA. 
 RESEMBLANCES. 
 
 The predominant systems of Europe and Asia are both in the 
 south. 
 
 The culminating points of both are in the south, in the pre- 
 dominant mountain systems, and near the deepest oceans. 
 
 Both have their greatest length from east to west. 
 
 Both extend toward the south in three great peninsulas. 
 
 Both lie largely in the North Temperate Zone. 
 
 Both have great low plains in the north. 
 
I02 Comparative Study of Continents. 
 
 Asia is drained by a great number of river systems having few 
 tributaries. The plateau of Thibet forms the drainage center 
 from which the rivers flow north, south, east, and west. 
 
 Europe is drained by a great number of small rivers. Some 
 rise in the predominant mountain system, yet the majority in 
 the low elevations of the Valdai Hills. 
 
 DIFFERENCES. 
 
 In Europe the secondary systems are in the north and east. 
 In Asia they surround the predominant system. 
 
 In Europe the great low plain lies between the predominant 
 and secondary systems. 
 
 In Asia it is on the north and west, and lies between the 
 mountain systems of Asia and the secondary system of the 
 Urals. 
 
 Asia is about five times as large as Europe. 
 
 Asia has nearly twice as much coast-line as Europe, but in 
 proportion to area Europe has three times as much coast-line as 
 Asia. 
 
 Europe has one hundred and ninety square miles of surface 
 for one mile of sea-coast. Asia has five hundred square miles of 
 surface for every mile of sea-coast. 
 
 Europe is more indented than Asia. 
 
 The area of the peninsulas compared with that of its entire 
 area is one to four in Europe. In Asia it is one to five and a 
 half. 
 
 Ida Hamilton. 
 
 Nov. lo, 1894. 
 
Comparative Study of Continents, 103 
 
 COMPARISON OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN CONTINENTS. 
 
 Taken in successive pairs: — the Americas ; Europe and Africa; Asia and Australia. 
 
 RESEMBLANCES. 
 
 Both continents are characterized by river systems. 
 
 The Atlantic Ocean receives the water of most of the river 
 systems of both continents. 
 
 The largest rivers of both continents take their rise in the 
 primary mountain systems of each. 
 
 The primary mountain system in both northern and southern 
 continents is near the Pacific Ocean. 
 . Both continents have primary and secondary highlands. 
 
 Both continents contain extensive lake systems. 
 
 Both continents contain extensive plains. 
 
 The culminating points of both continents are near the coast. 
 
 DIFFERENCES. 
 
 The coast-line of the northern continent is deeply indented, 
 while that of the southern continent is very regular. 
 
 The length of coast-line in the northern continent is much 
 greater in proportion to the area than the length of coast-line in 
 the southern continent. 
 
 The northern continents combined are much larger than the 
 southern continents. 
 
 The northern continent is characterized by inland and border 
 seas ; the southern by gulfs and bays. 
 
 The northern continent lies mainly in the North Temperate 
 Zone ; the southern continent lies almost entirely in the Torrid 
 Zone. 
 
I04 
 
 Comparative Study of Continents. 
 
 The northern continent is densely inhabited, while the south- 
 ern continent is comparatively thinly settled. 
 
 The inhabitants of the northern continent are highly civilized, 
 while those of the southern have made little progress in the way 
 of civilization. 
 
 The cities of the northern continent are scattered in all parts 
 of the continent, while those of the southern continent are con: 
 fined to the coast. 
 
 Jennie Gilliland. 
 
 Nov. 7, 1894. 
 
 THE OLD AND NEW WORLD. 
 
 CONTRASTS. 
 
 The Old World. 
 History, Ancient. 
 
 The principal mass of the Old World, 
 Asia and Europe, extends from east 
 to west, over one-half of the circum- 
 ference of the globe. 
 
 The mountain ranges run from east 
 to west. 
 
 Asia, — Europe, — lies within the tor- 
 rid, north temperate, and north frigid 
 zones. 
 
 Mountain ranges somewhat central. 
 
 Rivers of Europe small. 
 
 Traversed by different mountain 
 chains. 
 
 Vast table-lands or plateaus. The 
 mountains and plateaus of Asia cover 
 five-sevenths of its surface. 
 
 Great volcanoes on the islands. 
 
 Coast-line of Europe very much in- 
 dented. 
 
 Inhabitants white, dark, black, etc. 
 
 Animals: Lion, tiger, leopard, ele- 
 phant, giraffe, cow, crocodile, night- 
 ingale, etc. 
 
 The New World. 
 
 History, Modern. 
 
 The New World extends from north 
 to south, over two-fifths of the cir- 
 cumference of the globe. 
 
 The mountain ranges run from north 
 to south. 
 
 America comprehends all climatic 
 zones, and hence presents a greater 
 variety of phenomena. 
 
 The mountain range extends like a 
 band along the western border. 
 
 Great water basins. Rivers and 
 lakes very large. 
 
 One mountain chain, the Andes and 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Vast plains which form two-thirds 
 of its surface. 
 
 Volcanoes on the continent. 
 
 Coast-line not so much indented as 
 Europe, but more indented than Asia 
 or Africa. 
 
 Native inhabitants chiefly red men. 
 
 Animals: American lion, jaguar, 
 panther, grizzly bear, buffalo, alliga- 
 tor, mocking-bird, etc. 
 
Comparative Study of Continents. 
 
 105 
 
 RESEMBLANCES. 
 
 Land in two great masses, Europe 
 and Africa in the west, and Asia in 
 the east. 
 
 Isthmus of Suez connects Africa 
 with Europe and Asia. 
 
 The coast-line of Europe is more 
 broken or indented than that of Asia, 
 and still more than that of Africa. 
 
 Europe better adapted for human 
 society than Asia or Africa. 
 
 Europe i mile of coast to 150 of sur- 
 face; Africa i mile of coast to 620 of 
 surface; Asia i mile of coast to 460 of 
 surface. 
 
 The direction of the land corre- 
 sponds with the general direction of 
 the mountain masses. 
 
 The southern extremity terminates 
 in a point directed toward the south- 
 ern ocean, while they go widening 
 toward the north. 
 
 The peninsulas have nearly all the 
 same direction. 
 
 The highest mountain in the Hima- 
 laya is a little more than 5 miles above 
 the level of the sea. 
 
 Land in two great masses, North 
 and South America. 
 
 Isthmus of Panama connects North 
 with South America. 
 
 The coast-line of North America is 
 more broken or indented than that of 
 South America. 
 
 North America better adapted for 
 human society than South America. 
 
 North America i mile of coast to 
 230 of surface; South America i mile 
 of coast to 380 of surface. 
 
 The same as in the Old World. 
 
 The same as in the Old World. 
 
 The same as in the Old World. 
 
 The highest mountain in the Andes 
 is nearly five miles above the level of 
 the sea. 
 
 •^Tate's Philosophy of Education, 
 
io6 Modeling in Paper Pulp. 
 
 atiiianceD iHoDelms* 
 
 PULP MAKING. 
 
 Few teachers of geography will dispute the value of relief- 
 maps as aids in school v/ork, but many are not acquainted with 
 the proper use and preparation of the most serviceable materials 
 for the construction of such maps. Many substances have been 
 used in the class-room by the writer, but none have given greater 
 satisfaction thdin paper pulp. This material is so clean, so pliable, 
 and so easily manipulated that pupils and teachers having little 
 knowledge of the art of modeling can make very good rehef-maps, 
 while the skillful in hand and artistic in soul can show results 
 which will surprise all who are unacquainted with the many uses 
 of the material known as papier-mache. 
 
 That the schoolboy of the past was an adept in the crude 
 manufacture of papier-mache we must candidly admit, and we are 
 free to say, from our own experience, that some of the present 
 urchins are not far behind in the matter. The skillful caster of 
 the paper ^' wad " relied upon its well-known plasticity and adhe- 
 siveness when he strove to decorate the ceiling with these marks 
 of his lack of interest in his geography lesson. We have long 
 since come to sympathize with him in the matter of disgust with 
 that species of teaching in which the searching out of long lists of 
 names of unimportant places formed so large a part, but it is only 
 in recent years that we have learned to utilize the natural creative 
 longing of the child and turn this ''wad-making" to account. 
 
 Set the boys in the class at the work in the right way and 
 they will soon learn to prepare a fine grade of papier-mache for 
 
Pulp Making, 107 
 
 class use. The paper used may be the waste sheets from the 
 pencil tablets, or common newspapers may be made into a fine, 
 serviceable pulp scarcely tinged with gray. Tear the paper into 
 small pieces not more than an inch square, and fill a common 
 water-pail or jar with the bits of paper. Pour over this a gallon 
 of boiling water, and let the paper soak four or five hours. Then 
 d'rain off the excess of zvater, and macerate the mass by thrusting 
 a rough stick down into it again and again, " jobbing " it until 
 the whole is reduced to a pasty mass. After about fifteen min- 
 utes of energetic work, the '' ne'er do well " of your class will 
 present to you the best of paper pulp, very sm^ooth and fine, 
 taking impressions from the very hnes of the hand. More than 
 this, the boy will have learned that he can do some things well, 
 and will be the most eager to apply the material to its intended use. 
 
 When the pulp is ready for use, the material may be used in 
 the construction of relief-maps of all kinds. Mold these upon 
 squares of pine board or heavy pasteboard, modeling the various 
 relief features according to some good physical map. When the 
 map becomes dry, it will be found that fairy fingers have been at 
 work reducing and beautifying the whole. These maps may be 
 tinted and finished with v/ater-color as perfectly as the best What- 
 man paper. 
 
 The shore-line should be lightly tinted in blue by means of a 
 brush dipped in a solution of indigo or Prussian blue. In this 
 use of the bits of paper, we see illustrated the pJiilosophy of the 
 reimiants. 
 
 The following method of folding a map scale is here given 
 because it is believed that to insure a fair degree of accuracy in 
 the drawing of the map of a continent, construction lines are es- 
 sential wherever the best degree of success is desired. The 
 scale of miles here presented is 400 to the inch, and by allowing 
 160,000 square miles per square inch, the approximate areas of 
 
io8 
 
 Folding the Map Scale. 
 
 the continents may be calculated with ease. In the higher classes 
 this work will not fail to arouse interest. 
 
 a 
 
 FOLDING THE MAP SCALE. 
 
 Take a strip of paper one inch wide and 
 twelve inches long. 
 
 1. Mark the upper end of it a and the lower 
 end b (Fig. 49). 
 
 2. Fold the strip in half, placing b over a, 
 Mark the central crease 6". 
 
 3. Fold the upper end a down to the central 
 crease, and mark the new crease 3''. 
 
 4. Divide the lower half of the strip into 
 three equal parts, and mark the lower crease 2'\ 
 
 5. Fold b up to 6, and mark the crease i". 
 
 6. Reverse crease 2, and push the paper 
 toward a so that i and 2 cannot be seen. 
 
 7. Turn the strip over so that all the marks 
 are hidden from view. 
 
 8. Fold the end b up to touch the back of 
 crease i. Mark the new crease ^". 
 
 If the strip of paper be taken as twelve 
 inches in length, this scale may be used in 
 measuring any number of inches or half inches. 
 Thus the distance from ^ to 6 is six inches ; 
 that from ^ to 3 is three inches; from 2 to b \s 
 two inches; from i to 2 is one inch ; from 6 to 
 ' 2 is four inches, etc. Half inches may be laid 
 off by the fold at the lower end of the scale. 
 ■ ^^' This scale may be used in preparing the out- 
 
 lines for maps to be used in the regular work of the classes in 
 
 6' 
 
 'A 
 
V- 
 
 s^:^J^4, 
 
 ■^■^, ' 
 
 4 
 
 
 "4i 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 's? 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 pulp map of north america. 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp. 109 
 
 geography and history, or in the making of outlines for pulp maps. 
 Diagrams for all of the continents may be made easily by use 
 of this scale. It is not necessary that the piece of paper should 
 be an exact number of inches long. The size of the map desired 
 will fix the length of the strip, and the foldings as given above 
 will show the proportional number of the new units. Any good 
 maps of the continents may be used in making the outlines, but 
 for convenience we have given diagrams for all the continents. 
 When the strip is taken twelve inches long, the scale becomes 
 400 miles to the inch. 
 
 MAPS IN PAPIER MACHI!. 
 
 North America. 
 
 The modeling of pulp maps should be done upon smooth pine 
 boards, and the work mounted upon card-board afterward. 
 
 Thin boards may be fastened together by nailing cleats at 
 the back. Upon such a molding-board the outline of the conti- 
 nent should be drawn to a convenient scale, say 400 miles to the 
 inch. The accompanying diagram may be used for the purpose. 
 In making a set of such maps it is well to adopt some uniform 
 scale, since better ideas of relative sizes may thus be given. 
 
 Measure the vertical AB = 11 inches ; the horizontal BC = 6 
 inches. Draw AC. Lay off AB == 7 inches, and AG = 2 inches. 
 Draw BB = 6 inches, and B)F= 2 inches. Draw ABy BC, FC, 
 and GF. 
 
 For larger maps use double or triple these dimensions. 
 
 The pulp prepared and the outHne drawn or traced, the pupils 
 are ready to mold the map. Three or more pupils can work at a 
 map at one time, and the teacher should allow each member of 
 a class to do some of the work, especially if one large map of 
 double the dimensions here given is made by the entire class. 
 
no 
 
 Molding North America, 
 
 The pulp should be spread out in a uniform flat layer, carefully 
 molded up to the shore-lines of the continent. This may be 
 done by using a pointed stick to cut and push back the pulp at 
 the proper points. Thus the indented eastern coast, and even 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 the labyrinth of islands of the northern coast may be modeled. 
 Bo not slight the northern coast. The islands, to be sure, may 
 not be of so great importance as those farther south, but habits 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp, m 
 
 of slighting the work should not here be formed. The produc- 
 tion of the map of the continent outlined in the flat will be suffi- 
 cient for at least one lesson-period. The children should be 
 questioned in regard to the form of the continent, its indented 
 coasts, and the general relation to other land bodies. The regu- 
 lar matter of the general lesson upon the continent should be 
 given by some pupils while the others are modeling the map. 
 
 Next day the pupils can locate the parts of the continent 
 where the plateau sections are to be represented by somewhat 
 increased thickness of pulp. 
 
 Get a physical or relief map and study the plateaus and moun- 
 tains of North America. Let the pupils dampen the parts where 
 the plateaus are to be placed, and spread the fresh pulp out in a 
 thin layer. The mountain ranges will rise above these sections, 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 but do not attempt to represent the mountains at this stage of 
 the work. Put on the pulp in small quantities, and let the pupils 
 be careful to make the work delicate. The plateau section 
 which forms the basis of the Rocky-mountain system extends 
 from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. The broadest 
 part lies within the United States, and is about 1000 miles in 
 width. It is the broadest mountain system of the globe. In the 
 molding, this plateau will be represented by a band of pulp about 
 5 inches wide (scale 200) at its broadest part, and covering the 
 whole of Alaska, British Columbia, and Mexico, except the low 
 section along the sea-coast. In like manner the long and moun- 
 tainous isthmus of Central America may be represented. On the 
 eastern side of the continent may be molded the narrow base of 
 
112 Molding North America, 
 
 the Appalachian Highlands ; also the plateau of Labrador with 
 the Height of Land extending completely across the Great Cen- 
 tral Plain, and dividing it into northern and southern slopes 
 nearly equal in extent. This should blend neatly into the flat 
 portions first laid on. 
 
 Having finished the basal plateaus, the primary and secondary 
 mountain systems may be molded. Place quantities of pulp in 
 masses along the western coast upon the main plateau. Two 
 lofty ranges cross the western plateau, — the Rocky mountains 
 and the system of the Sierra Nevada. Numerous short ranges 
 lie between. These mountains may be represented by making 
 little elevations and modeling the peaks and ridges by means of 
 a button-hook or smooth piece of wood. The highest peaks 
 should be carefully located, and the lines of volcanoes repre- 
 sented. Thus we should locate the Central American group, the 
 wonderful Mexican group with Orizaba and Popocatepetl, the 
 California and Oregon groups, and the long line of the peninsula 
 of Alaska. The secondary systems of the eastern part should be 
 molded in much the same manner as the primary system, but of 
 course should be made much lower in elevation. 
 
 Let the molded map now be set aside to dry. In two or 
 three days there will be found upon the board a map reduced in 
 thickness and yet keeping all the detail of the children's work, — 
 a pure white map upon which fairy fingers would seem to have 
 been working to reduce and render beautiful the whole. The 
 map thus made will take water-color as perfectly as the best 
 Whatman paper, and great beauty of finish may be given- to the 
 work. The entire shore-line should be lightly tinted in blue by 
 means of a brush dipped in a solution of indigo or Prussian blue. 
 The rivers should be carefully traced in pencil from source to 
 mouth. Thus any mistakes can be corrected, and then the whole 
 river system finished in ink. It will be well to make a careful 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp. 113 
 
 study of these systems, since the subject may be presumed to be 
 more useful to our pupils than the study of systems more remote. 
 No pupil who has traced these various river systems of North 
 America, carefully following each river and tributary from source 
 to mouth, can fail to have the general facts firmly impressed upon 
 his memory. He will thus remember that the Mississippi, with 
 its branches, affords a greater amount of inland navigation than 
 all the streams, great and small, which drain Europe. 
 
 North America is noted for its great lakes. Along the Hne 
 of contact of the oldest geological formations of the continent 
 they stretch out in a series that includes the five great lakes of the 
 St. Lawrence ; Winnepeg of the Saskatchewan ; and Athabasca, 
 Great Slave, and Great Bear of the Mackenzie system. These 
 should be represented on the map by depressions touched with 
 blue water-color. 
 
 In advanced classes the work upon the water-centers of the 
 continent may be easily shown by marks placed in the proper 
 places. The volcanic peaks may be distinguished by gluing gold- 
 foil upon the peaks molded to represent them. The volcanoes 
 of Mexico and of Alaska should be marked in this way. After 
 the map is completed it may be removed from the board, and 
 then glued to a sheet of pasteboard or to a piece of muslin. 
 Strips of wood nailed at the ends give finish to the map. In re- 
 moving the pulp map from tbe board a case-knife may be used. 
 The children will learn to make the maps very easily, and the 
 teacher will be surprised at the results which may be obtained. 
 The whole operation of modeHng should be used as a means and 
 not as an eitd, still the results will not be such that the teacher 
 will care to see them entirely lost to service in the succeeding 
 terms. We have in mind a school where the entire series of relief- 
 maps of the continents — beautifully modeled in white and gold 
 and blue, with a dash of sienna or yellow here and there to mark 
 
tt4 Molding South America, 
 
 a desert or a depression below the sea — adorns the walls of the 
 school room, and the entire cost of the set was only sixty cents. 
 But the feeling of power and ownership, which comes to those 
 children when they see their own work, cannot be estimated in 
 dollars and cents. And shall we then call it valueless ? 
 
 South America. 
 
 According to a scale of 200 miles to the inch, South America 
 would he represented 23 inches long and 16 inches wide. Use 
 double the dimensions given in the diagram if a large map is 
 wanted. 
 
 Draw the vertical AB = 23 inches; measure 6 inches to C; 
 draw a horizontal line, and lay off CD = 12, and C£ = 4; also 
 CF = 4 inches. . Draw AD, DB, AE, and EF. 
 
 Another excellent size is given by increasing each dimension by one half itself. 
 On such plan AB becomes lyf, AC= 4I, CD = 9, CE — 3, and CF= 3. 
 
 Having prepared the pulp and drawn the outline, the pupils 
 are ready to mold the map. The pulp is spread out in a uniform 
 layer about one-fourth inch thick, the pupils carefully modeling 
 it up to the shore-lines. The production of the map of the conti- 
 nent outlined in the flat will furnish enough work for one lesson- 
 period, but the children should be questioned in regard to the 
 triangular form of South America, and the coast-line unbroken by 
 great gulfs or large enclosed seas. 
 
 Then the pupils may locate the parts of the continent where 
 the plateau sections are to be represented by somewhat increased 
 thickness of the paper pulp. These sections are : i. The Plateau 
 of the Andes ; 2. The Plateau of Brazil ; 3. The Plateau of 
 Guiana. 
 
 Of these plateaus, that of the Andes is by far the most promi- 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp, 
 
 tiS 
 
 nent. It should be represented on the map by an irregular band 
 of increased elevation, varying from one-half inch to two inches 
 in width (scale 200), and stretching along the entire western 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 coast. This should blend into the flat portion which represents 
 the Great Central Plain, extending along the whole eastern base 
 of the Andes, and interrupted only by the low plateaus of Brazil 
 
ii6 Molding South America, 
 
 and Guiana. The great plain is usually considered under three 
 divisions: i. The Llanos of the Orinoco; 2. The Selvas of the 
 Amazon ; 3. The Pampas of La Plata. The water-sheds divid- 
 ing these sections are insignificant in elevation. 
 
 The pupils may now proceed to mold the mountains of the 
 continent. Place quantities of the pulp in parallel ridges or lines 
 along the western coast upon the Andean plateau. These will 
 form the border wall of the plateau, and should be molded into 
 peaks and elevations by means of a spatula or a common steel 
 button-hook. The elevations should not exceed one-quarter inch 
 in height, The Andean system should be formed of two lines of 
 elevations in the central portion, of three lines at the northern 
 extremity, and of one at the southern extremity. The general 
 chain of the Andes is nowhere broken through, and thus the great 
 mountain system forms a complete separation between the waters 
 which fall into the Pacific and those which flow into the At- 
 lantic. 
 
 The chief peaks of the Andes, such as Aconcagua, Illampu, 
 and Nevada de Sorata, should be located, as should also the vari- 
 ous groups of lofty volcanoes. The broad table-land of Brazil 
 should be crossed by several irregular ranges of low mountains, 
 the highest ranges situated along the southeastern coast. The 
 mountains of Guiana, consisting of the Acarai and Pacarayma 
 ranges, may be represented by elevations somewhat higher than 
 those of Brazil. 
 
 A full lesson period may well be spent in tracing the courses 
 of the rivers. Do this at first in pencil, — mistakes can be erased, 
 — and then go over the lines with blue ink or water-color. The 
 rivers should be traced from source to mouth. The main tribu- 
 taries of the Amazon should be shown upon the map. In a com- 
 plete map the wonderful little river, the Cassiquiare, which con- 
 nects the Rio Negro of the Amazonian system with the Orinoco, 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp, 117 
 
 will be traced in position. La Plata and its tributaries draining 
 the Pampas of the south, should also be shown. 
 
 In the central portion of the plateau section of the Andes, a 
 little depression may be painted blue to represent Lake Titicaca, 
 the highest large lake in the world. The Desert of Atacama 
 may be shown by a dash of color, such as sepia or sienna. 
 
 The groups of volcanoes may be distinguished by gluing small 
 pieces of gold-foil upon the tips of the elevations molded to rep- 
 resent them. Thus may be represented the volcano Tolima, and 
 the linear groups of the plateau of Quito containing Chimborazo 
 and Pichincha, Cayambe, and the famous Cotoapaxi, the highest 
 active volcano in the world. The volcanoes of the central group, 
 Arequipa and Sahama, and the remarkable Chilean range, includ- 
 
 SoUTHyXMCKlC/l 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 ing Antuco and Corcovado, should also be shown upon the com- 
 plete map. 
 
 The map should be removed from the board, and glued to a 
 sheet of heavy pasteboard. A thin case-knife passed under the 
 map will readily enable one to raise it from the board. Large 
 maps may be fastened to the mounting card by brass paper- 
 clasps. Strips of wood tacked to the upper and lower edges of 
 the chart will give completeness to the map. 
 
 Use the modeling as a means^ not as an end. Teachers will be 
 surprised to find that the children will make maps far more 
 beautiful than anything they could draw in the given time, if they 
 are allowed to make use of this simple medium in molding. 
 Pupils in my own classes have improved upon my instructions, 
 
1 1 8 Molding Africa . 
 
 and have modeled maps in which Hght gray pulp made from 
 newspapers represented the lowlands, while the pure white pulp 
 was used for the mountains and plateaus. 
 
 A single trial will convince any one of the value of the mate- 
 rial. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 To make the diagram for Africa, draw the horizontal base line 
 AB = 12 inches. Measure westward BC =^ i-J inches, and bisect 
 AC dit D. Lay off DE = 4J inches north, DF — i inch east, and 
 FG = 8 inches south. Draw the horizontal GII=^ ij inches east. 
 Lay off BI = I inch to the west of D. Draw GI, and make IK 
 =z i|- inches. Draw GA, and the horizontal westward through 
 K to L in GA. Lay off DM ^^ 3 inches northward from D, and 
 MN = 3 inches eastward from M. Draw the lines MN, NC and 
 BH. Describe the arc AE with / as a center and AI as the 
 radius. 
 
 Draw the outline of the continent, and then model the map 
 according to the directions given for the work upon North 
 America. It will be noticed that Africa is the largest of the con- 
 tinents, after Asia. It has a uniform contour, and consists of one 
 great elevated plateau. There are no great, connected mountain 
 systems. Its plan of structure combines that of the Old World 
 and of the New. 
 
 In form the continent resembles South America, but the 
 primary mountains are found in the eastern instead of in the 
 western part. Model the main peaks of these mountains, Kenia 
 and Kilma Njaro. Of the two ranges on either side of the Vic- 
 toria Nyanza, the western or Ruwenzori range is that which was 
 anciently called "The Mountains of the Moon." 
 
 The secondary m^ountain ranges are the Atlas, the Cameroons, 
 and the Snow mountains. Model these mountains in 2:>osition, 
 
Fig. 53. 
 pulp map of south america. 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp. 
 
 119 
 
 and mark the general slope of the continent from south to north, 
 as shown in the basin of the river Nile, extending over 30 degrees 
 of latitude. Trace this river in position, and also the Congo, 
 
 AL-^L 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 Niger, and Zambesi. Although Africa has these great rivers, it 
 is the dryest of the continents. When the pulp map is ready, 
 mark the position of the great lakes Victoria Nyanza, Albert 
 Nyanza, and Tanganyika ; also Lake Tchad, 
 
I20 Molding Australia, 
 
 Locate the great Desert of Sahara, the Libyan and Nubian 
 deserts in the north, and the Kalahari desert in the south. These 
 may be tinted with sienna. 
 
 The Nile river overflows its banks for several months each 
 year. It thus stretches a band of verdure across the desert re- 
 gion through which it flows to the sea. This beautiful valley, 
 with the delta at the mouth, was the seat of Egyptian civilization, 
 next to that of the plains of the Tigris and Euphrates, the oldest 
 in the world. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Draw a horizontal base line, AB, from Shark Bay to Brisbane, 
 making it 6 inches in length (Fig. 57). Lay off 2} inches from 
 A to C, and draw a Hne perpendicular to AB. Measure 3 inches 
 upward to D (Victoria, North Australia), and | inch to E (Great 
 Bight). Draw DF = i| inches, parallel to AB. Measure i 
 inch to the left from B to G, and draw GH = 3J inches, perpen- 
 dicular to AB. The point H locates Hobarttown in Tasmania. 
 Draw through A the line // perpendicular to AB, and make AT 
 = I inch (Northwest Cape), and A/ = i|- inches southward from 
 A. Draw BB, FB, BH, HE, EJ, and DI. Locate the head of 
 the Gulf of Carpentaria dX K = i^ inches from D. Draw the 
 coast-line. 
 
 Draw the outline of the continent, or, if more rapid work is 
 desired, the shore-line may be traced by placing a piece of black 
 tracing-paper between the board and the map, and then passing 
 the pencil point around the entire outline. 
 
 Mold the flat layer of pulp as given in the directions for 
 molding the other continents ; then mold the plateau sections 
 and watersheds. 
 
 The typical structure of a continent is as follows : 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp, 121 
 
 1. K primary highland region on one side. 
 
 2. Secondary higJilands on the opposite side, trending toward 
 the primary. 
 
 3. A depression between the two systems. 
 
 Australia well illustrates this plan of structure in its simplest 
 form, and so asserts its claim to the title of continent. No isl- 
 and, however great its extent, shows such conformation. It 
 should be noticed that AustraHa resembles Africa more closely 
 than any other continent. 
 
 On the eastern side of the continent, the basis of the predomi- 
 nant system of mountains should extend from York Peninsula on 
 the north to Portland Bay on the south. Let the basin of the 
 Murray be shown, and also the valleys of its tributaries, the Dar- 
 ling and the Lachlan. Mold the lowlands of the lake region, and 
 mark the Grey and FHnders ranges. The land in the west and 
 northwest regions of Australia has the character of a tableland 
 of moderate height studded with groups of small mountains. On 
 the general level of the tableland are vast plains, sometimes sink- 
 ing into low swamps. Nearly the whole of this section should 
 be finished as a low tableland. 
 
 In the southern portion of the continent, near the Great Aus- 
 tralian Bight, lies the Great Victoria Desert. This may be 
 marked upon the relief-map by an irregular patch of buff color. 
 
 The ranges of the predominant mountain system may now be 
 molded. The Australian Alps, containing the peaks Mount 
 Kosciusko and Mount Hotham, the Blue Mountains, Liverpool 
 Range, etc., belong to this system. In the north and west are 
 secondary systems of comparatively small elevation. No consid- 
 erable mountains have been discovered in the interior of the con- 
 tinent, but there are many low ranges and some groups of mount- 
 ains. Central Mount Stuart, Mount Leichhardt, Mount Wilson, 
 and others may be shown on the molded map. The low water- 
 
122 
 
 Molding Australia. 
 
 shed between the rivers of the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Vic- 
 toria river may also be represented. The rivers should now be 
 outlined with a pencil, taking care that the courses be run from 
 source to mouth. This will be found one of the most interesting 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 and instructive lessons for the pupils. Lakes Eyre, Gairdner, 
 Torrens, and Austin should be located and marked. 
 
 The Great Barrier Reef, extending one thousand miles along 
 the northeastern coast, may be represented by a line in white. 
 
 It will add much to the beauty and practical utility of this 
 map if the islands of the East Indies be molded in their relative 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp. 123 
 
 positions in regard to Asia and Australia. The numerous volca- 
 noes of the section, when shown upon the map, will readily sug- 
 gest the name *' Sea of Fire " for the Pacific. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Draw a base line AB from the Bosphorus to Yezo, and let 
 this be 14 inches long (Fig. 58). From A drop a perpendicular 
 6 inches to C (Bab-el-Mandeb). Draw the perpendicular BD 
 51^ inches to Berhing Strait. Lay off AE to the right 5|- inches, 
 and drop the perpendicular 7 inches to /^(Cape Comorin). Draw 
 the horizontal line FG 4^ inches to the right (Cape Cambodia). 
 From A lay off to the right 3J inches to B" (head of Caspian Sea) ; 
 also 6i inches to /, from which erect the perpendicular//, 4 inches 
 to /, the northern extremity of the Urals. Draw H/, JD, and 
 BG. Find the point K (Calcutta) where the lines FD and HG 
 would intersect. Find, also, the point L (Hydrabad) where HF 
 and CB would intersect. Complete the outline by any good 
 map. This outline of Asia is arranged for the meridian of Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
 Having drawn the outline of the continent and noted its 
 remarkable peninsulas and chains of islands, the pupils may pro- 
 ceed to mold the mountain masses of the continent in detail. 
 Model the immense mass of elevated land that forms the interior 
 of the continent. This mass is crowned by the great mountain- 
 knot of Pamir — " the roof of the world." Radiating from this 
 we find the highest mountains of the globe. Four great ranges, 
 the Himalaya, Kuen lun, Karakorum, and Yung Ling mountains 
 extend from east to west, and form mountain barriers crowned 
 with colossal mountain peaks. 
 
 After the great plateau of Thibet is molded, these ranges may 
 be modeled in position. Some of the highest peaks should be 
 
124 
 
 Molding Asia, 
 
 shown in position. Mounts Everest, Kunchinjunga, Dhawal- 
 aghiri, and other important crests will appear upon a good map. 
 
 Model the secondary mountain systems according to any good 
 physical map. 
 
 Notice the position of the great plains of Asia. Here all of 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 the great plains are on the borders of the continent, terminating 
 the slopes from the main highlands which are in the center. 
 Thus the rivers of the continent find their way to the sea in long 
 and nearly parallel courses, with little tendency to combination. 
 This fact will become very clear to the pupil as he traces the 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp. 125 
 
 courses of the rivers from their hydrographic center in the great 
 plateau down the slopes and into the ocean. Thus the Amoor, 
 the Yang-tse-kiang, Hoang-ho — that great " Sorrow of Han " — 
 will be traced ; so also the Ganges, Brahmapootra, and the In- 
 dus ; the Arctic rivers Obi, Yenisei, and the Lena. 
 
 The great desert regions of this continent should be shown 
 by coloring the regions with a light wash of sienna, or light 
 brown. Lakes and seas should also appear in position. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Draw the line AB = yi inches to represent the base-line from 
 Oporto to the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. Lay 
 off 4 inches from A to C, and draw through C a line perpendicu- 
 lar to AB. Lay off upon this line 4J inches to D (North Cape) ; 
 then 31 inches to E, the head of the Baltic Sea ; and 2 inches to 
 /*^(Riga). Lay off CG = li inches southward (Cape Matapan). 
 Draw a horizontal through D, and lay off 3 inches westward to H 
 (North Cape, Iceland), and lay off DI, 2J inches eastward to a 
 point in the Ural Mountains. Draw AD and BI, and drop a per- 
 pendicular from H to AB at /. The line H/ cuts A£) at K 
 (Brest). Draw KG, cutting AB at L (Genoa). Draw KF and 
 CH, cutting KF Sit M (Copenhagen) and AD at N (The Naze). 
 Draw IG, cutting AB at O, the mouth of the Danube. At A 
 draw a line perpendicular to AB, and make AP = ^ inch (Cape 
 Finisterre), and AR = 1 inch (Strait of Gibraltar). Draw the 
 lines P/ and PL, and complete the outline of the continent. 
 
 After the pulp has been prepared and the outline of the con- 
 tinent drawn, the pupils may be allowed to mold the map. The 
 production of the map of this continent outlined in the flat will 
 be sufficient for one or two lesson-periods. Europe has a very 
 long line of junction with Asia, therefore the best maps will 
 
126 
 
 Molding Europe. 
 
 show parts of this outlying continent. In some cases it is well to 
 model Europe and Asia as one great land mass. In order that 
 the Mediterranean Sea may be properly shown, Africa should be 
 modeled in part. These may be shown simply in the flat, without 
 the mountains and plateaus. 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 Procure a good physical map and study the plateaus and 
 mountains of Europe. Dampen the parts where the plateaus are 
 to be placed, and spread out the fresh pulp in a thin layer. Put 
 on the pulp in small quantities, and take care to make the work 
 delicate. 
 
 Europe in its western part is mainly a network of moun- 
 
Modeling in Paper Pulp, 127 
 
 tain chains, without very extensive plateaus. The whole eastern 
 part consists of a vast low plain continued in a moderately wide 
 strip bordering the Baltic and North seas, and extending to the 
 Bay of Biscay. The dividing line between these two sections is 
 formed by the secondary mountain system consisting of the Car- 
 pathian, Sudetic, and Riesen mountains, and lower ranges ex- 
 tending nearly to the shores of the North Sea. The continent 
 may be considered naturally under two great divisions, High 
 Europe and Low Europe. A line drawn from the mouth of the 
 Rhine to that of the Dniester marks this division. 
 
 Mold the basis of the central highlands, leaving narrow bands 
 of depression to mark the valleys of the Danube, the Po, and the 
 Garonne, etc. Cover the three peninsulas, the Spanish, Italian, 
 and Grecian, which constitute the southern highlands. The 
 eastern part of the Scandinavian peninsula belongs to the Great 
 Low Plain ; the western part forms the Scandinavian Plateau. 
 On the coast of Norway are found those most remarkable forma- 
 tions — deep, narrow, vertical arms, or rather fingers of the sea — 
 known as fiords. The sea is thus admitted to the very heart of 
 the Scandinavian Alps, and the perpendicular walls of these 
 transverse valleys are often several thousand feet high. The 
 fiords may be represented by transverse cuts in the shore-line of 
 the plateau. 
 
 Low Europe is bordered on nearly every side by mountains. 
 On the east are the Urals, on the south the Caucasus, on the 
 southwest the secondary highlands of the continent, and on the 
 northwest the highlands of Scandinavia. The greater part of 
 this section should be left in plain relief, since it is nearly uni- 
 form in surface and character, and v/ithout natural subdivisions, 
 if we except such as are made by the inland seas. This plain is 
 slightly elevated near the centre, where the Valdai Hills, iioo 
 feet above the sea-level, form the principal watershed of Europe. 
 
128 Molding Europe. 
 
 Having located the basal plateau sections of Europe, it now 
 remains to mold the primary and secondary mountain systems. 
 The main system is composed of a highly complex series of 
 mountain chains extending along the northern shores of the 
 Mediterranean in a great curve from Gibraltar to Asia Minor. 
 The central part is highest, the Alps forming the culminating 
 point of the continent in Mont Blanc, 15,787 feet high. The 
 sharp peak of the Matterhorn, the broader Wetterhorn, Monte 
 Rosa, and the Pic du Midi should be molded in miniature. More 
 than four hundred peaks of the Alps rise above the snow-hne. 
 
 The modeling of mountain ranges and the formation of val- 
 leys are closely connected. When elevations were first formed 
 on the surface of the earth valleys appeared between them as 
 necessarily as shadows follow light. The Alps are formed of 
 numerous ranges divided by comparatively deep valleys, which 
 tend toward parallelism with the general direction of the whole 
 mass ; but in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the 
 prevailing directions of the ridges, and serve to facilitate the mi- 
 gration of animals and plants, as well as to increase the trade 
 between nations. These deep depressions between mountains 
 are called passes. The chief passes of the Alps have been known 
 and frequented from a period antecedent to authentic history. 
 The famous Pass of St. Bernard, the Pass of St. Gotthard, and 
 the Simplon Pass may be represented in place. The Pyrenees 
 and the Cantabrian Mountains, with the Apennines and Balkans 
 complete the main system. The secondary mountain chains of 
 Europe may now be molded. The ranges of Scandinavia, the 
 Caucasus, with Mount Elburz, the highest peak of Europe (18,526 
 feet), and the Urals should be located. The latter should have a 
 very broad base, since the slopes, both on the European and Asiatic 
 sides, are so gradual that the traveller looks upon the elevations 
 rather as pine-clad heights than as a great mountain chain. 
 
Molding Europe, 129 
 
 The British Isles form part of the great continental plain, but 
 are separated from it by submarine plains, situated in the North 
 Sea, 300 feet below the surface. The inconsiderable elevations 
 of Scotland and Wales may be shown by slight ridges in relief. 
 
 Some of the snow-capped peaks of the Pyrenees, the Scandi- 
 navian Alps, and the Caucasus ranges should be represented. 
 
 Outline the rivers in pencil, and then trace over in blue ink. 
 The snow-crowned Alps form the hydrographic center for High 
 Europe. Even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves, 
 accumulated in the form of glaciers during a long preceding 
 period of years, are available to maintain the regular flow of the 
 greater streams. The entire system of the Alps is drained by 
 four large rivers, the Rhone, the Danube, the Rhine, and the Po. 
 The Danube, rising in the Black Mountains, follows the general 
 eastward slope, and passes, through transverse gaps, a number of 
 ranges lying directly across its course. The Rhine and the Rhone 
 pass through transverse valleys in the Swiss Alps and the Jura. 
 
 The center for Low Europe lies in the Valdai Hills, from 
 which streams radiate in every direction. These streams all enter 
 the four inland seas which border upon the great European 
 plain. The longest river of Europe, the Volga, flows toward that 
 vast depression which separates Europe from Asia. That por- 
 tion of the depression which is below the sea level may be shown 
 on the map by a light wash of a greenish-yellow color. 
 
 Unless the map be made upon a large scale, it will not be 
 necessary to represent the mountain lakes of Europe. The lakes 
 v/hich are found in the lowlands which surround the Baltic Sea 
 should be shown. These are lakes Ladoga and Onega in Russia, 
 and Wener and Wetter in Sweden. 
 
 Complete the map by placing gold-foil upon the peaks repre- 
 senting the volcanoes Etna, Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Vulcano ; 
 also Mount Hecla and the other volcanoes of Iceland. 
 
I30 Modeling in Putty. 
 
 PUTTY-MOLDING. 
 
 Among the many art media which are at the service of teach- 
 ers of geography in the construction of reHef-maps, common 
 putty occupies no insignificant place. This material is pliable 
 and easily manipulated, therefore teachers and pupils possessing 
 but moderate abilities in the art of molding can readily produce 
 very serviceable relief-maps. 
 
 In order to get the best results, colored putty should be used. 
 There are certain conventional tints which may be used to repre- 
 sent the various natural conditions of land and its variations of 
 level. The teacher who intends to construct serviceable reHef- 
 maps should procure putty in the following colors, which any 
 glazier or painter will readily make : 
 
 1. Green. — The color known as "Nile green," formed by 
 mixing with the putty a little Prussian blue and chrome yellow, 
 making a light tint. 
 
 2. Brown. — A warm shade of brown, formed by mixing 
 umber and Indian red with the putty. 
 
 3. Yellow. — A tint resembling '' Naples yellow,*' formed by 
 adding yellow ochre to the putty. 
 
 4. Buff. — A shade formed by mixing equal quantities of (2) 
 and (3). Raw sienna gives nearly the same color. 
 
 In a relief-map of any continent, lowlands and valleys may be 
 represented in green, mountains in brown, lakes in blue, and 
 deserts in buff. '* Naples yellow " is the conventional color for 
 plateaus, but in most cases it will be better to represent both 
 highlands and mountains in brown. 
 
 Relief-maps should be molded upon boards specially prepared 
 for the purpose. For use in the class-room a very convenient 
 form may be made by nailing strips on the ends of short lengths 
 of thin pine boards. The strips prevent warping. The molding- 
 

 Fig. 6o. 
 map of south america in plain putty. 
 
Modeling in Putty. 131 
 
 boards used for the continents may be 13 by 16 inches. Since 
 the map is intended to remain upon the board, the general ap- 
 pearance of the work may be much improved by painting the 
 boards Hght blue. The continent and its neighboring islands will 
 then stand out in strong relief. Instead of the thin boards here 
 recommended, squares and oblongs of book-board may be used ; 
 but the putty will not adhere so readily, and the pieces are apt to 
 warp. 
 
 If a set of relief-maps of the continents be constructed, it will 
 be well to adopt some uniform scale, since better ideas of the rel- 
 ative sizes can thus be obtained. With the boards 13 by 16, a 
 scale of 400 miles to the inch may be employed. The following 
 directions are such as may be found useful in locating the main 
 points in the outline of South America. 
 
 South America. 
 
 Draw a vertical line AB, and make it i \\ inches long. Meas- 
 ure downward 3 inches upon this line to the point Cy through 
 which draw the horizontal line ED^ making CE 2 inches to the 
 left, and CD 6 inches to the right. Lay off on AB 2 inches from 
 C to F. Draw the lines AE, AD, DB and EF, 
 
 MOLDING THE MAP. 
 
 Locate upon the board the points A, B, C, D, E, and F. 
 Take a small ball of green putty (No. i) about one inch in diam- 
 eter and soften it in the hand until thoroughly pliable. Place 
 the piece of putty in the center of the outline and press it out- 
 ward to the points marked. Make the layer of green perfectly 
 flat and about -^^ inch thick. Mold in the shore-line according to 
 the outline as given in the text-book, using a pointed stick in 
 
132 Molding South America, 
 
 making the indentation of the coast. Finish the flat surface by- 
 passing the palm of the hand Hghtly over the whole. 
 
 Some teachers may prefer to %\y^ the children the outline of 
 the shore and let them mold to the limit thus set. In that case, 
 a good plan is to cut out a pattern in thin cardboard, and trace 
 around the edge. The method employed may be varied to suit 
 the end desired. With very young children the outline must be 
 given if accurate maps are desired at once. 
 
 Whatever be the method employed, it is probable that the 
 production of the map of the continent outlined in the flat will 
 furnish enough work for each member of the class during one 
 lesson-period. 
 
 Pupils should be questioned in regard to the triangular form 
 of the continent, and the coast-line unbroken by great gulfs or 
 large enclosed seas. 
 
 Prepare some brown putty (No 2) and spread it out in thin 
 patches upon the parts of the continent where the plateau sec- 
 tions are to be represented. 
 
 These sections are : 
 
 1. The Plateau of the Andes. 
 
 2. The Plateau of Brazil. 
 
 3. The Plateau of Guiana. 
 
 Of these plateaus, that of the Andes is by far the most prom- 
 inent. It should be represented on the map by an irregular band 
 in brown varying from one-quarter inch to one inch in width, and 
 stretching along the entire western coast. 
 
 The portion of the map left green will represent the Great 
 Central Plain, which, extending along the whole eastern base of 
 the Andes, is interrupted only by the low plateaus of Brazil and 
 Guiana. 
 
 This great plain is usually considered under three divisions : 
 
 I. The Llanos of the Orinoco. 
 
\ ) 
 
 
 K^^ 
 
 Fig. 6i. 
 map of australia in colored puity 
 
Modeling in Putty. 133 
 
 2, The Selvas of the Amazon. 
 
 3. The Pampas of the La Plata. 
 
 The watersheds dividing these sections are insignificant. 
 
 The student may now proceed to mold the mountains of the 
 continent. Roll out between the palms of the hands Httle strips 
 of brown putty, and place them in parallel lines along the 
 western coast upon the Andean plateau. These will form the 
 border-walls of the plateau, and should be molded into peaks and 
 elevations by means of a horn spatula or a common steel button- 
 hook. The elevations should not exceed one-eighth of an inch 
 in height. The system should be formed of two lines of eleva- 
 tions in the central portion, of three lines at the northern ex- 
 tremity, and of one at the southern extremity. The general 
 chain of the Andes is nowhere broken through, and thus the 
 great mountain system forms a complete separation between the 
 waters which fall into the Pacific and those which flow in the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 The chief peaks of the Andes, such as Illampu, Aconcagua, and 
 Nevada de Sorata, should be located, and may be marked with 
 little touches of white paint. The various groups of lofty volca- 
 noes may be readily distinguished by deftly placing small pieces 
 of gold-foil upon the tips of the elevations molded to represent 
 them. Thus may be represented the volcano Tolima, and the 
 linear groups of the Plateau of Quito, containing Chimborazo and 
 Pichincha, Cayambe, and the famous Cotopaxi, the highest active 
 volcano in the world. The volcanoes of the central group, Are- 
 quipa and Sahama, and the remarkable Chihan range, including 
 Antuco and Corcovado, should also be shown upon the map. 
 
 The broad tableland of Brazil should be crossed by several 
 irregular ranges of low mountains, the highest ranges situated 
 along the southeastern coast. 
 
 The mountains of Guiana, consisting of the Acarai and Paca- 
 
134 Molding South America, 
 
 rayma ranges, may be represented by elevations about equal in 
 altitude to those of Brazil. 
 
 The next lesson may consist of tracing the courses of the 
 rivers of South America. If the students can be supplied with 
 little perforating needles such as are used in the kindergarten, 
 these may be used in marking out the river-courses. A sharp 
 penknife may be used instead. 
 
 The rivers should be traced from source to mouth. The main 
 tributaries of the Amazon should be shown upon the map. In a 
 complete map the wonderful little river, the Cassiquiare, which 
 connects the Rio Negro of the Amazonian system with the Ori- 
 noco, will be traced in position. The La Plata and its tributa- 
 ries draining the pampas of the South should be shown. 
 
 In the central portion of the plateau section of the Andes a 
 little depression may be lightly touched with blue paint to repre 
 sent Lake Titicaca, the highest large lake in the world. 
 
 The Desert of Atacama, on the western coast of the continent, 
 may be represented by a small patch of buff putty. The shade 
 may be formed by mixing No. 2 and No. 3. 
 
 SUBDIVISION OF THE WORK. 
 
 Lesson I. — Basal lines or outline. 
 
 Lesson II. — Flat layer of green, with shore-line. 
 
 Lesson III. — Plateaus and deserts. 
 
 Lesson IV. — Mountains and rivers. 
 
 Lesson V. — Lakes and details of finish. 
 
 Putty may be kept very soft and pliable by covering it with 
 water. When it is needed for use a portion may be placed in 
 hot water, and it will then become exceedingly soft, but not adhe- 
 sive or disagreeable in any way. 
 
 Practice-boards, consisting of plain lengths of common 
 pine, may be used until some little skill is attained in the 
 
Modeling in Plaster. 135 
 
 manipulation of the putty. Colored putty costs about ten cents 
 a pound. 
 
 By following the directions given in a preceding section the 
 other continents may be molded in colored putty. 
 
 MOLDING IN PLASTER OF PARIS. 
 
 Plaster is not a medium which will be found quite so useful 
 for general purposes as some other media, but there are still 
 many cases in which it is the best substance to employ. Where 
 it is desirable to make many copies of a given map, and the mat- 
 ter of time is the chief element to be considered, or where it is 
 necessary that a very high degree of finish shall be given to the 
 work, then it becomes the medium par excellence. The best 
 method to be pursued in the production of a set of copies of a 
 relief-model is as follows : 
 
 Let the relief to be copied be one of the delicate putty maps, 
 made according to the directions given under the heading '' Putty 
 Molding." Brush lightly the whole surface of the map with a 
 thin coating of oil, wax, or graphite. Tack a rim or border of 
 thin strips, one inch deep, completely around the board upon 
 which the map is molded. Prepare the thin paste of plaster, and 
 pour it into the mold thus made. Let it become firm, and then 
 remove it by tapping smartly the strips nailed to the sides of the 
 board. This becomes a new matrix from which any number of 
 copies can be made. Nail some inch strips together to form a 
 confining frame for the matrix. Coat the matrix with oil or 
 graphite, and then fill with plaster. A few sharp taps will allow 
 the removal of a perfectly clean and white copy of the original 
 map. This may now be elaborated by fine work upon the rivers, 
 etc., and may be made to take any of the delicate tints employed 
 in water-color painting. Where it is desirable to make maps for 
 
136 Plaster Casts. 
 
 use in all the ward schools of a city system, many of these clean, 
 white copies may be made. By having the various continents 
 molded in different schools, fine sets of rehef-maps may be made 
 for use in all the schools of a city. 
 
 This medium, like the papier-mache, has the great advantage 
 of taking water-colors and India ink well, and thus readily lends 
 itself to the highest grade of work. In order that the student 
 and teacher may be able to avail themselves properly of this 
 beautiful medium, we give the following list of desirable colors 
 to be used in tinting : 
 
 China white. Yellow ochre, 
 
 Lemon yellow, Raw sienna, 
 
 Vermilion, Venetian red, 
 
 Rose madder, Carmine, 
 
 Burnt sienna. Raw umber. 
 
 Sepia, Gamboge, 
 
 Indigo, Emerald green, 
 
 Prussian blue, India ink. 
 
 All the conventional tints employed in geographical repre- 
 sentation may be obtained from these, and their use will add 
 greatly to the beauty of the maps made. Of course the only 
 limit is the artistic talent of the molder. 
 
 It is understood that the maps from which the molds are 
 made must be perfectly dry and hard, otherwise the matrices can- 
 not readily be made. 
 
 MAPS OF FINEST FINISH. 
 
 A simple extension of the processes given before will g\vQ a 
 method for production of rehef maps of a quality not surpassed 
 in this country. Let a plaster mold be made as in the directions 
 given, and into this pour a thin layer of fine, smooth pulp, con- 
 
Fig. 62. 
 map of asia in plaster of paris. 
 
Paper Casts, 137 
 
 sistlng of macerated paper. This may then be backed by a thick, 
 coarser pulp made of manilla, brown paper, etc. 
 
 Another process which gives excellent results is as follows : 
 Soak sheets of Whatman's best draughting paper in a size of 
 glue and paste. Take pieces of the required dimensions, and, 
 pasting them together in layers, press them down into the mold 
 of the map. Dry these layers by placing the mold in an oven ; 
 then back the layers with pulp, or with plaster of Paris. When 
 it is desirable to finish the map in water-colors, the first layer 
 should be soaked in pure water, and the size or paste be applied 
 to one side only and after the sheet has been laid in the mold. 
 Maps made in this way become very strong and durable, and are 
 capable of taking very high finish. 
 
 We hope the day is not far distant when maps of the above 
 description will be made in great numbers in our own country. 
 
 ONE USE OF RELIEF MAPS. 
 
 The following double lesson given by Mr. Small, a pupil- 
 teacher, shows one use which may be made of the relief-maps 
 after they have been molded by the pupils. 
 
 Subject : Cultivated and Uncultivated Products of South 
 
 America. 
 
 Point. — I. To obtain from the pupils the statements given in 
 the plan below. 
 
 2. To fix firmly in their minds the knowledge gained. 
 
 Preparation by Pupils. — i. Study of the text in a good Inter- 
 mediate Geography. 
 
 2. A little well-directed reading. 
 
138 Use of Relief Maps, 
 
 3. Acquired concepts of the general physical features of the 
 continent, through previous work and molding the relief in putty, 
 clay, or paper-pulp. 
 
 4. Individual maps ; each pupil's molded work before him 
 during the recitation. 
 
 Preparation by the Teacher. — i. Selection of lesson-plan. 
 
 2. Consultation of Manual of Commerce. 
 
 3. Molding of individual map. 
 
 Plan and Matter. — i. Review of previous lesson on physical 
 features. 
 
 2. Vegetable products are — cultivated and uncultivated. 
 
 3. Cabinet-woods, dye-woods, palms, india-rubber, cinchona- 
 sarsaparilla, Brazil nuts, and cassava are the principal wild pro- 
 ductions of South America. 
 
 4. The cabinet-woods, — mahogany, rosewood, ebony, etc., — 
 the dye-woods, india-rubber and palms, are mainly found along 
 the Amazon. 
 
 5. Cassava is produced in greatest abundance in Brazil. 
 
 6. Cinchona or Peruvian bark is obtained in Peru, United 
 States of Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia. 
 
 7. Coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, indigo, and rice are the prin- 
 cipal cultivated vegetable productions of South America. 
 
 8. Brazil yields more than half the coffee used in the world. 
 
 9. Brazil is the chief coffee, sugar, and cotton producing dis- 
 trict of South America, but Guiana and Venezuela are also im- 
 portant districts. 
 
 10. Venezuela and Brazil produce indigo. 
 
 11. General drill in spelling, etc. 
 
 METHOD. 
 
 Teacher. — Who can tell me upon what the vegetable productions of a 
 country depend ? 
 
 Harry. — Upon the soil and climate. 
 
A Model Lesson, 139 
 
 Teacher. — Since the soil and climate, as you have learned, differ much 
 in the various countries, what must follow in regard to the productions ? 
 
 Bertha. — The productions are different. 
 
 Teacher. — In your last lesson you have molded South America. Etta 
 may tell me to which hemisphere the continent belongs. 
 
 Etta.—'SiOViXh. America lies in the Western Hemisphere. 
 
 Teacher. — In what zones does the continent lie, Charlie? 
 
 Charlie. — It is in the Torrid and South Temperate Zones. 
 
 Teacher. — Through what part does the equator pass, Gracie ? 
 
 Grade. — Through the northern part. 
 
 Teacher. — What portion of the continent is in the Torrid Zone, Helen } 
 
 Helen. — About three-quarters of the continent lie in the Torrid Zone. 
 
 Teacher. — Class may show me where the equator crosses the continent. 
 
 Each pupil points out the place upon his map. 
 
 Teacher. — Where is the chief mountain system situated, Ella ? 
 Ella. — It extends along the entire Western coast. 
 
 Here the teacher conducts a rapid review of the previous les- 
 son upon physical features, climate, soil, etc. The pupils locate 
 the various parts named. Much of the zest of recitation appears 
 to come from the fact that each child is dealing with a map which 
 he has made his own. 
 
 Teacher. — Since the greater part of South America is in the Torrid Zone, 
 what kind of productions should we expect to find, Lottie } 
 
 Lottie. — The productions common to the Torrid Zone, mainly. 
 
 Teacher. — What two general classes of vegetable productions do we 
 have, Edna? 
 
 Edna. — Cultivated and uncultivated. 
 
 Teacher. — Name some cultivated products, Harry? 
 
 Harry. — Corn and wheat. 
 
 Teacher. — Helen may name some uncultivated prodnjctions we have in 
 this country. 
 
 Helen. — The timber-trees. 
 
 Teacher. — Who can name some uncultivated vegetable products of 
 South America ? 
 
I40 Suggestive Work, 
 
 ^//^.—Cabinet-woods. 
 Teacher. — What are cabinet-woods? 
 Etta. — Wood used in making fine furniture. 
 Teacher. — Clara may name some. 
 
 Clara. — Mahogany and rosewood. Chairs and sofas are sometimes 
 made of mahogany, and pianos of rosewood. 
 Teacher. — Harry } 
 Harry. — Sister has an easel made of satinwood and ebony. 
 
 The children are asked to spell these various words, and the 
 teacher writes a list upon the blackboard. 
 
 Teacher. — Name other uncultivated products of South America, Edna } 
 
 Edna. — Dye-woods. 
 
 Grade. — Cocoanuts and other fruits of palms. 
 
 Ella. — India-rubber. 
 
 Teacher. — What is india-rubber, Helen. 
 
 Hele?i. — India-rubber is a gum-like or resinous substance obtained from 
 the milky sap of a tree. 
 
 Teacher. — What use is made of it in this country, Charles ? 
 
 Charles. — It is used in making boots, shoes, water-proof clothing, erasers, 
 and many other articles. 
 
 Teacher. — There is also a tree called cow tree or milk tree, which yieds 
 an abundance of nutritious sap. From what are all of these various things 
 obtained, Gracie } 
 
 Grade. — They are obtained from trees. 
 
 Teacher. — Where do we always find trees, Mac ? 
 
 Mac. — In forests. 
 
 Teacher. — Where do we find the principal forests of South America 
 Lottie ? 
 
 Lottie. — In the plains of the Amazon. 
 
 Teacher. — Lawrence may tell us the name which is sometimes given to 
 these plains. 
 
 Lazurence. — Sel vas. 
 
 Teacher. — What does that word mean, Mac } 
 
 Mac. — Woods or forest plains. 
 
 Teacher. — Where are the dye-woods, cabinet-woods, india-rubber trees, 
 cow trees and palm trees of South America found, Edna ? 
 
 Edna. — In the forests along the banks of the Amazon, in Brazil, 
 
A Model Lesson. 141 
 
 Teacher. — Class may point out on maps. Yes, that is right. But have 
 we named all the wild products, Harry ? 
 
 Harry. — I can name two others — Peruvian bark and sarsaparilla. 
 
 Teacher. — Any others, Charles ? 
 
 Charles. — Cassava or tapioca. 
 
 Heleji, — Brazil nuts. 
 
 Teacher. — In what zone is cassava produced ? 
 
 Grade. — In the Torrid Zone. 
 
 Teacher. — In what particular country of South America is it produced, 
 Harry ? 
 
 Harry. — In Brazil. 
 
 Teacher. — Class may point out the country. Yes, that is right, Charles. 
 Now we have all found it. What is the name of the plant from which 
 cassava is made } 
 
 Helen. — It is called the manioc shrub, and the root when scraped to a 
 pulp is pressed and dried, and then ground to flour called cassava. The 
 starch of the roots is known as the tapioca of commerce. 
 
 Teacher. — The manufacture of the manioc-flour and tapioca is one of 
 the leading industries of the country. Much tapioca is now produced from 
 the planted shrubs, so we cannot call this strictly an uncultivated product. 
 Where is cinchona or Peruvian bark found, Bertha.? 
 
 Bertha. — ll is found in Peru. (Maps.) 
 
 Teacher. — Well, Helen ? 
 
 Helen. — It is found, too, in Bolivia, Ecuador, and United States of 
 Colombia. 
 
 Teacher. — In what plateau are all of these countries which produce this 
 bar ? 
 
 Helen. — The plateau of the Andes. 
 
 Teacher. — In which half of the section, Charles ? 
 
 Charles. — The northern half of the Andean plateau. 
 
 Teacher. — Of what use is this bark, Ella ? 
 
 Ella. — It is used as medicine. Quinine is made from cinchona or Peru- 
 vian bark. 
 
 Teacher. — What other medicinal plant did Harry name, Helen.? 
 
 Helen. — Sarsaparilla. 
 
 Teacher. — Where in South America does sarsaparilla grow } 
 
 Helen. — In Venezuela, United States of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. 
 (Maps used.j 
 
142 Products of South America. 
 
 Teachc7\ — What kind of vegetable products are these which we have 
 named ? 
 
 Class. — Uncultivated. 
 
 Teacher. — These may all be included in the term forest products. Let 
 us name them. 
 
 C/a^^.— (Reading from the blackboard.) 
 
 Cabinet woods, 
 Dye woods, 
 Fruits of palms, 
 India-rubber, 
 Peruvian bark, 
 Sarsaparilla, 
 Brazil nuts. 
 Cassava, etc. 
 
 Teacher. — What other kind of vegetable products are there, Etta ? 
 Etta. — Cultivated products. 
 
 Teacher. — Name the principal cultivated vegetable productions of South 
 America ? 
 
 Grade. — Coffee, sugar, and cotton. 
 Harry. — Tobacco and indigo. 
 Lottie. — Bananas. 
 Teacher. — Spell that word, Lottie. 
 
 Children are required to give descriptions of the various 
 products named. The words are written upon the board. 
 
 Teacher. — What must be the nature of the climate and soil in these 
 places where coffee, sugar, and cotton grow, Edna ? 
 
 Edna. — The climate must be warm and moist, and the soil rich. 
 
 Teacher. — What countries of South America have such conditions, 
 Bertha ? 
 
 Bertha. — Brazil, Guiana, and Venezuela, principally. (Maps.) 
 
 Teacher. — Then these products are found in what countries, Harry r 
 
 Harry. — They are all found in greatest abundance in Brazil, but Guiana 
 produces large quantities of cotton and sugar, while Venezuela produces 
 superior grades of sugar and coffee. 
 
 Teacher. — How does Brazil rank with other countries in the production 
 of coffee, Ella? 
 
Chalk Modeling. 143 
 
 Ella. — Brazil yields more than half of the coffee consumed in the world, 
 and the United States takes fully one-half of the quantity exported. 
 
 Teacher. — In what zone does the indigo plant flourish, Mac? 
 
 Mac. — In the Torrid Zone. 
 
 Teacher. — We shall then find this plant in the northern part of South 
 America, but in what countries, Etta.'* 
 
 Etta. — In Venezuela and Brazil. 
 
 Teacher. — Class may name the cultivated vegetable products. 
 
 Class. — (Reading from the blackboard.) 
 
 Coffee, 
 
 Sugar, 
 
 Cotton, 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 Indigo, 
 
 Bananas, 
 
 Rice, 
 
 Cocoa, etc. 
 
 General Drill. — Pupils name, spell, describe, and point out on 
 relief-maps the various localities in which the productions are 
 found. 
 
 CHALK-MODELING AND MAP-DRAWING. 
 
 Map-drawing is now generally recognized as an important 
 auxiliary in the study of geography; but many teachers make 
 the mistake of regarding it as an end^ and not as a means. Cartog- 
 raphy, or the production of finished and mathematically accu- 
 rate maps, is work for engineers and topographers, not for 
 students in our public schools ; and while we will yield to none in 
 our appreciation of beautiful work of this kind, still it is beHeved 
 that the acquisition of the habit of close observation, and the 
 attainment of skill in representation are of far greater importance 
 than the mere production of maps possessing artistic finish. 
 
 A gentleman once told us that one thing which struck him as 
 
144 Map Drawing. 
 
 particularly noticeable in the school-life in Japan, was the power 
 the little boys possessed of representing by a few rapidly-drawn 
 lines the object to which they wished to direct attention. Draw- 
 ing was with them a second language. Now it is psychologically 
 true that drawing is a means of concept expression : — a language 
 by means of which we may express sight impressions. It is in 
 its practical application of this truth that the German method of 
 teaching geography trends in the right direction. The rough 
 diagram or sketch In which the German lad seeks to express his 
 concept of the relative shape and outline of the Americas, may 
 be crude indeed, yet the simple sketch fascinates us — interprets 
 to us something which we may never have grasped before. How 
 often the elaborate work, full of the most marvelous detail, only 
 excites our wonder ! It tells us nothing ; it teaches nothing. 
 
 We are all inclined to flatter ourselves by imagining that we 
 know more than we can express, but the truth is that we can 
 only draw or represent so much of a thing as we can see^ or in 
 other words, so much as we can realize. 
 
 It follows from this, that we can expect little good from any 
 system of map-drawing in which tracing dim outlines occupies any 
 considerable part, if, at the same time, much original work be 
 not done on such maps. The pupils should often be required to 
 produce maps without the aid of either outHne or construction 
 lines. Even the production of what some one has sneeringly 
 called " nondescripts " will go far to show to the teacher what 
 actual concepts the children have of the form of the continent 
 which they have been studying. 
 
 The early sketch-maps may be, probably will be, in their 
 honest hardness of outline, far less pretty than those of more 
 pretentious ignorance ; but while those who have never learned 
 the alphabet of the true art of map-making can make no prog- 
 ress, those who base their work upon a sound foundation will 
 
Chalk Modeling, 
 
 145 
 
 find that every sketch-map they make is an education of hand 
 and eye and brain. 
 
 Let any teacher study the plan which he will himself adopt 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 when tracing any outline, and then find whether he has by the 
 process obtained any concept of the form of the whole. In nine 
 cases out of ten it will be found that the effort to concentrate 
 
H^ Map Sketching, 
 
 the mind upon the detail focuses the eye upon a very limited 
 portion of the outline, and prevents the retention of any con- 
 cept of the entire form. 
 
 "■ Sketch the tree first as a whole," said a famous artist to 
 his pupils, *' do not try to grow a trunk onto the branches." How 
 often children are required to work at the leaves and branches of 
 continents before studying and drawing the trunk-forms ! 
 
 With young pupils, the power to imitate should mainly be 
 relied upon in the work. If it be possible, send them all to the 
 blackboard, and have them block in, with the flat side of the 
 crayon, the mass of the continent. But you say, " The work 
 looks so rough, so crude." Yes, the first attempts may be poor ; 
 but improvement soon begins, and the end shows that the plan is 
 a correct one. The difficulty here, as in all kinds of real wo'rk, 
 lies in the trouble of thinking, to escape which we sometimes 
 catch at the most laborious trifling. When the child looks at a 
 form in order to draw it, there is a strong act of the will, and 
 this causes true growth of the mind. This form of drawing or 
 chalk-modeling is one of the most valuable aids in the teaching 
 of geography. In the hands of skillful pupils and teachers it be- 
 comes a source of never-ending delight. 
 
 Modeling the continent in sand should precede the drawing 
 of the form, and it would be well if the representation of the sur- 
 face in color could also precede drawing. Where it is not prac- 
 ticable to employ water-colors in the representation of the con- 
 tinental masses, colored crayons may be used with good effect. 
 From the modeled continent as formed upon the molding-board 
 the continent as a mass should be drawn in green chalk ; next 
 the plateaus and mountains in brown or yellow ; then the rivers 
 in bright blue. When mountains occur upon the map, they 
 should be drawn before the rivers, except in case the rivers form 
 a part of the the boundary line. The mountains at once give the 
 
Construction Lines, 147 
 
 direction in which the land slopes, and therefore show the courses 
 in which the rivers flow. In drawing a river, the line should be 
 drawn from the source to the mouth. A child will very soon 
 understand that it is only reasonable to trace a river in the direc- 
 tion in which it really flows. 
 
 It is believed that with more advanced pupils the original 
 development of the outlines of the continents by means of accu- 
 rate construction lines may be made interesting, and the energy 
 expended not be lost. The system is as old as the time of Ritter, 
 and has the sanction of that great geographer. If the measure- 
 ments be given in inches and the work done to scale, much skill 
 of a practical value will be gained. Pupils take pride in making 
 good maps, and it should be remembered that they take little 
 delight where learning is not doing. 
 
 Cartography in its higher forms does not belong to our school- 
 rooms ; still there is one use which may be made of any good 
 system of construction lines, aside from their use for purposes of 
 map-drawing: pupils in the higher classes may easily calculate 
 the areas of the continents from such lines. 
 
 Besides the maps which are usually made in our schools, 
 maps should be made showing the rain-belts, forest regions, 
 deserts, plains, plateaus, staple products, races of men, density of 
 population, religions, ancient empires, manufacturing interests, 
 commercial lines of travel, sections visited by noted discoverers 
 and explorers, territory after conquest, colonization, etc. 
 
 In many schools, especially in the rural districts, there are no 
 opportunities for teaching the productions of a country as shown 
 in the lessons on the Progressive Sand Map. In such cases a 
 passable substitute may be made thus : Let an outline of the 
 country to be studied be drawn upon a large sheet of manilla 
 paper. The lines of the coast may be made most effective by 
 shading in blue. Now paste upon the map the products of the 
 
148 Product Maps. 
 
 country In their proper localities. Wheat, oats, barley, rice, 
 wool, cotton, iron-ore, gold and silver leaf, cabinet woods, coffee- 
 beans, etc., may all be easily fastened to the paper with glue. If 
 the pupils are asked to bring the various products, there will be 
 no difficulty through lack of quantity. Such product-maps give 
 freshness and variety even in schools where the molding-board is 
 in daily use. The same method may be pursued in the produc- 
 tion of botanical charts of a district, county, or state. 
 
 The following method, suggested by a correspondent for one 
 of our educational papers, gives a splendid opportunity for drill 
 upon map-sketching as well as a good change from routine 
 work for both teachers and pupils. 
 
 Let one of the pupils be sent to the board to draw an outline 
 map of a country, and let the others at their seats draw upon 
 slates or upon paper. 
 
 Allow fifteen or twenty minutes for the drawing of the map, 
 and as many more for the study of the same. 
 
 Now let one of the pupils stand at the board and question the 
 class upon the various features of the country, making use mean- 
 while of the map drawn. When one pupil has exhausted his 
 stock of ready questions, let other members of the class continue 
 the questioning. 
 
 The teacher must see that the pupils bring out the leading 
 features by their questions, and should supply any omitted points. 
 
 The method is of great value, since pupils are led to inde- 
 pendent study. Never were words more true than these of 
 Rousseau : " If your head always directs your pupil's hands, his 
 own head will become useless to him." 
 
The Eye and the Hand, 149 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE SKETCHING. 
 
 Teachers will find that their work in the class-room will be 
 rendered more effective if they will cultivate a taste for light 
 sketching, in order that they may thereby acquire the power to 
 illustrate their work at any moment. If we study a picture care- 
 fully, we shall find that the principal points are all brought out 
 by a few strong Hnes. Teachers should strive to gain that power 
 of the eye which will enable them to seize upon these main points 
 of a picture, and then by constant practice acquire that control 
 of hand which will enable them to represent the thing desired. 
 
 Some teachers may think that this is a sort of Egyptian 
 tyranny, to bid them make bricks, having not yet any of the 
 materials. But let us look at the matter. Have we not failed in 
 duty in denying the soul some of its possibilities of development 
 by neglecting to train the sense of sight ? We do not cultivate 
 this sense, which is by no means naturally strong with the Eng- 
 lish race. Through our belief that we can do nothing in this 
 line, we have come to the conclusion that we are thereby relieved 
 of all responsibility for the cultivation and the training of the 
 hand and eye in others. 
 
 Elementary training in sketch-drawing should be a part of 
 the course in every school in which teachers are prepared for 
 their work. The line of work should be specially directed towards 
 the attainment of genuine control of the hand. The direction of 
 the classes in sketching should be placed in the hands of per- 
 sons possessing artistic skill. 
 
 But those teachers who have had no chances to obtain good 
 training may do much to improve themselves in this respect, if 
 they will but think so, and try. Make a bold stroke to emanci- 
 pate yourselves from the slavery of the belief that you can do 
 
I50 Seeing and Doing. 
 
 nothing. At first your attempts will be crude and poor — very 
 poor, perhaps— but the next time that you try you will do better. 
 Soon you will begin to take pride in your work, and the ready 
 interest excited in the children will be your stimulus. Never 
 mind if occasionally they do become your critics, and mistake 
 your horse for a cow, or the cat for a sheep. Perhaps you will 
 find that the fault may lie in the fact that you have not suffi- 
 ciently emphasized the characteristic points of the animal ; and 
 this, because your own percepts and concepts may not be so clear 
 as you may have supposed. 
 
 A very common fault v/ith beginners, and one which it will 
 be well to guard against carefully, is false finish — labor thrown 
 away by the employment of methods which take more time than 
 other methods, while, at the same time, the result may be much 
 inferior. For example, fine lines and cross-hatching should not 
 be employed in shading in cases where chalk, charcoal, or the 
 stump will give a shade of better quality in less time. 
 
 Economy in labor, wherever it is not artistically an evil, should 
 be observed. Get a few sketches by good artists, and notice how 
 in their work these men give rapidity of execution, not by hurry- 
 ing the hand, but by adopting the most summary means of ex- 
 pression. The natural world presents itself to the eye as a 
 series of patches or spaces full of gradations of light and shade 
 and color, but having no real lines. 
 
 Not that the teacher will not find it useful at times to use that 
 purity and firmness of outline which is a characteristic of the best 
 Greek art, Avhile at the same time it is the style which a child 
 naturally adopts in his own first efforts ; but in making sketches, 
 in general, the teacher should aim to see and represent the large 
 masses of light and shade, and thus to convey impressions and 
 ideas rapidly and accurately. 
 
Illustrative Sketching. 
 
 151 
 
 
 Fig. 64.— The Geyser, 
 
152 Historical Maps. 
 
 MAP MODELING IN HISTORY. 
 
 Map modeling in connection with the work in history has 
 considerable educational value, since everything that tends to 
 make clear the geographical relation between various nations 
 will aid in the understanding of their history. The most natural 
 association is that ot time and place, and all the points that tend 
 to fix the place in memory will tend to impress the time relation 
 in a corresponding degree. The imagination is of course the 
 faculty to which the strongest appeals must be made ; but as we 
 model the coast-line of Greece in our study of the history of that 
 country, we shall find that the peculiar charm of an intimate 
 blending of land and sea could not fail to make navigators of the 
 Greeks. It incited them to active commercial intercourse with 
 other nations. The connection between the physical character 
 of a country and the history of its people is most intimate. 
 
 As we take up the individual events of history, an accurate 
 knowledge and expression of the physical features becomes a 
 v»ry important part in the thorough study of causes and effects. 
 No teacher who has ever used the molding-board in the course 
 of a lesson in history will ever return to that senseless memoriz- 
 ing and repeating of meaningless words so long forming the bulk 
 of this work in our common schools. 
 
 Take, for example, the early history of the Western part of 
 Pennsylvania. The long parallel ridges of the Alleghanies seemed, 
 like huge fences, to confine the English people to the country 
 east of the mountains. The pasture of the eastern slopes of the 
 mountains was not, however, to be the limit. In 1754 the gov- 
 ernor of Virginia sent Washington to take possession of the 
 
fT: 
 
 
 III " P " .' III I I II f i ll 
 
 
 ^-?^ 
 
 ■^^ ^'^^t^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 ii-: i 
 
 ^ r - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a: 
 
 ST'niW;^- 
 
 'ep'\ 
 
 ,^Hy 
 
 Fi(. 65. ,:^ 
 
 PAPIER-MACHE MAP OF BURGOYNE'S INVASION. 
 
Saratoga and Gettysburg. 153 
 
 country, and the young major selected a spot where the Alle- 
 ghany and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio. As the 
 teacher molds these valleys meeting at the point at which the 
 great city of Pittsburgh now is found, the power of its position 
 will be seen more clearly. Fort Duquesne was the seal that the 
 French placed to confirm the wisdom of Washington. 
 
 In the study of the various battlefields mentioned in the his- 
 tory of our country the teacher may use the molding-board with 
 excellent effect. Bunker Hill, Saratoga, and many others are 
 examples of those that are best adapted to such representation. 
 The whole campaign of Burgoyne's invasion is the subject of the 
 papier-mache map. Fig. 65, modeled by Wood Bishop of the 
 public schools of Wilmerding, Pa. Fig. 66 shows the further ap- 
 plication of the same idea, although it is impossible to reproduce 
 in the photograph the colored inks used in the marking of the 
 various details of the map. 
 
 The great battlefield of Gettysburg may be modeled and the 
 advantage of the selection of the terrible fishhook "position" of 
 Cemetery Hill be made plain. During Wednesday night and 
 Thursday morning the two armies were concentrating on the 
 two ridges which were to be the line of battle. Then began the 
 great artillery contest. The cannonade was fierce and incessant, 
 and many shells were thrown into the town. Both sides fought 
 with great bravery, but neither could drive the other out of posi- 
 tion. On Friday morning General Lee did not desire to make 
 the attack. He saw the superiority of the federal position, and 
 tried to entice the Union troops out of it and down into the val- 
 ley. The confederates marched out of Gettysburg and retired to 
 the seminary, but gained nothing by the movement. All day the 
 battle raged v/ith great fierceness in charge and countercharge. 
 At last about four o'clock occurred the sanguinary struggle that 
 Whitelaw Reid has called the great final charge. In this great 
 
154 Historical Maps, 
 
 onward rush the High-water Mark of the rebellion was reached. 
 Pickett's division lost six-sevenths of its officers and men ; while 
 the federals under Gibbon, their strength diminished one-half, 
 still held the crest. The confederates gathered up their broken 
 fragments, formed lines, and slowly marched away. It was not 
 a rout, but a bitter, crushing defeat. Fig. 66a. 
 
 Although no model can take the place of the idealizing forces 
 of a vivid imagination, there can be no doubt of the value of the 
 representation of the relief forms in this relation. Lookout 
 Mountain, Missionary Ridge, and the Shenandoah Valley — that 
 "■ Valley of Death " — may become more than mere names if their 
 relief forms are properly understood. 
 

 
 <Uitf^f 
 
 C-.C.B 
 
 I: 
 
 %. 
 
 
 V^ 
 
 
 
 / / 
 
 
 4--^*- 
 
 '•^ ' «»v. 
 
 J'/ 
 i \ 
 
 S , <^»>e>ie.«?s;?) 
 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
Home Geography. 
 
 155 
 
 lejsjsonis ixi f ome cefeosmpi^r. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 Ursson K. 
 
 The Spring in the Pasture. 
 
 These lessons in Home Geography are taken from '* Home, 
 ReHef, and Life," a series of geographical studies copyrighted by 
 the author in 1892. They are here inserted in order to suggest 
 lines of similar work to teachers who may use the preceding les- 
 sons in map modeHng. All work of this kind must have its own 
 local coloring, and can be useful in transcription only as it is 
 made the means whereby the teacher makes the brooks and 
 mountains speak to the children. 
 
 Guyot says that in teaching geography the child must first be 
 
156 Home Geography. 
 
 made acquainted with nature as it exists under conditions of sur- 
 face, climate, and culture ; he must know the thing to be symbol- 
 ized, before the symbol can have any definite value. Oral lessons 
 on the home neighborhood must be given, that the children may 
 become conscious that they possess knowledge acquired through 
 their own powers of observation, and may use these concepts, 
 obtained from the geography of their own locality, in building 
 up images of more remote regions. A child has taken his first 
 steps in geographical study when he has made a careful study 
 of a small portion of the earth's surface, and has made a map of 
 the school-ground. 
 
 In giving such primary notions of this great study, which Rit- 
 ter calls "a great school of culture for the human race," the teach- 
 ers in our country schools possess natural advantage over those less 
 fortunately located in cities. Still, there are many objects access- 
 ible in the least varied neighborhood, and these may be made the 
 basis for future ideas of rivers, lakes, plains, and mountains. 
 
 A child's penetration is keener, and his judgment fairer, than 
 most teachers imagine. Although his knowledge is limited, he 
 may be led to make inquiry into much that is useful if he but 
 come under the instruction of the skillful teacher. I would have 
 every teacher draw ; if but the rudest sketches, draw. The les- 
 son may be given thus : 
 
 I saw Jennie coming through the pasture on her way to 
 school. What is a pasture, Johnny? 
 
 " A place where sheep, or horses, or cows stay." Yes, but 
 why do we keep them in the pasture ? '' To eat the grass." But 
 do the animals need anything besides grass ? "■ They want water, 
 too." Where can they find that, James ? '' There is a brook in 
 our pasture." (Hands rise.) Carrie. *^ There is a big spring in 
 our pasture, and the water comes right out of the hill." 
 

 
 *-*X^M^,^' >> -^H^-^iT,. 
 
 Fig. 66a. — map of battle of Gettysburg. 
 
IVater Forms. 
 
 157 
 
 What is a spring, Carrie? "A place where the water comes 
 out of the ground." "A brook flows from our spring." And 
 James says there is a brook in his father's pasture. " That's the 
 very same brook." 
 
 How does a brook differ from a spring? "A brook is water 
 flowing through the fields, and a spring is water coming out of 
 the ground." That is good. Now, children, let us make a little 
 picture of the spring and the brook. Right here at the bottom 
 of the hilly ground, just as Carrie says, the water comes out of 
 the hill. Do you see the spring? (Sketches rapidly; Fig. 67.) 
 Here the land slopes down to . , 
 the spring. Henry, did you \\L 
 
 ever see a 
 and it was 
 mosses and 
 
 spring? "Yes, 
 
 a big one with 
 
 ferns and tall 
 
 ^^ 
 
 grass near it." Good. See Fig. 68. 
 
 the grass and the ferns. It is near the fence. So the same water 
 
 goes into Jimmy's pasture. How the plants love the water ! 
 
 Some of them seem to run right into the brook. Yes, Johnny, 
 
 *' the plants need water as much 
 as the cows do." The grass 
 could not grow if the water did 
 not come. "From the clouds." 
 " Comes down as rain." Yes. 
 Then it soaks through the 
 ground and comes out at the 
 foot of the hill. How funny, 
 that hills should have feet. 
 " Where they stand on the level 
 ground, of course." 
 
 See where the land slopes 
 Fig, 6g, down to the spring. (Draws 
 
 ...^ "*" •'"- 
 
 
 -^ ,^.. 
 
 .-.'- 
 
 ~<k. Ufi 
 
 ,..•/. ^ ^.- 
 
 .t/.— 
 
 J.. -.«- 
 
 j,, __ 0/, 
 
 -""-- 
 
 ^.- 
 
 -''' — 
 
 Mr 
 
 Aa/tfj Pasture ^v- 
 
 ~M»- .\h^ 
 
 
158 Home Geography, 
 
 lines for the slopes.) " Yes, it slopes toward the brook on each 
 side." (Draws slopes.) How many slopes in the little brook's 
 cradle ? " Three." " If there were four it couldn't get out of its 
 bed." Yes, that is what we call it, the brook's bed. But the 
 brook does not get out of its bed, for the larger the brook grows 
 the larger its bed becomes. Yes, James is right. " It runs into 
 the big creek that makes the mill-pond for his father's mill." 
 *' That is Wolf Creek." So the Indians called it, because there 
 were many wolves there before the white men came. Can you 
 name another creek ? " Muddy Creek." " Slippery Rock Creek." 
 This last one is long and deep. But how does Wolf Creek make 
 the mill-pond ? " Some men built a dam right across the creek, 
 so the water was stopped, and it filled up behind the dam until 
 the water became very wide and deep, and then ran over the 
 dam." That is told very well. Let us draw the pond. (Drav/s.) 
 
 Some day we shall learn of something that is much like a 
 pond, only larger ; but nobody ever built a dam to make it. 
 
 ** That's a lake " (says Johnny). 
 
 You may draw the pasture, the spring, and the brook. Make 
 the little bunches of grass like this (Fig. 68). (Give this as busy 
 work.) 
 
 From the crude pictures drawn by the children there is but a 
 step to the conventional map (Fig. 69), by which the surveyor 
 conveys the idea of pasture land. Have the children draw such 
 squares and oblongs. 
 
Land Forms. 
 
 159 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 acsson KK, 
 
 Forms of Land. 
 
 On her way to school Jennie came through the pasture. As 
 she opened the large gate I saw her drive back the cows that 
 tried to run out into the road. Mr. Smith put the cows in there 
 to eat the grass, Freddy says. " It is not very good now, and I 
 guess they were going up to the barn because the weather is 
 cold." You little Yankee, to *' guess." What did they want at 
 the barn ? "I think they wanted some hay. Miss Clay." Mary 
 
i6o Home Geography, 
 
 says that in the meadow, across the road from the pasture (Fig. 
 70), the cattle were not allowed to eat the grass as fast as it grew. 
 " When it was very tall, father mowed the grass and made hay." 
 What did he use for mowing the grass, Kate ? '' A mowing- 
 machine, perhaps ; father used one in his meadow." ** So flat 
 that the horses could draw the machine anywhere." " No 
 stones." 
 
 When you look over the pasture and meadow can you see 
 other differences ? " The pasture is rough and hilly." "■ It has 
 briars and bushes, but the meadow has none." What are hills ? 
 " Where the land rises up." " Where the land is higher than the 
 rest." The sides of the hills we call slopes. '' Smith's hill has a 
 very gentle slope." James says it is not so on all sides. "Where 
 the road leads into the quarry." " Where stone is taken out for 
 the walls of buildings." '' One of Uncle Frank's sheep fell over 
 those rocks last week." Well, Kate ? " It goes straight down." 
 Let us call the place where it goes straight down a sharp slope, 
 or an abrupt slope. " Uncle Frank said that the sheep fell over 
 the — " Did he say it fell over the precipice ? " Yes, Miss Clay ; 
 that's what he said. It fell over the precipice, and the hill is 
 very steep there." Carrie ? " After Mr. Smith had cut the grass 
 in his meadow, some of the hay was put into the barn, and the 
 rest was piled up back of it." "■ The sheep were turned into the 
 meadow to eat the new grass." Why did not your uncle put the 
 sheep into the lower lot, James ? ** He said it was too wet. 
 Sometimes, when I go down there after the cows, I send Rover 
 to drive them out of the swampy part. Grandpa says that when 
 he came to the farm, all the land which is now meadow was 
 swampy." How did it change so much ? '' He dug ditches to 
 run the water off." Well, Charlie ? "' Father uses tiles when he 
 drains land." '' But he must put them under the ground." 
 
 Yes, that is so. When there is too much water it must be 
 
Picture Maps, i6i 
 
 drained off into a brook or other stream if we wish to raise good 
 crops on the land. '' Some land is too rough and stony to be 
 plowed, and is only fit for pasture." What did Mr. Smith plant 
 near the barn ? " Corn and potatoes." " In the field are many 
 big pumpkins." " Orange-yellow." '* The corn was cut a week 
 ago." What do we call the piles of cornstalks as they are set up 
 in the fields ? " We call them shocks." Soon the corn will be 
 husked, and the bright ears taken to the corn-crib. '' Meal is 
 made from the corn." " Father feeds corn to the pigs." 
 
 We have named so many kinds of land that we should write 
 out a list of them : 
 
 (^^(h^^^^^s/^ 
 
 /^^r^ 
 
 (&^. 
 
 t^'d^^ic^^l^d'^ 
 
 You may copy these words when you go to your seats. Yes, 
 George, "there is one kind we have not written yet," woodlands, 
 and I will put that at the last. You may write under it all the 
 new kinds you can remember. Do not name any more now. 
 (Busy work.) 
 
 Let me see your picture-maps of the pasture, the spring, and 
 the brook. Some have put in the fence, the trees, and the hill. 
 Ruth has drawn grass and rushes (Fig. 71). We shall soon 
 learn to make good maps. 
 
l62 
 
 Home Geography, 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 (Made by a child about eight years old. The sketch is not perfect by any means, but shows a 
 child's natural tendency to conventionalize drawing into set maps. Notice the manner in which 
 ^e represents slopes.) 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
Picture Maps, 163 
 
 Uncle Frank's poor old sheep fell over the precipice. Our 
 little brook runs out of the pasture too, joins the big creek, and 
 falls over a precipice. '' That's the falls " (Fig. 72). " Tom 
 and I were down there fishing last Saturday." '^ What do we 
 call it .^ "A waterfall." Some people call large waterfalls r«/<7;- 
 7'acts. 
 
 Here is our list of words for the vvaters. Mary may name 
 one, and then write the word neatly upon the blackboard. 
 
 ^^^^^^^ {(^'le€'in^^ 
 
 r^2^^^^^^^ 
 
 t^^^j^^^^!^^ €^^ (P^e^-^^i^z^^ 
 
164 
 
 Home Geography, 
 
 Products. 
 
 The teacher examines the papers, slates, or books upon which 
 the children have written the names of the kinds of land. Some 
 children have added new words at this place, orchards, coal-lands, 
 clay-beds, oil-lands. These are added to the blackboard lists, 
 and give basis for future study. Let these names come from the 
 children. Some of those given above would be the last men- 
 tioned by the children in other localities. 
 
 What a large number of useful things we have growing upon 
 the land ! The meadows give us grass from which we make 
 hay, and in the ploughed fields we may plant grain and other 
 things. Kate may name some of the common crops. '' Wheat, 
 oats, rye, and barley." James? " Corn and buckwheat." "We 
 feed the corn to the hogs." " No, not all of it, for the miller 
 makes meal from corn." And the buckwheat ? " Oh, that is 
 made into flour for buckwheat cakes ! " Jennie may tell about 
 the crops. ''We have pumpkin pies down at randma's house; 
 that's the way grandma uses the pumpkins." A very good way. 
 
 Some farmers feed them to 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 the stock." (Fig. 73.) Grandma 
 says that her mother made syrup 
 by boiling pieces of pumpkin in 
 water." '' During the war for 
 independence." '' They couldn't 
 get sugar. Sugar makes the 
 pumpkin sweet." '* Ben and I 
 made a jack-lantern last night." 
 (Fig. 74.) (The despised jack-o- 
 lantern, thus forcibly thrown into 
 the lesson, need not necessarily 
 
Field Products, 165 
 
 be rejected. In the hands of a skillful teacher it fairly beams 
 with light in regard to meridians, parallels of latitude, poles, 
 zones, triangular and four-sided continents, islands, etc. Pass it 
 by for the present, however, until the boy can bring it as an ob- 
 jective reality into the schoolroom. It may then be made some- 
 thing more than a source of laughter.) But we want something 
 about other crops, Harry. " Mr. Smith paid me for helping 
 Tom and Paul pick up the potatoes as the men dug them out of 
 the potaJ:o hills." "■ Yes, Miss Clay, Harry did help me, and we 
 filled great bins in the cellar, and piled up a great many potatoes 
 outside, and just covered the whole heap with straw and earth. 
 Father said that the potatoes 
 will not freeze, even if the win- 
 ter should be quite severe." 
 Were all the bins filled with 
 potatoes } " We picked the 
 apples in the orchard, and put 
 many bushels of winter apples 
 
 into dry bins above the cellar ,^ 
 
 floors." '' Father sent all of his -^ "R^si; C^eofAfW 
 
 apples to market," says Jennie. ^^"^ mhim^\cz\ U 
 
 " He packed them in barrels." ^^^- 74- 
 
 ** About two and one half or three bushels in each barrel." 
 '' Baldwins and greenings, russets and gilliflowers." Well, 
 Elizabeth ? '' Uncle John sent grapes to the city market." 
 '' And plums and pears." *' In baskets." " We nailed the covers 
 down." *'We sold all the peaches at home." 
 
 You have told me about the products of the fields. Let us 
 make up our list on the blackboard. Here is the heading. 
 Kate may write the names of two products ; then Harry, May, 
 Elizabeth, Jennie, etc. 
 
1 66 
 
 Home Geography, 
 
 WHAT THE FIELDS PRODUCE. 
 
 ^y 
 
 etz^, 
 
 ^^--^.^^ 
 
 ^-^^'^, 
 
 e^'Z-d' 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 (■^thers, such as beets, turnips, cherries, added by the children when the lists are copied.) 
 
 NoAV that we have made the Hst of the products of the fields 
 and orchards, let us tell what the woodlands give us. Paul may 
 tell. '' Logs to saw into lumber." " Ties for railroad tracks." 
 ** Father cuts rails for the fences," says Ben. Good. Carl may 
 tell about the woodlands, too. " Mr. Morrison had the large oaks 
 and maples cut into barrel-staves." " A steam-mill which they 
 could move along the road." 
 
 We call that a portable mill. " Mr. Covert uses oak-bark in 
 his tannery." '' We cut rails and bean-poles down in the young 
 
Field Products. 
 
 167 
 
 Ftg. 75. 
 
 The fish-poles and the clay banks. 
 
 growth." Yes, you sly little fisherman, Tom, — "fish-poles." "We 
 gather chestnuts, hickorynuts, and butternuts." Here is our list : 
 
 WHAT THE WOODLANDS GIVE US. 
 
 O'^'^M^^^t^K^^ -^e^J , ^y^i^^^-^-^, ^^^^^^'«^£^ 
 
 
 ^d^='f^€^^ed^ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 '^^^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 '^^ 
 
 ^t^'^^t^^ed^^ 
 
 c 
 
 ^ U t^a"^^='f2^€?^e<^. 
 
 t^e- 
 
1 68 Home Geography. 
 
 We did forget the " firewood," Jennie. Write the word fuel 
 upon the blackboard. 
 
 '' But zve use coal." " W^e dig it in the coal-out.'' That is a 
 small coal mine. We shall study about the things that are found 
 underground, but no more to-day. Draw the pumpkins on your 
 slates. 
 
What Men Do, 169 
 
 Occupations. 
 
 Let us put more coal in the grate this morning, for the cold 
 winds are blowing outside and winter is coming. We have had 
 our Thanksgiving holiday, and have come back to our studies, 
 until Christmas day. " Miss Clay told us about the first Thanks- 
 giving." " The winter was very cold, and the Puritans did not 
 have much to eat." "When spring came they planted corn, 
 oats, beans, and ever so many other things, so that they would be 
 sure to have enough to eat during the next winter." '' The har- 
 vest was good, because the men tended the crops carefully all 
 that summer, and in the fall there was plenty to put into the cel- 
 lars and log barns which the Puritans had made." 1 am glad 
 that you know the history so well. How thankful we should all 
 be that God provides so plenteously for us in this beautiful land 
 of ours. 
 
 The old Puritan governor sent four men out hunting, that the 
 people "■ might after a more special manner rejoice together." 
 "■ Did they find some wild turkeys ? " Perhaps, for this is the 
 home of the turkey. '' We do not send men out to hunt for 
 turkeys now." '' Father has ever so many turkeys which he is 
 keeping until Christmas." He will sell some to the huskster who 
 will take them to the city." " The huckster takes the feathers 
 off or dresses the turkey before he sells it." " But he sells some 
 alive." Yes, that is true. 
 
 How many things we have for Christmas dinner ! " Apples," 
 " pears," *^ grapes," " mince-pies, and sometimes pumpkin-pies." 
 *' Nuts and candies." Yes, all these and the more substantial 
 foods, too. " Potatoes." *' Father has a whole barnful of pota- 
 
I TO 
 
 Home Geography. 
 
 toes." A barn full of potatoes, Harry ! '' Well, perhaps, not so 
 many as that, but the men are filling a great many barrels and 
 
 sending them to the city." 
 " Farmers raise almost every- 
 thing." 
 
 What do you expect to have 
 as a Christmas present } " A 
 sled." " Some toys." Do you 
 know where most toys are made ? 
 
 The people who live in the 
 Fig. 76. ,, , ^ 
 
 country called Germany carve 
 
 many toys. Some of the peasants who live near the Black For- 
 est becom.e very skillful in the work. All the members of a 
 family will learn to carve the same kind of toy. " Sheep ? " 
 Yes ; the grandfather will learn to make wooden sheep, and then 
 all the other members of the family carve sheep. " Wooden 
 dogs, camels, horses, and lions." " Those are all in my NoaJis 
 Arkr Even the very small children learn to carve the soft wood 
 very skillfully with their sharp jack-knives. 
 
 " Mother will buy me some nice shoes." " The shoemaker." 
 And Harry said something about a sled, I think. " The black- 
 smith makes the shoes for the sled-runners." " Father bought 
 my sled at the store." " Mother says when I grow up she will 
 buy me a fishing-rod like the one cousin Albert used when he 
 caught the big trout," says Tom. '' He caught it just below the 
 falls." ** Big enough for a whole dinner, almost." 
 
 How many different things men do for a living ! Here is our 
 hst on the blackboard : 
 
 WHAT MEN DO. 
 
 Some raise corn, wheat, and other foods Farmers. 
 
 Others dig coal and iron from the ground. ... .... Miners, 
 
PVhat Men Do. 171 
 
 Some dig stones from the quarries Quarrymen. 
 
 f Shoemakers. 
 
 I Tailors. 
 Others make things ^ Blacksmiths. 
 
 Carpenters. 
 _ Toy makers. 
 
 Some buy and sell or '' keep a store " ( Merchants. 
 
 ( Hucksters. 
 
 Some other men are ( Fishermen.) 
 
 Here are some words which show what men are doinsf : 
 
 t^^T^^^-^^^^^^ 
 
 -^^^■^'jl^^y 
 
 d- :^>2 '^Z;^^'^-^^^ ^^ '^^z 
 
 €?-:^'7^'^^^€'^C€' ^^ ^C^ ^fZtZ-€^'^^ 
 
 'f^€^^ 
 
 What are some other men doing ? Tom insists that we must 
 put down ^' Fishermen." Write the list that we have made, and 
 think of some others. (The perspective which the children will 
 give to these various callings will be as varied as the homes from 
 which your pupils come.) 
 
172 
 
 Home Geography, 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Underground Products. 
 
 The farmers by taking care of their farms give food to man- 
 kind. What is the word that tells what these men are doing? 
 " Farming." And now you may give some words showing what 
 other men are doing. "Mining, manufacturing, trading." Do 
 
''The Fullness Thereof/' 
 
 173 
 
 you remember some of the forms of land and water? (Children 
 name forms.) James says, '' The whole earth is made up of land, 
 water, and the fullness thereof." (This answer is just as the little 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 boy gave it, and his manner showed that it meant considerable 
 to him. See Psalm 24. i. It is this ^'fullness thereof" that so 
 many teachers neglect in their geography work.) 
 
174 
 
 Coal Mines. 
 
 Yes ; the things we find in the water and in the ground are 
 very important. What is this ? " A lump of coal." *' It came 
 from the coal-bank.'" " That is what some people call a small coal 
 mine." '' It is in the side of a hill." Let us make the sketch of 
 one. Here is the tool-house, and here the track, and the coal- 
 dump. ''The cars and mules are in the mine." (Luckily for the 
 inartistic teacher.) (Fig. y^.) " The mine is dark." " Father digs 
 
 Fig. 7g. 
 I. Horseback. 2. Upper Layer. 3. Slate. 4. Lower Layer. 5, Clay. 
 
 coal." " The miners wear lamps on their hats." How is the 
 coal taken out? "The men dig it out with picks.'' (Fig. 78.) 
 " Father says that the coal in our coal-bank lies in two thick 
 layers." '' Level like a table." " Horizontal layers." Let us 
 draw these layers of coal. " Our coal rests on shale and clay." 
 Here is the layer of clay and shale. '' A thick layer of coal." 
 "Then a layer of black stone." We call that shale, but in some 
 
Uses of Coal. 
 
 175 
 
 mines the layer is of slate. '' Now comes another layer of coal, 
 and then a layer of hard stone to make the roof of the mine.' 
 " Father calls that the ' horseback.' " It is sandstone in many 
 cases. George has been in the mines. Men put in timbers to 
 support the roof-stone. The passages are sometimes called 
 galleries, especially when one is above the others. (Fig. 79.) 
 
 How useful the coal is! ''It gives us heat." " To burn in 
 stoves and grates." "To make the engines go." "The locomo- 
 
 FiG. 80. 
 
 WHAT WILTJF, BROUGHT NEXT DAY. 
 (Technically the Neuro/teris, one of the most abundant fossil ferns.) 
 
 tives, and engines in the mills." Can you name any other uses ? 
 " Coke is made from coal." " They use coke in changing iron 
 into steel." The gas for lighting the streets of cities is made 
 from coal. " But we have gas-wells here." " Natural gas." 
 " It came from the coal, too." " Most people use coal-oil to 
 light their houses." Do you know another name for that? 
 " Petroleum." These all come from the coal, men say, and there 
 are many other coal-products. " Coal-tar." Yes, and some very 
 beautiful dyes are made from petroleum. 
 
176 
 
 Forms of Coal, 
 
 Do you know what is made from the clay that is under the 
 coal? "Mr. Hammond, my uncle, makes fire-brick from the 
 clay." "In Westmoreland county." "At Bolivar." "To line 
 the inside of stoves and furnaces." That protects the iron. 
 
 Willie says, " I found some prints of leaves on a piece of coal.'* 
 " Limbs and bark." These belong to plants. Did the coal come 
 from plants? "We think it did." How much it has been 
 changed ! Willie may bring the leaf-coal into class to-morrow. 
 " Ferns." These were much larger than those which grow in 
 our swamps. 
 
 How many in class have ever seen any other kind of coal ? 
 None. Here is a piece of coal, found in the eastern part of our 
 state. Compare it with that which is found here. " It is 
 harder." " It does not break into layers." " That is bright all 
 over." There are two kinds of coal. 
 
 (Bzmmznous.) 
 
 (Anthracite,) 
 
 THE GREAT 
 
 HARD 
 
 COAL STATE 
 
 SOFT 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 (first map of state.) 
 
Products of Coal. 177 
 
 A State, — Pennsylvania. 
 
 A County, — Westmoreland. 
 A County, — Butler. 
 
 A Village, — Slippery Rock. 
 A Village, — Bolivar. 
 
 The coal-products are : 
 
 HARD COAL, ^^g j natural, 
 
 SOFT COAL, ' ( manufactured. 
 
 COKE, COAL-TAR, 
 
 PETROLEUM, DYES. 
 
 (From the underlying clay, Fire-brick.) 
 
 (The writer includes in this lesson some things which are generally regarded as anything but 
 elemental ; still to little children who may see these sights in our state, a row of flaming coke- 
 ovens a mile long, or the volcanic outbursts of great steel works, are nothing unusual, " Do Ye 
 Nexte Thinge " is inscribed upon the walls of the great school at Eton.) 
 
,78 
 
 Coke Ovens. 
 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 aesson UK. 
 
 Manufacturing. 
 
 Many persons are engaged in f arguing and 7ni7img, and now 
 we should learn something about what other men do to support 
 themselves and their families. In our last lesson we learned 
 something about the men who dig the coal. ^' They are called 
 miners." "George's father is a miner.'' The men who load the 
 coal are called helpers or simply laborers. " Mules are used in 
 hauling the coal along the gangway." " Not all of the roof is 
 called Jiorseback.'' No, only that part which bulges into the coal 
 and sometimes cuts off the layer. Name the common coal- 
 products. (Review of previous work.) 
 
 Tommy speaks of Coke. " It is made just by burning coal." 
 
Tradesmen, 179 
 
 " It isn't burnt up to ashes, but heated in large stone ovens." 
 Men call that roasting the coal. Only the soft black bituminous 
 coal is used. *' It is called coking coal^ because it forms coke." 
 This is the most important of the bituminous coals, and the coke 
 is used as fuel in MAKING pig-iron and steel. " When the coal is 
 put into the ovens it swells, and melts or runs together into large 
 pieces." " Water is then thrown in to quench the coke, which is 
 then raked out of the ovens." '' W^e use ' bee-hive ' ovens." Do 
 you know why they are called by that name ? *' Like bee-hives." 
 '' Not much like the bee-hives which my father has for his bees." 
 " Like the bee-hives which we see iw pictures." I saw the men 
 building one of the ovens, and they used wooden frames shaped 
 like parts of a huge orange. Over these the men built an arched 
 wall of fire-brick for the inside lining of the oven. The ovens 
 are built in long rows (Fig. 82), near the mines. In the Connells- 
 ville coke region there are nearly twenty thousand ovens. Coke 
 is sent to all parts of the country. It is used in the melting of 
 silver and gold as well as in the melting of iron. Thousands of 
 men get their living by making coke from the coal which the 
 miners dig in the mines. What do some other men do? 
 
 " Mr. Brown makes lumber at his saw-mill." '' He buys logs, 
 and saws them into lumber." "^ sawyer'' 
 
 ''Mr. Sampson makes boots and shoes." ''A shoanakery 
 " My father has a grist-mill, and grinds the wheat and corn to 
 make flour and meal." " We call the men who make flour, 
 millers'' 
 
 The men who made the fire-brick were brick-makers, and the 
 men who laid the stone and brick in building the coke ovens 
 were masons. These men work at their own TRADES. Can 
 you namie some other trades? "The carpenter." "He builds 
 and repairs houses." " The tailor, who makes clothes." The 
 harness-maker, blacksmith, cooper, cabinet-maker, and carriage- 
 
i8o Tradesman. 
 
 maker.'' "They earn their living by making things and seUing 
 them to other men." We shall say that most of them live by 
 
 Here is our list of men who work at trades : 
 
 Brick-makers, Millers, Blacksmiths, 
 
 Coke-makers, Carpenters, Carriage-makers, 
 
 Masons, Tailors, Coopers, 
 
 Sawyers, Saddlers, Cabinet-makers. 
 
 Write the names for some trades in which the men do not 
 make or manufacture things. (Idea of a profession to be de- 
 veloped from this afterwards.) (Painters, etc.) 
 
 Some kinds of manufacturing require that a great number of 
 men be employed together in order that the best results be 
 reached. Large sums of money are needed in the building oi the 
 works, so some men who have Capital form 
 
 and are commonly known as 
 
 The men who are engaged in the manufacture of coke form 
 companies which also work mines of coal. One of these is the 
 Union Coal and Coke Co., of Greenville, Pa., which works the 
 mines nearest to us. (Keister.) The great steel works at Brad- 
 dock, Pa., are operated by a great company that is engaged in 
 
The Iron City. 
 
 i8i 
 
 the manufacture of steel, and also of the coke used in the process. 
 Our nearest city, Pittsburg, is noted for its manufactures, and is 
 often called the IRON CITY. Large quantities of steel rails 
 are made. (Teacher draws map upon board.) Here is the Iron 
 City. We will make this small circle to mark the place upon the 
 rivers. Here is Philadelphia; here Harrisburg; and this is Al- 
 toona among, the mountains. What is made in Philadelphia ? 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 ''Saws are made there." "The saws in our sloyd-room are 
 marked ' Henry Disston & Sons, Philadelphia.'" '' At Altoona 
 locomotives are made." "At Harrisburg there are large foun- 
 dries and machine-shops." " Mr. Black was elected to go to 
 Harrisburg to make laws'' That is a different kind of manufact- 
 uring, most people think. Draw the maps upon paper or upon 
 your slates. (Fig. 83.) How shall we bring the saws from Phila- 
 delphia to Pittsburg } 
 
1 82 Trades, 
 
 Bird Trades. 
 
 The swallow is a mason, 
 
 And underneath the eaves 
 He builds a nest, and plasters it 
 
 With mud and hay and leaves. 
 
 Of all the weavers that I know, 
 
 The oriole is the best ; 
 High on the branches of the tree 
 
 She hangs her cozy nest. 
 
 The woodpecker is hard at work — 
 
 A carpenter is he — 
 And you may hear him hammering 
 
 His nest high up a tree. 
 
 Some little birds are miners ; 
 
 Some build upon the ground ; 
 And busy little tailors, too, 
 
 Among the birds are found. — Ex, 
 
 This little poem, written on a square of cardboard, is handed 
 t«o some member of the class. 
 
 John may read the selection about the birds. 
 
 (John reads.) Even the birds have trades. A great emperor 
 of Russia learned the trade of shipbuilding, that he might know- 
 when his ships were properly built. We should honor all men 
 who work at trades. Let us name some of the trades. (Review.) 
 
 Here we may study what the cooper does at his trade : 
 
The Cooper. 
 
 183 
 
 THE COOPER. 
 
 f barrels, hogsheads 
 I tubs 
 
 1. What he makes. -{ pails 
 
 I kegs 
 [ casks 
 
 f adz 
 I plane 
 
 2. His tools -j drawing-knife 
 
 mallet 
 chisel 
 
 ' Kinds of wood 
 
 t ( wooden 
 
 noons { . 
 ^ ( iron 
 
 staves 
 
 heads 
 
 3. Materials used. 
 
 ( oak 
 I beech 
 (fir 
 
 i Placing staves. 
 4. Making the barrels, etc. I Driving on the hoops. 
 
 ( Putting in heads 
 
84 
 
 Ocaipations, 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 iLesson VM:^. 
 
 Buying and Selling. 
 
 Some men do not earn all of their money by their trades 
 alone. What does Mr. Coulter do ? " He makes tin-ware and 
 sells it, but he buys stoves in the city and sells to the farmers 
 and village people." 
 
 Mr. Bingham keeps a hardware store. He sells axes, saws, 
 and tools of all sorts used by carpenters, masons, miners, and 
 others. " The farmers buy their plows, harrows, hay-rakes, and 
 other farm implements at his store." " Mowing machines," 
 '' Seed-drills." 
 
 Mr. Kerr sells ^r^^^nV^. '' Sugar, tea, coffee, flour, butter, lard, 
 spices, and all such things." 
 
 Mr. Christy keeps dry-goods. '' All kinds of cotton and woolen 
 cloth and silk-goods." '' Laces, ribbons, and buttons." But he 
 keeps boots and shoes, too." Yes, in many country stores the 
 stock is very wide. 
 
Woo Toy. 185 
 
 Mrs. McCarnes keeps a millinery store. " Ladies' hats and 
 bonnets." " Ribbons, collars, and laces." 
 
 "Woo Toy has the laundry'' "He washes clothes." *' He 
 says, * no payee, no washee' " " When I take brother's collars 
 and cuffs down there, he gives me a little piece of yellow paper 
 with such queer marks on it." " I lost the 
 paper one day, and he wouldn't give me the 
 clothes at first." "Wing Lee, who works for 
 him, uses a queer little frame when he counts 
 up what you owe him." " Little wooden 
 buttons." (Fig. 84.) " I asked him to show 
 me how to use it, but he asked me whether I 
 couldn't count. But he showed me how to 
 use the counting-frame at last." " He said, 
 ' Clos washee, number one, chop, chop, 
 missey.' " That meant that he would wash 
 the clothes well very soon. "What funny 
 talk ! " Some people call it Pigeon English. 
 Only those who come from English ports 
 in China talk that way. After they have 
 been here a short time they talk much bet- 
 ter. 
 
 Woo Toy and Wing Lee write numbers 
 in characters like these. (Fig. 85.) There are 
 seven other figures used in writing numbers, 
 but these are the first ten. 
 
 " These two men are yellow." ^^' ^' 
 
 "Mr. Brooks keeps the barber shop." " He is a black man." 
 " A negro." " Barbers have for their work the shaving of beards, 
 and cutting and dressing the hair." 
 
 Mr. Ramsey bakes bread and cakes. His place of BUSINESS 
 is called the bakery. 
 
 -— 
 
 f i/ih 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 urh 
 
 "*, 
 
 3 San 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 5ze 
 
 R 
 
 q) woo 
 
 A 
 
 6 Juk 
 
 ± 
 
 7 tseik 
 
 A 
 
 S' pa 
 
 k 
 
 f ke^ 
 
 + 
 
 ^Oshih 
 
i86 
 
 Places of Business, 
 
 Mr. Glutton has the drug-store ^ and Mrs. Hunt keeps a book- 
 store, 
 
 Mr. Martin carries on his business as a butcher, and keeps 
 the meat shop. 
 
 So, also, we find the trade of the weaver represented by those 
 men and women who work in the woolen-mill on Wolf Creek, and 
 by Mrs. Carter, who weaves carpets on an old-fashioned loom. 
 " Rag-carpets." '' Quite pretty carpets, too, with stripes of yel- 
 low and black, and red and gray." 
 
 Now we have some more kinds of trades to add to our list, and 
 we can make this list of the PLACES OF BUSINESS of the 
 
 t^i^C-^^'^^^d'. 
 
 PLACES OF BUSINESS. 
 
 The Grocery, 
 
 Meat-shop — and 
 
 Hardware - 
 
 Dry-goods 
 
 Flour and Feed 
 
 Millinery - 
 
 Drug - 
 Book 
 
 The Bakery. 
 
 Stores. 
 
 These merchants buy GoODS in large quantities [WHOLESALE] 
 and sell in smaller quantities to the users or consumers [RETAIL]. 
 
 (According to the degree of advancement of the children the teacher should here give exer- 
 cises in the writing of common bills of goods, receipts, etc. There is nothing to prevent the 
 lesson in arithmetic taking a geographical aspect and impressing a general truth.) 
 
 John may pass to the board and add to the list men who work 
 at trades. (The class names them.) " Weavers^ hitchers^ laun- 
 dry men, tin-smiths, bakers, etc'' 
 "And barbers." Yes, Tommy. 
 
A Picture Gallery, 
 
 187 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 Races of Men. 
 
 Here is another thought which we may express. All of these 
 men are not of the same kind or race. " They differ in color." 
 Also, in character and in speech. '■'■ The white people or race." 
 " The yellow race." " The black race." " The red men or 
 Indians." 
 
 My teacher, - - - 
 Woo Toy, - - - . 
 Mr. Brooks, - 
 The Indians, . _ _ 
 The Lecturer's Companion, 
 
 White '\ 
 Yellow I 
 Black \ 
 Red 
 Brown 
 
 Races of Men. 
 
 The minister who was lecturing brought with him a boy who 
 was brown. '' A Malay, that's what the minister called him." 
 
 Each child in the lower grade may be interested in making a 
 series of mounted pictures of the principal races of men. Fold 
 
1 88 
 
 A Picture Gallery, 
 
 the closed envelope from the square of colored paper, according 
 to the usual directions given in paper-folding ; then make the 
 folds indicated in Fig. Z^. Have the children cut out the pict- 
 ures found in newspapers and periodicals and use them in making 
 the little picture gallery. 
 
 Fig. 87 shows what a child will bring to show for the Chinese. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 Others have mounted pictures of Standing Bear, Sitting Bull, 
 Fred Douglass, and Phillips Brooks. 
 
 At the close of each lesson the children must put away all bits 
 of paper cast aside while cutting out the pictures. Gum traga- 
 canth dissolved in water makes a very cheap and clean paste. A 
 wooden toothpick is a neat little implement for use in applying 
 the paste. With a little care there need be no necessity for soil- 
 ing hands, desks, or clothing. 
 
Outline from '' Edtication of Man.'' 189 
 
 In connection with the lessons the following may be used : 
 
 TRADES AND PROFESSIONS. 
 [Oufline from Froebel's " Education of Man."] 
 
 Section 40. Mabej F. McCarnes, Teacher. 
 
 '' I consider it to be the first and most important part of the 
 education of children to lead them early to think." 
 
 40. Information that the child gains from the employments of 
 those around him. 
 
 1. The child of the Farmer — 
 
 Learns to distinguish between the different grains, their uses, 
 and the adaptability of the different soils to them. 
 
 2. Of the Sportsman — 
 
 To understand the aiming and care of a gun. 
 
 3. Of the Blacksmith — 
 
 The principle of the expansion of metals by heat. 
 
 4. Of the Merchant— 
 
 The principle of the balance ; the characteristics of the seeds 
 and other articles sold, and the difference between weight and 
 gravity. 
 
 5. Of the Fishermen — 
 Some of the habits of fish. 
 
 6. Of the Bark-peeler and Tanner — 
 How to tan leather. 
 
 7. Of the Shoemaker — 
 How to stretch leather. 
 
 8. Of the Doctor— 
 
 The simple laws of health. 
 
 9. Of the Wagon-maker — 
 The plan of axles, etc. 
 
 10. Of the Printer — 
 
 The reversion of the model, and the printing from the type. 
 
iQo Selection from kuskin. 
 
 II. Of the Carpenter, Joiner y Cooper, etc. — 
 An idea of the plane and chisel ; of the preparation of iron, 
 the use of different woods, and to distinguish between them. 
 
 Selection from Ruskin. 
 
 " People never have had clearly explained to them the true 
 functions of a merchant with respect to other people. I should 
 like the reader to be very clear about this. 
 
 " Five great intellectual professions, relating to daily necessities 
 of life, have hitherto existed — three exist necessarily in every 
 civiHzed nation : 
 
 " The Soldier's profession is to defend it. 
 " The Pastor's, to teach it. 
 " The Physician's, to keep it in health, 
 " The Lawyer's, to enforce justice in it. 
 " The Merchant's, to provide for it. 
 
 " That is to say, he has to understand to their very root the 
 qualities of the thing he deals in, and the means of obtaining or 
 producing it ; and he has to apply all his sagacity and energy to 
 the producing or obtaining it in perfect state, and distributing it 
 at the cheapest possible price where it is most needed. 
 
 " And because the production or obtaining of any commodity 
 involves necessarily the agency of many lives and hands, the mer- 
 chant becomes in the course of his business the master and gov- 
 ernor of large masses of men in a more direct, though less con 
 fessed, way than a military officer or pastor ; so that on him 
 falls, in great part, the responsibility for the kind of life they lead ; 
 and it becomes his duty, not only to be always considering how 
 to produce what he sells in the purest and cheapest forms, but 
 how to make the various employments involved in the production, 
 or transference of it, most beneficial to the men employed. . . , 
 
Selection from Ruskin. 191 
 
 " Two main points he has in his providing function to maintain : 
 first, his engagements (faithfulness to engagements being the real 
 root of all possibilities in commerce) ; and, secondly, perfectness 
 and purity of the thing provided ; so that rather than fail in any 
 engagement or consent to any deterioration, adulteration, or un- 
 just and exorbitant price of that which he provides, he is bound 
 to meet fearlessly any form of distress, poverty, or labor, which 
 may, through maintenance of these points, come upon him." 
 
192 Professions, 
 
 Other Occupations. 
 
 How do the persons who keep stores and other places of busi- 
 ness let the people know what things are for sale ? " They put 
 up sigJisy What are these signs like ? James may write one on 
 the blackboard. James writes : 
 
 GLUTTON BROS., 
 Drug Store. 
 
 *' In the city I saw a big bowl upon a post in front of the drug- 
 store." That is called a mortar and pestle. The clerk uses a 
 small mortar and pestle when he grinds and mixes the drugs. 
 " The barber has a tall pole striped with red and white." " I 
 can't see what that means." 
 
 Long ago barbers performed the duties of surgeons, and the 
 stripes represented the winding of the bandage around the 
 arm of the patient. The persons who do such work now are 
 called surgeons or doetors. " They take care of the health 
 of people." "They help us to become well again." "We 
 should be careful of our health." " By exercise." Little doc- 
 tors at home. 
 
 Those that educate the children are called teachers. Doctors 
 and teachers follow PROFESSIONS. Can you name other men 
 who have professions? "The lawyer writes deeds and other 
 papers, and gives advice about law." " He argues cases in 
 court." 
 
 The minister or pastor has charge of a church or congregation. 
 "The sexton?" No, not in the same way. "He preaches." 
 "We call our minister the rector.'' "St. Marks." Very well. 
 Let us make the list. 
 
Professions. 193 
 
 Men having Professions. 
 
 Surgeon. Minister. 
 
 Doctor. Lawyer. 
 
 Teacher. (Others) 
 
 These are very useful men. 
 
 How did we decide to bring the saws from Philadelphia to 
 Pittsburg? (Fig. 88.) We will take the rails made at Pittsburg 
 and lay a track to Philadelphia. At Altoona we will put an en- 
 gine on the track and run to Harrisburg. Then we will take some 
 
 Fig. 88 
 (By a boy of fifteen.) 
 
 Commerce. 
 
 cars at Harrisburg and run down to Philadelphia. Here we can 
 load the cars with sloyd saws and other things, and run back to 
 Pittsburg. 
 
 The men have laid the track already, and the work is done. 
 (Some rough sketching.) '' A railroad." " Many men work for 
 
194 Commerce and Government, 
 
 the railroad company." " The man who runs the engine is the 
 engineer'' The man who helps him is the fireman. He who 
 collects the fares and has charge of the whole train is the con- 
 ductor. The men who help him are brakesmen, baggagemen, etc. 
 The trainmen are : — 
 
 Conductor, Brakesmen, 
 
 Engineer, Baggageman, 
 
 Fireman, Express Agent, 
 Postal Agent, and others. 
 
 The trains carry goods from one part of the country to an- 
 other. So the cars are great aids in 
 
 Letters are carried on the cars to the POST-OFFICES. The 
 man that attends to the mail and sees to its distribution is the 
 postmaster, and he is an officer. Do you know how to send a let- 
 ter ? Where should the stamp be placed ? "■ The address should 
 be written plainly." '' We should put a stamp on the upper 
 right corner of the letter." ''Two cents." (Fold the closed en- 
 velope, and have children write the address of some friend.) 
 
 The postmaster is called an ofificer ; can you name some other 
 officers ? " The constable.'' " The tax-collector, school director, 
 bnrgess, justice of the peace," etc. '^ A policeman in the city." 
 
 "The mayor." '' A sheriff d^t Homestead." "The governor 
 sent troops to help him keep order." " President Cleveland is 
 now at Washington." 
 
 These are 
 
Commerce and Government, 
 
 195 
 
 Policeman, 
 Sheriff, 
 Mayor, 
 
 Governor, 
 President 
 
 Officers for Government, 
 
 Postmaster, 
 
 School Director, 
 Tax Collector, 
 Constable, 
 
 Justice of the Peace, 
 Burgess. 
 
196 
 
 Animals, 
 
 ILtnmn XK« 
 
 Local Products. 
 
 We may make written lists of the animals, vegetables, and 
 minerals found within our school district. 
 
 Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Productions 
 
 OF WOLFORD SCHOOL DISTRICT, SLIPPERY ROCK, BUTLER . COUNTY, PA. 
 
 Frances E. Hays, 
 
 "C" class. 
 
 Illula S. 
 
 Animals. 
 
 Christley, Teacher 
 
 Fox, 
 
 Guinea-hen, 
 
 Humming-bird, 
 
 Hornet, 
 
 Horse, 
 
 Duck, 
 
 Ladybird, 
 
 Yellowjacket, 
 
 Cow, 
 
 Goose, 
 
 Toad, 
 
 Wasp, 
 
 Pig, 
 
 Peafowl, 
 
 Frog, 
 
 Honey-bee, 
 
 Sheep, 
 
 Pigeon, 
 
 Tortoise, 
 
 Potato-bug, 
 
 Goat, 
 
 Robin, 
 
 Crab, 
 
 Snake-feeder, 
 
 Dog, 
 
 Wren, 
 
 Lizard, 
 
 Weevil, 
 
 Cat, 
 
 Sparrow, 
 
 Tree-frog, 
 
 Cabbage-worm, 
 
 Rabbit, 
 
 Blackbird, 
 
 German Carp, 
 
 Tomato-worm, 
 
 Groundhog, 
 
 Crow, 
 
 Blacksnake, 
 
 Rose-bug, 
 
 Opossum, 
 
 Hawk, 
 
 House-snake, 
 
 Firefly, 
 
 Norway rat, 
 
 Yellowbird, 
 
 Garter-snake, 
 
 Earth-worm, 
 
 Field-mouse, 
 
 Screech-owl, 
 
 Rattlesnake, 
 
 Centipede, 
 
 Barn-mouse, 
 
 Barn-owl, 
 
 Water-snake, 
 
 Flea, 
 
 Gray squirrel. 
 
 Woodpecker, 
 
 Bumblebee, 
 
 Gnat, 
 
 Flying squirrel. 
 
 Sap-sucker. 
 
 Ant, 
 
 Sheep-tick, 
 
 Chipmunk, 
 
 Bluejay, 
 
 Cricket, 
 
 Gadfly, 
 
 Pine-squirrel, 
 
 Meadow-lark, 
 
 Moth, 
 
 Roach, 
 
 Skunk, 
 
 Whippoorwill, 
 
 Horsefly, 
 
 Miller, 
 
 Raccoon, 
 
 Bobolink, 
 
 Butterfly, 
 
 Caterpillar, 
 
 Musk rat, 
 
 Chippie, 
 
 Grasshopper, 
 
 Beetle, 
 
 Mink, 
 
 Oriole, 
 
 Snail, 
 
 Ladybug, 
 
 Weasel, 
 
 Summer swallow, Cut-worm, 
 
 Katydid, 
 
 Bat, 
 
 Quail, 
 
 Mosquito, 
 
 Cimicidae, 
 
 Chicken, 
 
 Pheasant, 
 
 Spider, 
 
 Apple-tree borer, 
 
 Turkey, 
 
 Turtle-dove, 
 
 House-fly, 
 Vegetables. 
 
 Anoplura. 
 
 Potato, 
 
 Pear, 
 
 Chickweed, 
 
 Ornamental beet, 
 
 Tomato, 
 
 Cherry, 
 
 Golden-rod, 
 
 Four-o'clock, 
 
 Cabbage, 
 
 Chokecherry, 
 
 White-oak, 
 
 Nasturtium, 
 
 Beet, 
 
 Raspberry, 
 
 Black-oak, 
 
 Hyacinth, 
 
 Turnip, 
 
 Strawberry, 
 
 Red-oak, 
 
 Nicotiana, 
 
 Parsnip, 
 
 Blackberry, 
 
 Swamp-oak, 
 
 Marigold, 
 
 Celery, 
 
 Elderberry, 
 
 Ash, 
 
 Honeysuckle, 
 
l/egetables and Minerals, 
 
 197 
 
 Beans, 
 
 Dewberry, 
 
 Maple, 
 
 Fern, 
 
 Pease, 
 
 Juneberry, 
 
 Chestnut, 
 
 Moss. 
 
 Lettuce, 
 
 Huckleberry, 
 
 Hickory, 
 
 Caladium, 
 
 Kohl Rabi, 
 
 Gooseberry, 
 
 Gum, 
 
 Crape-myrtle, 
 
 Cauliflower, 
 
 Wild-plum, 
 
 Wild cherry, 
 
 Ivy, 
 
 Radish, 
 
 Grape, 
 
 Dogwood, 
 
 Mignonette, 
 
 Onion, 
 
 Currant, 
 
 Ironwood, 
 
 Daisy, 
 
 Salsify, 
 
 Quince, 
 
 Locust, 
 
 Violet, 
 
 Spinach, 
 
 Crab-apple, 
 
 Linden, 
 
 Lady-slipper, 
 
 Sage, 
 
 Wheal, 
 
 Black walnut. 
 
 Dahlia, 
 
 Parsley, 
 
 Oats, 
 
 White walnut, 
 
 Aster, 
 
 Cucumber, 
 
 Corn, 
 
 Alder, 
 
 Hydrangea, 
 
 Muskmelon, 
 
 Rye, 
 
 Sassafras, 
 
 Bleeding-heart, 
 
 Pumpkin, 
 
 Buckwheat, 
 
 Elm, 
 
 Peony, 
 
 Eggplant, 
 
 White clover, 
 
 Poplar, 
 
 Flowering Almond, 
 
 Peppers, 
 
 Mammoth clover, 
 
 Willow, 
 
 Megarrhiza Califor- 
 
 Squash, 
 
 Medium clover. 
 
 White-thorn, 
 
 nica. 
 
 Mushroom, 
 
 Alsike clover, 
 
 Balm-of-Gilead, 
 
 Clematis, 
 
 Peppermint, 
 
 Timothy grass. 
 
 Geranium, 
 
 Snowball, 
 
 Hops, 
 
 Red-top grass. 
 
 Fuchsia, 
 
 Lilac, 
 
 Rhubarb, 
 
 Wild grass. 
 
 Calla-lily, 
 
 Verbena, 
 
 Horseradish, 
 
 Fall grass, 
 
 Leopard-lily, 
 
 Heliotrope, 
 
 Mustard, 
 
 Blue-grass, 
 
 Cactus, 
 
 Garland or Mock 
 
 Carrot, 
 
 Burdock, 
 
 Tulip, 
 
 Orange, 
 
 Rutabaga, 
 
 Plantain, 
 
 Poppy, 
 
 Symplocarpus, 
 
 Catnip, 
 
 Smartweed, 
 
 Rose, 
 
 Mulberry, 
 
 Caraway, 
 
 Ragweed, 
 
 Pink, 
 
 Apricot, 
 
 May-apple, 
 
 Nettle, 
 
 Feverfew, 
 
 Sea-onion, 
 
 Asparagus, 
 
 Parsley, 
 
 Pansy, 
 
 Oxalis, 
 
 Chives, 
 
 Mullein, 
 
 Sweetpea, 
 
 Snapdragon, 
 
 Garlic, 
 
 Canada-thistle, 
 
 Forget-me-not, 
 
 Bridal-wreath, 
 
 Apple, 
 
 Common thistle, 
 
 Chrysanthemum, 
 
 
 Peach, 
 
 Texas burr. 
 
 Gladiolus, 
 
 
 Plum, 
 
 Tansy, 
 
 Marshmallow, 
 
 
 
 Minerals. 
 
 
 Iron-ore, 
 
 Flagstone, 
 
 Fire-clay, 
 
 Gas, 
 
 Coal, 
 
 Sandstone, 
 
 Brick-clay, 
 
 Water. 
 
 Limestone, 
 
 Sand, 
 
 Oil, 
 
 
 The dictionary had been consulted when Cimicidse and 
 Anoplura were added to the hst. Let us hope that these last 
 two are not very generally distributed in the district. How 
 many of our children are able to recognize a dozen minerals, 
 know the names of one hundred and four animals common in the 
 locality, or can name one hundred and sixty vegetables. Old 
 dame Nature is a wonderful teacher of children. 
 
198 
 
 The Queen of the Pansies. 
 
 ^ome ^tutiiejS m ajSjSociateti Linesi* 
 
 Study I, A Myth — The Stepmother Flower. 
 
 II. The Little Plant that Longed to be Useful. 
 
 III. What the Young Oak Said. 
 
 IV. A Queer Counting Device. 
 
 V. A Study of the History of a State. 
 
 Fig. 89.- 
 
 I. — A Myth. The Stepmother Flower. 
 
 In the hands of the skillful teacher many 
 beautiful myths may be used to advantage in giv- 
 ng increased interest to many of the facts in sci- 
 ence. Interest is emotional rather than intellect- 
 ual, but it is, nevertheless, the indispensable basis 
 for higher development. The problem of teach- 
 ing a child any technical, scientific facts, con- 
 cerns not so much the manner of giving him 
 sensations regarding them, nor yet power to un- 
 derstand them, but rather how to arouse such 
 interest as will lead him to set his mind at work 
 upon themi. Many of these stories, coming up 
 to us out of the folk-lore of the 
 race, act upon the child's nature 
 through the subtle element, sym- 
 pathy, and the growing mind is 
 
 ^ ^ , held to matter which misfht other- 
 
 -Cruel Queen of the fc- 
 
 Pansies, wise fail to secure recognition, 
 
The Queen of the Pansies. 
 
 199 
 
 The Cruel Queen of the Pansies. 
 During the spring term the children in the school received in 
 structions in some of the simpler facts of botany, and learned 
 about sepals, petals, calyxes and corollas. Attention was given, 
 also, to the beautiful colors found in the flowers. 
 
 Nellie's mother takes great pride in her choice varieties of 
 pansies, and many bouquets of the rich, velvety beauties find their 
 way into the schoolroom now that the duties of school life have 
 been taken up again. The teacher received some of the pansies 
 this morning, and said : " Children, shall I tell you the legend of 
 the pansy to-day? Little Nellie has brought 
 some beautiful ones to me this morning, and 
 I want you to take a long look at them be- i 
 fore I begin the story. Harry may pass 
 this pansy to his seat-mate as soon as he has 
 looked at it carefully, Susan may give this 
 to Mary, and Josie this one to Gertrude." 
 After a number of flowers were thus dis- 
 tributed, the teacher said : '' Count the pet- 
 als ; now the sepals." ''It has five petals 
 (Fig. 90) and five sepals," says Harry. 
 ''Look for the little man deep (See 5, Fig. 
 91) down in the center of the flower." "I 
 have found him." "So have L" "He has 
 a yellow cloak over his shoulders." The attention of the chil- 
 dren was drawn to the great lower petal which seems to spread 
 itself out as if it were proud of its gorgeous beauty. (3). 
 " What a splendid velvet dress ! " " Do you see the two plain 
 petals? (i, i) The upper ones have only plain colors." ' But 
 the other two petals (2, 2) are very handsome and much like 
 the large one." "All embroidered with gold like the lar^e 
 petal." 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
200 
 
 The Qjt ecu's Dj lighter , 
 
 " Listen now, my children, to the story as it is told to the 
 little children in Germany. 
 
 *' A long time ago there lived a king who had a very beautiful 
 wife and two' charming, accomplished daughters. But death 
 claimed the mother, and after a time their father married a queen 
 who also had two daughters. But the stepmother was very 
 jealous of any praise given the king's daughters. She tried to 
 I-* make them unhappy in all possible ways, 
 
 and dressed them in plain clothes that she 
 might make them miserable and envious of 
 K> her own daughters, whom she dressed in the 
 richest and costliest fabrics. The king's 
 daughters, however, cared nothing for costly 
 dresses, but rather sought ways for adorning 
 their minds and becoming useful to their 
 father and his people. 
 
 "The queen's own daughters, although 
 decked with the most costly jewels and 
 clothed with garments only less beautiful 
 than those of the queen herself, were still 
 unable to excite the love and admiration of 
 the king's subjects, and still less the love of 
 many young princes who came to woo the 
 king's daughters. The queen became very 
 angry, and resolved to offer every insult to 
 those two stepdaughters. Around the throne (Fig. 90) in the 
 court-room of the palace were five massive chairs of green bronze. 
 * You shall have but one chair together,' said the wicked queen to 
 the modest princesses, her stepdaughters. Do you wish to see 
 the green chair upon which the two princesses are seated ? 
 Then pull off the two upper petals of the pansy." " I see it now," 
 says Sarah, "how cruel the old queen was!" (i) "But to her 
 
 Fig. qt. 
 
The Poor Old King. 201 
 
 own daughters," continued the teacher, ''she gave each a chair, 
 and you may see them by pulHng off the two side petals. (2, 2.) 
 
 " But there were five women and five chairs, and how could 
 the queen find an excuse for putting her two stepdaughters upon 
 one chair ? ' Ah, I have it,' said she. ' My robes are so elegant 
 and costly that I fear they would be crushed were I to sit upon 
 one chair. I really need two chairs that I may spread out my 
 beautiful robes and take proper care of them.' Pull off the large 
 petal, May." Now all the children were able to see that the 
 queen had occupied two chairs. 
 
 " But the queen was not satisfied by merely making her step- 
 daughters uncomfortable, she even tried to withhold their food 
 from them. At last the king became so indignant that he ban- 
 ished the queen and her daughters from his kingdom. Now the 
 queen in her youth had been a sorceress, and had learned magic 
 from an old wizard. While living with the king she had forgotten 
 much of the art, and the old wizard was dead. So she thought, 
 and thought, and thought, and finally recovered so much of her 
 wonderful powers that she was able to carry out her vows of 
 vengeance and have the king again under her control. She con- 
 demned him to sit forever upon his throne with his feet plunged 
 in boiling water." The teacher then showed the poor old king 
 seated on his throne in the center of the five chairs. '* See, he is 
 clad in his golden robes of state, and just beneath him is the tub 
 (4) of boiling water. Look at his poor parboiled legs and feet." 
 (5). As the teacher spoke, the sac or spur (4) of the pansy was 
 gently slit with a pin, and the feet disclosed. (Fig. 91.) 
 
 II. The Little Plant That Longed to be Useful. 
 
 Near the banks of a southern river, in the warm, rich soil of 
 the fields, a little plant was growing with many of its companions. 
 
202 The Cotton-plant 
 
 Day by day it had been growing — simply growing — since that 
 morning in April when the negroes had put the little green 
 seeds into the ground. It had lain there in its warm earth-bed 
 until the rain came from the clouds and soaked down to the 
 little seed and said, '' Grow, little seed, grow ! " 
 
 So to the little seed there came a queer feeling, as if its little 
 green jacket would burst. 
 
 " I can grow," thought the little seed, '' and I will.''' 
 
 Now with a little seed, to tJiink is to act ; so out through the 
 green sack or jacket it thrust a little white foot down into the 
 rich, brown earth. And now from the very top of the green sack 
 a Httle head peeped out. 
 
 '' Come up, come up, my little one ! " said the great sun as a 
 warm smile spread over his broad face. And the little plant 
 came up, and grew and grew. 
 
 The days went by, and the plant put forth dark green, five- 
 lobed leaves (Fig. 92), filled vv^ith blue veins in which the sap, its 
 blood, was flowing. Men came with hoes and kept down the 
 weeds that tried to choke the plant. How the young plant en- 
 joyed the sight of its companions, as in long and regular rows 
 they stretched across the broad field ! Some of them seemed 
 larger and handsomer than itself, but the little plant knew that 
 against the great superiority of others there is no remedy but 
 love ; so it just kept on loving and admiring them. Growing, too 
 so very fast that now the plant was almost as high as your desks. 
 Then it thought and thought ; and with a plant, to tJiiiik is to act, 
 and each thought means a blossom. 
 
 Such a beautiful straw-colored blossom each one was ! Five 
 dainty yellow petals, each with a purple spot at its base (Fig. 92). 
 The whole flower looked very much like a hollyhock. Indeed, 
 there was nothing strange about that, for the little plant was first 
 cousin to the proud hollyhocks up by the mansion, and hoped to 
 
Thought and Action. 203 
 
 see them at the annual reunion of the Mallow family. To be 
 sure, the hollyhocks were very tall and stately, and held their 
 heads up very high that they might show their beautiful flowers 
 in all their tints of rose, purple, and yellow, and sometimes purest 
 white. Had they not come all the way from Syria ? But our 
 little plant knew that it is better to be useful than to be beautiful, 
 so it kept on growing. 
 
 Yet the hollyhocks need not have looked so scornfully upon 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 it, for Pliny, an old Roman author who lived many years ago, 
 had found a quaint Arabic name for our httle friend, and called 
 it Gossypimn. But then the negroes did not use that name ; they 
 called our little plant — COTTON. 
 
 How beautiful its pale yellow blossoms were in the morning 
 sunshine! Each pretty flower was held up by the fingers of a 
 little hand through the three-parted sleeve with its laces and 
 fringes at the wrist. And deep down in each blossom there was 
 a little green pocket. 
 
204 The Lordly Hollyhocks, 
 
 All the brothers and sisters of our little plant had been think- 
 ing, too, and the whole rich field looked like a vast garden of 
 flowers. The little plant could see the yellow blossoms all over 
 the cotton-field. As the sun rose high at noon, many of the 
 blossoms became pure white. Were its own blossoms taking on 
 that beautiful creamy white ? The little cotton-plant blushed at 
 the thought of its own loveliness, and a flush of delicate pink 
 spread over the pretty petals. Surely the lordly hollyhocks could 
 not be scornful now ! As the sun went down the flush on the 
 petals became deeper, and in the morning many flowers had 
 changed to a most beautiful pink in color. How glad the little 
 plant was ! 
 
 But then, one cannot be beautiful always. Soon the sun 
 came up to fade the flowers, and the rain and wind came to tear 
 them, until all their beauty and use seemed gone. Still the little 
 plant held up its arms and hands to the sun. And now the little 
 green three-cornered pockets grew larger and larger, day by day, 
 as the little hands still clutched them. 
 
 " I shall be of use some day," said the little plant to itself, as 
 it dreamed of its lovely blossoms through the long, sultry days of 
 summer. Little seeds were growing in the pockets, and resting 
 on beds of downy softness. 
 
 How very warm the days were, and how the sun did scorch 
 the pockets until they became quite brown ! The little cotton- 
 plant thought, and — Pop ! pop ! ! The brown pockets were burst 
 open, and the top of the plant seemed covered with snow. Had 
 a storm of ready-made snowballs fallen upon the cotton-field ? 
 
 (Fig. 93-) 
 
 Soon some colored people came into the field and com- 
 menced to pick off the bolls of cotton fibre which the plants had 
 produced. And down from the mansion-house the owner of 
 the plantation came with his little daughter Etta. As they 
 
The Cotton-field. 
 
 205 
 
 passed along the field, the little cotton-plant heard the father 
 saying : 
 
 " The cotton is picked and carried in bags to the cotton-gin. 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 This machine separates the seeds from the fiber of the cotton. 
 Then the cotton is pressed into big bundles or bales, and these 
 
2o6 
 
 Cotton Picking. 
 
 are carried away by steamers to distant towns, and made into 
 calico, gingham, sheeting, or musHn. Tlie Hindoos make some 
 musHn so fine that when it is laid upon the grass and covered 
 with dew it looks like a spider's web. They call them ivcbs of 
 woven wind. 
 
 The little plant wondered what would become of its fluffy 
 globes of pure white cotton, and hoped that they might be made 
 
 Fig, 94. 
 
 into such beautiful fabrics as those of which the father was speak- 
 ing. Then it would be of some use. 
 
 " Papa, papa, let me pick some" cotton," cried Etta as she 
 passed along the path. (Fig. 94.) 
 
 The plant seemed to stretch out to her its hands to give up 
 the ten beautiful bolls of cotton that it held. So, when Etta's 
 father told her she might pick the cotton, the little girl gathered 
 
Voices of the Trees. 207 
 
 all that the plant had, and put the pure white bolls into the large 
 basket. 
 
 The little plant was now at leisure to watch the men and 
 women as they came day after day to gather the ripened cotton. 
 For the cotton did not ripen all at once. When you put corn 
 into a popper, some of the kernels will pop out sooner than 
 others ; and in the same way the bolls of cotton pop out under 
 the heat of the southern sun. The cotton continued to ripen 
 and open for some months, but the little plant still stood there 
 in the field. 
 
 "Whatever will become of my treasure of cotton that the 
 little girl gathered ? " said the plant to itself. 
 
 Along the path a sleepy old mule was coming, dragging a 
 cart loaded with cotton. "■ I am sure that something useful will 
 be made from it, and that I have lived to some purpose. That 
 is all one needs to know to be happy. I wonder why the webs 
 of woven wind — " 
 
 Just then the wheel of the cotton-cart came crushing down 
 upon the little plant, and its life was ended. Wouldn't you like 
 to know, too, what became of the ten cotton bolls that Etta 
 gathered ? 
 
 III. What the Young Oak Said. 
 
 Children, have you ever heard the voices among the forest 
 trees ? Did you ever hear the trees whispering to themselves, or 
 sighing or sobbing, oh, so sorrowfully? Have you not heard 
 them singing or chanting, now soft and low in sweetest melody, 
 now loud and clear in grand, triumphant chorus ? And then, 
 how the great old oaks speak to us of strength and power as they 
 spread wide their kindly arms, making shade for weary children ! 
 Yes, and the laughing, happy maples, brightest and most cheer- 
 
2o8 J/oices of the Trees. 
 
 ful of trees ; as the sunshine plays among their leaves, the whole 
 summer seems to lie hidden there. 
 
 " Once I rode through the dark wood, and the trees seemed 
 to weep and moan as the wind swept through them," says Lettie. 
 " At home we have two old oaks which bend toward each other 
 and seem to be speaking in loving tones ; we call them the 
 ' Affectionate Oaks,' " says Mary. 
 
 " But, Miss Christley, I never heard the trees say anything," 
 says Tom. What did the pussy-willows tell you ? Did they 
 not tell you that spring had come ? "I did not think of that." 
 And then the tall and slender iron-wood and maple saplings 
 seem to laugh and say, ''The brooks are open, come a-fishing, 
 Tom." 
 
 To-day we brought some beautiful young oaks and maples 
 from the woods and set them out upon the lawn. "They will be 
 great trees some day." " Two kinds of maples in the woods." 
 " Hard and soft." '* Different leaves." " White oaks, red oaks, 
 pin oaks, and black oaks." Can we make the young trees tell 
 their story? Let us go out into the woods to-day and see. The 
 snows have melted away, and warm rains have come. Here we 
 are under this great oak, which is such a big, kind-hearted tree 
 that we feel something of trust coming into our hearts as we 
 look at the grand tree's gnarled branches. 
 
 " A goodly tree it is; 
 And, towering to the skies, 
 The fury of the wind defies; 
 From age to age in virtue strong, 
 Inured to stand and suffer wrong." 
 
 Take that stick and push aside some of the dead leaves. 
 Pick up some of the acorns, — the cradles in which the baby oaks 
 lie sleeping. ''Did you say sleeping .f* " This one is awaking; 
 
The Oak in its Cardie. 
 
 209 
 
 for here the cradle shell is softened, and the germ has swollen 
 
 and burst through to send the young oak's baby foot, the radicle, 
 
 down into the soft, black earth. " See the cradle's 
 
 delicate pink lining." (Fig. 95.) But look at the 
 
 one that Johnny brings us. (Fig. 96.) Here the 
 
 delicate pinkish-green head shoots upward to the 
 
 light. This head is called the ///^;;2z//r. " Loaks like 
 
 a plume." "How fast it grows!" "What does 
 
 the baby oak eat?" He lives upon starch. "Stored 
 
 up for him in his cradle." 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 In the heart of a seed 
 
 Buried deep, so deep, 
 A dear little plant 
 
 Lay fast asleep. 
 "Wake ! " said the sunshine 
 
 " And creep to the light," 
 " Wake ! " said the voice 
 
 Of the raindrop bright. 
 The little plant heard, 
 
 And it rose to see 
 What the wonderful 
 
 Outside world raidit be. 
 
 Break open the brown cradle shell and see the two thick 
 loaves of bread. "White, with a tinge of green." The young 
 oak is nourished by this food while the little radicle enters into 
 the black soil and puts forth little branches and fibres all covered 
 with fine white hairs. Through these branches the young oak 
 drinks up water from the soil. " Bread and water." "Starch." 
 We shall prove the starch to be in the acorn when we go back to 
 the class-room. So the young oak is nourished by the starch-food 
 of the two loaves. Some call these cotyledons. 
 
2IO 
 
 Uses of Oak, 
 
 grand 
 ling 
 
 After a few days the young oak shows a well grown root and 
 stem, and sends out broad pink-green leaves. Mary has found 
 
 one of the large oak-babies. How beautiful it 
 
 is ! See, there is no more food in the shriveled 
 
 acorn (Fig. 97), and so the young oakling must 
 
 draw all of his food from the earth and the air. 
 
 This he has learned 
 
 to do, and the now 
 
 useless cradle falls 
 
 a v/ a y. What a 
 little sap- 
 it is ! Don't 
 
 you think it will 
 
 become a great red 
 
 oak tree some day 
 and have many a beautiful leaf? Do 
 you hear ivhat the oakling says to you ? 
 ' Learn to depend upon your own, 
 efforts." ''Self-reliance." ''Grow- 
 ing upward." 
 
 Back from our forest visit, now 
 in quiet class-room. "Oak for the 
 solid floors, oak in desks and tables." 
 " Panels in doors." " The seats 
 and chairs of oak sometimes." " Fur- 
 niture for houses." Useful, valuable 
 wood. " Bark for tanning leather." 
 Live oak \ox ships. " Corks fromi 
 the bark of Spanish oaks." Gallnuts 
 are obtained from oaks, and are used F^^- 97- 
 
 in making ink and medicines. These are not fruits like acorns, 
 but swellings caused by insects that puncture the bark of the oak 
 
Testing for Starch. 
 
 211 
 
 twigs and lay their eggs in the wounds. The so-called oak-apples 
 found on the leaves of our red oaks are gallnuts, but are not valu- 
 able like those found in Western Asia, because they do not con- 
 tain so much tanmn or ink-producing acid. 
 
 Shall we find the starch in the acorn? Let me put these 
 grains of -starch into this tube (A) with some water, and Charlie 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 may hold it over the lamp until the water boils. Here is another 
 tube with water, and I shall put into it these pieces of oak-bread 
 from the acorns. Mary may boil this (B) over the lamp. Now 
 I take these two little crystals (potassium iodide) and drop one 
 into each tube. Hold the tubes over the lamp again until the 
 water boils. The crystals are now dissolved. Into the starch 
 liquid I put three drops of this acid (hydrochloric), and see ! 
 
212 
 
 The Chimpu. 
 
 " The liquid is blue." Chemists say that the starch has been 
 colored blue. Mary may take this little dropping-glass and put 
 three drops of the acid into the other tube which has the pieces 
 of acorn in it. '' Look ! " '' It is blue like the other." " There 
 is starch in acorns." A wise man has said, " Read Nature in the 
 language of experiment." 
 
 IV. A Queer Counting Device. 
 
 The Chimpu Used by Peruvian and Bolivian Indians. 
 The chimpu is a reckoning device still employed in some re- 
 mote parts of Peru and Bolivia. It consists principally of a cer- 
 
 FiG. 99. — The Chimpu. 
 tain number of cords tied together at one of their extremities and 
 
Correlation. 213 
 
 along which slide small perforated balls. The cords are of differ- 
 ent colors, and the balls are made of the shells of various fruits. 
 These balls can be strung all at the same time upon all the cords, 
 or upon a certain number only. 
 
 The Indian thus has a m.eans of creating for himself categories 
 of juxtaposed numbers corresponding in our processes to as many 
 columns as there are cords in the apparatus. If, as it happens, 
 moreover, the native calculator decides that the balls strune a 
 single time shall represent units, that those through which two 
 cords pass shall equal tens, etc., he will be able to represent any 
 number whatever. He will figure, for example, as in the draw- 
 ing, the number 4456 by stringing 6 balls on one cord, 5 on two 
 cords, 4 on three cords, and 4 on four cords. The little instru- 
 ment once tied at tlie lower extremity, as it was previously at the 
 upper, will indefinitely preserve the quadruple numbers which 
 have been confided to it. 
 
 V. A Study of the History of a State. 
 
 Successful teachers of geography and history will readily ad- 
 mit that these two branches of study are very closely related, and 
 cannot be separated in the logical development of either. The 
 geographic treatment of history is essential to the clear under- 
 standing of the physical conditions of human society. Historical 
 study is made much more attractive to the child when his own 
 interest can be made to pass into the narrative through full illus- 
 trations from biography, and the careful introduction of the de- 
 tails of local history. Nor have we far to seek the reason for this 
 increased attention and interest. The association of ideas 
 through contiguity in time and place, together with the correla- 
 tions of cause and effect, etc., will offer full explanation. But in 
 these days teachers are beginning to tire of the endless preaching 
 of the bare ps}'cliological truths, and are rather disposed to ask 
 
2 14 Historical Maps. 
 
 with St. Paul, not '* What wilt thou have me believe ? " but 
 " What wilt thou have mc to do ? " If the submission of the fol- 
 lowing plan for "doing" should afford help to my fellow-workers, 
 the purpose of this study will be accomplished. 
 
 In all the older states the places of note are very numerous, 
 and many of the younger states possess spots no less sacred in 
 the history of American liberty. The historical events and noted 
 names associated with the history of the great state of Pennsyl- 
 vania may all be grouped about the three great rivers of the 
 state. Let the teacher or pupil prepare a simple outline of the 
 state, drawn upon manilla paper, and with the courses of the 
 rivers carefully marked. Now, as the text-book is studied, let the 
 pupils be instructed" to note carefully all facts having a direct 
 bearing upon the history of their own state, and have these 
 names indicated in the proper places upon the chart. Thus, it 
 will be found that in the period preceding the Revolution, the 
 grouping occurs about the Delaware and the two branches of the 
 Ohio. In the eastern part of the state the great name of Penn 
 overshadows the whole section, while Pitt is associated with all 
 the names and places of the western part. The central portion, 
 afterwards so celebrated through the bloody struggle at Gettys- 
 burg, has few associations with that earlier time ; the settlement 
 of John Harris upon the Susquehanna marking the capital at 
 Harrisburg. Commencing at the eastern part of the state, we 
 have the Swedes at Chester in 1638; Wm. Penn at Philadelphia, 
 1682 ; Daniel Boone born in Berks Co., 1735; coal used as fuel, 
 1768; John Harris at the Susquehanna, 1726. Then we may go 
 westward along the Mason and Dixon line, run out as a boundary 
 in 1763-7. This afterwards became the idixwows slave line. Above 
 it we find Ft. Necessity; then the battlefield at Braddock, 1755 ; 
 Ft. Duquesne, 1754; Ft. Venango and Ft. Le Boeuf northward 
 to Lake Erie. The little town of Kittanning localizes this period 
 
Historical Maps, 
 
 215 
 
2i6 . Epochs in History. 
 
 for some of us who come from this old Indian village on the 
 '* large stream." And these old names, associated through the 
 French and Indian war, we find illumined by that of Washington. 
 (See Fig. lOO.) 
 
 In the period of the Revolution the region between the Sus- 
 quehanna and the Delaware comes into prominence. The name 
 of Washington overshadows all. We find Independence declared 
 at Philadelphia, 1776 ; Trenton, and the crossing of the Delaware, 
 1776; Chadd's Ford, Brandy wine, and Germantown, 1777; Valley 
 Forge, 1777-8, with La Fayette and Steuben, the old drill master, 
 so sorely needed. Pulaski, with his consecrated banner, rises 
 from the old nunnery at Moravian Bethlehem, 1778, while the 
 same year sees Queen Esther sv/eep down with the Tories and her 
 Indians to the massacre at Wyoming. Howe, the British general, 
 keeps guard over Philadelphia, while the spirit of Franklin directs, 
 even across the broad Atlantic, the actions of the congress 
 as it flies from Philadelphia to Lancaster and York. (See Fig. 
 
 loi.) 
 
 As the war closes, Harrisburg is founded in 1785, and becomes 
 the capital of the state in 1812. Dr. Joseph Priestley, the dis- 
 coverer of oxygen, 1774, comes to this country from England in 
 1794 to pass the last ten years of his life, David Bradford leads 
 in the Whisky Rebellion, of 1794, and " Light Horse Harry" 
 comes up from Virginia to quell the insurrection. Could he 
 dream that his greater son would lead the hosts to battle among 
 the hills at Gettysburg? At Erie, in 1796, ** Mad Anthony 
 Wayne," returning from the Northwest Territory, dies leaving the 
 Indians to dread the return of '' Big Wind " should they dare to 
 m.ake war upon the Americans. Fifty-one years before, in Ches- 
 ter county, in the opposite corner of the state, this brave com- 
 mander first saw the light of earth. 
 
 In making these charts the names maybe printed in chalks of 
 
From 177^ to iSoo. 
 
 217 
 
2i8 Value to the Eye-Minded. 
 
 different colors, and these may be '' fixed " or prevented from 
 rubbing by spraying with a httle absolute alcohol. 
 
 Teachers of history must not '' strain at a gnat and swallow a 
 camel," at least in the matter of dates. We have Authority for 
 all which we have given, and although all authorities do not 
 agree, — and our cuts would not allow of the day and month, — 
 still we would not have the MOTIVE of the work lost in any quib- 
 bles as to dates. Some may even dispute the treaty of peace, or 
 the purchase of lands by Penn ; still a monument in Philadelphia 
 marks the spot, called by the Indians Shackamaxon, where, under 
 a spreading elm, the formal treaty is said to have been made. In 
 the studio of an artist may be seen many broadly executed 
 sketches called '' studies," and we have these in mind when we 
 name our sketch from a teacher's class-room '' A Study of the 
 History of a State." We have sought for main impressions, and 
 do not claim that there may not be a dash of misplaced color in 
 the picture. 
 
 After all is said, the '' new education," in the teaching of the 
 subject, has passed beyond the mere microscopic accuracy of 
 chronological tables, and would grasp something of the philosophy 
 of history. 
 
 An old German proverb says, '' What goes into the mind 
 through the eyes never comes out again." It is to such associa- 
 tions of the concrete in teaching that the old Moravian school- 
 master, Comenius, appealed when he gave to the world his *' Orbis 
 Pictus." 
 
 In our study of the state of Pennsylvania we shall be some- 
 what arbitrary in our separation of the events into time-periods, 
 although we have taken up four periods which were best suited to 
 our own class-work. We would not in any way limit the series 
 of maps to the four here given, and could wish these to be taken 
 rather as suggestions than as models. Let us say, then, that the 
 
A Period of Local Development. 
 
 ^19 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
220 Perry's Victory, 
 
 third period shall extend from the close of the eighteenth century 
 to the breaking out of the Civil War (1800 — 1861). (Fig. 102.) 
 
 In the eastern section we find the United States Bank with its 
 first charter, extending from 1791 to 181 1 ; then the reorganized 
 bank, from 1817 to 1836. 
 
 Passing now to the western river, we find Aaron Burr (1806) 
 expecting to draw recruits from the upper Allegheny to aid him 
 in his ambitious designs to seize the Spanish possessions in 
 Mexico and establish himself in power as Cortez, had done be- 
 fore him. 
 
 The northwestern part of the state is overshadowed by the 
 name of Perry. At Erie a fleet was built from the trees of the 
 virgin forest ; and, moving down to the w^estern end of the lake, 
 the young commander, who had never seen a naval battle, gained 
 his famous victory over one of Nelson's veterans. " We have met 
 the enemy and they are ours,'' rings through this section of the 
 state as, on September 10, the children in our country schools 
 still celebrate the victory. We do not know w^hat wise instructor 
 started such concrete teaching, but it certainly must have its in- 
 fluence upon the youthful minds. 
 
 What need to go to classic Greece to seek out spots sacred to 
 liberty ? We have them here ! Points in the orbit of that strange 
 offshoot of Puritan stock, '' Old Ossawatomie," are found in 
 Beaver and Crawford counties. At Darlington academy the 
 youth learned lessons in freedom and truth. Our grand old 
 commonwealth may well be proud that her soil has been trodden 
 by the feet of him of whom Victor Hugo could write the fitting 
 tribute, '' For Christ, like Christ." And Wendell Phillips could 
 say : '* Well, men say he failed. Soldiers call Bunker Hill a de- 
 feat, but liberty dates from it, though Warren lay dead on the 
 field. Actually, a man had been found ready to die for an idea. 
 God be thanked for old John Brown." 
 
Volcanic Forces in History. 
 
 221 
 
 Fig. 103 
 
^22 Lincoln the First American. 
 
 But we must not dwell too long here. The region of the 
 Susquehanna must claim a share of our attention. The public- 
 school law, originated in 1834, was championed by Thaddeus 
 Stevens. At Towanda, in 1846, lived David Wilmot, the author 
 of the famous '' Proviso," of which Horace Mann said, '' I would 
 pass it, rebellion or not." Lancaster was the home, as it is the 
 burial-place, of President Buchanan (1857-61). At Carlisle, in 
 1861, that pure and noble patriot. Gen. Thomas, offered his ser- 
 vices to his country rather than to his state ; although he might 
 have followed the example set by his fellow-Virginian, Gen. Robt. 
 E. Lee. With Stanton at Pittsburg, Thomas at Carlisle, and 
 Thaddeus Stevens to lead the way toward the nation's capital, 
 the Civil War comes fairly into view (Fig. 103). 
 
 But reverent hands must lift the curtain here. The graves at 
 Gettysburg mark well the field on which the armies of twenty- 
 eight states fought to decide the question of mankind's right to 
 freedom. 
 
 The noble sons of Pennsylvania — Meade, Hancock, Reynolds, 
 Zook, and hosts of others — gained an undying fame ; but Lincoln, 
 the type of the true American, overshadows all the place. We 
 hear his words as the battle-field becomes the resting-place of 
 heroes : 
 
 *' We cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, 
 this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled 
 here have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. 
 The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, 
 but it can never forget what they did here. It is rather for us — 
 that we highly resolve that the nation shall, under God, have a 
 new birth of freedom ; and that government of the people, by the 
 people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth." 
 
 In Philadelphia, in 1876, the Centennial brings together the 
 North and the South to celebrate in peace the nation's birthday. 
 
We Seek the Fountains of History, 223 
 
 The name of Grant is here associated, and also that of the 
 nation's guest, Dom Pedro. 
 
 But this exiled emperor of Brazil is dead. His last conscious 
 words were an expression of his deep affection for his country, 
 and his regret that he could not go back there to die. His death 
 will probably put an end to all attempts to revive the Brazilian 
 empire. 
 
 At Pottsville and at Mauch Chunk, in 1877, the " Mollie 
 Maguires " expiated their crimes in a section associated with the 
 massacres by Tories and Indians. The same year saw the ter- 
 rible railroad riots at Pittsburg, during which the city was com- 
 pletely in the power of the rioters, who defied the sheriff, and 
 boasted that no body of troops could subdue them. 
 
 In the year 1889 the valley of the Conemaugh was swept by 
 the great flood. In this great disaster nearly the whole of the 
 city of Johnstown was destroyed, and thousands lost their lives. 
 
 On the banks of the Monongahela, at Homestead, July 6, 
 1892, occurred the famous labor riots, in which the employment 
 of Pinkerton detectives was resisted. 
 
 Not the least among the names upon the roll of honor of 
 this great state is that of James G. Blaine. This noted statesman 
 was born in Washington county in 1830, and died in Washington, 
 D.C., on Friday, January 27, 1893. He had long represented 
 Maine in the councils of the nation. 
 
 By the study of the present we may bring ourselves into 
 closer relations with the past; and adopting a scientific method 
 in our work, we seek after fountains of history rather than for 
 foundations. 
 
Mm 10 iM