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Bjfl M p <; RARN 
 
 Superintendent of iichools 
 EAST HARTFORD, COPlkCTIClT 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 THIRD YEARBOOK 
 
 RESEARCH IN CONSTRUCTING THE ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOL CURRICULUM 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 
 
 OF THE NATrONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 1 20 1 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. 
 
 February, 1925 
 

 THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 
 
 OFFICERS, 1924-25 
 
 President, William McAndrew, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, 111. 
 First Vice-President, Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. 
 Second Vice-President, John J. Maddox, Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. 
 Executive Secretary, Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 Executive Committee: Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, 
 Ohio. 
 Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, 
 
 D. C. 
 Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools, Ithaca, N. Y. 
 M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. 
 
 THE 1924-25 COMMISSION ON THE CURRICULUM 
 
 Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa., Chairman. 
 
 John L. Alger, President, Rhode Island College of Education, Providence, R. I. 
 
 Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. 
 
 John M. Foote, Rural School Supervisor, State Department of Education, Baton 
 
 Rouge, La. 
 Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 
 Harold O. Rugg, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New 
 
 York City. 
 Zenos E. Scott, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass. 
 Frank E. Spaulding, Dean, School of Education, Yale University, New Haven, 
 
 Conn. 
 Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio. 
 A. L. Threlkeld, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. 
 H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, Calif. 
 John W. Withers, Dean, New York University, New York City. 
 

 FOREWORD 
 
 "To bring together the elements for the construction of a suitable cur- 
 riculum for the boys and girls of American public schools," was the purpose 
 of the Department of Superintendence in its appointment of the Commis- 
 sion on the Curriculum. The 1924 Yearbook of the Department laid the 
 basis for this program through its statement of general educational aims and 
 objectives, through its survey of current curriculum practice, and through 
 its proposed machinery for cooperative effort in curriculum revision in a 
 local community. 
 
 When the Commission on the Curriculum met in July, 1924, the ques- 
 tion was, What can a national commission do that will be of greatest help 
 to superintendents of schools who are faced with the problem of curriculum 
 revision? The commission decided that the most needed service was the 
 collection and analysis of outstanding research studies in each of the sub- 
 jects of the elementary curriculum. It was known that many such studies 
 of high value had been made which should be considered in the revision of 
 curricula ; but they were, for the most part, inaccessible because of their 
 technical form, or because of their publication in isolated monographs or 
 magazines, or because of their fragmentary distribution. A review of 
 selected scientific studies in one volume, together with an analysis and 
 summary of them in terms easily understandable, was the service for sci- 
 entific curriculum construction which the Commission on the Curriculum 
 decided to render. 
 
 The work of carrying out the plan was delegated to the Division of 
 Research of the National Education Association. The time allotted was 
 less than six months. The studies to be reviewed were of a technical 
 nature and in fairness to their authors could only be reviewed by specialists 
 thoroughly familiar with each subject. It would have been impossible for 
 any one person to do the work in the limited time. The leadership of the 
 Nation in the curriculum field was sought out. Twelve subcommittees 
 were appointed, one for each elementary school subject. A search for 
 material was made in universities, colleges, and school systems throughout 
 the country. As far as possible all published and unpublished elementary 
 curriculum studies were collected. 
 
 Because of the time limit and the fact that the reports of all subcom- 
 mittees had to be included in one volume, the studies reviewed are selected 
 and not comprehensive. In some fields much more research has been 
 done than in others. This fact explains why certain subjects are given 
 greater space in the Yearbook. Parts I and II were reduced to a minimum 
 in order to give as much space as possible to the review of research studies. 
 
 The Department of Superintendence is most appreciative and deeply 
 indebted for the nation-wide cooperation which it has received. The 
 
Division of Research has bent every effort to make the Yearbook possible. 
 Seventy-five curriculum specialists have given gratis of their time, training, 
 and experience in analyzing the studies collected. Through their unselfish 
 efforts this great piece of cooperative research was made possible. Their 
 most important reward will be in the testing out and application of their 
 findings, to the end that the boys and girls of our public schools may have 
 a curriculum built on scientific principles and American ideals. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART ONE— NEED OF REVISION 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 I. A cooperative Plan for the Revision of the American Elementary School 
 
 Curriculum 9 
 
 PART TWO— VARIATIONS IN CURRICULA 
 
 II. Possible Variations in .Curricula to Meet Community and Individual 
 
 Needs 17 
 
 PART THREE— CURRICULA PROBLEMS AND THEIR 
 SCIENTIFIC SOLUTION 
 
 III. Arithmetic 35 
 
 IV. Spelling 110 
 
 V. Reading 152 
 
 VI. Handwriting 205 
 
 VII. The Social Studies 217 
 
 VIII. Language and Grammar 278 
 
 IX. Elementary Science 297 
 
 X. Health and Physical Education 303 
 
 XI. Home Economics 32Q 
 
 XII. Industrial Arts 329 
 
 XIII. Art Education : 337 
 
 XIV. Music 354 
 
 PART FOUR— ADDENDA 
 
 Report of Secretary 367 
 
 Members of the Department of Superintendence 372 
 
 Index to Authors of Research Studies . 422 
 
 [5] 
 
PART I 
 
 A Cooperative Plan for the Revision 
 
 of the 
 
 ^American Elementary School Curriculum 
 
 [7] 
 
PART I.— A COOPERATIVE PLAN FOR THE REVISION 
 
 OF THE AMERICAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 CURRICULUM 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE PUBLIC SCHOOL curriculum has a large share in determin- 
 ing the Nation's present and future progress. Through its public 
 schools, America is endeavoring to pass on to its youth all that has 
 been found best in the past: the knowledge, habits, skills, attitudes, and 
 ideals most useful to individual and national life at present ; and in addi- 
 tion, it attempts to supply youth with the necessary tools, understanding, 
 foresight, and incentive for the future advancement of its people. Knowl- 
 edge and skill, disseminated among the masses of the people, according to 
 a leading economist, constitute a nation's greatest wealth. The habits of 
 a people determine the degree of faith that other nations accord it; and 
 the idealism of its citizens is a nation's salvation. Since the public school 
 is designed to disseminate knowledge, develop right habits, and implant 
 proper ideals, it may rightly be termed the life insurance of civilization. 
 
 The public school curriculum determines what boys and girls are taught 
 in school. With the exception of the personality of the teacher, no other 
 educational factor equals it in importance. The elementary school cur- 
 riculum lays the foundation of every child's education ; and it constitutes 
 all the school training of about three fifths of America's children. 
 
 Why the Elementary School Curriculum Needs Revision 
 
 The elementary school curriculum is a more vital factor in the develop- 
 ment of national life today than ever before. In pioneer days, ordinary 
 living at home and in the community, directed by insistent family needs, 
 provided a fairly adequate preparation for life. Then the task of the 
 American public school was mainly to supplement the life of the home, 
 church, and community by adding the Three R's. As time went on, the 
 public school was called upon to supply more and more formal education. 
 Many new courses were added to the traditional subjects. Unfortunately, 
 there was often lack of synthesis of the whole, since additions and modi- 
 fications were made without plan or system ; and the result in many in- 
 stances is "the amorphous product of generations of tinkering." Unless 
 school practice is abreast or ahead of the time, it cannot be a directive 
 power. There has been too much of a tendency for convention and tradi- 
 tion to determine curricula, rather than practical, present-day life demands. 
 An active principle which is now coming to be recognized in the selection 
 of content is that of utility in a broad sense. Will the inclusion of a par- 
 ticular topic or subject increase the effectiveness of the individual? Will 
 it influence life for good? Will it build character? Today we are using 
 a pragmatic philosophy. 
 
 [9] 
 
10 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Pruning out the dead wood, selecting minimum essentials from total 
 possible content, adding supplementary material — tinkering with the cur- 
 riculum — will no longer answer the need. A complete revision is de- 
 manded by both educators and laymen. Both groups demand a new cur- 
 riculum, expressive of the changed conditions of modern civilization and 
 reshaped in the light of our better understanding of child life and the 
 learning processes. 
 
 The Need for Curriculum Revision — What the Layman Sees 
 
 The layman too often views the public school curriculum from these 
 two angles: (1) growing costs, and (2) lack of thoroughness in essen- 
 tials. The first viewpoint is sane, providing that it is positive and not 
 negative. When larger numbers of children are educated and given the 
 better and richer education which civilization demands, the cost is certain 
 to increase — it cannot be otherwise — and the cost must be met. More 
 careful selection of curriculum materials should be made, but it is doubt- 
 ful that it will or should result in reduced expenditures. 
 
 The second viewpoint from which the layman considers the need for 
 curriculum revision is a supposed lack of thoroughness in essentials. There 
 may be some justification for this attitude. The only reliable evidence, 
 however, such as the Springfield tests and the Boston tests of 1845, has 
 demonstrated that most public schools of today are securing better results 
 in the so-called "fundamentals" with a heterogeneous mass of children 
 than the schools of half a century ago secured with selected groups. The 
 argument for "cutting out fads and frills" is sometimes only a plea for 
 the old-time, traditional school program, which would be an anachronism 
 in present-day life. The American school must expand until it offers 
 whatever is necessary to develop intelligent American citizenship. 
 
 The Need for Curriculum Revision — What the Educator Sees 
 
 The educator also sees the need of curriculum revision from two angles : 
 (1) the expansion of the field of knowledge, and the need for a dis- 
 criminating selection of what is best suited to meet present social demands ; 
 and (2) provision for character building, including the development of 
 broad interests, liberal views, and the establishment of right social and 
 ethical attitudes. The limited time that the average child spends in school 
 in contrast to the vast amount of knowledge which one might acquire, the 
 complexity of modern life with, its varied demands, and the necessity of 
 developing individual talents are conditions which lead educators not only 
 to restudy and analyze the aims and objectives of education, but also to 
 demand a complete revision of the curriculum to express the new concep- 
 tions of education. The educator is seeking as the major products of his 
 enterprise strong character and right conduct, built not on precept, but 
 fashioned through years of right thinking during lesson hours and prop- 
 
The Third Yearbook 11 
 
 erly controlled behavior in school activities. Teachers not only want their 
 pupils to meet the standard tests in academic achievement but, what is 
 more important, to meet successfully the tests of life, even to the point of 
 temptation. For this reason, although teachers may rightly expect that 
 character development will be an important by-product of all good instruc- 
 tion, they have definitely in mind the moral qualities which they wish to 
 develop in their pupils, such as: honesty, industry, self-control, courtesy, 
 unselfishness, service, appreciation of beauty, openmindedness, cooperation, 
 responsibility, sympathy, desire for improvement, adaptability, courage, 
 initiative, thoroughness, self-judgment, thrift, faith in mankind, and rever- 
 ence. Every true teacher hopes to develop these qualities through life situ- 
 ations as they arise. 
 
 When the educator fully comprehends that the objectives which the 
 school must serve today are health, training for a vocation, citizenship, 
 worthy home membership, the profitable use of leisure, and ethical char- 
 acter, he keenly feels the need of a thorough revision of the present public 
 school curriculum. 
 
 These viewpoints of the layman and the educator relative to the need 
 for curriculum revision can and must be harmonized into a working agree- 
 ment. 
 
 Present Activity in Elementary School Curriculum Revision 
 
 The aim of the modern educator includes the aim of the layman, thor- 
 oughness in essentials, and goes far beyond it. The teacher strives to have 
 his pupils spell more correctly the words in common use, use the arith- 
 metical processes necessary in modern life with more speed and accuracy, 
 and read more and with greater rapidity and comprehension. In addition, 
 the teacher would have his pupils appreciate the rights of others, and 
 respect the law; in other words, he would have him establish a proper 
 relationship between himself and society. 
 
 The public-spirited layman cherishes these same objectives for the public 
 school. He, too, would have the curriculum revised so that the above 
 objectives may be attained. The result is that curriculum revision is in 
 progress in all parts of the country. Several of the national societies and 
 foundations, as well as university and state committees, are engaged in 
 studying the problem of the elementary school curriculum. Among these 
 are the National Society for the Study of Education, the American Asso- 
 ciation of University Women, The Commonwealth Foundation, The 
 American Association for the Advancement of Science, the California Cur- 
 riculum Committee, and Teachers College of Columbia University. 
 
 Many state, county, and city courses of study have been rebuilt recently, 
 or are in the process of revision. Representative examples of large city 
 school systems where courses of study have been revised recently are: 
 Berkeley, California; Los Angeles, California; Denver, Colorado; Balti- 
 more, Maryland; Detroit, Michigan; Cincinnati, Ohio; and Trenton, 
 
12 Department of Superintendence 
 
 New Jersey. In response to a request for recent elementary courses of 
 study, 200 representative cities, counties, and states replied that they had 
 published courses of study since 1920. This is indicative of the vast 
 amount of activity in curriculum revision in all parts of the country. 
 
 Should Curriculum Revision be Done Independently or by 
 Cooperation? 
 
 Some of the work in curriculum revision is the result of months of care- 
 ful study and the pooling of leadership in the field of each subject. In 
 some cities, however, the work has been done hastily and unscientifically; 
 in every city there has been much duplication of effort. When each com- 
 munity attempts to solve all its curriculum problems in isolation, the results 
 are likely to be unsatisfactory and expensive. When scores of cities work 
 independently, there is an unfortunate waste of time and effort in the du- 
 plication of bibliographies, in the independent collection of data through 
 repeated questionnaires and other forms of inquiry, and in the formulation 
 of major principles. As a matter of fact, by the process of independent 
 action, only those school systems which can afford to expend thousands of 
 dollars on curriculum revision can make independently a comprehensive 
 and satisfactory study of the problem. Curriculum making is becoming a 
 specialized, technical task, which requires : ( 1 ) the study of social needs, 
 including those peculiar to a local community, (2) analyses of the abilities 
 and interests of growing children, (3) experimental study of the learning 
 process, and (4) an understanding of the local school system, the temper 
 and capacity of its teachers and administrators; in other words, what can 
 be expected of them in helping in the development and putting into effect 
 of a new course of study at a given time. One curriculum specialist has 
 wisely said: "To make a radical selection and reorganization of the best in 
 a civilization is not something that can be lightly undertaken or easily 
 accomplished. Conferences and the pronouncements of those in official 
 positions are quite inadequate. Two methods are needed in curriculum 
 making: (1) the subjective method of expert teaching opinion, and (2) the 
 objective method of expert analysis of social and psychological needs." 
 Both processes should work together. 
 
 Contribution of Research to Curriculum Revision 
 
 During the past ten years, methods of determining what is useful and 
 what is not have been devised in part, and they are still in process of 
 development. Some important, results have already been obtained. 
 
 Part III, Curricular Problems and Their Scientific Solution, is the work 
 of sixty-nine curriculum specialists and subject specialists. It pools the 
 most important research studies available and presents bibliographies that 
 have already been tested out and found helpful by a number of local com- 
 munities, and suggests problems which local committees have faced, but 
 which require further research for their solution. 
 
The Third Yearbook 13 
 
 A National Committee Should Present Raw Material Rather Than 
 a National Curriculum for General Acceptance 
 
 A strictly uniform American curriculum for the elementary schools is 
 hardly possible, because of the great variations in social, industrial, and 
 economic conditions. Furthermore, it may not be desirable, because of 
 our democratic ideal of recognizing local needs and conditions and of con- 
 sidering individual differences of children. There are three elements in 
 every course of study : ( 1 ) the general core that meets nation-wide re- 
 quirements; (2) the part that has to do with the local community, which 
 may even vary for different communities in the same city; and (3) adjust- 
 ments for individual children and varying groups of pupils. 
 
 In its Second Yearbook, the Department of Superintendence set up the 
 machinery for devising, revising, and supervising a curriculum in an indi- 
 vidual city. This machinery was based on the idea of arousing the interest 
 and securing the cooperation of the local staff, and, at the same time, of 
 assembling ideas from the outside. The Commission on the Curriculum 
 has deemed it advisable to apply the same method to the work it has in 
 hand. In Part II of this Yearbook, various ideas as to possible variations 
 in the curriculum to meet community and individual needs are presented ; 
 and accompanying each statement, general principles to guide local course 
 of study committees in the adaptation of a curriculum to their particular 
 community and to special groups of pupils are suggested. 
 
 A Central Agency Could Render Invaluable Service as a Clearing- 
 house for Curriculum Research 
 
 The research studies here reviewed are illustrative of the kind of work 
 which is essential to scientific curriculum revision. More of these are 
 needed. The fact that practice should keep pace with research also calls 
 for the testing of the findings presented in Part III. In many instances 
 research at the present time is ahead of practice. 
 
 The Commission on the Curriculum presents this Yearbook as the first 
 comprehensive effort to develop a cooperative plan for curriculum revision. 
 The commission believes that there should be a central agency, continuing 
 from year to }^ear, which would act as a clearing-house for school systems 
 which desire to cooperate in the work of curriculum revision. In other 
 words, provision should be made for the exchanging of bibliographies, for 
 rendering available research studies as soon as they are completed, and for 
 the interchanging of the findings of local communities, as classroom 
 teachers test out certain content and procedures. Just as scientifically 
 trained workers in our laboratories furnish us with the bulk of scientific 
 literature, so in the future more and more of our educational contributions 
 should come from teachers, administrators, and research workers trained 
 Scientifically to observe children and analyze the needs of society. 
 
14 Department of Superintendence 
 
 It is the nature of education to be ever progressing. Continuous, con- 
 structive, scientific study must be carried on, if the public school curriculum 
 is to keep pace with social demands and to become a contributory element 
 to more intelligent and abundant living. 
 
 The Commission on the Curriculum proposes that for the school year 
 1925-1926 as many school systems, as will, shall agree to cooperate in 
 testing the findings of the research studies reported in this Yearbook, that 
 new studies be undertaken, and that the results be placed at the disposal of 
 the schools of the country through the Department of Superintendence as a 
 central agency. 
 
PART II 
 
 Possible Variations in Curricula to Meet 
 Community and Individual Differences 
 
 [15] 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 PART II. POSSIBLE VARIATIONS IN CURRICULA TO 
 MEET COMMUNITY AND INDIVIDUAL NEEDS 1 
 
 MOST of the present elementary school curricula are based upon 
 the theory that the course given in the first six grades covers 
 the so-called tool subjects of learning; that these subjects are 
 fundamental to the education of all children and should consequently be 
 given approximately in the same degree to all normal children ; that dif- 
 ferences in aptitudes and life plans should be recognized at about the age 
 of twelve ; and that elective work should begin in the junior high school 
 and should continue in increasing degree through high school, college, and 
 university. 
 
 Although this means that all children, except atypicals, shall take the 
 same subjects during the first six grades of the elementary school, it does 
 not mean that the content of each subject shall be the same for all chil- 
 dren, or that the method of approach to a particular subject or topic or 
 the time allotment will be the same. For, notwithstanding in each subject 
 of the elementary school curriculum there is a general core which is uni- 
 versal and belongs to the nation, there is additional material which must 
 be adapted to community and individual needs. 
 
 The General Core of the Elementary School Curriculum Belongs 
 
 to the Nation 
 
 For the drill subjects, Part III would seem to indicate that research 
 will have soon determined what the general core of the elementary school 
 curriculum should be — that is, the irreducible minimum for all normal 
 children in various years of work the country over. 
 
 Charles M. Reinoehl, in his Analytic Survey of State Courses of Study 
 for Rural Elementary Schools, 2 lists topics which are common to nearly 
 all present state courses of study. In his opinion, these topics, with some 
 modifications, include much information of which every American has need. 
 He shows that there are social and economic problems national in scope. 
 There are problems peculiar to a state, but typical of problems in other 
 
 1 This section is a summary of statements of general principles for the differentiation of 
 curricula obtained for this Yearbook from those who have had practical experience in the 
 adaptation of education to the needs of individual children. Among those consulted were: 
 Velda Bamesberger, director of research, Okmulgee, Okla. ; Orville G. Brim, professor of 
 education, Ohio State University; Kenyon L,. Butterfield, president, Michigan Agricultural 
 College; M. G. Clark, superintendent of schools, Sioux City, Iowa; H. M. Corning, superin- 
 tendent of schools, Trinidad, Colo.; Virgil K. Dickson, director of research and guidance, 
 Berkeley and Oakland public schools, Calif.; John M. Foote, rural school supervisor, State 
 Department of Education, Baton Rouge, L,a. ; Armand J. Gerson, associate superintendent of 
 schools, Philadelphia, Pa.; S. Monroe Graves, superintendent of schools, Wellesley, Mass.; 
 W. J. Osburn, director of educational measurements, State Department of Public Instruction, 
 .Madison, Wis.; and Carleton W. Washburne, superintendent of schools, Winnetka, 111. 
 
 2 Reinoehl, Charles M. Analytic survey of state courses of study for rural elementary 
 schools. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1922, No. 42. 116 pp. 
 
 [17] 
 
18 Department of Superintendence 
 
 states. There are problems truly representative and suggestive in char- 
 acter, which with proper adaptation are fully as valuable as those of wider 
 application. There is also a considerable body of subject-matter requir- 
 ing drill, of which every normal American child has need. Reinoehl's 
 study is intended to indicate the content of the core of the rural elementary 
 school curriculum. The studies reviewed in Part III are applicable to 
 communities of every sort. However, even if research should determine 
 what the minimum essentials in curricular content should be, every course 
 of study committee is still faced with the problem of additional adaptations 
 for its particular school system. 
 
 Two Guiding Principles for Curricular Adaptation 
 
 What are the general principles for differentiation which should guide 
 course of study committees? Two guiding principles invariably present 
 themselves. 
 
 The first principle has to do with education s material, the individual 
 child, for whom educational activities are being planned. The second 
 principle has to do with the child's environment. Nature and nurture are 
 important factors to be taken into consideration when planning a cur- 
 riculum. 
 
 Differentiation of Curricula to Fit Individual Needs 
 
 The fact that pupils differ in ability to master the work offered in the 
 ordinary curriculum in any subject is well known to any one familiar with 
 the teaching of children. Hence in fairness to the rights of each child, it 
 is riot only impractical but impossible to teach all children in the same man- 
 ner or to give them the same content. 
 
 Ability grouping and the curriculum problem — One superintendent who 
 has made a special study of the adaptation of curricula to individual chil- 
 dren in his school system states that about six or eight children in every 
 ten can work with satisfactory profit with the same educational projects. 
 Two of every ten children can usually achieve more satisfactory results if 
 given an opportunity with projects more advanced than that of the so-called 
 "average six" of each ten. There are also frequently two of each ten who 
 cannot, or at least do not experience' the same or equivalent success as do 
 the others in the group. The proportions may vary, but the differences 
 remain. 
 
 Curriculum making, therefore, has specifically to do with the regular 
 grade. work of children of average ability. It also has to do with ungraded 
 classes of children who are below the average group of the class in actual 
 results secured as indicated by the grades obtained by each in school. In 
 addition there is the rapid promotion class, or the class capable of a wide 
 scope of comprehensive offerings, but with the possibility of early promo- 
 tion from grade to grade held in abeyance. In larger communities admin- 
 
The Third Yearbook 19 
 
 istrative action is imperative in dealing with the problem of the physically 
 handicapped, as well as of children with emotional instability. These 
 pupils may rank well in intellectual performance but, because of physical 
 disabilities or emotional instability, they cannot profit from the standard 
 curriculum unless many adjustments are made. Similarly, special courses 
 must be arranged for the predelinquent. 
 
 Nu?nber of ability groups — The size of the school usually determines 
 the number of ability groups that it is administratively possible to organize. 
 Even when there are as many as five or six ability groups, there will be 
 considerable variation between individual members in any one group. The 
 larger the number of groups, the smaller should be the variation in ability 
 between individual students. 
 
 What are the general principles that every course of study committee 
 attempting differentiation of material should recognize? This question is 
 one which deserves further study. In the absence of any better evidence, 
 these principles are tentatively proposed for discussion. 
 
 Major principles of curricular differentiation for ability groups: 
 
 1. Methods of teaching and standards of attainment differ for groups of 
 different levels of ability, but there are real possibilities for achievement in 
 any class in the public school. If possible, teachers should find at least one 
 socially useful thing at which even the very limited x pupil can succeed, 
 train him in this, and let him experience honest success. 
 
 2. Minimum essentials must be clearly stated for all, but the funda- 
 mentals set forth for the lowest group must be included as a part of the 
 material for the highest groups. It is important in a democracy that cer- 
 tain information shall be the common heritage of all. In so far as they 
 are able to acquire it, all children should have the best of the social heritage 
 of the race. 
 
 3. The aims, objectives, and outcomes for all subjects should be defi- 
 nitely set forth for the different ability groups. For the most part, there 
 should be a common background for these aims. The methods and em- 
 phasis are necessarily different, as are the immediate objectives and out- 
 comes, but the same ultimate aim of education should guide all teaching. 
 The same philosophy of education is back of whatever differentiation is 
 made. 
 
 4. Definite standards of attainment must be indicated for all levels. 
 Much study is needed to determine the amount and quality of work which 
 we rightly can expect from pupils of different levels of ability. 
 
 5. The dull pupil should have extensive opportunity for drill. Contrary 
 to general belief, the slow thinker is not necessarily the accurate thinker. 
 Nor does the child who learns slowly necessarily have a more retentive 
 memory than the bright child. 
 
 x The term "limited" is used to designate those pupils who do not seem to have the 
 ability to do the work of the standard elementary school curriculum. 
 
20 Department of Superintendence 
 
 6. Limited pupils usually differ from superior pupils in their lack of 
 ability to project themselves into new situations. The superior child with 
 his quick imagination and ready powers of generalization does ,this very 
 easily. On the other hand, the limited pupil usually cannot reason out 
 general principles or methods of attack but has to learn largely by imita- 
 tion and successive experiences. 
 
 To illustrate, according to W. J. Osburn, a dull child who has learned 
 8 from 13 will probably be confused by the 48 from 53 which occurs in 
 the exercise 534 divided by 6. To a gifted child this presents little diffi- 
 culty. Dull pupils must have direct teaching on all of the important ele- 
 ments of instruction, whereas gifted pupils will probably master the ma- 
 terial after one tenth of it has been taught. There are more than 1200 
 combinations in arithmetic which everyone must know in order to carry 
 on ordinary computation with integers ; yet we know gifted pupils can 
 attain a reasonable mastery of this material by the presentation of 180 
 combinations; that is, the 45 principal combinations in each of the four 
 processes. This is not true of the limited pupil. 
 
 7. The content of the course of study for the slow group should stand 
 the test of practicability. A large majority of slow pupils leave school 
 early, not because of economic necessity, but because the traditional cur- 
 riculum does not meet their needs and interests. In order to meet their 
 needs, the work must be of such a character that it will be especially ap- 
 plicable to their every-day life needs. Local course of study committees 
 must be guided by what they know almost certainly lies ahead of certain 
 groups of students. 
 
 8. The content of the course of study for the gifted group must be en- 
 riched, not necessarily by more difficult or more extensive material of the 
 same type, but by a wider and more varied choice. Certain additional 
 material may also be presented, as the beginning of foreign language study, 
 and other work which will provide for initiative, organization, and devel- 
 opment of the many-sided interests of the superior child, for which there 
 is little time in the average class. 
 
 9. The course of study should make provisions for the rate of progress 
 which may be expected in the various ability groups. The gifted child 
 should probably be allowed to complete the elementary course in six years 
 or less; for in addition to enrichment of courses, there is sometimes advan- 
 tage in acceleration in the elementary grades when much of the work is in 
 drill subjects. The normal group should finish the six grades of the ele- 
 mentary school in six years ; and the under-average should be expected 
 to make normal progress as far as possible, within their own group. In 
 each grade the atypical group should be expected to acquire academic 
 knowledge only in so far as their capacities permit, without excessive 
 expenditure of time. 
 
 10. Suggestions as to methods and procedure best adapted to the dif- 
 ferent levels should be included in the course of study. Critical investiga- 
 
The Third Yearbook 21 
 
 tions should be made of our present methods and their relative effectiveness 
 in reaching pupils of varying ability, social background, and environment. 
 
 11. It is generally conceded that the keynote in the education of a child 
 of limited mental ability is the establishment of specific habits. 
 
 12. The differentiated subject-matter for different groups should be 
 elastic in content, so that it can be modified to meet individual needs as 
 well as group needs. For example, children from foreign-speaking homes 
 may have the same mental ability as other children in their group, but they 
 have a different social background, which the teacher must consider in her 
 approach to the subject-matter which she wants her pupils to acquire. 
 
 Individual Instruction and the Curriculum Problem 
 
 The viewpoint is pretty largely accepted that the needs of individual 
 children can be far better met when children are classified on an ability 
 basis determined by such factors as seeming innate mental capacity, teacher's 
 estimate of ability, previous accomplishment, industry, health, and social 
 maturity, than they can in a heterogeneous class. The larger the number 
 of groups, the more nearly homogeneous can each group be made. In 
 every instance, however, there will still be considerable variation between 
 individuals in any one group. Hence, some argue that individual instruc- 
 tion is the only plan whereby the curriculum can really be made to fit all 
 children. 
 
 The Winnetka Plan of Meeting Individual Differences 
 
 Carleton W. Washburne, superintendent of schools of Winnetka, Illi- 
 nois, discusses this point as follows: 
 
 Children differ as individuals, not as artificially formed groups. The 
 children of high intelligence quotient will usually do better work than 
 children of low intelligence quotient ; children who are good in one subject 
 are more likely than not to be good in other subjects; but the exceptions 
 to these rules are numerous in every class or school and the variations 
 within each group of ability are far wider than the variations between the 
 central tendencies of any two ability groups. 
 
 Where children are allowed to advance individually at their own natural 
 rates, as in Winnetka, for example, it has been found that twenty-four per 
 cent of the children who are advanced in reading are only average or actu- 
 ally retarded in arithmetic and that sixteen per cent of the children who 
 are advanced in reading are average or retarded in language. The same 
 sort of thing is true of the children who are advanced in arithmetic or in 
 language, although the percentages of the children average or retarded in 
 the other subjects is somewhat lower in these cases. 
 
 Similarly, twenty-five per cent of children of high intelligence quotient, 
 123 to 166, tend to progress in school at an average rate or a little below 
 average, while forty-nine per cent of children of low intelligence quotient, 
 60 to 100, tend to progress at an average rate or a rate above average. 
 
22 Department of Superintendence 
 
 If children are divided into three ability groups as the result of an intel* 
 ligence test, the high group containing the quarter with the highest intel- 
 ligence quotients, the low group containing the quarter with the lowest 
 intelligence quotients, and the middle group containing the half of the 
 children between the two extremes, it is found in Winnetka, Illinois, that 
 the difference in median progress of the three groups amounts to only 
 about two months' work per year; whereas the range from the poorest 
 child to the best in any one of the groups is from eight to ten times as 
 great. The median child of the gifted or high group saves only about a 
 month a year, while the median child of the low groups loses only about 
 two weeks a year. Yet the slowest child in the gifted group loses two 
 weeks a year, while the fastest one gains seven and one half months — that 
 is, does almost two years' work in a year. The range between the slowest 
 and fastest children in the middle group and low group is even greater 
 than that in the gifted group. The slowest child in the low group, for 
 example, does only a little over one third of a grade's work in a year, while 
 the fastest child in the low group does the work of a grade and one half. 
 Consequently, the organization of the curriculum to fit children should be 
 an organization that permits each child to spend the amount of time he 
 needs to master each phase of that curriculum. 
 
 If the curriculum is to be fitted to the individual children rather than 
 to ability groups, the following general principles may be laid down: 
 
 1. The knowledge and skills which every child must master shall be 
 clearly specified. The knowledge and skills should be those which will be 
 used by every child in his life. They should be determined by scientific 
 investigations of social needs, not by tradition or committee judgment. 
 They will be the common essentials — those facts and skills which are 
 essential to all of us in common. 
 
 2. Opportunities for the mastery of these common essentials should be 
 given to every child. This inevitably means differing amounts of time for 
 differing children. But it also means that all the children get the habit 
 of mastery and that all the children master those things which are essential 
 for all. 
 
 3. Provision shall be made for the valuable and educative use of the 
 varying amounts of surplus time of the more rapid workers. Too often 
 plus assignments are given to such children in an effort to occupy their 
 time. Such assignments are frequently mere padding. It is not necessary 
 that the time a child saves in one subject should be spent in educational 
 work on that same subject. It is often wiser to allow him to progress as 
 rapidly as his ability will permit until he has a large enough unit of saved 
 time to enable him to undertake some worthwhile project in line with his 
 interests or needs. 
 
The Third Yearbook 23 
 
 Time and Content — Two Factors in Differentation to Meet 
 Individual Needs 
 
 The methods of meeting individual needs in children through more 
 homogeneous grouping and through individual instruction accept as the 
 bases of adjustment the modification of time that children of different 
 ability require to complete the course of study together with modification 
 in content. Many would agree that both the factors of time and content 
 should be modified. Limited pupils, even when given more time, do not 
 always grasp the same subject-matter as do gifted children. In curriculum 
 construction, we are faced with the fact that all individuals cannot ulti- 
 mately learn the same things. 
 
 Differentation of Curricula to Fit Community Needs 
 
 The discussion thus far has dealt with education's material — the indi- 
 vidual child. The second general principle of curriculum differentiation 
 has to do with the child's environment. In rural districts the objectives 
 of elementary education are not different from those in the city, but the 
 means of reaching them and materials available differ from those in large 
 centers of population. Some communities are cosmopolitan in their makeup. 
 They contain within their limits all sorts and types of school environ- 
 ments and the superintendent soon finds that a curriculum which would 
 fit one district in his city will not completely fit another district. The 
 ultimate purpose of elementary education is the same everywhere, but the 
 content and method through which it is achieved varies. 
 
 Major principles for community curriculum differentiation — 1. The 
 materials of instruction must be approached in terms of the child's interests 
 and experience. The experiences may be pre-school or contemporary with 
 his school life. Since the environmental conditions surrounding pupils 
 must be made the basis of approach to larger experiences to be developed 
 through the curriculum, local course of study committees, the elementary 
 school principal, and the individual teacher must be responsible for the 
 approach to subject-matter. This approach will be a means to an end, 
 not an end in itself. To illustrate, agriculture and farm life experience 
 may be used as the starting point of elementary rural education ; they need 
 not, and oftentimes should not, be the ultimate goal. 
 
 2. Sheer economy in learning requires that the educational resources 
 of local life be used. For example, museums and art galleries are sources 
 of art lessons for the city child. Autumn coloring of woods, sunsets, and 
 mountains may be the rural art teacher's approach. The elementary sci- 
 ence teacher in the city could profitably have his pupils study gas meters; 
 rural children would probably find the Babcock milk tester of more direct 
 interest. The important educational resources of the community not pre- 
 sented in the curriculum must be organized for instructional purposes so 
 
24 Department of Superintendence 
 
 as to contribute to the education of the child. Here again local course of 
 study committees, the elementary school principal, and the individual 
 teacher must be responsible for the educational use of materials of a local 
 nature not found in the general curriculum. 
 
 3. The details, sequence, and emphasis of subject-matter must frequently 
 vary with community needs. To illustrate, the manual training teacher 
 may discover that pupils in the slum sections of a city will be interested in 
 learning to make household repairs. The child from a wealthy home 
 would probably have no opportunity to use this knowledge if he acquired 
 it. He would be interested, however, in learning to make certain toys 
 which money cannot buy. In the end, both children will have learned the 
 same fundamental principles of manual training and the use of the same 
 tools. The mere going through a process after it has been learned and 
 ceases to have educational value should always be guarded against. 
 
 4. The course of study should not be based on traditions of the past or 
 the customs of a community, although both of these should be taken into 
 consideration in order that they may be evaluated. We need constantly 
 to challenge our educational program if this program is to keep abreast of 
 the progress made in social and economic organization. 
 
 5. A survey should be made of every community before planning its 
 course of study to determine in so far as possible: (a) Physical boundaries 
 and nature of the community; (b) economic interests ,and relations of 
 these interests to social and spiritual values; and (c) social assets and 
 liabilities of the community, including such items as communication, trans- 
 portation, means of play and recreation, intellectual and spiritual leader- 
 ship. 
 
 6. Curricula for both urban and rural communities should be developed 
 with specific reference to the "lacks" or "needs" of urban or rural life in 
 general and to each community in particular. 
 
 7. It is of vital importance that the community know, through parent- 
 teachers' associations, school officials, etc., the reasons underlying the or- 
 ganization of the course of study and its relation to the community. Out 
 of a free and frank discussion of this phase of the problem will come the 
 best suggestions as to: (a) The use of a community as source material for 
 the elementary schools; and (b) the ways in which the elementary schools 
 may better serve the community. 
 
 The public school must seek constantly to interpret itself to the adult 
 community. Unless it does this, its efforts are bound to be hampered. The 
 adult public, not school officials, is the court of final authority. Hence the 
 public must come into possession of the evidence. 
 
 8. Local school systems within states should be given a certain amount of 
 freedom to test new educational theories. 
 
 Progress in education, like progress in social and industrial development, 
 comes largely through the ability of individual units to experiment, dif- 
 ferentiate, and in various ways modify both the method and , the material 
 of their curricula. The contributions of Rochester, Gary, Winnetka, and 
 
The Third Yearbook 25 
 
 countless other schools have come through their opportunity to differentiate 
 more or less established curricula. 
 
 9. The outstanding character of a school doing a valuable piece of indi- 
 vidual differentiation becomes a challenge first to schools in its immediate 
 neighborhood and finally throughout the county, the state, and the nation. 
 The purpose, living within a community, must find its initiative or motive 
 within itself, not from without. A system superimposed may become an 
 attitude, but never assumes sufficient importance to be character. External 
 conformity may not mean inner acceptance. 
 
 The Final Test of Differentiation 
 
 To summarize, although there is a general core of subject-matter which 
 should prevail throughout the nation in all courses of study for the first 
 six grades, each local course of study committee and individual teacher 
 must be responsible for the approach to the subject-matter, for the use and 
 adaptation of the materials of the curriculum for community needs, for 
 organization for instructional purposes of the educational resources of the 
 community not presented in the curriculum, and for introducing material 
 which will meet the needs peculiar to a given community. 
 
 When these differentiations are wisely planned and carried out, com- 
 munity interest and appreciation result from the service which the school 
 renders the community. In turn the public gives better support, both 
 financial and moral, to the work of the public school, so that the school is 
 enabled to render still larger service ; in other words, the initiative of the 
 individual community is aroused. 
 
 To achieve this, we must have in addition to differentiation of curricula 
 to meet the larger community needs, a flexible curriculum in the hands of 
 an administrative and teaching force sensitive to the interests and needs 
 of individual children ; for, after all, the problem of differentiation of 
 courses of study is one of constant adaptation of education to the indi- 
 vidual. 
 
N 
 
PART III 
 Curricular Problems and Their Scientific Solution 
 
 [27] 
 
SUBCOMMITTEES OF THE COMMISSION ON THE CURRICULUM 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Guy M. Wilson (Chairman). Professor of Education, School of Education, Boston 
 University, Boston, Mass. 
 
 John R. Clark, Editor and Business Manager, The Mathematics Teacher, National 
 Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 425 W. 123rd St., New York City. 
 
 F. B. Knight, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 
 
 Garry Cleveland Myers, Cleveland School of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 W. J. Osburn, Supervisor of Educational Measurements, State Department of Edu- 
 cation, Madison, Wis. 
 
 John C. Stone, Montclair State Normal School, Upper Montclair, N. J. 
 
 Clifford Woody, Director, Bureau of Educational Reference and Research, Uni- 
 versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 
 
 Art Education 
 
 Leon L. Winslow (Chairman) Director of Art, Department of Education, Balti- 
 more, Md. 
 
 C. Valentine Kirby, Director of Art, Department of Public Instruction, Harris- 
 burg, Pa. 
 
 Walter H. Klar, Associate Professor of Normal Art, Carnegie Institute of Tech- 
 nology, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Ethelwyn Miller, Teacher Training Department, John Herron Art School, Indian- 
 apolis, Ind. 
 
 C. Edward Newell, Supervisor of Art and Hand Work, Department of Public 
 Schools, Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Wiliam H. Varnum, Associate Professor of Applied Arts, University of Wisconsin, 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
 Jane Betsy Welling, Director of Art Education, Toledo, Ohio. 
 
 Elementary Science 
 
 Eliot R. Downing (Chairman) Associate Professor of Natural Science, School of 
 Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Charles W. Finley, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New 
 York City. 
 
 George W. Hunter, Knox College, Galesburg, 111. 
 
 Edwin E. Slosson, Director of Science Service, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Walter G. Whitman, Editor and Manager, General Science Quarterly, State Nor- 
 mal School, Salem, Mass. 
 
 Health and Physical Education 
 
 Thomas D. Wood (Chairman) Professor of Physical Education, Teachers College, 
 Columbia University, New York City. 
 
 A. L. Beaghler, Director of Health Education, Denver Public Schools, Denver, Colo. 
 
 Walter W. Davis, Seattle Public Schools, Seattle, Wash. 
 
 William H. Geer, Director of Physical Education, Harvard University, Cam- 
 bridge, Mass. 
 
 Frederick W. Maroney, M.D., Department of Health Instruction, Atlantic City, N. J. 
 
 R. C. McLain, Assistant Supervisor of Health Education, Detroit Public Schools, 
 Detroit, Mich. i 
 
 [28] 
 
Home Economics 
 
 Henrietta W. Calvin (Chairman) Director, Division of Home Economics, Board 
 
 of Public Education, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Ellen M. Bartlett, Supervisor of Home Economics, Department of Education, San 
 
 Francisco, Calif. 
 Emma Conley, Supervisor of Homemaking Education, University of the State of 
 
 New York, State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. 
 Ula M. Dow, School of Household Economics, Simmons College, Boston, Mass. 
 Wilhelmina Spohr, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 
 Mabel B. Trilling, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Industrial Arts 
 
 F. G. Bonser (Chairman) Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia 
 University, New York City. 
 
 R. J. Leonard, Director, School of Education, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
 versity, New York City. 
 
 Ella M. Nevell, Supervisor of Industrial Arts, Los Angeles, Calif. 
 
 Clara P. Reynolds, Director, Fine and Industrial Arts, Seattle Public Schools, 
 Seattle, Wash. 
 
 W. E. Roberts, Supervisor of Manual Arts, Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Language and Composition 
 
 W. W. Charters (Chairman) University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 James F. Hosic, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 
 J. W. Searson, Professor of English, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. 
 
 Music 
 
 Jacob Kwalwasser (Chairman), Head of the Department of Public School Music, 
 State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 
 
 C. E. Seashore, Dean, The Graduate College, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Peter W. Dykema, Director, School of Music Education, Teachers College, Colum- 
 bia University, New York City. 
 
 Will Earhart, Supervisor of Music, City Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Max Schoen, Department of Education and Psychology, Carnegie Institute of 
 Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Penmanship 
 
 Frank N. Freeman (Chairman) School of Education, University of Chicago, Chi- 
 cago, 111. 
 Mrs. Theodocia Carpenter, Strong Junior High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. 
 Myrta L. Ely, Supervisor of Penmanship, Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. 
 Harry Houston, Supervisor of Penmanship, Board of Education, New Haven, Conn. 
 Lena A. Shaw, Supervisor of Handwriting, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. 
 Joseph S. Taylor, District Superintendent of Schools, New York City. 
 H. C. Walker, Supervisor of Writing, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Reading 
 
 William S. Gray (Chairman) Dean, School of Education, University of Chicago, 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Ernest Horn, College of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 
 
 Frances Jenkins, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Cincinnati, Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio. 
 
 [29] 
 
S. A. Leonard, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 
 
 W. W. Theisen, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 W. L. Uhl, Department of Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 
 
 Laura Zirbes, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 
 
 Social Studies 
 
 Harold O. Rugg (Chairman) Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
 versity, New York City. 
 
 M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. 
 
 Earle U. Rugg, Head, Division of Education, Colorado State Teachers College, 
 Greeley, Colo. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Ernest Horn (Chairman) College of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa 
 
 City, Iowa. 
 Leonard P. Ayres, Vice President, Cleveland Trust Company, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 B. R. Buckingham, Director, Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State Uni- 
 
 versity, Columbus, Ohio. 
 John M. Foote, Rural School Supervisor, State Department of Education, Baton 
 
 Rouge, La. 
 Helen R. Gumlick, Supervisor, Primary Grades and Kindergarten, Denver Public 
 
 Schools, Denver, Colo. 
 W. F. Tidyman, State College, Fresno, Calif. 
 
 C. W. Washburne, Superintendent of Schools, Winnetka, 111. 
 
 The summer school class at the University of Oregon, conducted by Carleton 
 W. Washburne, helped in collecting and reviewing research studies. Those so 
 assisting were: Florence E. Anderson; Wave Anderson; Edward Anderton ; 
 Edna Biles; LaMoine R. Clark; Cora E. Coleman; Lyndsay L. Eastland; Almeda 
 J. Fuller; E. H. Hedrick; Guy L. Lee; C. L. McFaddin; Delphie M. Taylor; J. K. 
 West; L. Lee Williams; and F. C. Wooton. 
 
 [30] 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 TRADITION and opinion, unsupported by facts, are no longer suf- 
 ficient bases for including any subject or topic in the public school 
 curriculum. The material available for instruction is so vast that 
 no one person can hope to master more than a small portion of it. How 
 is selection to be made? The subjects in the elementary school curriculum 
 are those intended for universal study. They must meet the tests of social 
 usefulness and individual development, achievement, and happiness. Some 
 of the research studies reviewed in this section represent attempts scientif- 
 ically to determine what subject-matter is socially useful in present-day 
 life. Others seek to learn what is of greatest interest to children; for, 
 other things being equal, material should be taught at the moment when 
 the use for it is apparent. Hence, the studies of the interests of children 
 are important to curriculum makers. 
 
 It is generally accepted that the traditional curriculum for each subject 
 in the elementary school must be modified to satisfy specific objectives and 
 definite outcomes formulated in the light of present-day standards. The 
 immediate needs of the child, the future demands of his adult life, and his 
 capacity for education are all determining factors. 
 
 The drill subjects, where the content is definite, have been dealt with 
 more or less completely. For these subjects the minimum essentials in 
 functional content should be tentatively determined soon by research 
 workers. 
 
 In this section of the Yearbook, the outstanding research studies which 
 have been made up to date are reviewed. In some subjects the research 
 work which has been done is fragmentary. This largely explains why 
 certain subjects are treated so much more completely than others, although 
 space allotment in the Yearbook was to some extent a determining factor. 
 It was necessary to limit the number of studies reviewed in those . sub- 
 jects where extensive research has been carried on. 
 
 The methods of attack in these research studies represent a conscientious 
 striving for the scientific solution of curricular problems. The technique 
 of the investigations in some instances is crude. In the absence of absolute 
 measurement, concensus of expert opinion as well as of mass opinion, has 
 been resorted to. Even this procedure, however, gives an approximation 
 which is far superior to the personal opinion of a few individuals. 
 
 The findings of some investigations are incomplete. They should serve 
 as starting points for further work, not as bases for statements of uni- 
 versality of results. These studies are the first forward steps and may be 
 more useful as pointing the way rather than as presenting conclusive 
 results. Perhaps their greatest service will be to show the vastness of the 
 task of bringing the elementary school curriculum up to date and keeping 
 it there and to emphasize the need for research to blaze the way for practice 
 and to check results actually obtained. ; c. 
 
 r 3ii 
 
32 Department of Superintendence 
 
 At the beginning of each chapter are listed problems which confront 
 course-of-study committees in outlining that subject. In so far as possible 
 these questions are answered by a review of scientific studies bearing 
 upon them. The number of unanswered questions, however, shows that 
 at the present time the outstanding need in the field of curriculum construc- 
 tion is the making of hundreds of technical studies. 
 
 This section of the Yearbook pools most of the important existing au- 
 ricular studies. Here is made available much material of high value which 
 hithertofore has been inaccessible because of its technical form and presenta- 
 tion, or because of its fragmentary distribution. The analyses of the studies 
 which follow should have these four advantages : " 
 
 Many mooted curricular questions are answered ; 
 
 Material is collected for a later program of evaluation; 
 
 Information is presented that is at least useful in the form of suggestions ; 
 
 Connecting links are furnished between principles and practice. 
 
 The public school recognizes as its first aim the development of char- 
 acter through fixing right habits of conduct. Such habits are fundamental 
 to moral integrity. Preachments of the moral virtues too often miss their 
 mark. But when a child in real life over a period of years finds himself 
 in a situation in which it is made pleasant to be honest, to cooperate ef- 
 fectively with his neighbors, to reverence things which should be reverenced, 
 progress has been made toward developing his character. 
 
 Research workers and school administrators recognize the importance 
 of character development through the curriculum. Progress in this field 
 has been more rapid during the past year than ever before. 
 
 School systems in revising their courses of study are shaping their whole 
 school programs, so that every subject taught and every school activity 
 engaged in make their proper contribution toward the development of 
 character. 
 
 The reader will probably note the absence of any report of researches in 
 the important subject of character-building. The members of the Commis- 
 sion recognize the paramount importance of this subject, and they are aware 
 of much of the splendid work that is ,being done, both directly and in- 
 directly, by both public and private schools toward character-building. In 
 many cities, notably, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Salt Lake City, Los Angeles, 
 and Chicago, there are well organized courses in use. In other cities, a 
 course in character-building comprises a definite element of the course in 
 civics, or citizenship. In practically all schools of the country, principals 
 and teachers are consciously and definitely seeking opportunities for the 
 development of good moral habits through all studies, and especially 
 through organized play, games, athletics, and through all group activities 
 in which pupils participate. Progress in this field has been more conspic- 
 uous since the war than at any time in the history of our schools. Un- 
 fortunately, we find little that can be classified as scientific research in this 
 field. To quote Professor Edwin D. Starbuck: "There are a' good many 
 
The Third Yearbook 33 
 
 studies that try to be scientific in the matter of character education, but 
 they surely have little right to be dignified by the term, research." The 
 Indiana Survey, by Professor Ahearn, is suggestive of what may be, and 
 needs to be, done in this field. Several studies are under way. Professor 
 May, of Teachers College, and Professor Starbuck are just now engaged 
 in making a bibliography of such studies. 
 
 The members of the Commission would feel remiss in their duty to the 
 children of our schools, if they did not urge all school officials who are en- 
 gaged in revising their courses of study to shape their programs so as to 
 make definite provision for character-building. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 Guy M. Wilson, Professor of Education, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 
 
 Chairman 
 
 A RITHMETIC is not an end in itself. It is a tool. To meet the 
 L\ demands of social utility, three phases of arithmetic need attention : 
 •*■ •*■ (1) The basic experience which is necessary in order to make 
 manipulative work meaningful; (2) the mastery for automatic reproduc- 
 tion of the useful number facts; (3) training in application to life and 
 business situations. 
 
 The curriculum demands for the above program are so simple that 
 there is no reason why it should not yield to complete analysis and scientific 
 determination. Much scientific progress has been made. The problems 
 needing solution may be listed with reasonable completeness ; on some there 
 are much data. 
 
 The following is submitted as a representative statement of the prob- 
 lems on which further scientific evidence is wanted. 
 
 Major Curriculum Problems in Arithmetic 
 
 1. Specifically, what is the purpose of arithmetic; what is its relation 
 to the major objectives of education? 
 
 2. How much emphasis should be placed upon the building up of ex- 
 perience before proceeding with the manipulation of symbols? In other 
 words, this is the problem of building up experience, so that number work 
 shall be meaningful, rich in application, and actually useful instead of 
 being merely formal memory work. 
 
 3. When should formal drill work begin and at what rate should it pro- 
 ceed? In this connection, there is needed a set of criteria and a means of 
 checking, so that drill may not proceed on a meaningless basis. 
 
 4. Is it possible to replace haphazard drill by a scheme of drill that is 
 completely systematized, all inclusive, with the elements ranked on the basis 
 of difficulty? This complete scheme should lend itself as a means for 
 checking or testing the entire range of the child's ability on fundamental 
 drill needs. 
 
 5. What is the proper unit of instruction in arithmetic? 
 
 6. What are the procedures or requirements necessary to place arith- 
 metic on a 100 per cent motivated basis? This is a problem of making 
 arithmetic grow out of pupil experience and real life situations that are 
 thoroughly comprehended by the children. 
 
 7. What is the best plan for eliminating the traditional and useless in 
 arithmetic by a positive procedure that shall carry conviction to teacher, 
 pupil, and patron? 
 
 [35] 
 
36 Department of Superintendence 
 
 8. By what plan or procedure may teachers eliminate merely stock 
 examples in so-called reasoning problems, substituting therefore life situa- 
 tions worth while in themselves? 
 
 9. What are the reasonable limits of general arithmetic or arithmetic 
 needed by the consumer group ; where does vocational arithmetic begin ; 
 and what are the specific needs for arithmetic by the various vocational 
 groups ? 
 
 10. Is it possible to have an elastic set of norms or standards of per- 
 formance that shall include speed, difficulty, and accuracy, and make proper 
 allowance for individual differences? 
 
 11. In usable form, what is the specific psychology involved in learning 
 and remembering in the various phases of arithmetic work — drill, reasoning, 
 and application to life situations? 
 
 12. How much of the failure in lower grade arithmetic may be ac- 
 counted for by low ability in reading, and what adjustments in time 
 schedule are necessary to make sure that reading ability is adequate to carry 
 the necessary work in arithmetic? 
 
 13. How replace the formal textbook procedure by the actual figuring 
 used in business? In other words, what is wanted is a method by which 
 the children may learn of the actual figuring used in business and be con- 
 scious themselves that they are figuring in practically the same form in 
 which it is being done by adults. 
 
 14. How should we profitably use the time usually alloted to arithmetic ? 
 Sixteen and two thirds per cent of all school time for arithmetic, as shown 
 by previous studies, is obviously more than is justified. Shall the extra 
 time be used as a vehicle, or excuse, for approach to other aims in educa- 
 tion: for example, effective home membership through the study of the 
 budget, the civic-economic aim through a study of the cost of strikes, etc., 
 or shall the time devoted to arithmetic be reduced as made possible and 
 desirable by the greater efficiency of present-day teaching and the broader 
 view of present educational objectives? 
 
 The Committee's Plan of Report 
 
 The Committee sought to obtain a review of all important studies, pub- 
 lished or unpublished, and to organize the findings as answers to definite 
 problems. The references in the Judd-Buswell Commonwealth Fund 
 bibliography on arithmetic were divided among the Committee for review, 
 and the entire country was sectioned for the gathering of unpublished 
 studies. Members of the Committee gave such unlimited time and effort, 
 that finally, the chief handicap of the Committee is lack of space assign- 
 ment to include its full report. 
 
 The report takes up successively the following problems: 
 
 I. When should formal arithmetic begin? (Stone). 
 II. What are the socially useful processes? (Woody). 
 III. According to what criteria should drill be organized?, (Knight). 
 
The Third Yearbook 37 
 
 IV. What is the best procedure for building up ability to handle concrete 
 
 or reasoning problems? {Clark). 
 V. What has psychology and experimental education to contribute? 
 {Myers and Osburn). 
 VI. What help from standard tests? {Wilson). 
 
 VII. What is the method of curricular determination in arithmetic? 
 {Wilson). 
 For several reasons these problems will not receive a well-balanced treat- 
 ment. The amount of available data varies, and, due to the manner of 
 apportioning the work, some problems received much more attention than 
 others. The chairman took the liberty of reducing his own work to a 
 mere summary in order to make space for the carefully prepared work 
 of Woody and Knight. 
 
 I. When Should Formal Arithmetic Begin? 
 
 The term "formal arithmetic," as here defined, means formal drill work 
 and a definite attempt to teach for automatic reproduction the number 
 combinations in the fundamental processes, such as simple fractions. Since 
 the purpose of drill is to fix by repetition something previously compre- 
 hended, it is evident that drill should follow, not precede adequate ex- 
 perience and understanding. Moreover, there should be on the part of 
 the child before he begins formal repetition a real feeling of need and 
 clear vision of use and application — in short, there should be complete 
 motivation. The psychology of interest is so well established by scientific 
 evidence that this statement should go unchallenged. 
 
 Obviously, there is a tremendous opportunity for individual differences 
 in the date of beginning formal drill. Dr. Washburne at Winnetka, Illi- 
 nois, and Miss Ringer at Longbranch, Washington, have shown how to 
 adapt a drill technique to differences in interest and capacity. There are 
 a few other considerations involved. The relation of reading is evidently 
 one consideration. The total profit resulting from work in a lower grade 
 is another consideration. Scientific evidence is meager. Three studies 
 which have a bearing follow : 
 
 STUDY NO. I. Taylor, Joseph S. "Omitting arithmetic in the first 
 year," Educational Administration and Supervision. February, 1916. 
 pp. 87-93. 
 
 This is an experiment conducted in Public School No. 16, the Bronx, 
 New York City during 1913 to 1915. During the first of these two years, 
 half the entering children in the school did no work in arithmetic except 
 counting. The extra time was devoted to reading. At the close of the 
 second year of the experiment, children who had had two years of formal 
 number work and those who had had but one year — the children being 
 otherwise equivalent — were compared by the use of standard tests. A 
 summary of the results follows: 
 
38 Department of Superintendence 
 
 2A Tests Oral Written 
 
 Classes with arithmetic in first year 81.0 72.6 
 
 Classes omitting arithmetic in first year 87.1 89.4 
 
 2B Tests 
 
 Classes with arithmetic in first year 87.2 69.5 
 
 Classes omitting arithmetic in first year 90.7 61.0 
 
 From this summary it is evident that the classes which omitted formal 
 number work during the first year of school and gave the extra time to 
 reading were, all told, at an advantage by- the close of the second year. 
 The quality and quantity of reading greatly improved, while the number 
 work showed improvement — that is, in the 2A tests the children omitting 
 number work in the first year were superior in both oral and written 
 work, while in the 2B tests they were superior in the oral and inferior 
 in the written. The totals, therefore, appear to favor omitting formal 
 number work from the first year and giving the time to reading. This 
 is the interpretation placed upon the results by Taylor, the author. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Hackler, John Monroe. The relation between suc- 
 cessful progress in mathematics and the ability to read and understand, and 
 the factors that contribute to success or failure in mathematics. An un- 
 published master's thesis in the library of the University of Chicago, Chi- 
 cago, 111. September, 1921. 
 
 Problem. The main problem, as stated in the title, is to ascertain 
 whether ability in mathematics depends on ability to read, at least to a 
 certain extent. Apparently, comprehension-ability in silent reading is the 
 thing in the author's mind, since silent reading tests were used. 
 
 Method. Tests were given in silent reading and intelligence, and 
 teachers' estimates were obtained in mathematics and other subjects and 
 correlated with each other. The experiment was conducted with 40 
 students in the preparatory department first-year class in mathematics in 
 the Northeastern State Normal School, Tahlequah, Oklahoma, and with 
 the pupils of Grades III to VIII inclusive, of the Tahlequah city schools. 
 The class in the preparatory department corresponds roughly to a first- 
 year high-school class, but is far more heterogeneous, containing a wide 
 range of ages, and for this reason the correlation studies of this group 
 are supplemented by an individual analysis. 
 
 Conclusions and Results. The results of this investigation have not 
 confirmed the original hypothesis to the extent expected. It has failed 
 to show that ability to succeed in mathematics depends to any great extent 
 upon reading ability. Results with the preparatory school class showed 
 correlations of — (— .36 between the Kansas Silent Reading Test and teach- 
 ers' estimates of ability in first-year mathematics by the "listed pairs" 
 method, and -(-.60 by the Ranks' method. In the city schools positive 
 correlations of from .22 to .70 were obtained between reading tests and 
 teachers' estimates in arithmetic. 
 
The Third Yearbook 39 
 
 The author states, "Personal investigations and analysis of individual 
 cases lead to the belief that reading ability is a factor in successful work 
 in mathematics." 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. The effect of a years drive on motivated reading in 
 arithmetic for mixed drill tests. Unpublished study, University of Iowa, 
 reported by F. B. Knight. 
 
 Data: 111 pupils in grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Public Schools, Rad- 
 cliff, Iowa. 
 
 Tests used: Arithmetic computation phase of Stanford Achievement 
 Test. 
 
 Time of testing: First test, September 15, 1923; Second test, May 15, 
 1924. 
 
 Results: I. Whole group of 111 pupils: 
 
 A. Beginning status 
 
 1. Average actual arithmetic, com- 
 
 prehension age 138.5 months 
 
 2. Average theoretical arithmetic, 
 
 comprehension age 144.6 months 
 
 3. Average loss in arithmetic com- 
 
 prehension age due to faulty 
 
 reading 6.1 months 
 
 B. Status after one year of motivated 
 
 drive on reading 
 
 1. Average actual arithmetic com- 
 
 prehension age 165.3 months 
 
 2. Average theoretical arithmetic 
 
 comprehension age 166.0 months 
 
 3. Average loss in arithmetic com- 
 
 prehension age due to faulty 
 
 reading .7 month 
 
 C. Gain in arithmetic comprehension age 
 
 due to improvement in ability to 
 
 resist influence of isolated drill 5.4 months 
 
 II. Group of 67 pupils who made errors due to 
 reading : 
 
 A. Average loss in arithmetic comprehen- 
 
 sion age due to faulty reading. First 
 
 test 10.0 months 
 
 B. Average loss in arithmetic comprehen- 
 
 sion age due to faulty reading after 
 year's drive 1.0 month 
 
 • C. Gain in arithmetic comprehension age 
 
 due to improvement in reading 9.1 months 
 
40 Department of Superintendence 
 
 , % 
 
 III. Gains during year in arithmetic comprehen- 
 
 sion age as result of year's drive on moti- 
 vated reading of arithmetic: 
 
 A. Average gain of 67 faulty readers 29.7 months 
 
 B. Average gain of 44 good readers. 21.2 months 
 
 C. Excess gain in arithmetic comprehen- 
 
 sion age of faulty readers over good 
 
 readers 8.5 months 
 
 IV. Summaries: 
 
 . A. Gain in arithmetic comprehension age 
 of faulty readers due to improve- 
 ment in reading 9.1 months 
 B. Excess gain in arithmetic comprehen- 
 sion age of faulty readers over good 
 readers 8.5 months 
 V. Conclusion : 
 
 The excess gain made in arithmetic comprehension age 
 made by the original faulty readers over the original good 
 readers was in the main due to their improvement in the 
 specific type of reading needed in offsetting the influence 
 of isolated drill — namely, ability to follow directions call- 
 ing for several processes in mixed order. 
 
 Conclusion. The above studies and data are obviously inconclusive. 
 They do, however, -point to the desirability of more careful attention to 
 reading and the entire omission of formal number work from the first grade. 
 These conclusions are supported by much unscientific evidence from various 
 parts of the country, some of which may be briefly recounted. 
 
 Professor Stone reports that the demonstration and practice school in 
 the State Normal College of Ypsilanti, Michigan, 1902-1911 began formal 
 number work in the third grade, except counting and simple addition and 
 subtraction, facts that arose in regular school activities. The public schools 
 of that city began number work in the first year. Pupils entering the 
 training school from the city schools in the fourth year showed a little 
 advantage in written work at the beginning of the year, but by the end 
 of the second semester there was no difference between those who had had 
 number work for three and one half years and those who had had num- 
 ber work for only one and one half years. 
 
 Dr. H. L. Smith in the Bloomington (Illinois) Survey shows that chil- 
 dren who had had no formal number work in grades one and two were 
 not handicapped by the end of the third year in competition with children 
 who had had number work regularly during the first and second year. 
 
 II. What are the Socially Useful Processes? 
 
 McMurry, as long ago as 1904, with keen insight, called the attention 
 of superintendents to the fact that many processes taught in arithmetic had 
 
The Third Yearbook 41 
 
 little or no social value. His opinion was supported again and again, but 
 then as now mere opinion carried less weight than scientific evidence. 
 Fortunately, a method has been discovered for gathering such scientific 
 data. The actual analysis of usage has become the basis for inclusion of 
 processes found useful, or the exclusion of processes not used. 
 
 Mrs. Gallaway's study deals with the needs of freshmen college girls 
 who take a course in clothing. Obviously, with the basic arithmetic taught 
 and with the evident need at hand, college women will master additional 
 arithmetic as needed. The same statement applies to the study of Williams 
 dealing with the mathematics needed in freshman chemistry. If chemistry 
 calls for more arithmetic, then is the time to teach it. 
 
 The other studies divide themselves sharply into two classes, according 
 to viewpoint. Adams and Mitchell are dealing chiefly with ability to read 
 numbers and understand them in general and not with manipulative ability; 
 on the other hand, the studies by Charters, Hanus, Wilson, Wise, and 
 Woody deal with manipulative skills demanded of adults. It should be 
 noted that these two viewpoints show radically different results. 
 
 For a century or more after the founding of Yale University, it was 
 possible for students to enter without knowing the multiplication table, 
 yet there is little doubt that the general reading ability called for in the 
 Adams study was met. Doubtless also the multiplication table was 
 learned, but the point is that there is no established and verified relationship 
 between the general understanding required for reading ability and the 
 automatic response required for calculating. The findings from these 
 studies point strongly to the following conclusions : ( 1 ) That experience 
 must in all cases precede formal work in calculating; (2) that manipulative 
 or calculating skill required is relatively small and not a matter of momen- 
 tary occurrence to even the busiest of adults; and (3) many processes long 
 retained in the textbooks in arithmetic have practically zero value. 
 
 It is safe to say that most superintendents of schools today would agree 
 to the complete elimination of the following processes: 
 
 Compound numbers, addition, subtrac- Proportion. 
 
 tion, multiplication, division. Ratio beyond the ability of fractions to 
 
 Greatest common divisor and least com- satisfy. 
 
 mon multiple beyond the power of Partnership with time. 
 
 inspection. Longitude and time. 
 
 Long confusing problems in common Exchange, domestic and foreign. 
 
 fractions. Apothecaries' weight. 
 
 Complex and compound fractions. Troy weight. 
 
 Reductions of denominate numbers. Table of folding paper, surveyor's table, 
 
 Cases two and three in percentage. table of foreign money. 
 
 Annual interest. Much of mensuration — trapezoid, trape- 
 
 Compound interest, except savings. zium, polygons, frustrums, spheres. 
 
 Partial payments. Cube root. 
 
 True discount. , The metric system. 
 
42 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The curriculum in arithmetic should make no provision for formal drill 
 on the above processes. This does not preclude some "informational" 
 attention to them, or some special attention whenever one of them is in- 
 volved in a "life situation" studied in detail by the pupils. 
 
 A summary by Woody of the scientific evidence follows in order of ap- 
 pearance : 
 
 1. Computational uses of arithmetic — The findings on the computa- 
 tional uses of arithmetic are so different from those on informational or 
 general reading usage that it seems wise to separate the studies. The com- 
 putational uses are much simpler, and according to Woody (Study No. 
 14), they are being further reduced by the uses of commercial calculating 
 machines. By separating the studies into these two divisions they show 
 great consistency as to conclusions. 
 
 STUDY NO. 4.* Wilson, Guy M. Connersville course in math 
 ematics. 1911; republished by Warwick and York, 1922. Baltimore, 
 Maryland. 
 
 Problem. To get the sentiment and goodwill of the business men of 
 Connersville in the construction of the course of study in arithmetic in 
 the public schools of that city. 
 
 Method. The following questionnaire was submitted to the business 
 men for consideration: 
 
 (1) At present the school time in the grades is divided approximately 
 as follows: Reading, 26 per cent; arithmetic, 16 per cent; language, 12 
 per cent ; history, 1 1 per cent ; geography, 8 per cent ; spelling, 7 per cent ; 
 music, 6 per cent; drawing, 6 per cent; writing, 4 per cent; physiology, 
 4 per cent. Does this appeal to you as a proper division of school time in 
 the grades? 
 
 (2) Stated differently, English receives 49.2 per cent of the school time 
 in the grades; the three R's receive 65.24 per cent; the fundamentals (the 
 three R's plus geography and history) receive 86.09 per cent; the special 
 subjects (physiology, music, and drawing) 13.91 per cent. Does your ex- 
 perience suggest any change of emphasis? 
 
 (3) Following are some topics we, as boys, studied in arithmetic in the 
 grades. Check ( V ) the topics for which you have had considerable use 
 during the past six months. Cross (X). the topics for which you have 
 had little or no use during the six months : 
 
 Troy weight Foreign exchange 
 
 Longitude and time Compound proportion 
 
 The surveyor's table True discount 
 
 The greatest common divisor Cases 2 and 3 in percentage 
 
 The least common multiple Compound interest 
 
 Complex fractions Partial payments 
 
 Cube root Partnership 
 Compound fractions 
 
 The studies are numbered consecutively throughout the chapter for convenience in reference. 
 
The Third Yearbook 43 
 
 May some of these topics be omitted from our arithmetic work without 
 material loss? Which ones? 
 
 (4) Following are some topics we did not study in arithmetic as boys: 
 Saving and loaning money Keeping simple accounts 
 Mortgages Investing money 
 
 Modern banking methods Bonds as investments 
 
 Building and loan associations 
 
 Real estate as investments (cheap rentals, good residence property, 
 
 business blocks, farm lands as investments) 
 Marks of a good investment (It is estimated that the get-rich-quick 
 
 concerns fleece the American people out of $60,000,000 a year) 
 Taxes, levies, public expenditures 
 Profits in different lines of business 
 Check (V) an Y of the above that appeal to you as worthy of a place 
 in present-day arithmetic work. 
 
 (5) Connersville is developing important industrial and commercial 
 interests. To what extent should those interests have an influence in shap- 
 ing a course of study for our schools, especially in arithmetic? 
 
 (6) Suggest some feasible plan of bringing the schools into closer rela- 
 tions with the industrial, commercial, and business interests of our com- 
 munity. Give some figures and problems from your own business. 
 
 Findings. 1. On questions (1) and (2) few suggestions were made. 
 Of these, most recommended reducing the time given to drawing and 
 increasing the time given to writing and spelling. 
 
 2. On question (3) the business men reported which topics had been 
 little used and suggested that they be eliminated from the course of study, 
 There was meager support for cube root, compound proportion, cases in 
 percentage, and the surveyor's table, and the majority favored eliminating 
 these and putting the time on the fundamentals. 
 
 3. On question (4) all agreed that every topic should be included in the 
 course of study. 
 
 4. On question (5) all agreed that the schools and the course of study 
 should take into consideration the industrial and commercial interests of the 
 community. 
 
 5. On question (6) nothing of consequence was submitted. 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. Jessup, W. A. and Coffman, L. D. The supervision 
 of arithmetic, Chapters I and II. New York, Macmillan, 1916. pp. 1-38. 
 
 Problem. To determine the attitude of city and county superintendents 
 toward the elimination of certain questionable subject-matter and the intro- 
 duction of certain other new subject-matter. 
 
 Method. The following letter was sent to all superintendents of schools 
 in cities of 4000 population or over, and to every sixth county superin- 
 tendent in the United States : 
 
44 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Underscore once the subjects which should receive slight attention ; 
 underscore twice the subjects which should be eliminated. 
 
 Apothecaries' weight, troy weight, furlong, rod in square measure, 
 drachm, quarter in avoirdupois weight, surveyor's tables, foreign money, 
 folding papers, reduction of more than two steps, long method of finding 
 greatest common divisor, lowest common multiple, true discount, cube 
 root, partnership, compound proportion, compound and complex fractions, 
 cases in percentage, annual interest, longitude and time, unreal fractions, 
 alligation, metric system, progression, and "aliquot parts. 
 
 Others 
 
 Underscore subjects which should receive more attention than is usually 
 given : 
 
 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, percentage, 
 interest saving and loaning money, banking, borrowing, building and loan 
 associations, investments, stocks and bonds, taxes, levies, public expendi- 
 tures, insurance as protection and investment, profits in business, and 
 public utilities. 
 
 Findings. 1. Replies were received from 52 per cent of the superin- 
 tendents of the city schools, and from 24 per cent of the superintendents of 
 the county schools. 
 
 2. There was a majority of those reporting in favor of increasing the 
 emphasis on the four fundamental operations, and upon phases of arithmetic 
 involving savings and loaning of money, taxation, public expenditures, 
 fractions, insurance, and percentage. 
 
 3. Between 10 and 50 per cent of those reporting favored increased 
 emphasis on stocks and bonds, levies, banking, interest, building and loan 
 associations, and profits. 
 
 4. Over half of the superintendents reporting favored eliminating: 
 apothecaries' weight, rod in square measure, drachm, quarter in avoirdupois 
 weight, compound proportion, unreal fractions, alligation, and progression. 
 
 5. From 8 to 50 per cent of all the replies favored elimination of all 
 other topics included in the second half of the questionnaire. 
 
 STUDY NO. 6. Chase, Sara E. "Waste in arithmetic." Teachers 
 College Record, Volume 18, No. 4, September, 1917. New York, Bureau 
 of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1917. pp. 350- 
 371. 
 
 Problem. 1. To determine waste through the measurement of the per- 
 manent effects resulting from the teaching of mensuration and through 
 ascertaining the extent to which various terms and operations involved in 
 mensuration were used in life outside of school. 
 
 2. To determine the waste due to the pupil's unfamiliarity with the 
 language and conditions of given problems. 
 
 Part I. Method. Test I. Sheets of paper, upon which were drawn 
 a square, a rectangle, a rhomboid, a triangle, and a circle, were given with 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 45 
 
 a ruler to the following groups of students who were told to determine the 
 exact area of each figure : 
 
 Group I. One hundred and twenty-three pupils in Grades IX to XII. 
 
 Group II. Thirty-eight pupils in Grade IX who had just spent three 
 months in mensuration. 
 
 Group III. Thirty pupils in Grade XI in a technical high school three 
 months after they had completed mensuration in connection 
 with plane geometry. 
 
 Group IV. Fifteen adult students at Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 Findings. 
 In Group I 
 
 Forty-four per cent could not find any of the areas. 
 Ninety-three per cent failed on the rhomboid. 
 Fifty-five per cent failed on the square. 
 
 In Group II > 
 
 Twenty-four per cent could not find any of the areas. 
 
 Ninety-three per cent failed on the rhomboid. 
 
 Thirty-two per cent failed on the square. 
 Even in Group IV there was considerable failure. 
 
 Test II. As another test, the following lists of areas and volumes (1) 
 area of square, rectangle, triangle, circle, and rhomboid; (2) entire surface 
 of a cube, prism, pyramid, cylinder; (3) volume of a cube, prism, cylinder, 
 were given to the following groups of people: (a) Pupils in school, (b) 
 teachers of drawing, sewing, and manual training, (c) one hundred forty 
 men and women engaged in various occupations. These different groups 
 were asked to cross out all items in the given list which they had not used 
 in their life out of school. 
 
 Findings. Seventy-eight per cent of all the pupils crossed off every- 
 thing. Teachers of manual training said that board measure was needed 
 to compute cost, but no other areas were needed in this work. Teachers of 
 other subjects answered that neither areas nor volumes were needed for 
 their work. Of the workers, 68 per cent of the women and 30 per cent of 
 the men crossed off everything. 
 
 TABLE i.— PERCENTAGE OF MEN AND WOMEN USING DIFFERENT 
 ITEMS IN ARITHMETIC 
 
 Area of 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Entire surface 
 of 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Volume of 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 
 66% 
 
 61 
 42 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 26 
 
 8 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Cube 
 
 Prism 
 
 Pyramid 
 
 Cylinder 
 
 38 
 20 
 9 • 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Cube 
 
 Prism 
 
 Cylinder 
 
 Square root of 
 number. 
 
 39 
 
 18 
 36 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 
 Rectangle 
 
 Triangle 
 
 Circle 
 
 Rhomboid 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
46 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Part II. Method. Vocabulary tests, patterned -after the Thorndike 
 Vocabulary Tests were made from words in textbooks in arithmetic and 
 given to pupils in appropriate grades. 
 
 Findings. Results show a woeful lack of knowledge of the vocabulary 
 used in the written problems of arithmetic. Below is a list of words and 
 the percentage of pupils in each grade failing to use each word in a sentence 
 to illustrate its meaning: 
 
 Percentage of pupils in 
 
 
 Grade 
 
 III 
 
 Grade IV 
 
 G 
 
 rade V 
 
 
 80 
 40 
 90 
 
 40 
 20 
 60 
 95 
 
 
 24 
 
 The grocer 
 
 20 
 
 
 o 
 
 The contractor 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 Children in the city do not know what is meant by "bin, head of cattle, 
 loading grain, etc." The article makes a plea for the use of concrete situa- 
 tions true to life and within the child's experience. 
 
 STUDY NO. 7. Hanus, Paul H, and Gaylord, Harry D. "Courtis 
 arithmetic tests applied to employees in business houses." Journal of Edu- 
 cational Administration and Supervision, Volume 3, No. 9, November, 
 
 1917. pp. 505-520. 
 
 Problem. To find out how the results achieved on the Courtis Research 
 Test, Series B, by 446 employees of one of the largest trust companies and 
 one of the largest department stores in Boston compared with those achieved 
 by the pupils in Grade VIII in the Boston public schools. 
 
 Method. The Courtis tests were given to the employees in groups of 
 approximately 35 individuals and the results obtained compared with the 
 achievements in Grade VIII in the Boston public schools. 
 
 Findings. 1. In addition, the median number of problems solved by 
 the employees was 22.87 per cent; the median accuracy, 88.6 per cent. By 
 the pupils in Grade VIII, the median number of problems correctly solved 
 was 12.9 per cent; the median accuracy, 77 per cent. Many of the em- 
 ployees finished the test before the end of eight minutes. 
 
 2. In subtraction, the median number of exercises solved by the employees 
 was 19.3 per cent with a median accuracy of 85.3 per cent correct; by the 
 pupils in Grade VIII, 12.9 per cent exercises correct with an accuracy of 
 90 per cent. It is interesting to note that the pupils in Grade VIII were 
 approximately five per cent more accurate than the employees. 
 
 3. In multiplication, the median number of exercises solved by the 
 employees was 13.8 per cent with a median accuracy of 64.8 per cent; the 
 median number of exercises correctly solved by the pupils was 11.8 per 
 cent with a median accuracy of 82 per cent. Note that the 'pupils solved 
 almost as many problems and were much more accurate. 
 
The Third Yearbook 47 
 
 4. In division, the median number of exercises solved by the employees 
 was 11.1 per cent with an accuracy of 84.8 per cent; the median number 
 of exercises by the pupils, 12.2 per cent correct with a median accuracy of 
 94 per cent. Note that the pupils worked more problems and were more 
 accurate. 
 
 5. Analysis of the results showed that the accountants in the department 
 store made much higher scores than the salesgirls, and that bookkeepers in 
 the bank made higher scores than those in the listing department. It is 
 possible that the former groups were more highly selected, but the fact that 
 their speed in addition was much greater in proportion than that in other 
 operations suggests that the greatest efficiency results from greater practice 
 rather than selection of higher initial ability. Relatively greater practice 
 in multiplication and division on the part of the school children of Boston 
 accounts for their higher percentage of accuracy. 
 
 STUDY NO. 8. Wilson, G. M. "A survey of the social and business 
 use of arithmetic." A preliminary study. 16th Yearbook, Part I. Na- 
 tional Society for the Study of Education. 1919. Wilson, G. M. "The 
 social and business uses of arithmetic." Teachers College Contributions, 
 No. 100. New York, Teachers College, Columbia Univ. pp. 1-62. 
 
 Problem. To determine the nature of the arithmetic used by adults in 
 their social and business relations. 
 
 Method. Study based upon the analysis of 14,583 problems contributed 
 by 4068 different persons representing 155 different occupations. These 
 problems were collected through the cooperation of superintendents and 
 teachers in the public schools of the east and the middle-west, who asked 
 the children in Grades VI, VII, and VIII to get from their parents, each 
 night for a period of two weeks, a statement of the uses which they had 
 made of arithmetic during the day. The statements of the problems 
 encountered, thus collected, provided the data upon which this study was 
 based. The author contended that the data were extensive and varied 
 enough to be representative of adult social and business life. 
 
 Findings. 1. Eighty-five per cent of all problems involved the use of 
 money in either the buying or selling of goods. Labor and wages, interest, 
 rent, and insurance covered two thirds of the problems involving money, 
 but not involving buying or selling. Problems not involving money 
 involved hours of labor, measurement of capacity of bins, cisterns, cribs, 
 tanks, estimates of building materials, etc. 
 
 2. Of all the problems involving buying and selling, 45.9 per cent related 
 to food; 17.9 per cent to clothing. For all occupations the ten topics 
 involved the greatest number of times in the different problems were: 
 groceries, dry goods, labor, milk, making change, meat, eggs, clothing, 
 butter, and fuel. 
 
 3. Multiplication, addition, subtraction, division, and fractions reported 
 constituted 90.6 per cent of all the problems. Little use was made of pro- 
 
48 Department of Superintendence 
 
 portion, decimals, apothecaries' weight, square root, partial payments, and 
 troy weight. When these topics were involved the problems were too 
 complicated for the elementary grades. 
 
 4. In the problems involving addition only two and one half per cent of 
 the problems had more than four places in the largest addend. Almost all 
 of the multiplication problems had either one or two place numbers in the 
 multiplier. In division 39.6 per cent of all the problems had one number 
 in the divisor; 43.4 per cent had two-place numbers in the divisor. 
 
 5. The most commonly used fractions had denominators of halves, thirds, 
 fourths, fifths, and eighths. 
 
 6. The following processes did not appear in the adult figuring reported : 
 greatest common divisor, least common multiple, long confusing problems 
 in common fractions, complex and compound fractions, reduction in 
 denominate numbers, tables of folding paper, surveyor's measure, foreign 
 money, compound numbers, longitude and time, compound interest, annual 
 interest,, exchange, true discount, partnership with time, ratio, mensuration 
 involving trapezoids, trapeziums, polygons, frustrums, spheres, cube roots, 
 or the metric system. 
 
 STUDY NO. 9. Mitchell, H. Edwin. "Some social demands on th< 
 course of study in arithmetic." Seventeenth Yearbook of the National 
 Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, 111., Public 
 School Pub. Co, 1918. pp. 7-17. 
 
 Problem. To determine the relative importance of the various content 
 elements of the course of study in arithmetic through ascertaining the 
 frequency of their occurrence and the manner of their use. 
 
 Method. Study based upon the arithmetic appearing in a standard cook 
 book, in the payrolls of a number of artificial flower and feather factories, 
 in marked-down sales advertisements, and in a general hardware catalogue. 
 
 Findings. 
 
 Study I — From the cook book : 
 
 ( 1 ) The numbers occurring were very small regardless of 
 whether they were integers or mixed numbers. 
 
 (2) The most commonly occurring fractions had denomi- 
 nators of 2, 3, 4, and 8. 
 
 Study II — From the factory payrolls: . . 
 
 (1) The word "dozen"- and fractional parts of twelve were 
 used very much. The commodities were made and sold 
 by the dozen. 
 
 (2) To compute earnings the arithmetical processes in- 
 volved: addition of all possible fractions with 12 as a 
 dozens ; of decimals in terms of dollars and cents ; 
 cation by a fractional, integral, or mixed number of 
 denominator to integers and mixed numbers; multipli- 
 addition of United States money. 
 
The Third Yearbook 49 
 
 (3) The fractions emphasized were twelfths, fourths, 
 thirds, and sixths. 
 Study III — From marked-down sales advertisements: 
 
 (1) Discount notes with the exception of halves and thirds 
 were expressed in percentages. 
 
 (2) The most common practices were to use 10 per cent, 
 20 per cent, 25 per cent, one third, and one half off. 
 
 Study IV — From the general hardware catalogue: 
 
 (1) Many articles were sold by the dozen, thus necessitat- 
 ing ability to calculate using fractions and mixed num- 
 bers involving 12 as the denominator of the fraction. 
 
 (2) Fractions with denominators of 16, 32, and 64 were 
 used. Many of these fractions were merely descriptive, 
 although the dealer had to read and understand them. 
 
 (3) Quantities tabulated under avoirdupois weight were 
 descriptive of the weights of articles, but addition of 
 weights was necessary in determining freight rates. 
 
 (4) The terms used frequently were: inches, feet, yards, 
 ounces, pounds, dozen, gross, quarts. 
 
 (5) The units often used in selling were: per each article, 
 per dozen, per gross, per hundred, per pound, per foot, 
 per hundred feet, per square foot, per hundred square 
 feet. 
 
 STUDY NO. io. Wise, Carl T. "Survey of arithmetical problems 
 arising in various occupations." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20. 
 October, 1919. pp. 118-136. 
 
 Problem. To test over a more varied area, the Wilson Survey method 
 of determining the social needs for the arithmetical processes. 
 
 Method. The problems of adults, 7345 in number, were gathered from 
 the States of Texas, Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, California, and Missouri. 
 The classification used showed the processes and their difficulty. 
 
 Findings. 1. Differences in the classifications of problems from the city 
 and rural districts and also differences in the classifications of problems from 
 different parts of the country were negligible. 
 
 2. Eighty-five per cent of all problems classified involved only the four 
 fundamental operations, or combination of fundamental operations. 
 
 3. The fractions commonly used were 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 1/4, 3/4, 1/5, and 
 1/8. These constituted 93.9 per cent of all fractions which occurred. 
 
 4. Problems involving common weights and measures occurred very 
 frequently. 
 
 5. There were very few problems in compound interest, compound 
 proportion, insurance, plastering, painting, masonry, and bank discount. 
 
50 Department of Superintendence 
 
 6. No problems were received involving taxes, investments, stocks and 
 bonds, equation of payments, foreign exchange, apothecaries' weight, alliga- 
 tion, annual interest, compound and complex fractions, folding paper, troy 
 weight, or the metric system. 
 
 STUDY NO. ii. Noon, -Philo.G. "The child's use of numbers." 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 10, November, 1919. pp. 
 462-467. 
 
 Problem. 1. What arithmetical knowledge and power should be ac- 
 quired by a child at the end of Grade VI. 
 
 2. What should be the content of the arithmetic course in Grades IV, 
 V, and VI ? 
 
 Method. The author went to 12 classes of Grades IV, V, and VI, and 
 two immature classes of Grade VII in a choice residential section of Boston 
 and asked the children to tell what numbers they make use of or notice 
 outside of school. Items reported were accredited to the lowest grade 
 mentioned. 
 
 Summary: 
 
 A. Games: (1) Calling or reading numbers : (a) Football signals; (b) 
 spots on dice; (c) spots on dominoes; (d) number on sled to indicate size; 
 (2) Counting marbles, children in games, tops, stripes, etc. 
 
 B. Going to store: (1) Knowledge of quantity (pound), (2) number 
 of articles, (3) finding cost, and (4) counting change. 
 
 C. Other instances of reading numbers: (1) Telephone numbers, (2) 
 automobile numbers, (3) policeman numbers, (4) numbers on fire engine, 
 (5) numbers on police engine, (6) dates on almanac. 
 
 D. Other instances of counting: (1) Money belonging to child, (2) 
 postage stamps, (3) steps in dancing, (4) number of Christmas presents. 
 
 Conclusion. Reading of numbers and counting include nearly every 
 item recorded above. Below Grade VII there is no felt need for problems 
 in arithmetic. These emphasize mechanical work up to the sixth grade. 
 Then is the time for applied arithmetic. Before Grade VI, emphasize the 
 four processes (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division), common 
 fractions, and decimals. 
 
 STUDY NO. 12. Woody, Clifford. "Types of arithmetic needed in 
 certain types of salesmanship." Elementary School Journal, Volume 22, 
 No. 7, March, 1922. pp. 505-521. 
 
 Problem. The investigation was undertaken to gain a reliable index of 
 arithmetic needed by the clerk in selling goods and by the consuming public 
 in purchasing goods. 
 
 Method. The study consists of an analysis of 4661 bills of sale, represent- 
 ing a total value of $41,560.67 obtained from three large stores in Seattle, 
 a wholesale and retail hardware, a wholesale and retail grocery, and a 
 
The Third Yearbook 51 
 
 large department store. In this study a problem was defined as any situa- 
 tion demanding calculation. Oftentimes one situation demanding more 
 than one set of calculations was listed as more than one problem. As the 
 author collected data, he interviewed managers concerning needs for 
 arithmetic and concerning the arithmetic used. 
 
 Findings. 1. Nine hundred forty-five of the 4661 bills of sale required 
 no computation other than in the payment of bills. (This was true with 
 regard to the vast majority of the business conducted in one of the firms, 
 as bills of sale were made only in case the purchases were to be delivered.) 
 
 2. There was no use of decimals save in connection with United States 
 money. This was to be expected since calculations involved only buying 
 and selling. 
 
 3. Of the problems in addition encountered none had more than five 
 places in any addend, and few had more than six addends. The most com- 
 mon type of problem in addition consisted of adding two three-place 
 numbers. 
 
 4. Few problems in subtraction, other than making change, were en- 
 countered. In the grocery only one of the 206 bills of sale involved any 
 subtraction, other than making change. When subtraction was involved, 
 usually the problems had but three or four numbers in the minuend. 
 
 5. In multiplication, the vast majority of the problems had but two or 
 three-place numbers in the multiplicand and one or two-place numbers in 
 the multiplier. 
 
 6. By far, the most common problems in division had two or three-place 
 numbers in either the dividend or the divisor. Division as a process was 
 used less than addition or multiplication. 
 
 7. The most commonly used fractions had denominators of 2, 4, 6, and 
 12, although 3, 5, 9, 10, 16, 24, and 144 were used to some extent. The 
 most common unit of sale determined very largely the fractions used. 
 Dozen or gross were often employed and thus the fractions with denomi- 
 nators of 12 and 144 were used. Such fractions were rarely reduced to 
 lowest terms. There was much multiplication of a two, three or four- 
 place number by a simple fraction, or by a mixed number having one, two, 
 or three places and a fraction. There was little use of addition, subtraction 
 and division of fractions. 
 
 8. Denominate numbers were encountered as units of sale, but no reduc- 
 tion into larger or smaller units took place. 
 
 9. Discount was widely used, especially in the hardware store. The 
 most common rates of discount were 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, and 50 per 
 cent. Inquiry revealed that discount tables were used and that little calcula- 
 tion was employed. 
 
 10. Interviews with the managers of these stores to supplement the 
 analysis of the bills of sale revealed the following significant points: (a) 
 The goods were marked in terms of the decimal system to make calculations 
 easy; (b) Goods were sold by convenient units or groups of units, and were 
 not usually sold by using a simple unit or a multiple of the total cost of a 
 
52 Department of Superintendence 
 
 large amount of goods; (c) Measuring devices, weighing devices, calcu- 
 lating machines, calculating devices, such as discount books, price tables, 
 cash registers, central cashiers, etc., have reduced the amount of arithmetic 
 used by clerks to a minimum. Oftentimes the manipulating of a mechani- 
 cal device and reading numbers was all the arithmetic needed by the clerks 
 in selling goods. If there was no central cashier, in addition to the ability 
 to read numbers, the clerks had to be able to make change. 
 
 11. While the evidence indicated that the clerks under consideration 
 made little use of arithmetic, the author argued that the consuming public 
 needed arithmetic for its own satisfaction in checking the accuracy with 
 which the calculating and measuring devices were manipulated. He argued 
 for much emphasis on mental arithmetic — that is, calculating without pencil 
 or paper, and for much emphasis on quickly estimating or approximating a 
 correct answer to the problem involved. 
 
 STUDY NO. 13. Woody, Clifford. Results obtained from giving the 
 Courtis arithmetic test to members of the Rotary and Kiwanis Clubs. 
 Unpublished study on file in the office of the Bureau of Educational Refer- 
 ence and Research, University of Michigan. 
 
 Problem. To determine the level of efficiency in addition and multiplica- 
 tion existing in highly selected groups of our adult society and to make 
 comparison with the level of efficiency attained by the children in Grade 
 VIII. 
 
 Method. The addition and multiplication tests of the Courtis Research 
 Tests in Arithmetic, Series B, were given to 203 adults belonging to Rotary 
 and Kiwanis Clubs in seven different cities of Michigan. The results 
 achieved were compared with the Courtis Standards of Achievement for 
 the children of Grade VIII. 
 
 Findings. 1. In general, the members of the Rotary and Kiwanis Clubs 
 attempted more exercises than the children in Grade VIII. The median 
 number of problems attempted by the members of the clubs was 19.5 in 
 addition and 13.7 in multiplication; the general standard of achievement 
 for the children in Grade VIII is 11.6 in addition, and 10.2 in multiplica- 
 tion. 
 
 2. There was much variation in the median number of exercises attempted 
 by the various clubs. In addition, the median scores ranged from 13.0 to 
 24.1 exercises attempted; in multiplication, from 8 to 16.5 exercises 
 attempted. 
 
 3. In general, the members of the Rotary and Kiwanis Clubs were more 
 accurate in addition and less accurate in multiplication than the children 
 in Grade VIII as indicated by the Courtis general standards. The median 
 percentage of accuracy for the 203 members in. addition was 82 per cent cor- 
 rect; in multiplication, 71 per cent correct. The corresponding figures for 
 the general standards of the Courtis Tests in Grade VIII are 76 and 81 per 
 cent, respectively. The variation of the median percentages of accuracy in 
 
The Third Yearbook 53 
 
 addition among the different clubs was from 71 per cent to 86.5 per cent 
 correct; in multiplication, from 64.6 per cent to 79.6 per cent correct. It 
 is interesting that the median percentage of accuracy in multiplication in 
 each club was less than the general standard for Grade VIII. 
 
 4. In general, the median percentage of accuracy in the clubs was higher 
 in addition and lower in multiplication than in Grade VIII. 
 
 Note. This study suggests that the level of efficiency existing in these 
 processes is largely conditioned by the social demands made upon the differ- 
 ent individuals. Although the different investigations indicate that multipli- 
 cation as a process is used in business and social life more than addition, it 
 is ventured that the problems in addition in the Courtis Tests approximate 
 the type of problems solved in business and social life more closely than the 
 problems in multiplication do. Furthermore, much practice in addition is 
 gained in exercises in which the predominant process is multiplication. Thus 
 it seems safe to suggest that the club members achieved relatively higher 
 scores in addition than in multiplication because relatively greater practice 
 of the type measured by the test in addition is encountered in the routine 
 of everyday business life. 
 
 STUDY NO. 14. Woody, Clifford. The use of calculating and meas- 
 uring devices in business and their influence on the use of arithmetic. Un- 
 published study made in cooperation with Leander Beach, 1923. On file 
 in the office of the Bureau ofi Educational Reference and Research, Uni- 
 versity of Michigan. 
 
 Problem. To find out to what extent calculating and measuring devices 
 were used in business houses and to determine something of the nature of 
 arithmetic utilized in carrying on business transactions. 
 
 Method. The managers of 40 business houses in Ann Arbor were per- 
 sonally interviewed concerning the use of mechanical devices, short-cut 
 methods, and the nature of arithmetic utilized by salesmen and consumers. 
 This list of business houses included : three banks, five drug stores, six 
 grocery stores, four drygoods stores, three bakeries and restaurants, two 
 hardware stores, two shoe stores, three men's clothing stores, two book 
 stores, one electric shop, one wall-paper and paint store, one jewelry store, 
 one office outfitting store, one five-and-ten cent store, one news company, one 
 tea and coffee house, one meat market, one candy store, and one phonograph 
 store. The same questions were asked each firm in accordance with a 
 specially prepared questionnaire. 
 
 Findings. 1. Each of the business houses made much use of mechanical 
 calculating devices. Each firm had at least one cash register, and some had 
 as many as 10. Almost all firms had at least one adding machine, and the 
 banks had from six to eight machines. The banks used bookkeeping 
 machines. Computing scales were used in all grocery stores, all meat 
 markets, all drug stores, and in all candy shops. In one grocery store two 
 cheese cutters were operated on the computing plan. 
 
54 Department of Superintendence 
 
 2. Many tabular devices were utilized in order to reduce the amount of 
 tabulation. The banks used bond and interest tables. The news company 
 used a "price" table to tell the price of the different magazines or combina- 
 tions of magazines. The drug stores used "percentage solution" tables 
 whereby it was possible to find the different amounts of a chemical to make 
 a solution of a particular strength. The hardware had "screen" tables for 
 finding the areas of screens of different lengths and widths, and discount 
 tables for determining the cost price from the list price in wholesale cata- 
 logues. The book stores used a "printer's" table for determining the num- 
 ber of sheets per pound according to the quality. In fact, almost every firm 
 used tabular devices of some kind. 
 
 3. Several "short-cut" methods were discovered. In computing interest 
 at. six per cent when the interest book is not used, point off two places in 
 the principal and multiply by half the number of months. In figuring the 
 selling price on an article when there is a discount, the method is to subtract 
 .the discount from 100, point off two places in the remainder and multiply 
 .by the original price. A system of alligations was used by the druggists. 
 
 4. The goods were always marked to avoid complicated calculations. 
 Firms. are now. avoiding marking in fractions and employ the unit of decimal 
 system to a great extent. They also avoid the sliding scales and sell at so 
 much ..per unit or multiple of this unit, or group of units. An illustration 
 of the unit or group of units plan is: selling six bars of soap for 25 cents 
 but charging 35 cents for eight bars. 
 
 ,5. Many, of the managers insisted that neither their employees nor the 
 purchasers did much actual calculation. In certain stores like restaurants, 
 and ice cream stores where articles were sold in combinations the clerks 
 learned the sale, price for the combination of articles: for example, they 
 learned the regular price for a sandwich, coffee, and a piece of pie was 45 
 cents and did not have to add the price of the different items to get the 
 total. The. managers estimated that only about 29 per cent of the buyers 
 ever add the cost of different articles purchased to find the total amount 
 purchased, and that only about 66.6 per cent of their customers ever check 
 the change given them. 
 
 ' 6. These business men insisted that the school needs to emphasize the 
 foUr fundamentals. They felt there is great need for "mental" arithmetic. 
 Some emphasized the need for training involving interest, discount, and the 
 metric system. The particular needs emphasized by the business men de- 
 pended largely on their type of business. 
 
 7. The business men agreed that the greatest number of mistakes made 
 in the buyer's calculations involve making change. The buyer does not 
 understand the "make-change" method and gets lost. 
 
 8. The outstanding conclusion drawn from this investigation is that 
 little calculation in arithmetic was actually done. 
 
The Third Yearbook 55 
 
 STUDY NO. 15. Charters, W. W. Department store arithmetic. 
 Study reported in Charter's Curriculum Construction. New York, Mac- 
 millan, 1923. pp. 231-236. 
 
 Problem. To determine what operations in arithmetic are important 
 for salespeople. 
 
 Method. Study consisted of analyzing the arithmetic involved in the. 
 use of several thousand sales checks. In addition, multiplication and divi- 
 sion 7337 charge checks' were examined ; in subtraction 4304 cash checks 
 were analyzed. The analyses consisted of detailed accounts of the number 
 of addends, the number of figures in the addends, the number of figures in 
 the minuend when subtraction was involved, the number of times a par- 
 ticular amount of money was offered in payment for a bill of goods, the 
 number of places in the multiplicand and multiplier when multiplication 
 was involved, the number of places in the dividend and divisor when divi- 
 sion was involved, the size of the fractions encountered, etc. 
 
 Findings. The reader is referred to Charter's book for a detailed sum- 
 mary, but the main points are set forth in the paragraph quoted: "In this 
 one vocation of department-store selling the chances are nine out of ten 
 that no problem in addition will be more complicated than the addition of 
 four-place addends ; no subtraction is used in making change, and if it were, 
 only forty-five out of one hundred subtraction facts would be used ;, the 
 chances are ninety-seven out of one hundred that in multiplication the 
 multiplier will be 12 or less and the multiplicand three places or less; in 
 fractions, only eleven denominators are found, all being under 10 except 10', 
 12, and 16, and by a simple device of using the thumb decimals disappear." 
 
 STUDY NO. 16. Moore, Ernest C. Minimum course of,, study. 
 Chapter I. Arithmetic, pp. 1-41, 1923. 
 
 At the beginning of this chapter, three studies for the purpose of ascertain- 
 ing the minimum essentials of arithmetic were reported. \ 
 
 Study I. Problem. To find out how much arithmetic is used in everyday 
 life. 
 
 Method. A questionnaire was sent to men of various vocations asking 
 them certain questions concerning their use of arithmetic. ' Typical ques- 
 tions folloAv: Do you personally have occasion to add columns of 2, 3, 4, 5, v 
 6, or more figures in width ? Do you personally have occasion to compute 
 simple interest, etc. 
 
 Findings. From the 799 replies to the questionnaire, it was evident that 
 the minimum essentials should include : ( 1 ) Addition — five addends, five 
 figures in width; (2) multiplication — the multiplicand, five figures in 
 width, the multiplier, four figures in width; (3) division — the dividend, 
 five figures in width, the devisor, four figures in width ; (4) fractions — 
 halves, thirds, fourths, fifths, eighths, with tenths; (5) decimals of three 
 places; (6) simple interest; and (7) percentage. 
 
56 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 
 
 Study II. Problem. To find the amount of arithmetic used in everyday 
 life with regard to subject-matter. 
 
 Method. A second questionnaire, listing various topics in arithmetic, 
 such as addition of fractions, subtraction of fractions, simple cash accounts, 
 drawing to scale, etc., was sent to the persons mentioned above with the 
 request that they relate to the children in the home all the uses made of 
 arithmetic each day for ten consecutive days and have the children record 
 such uses by placing an X on the question blank after the enumerated topic. 
 
 Findings. On the basis of the 314 replies to this questionnaire, it was 
 concluded that the following should be included in the list of minimum 
 essentials: (1) Simple cash accounts, or family expense accounts; (2) cash, 
 checks, or bills; (3) addition of fractions; (4) multiplication of fractions; 
 (5) subtraction of fractions; (6) banking; and (7) division of fractions. 
 
 Study III. Problem. To find out the amount of arithmetic needed by 
 the employees in fifty business firms of Los Angeles. 
 
 Method. The following questionnaire was sent to fifty leading busi- 
 ness firms in that city: (1) How much arithmetic should young people 
 know when they enter your employment? (2) In what arithmetic work 
 do you find them weak or unsatisfactory? (3) What suggestions do you 
 make that may assist in correcting mistakes? (4) So far as it comes to 
 your attention, what work in arithmetic is being taught that is of little or 
 no value in your business? 
 
 Findings. From the 24 replies received, the following answers were 
 obtained: (1) The arithmetic needed on entering the firms should include 
 addition, multiplication, division, decimals, subtraction, percentage, and 
 fractions; (2) The weaknesses manifested were in accuracy (mentioned by 
 18 of the 24 replying), decimals, addition, multiplication, fractions; (3) 
 The suggestions made for correcting the mistakes were : accuracy, short- 
 cuts, mental arithmetic, and "teach the why"; and (4) In response to what 
 should be eliminated, the replies were: no topics, higher mathematics, 
 algebra, all except the four fundamentals, decimals, interest, and discount. 
 
 Although the above questionnaires are suggestive, the nature of some of 
 the answers given suggest that they should not be taken too seriously, for 
 they do not smack of serious thought. It may be noted that Study II, 
 based upon actual usage instead of opinion, shows a much simpler demand. 
 Tabulation of usage is now conceded to be the most effective procedure in 
 checking needs. 
 
 STUDY NO. 17. Hansen, Einar A. The arithmetic of salespersons' 
 tally cards. 1924. Unpublished study, Department of Education, Univ. 
 of Iowa. 
 
 Problem. To determine what additions salespersons use in totaling their 
 daily sales: 1. How many of the cards have but one sale listed; how many 
 two, three, etc. 
 
 2. How many sales are totaled in each column of sales on the cards? 
 
The Third Yearbook 57 
 
 3. What is the size of the final sum as measured in terms of the number 
 of digits involved? 
 
 4. How many columns of sales are added by the salesperson? 
 
 Method. 1324 tally cards, the cards on which sales are entered for pur- 
 poses of record, from four large downtown stores, a bookstore, a music 
 store, a department store, and one selling athletic goods, besides one fairly 
 large drygoods store on the west side of the city, were used. The frequencies 
 of occurrence of the four characteristics listed above were tabulated. The 
 findings are recorded in tabular and graphic form. 
 
 Findings. 1. Twelve per cent of the total number of cards fall in the 
 group having one or two sales. The curve falls rather regularly from this 
 point to two and one per cent toward the latter end, where it rises again to 
 six per cent for those having fifty or more sales. 
 
 2. The number of sales totaled in the various columns was determined 
 partially by the type of card used, depending upon whether the fifty possible 
 items were arranged in four, three, or two columns. Thirteen-item columns 
 ranked first with fifteen per cent, 12 and 2 — item columns second, with 
 eleven per cent each. The preponderance of 2-item columns was due in 
 part to the number of additions of sub-totals into final totals. 
 
 3. The number of digits involved in the final totals ran in the following 
 order: four digits, 73 per cent; three digits, 17 per cent; five digits, 10 per 
 cent. Single entry cards were excluded from this tabulation. 
 
 4. The number of columns added varied first, with the type of card 
 used ; second, in actual count, the one column leading with 44 per cent ; 
 two columns having 27 per cent, three columns 10 per cent, and four 
 columns 9 per cent. 
 
 With the exception of the tally cards from the bookstore, the sales con- 
 sidered are the records of cash sales only and therefore do not represent all 
 the sales made by these salespersons for a single day. 
 
 2. General informational or reading uses of arithmetic- — The arithmetic 
 needed by any individual for actual computation is obviously limited, and 
 actual computational practice is being further curtailed by the rapid intro- 
 duction of calculating machines. But the same limitations do not apply to 
 number concepts in general and the ability to interpret the number concepts 
 met with in general reading. The suggestion naturally follows that in 
 many phases of arithmetic, manipulation should be omitted and the time 
 devoted to informational concepts and the general understanding of busi- 
 ness situations. In time, we may have some phases of arithmetic dealt with 
 in an arithmetic reader with little or no figuring required. 
 
 STUDY NO. 18. Camerer, Alice. "What should be the minimum in- 
 formation about banking?" 17th Yearbook of the National Society for the 
 Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, 111., Public School Pub. Co., 
 1919. pp. 18-26. 
 
 Problem. To discover what should be taught concerning banking. 
 
58 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Method. An analysis was made of 35 replies to a questionnaire sent to 
 bank employees in the states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, 
 Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, and Texas, relative to the facts in bank- 
 ing that all people in a community should know. A similar analysis was 
 made of the replies sent in by parents of the pupils in the elementary school 
 of the University of Iowa. The instructions were to mark important items 
 "XX", less important items "X", and to cross out those of no importance. 
 The items reported in the replies were arranged according to their im- 
 portance as determined by the bank employers and comparison made with 
 their importance as determined by the parents. The results are reported 
 under the findings. 
 
 Findings. The bank employees determined the following rankings on 
 twenty of the fifty-five items, the most important being placed first : 
 (1) How to write a check, (2) how and why to fill out a stub, (3) when 
 a check should be cashed, (4) how to stop payment on a check, (5) how 
 to sign your name when indorsing a check, (6) what to do if a check is 
 lost, (7) how to indorse a note, (8) how to write a negotiable note, 
 (9) how to indorse a check in full, (10) how to use a bank book, (11) 
 how to make a deposit slip, (12) how to find interest, (13) importance 
 and purpose of savings banks, (14) importance and purpose of commercial 
 deposit banks, (15) how to use a promissory note, (16) responsibility of 
 maker if note is lost, (17) certified checks, (18) how to open an account, 
 (19) when notes are void, and (20) legal rate of interest. 
 
 Parents of the children in the elementary school placed 15 of the 20 
 items named above in their list of the 20 most important items, although 
 the order selected was not quite the same. 
 
 STUDY NO. 19. William, L. W. "The mathematics needed in 
 freshman chemistry." School Science and Mathematics, Volume 21, 
 No. 7. October, 1921. (Reported in Charter's Curriculum Construc- 
 tion.) 
 
 Problem. To determine what mathematics is necessary to carry suc- 
 cessfully a course in freshman chemistry in which the textbook was Noyes, 
 A Textbook in Chemistry. 
 
 Method. Study consisted of analyzing both the expository body and 
 the problems of. the text, and recording all words or expressions which 
 were distinctly mathematical or implied mathematics and the nature of 
 the different operations involved. All exercises were worked out by the 
 simplest methods, and both ' the operations and the quantities were tab- 
 ulated.' 
 
 Findings. See the original article or the account in Charter's Curric- 
 ulum Construction for detailed summary. 1. In the body of the text, 124 
 mathematical concepts were used 1156 times, of which per cent and volume 
 comprised nearly one half. 
 
The Third Yearbook 59 
 
 2. Seventy-three different denominate numbers were used," the most 
 common of which w r ere : degree, gross, and liter. 
 
 3. Fifty-five different fractions were used, but the denominators in all 
 but 43 of the fractions were less than 10. Of these 43 denominators, eight 
 denominators were less than 100, but 24 ended in hundreds or thousands. 
 
 4. Complicated decimals were very frequent. The one-place, two-place, 
 and three-place were most frequent, but one decimal had eight places. 
 There were usually two integers and one or two places, but at times the 
 decimals were more complicated. Oftentimes decimals were mixed with 
 fractions. 
 
 5. Chemical equations occurred very often. There were nine cases of 
 substitution in formulas and seventy-seven cases of ratio and proportion. 
 
 6. The arithmetic at times was complicated. In addition there were 
 problems consisting of adding an integer and three decimals, two integers 
 and three decimals, and three decimals. In subtraction the most difficult 
 problem was taking a six-place decimal from another. In multiplication 
 at times it was necessary to multiply a four-place number by a six-place 
 number. Mixed decimals had to be multiplied together. Complicated 
 decimals at times had to be divided by one another. Thus the arithmetic 
 needed in chemistry was complicated, but the algebra simple. 
 
 STUDY NO. 20. Gallaway, Mrs. T. T. Mathematics needed in a 
 freshman course in clothing. Unpublished study reported in . Charter's 
 Curriculum Construction, pp. 241-43, 1923. 
 
 Problem. To determine what mathematics is necessary to carry success- 
 fully a freshman college course in clothing in which the text used is Baldt's 
 Clothes for Women. 
 
 Method. Study consisted of analyzing both the expository body and 
 the problem of the text, and recording all words or expressions which were 
 distinctly mathematical or which implied mathematics, and listing the 
 nature of the different operations involved. All of the . exercises were 
 worked out by the simplest methods, and both the operations and the 
 quantities were tabulated. 
 
 Findings. See the account in Charter's, Curriculum Construction for a 
 detailed summary. 
 
 1. It is necessary to understand 111 mathematical concepts correctly to 
 read this text intelligently. Of these, 43 were geometrical terms, chiefly 
 included in mensuration. All other terms were arithmetical. Chief among 
 these terms were: line, equal, center, measure, width, length, and point. 
 
 2. Denominate numbers such as appear in the ordinary arithmetic oc- 
 curred and in addition, the two units of measure head and skein. The 
 most common units of measure were : inch, dollar, yard, head, and year. 
 
60 Department of Superintendence 
 
 3. The most common fractions used were: halves, quarters, sixths, 
 eighths, tenths, twelfths, and sixteenths. There were a few cases of decimal 
 fractions. 
 
 4. The integers occurring were mostly one-place integers if expressed 
 in words instead of figures. If the integers were expressed in figures, the 
 majority of them had less than four figures and none of them had as many 
 as five figures. 
 
 5. Roman numerals were used considerably, although none of them had 
 more than two places. 
 
 6. In the chapters on drafting and the use of patterns much use was 
 made of algebraic equations: for example, "A. E. equals one-sixth neck 
 measure plus three-eighths inch." The solution of similar problems in- 
 volved: (a) Translating the algebraic equation expressed in words into a 
 symbolic numerical equation, (b) multiplying a whole or mixed number 
 by a fraction, (c) subtracting a whole or a mixed number from a whole or 
 mixed number, (d) adding a fraction to a whole or mixed number, (e) 
 finding a fraction of a fraction, (f) reducing a mixed number to an im- 
 proper fraction, (g) reducing an improper fraction to a whole or mixed 
 number, (h) reducing yards to inches, (i) drawing a line of a given length, 
 (j) reducing inches to yards, (k) division of whole numbers, mixed num- 
 bers, or fractions, (1) drawing a line parallel to a given line, (m) draw- 
 ing a line perpendicular to a given line, (n) drawing a circle or the arc of 
 a circle, having given the center and radius, and (o) reading geometrical 
 figures by means of letters representing points. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2i. Smith, Nila B. "An investigation of the uses of 
 arithmetic in the out-of-school life of first-grade children." Elementary 
 School Journal, Volume 24, No. 8. April, 1924. pp. 621-23. 
 
 Problem. To determine the type of arithmetic used by 500 first-grade 
 pupils in the Detroit public schools in their out-of-school life. 
 
 Method. The data were obtained by having 100 regular room teachers 
 interview five selected children each morning for 25 consecutive days con- 
 cerning their out-of-school activities and record facts concerning the arith- 
 metic used in connection with these activities. The interviews during the 
 first week were for the purpose of familiarizing the teachers and pupils 
 with the technique of the investigation and were not in the data under 
 consideration. In the investigation each teacher itemized daily for each 
 pupil the content of the situation in which arithmetic was used, the num- 
 bers involved, the operations involved, whether the operation was per- 
 formed by the child or not, the classification of the activity according to 
 types., and .the number of times the particular type of activity was used. 
 Much use was made of code numbers as aids in tabulating the data. 
 
The Third Yearbook 61 
 
 Findings. The results are shown in these two tabular summaries: 
 
 TABLE 2.— RELATIVE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH SITUATIONS INVOLVING 
 ARITHMETIC OCCURRED 
 
 Activity Per cent 
 
 Transaction in stores 30.0 
 
 Games involving counting 18.0 
 
 Reading Roman numerals on clock 14 . 
 
 Reading Arabic numerals in finding pages in a book 13 . 
 
 Dividing food with playmates and pets (fractions) 6.0 
 
 Depositing money in and drawing money from toy banks 5.0 
 
 Playing store 3.0 
 
 Measuring distance 2.2 
 
 Using calendars 2.0 
 
 Running errands 1.2 
 
 Setting the table 1.2 
 
 Buying and selling tickets 1.1 
 
 Acting as newsboy 1.0 
 
 Measuring in sewing 1.0 
 
 Counting in rhymes and jingles .5 
 
 Reading house numbers .2 
 
 Investments (made for them) .1 
 
 Measuring in manual training .1 
 
 Measuring height , . .1 
 
 Measuring objects .1 
 
 Reading numbers on book in hall .1 
 
 Reading numbers on ticket .1 
 
 100.0 
 
 TABLE 3.— RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS 
 
 Process Per cent 
 
 Addition 35.0 
 
 Counting • 23 . 
 
 Subtraction 20.0 
 
 Reading Arabic numbers 6.0 
 
 Measuring 5.5 
 
 Comparison 4.3 
 
 Reading Roman numerals 3.1 
 
 Multiplication ' 2.0 
 
 Division 1.1 
 
 100.0 
 
 STUDY NO. 22. Adams, H. W. The mathematics encountered in 
 general reading of newspapers and periodicals. Unpublished Master's 
 thesis. Department of Education, University of Chicago. Reviewed by 
 Franklin K. Bobbitt in Elementarv School Journal, Volume 25, No. 2. 
 October, 1924. pp. 133-143. 
 
 Problem. To discover the mathematics employed in the news, special 
 articles, editorials, advertisements, legal notices, market reports, sporting 
 pages, etc., in one issue, 20 newspapers and magazines, widely read by the 
 general public. 
 
 Method. All pages of one issue of the following newspapers and maga- 
 zines were analyzed : the Chicago Herald and Examiner, the Chicago 
 Evening American, the St. Louis Post Dispatch, the Springfield, Missouri, 
 Republican, the Springfield Leader, the Lebanon Rustic, the Pathfinder, 
 the Furrow, the Dearborn Independent, the Springfield Laborer, the 
 Cosmopolitan, the Woman's Home Companion, the American Magazine, 
 
62 Department of Superintendence 
 
 the Household, the Pictorial Review, the Woman's World, the Literary 
 Digest, the Modern Priscilla, McCall's, and the National Geographic 
 Magazine. 
 
 Findings. 1. Dates were numerous, oftentimes giving the year, the 
 month, the day, the hour, and the minute. 
 
 2. There were found 3378 street addresses in all sorts of combinations, 
 e.g., 1918 Broadway, Department 909; and 4711 North Clark Street. 
 
 3. A total of 1713 telephone numbers were discovered. They were 
 expressed in a great variety of ways- 
 
 4. Numbers varied from such expressions as "50 words" to "255,000,000 
 packages of breakfast food." In all there were 21,619 such expressions. 
 Most of them had two-place numbers, but many had nine or more places. 
 
 5. Roman numerals occurred 148 times. They were used most frequently 
 to designate the volumes of papers or books, chapters of books, or sections 
 of books. Most of the Roman numerals were below a hundred. 
 
 6. References to United States money varied from one cent to $100,000,- 
 000,000. However, most of the amounts were less than $100. Reference 
 to foreign money contained the following terms: German marks, Italian 
 lire, Japanese yen, Indian rupees, English pounds, English three-pence, 
 English guineas, and English half-crown. 
 
 7. Only six fractions out of 3000 had a denominator larger than 16. 
 The largest denominator was 10,000,000. 
 
 8. Decimals without the use of United States money occurred frequently. 
 The smallest decimal without the use of United States money was .000,012, 
 and the largest one was .97. Most decimals had less than four places. 
 
 9. A great variety of percentages were found, e.g., 1%, 1%, 2, 2%, 3, 
 33-1/3, 99-44/100, 177, 700, 1,000, and 1,300. 
 
 10. Simple ratios were found in a variety of ways, e.g., 30 to 1, 1 in 
 1,000,000,000, a 5-3-3 ratio, fifty-fifty, etc. 
 
 11. Almost every conceivable unit of measure was used. The different 
 units usually found in the following tables of measure were used: dry 
 measure, liquid measure, linear measure, square measure, avoirdupois meas- 
 ure, measure of time, measure for electricity, and various miscellaneous 
 measures as degree, calorie, volt, cord, dozen, teaspoon, tablespoon, etc. 
 
 12. Few graphs were used. 
 
 13. There were numerous mathematical terms or expressions used as: 
 cedar chest 40x18x18, 40 per cent surtax, 90 miles-an-hour-gale, a 12 
 horse-power engine, etc. 
 
 14. No arithmetic problems of the textbook type occurred, although 
 mathematical materials were presented so as to enable the reader to solve 
 almost any problem which might occur to him concerning the situation 
 described. 
 
 15. There was virtually no reference to algebra, geometry, and trigo- 
 nometry in the magazines analyzed. 
 
The Third Yearbook 63 
 
 III. According to What Criteria Should Drill be Organized? 
 
 The committee has not succeeded in getting a summary of studies bear- 
 ing upon this point. Kirby, Practice in the Case of School Children, Teach- 
 ers College, Columbia University, 1913, showed the large values resulting 
 from systematic drill. 
 
 Thorndike has. given data bearing upon the same point. The trend of 
 evidence is that in the intermediate grades, when drill is confined to 
 processes that are useful and well understood, regular time spent upon 
 systematic drill gives returns unequalled by any other type of procedure. 
 The findings are in favor of systematic drill rather than incidental drill. 
 
 Another finding, on which the evidence is not so satisfactory as one 
 could wish, is that attempts to do number work in the lowest grades, par- 
 ticularly in grades one and two where the processes are so frequently not 
 comprehended by the children, results in the development of errors which 
 become a strong handicap in later work. This will be noted more fully 
 under Section IV of this report. 
 
 The chief contribution under this section is a definite and complete plan 
 worked out by F. B. Knight for organizing the drill work of the fifth and 
 sixth grades. The summary of this report is presented first for the con-, 
 venience of the reader. Dr. Knight has shown, in a masterful way, and 
 much more thoroughly than present space permits to be shown, the surpris- 
 ing inefficiency and haphazard procedure which exists in drill work; the 
 possibility of formulating drill to meet definite specifications; and the 
 necessity of systematic drill if automatic memory results are to be had and 
 permanently maintained. 
 
 Summary of Report on Organization of Drill 
 
 Introduction: Two uses of drill: 1. Drill as a teaching instrument; 
 2. Drill to maintain skills after instruction is passed. The following is a 
 list of processes to be drilled under Use 2, with suggested times at which 
 drill on each process should begin. 
 
 DRILL ORGANIZATION FOR MAINTAINING ACQUIRED SKILLS 
 
 Specification I. Drill should be on the entire process. 
 
 (a) Various forms or types 
 
 (b) Frequency of each number combination in drill 
 
 (c) Location of number combinations in all positions 
 
 (d) Computation difficulties present 
 
 (e) Illustrations from texts on appearance of unit skills in fraction drills 
 
 (f) Comment on the distribution of practice among the several unit skills in- 
 
 volved in the division of fractions 
 
 (g) Drills can be built to specifications 
 
 Specification II. Drill should come frequently in small amounts. 
 
 (a) Distribution of time for drill on a single process 
 
 (b) Two opposing theories of time distribution 
 
 (c) The cold storage theory and its weaknesses 
 
 (d) Illustrations from texts on time distribution of drill on division of fractions 
 
 (e) Comments on the illustrations of fraction drill 
 
64 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Specification III. Each drill unit should be a mixed drill 
 
 (a) Isolated and mixed fundamental types of organization 
 
 (b) Illustrations of the isolation theory 
 
 (c) Illustrations of the mixed fundamental theory 
 
 (d) Examples in each process to contain calculated practice 
 
 (e) Advantages of the mixed fundamental type of drill 
 Specification IV. Drills should have time limits. 
 
 (a) Speed a secondary consideration 
 
 (b) Wrong types of time standards 
 
 (c) Correct use of time standards involves product measures 
 Specification V. Drills should have accuracy standards. 
 
 (a) The shortcomings of the 100 per cent accuracy standard for a list of ex- 
 
 amples 
 
 (b) Time and accuracy standards combined 
 
 (c) Three factors of time and accuracy standards 
 
 (d) A definite technique described 
 
 (e) Advantages of the suggested technique 
 
 (f) Use of the progress chart 
 
 (g) Cost of the suggested technique is justified 
 
 Specification VI. Examples in a unit of drill should be in the order of difficult}'. 
 
 (a) Range of difficulty should be commensurate with range of abilities 
 
 (b) Easy examples should include all processes 
 Specification VII. Drill units should include verbal problems. 
 
 Problem solving should not be isolated. 
 Specification VIII.. Drills should facilitate diagnosis. 
 
 (a) Remedial work should be specific 
 
 (b) Waste of indiscriminate drill 
 
 (c) Suggested standards of technique facilitates remedial work 
 
 (d) Hard aspects as well as total examples should be present in drills 
 
 (e) Teacher's cue for remedial work 
 
 Drill in Fifth and Sixth Grades 
 
 For the purpose of facilitating discussion, let us assume by agreement 
 that drill or practice has two functions: First, to aid in learning new pro- 
 cesses, this use of drill is the instructional use; second, to help maintain a 
 skill after the class and the teacher have gone to the trouble of building up 
 a new skill. This second use of drill is drill for permanency. The present 
 discussion is concerned with the organization of drill material in the fifth 
 and sixth grades, the purposes of which are to keep permanent the skills 
 that have been built. 
 
 Listing the Skills 
 
 The list of skills to be kept permanently up to standard as a result of 
 drill is more or less arbitrary. It should be limited to useful processes as 
 developed in Section II above. On this basis, one is justified in listing at 
 least the following skills: 
 
 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of whole numbers. 
 
 Addition, subtraction, and multiplication of small fractions; occasionally 
 division of simple fractions 
 
 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of decimals as required 
 in United States money 
 
The Third Yearbook 65 
 
 Computing simple areas and simple percentage 
 
 The time of entrance of these skills into the course of study is conditioned 
 by local requirements and should be largely governed by individual interests 
 and local needs. Since the topic under discussion is drill for the permanence 
 of holding skills, it goes without saying, that if the topics listed above are 
 to be drilled to maintain skill in them at the time listed, they must have 
 been taught previously to those times. 
 
 Specifications of Proper Drill Organization 
 
 The next pages contain a description of the organization of drill which 
 serves the purpose of maintaining skill in a process after it has been taught 
 and after the instructional aspect of the class work is no longer concerned 
 with that skill but with some new process. Examples are given supporting 
 the specifications for organization of drill which are believed to be superior. 
 Examples of contrasting types of drill organization are on occasion inserted 
 not for purposes of criticism but to make the specifications, present in the 
 report, clear through contrast with opposite types. 
 
 Specification I. Drill Should Be On the Entire Process 
 
 (a) Various forms or types— After instruction on a process is completed, 
 the drill given to it should practice in some calculated fashion all the various 
 types of that process or all that have been taught. Such drill should con- 
 tinue throughout the elementary school. By way of illustrations: 
 
 Example 
 
 A 
 
 Example B 
 
 Example C 
 
 345 
 
 
 768 
 
 427640 
 
 567 
 
 
 54 
 
 392769 
 
 879 
 
 
 879 
 
 4318 
 
 407 
 
 
 807 
 
 915043 
 
 215 
 
 
 423 
 
 
 
 All the drill in the addition of whole numbers given after the process of 
 whole numbers has been mastered from the standpoint of instruction should 
 not be like Example A above. There should be some drill upon examples 
 like B and C, since the ability to neglect gaps in the column is an ability 
 that does not come by magic, can just as well be practiced, and is a type 
 which the demands of life often present. 
 
 In the present drill services, we note a lack of presenting the pupil with 
 addition examples of irregular outline. 
 
 The list of the items which go to make the total process of addition, sub- 
 traction, multiplication, or division of whole numbers is a list on which 
 there is as yet no common agreement. Following this paragraph, there are 
 included the two analyses of processes, subtraction of whole numbers and 
 division of fractions. Some such analyses as these should be used to check 
 drill provisions. Drill provisions are weak to the extent that they slight 
 important units of skill. They are also weak to the extent that they pro- 
 
66 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 vide unnecessary over-practice or wasteful practice upon units of skill which 
 possess no particular difficulty. Obviously, drill is good to the extent that 
 it provides practice upon each type of the total skill in proportion to the 
 difficulty of each type. 
 
 Analysis of Subtraction of Whole Numbers in Terms of Learning Process 
 
 I. As to Form of Stating Example: 
 A. Number written with figures 
 
 1. Indicated subtraction, as 6 — 2 = 4 
 Additive subtraction, as 6 — ? = 4 
 
 6 
 
 2. Column subtraction, as 2 
 
 Unit of Skill 
 Number 
 
 1 
 la 
 
 II. 
 
 3. Words used 9 "minus" or "less" or "take from", as 
 9 minus 4 
 
 B. Numbers written with words 
 
 1. Indicated subtraction, as Four — two 
 
 2. Words used, as Four "minus", "less", "take from" 
 
 C. Pictures used 
 
 1. Indicated subtraction, as 
 
 5 5 - S 5 
 
 2. Words used, as 5 5 5 minus Q 
 
 As to Procedure: 
 
 A. No borrowing or carrying 
 
 1. One digit, as number — 1 digit number. 6 — 4 = 
 
 2. Two digit number — 1 digit number 
 When difference is 1 digit, as 12 
 
 2a 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 When difference is 2 digits, as 
 
 18 
 -6 
 
 10 
 
 3. Two digit numbers less two digits, as 48 
 
 —24 
 
 4. When the remainder is zero, as 
 
 5. More than two digit number, as 
 
 6. Zero in subtrahend, as 463 
 
 —102 
 
 6 
 —6 
 
 16 
 —6 
 
 483 
 —121 
 
 
 463 
 —120 
 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
The Third Yearbook 67 
 
 7. Zero in both subtrahend and minuend, as 40 
 
 —20 15 
 
 S. Gaps in column, as 483 
 
 —21 16 
 
 B. Borrowing or carrying: 
 
 1. Two digit number — one digit, as 46 
 
 —6 17 
 
 2. Two digit number — one digit 
 
 Zero in minuend, as 40 
 
 —6 18 
 
 3. More than two digit number 
 
 (a) Borrowing units column, as 423 
 
 —117 19 
 
 (b) Borrowing other than units column, as 463 
 
 —178 20 
 
 (c) Borrowing two consecutive columns, as 482 
 
 —197 21 
 
 (d) Borrowing two not consecutive columns, as 
 
 4236 
 —1718 22 
 
 4. Borrowing zero in minuend, as 420 
 
 —128 23 
 
 5. Borrowing two zeros in minuend, as 4200 
 
 —1267 24 
 
 6. Borrowing more than 2 zeros, as 43000 
 
 —12675 25 
 
 7. Borrowing zero in both not final, as 4306 
 
 —1204 26 
 
 8. Borrowing zero final, as 248000 
 
 —162000 27 
 
 9. Subtraction unequal number digits, as 
 
 (a) Where zero is subtracted from last left number, as 
 
 4862 
 —732 28 
 
68 Department of Superintendence 
 
 (b) Where zero is not subtracted, as 1467 
 
 —835 29 
 
 (c) Last left numbers are equal, as 635 
 
 —604 30 
 
 C. Ability to check 31 
 
 D. Ability to copy for work as 43728 — 39162 = 
 
 43728 
 —39162 32 
 
 Analysis of Division of Fractions in Terms of the Learning Process 
 
 Unit of 
 Skill 
 As to the Form of Stating the Example Number 
 
 A. Fractions written in figures 
 
 1. Indicated divisions, as 3/8-4-1/2 1 
 
 2. Words "divided by," as 4/5 divided by 1/3 2 
 
 3. Complex fractions, as 3/5 
 
 1/3 3 
 
 4. Division indicated by parentheses, as 1/4)1/12, or 1/2)4/5 4 
 
 B. Fractions written with words 
 
 1. Indicated division, as two sevenths-4-one sixth 5 
 
 2. Words "divided by" used, as one eighth divided by three fifths ' 6 
 
 I. As to Procedure 
 
 A. Nature of terms — Expression of all terms as fractions 
 
 1. Unit fraction-4-unit fraction, as 1/8-4-1/9 7 
 
 2. Unit fraction-4-other proper fraction, 1/3-4-2/5 8 
 
 3. Unit fraction-4-improper fraction, as 1/9-4-7/4 9 
 
 4. Unit fraction-4-mixed number, as 1/2-4-2 3/5 10 
 
 5. Unit fraction-:-whole number, as 1/4-4-7 11 
 
 6. Other proper fraction-4-unit fraction, as 3/4-4-1/7 12 
 
 7. Other proper fraction-f-other proper fractions, as 3/4-4-2/7 13 
 S. Other proper fraction-4-improper' fraction, as 3/8-4-4/3 14 
 9. Other proper fraction-4-mixed number, as 7/10-4-1 2/3 15 
 
 10. Other proper fraction-4-whole number, as 4/9-4-8 16 
 
 11. Improper fraction-4-unit fraction, as 7/5-4-1/3 17 
 
 12. Improper fraction-4-other proper fraction, as 5/4-4-7/8 18 
 
 13. Improper fraction-f-improper fraction, as 5/2-4-8/3 19 
 
 14. Improper fraction-4-mixed number, as 9/7-4-1 1/5 20 
 
 15. Improper fraction-4-whole number, as 7/5-4-3 21 
 
 16. Mixed number-4-unit fraction, as 1 5/6-4-1/2 22 
 
 17. Mixed number-4-other proper fraction, as 3 8/9-4-4/5 23 
 
 18. Mixed number-4-improper fraction, as 5 2/5-4-13/4' 24 
 
 19. Mixed number-4-mixed number, as 4 2/9-4-7 1/3 25 
 
The Third Yearbook 69 
 
 20. Mixed numbers-whole number, as 3 7/8S-5 26 
 
 21. Whole numbers-unit fraction, as 8-=-l/7 27 
 
 22. Whole number-mother proper fraction, as 9S-3/5 28 
 
 23. Whole numbers-improper fraction, as 6S-7/3 29 
 
 24. Whole numbers- mixed number, as 4S-3 5/8 30 
 
 25. Whole numbers-larger whole number, as 7S-15 31 
 
 B. Change of S- to X 32 
 
 C. Inversion of divisor 33 
 
 D. Cancellation 
 
 1. No cancellation possible, as 3/5X4/7 34 
 
 2. Single cancellation 
 
 a. One number, a factor of the other, as 3/5X7/9 35 
 
 b. Two numbers with a common factor, as 6/7X5/S 36 
 
 3. Double cancellation 
 
 a. In each case one number a factor of the other, as 3/4X8/9 37 
 
 b. In each case two numbers with a common factor, as 8/9 X 15/18 38 
 
 4. Rec. One case of each type of cancellation, as 3/10S-8/9 39 
 
 5. Reduction cancellation 
 
 a. One number a factor of the other, as 2/8 40 
 
 b. Two numbers with a common factor, as 8/10 41 
 
 6. Incomplete or continued cancellation 
 
 a. One number a factor of the other, 8/9S-1 1/3S-1 1/15 42 
 
 b. Two numbers with a common factor, 1 37/40s-2 3/16S-1 19/25 43 
 
 E. Multiplication , 
 
 1. Neither factor unity in numerator or denominator, as 3/8X5/6 44 
 
 2. One factor unity in numerator, as 1/7X5/8 45 
 
 3. One factor unity in denominator, as 3/5X4 . 46 
 
 4. Both factors unity in numerator, as 1/4X1/6 47 
 
 5. Both factors unity in denominator, as 10X3/5 48 
 
 F. Analysis of quotient 
 
 1. Quotient a whole number 
 
 a. Cancellation complete — irreducible as 7/1 49 
 
 b. Cancellation incomplete — reducible as 15/3 50 
 
 2. Quotient a proper fraction 
 
 a. Cancellation complete — irreducible as 2/3 51 
 
 b. Cancellation incomplete — reducible 
 
 (1) Numerator a factor of denominator, as 3/15 52 
 
 (2) Numerator and denominator having a common factor 
 
 as 8/10 53 
 
 3. Quotient an improper fraction — reduce to mixed number 
 
 a. Cancellation complete — fraction irreducible, as 13/4 54 
 
 b. Cancellation incomplete — fraction reducible, as 21/6 5 5 
 
 (b) Frequency of each number combination in drill— A consideration of 
 the nature of drill material second only in importance to the calculated 
 
 appearance of every type of example is the matter of the frequency with 
 which each number combination occurs. < 
 
70 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 FIG. i 
 
 - 
 
 o 
 
 \ 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4- 
 
 5 
 
 fo 
 
 7 
 
 & 
 
 9 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2GI- 
 
 ?H2 
 
 aw 
 
 1 36 
 
 146 
 
 I7| 
 
 &o 
 
 lo6 
 
 73 
 
 71 
 
 I 258 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 46 3H 
 
 149 
 
 142 
 
 91 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 755 
 
 3 
 
 <b3 
 
 31 
 
 48 
 
 |^9 
 
 lo3 
 
 92 
 
 69 
 
 55 
 
 5o 
 
 54 
 
 565 
 
 A 
 
 loo 
 
 50 
 
 77 
 
 35 
 
 2o5 
 
 164- 
 
 71 
 
 67 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 7 13 
 
 5 
 
 198 
 
 36 
 
 b7 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 136 
 
 61 
 
 39 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 371 
 
 6 
 
 83 
 
 41 
 
 57 
 
 4o 
 
 37 
 
 33 
 
 192 
 
 156 
 
 62 
 
 5!) 
 
 S&8 
 
 7 
 
 57 
 
 32 
 
 3b 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 So 
 
 4& 
 
 55 
 
 327 
 
 6 
 
 124 
 
 46 
 
 e>o 
 
 35 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 152|124 
 
 569 
 
 9 
 
 Ol 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 2; C 
 
 19 »3 
 
 301 
 
 c 
 
 <D 
 
 O 
 v- 
 
 D 
 
 Total 5617 
 
 This Chart is Based on Data Published in Thorndike's Psychology of Arithmetic. 
 
 Figure 1. — Distribution of Practice from Text X. 
 
 Read as follows: 1 is taken from 0, 261 times; 7 is taken from 5 (15), 
 19 times; etc. 
 
 If an analysis of a year's drill in the addition of whole numbers revealed 
 the fact that the combination 2 -\- 2 appeared twice as often as did the 
 combination 9 -f- 7, a superintendent would be justified in suspecting that 
 the drill work for that year was incorrectly constructed. 
 
 Most review drill work at the present time is constructed more on the 
 "number of examples," or the "number of pages" principle than upon the 
 more useful principle of the number of appearances of each combination. 
 
 Figures 1-3 show the frequency with which the several subtraction com- 
 binations are practiced in the drill work on the subtraction of whole num- 
 bers given in two textbooks, grades three to six. The names of these 
 books are withheld for obvious reasons. It should be noted, however, that 
 one of these texts observes that aspect of Specification 1 which has to do 
 with the distribution of drill upon all the combinations. The other text- 
 book serves as a practical contrast with Specification 1. 
 
 A study of Figure 1 will show the reader that while this drill looks 
 satisfactory when hurriedly scanned, it does as a matter of fact fail to meet 
 Specification 1. Those combinations which involve borrowing, or carrying, 
 according to the method of subtraction used, are practiced less frequently 
 than those which involve no borrowing or carrying. Thus, the easier is 
 practiced the more often. The frequency with which combinations occur 
 was evidently not a matter of deliberation. No one would, ,for instance, 
 really purpose to practice 7 — 6, 156 times and 7 — 5, 59 times. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 71 
 
 It seems fair to say that the theory upon which this drill is built is one 
 that maintains that gross quantity of drill or drill by the square inch of 
 printed page is satisfactory. It is not. 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 — o 
 c 
 
 4J 
 
 ZQ 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 a. 
 
 3U 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 & 
 
 9 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 62 
 
 '40 
 
 30 
 
 30J30 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 
 2. 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 3o 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 
 4- 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 £2 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 4o 
 
 40 
 
 4b 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 3D 
 
 40 
 
 4o 
 
 49 
 
 O 
 
 
 6 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 &2 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 4o 
 
 40 
 
 5o 
 
 54 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 4o 
 
 bo 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 & 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 6b 
 
 40 
 
 5o 
 
 ht 
 
 )6 
 
 
 J 9 |6b 
 
 6b 
 
 65 
 
 6b 
 
 6b 
 
 6b 
 
 6b 
 
 6b 
 
 6bj 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 sb 
 
 Ic 
 
 Figure 2. — Distribution of Practice from Text Y. 
 
 Read as follows: 2 is taken from (10), 62 times; 2 is taken from 
 1 ( 1 1 ) , 62 times ; etc. 
 
 A study of Figure 2 will show, that it observes Specification I of this 
 report. 
 
 FIG. 3 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Textx 
 
 Texty 
 
 A 
 
 5617 
 
 4495 
 
 B 
 
 
 3306 
 
 1675 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 57^% 
 
 36 y 2 % 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 2391 
 
 2820 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 42 J/2% 
 
 63J^% 
 
 
 
 
 Figure 3. — A Comparison of Figures 1 and 2. 
 
 It is noteworthy that while the gross amount of drill in Text X is greater 
 than the gross amount in Text Y, the amount of drill upon the harder 
 aspects of subtraction, in Text X is significantly smaller than in Text Y. 
 
 (c) Location of number combinations in all positions — To construct 
 drill that will possess a defensible distribution of practice among the various 
 number combinations would be a substantial advance upon much of the 
 drill material of the present time. A further advance is desirable though 
 its attainment involves exceeding care in drill construction. Every num- 
 
72 Department of Superintendence 
 
 ber combination should not only appear with calculated frequency but 
 should appear in examples in various places. This variety of position within 
 the examples will offset any subtle tendency to learn a number of combina- 
 tions in a lopsided fashion. A few illustrations are pertinent. 
 
 In these multiplication examples, note that multiplying by 6 does not 
 always mean first multiply by 6. 
 
 856 856 856 
 
 X 406 X 463 X 643 
 
 In these addition examples, the carrying of two is not tied to the first 
 carrying to be done. 
 
 201 120 102 
 
 430 340 304 
 
 674 467 746 
 
 805 580 508 
 
 354 435 453 
 
 In these subtraction examples, 7 is subtracted from 4, not only when 
 both the 7 and the 4 are seen but also when one of the numbers in the 
 subtraction 7 from 4 is unseen. 
 
 564 552 a 542 b 
 
 — 347 —378 or —368 
 
 Generally, it is unwise in drills involving several processes always to 
 have the addition example come first, then the subtraction examples, and 
 so on. The order in which examples of different processes come, should 
 be mixed as well as the examples. This is to offset any subtle help that 
 the order of drill work might give to the pupil in forming the harmful 
 habit of first adding, then subtracting, etc., in a unit of any kind of 
 arithmetic work. This last consideration assumes that the drills for main- 
 taining skills previously learned contain examples of several processes, a 
 specification defended later in this report. 
 
 (d) Computation difficulties present — Under Specification 1, we are 
 concerned not only in practicing all the various types of examples of a 
 process that may be expected to appear in real life but in practicing with 
 calculated frequency the specific number combinations which occur in that 
 process ; we are also concerned with the calculated frequency of appearance 
 of all the specific difficulties that are contained in that process. 
 
 Thus in the addition of whole numbers, it would be possible to practice 
 all the combinations and all forms of examples and still practice the carry- 
 ing of . 1 or nothing practically all the time. This would be patently un- 
 fortunate since by the very mechanics of habit-formation, if a pupil carries 1 
 
 a 552 practices 4 — 7 if the borrowing method is used by the pupil. 
 
 — 378 
 
 b 542 practices 4 — 7 if the additive method is used by the pupil. 
 
 — 368 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 73 
 
 or nothing most of the time he is more liable to carry 1 (what he usually 
 does) when he ought to carry 2, 3, or even 4. 
 
 We are of the opinion that many of the irritating errors of pupils are 
 due to the fact that one response has been so favored that it has become 
 a preferred response to a situation that should be attached to several 
 responses instead of to a single one. Thus a pupil using a textbook or a drill 
 service which gives 85 per cent of carrying practice to the carrying of 1 
 probably aids and abets errors in carrying. 
 
 (e) Illustrations from texts on appearance of unit skills in fraction 
 drills — Table 4 shows the frequency with which the several types of possi- 
 bilities in the division of fractions and small mixed numbers are met in five 
 standard textbooks during the sixth-grade drill work on maintaining that 
 'skill. The unit skill number at the left of the page refers to similar num- 
 bers found in the analysis of the division of fractions given on page 68. 
 
 TABLE 4.— THE FREQUENCY OF PRACTICE ON UNIT SKILLS INVOLVED IN 
 THE DIVISION OF FRACTIONS IN FIVE SIXTH-GRADE TEXTBOOKS 
 
 
 f Skill Number 
 
 Frequency 
 
 Unit o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Text A 
 
 Text B 
 
 Text C 
 
 Text D 
 
 Text E» 
 
 
 1 
 
 161 
 
 112 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 76 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 
 35 
 
 86 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 39 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 35 
 
 90 
 
 29 
 
 62 
 
 64 
 
 
 45 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 
 46 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 
 47 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 48 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 13 
 
 
 51 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 35 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 53 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 54 
 
 45 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 37 
 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 "Those unit skills which would not ordinarily appear in drill, or which are taboo, or which are 
 common to all examples, are omitted from this frequency table. 
 
74 Department of Superintendence 
 
 (f) Comments on the distribution of practice among the several unit 
 skills involved in the division of fractions — 1. The texts vary in their utter 
 omission of certain elements of the division of fractions. Of the unit skills 
 listed in Table 4, Text A gives no practice on 12 of the unit skills; Text 
 B on 16; Text C on 18; Text D on 16; and Text E on 5. 
 
 It is evident that these texts vary in the amount of faith held in transfer. 
 To leave out 18 of the unit skills involved in the division of fractions 
 assumes a transfer within a function of a type and of an amount that no 
 published experimental data support. 
 
 After studying the analysis given above and the omissions in the table, 
 the reader will be hard put to it to justify many of the omissions. 
 
 2. These texts vary in their opinion concerning the amounts of drill that 
 each unit skill should have. Some of the unit skills receive much practice 
 in one text and little or none in another text. Thus children studying 
 sixth-grade arithmetic from different texts receive a very different experi- 
 ence in the division of fractions. It would be valuable to know the relation- 
 ship between the amount of drill in terms of the unit skills involved and 
 the frequency of errors in standard tests. 
 
 3. Since the relative difficulty of the several unit skills involved in the 
 division of fractions is unknown and since the amount of transfer among 
 the unit skills is unknown, the writer of drill material is on uncertain 
 ground when he purposely omits or gives but little practice to any of the 
 more common unit skills. 
 
 (g) Drills can be built to specifications — It is perfectly practical to build 
 drill to specifications. As an illustration of this, the following sample of 
 drill material in the addition of fractions is inserted. 
 
 Sample Drill in Addition of Fractions Unit Skills Number 
 
 2/5 + 1/2=9/10 1 — 6 — 12 — 16 — 19 
 
 1/7 
 1/11 
 
 18/77 . 2—6—12—16—19 
 
 Add two-thirds plus one-fourth=ll/l2 5 — 6 — 12 — 16—19 
 
 3/10 + 1/2=4/5 1 — 6 — 12 — 15 — 20 
 
 2/3+4/9=1 1/9 1 — 6 — 12 — 15 — 22 
 
 8/20+3/5 = 1 1 — 6 — 12 — 15— 21 
 
 4+1/2+1/4=4 3/4 . 1 — 7 — 13 — 15 — 24 
 
 1/4+8 5/6+1/3=9 5/12 1 — 8 — 13 — 18 — 26 
 
 Two and three-eighths plus three and two-fifths=5 31/40 5 — 9 — 12 — 16 — 24 
 
 One-thifd+four-fifths + eight-fifteenth=l 2/3 4 — 6—13—15—23 
 
 Add 9 7/19 plus 4 12/19=14 3—9—12—14 — 27 
 
 3 1/2+4 3/10=7 4/5 1 — -9 — 12 — 15 — 25 
 
 4/9 + 11 5/6=12 5/18 1 — 9 — 12 — 17 — 26 
 
 3/5+12+4 1/2=17 1/10 ,1 — 1 1 — 1 3 — 16 — 26 
 
 7 1/2+5+4 1/3 = 16 5/6 1 — -10 — 13 — 16— 24 
 
 2/5 
 
 1/2 
 
 2/4 
 
 1 2/5 2—6—13—18—23 
 
The Third Yearbook 75 
 
 1. It is further entirely practical that committees in charge of the mak- 
 ing of curricula and the providing of instruments of instruction analyze and 
 appraise such instruments not only in terms of gross amount but also in 
 terms of the internal organization of the material. In fact, specifications 
 for drill should be written first and the drills subsequently built according 
 to them. 
 
 Summary of Specification I 
 
 A. At the present time, there is a little carelessness in many drill services 
 relative to the insertion of all types of examples in drill material. There 
 is in many drill services an unfortunate disregard of the proper distribution 
 of practice of every combination used in a process. There is a frequent 
 omission of proper practice on all the difficulties of procedure within a total 
 process. 
 
 B. We do not yet know how many times any given number combina- 
 tion should be practiced, nor do we know the relative difficulty of the 
 several combinations. Until we do, it is best to practice all combinations 
 an equal number of times, or if more practice is given to some combinations 
 than to others, we should base this inequality or practice upon some reason- 
 able assumptions rather than have the inequality a matter of chance or luck. 
 
 C. In drill construction, scientific specifications should be written first 
 and the drills drawn to meet these specifications. The specifications should 
 be based on an adequate analysis of the process concerned. 
 
 Specificaticn II. Drill Should Come Frequently in Small Amounts 
 
 (a) Distribution of time for drill on a single process — The nature of 
 Specification II can best be described by meeting a concrete situation. Sup- 
 pose 100 minutes are allotted to drill in the addition of whole numbers in 
 grade six, how can the 100 minutes be best distributed? Consider the 
 possibilities below : 
 
 100 minutes all in one drill in September 
 50 minutes in September and 50 minutes in June 
 25 minutes in September, 25 minutes in November, 25 minutes in 
 
 March, 25 minutes in June 
 10 minutes each month 
 5 minutes each two weeks 
 2% minutes each week. 
 
 (b) Two opposing theories of time distribution — The extremes of prac- 
 tice relative to the distribution of drill on any process are based on two 
 theories of drill organization which may be called "the cold storage theory" 
 and "the small doses theory." The total amount of drill or the time spent 
 on drill may well be the same in both instances. The question here is not, 
 "How much time shall be spent," but "How shall any given amount of 
 time be distributed through the year?" 
 
 (c) The cold storage theory and its weaknesses — The present practice 
 of textbook organization, with two notable exceptions, leans to the cold 
 
76 Department of Superintendence 
 
 storage theory. The embarrassment of having to defend the cold storage 
 theory of drill is avoided by occasional footnotes to teachers telling them 
 to practice on a certain drill frequently during the rest of the year. This 
 attempt at avoiding the weaknesses of the cold storage theory of drill 
 organization carries no guarantee of success since the average classroom 
 teacher has many things on her mind, is always pressed for time, and 
 rightly feels that the text should as far as possible arrange material in 
 defensible order rather than ask her to do what the author of the text 
 could do himself. 
 
 Another and much more successful escape from the cold storage theory 
 of drill organization is the use of practice material which is quite inde- 
 pendent of the text. By the use of these drill services a pupil can practice 
 a skill at frequent intervals. It should be pointed out, however, that the 
 use of many of the drill services will by no means guarantee the maintain- 
 ing of skills since other imported specifications of good drill are slighted 
 in them. 
 
 Space will not be taken here to defend the practice of giving a little 
 drill frequently as opposed to giving large amounts at long intervals. The 
 psychology of forgetting and the futility of practice at any one time in 
 excess of a rather modest optimum are too well known by the readers of 
 this report to need rehearsing here. 
 
 (d) Illustrations from texts on time distribution of drill on division of 
 fractions — Table 5 shows the degrees of respect paid to the specification of 
 drill organization which has to do with the time distribution of drill. 
 
 Five reputable textbooks of sixth-grade arithmetic are used for illustra- 
 tion. The progress of a class through each textbook for the school year 
 was estimated by eight competent and experienced teachers of arithmetic. 
 Each textbook was divided into 36- week sections by each of the eight judges 
 estimating the natural progress of a class through each book separately. 
 The eight judgments for each book were then averaged. This average was 
 used as the 36 weekly divisions of each text. In Table 5 each week rep- 
 resents the amount of work that a class would do if the total book is finished 
 during the year. Since the amount of material in the texts studied varies, 
 classes using one text might have to go faster per hour or spend more hours 
 or omit more material than a similar class using another of the texts. Of 
 course all classes do not go at the same rate and no one class may go at 
 exactly the rate used here. These considerations, however, are vital to the 
 consideration of distributed versus concentrated drill. 
 
 (e) Comments on the illustrations of fraction drill — 1. If the organiza- 
 tion of drill in texts A, B, C, and D is correct, then the organization of 
 drill work in text E is wrong, and the reverse. While no important 
 significance should be attached to minor differences in drill organization, it 
 is obvious that the theories underlying the construction of the five texts 
 above are radically different. Texts A, B, C, and D practice the theory 
 that large amounts of drill infrequently are an economical method of main- 
 taining a skill. Text E is built on the theory that a little drill weekly is 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 77 
 
 TABLE 5.— THE TIME DISTRIBUTION OF EXAMPLES IN THE DIVISION OF 
 FRACTIONS DURING A 36-WEEK SCHOOL YEAR FOR 5 SIXTH-GRADES 
 
 TEXTBOOKS 
 
 
 Week 
 
 Number of Examples 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Text A 
 
 Text B 
 
 Text C 
 
 Text D 
 
 Text E» 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 64 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 22 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 . 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 168 
 
 112 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 88 
 
 » Certain examples in the division of fractions included in Text E are omitted from this count 
 because they are incorporated in a series of inventory units which are not paralleled by similar units in 
 the other texts. 
 
 an economical method to use in maintaining skills. It is hardly possible 
 that both theories are equally sound. 
 
 2. It might be urged that the texts A, B, C, and D assume the use of 
 drill pads. However, although there are available at the present time 
 various drill services for whole numbers, there is no widely used drill 
 service for fractions. 
 
 3. There is a difference of opinion as to the amount of drill that is 
 necessary" Text A uses the same theory of infrequency of practice as does 
 text C. Yet text A gives exactly twice as much practice. Here again 
 both texts cannot be right. If 168 examples in the division of fractions is 
 the correct amount of practice for a sixth^grade text, then text A has made 
 
78 Department of Superintendence 
 
 adequate provision but text C fails to give enough practice. However, if 
 about 90 practices during the sixth grade is an adequate provision then 
 text A provides wasteful overpractice while text G provides sufficient drill. 
 
 4. The difference in the amount of drill between text A and text E may 
 be explained by the difference in the distribution. It is possible that text 
 E with its distributed practice will give as much or more skill with 88 
 practices as one will get from 168 concentrated practices of text A. 
 
 5. It is also possible that the authors of the texts desire different amounts 
 of skill. If this is so, we have a defense for the varying amounts of prac- 
 tice. The fact is that text E alone gives any usable information about 
 standards of attainment in the division of fractions. It is doubtful if the 
 problem of attainment in measurable terms was dealt with seriously by the 
 other texts. 
 
 Specification III. A Drill Unit Should Be a Mixed Drill 
 A further consideration of drill organization has to do with the content 
 of any single drill unit. If we agree to have short drills used frequently 
 for any single process (Specification II) ; if we agree to have in the examples 
 used for any one process as they run along in sequence, practice all the 
 combinations, appear in various forms, and possess the obvious and hidden 
 difficulties in an orderly fashion, we have yet to agree upon the nature of 
 any single drill unit. 
 
 Shall we practice addition of whole numbers today, subtraction of whole 
 numbers tomorrow, multiplication the next day, and so on? Or shall we 
 practice a little of each process so far mastered in each drill unit? 
 
 (a) Let us call the theory of having each drill unit possess but one 
 process the Isolation Theory, and the theory of having each drill unit con- 
 tain several or all processes mastered at the time the Mixed Fundamental 
 Theory. With these definitions in mind, a proper specification for drill 
 units to maintain skill is the use of the Mixed Fundamental Theory. 
 
 Below are examples organized according to the two theories. 
 
 (b) Illustrations of the Isolation Theory. 
 
 A Short Addition Drill for Monday 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 526 
 
 228 
 
 4.37 
 
 169 
 
 .437 
 
 .06 
 
 540 
 
 239 
 
 .28 
 
 598 
 
 602 
 
 5.01 
 
 124 
 
 548 
 
 .51 . 
 
 ■ 798 
 
 591 
 
 .23 
 
 521 
 
 139 
 
 9.26 
 
 529 
 
 832 
 
 2.96 
 
 985 
 
 747 
 
 
 
 699 
 
 475 
 
 5.72 
 
 400 
 
 529 
 
 
 538 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 A Short 
 
 Subtraction 
 
 Drill for Tuesday 
 
 
 l. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 94327 
 
 14409 
 
 89176 
 
 $14.70- 
 
 -$6.30 
 
 1433; 
 
 -65234 . 
 
 - 5642 
 
 -24589 
 
 
 - 
 
 -572 ( 
 
The Third Yearbook 79 
 
 A Short Multiplication Drill for Wednesday 
 
 348 
 
 2. 
 
 12.40 
 
 3. 
 
 709 
 
 4. 
 
 214 
 
 5. 
 
 195 
 
 x70 
 
 xll9 
 
 7. 
 
 214 
 
 x603 
 
 8. 
 
 432 . 
 
 x5 
 
 9. 
 
 7528 
 
 x69 
 
 6. 
 
 864 
 
 10. 
 
 6104 
 
 x628 
 
 x5 
 
 x67 
 
 x269 
 
 x3724 
 
 Other processes could be drilled upon in this fashion : 
 
 (c) Contrast this use of the Isolation Theory with the use of the Mixed 
 Fundamental Theory. Note that the examples given above appear in these 
 mixed fundamental drills on page 81. 
 
 The examples of the mixed fundamental theory of drill organization here 
 given are used in the first half of the sixth grade. Similar drills used in 
 the last half of the sixth grade would contain examples of processes mastered 
 during the year. Those who organize the drill work upon the mixed 
 fundamental theory should make it a point to insert into each drill unit 
 examples of each new process as soon as it is mastered from the instruction 
 of the year. In this way each process that a pupil has learned is practiced 
 upon at very short intervals. 
 
 (d) Examples of each skill to contain calculated practice — This same 
 principle of frequent practice upon the process should be extended to the 
 items that constitute the process itself. Thus to have a little addition of 
 whole numbers at frequent intervals is not enough or at least is not the best 
 that we can do by way of drill provision. The addition examples should 
 be so constructed that if the combination 6 -\- 9 is practiced 20 times during 
 the year those 20 practices should not be bunched so that the practice will 
 come at any one time. The addition examples should be so built that the 
 6 -\- 9 appears as evenly and widely distributed throughout the year as is 
 reasonably possible. 
 
 (e) Mixed fundamentals type recommended — At the present time, 
 crucial experimentation is lacking to prove that the mixed fundamental 
 theory of drill is really more effective than the isolation theory. However, 
 there are certain considerations which make it the preferred type of drill 
 until the crucial experimentation is performed. Some of these considera- 
 tions are: 
 
 1. Life does not bring us addition on Monday, subtraction on Tuesday, 
 division on Wednesday, etc. The demands that life puts upon arithmetical 
 skill are to be able to use the several processes separately and to be able to 
 use them together, in any order, and several times during the same work 
 period. It is good psychology to practice a total skill as we shall have to 
 use it. The total hierarchy of arithmetic habits formed by the work of the 
 first six grades will be better organized if we practice at one time the total 
 
80 Department oe Superintendence 
 
 hierarchy, not segments of it in isolation one from the other. The Mixed 
 Fundamentals type of drill puts together the things that belong together. 
 The Isolation type of drill keeps apart the things that should not be kept 
 apart. 
 
 2. From the observation of pupils at work there is reason to suspect that 
 the monotony of drill work is greatly relieved by a change of process used. 
 
 3. Many of the more recent texts in arithmetic are using the Mixed 
 Fundamental type of drill for the maintenance of skills previously learned. 
 There are no administrative exigencies which make the use of the Mixed 
 Fundamentals type of drill impractical. 
 
 4. Breakdowns in any one process due to forgetting are more immediately 
 located since the mixed fundamental type of drill organization allows all 
 skills to be passed in review with great frequency. 
 
 5. Mixed drills tend to offset the practice of working the wrong process 
 in taking a Standard Test. In analysing errors made on standard tests it 
 is found that many of the errors are not ones of computation at all but 
 persistence of procedure. Thus if the first three examples on a test are 
 addition and the next three subtraction there is a tendency to add instead 
 of subtract in the three subtraction drills in regular class work. If from 
 the start pupils become accustomed to treating examples in drill work as 
 units, not assuming because the first examples are in addition all must be, 
 this type of error will be greatly reduced. 
 
 Summary of Specification III. A. For drill to maintain skills the Mixed 
 Fundamental Type of organization is preferable. 
 
 B. Care should be taken to insert into the drills examples of a process as 
 soon as it is mastered. No process should ever drop out of the drills after 
 it is inserted, though examples of the easier processes may become increas- 
 ingly infrequent. 
 
 Specification IV. Drills Should Possess Time Limits 
 
 (a) Speed a secondary consideration — Although the world at large pays 
 no extra bonus for phenomenal speed in mathematical computation except 
 to vaudeville performers, it does penalize excessive slowness. It is not 
 within the province of the elementary school to develop excessive speed, and 
 there need not be major emphasis on speed in elementary school arithmetic. 
 Accuracy is an objective far overshadowing in value ambitions of spectacular 
 speed. It should be borne in mind, -however, that accuracy and slowness 
 are not significantly correlated and that a certain measure of speed is not 
 only demanded from the world but is also a measure of attainment in and 
 of itself. 
 * t It- is not correct to think of drill work for the maintenance of skills as a 
 process to be done accurately in any amount* of time. It is work to be done 
 accurately within a reasonable time. Reasonable time is to be defined as 
 that amount of time required by the pupil to complete the work when he is 
 working hard and economically on material that he has been well taught. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 DRILL NO. I 
 
 . 
 
 
 1. Subtract: 
 
 2. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 94327 
 65234 
 
 437 
 602 
 591 
 832 
 475 
 
 
 HXK = 
 
 .06 
 
 5.01 
 
 .23 
 
 
 2.96 
 5.72 
 
 5. Multiply: 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 
 432 
 
 67 
 
 10. 
 
 M + »A*- 
 
 37)2405 
 11. 
 
 18)2004 
 
 7528 
 X269 
 
 12. 
 
 6104 
 X3724 
 
 
 3K-2M = 
 14. 
 
 
 Ksof 5 = 
 
 13. 
 
 15. 
 
 9H 
 
 
 %*.+K = 
 
 
 82)1435 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DRILL NO. 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 214 
 X5 
 
 2 
 
 12)264 
 
 
 3. 64)768 
 
 
 
 4. *f-M = 
 
 
 5. 14409 
 -5642 
 
 6. 89176 
 - 24589 
 
 7 
 
 43 
 2 
 5 
 
 92 
 
 70 
 80 
 10 
 60 
 
 169 
 598 
 798 
 529 
 699 
 538 
 
 8. 74)1184 
 
 13 
 1 
 
 9. 2XH = 
 
 Find the area 
 of this figure: 
 
 
 10. 195 
 X69 
 
 
 
 11. H4X3 = 
 
 
 12. 
 
 14. 864 
 
 X628 
 
 15. 2-H = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 mi. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DRILL NO. 
 
 III 
 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 3. 
 
 5. 
 
 51)1122 
 
 
 526 
 540 
 124 
 521 
 985 
 400 
 
 
 
 348 
 X70 
 
 
 14. 
 
 70-6.30 = 
 
 
 14332 
 -5729 
 
 
 
 6. 
 
 
 
 7. 
 
 
 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 9. 
 
 709 
 X603 
 
 
 
 228 
 239 
 548 
 139 
 747 
 529 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 + 3 + 
 
 H = 
 
 1 
 
 723: 
 
 12. 
 
 H+2- 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. 
 
 8 '25->l6 = 
 
82 Department of Superintendence 
 
 This amount of time varies with individual pupils, and a single time 
 standard for all members of a class should be used only where rating devices 
 allow for various amounts of product. To ask all to do the same amount 
 in the same time denies most of the important facts of individual differences 
 and such standards are always of superficial value. 
 
 In view of the fact that most competent superintendents accept the 
 specification for drill that is concerned with time standards the question is 
 not, "Shall we use time standards in drill work?" but, "What type of 
 time standards is the effective type?" The latter question will be discussed 
 in this chapter. 
 
 (b) Wrong types of time standards — Type A. To use any variation of 
 the following type of time standard in drill work is wrong: "See how long 
 it takes you to work the following exercise." We find in current use the 
 above type of time standard in various forms. Your committee wishes to 
 oppose the use of this type for the following reason. 
 
 It is fundamentally a matter of curiosity not a matter of educational 
 direction. If a child finds that a certain exercise takes him ten minutes to 
 work that knowledge may or may not be of some interest to him. But the 
 use he is to make of that knowledge is not forthcoming. He is given no 
 information to use in making such judgments as these: 
 
 Am jf working too slowly? 
 Am I working too fast? 
 Am I fast for my grade? 
 Am I slow for my grade? 
 
 The information asked for in the type of time standard above leaves the 
 whole matter of speed of performance dangling in the thin air. 
 
 Type B. Another wrong type of time standard is any variation of the 
 following: "Practice upon this exercise until you can do it correctly in ten 
 minutes." 
 
 There are several reasons why this type of time standard in any of its 
 many disguises should not be tolerated. Among these reasons are: 
 
 1. The time standard given is rarely a properly derived standard. Such 
 a time standard cannot be derived from the demands of the business world 
 and thus be a minimum requirement for the commercial use of skills built 
 in the elementary school, because the speed requirements of business have 
 never been determined except in extremely local situations. Probably there 
 are no speed requirements of business widespread enough to be useful in this 
 connection. 
 
 2. The time standard given in this way is seldom properly derived from 
 the performances of pupils in the school. The amount of genuinely 
 standardized drill work is surprisingly limited. Time standards for single 
 drill units have usually been determined from the average performance of 
 a few classes — often from a very restricted area. And, while in all proba- 
 bility there are some time standards in some textbooks that have been 
 actually determined by experimentation, the sampling area used has often 
 
The Third Yearbook 83 
 
 been so restricted that the standard resulting from improper sampling has 
 vitiated the use of these for even computing class averages on a country- 
 wide basis. 
 
 3. A single time standard can give a true measure of nothing but class 
 performance and then it is a function of the type of teaching and drill work 
 that the particular classes used. To set up as a generalized time standard 
 in drill, a time limit based on classes whcih give 25 minutes a day to arith- 
 metic, should be quite useless for classes which give 40 minutes a day to 
 arithmetic. Time standards derived from classes which use an outworn 
 type of drill organization would be too easy for classes which use more 
 effective types of drill organization. 
 
 4. The main reason why a single time standard such as any variation of 
 Type B must in necessity be pedagogically wrong is that its use is restricted 
 to the mythical "average" child. Suppose it were known that the average 
 performance of all the fifth grades in the country upon a certain exercise 
 was exactly ten minutes. To use this knowledge by telling fifth grade 
 pupils to practice upon that exercise until they could do it in ten minutes 
 would be a fine example of educational blundering. (And the fact that 
 many drills now use a single time standard does not make it any less of a 
 blunder. Universality of use in a growing science like education is no proof 
 of merit.) 
 
 A single time standard is a blunder, for it refuses to use most of the 
 important facts of individual differences. Thus, a properly derived single 
 average time standard is useful to only pupils of average ability. It is 
 positively harmful to superior pupils because it says to them, "Practice upon 
 this exercise until you can do it in the time it takes pupils of less ability to 
 do it. Thus, bind to yourself habits and ideals of work far below your true 
 capacity. Form habits of working at half effort so that when you get out 
 in the world if you are ambitious you will have many habits as the result 
 of your education that you will have to break." 
 
 It tells the more limited pupils to do what they cannot do at all or which 
 they can do only by expending an unwise amount of time. To ask a pupil 
 to practice on an exercise until he can do it correctly in ten minutes is mis- 
 education, if the child is significantly below the average in ability. It may 
 be useful in the sense that it tells the slow pupil with cruel bluntness that 
 he is limited. And, such knowledge may be of value. It is vicious in that 
 it presents to the slow pupil situations which are inveterately discouraging 
 thus creating a negative attitude toward school, which hurts in subtle as 
 well as overt ways. It would be as sensible to tell a plump 45 year-old lady 
 to jump 5 feet from a standing position because that was the average dis- 
 tance that all adults can jump, as it is to tell a limited pupil to try to work 
 an exercise in ten minutes because that was the time in which the average 
 pupil could work it. 
 
 Type C. Another misuse of the time standard technique is to ask a child 
 to practice upon an exercise until he can do it rapidly, or as fast as he thinks 
 
84 Department of Superintendence 
 
 he ought to do it. On a moment's reflection it will be seen that such vague 
 standards as "rapidly" or any variation of undetermined amounts of time are 
 absurd. Yet a large fraction of pupils at the present time are using just 
 such senseless time standards. 
 
 In the long run, competent superintendents will not use time standards 
 in any form apart from accuracy standards, also. Since 100 per cent 
 accuracy within a time standard is a procedure that carries with it too 
 many disadvantages to make it practical, this report will delay positive sug- 
 gestions concerning time standards until the subject of accuracy standards 
 has been discussed. 
 
 Summary of Specification IV . Any variations of the following types of 
 Time Standards are either vicious, or futile, or less useful than other types 
 of time standards. They should not be used. Correct methods are given 
 later. 
 
 Type A. See how long it takes you to do this exercise. 
 
 Type B. Practice upon this exercise until you can do it in ten minutes. 
 
 Type C. Practice upon this exercise until you can do it rapidly. 
 
 Specification V. Drills Should Use Accuracy Standards 
 
 (a) The wrong way to use the 100 per cent accuracy standard — It 
 would seem at first glance that the matter of accuracy standards is very 
 simple, because we need just one standard — namely, 100 per cent for all 
 work. However, the matter of accuracy standards is not so simple as 
 this. We can isolate the factors to be considered by a few illustrations: 
 
 Suppose we tell a child to practice upon a list of examples until he can 
 do it with 100 per cent accuracy. If this means until you can take the list 
 as a whole and work it all through without error, the direction is an unwise 
 one. Not unwise theoretically, but unwise in the practical situation. 
 
 Consider the following typical case : 
 
 Let the exercise contain 20 examples. The first time the child works the 
 exercise he misses (for illustration) examples 8, 14, and 19. Since he did 
 not get 100 per cent accuracy on the first trial he must repeat the exercise 
 as a whole. This time he misses only example 19. Since he did not get 100 
 per cent accuracy, he must work the whole exercise again. This time he 
 gets all the examples correct. He would then pass on to the next card if 
 he is using a drill service which gives directions for 100 per cent accuracy 
 before leaving a card or goes on in the text if the drill is in the text. 
 
 Such repetition involves doing three times examples which the pupil got 
 correct on the first trial. This approximates a type of wasteful over- 
 practice opposition to which has been much neglected in current thinking 
 about drill organization. It is poor investment of time to practice on what 
 the pupil needs no practice upon. If in order to practice upon examples 
 done incorrectly, a pupil must repeat much work that he already has 
 mastered, we cannot hope for the best interest in drill work for much of it is 
 obviously futile. If we take the time to repeat correct work in order to 
 
The Third Yearbook 85 
 
 wipe out errors in a few examples — that is, do all the work correct at any 
 one time, we expend much time in repeating correct work. This would 
 not be both harmful and silly, but only silly if the pupil was gifted with 
 eternal life for elementary school education. But, with the crowded curri- 
 culum of the present time we must save even minutes wherever we can. 
 We waste time when we demand 100 per cent accuracy at any one sitting 
 in drill work through the demand that everything must be done correctly 
 at once. 
 
 Further, a more serious charge may be brought against 100 per cent 
 accuracy on a complete unit of work at any one time. While not theoretic- 
 ally necessary, it is often the actual fact that when all the work is repeated 
 the attention of the pupil is centered on getting the whole exercise correct 
 at any one time and the tendency is away from intensive study of particular 
 errors made. Thus, correctness often comes through trial and error, rather 
 than from enlightened study of specific errors made. The whole spirit of 
 100 per cent accuracy of the whole exercise is to try the whole exercise 
 again tomorrow, and due to scant time it too often means plunging right 
 into the whole exercise, doing over many examples already done correctly 
 but omitting a study of errors made. 
 
 The correct procedure is not to repeat the whole exercise but correct at 
 once any mistakes made on the first trial and practice correctly at least three 
 times the examples missed. Without emphasis on the correction of errors, 
 as specific errors to be studied by themselves, practice on error rather than 
 practice in correctness is often the fact. One hundred per cent accuracy 
 standards on whole exercises, as actually used in drill work, are not effective. 
 
 Such a technique of accuracy standards" involves : 
 
 1. Much wasteful time over-practice through repetition of correct work. 
 
 2. Reduces interest through the futility of doing over what was done 
 correctly. 
 
 3. Takes the attention away from an intensive study of specific errors. 
 
 (b) Time and accuracy combined — Standards should be in terms of 
 ratings made on first trial with generous time allowance. Obviously time 
 standards without accuracy standards are to be looked at with suspicion. 
 Also, accuracy standards with no time standards fail to take care of 
 important aspects of competent work. The following combination of time 
 and accuracy standards is suggested as an adequate technique for the par- 
 ticularizing of specifications of drill organization relative to standards. 
 
 (c) The three factors of combined accuracy and time standards — Factor 
 one — A time limit. This is to be generous. It is to be experimentally deter- 
 mined. It should be such that more than half the class can finish the drill 
 in the time given. No rewards are offered for spectacular speed. No 
 penalties for moderate rates of work. The emphasis is taken from speed 
 and placed on power. 
 
 Factor two. A rating in terms of number examples correct in a given 
 amount of time. 
 
86 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Factor three. Emphasis should be on correction of specific errors, not on 
 repetition of work correct, as well as wrong. 
 
 (d) A definite technique described — Consider the possibilities of the 
 following type of standards organized for each unit of drill work. 
 
 (Adapted from drill material. Permission granted by the publisher.) 
 
 PRACTICE ON THE FUNDAMENTALS 
 
 Self-testing Drill No. 12. Number your paper before the signal 
 "Go!" is given. Wherever possible, save copying by placing your paper 
 right below any example. Copy only when necessary. 
 
 You will be allowed exactly 20 minutes. Work as fast as you can with- 
 out making mistakes. Do the examples and problems in order. 
 
 Try to beat all your past records. Use your work on the first trial for 
 rating. Rate yourself by the standards below. 
 
 There follows a drill unit. In this instance it is built on the Mixed 
 Fundamental Theory, with distributed practice. At the end of the drill 
 come the standards as follows: 
 
 Standards. 
 
 Number correct 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11 12 13 14 15 
 Rating 01 2 3 4 5 6789 10 
 
 After you have recorded your rating, correct at once any mistake you 
 may have made. 
 
 (e) Advantage of the suggested technique — The Standards organization 
 above possess these possibilities: 
 
 1. Assuming that the rating device uses facts determined by statistically 
 sound experimentation, provision is made for measuring amount of correct 
 product per time allowance. 
 
 Since ratings from to 10 are given, provision is made for individual 
 differences. Thus, a rating of 6 might be laid down as minimum perform- 
 ance to pass, but good work brings tangible evidence of merit through 
 higher ratings. The rating scheme allows a pupil to know not only that 
 he is doing well or poorly, but also to know how well or how poorly he is 
 doing. 
 
 2. The above device allows ratings on drill units and thus the drill units 
 themselves to be a continuous process throughout the year. While it would 
 be practically impossible to construct tests of identical difficulty for a year's 
 work, yet drill units can be constructed sufficiently equal in difficulty to use 
 a rating device like the one above. By proper treatment of the pupil's per- 
 formances used in making the standards, a rating of five can mean the 
 same thing throughout the year. Thus, a rating of 5 on drill 2 can mean 
 the same thing as a rating of 5 on Drill 12 or 22 or 32. A pupil can keep 
 a record of his progress on drills in an orderly and a meaningful fashion. A 
 rating of 1 or 2 or 4 or 6, etc., can always mean the same' thing because 
 
The Third Yearbook 87 
 
 the ratings would not be computed in percentage of work done correctly 
 which would involve a long series of drills of identical difficulty not only 
 for each drill as a whole but for small parts of each drill. The ratings 
 can be computed, as they were in the drills used as illustration, in terms 
 of the number of pupils getting varying numbers of examples correct on 
 each drill. Thus, a rating of 6 might mean the getting correct of 11 ex- 
 amples in Drill 12, but a rating of 6 might mean getting correct only 10 
 examples on drill 22 if adequate experimentation showed that Drill 22 was 
 slightly harder. 
 
 3. By using a device like the one above a pupil works on drill, knowing 
 at the time of effort how well he did in rather exact terms. By keeping his 
 record of his ratings from drill to drill, he can form an honest and statisti- 
 cally correct estimate of his progress through the year. If he gets low rat- 
 ings at first but improves, his ratings will show him that fact. If he does 
 well at the beginning of the year and begins to loaf, that fact will be re- 
 vealed by the use of the type of standard organization here suggested. 
 
 (f) The use of the progress chart — 1. By using a progress chart such as 
 is often used a pupil can see for himself what he is doing on drill work 
 as the year goes on. He can, in fact, begin to think in pretty definite terms 
 about his work and thus in some measure at least become responsible for 
 his own progress. 
 
 2. The use of such standards is by no means limited to its effect through 
 definiteness upon the interest of the child. Granted that the standards are 
 true ones, they are immediately useful for grading pupils. They also 
 organize the work of the class in such form that the superintendent can at 
 a glance see what any given class is doing, not only in the estimation of a 
 teacher which might be slightly erroneous, not only from his own observa- 
 tion, which might be slightly hurried, not only in terms of standard tests 
 which are given at infrequent intervals but in measurable objective terms 
 from normal class work. Such accurate data admit of a type of supervision 
 that many wish to do but cannot do for want of the essential data. 
 
 3. Further, it is to be noted that the type of standards suggested above 
 do not require the repeating of the whole exercise including examples done 
 correctly. On the contrary it places the emphasis on correcting at once the 
 actual mistakes made. This gives an opportunity though by no means 
 guarantees that pupils will be led to the study of specific errors made as 
 opposed to the more or less repeating of whole units of work. 
 
 4. By having the ratings made on the first trial, repetition of error is 
 avoided. No practice "in the dark" is called for. The procedure of the 
 standard test technique is approximated. 
 
 The above technique, while not perfect, makes greater uses of the strong 
 points in the test and standardization movement, and avoids more of the 
 weak points of improper uses of standards than any other method that ha? 
 yet come to the writer's notice. 
 
Department of Superintendence 
 
 (g) The cost is justifiable — There is one weak point in the use of this 
 device. To build correct standards in terms of several ratings instead of a 
 single standard involves a huge expenditure of time and money, provided of 
 course that the standards are properly obtained. In fact, the use of such 
 standards means the taking of carefully constructed standardized tests and 
 using them as drill units. As far as the writer knows, this has been done 
 but once. Dr. G. M. Ruch, of the University of Iowa, has standardized 
 64 drills for the fifth grade and 60 drills for the sixth grade, using the 
 rating and standards technique herein described. 
 
 Summary of Specification V. One hundred per cent accuracy standards 
 as applied to a list of examples are unwise for the following reasons : 
 
 (a) They involve wasteful overpractice on examples done correctly the 
 first time. 
 
 (b) They do not provide careful study of specific errors. 
 
 (c) They reduce interest because of useless repetitions. 
 
 Factors of Combined Time and Accuracy Standards 
 
 (a) Time limits are to be generous, placing chief emphasis on accuracy 
 rather than on speed alone. 
 
 (b) Rating should be in terms of examples done correctly in a given 
 amount of time. 
 
 (c) Emphasis should be on correction of specific errors. 
 
 Provision should be made for self-testing drills to be given once a week 
 rather than two or three times a year. These should be accompanied by a 
 rating scale and progress chart. 
 
 (a) Provision is made for individual differences. 
 
 (b) A given rating on one drill can be made approximately of the same 
 value on all drills, and so throughout all the drills for the year, thus giving 
 the pupil a continuous standard to rate himself on. 
 
 (c) The pupil is then motivated by awareness of success. 
 
 (d) Dependable data are made available for the teacher and supervisor. 
 
 Specification VI. Examples in a Drill Should Come in Order of Difficulty 
 
 (a) Range of difficulty commensurate with range of abilities — Since the 
 typical class harbors pupils of widely varying ability, each drill should pro- 
 vide some work that all, or almost all, pupils can do. It should also pro- 
 vide some work that will tax the ability of even the ablest pupil. By 
 arranging the individual examples in each drill, from easiest to hardest, the 
 slowest pupil is able to get something from each class exercise. It is equally 
 important that the ablest pupils be given more often than they are a little 
 work that is a worthy foe for their steel. Up to the present time, drill 
 work has been designed for the more limited pupils. 
 
 (b) Easy exa?nples should include more than one process — It is wise in 
 taking care of this specification to make sure that all the easy problems are 
 
The Third Yearbook 89 
 
 not concerned with one process. We should make sure that limited pupils 
 receive practice on their own level in all the processes they have learned up 
 to the time of any particular drill. 
 
 Specification VII. Drill Work Should Include Verbal Problems 
 
 (a) Problem solving should not be isolated — It is unwise to keep apart 
 those things that ought to work together. The ultimate justification for all 
 drill work is the beneficial results it has upon solving problems in contrast 
 to examples, for life is concerned with problems, not mere drill examples. 
 If all drill work is kept persistently apart from practice in problem solving, 
 the pupil does not operate together the skills which ought to operate to- 
 gether. 
 
 Crucial experimentation to support this contention is lacking. But in 
 the absence of such experimentation, it is better to practice good instead of 
 poor theory. 
 
 The samples of drill organization in Appendix C show verbal problems 
 as organic parts of drill units. 
 
 Summary of Specification VII. Verbal problems should be included as 
 organic parts of drill units. Problem solving should not be isolated. 
 
 Specification VIII. Drills Should Facilitate the Diagnosis of Specific Error 
 for the Facilitation of Remedial Work 
 
 (a) Remedial work should be specific — In remedial work, it is almost 
 essential to drill on the specific skills that are weak in contrast to drill on 
 both the strong and weak in an indiscriminate manner. 
 
 (b) The waste of indiscriminate drill — Indiscriminate drill is indulged 
 in when the directions call for the repetition of all the drill including 
 examples done correctly as well as those done incorrectly. It might be 
 urged by those who show a marked lack of insight into practical school 
 conditions that the redoing of examples that possess no difficulty to a child 
 is not a cause of criticism, because such practice will not do any harm, may 
 do good in general, and the pupil has plenty of time anyway. 
 
 All of these defenses are false. The repeating of work done correctly 
 does positive harm, if continued. No self-respecting pupil of even third 
 grade judgment can have much respect or loyalty to a drill service which 
 calls for the same treatment of correct work that it does for incorrect 
 work — namely, to do it over. A negative set toward drill work n the part 
 of many pupils is not a symptom of contrariness. It is a symptom of com- 
 mon sense. It also tends to take the attention away from specific errors 
 which, incidentally, are the only important type of errors pupils make. The 
 argument that there is plenty of time anyway needs no refutation here. 
 
 (c) The suggested standard technique facilitates remedial work — The 
 drill organization defended in specifications V and VI, which have the 
 ratings made on the first trial, avoids the blunder of repeating work done 
 correctly and tends to center attention on errors made. This organiza- 
 
90 Department of Superintendence 
 
 tion approximates the conditions under which standard tests are given. The 
 child does not keep working on a unit until he can do it all correctly. He 
 makes his rating and then corrects his errors. He can make a better rating 
 on the next drill, more surely by a study of his errors in the time available 
 than he can if he spends a major portion of his time in repeating work 
 already done correctly. 
 
 (d) Hard aspects, as well as complete examples, should be present in 
 drills. We can, however, provide other measures for remedial work. In 
 drill construction, it is not compelling to have only total processes presented. 
 To the extent that we know the particular hard spots in processes, we can 
 drill on these in isolation. While the carry over to the total process is 
 probably not 100 per cent perfect, it may be sufficient to pay when the time 
 factor is given due weight. Just as we learn bit by bit, so we can drill bit 
 by bit, especially on the hard bits. 
 
 (e) The teacher s cue for remedial work. If a teacher will notice what 
 types of examples are being missed most frequently, he can make a good 
 guess as to what total process needs special drill the most. If, in addition, 
 the crucial or hard spots on the several processes are inserted in the drills 
 he can locate with useful but not complete exactness whatever part of a 
 total process needs special attention. 
 
 The last word in remedial work in arithmetic will, however, not be 
 spoken until a whole series of studies on that complex subject has been 
 made, based upon pupils who have had good drill from the start. This 
 will be a matter of some years. 
 
 Comments on remedial work to follow systematic drill work are con- 
 siderably compressed in this report for two reasons. First, it is not at 
 present known what errors are due to genuine learning difficulty and what 
 errors are due to faulty construction of drill. It is probable that much 
 need for remedial work lies not in giving pupils more drill but in giving 
 them better drill from the first. If errors are due to the wrong experiences 
 and lack of experiences in systematic drill, then the main drive upon 
 remedial work should be upon the reconstruction of drill work from the 
 start. There is some ground for the contention that much of the remedial 
 work now needed will no longer be needed when drill work meets more 
 adequately the specifications suggested in this report. 
 
 We are not concerned in the science of education with the planning of 
 remedial work for pupils who have not had the correct experience with 
 numbers in their systematic instruction and drill. We are concerned with 
 remedial work for errors which persist after the pupil has had the best type 
 of drill available. What these persistent errors are will not be known until 
 a sufficiently large number of pupils has had several years of drill which 
 meet proper specifications. 
 
 The second reason why remedial work is not stressed in this report is 
 that practically all that is now known about remedial work is contained in 
 Dr. Osburn's latest book, Corrective Arithmetic. Since most of the readers 
 
The Third Yearbook 91 
 
 of this chapter will no doubt also read Dr. Osburn's book, there is little 
 need for extended treatment of remedial work here. 
 
 Summary of Specification VIII. Directions for drills and the organ- 
 ization of standards for drill should direct the attention to specific errors. 
 
 Teachers should note which process is being missed most frequently in 
 drill work. Special emphasis should be placed on this process. 
 
 Specific work on the crucial parts of a total process should be inserted 
 in units of drills, so that guidance may be given to both teacher and pupils 
 as to what specific weakness may exist. 
 
 IV. What is the Best Procedure for Building up Ability to Handle 
 Concrete or Reasoning Problems? 
 
 Isolated reasoning problems are not meeting the demands of life as 
 it is. Under life conditions, problems are solved when the individual 
 is keen as to consequences. Any calculating is a small detail in a larger 
 unified process. The condition is being met in the schools by building up 
 pupil experience, by confining number work in the lower grades to actual 
 needs, and by providing artificial life situations for the intermediate and 
 upper grades such as conducting a cafeteria, managing a department store 
 sale, or working out large unit problems in any form. This whole matter 
 of reasoning is connected with the problem of larger units of instruction 
 properly motivated and the building up of pupil experience. There is no 
 doubt that in the past, much time has been spent on meaningless puzzle 
 and academic material. The result has been a minimum amount of under- 
 standing and a maximum amount of discouragement for the children. 
 
 Following is a brief summary of available studies on reasoning in arith- 
 metic : 
 
 STUDY NO. 23. Davies, G. R. "Elements of arithmetical ability." 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. V, 1914. pp. 131-140, 
 
 The purpose of this investigation was to determine to what extent com- 
 putation, reasoning, visualizing, memory span and "mental arithmetic" are 
 related to each other and to what extent each is related to "general effi- 
 ciency" in arithmetic. Special tests were designed to give measures of com- 
 putation, reasoning, visualizing, memory span, and mental arithmetic. The 
 term "grades" in arithmetic was used as measures of general efficiency. 
 Data were obtained from two adult classes numbering 29 and 32 persons. 
 By statistical methods (rank order correlations) the following, among lesser 
 important conclusions, were arrived at : There is ( 1 ) a close relationship 
 between the skills in the four fundamental operations; (2) a rather close 
 relationship between computation and term grades (r=0.44±.10) ; (3) a 
 very slight relationship between visualization and memory, memory span 
 and "mental" arithmetic, memory span and visualization; (4) a rather high 
 relationship between visualization and term grades, and between visualiza- 
 tion and reasoning; (5) a very slight relationship between computation and 
 
92 Department of Superintendence 
 
 reasoning; (6) a close relationship between reasoning and term grades; 
 and (7) a very great variation among the pupils in each ability. 
 
 The investigation lacks reliability because of the small number of persons 
 from whom data were obtained. The principal conclusion calls attention 
 to the close connection between reasoning and general efficiency in arith- 
 metic. 
 
 STUDY NO. 24. Newcomb, R. S. "Teaching pupils how to solve 
 problems in arithmetic." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 23, 1922-23, 
 pp. 183-9. 
 
 Mr. R. S. Newcomb, of the East Central State Teachers College, Ada, 
 Oklahoma, compared the effectiveness of the "usual manner" of solving 
 problems with a method that emphasized a "careful, systematic and log- 
 ical" procedure. He chose four classes, of seventh and eighth grade pupils 
 to whom he taught the proposed method. Two other classes were used 
 as the check or control group. The initial and final ability of both groups 
 were measured by the Stone Reasoning Test 2. 
 
 In the "careful, systematic and logical" procedure the pupils were in- 
 structed to (1) understand each word in the problem, (2) read the prob- 
 lem intelligently, (3) add, subtract, multiply, and divide with speed and 
 accuracy, (4) determine what is given in the problem, (5) determine what 
 is required, (6) select the different processes to be used in the solution 
 and the order in which these processes are to be used, ( 7 ) plan the solution 
 wisely and systematically, and (8) check readily. 
 
 After "twenty carefully prepared problems of graded difficulty" had 
 been taught to the four classes comprising the experimental group, one 
 each day, Stone Reasoning Test 2 was repeated. The test results showed 
 that the experimental group had made appreciably greater improvement 
 both in accuracy of reasoning and speed in reasoning. The experiment 
 suggests that pupils do profit from instruction in the method or technique 
 of problem solving. 
 
 STUDY NO. 25. Banting, G. O. "The elimination of difficulties in 
 reasoning," Second Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Prin- 
 cipals. Wash., D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals. 
 
 A study of pupils' difficulties in reasoning was made in the Waukesha 
 (Wisconsin) schools by G. O. Banting in 1922. The causes of failure or 
 of inability to reason correctly were found to be lack of general ability 
 in silent reading, lack of familiarity with technical terms in arithmetic, 
 carelessness in reading, lack of the experiences necessary to understand 
 the "setting" of the problem, inadequate skill in computing, lack of knowl- 
 edge of such essential facts as tables of weights and measures, inability 
 to see the relationships in the problem so as to choose the proper operation, 
 inability to do reflective thinking, and the like. In cooperation with the 
 teachers, Mr. Banting devised corrective or remedial devices for each of 
 these difficulties. For example, in teaching pupils to associate the proper 
 
The Third Yearbook: 93 
 
 operation with the context of the problem, easy one step, two step, and 
 three step problems, to which the pupils responded by giving the appropriate 
 operation (or operations) were designed; pupils were practiced in making 
 up problems in which a given operation (or a combination of operations) 
 was used ; and lists of miscellaneous problems were analyzed, so as to dis- 
 cover the problems whose solution required a given operation (or a com- 
 bination of operations). Mr. Banting's study is reprinted in Educational 
 Bulletin, Number 5, recently published by the Minneapolis public schools. 
 This bulletin contains excellent suggestions for teaching arithmetic. 
 
 STUDY NO. 26. Stevenson, P. R. "Increasing the ability of pupils to 
 solve arithmetic problems." Education Research Bulletin (Ohio State Uni- 
 versity) Vol. Ill, No. 13. 
 
 P. R. Stevenson measured the increase in ability to solve arithmetic 
 problems that followed twelve weeks of remedial instruction in the tech- 
 nique of problem-solving. During the first, second, and third of the 
 twelve weeks the pupils were taught to analyze textbook problems. Many 
 types of problems containing data from actual life situations were solved 
 during the fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks. The problems were collected 
 by the pupils. During the third three-week period the pupils solved prob- 
 lems "without numbers." The last of the three-week periods was devoted 
 to a study of the difficult words that appear in textbook problems. As 
 a result of the twelve weeks' instruction, the increase in power to solve 
 problems, as measured by the Buckingham Scale and the Stevenson Prob- 
 lem Analysis Test, was approximately equal to the gains that pupils nor- 
 mally make during an entire year. Stevenson's data showed that the 
 slower pupils made the greater gains. 
 
 STUDY NO. 27. Hunkins, R. V. and Breed, F. S. "The validity of 
 arithmetical reasoning tests." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 23, pp. 
 453-466. 
 
 Hunkins and Breed conducted an investigation to determine the rela- 
 tive validity of seven reasoning tests in arithmetic. These tests were given 
 to 127 pupils in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. By statistical 
 methods, a composite score for all of the tests was found for each pupil. 
 The best test was the one whose scores were in closest agreement with 
 the composite scores. The final rating or merit of the tests arranged them 
 in this order: (1) The Stone Reasoning Test, (2) and (3) the arith- 
 metic reasoning sections of the Haggerty Intelligence Examination, and 
 the Otis Group Intelligence Scale, Advanced Examination, (4) the arith- 
 metic reasoning section of its National Intelligence Test, (5) Starch's 
 Arithmetical Scale, Form A, (6) Monroe's Standardized Reasoning Test 
 in Arithmetic, Form 1, and (7) the Buckingham Scale for Problems in 
 Arithmetic, Form 1. 
 
94 Department of Superintendence 
 
 STUDY NO. 28. Stone, John C. Standardized reasoning tests in 
 arithmetic and how to use them. Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col- 
 lege, Columbia University, New York City. 
 
 In his Standardized Reasoning Tests in Arithmetic and How To Use 
 Them, Stone indicates that standardized tests are useful in surveys, in 
 supervision, and in teaching. Just as the skilful physician measures, 
 diagnoses, prescribes treatment, and measures again, so will the good 
 teacher measure, diagnose, prescribe remedial treatment, and measure again. 
 Stone suggests the making of diagnostic records, showing the specific diffi- 
 culties of each pupil. He cautions teachers not to place too much reliance 
 on a single test record of an individual pupil. The descriptions of how 
 certain pupils increased their efficiency in reasoning by being taught to read 
 the problem more carefully, to use less labelling in the written solutions, 
 and the like, indicate the value of tests in improving teaching. 
 
 STUDY NO. 29. A comparison of two methods analyzing problems. 
 A study soon to be published by The Lincoln- School, Columbia University, 
 New York City. 
 
 Most textbooks in arithmetic suggest that pupils should analyze prob- 
 lems by thinking: (1) What am I asked to do in this problem? (2) What 
 facts are known? (3) How should these facts be used to solve the prob- 
 lem? Another method, less generally used, calls for the following kind 
 of analysis: In this problem, I am trying to find the profit; the profit 
 depends upon the cost and the selling price ; the cost depends upon the 
 number of articles bought and the price paid for each ; .and the selling price 
 depends upon the number sold and the price of each. These facts are 
 given in the problem; I can easily solve the problem. 
 
 John R. Clark and Leona Vincent compared these two methods by 
 having two carefully selected equivalent groups of eighth and ninth-grade 
 pupils solve a list of fifty problems. The group that used the second 
 method of analysis received the highest score both in correctness of rea- 
 soning and in correctness of answers. The investigators believe that this 
 method should be studied more fully before its superiority over the tradi- 
 tional method can be claimed with any degree of certainty. 
 
 STUDY NO. 30. Myers, G. C. The tragedy of errors in arithmetic. 
 Plymouth Press, Chicago. 
 
 We have seen that the chief difficulty in problem solving is inability to 
 comprehend the relationships between the quantitative elements in the 
 verbally presented problem. Myers believed that problems presented in 
 the form of vivid, imaginative descriptions are more readily comprehended 
 than similar problems presented in the ordinary brief, terse, conventional 
 bookish style. He designed a test containing six problems, each phrased 
 in two ways. The two presentations of one of the six problems follows : 
 
 (C) Bertha's daddy bought her a new string of 100 beads. While she was 
 playing tag, the string broke. Poor Bertha! The beads scattered in every direc- 
 
The Third Yearbook 95 
 
 tion. She caught 48 of them before they fell, but she found only half of the rest. 
 
 When she put the beads on another string, she had only beads. 
 
 (C) A girl caught only 35 of her string of 135 beads when the string broke, 
 and could find only half of the rest, how many beads did she save? The same 
 arithmetical reasoning is involved in the paired forms; there is a slight differ- 
 ence in the computation required to solve them, though Myers evidently assumed 
 that there was no difference. 
 
 The twelve problems, arranged in mixed order, were solved by 468 
 persons. In five of the pairs of problems, the imaginative type proved 
 noticeably easier. 
 
 This investigation suggests the desirability of describing problems in 
 language such that pupils will more easily understand their relationships. 
 
 Conclusion. These investigations of reasoning in arithmetic appear to 
 justify the following conclusions: 1. There is a closer relationship between 
 reasoning ability and general intelligence than between reasoning ability 
 and skill in computation. Consequently, pupils with low intelligence are 
 very unlikely, even under the best instruction, to succeed well in arith- 
 metical reasoning. Conversely, pupils with high intelligence are able to 
 reason fairly well without any systematic instruction in problem solving. 
 2. Instruction in the technique of problem solving, accompanied by prac- 
 tice, results in increased power to do arithmetical reasoning. 3. The 
 factors that seem essential to one's success in arithmetical reasoning, in 
 addition to general intelligence, are (a) silent reading ability, (b) 
 familiarity with the vocabulary of arithmetic, (c) the experience neces- 
 sary to understand the "setting" or context of problems (d) knowledge 
 of certain measures (e) dependable habits of computation (f) ability to 
 associate relationships described in the problem with the proper arith- 
 metical operations, and (g) interest in solving problems. 4. There is 
 some evidence that the graphic method of analyzing problems leads to 
 greater accuracy in reasoning than the verbal or conventional method. 
 5. Reasoning tests are invaluable working tools for teachers of arithmetic. 
 
 No investigations of the relation between the number of "steps" in the 
 problem and its difficulty were found. In general, teachers believe that 
 one step problems should predominate in the second and third grades, reserv- 
 ing two and three "step" reasoning for the later grades. Very likely, the 
 difficulty of a problem, other things being equal, increases with the number 
 of "steps" involved in its solution. Of the 488 problems in a widely used 
 text in arithmetic for grades III and IV, 404 were "one step" problems, 
 and 73 were the "two step" kind. 
 
 A fifth conclusion should be added — namely, that the whole question of 
 reasoning and reasoning problems in arithmetic has not been sufficiently 
 investigated. 
 
 V. What has Psychology and Experimental Education to 
 Contribute? 
 In recent years there has been an increased attention to testing by scientific 
 methods the traditional conclusions and practices of arithmetic. Many of 
 
96 Department of Superintendence 
 
 the studies are too small to do more than suggest a method of final study. 
 Others give only tentative conclusions. Eight of the questions studied are 
 partially answered by Studies 31-48. 
 
 i. WHAT METHOD OF SUBTRACTION IS MOST EFFECTIVE? 
 
 STUDY NO. 31. Ballard, P. B. "Norms of performance in the fun- 
 damental processes of arithmetic, with suggestions for their improvement." 
 Journal of Experimental Pedagogy. December, 1914, Volume 2, pp. 386- 
 405; March, 1915, Volume 3, pp. 9-20. 
 
 The author finds a superiority from a practical point of view of the 
 method of equal addition over the method of decomposition in subtraction. 
 By equal addition the author means increasing the subtrahend in "paying 
 back." By decomposition he means decreasing the minuend in a similar 
 situation. He says, "The main secret of the difference lies in the dispatch 
 with which accounts are settled. One is 'cash payment,' the other 
 'credit.' And the postponement of the compensating act increases the 
 chances of its fulfillment being forgotten." For example, "in subtracting 37 
 from 85, after taking 7 from 15 the disturbed relationship of difference 
 between minuend and subtrahend is immediately restored by increasing the 
 3 tens to 4 tens. In the method of decomposition, however, it is the 8, the 
 second figure dealt with that has to be changed to restore the balance. If 
 the minuend figure is zero, the balancing of account is still longer deferred." 
 
 The author says further, "The disadvantage of the decomposition method 
 is not of course limited to pure subtraction sums; it vitiates all exercises 
 into which subtraction enters — long division, for instance — and is, as I have 
 abundantly tested, performed in the schools using this method of subtraction 
 with difficulty and with dubious accuracy — and yet the decomposition 
 method is apparently taught in about two thirds of the London schools. 
 
 "The reason for this lies in the fact that the rationale of the decomposi- 
 tion method is more easily understood than that of the equal addition 
 method. The decomposition method is 'more intelligible but its practical 
 efficiency is not encouraging.' " 
 
 STUDY NO. 32. Gray, P. L. "Norms of performance in the funda- 
 mental processes of arithmetic." Journal of Experimental Pedagogy. Lon- 
 don, June, 1916. Volume 3, pp. 310-318. 
 
 This is a repetition of Ballard's experiment on the same problem. The 
 superiority of the equal additions method of subtraction is confirmed. 
 
 STUDY NO. 33. Mead, C. D., and Sears, Isabel. "Additive subtrac- 
 tion and multiplicative division tested." Journal of Educational Psy- 
 chology. May, 1916. Vol. 7, pp. 261-270. 
 
 One second-grade class was taught by the additive method of subtraction, 
 another second-grade class was taught by the traditional (decomposition) 
 method. All the children were taught 30 minutes a day for four months. 
 
The Third Yearbook 97 
 
 They found no clear-cut difference. The median of the "take-away" class 
 was 4.5 above that of the additive class. 
 
 STUDY NO. 34. McClelland, William W. "An experimental study 
 of the different methods of subtraction." Journal of Experimental Peda- 
 gogy. London, December, 1918. Vol. 4, pp. 293-299. 
 
 The findings favor the method of equal additions. 
 
 STUDY NO. 35. Winch, W. H. "Equal additions versus decomposi- 
 tion in teaching subtraction : An experimental research." Journal of Ex- 
 perimental Pedagogy. London, June and December, 1920. Vol. 5, pp. 
 206-220 and pp. 261-270. 
 
 These articles describe experiments in teaching each of these methods to 
 equalized groups. Extremely interesting case studies are given. The con- 
 clusions are: 
 
 1. The method of equal additions in subtraction taught to children late 
 in school life, who have hitherto worked by decomposition, produces on the 
 whole results in a few weeks and superior in the weaker children, to those 
 produced by the method of decomposition. 
 
 2. The amount of gain involved does not justify a change of method at 
 this late period of a child's school career. 
 
 3. The method of equal additions shows to decided advantage with 
 young children in accuracy and rapidity ; and this is true both for superior 
 children, who had already learned something of both methods, and for 
 inferior children, who, prior to the experiment, knew practically nothing 
 of either method. 
 
 STUDY NO. 36. Beatty, W. W. "The additive versus the borrow- 
 ing method of subtraction." Elementary School Journal. November, 
 1920. Vol. 21, pp. 198-220. 
 
 Beatty found that in the San Francisco Normal School where the addi- 
 tive method had been taught for a number of years, 43 students had 
 abandoned the additive method and adopted the borrowing method. Of 
 175 California children, only 52 used the additive method against 123 
 the borrowing method. The respective rates on the Courtis subtraction 
 test were 8.2 and 9.2 for speed, and 81.7 per cent and 79.3 per cent for 
 accuracy. 
 
 STUDY NO. 37. Johnson, T. J. "The merits of different methods 
 of subtraction." Journal of Educational Research. November, 1924. Vol. 
 10, pp. 279-290. 
 
 This is a study in subtraction with 277 Chicago Normal School students 
 to whom were dictated the exercises from the Courtis Standard Practice 
 Tests. 
 
98 Department of Superintendence 
 
 After all the students had finished their attention was called to the 
 fourth example which was 137017. Each was asked to analyze the method 
 
 70719 
 
 used as follows : 
 
 Either, or 
 
 9 from 17 are 8 9 and what are 17 
 
 1 from 10 is 9 1 and what are 10 
 etc. etc. 
 
 or or 
 
 9 from 17 are 8 9 and what are 17 
 
 2 from 11 are 9 2 and what are 11 
 etc. etc. 
 
 or any other method used. 
 Out of the 277 cases, 220 used the first method; 23 used the second 
 method; 8 used the third method; 13 used the fourth method; and 13 used 
 a mixed method. It was found that those using the way first mentioned 
 were slightly slower and less accurate than those using any one of the other 
 three methods. But the difference is too small to be of significance, since 
 there is no way of knowing how the group using the different methods 
 compared in intelligence and general mathematical ability. It may be, for 
 example, that more inferior people use the first method. 
 
 2. IN MULTIPLICATION, WHAT SHALL THE CURRICULUM SPECIFY AS TO 
 
 METHOD? 
 
 STUDY NO. 38. Mead, Cyrus D., and Sears, Isabel. "Additive sub- 
 traction and multiplicative division tested." Journal of Educational Psy~ 
 chology. May, 1916. Vol. 7, pp. 261-270. 
 
 Mead and Sears in Study No. 33 on page 96 also gave to a third grade 
 class four months training in the multiplication method of division and to 
 another class training in learning by first mastering the division tables. 
 They found practically no difference between the two methods. 
 
 3. WHAT ARE THE PREFERABLE PROCEDURES IN ADDITION? 
 
 STUDY NO. 39. Connard, H. F., and Arps, George F. "An experi- 
 mental study of economical learning." American Journal of Psychology. 
 1916. Vol. 27, pp. 507-529. 
 
 By Arps and Connard, on the basis of performance in Courtis tests 64 
 college students were divided into -two equal groups. In adding a column 
 
 5 
 like 7 Group T were 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 instructed to add in the traditional way saying to themselves 3 and 2 are 5 
 and 6 are 1L and 1 are 12, etc. Group E were to say 5, 11, 12, 19, 24, etc. 
 
The Third Yearbook 99 
 
 This was to be known as the economical way. Each group practiced 8 
 periods, solving 7 problems in each of the four fundamental operations. 
 After practice the Courtis tests were repeated with gain by T group of 
 8.5 attempts and minus 2.5 rights; by E group of 34.4 attempts and 30.5 
 rights. 
 
 STUDY NO. 40. Uhl, W. L. "The use of standardized materials in 
 arithmetic for diagnosing pupils' methods of work." Educational School 
 Journal. 1917. Vol. 18, pp. 215-218. 
 
 Using the Courtis tests, Uhl checked on the variety of ways grade chil- 
 dren have in devising new modes of breaking up and recombining numbers 
 into smaller and larger units. He concluded that such ingenuity offered 
 at least 2 serious shortcomings: (1) the danger of increasing errors; and 
 (2) reduction of speed in working. 
 
 4. PUPILS' ERRORS, HOW NUMEROUS, THEIR NATURE, THEIR CAUSE, 
 THEIR REMEDIES 
 
 Only two of the many studies on errors in arithmetic are briefly sum- 
 marized here. 
 
 STUDY NO. 41. Osburn, W. J. Diagnostic and remedial treatment 
 of errors in arithmetic reasoning. State Department of Public Instruction, 
 Madison, Wis. December, 1922. 
 
 This study shows that errors may be reduced to a few classes. Four 
 or five different classes of errors are responsible for at least three-fourths 
 of the trouble which children have. The 30,000 errors made by 6,000 
 children on the Buckingham Problem Test, Form 1, are reduced to six 
 classes as follows : ( 1 ) Total failure to comprehend the problem, 30 per 
 cent; (2) procedure partly correct, but one or two essential elements 
 omitted, 20 per cent; (3) ignorance of fundamental quantitative relations, 
 10 per cent; (4) errors in fundamentals, 20 per cent; (5) miscellaneous 
 errors, 2 per cent; (6) errors whose cause could not be discovered, 18 per 
 cent. "About 60 per cent of the wrong answers are due to failure right 
 in the beginning to understand what is to be done." 
 
 STUDY NO. 42. Myers, G. C. "Persistence of errors in arithmetic." 
 Journal of Educational Research. June, 1924. pp. 19-28. (Appearing 
 more fully in The prevention and correction of errors in arithmetic. 
 Chicago, The Plymouth Press, 1924. 
 
 The method was to note the actual response of a child to a number 
 
 situation and to follow this child on the same detail for a long period of 
 
 time. Child M. B. of the third grade responded on successive school days 
 
 to 2 as follows: 7, 7, 6, 6, 7, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 6, 7, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 6. 
 
 4 
 
 Successive responses by child F. W. of Grade 2A to 8 and 5 were, 13, 15. 
 13, 15, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 15, 15, 12, 15, 13, 13. To 13-9: 
 
100 Department of Superintendence 
 
 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 5, 4, 4, 4, 5, 4, 4. This was an average child of his 
 class who gave the foregoing in flash card drill. Following each error he 
 was told the correct answer as "8 and 5 are 13" and was made to repeat 
 it after the teacher in that way immediately. 
 
 At the conclusion of extensive researches, Myers concludes : 
 
 1. A mistake is immeasurably serious. 
 
 2. We are never sure that an error once made will not be made again 
 and in just the same way. 
 
 3. A wrong answer in number work is apparently just as definite as 
 a right answer. In terms of habit process there is no difference between a 
 wrong answer and a right one. Errors are not negative entities. They 
 are just as positive as correct responses. 
 
 From the foregoing data what we have called drill is obviously a process 
 of fixing errors as well as of fixing facts. True drill can be looked upon 
 only as repetitions of correct bonds. 
 
 Other studies dealing with errors in arithmetic are : 
 
 Scott, W. "Errors in arithmetic." Journal of Experimental Pedagogy. 
 London, December, 1917. Volume 4, pp. 147-150. 
 
 Courtis, G. S. Arithmetic tests and studies in the psychology of arithmetic. 
 University of Chicago Press, 1917. 127 pp. 
 
 Anderson, C. J. "The use of the Woody scales for diagnostic purposes." 
 Elementary School Journal. June, 1918. Volume 18, pp. 770-81. 
 
 Theisen, W. W., and others. An educational survey of Janesville, Wisconsin. 
 State Department of Public Instruction. Madison, Wisconsin. 1918. 
 
 Morton, R. L. "An analysis of pupil's errors in fractions." Journal of Edu- 
 cational Research. February, 1924. Volume 9, pp. 117-125. 
 
 Osburn, W. J. Corrective arithmetic. Houghton Mifflin, 1924. 
 
 5. IS THERE TRANSFER OF TRAINING? 
 
 Is there a transfer of training in the sense that drill upon the useful 
 fractions as shown by the studies of Section II of this chapter, will enable 
 pupils to deal successfully with other fractions when encountered in 
 equally meaningful situations? 
 
 Knight's study on this subject is so encouraging that we may limit work 
 to situations that are useful and meaningful for the child at the time he 
 does them. 
 
 STUDY NO. 43- Knight, F. B., and Setzafandt, A. O. H. "Transfer 
 within a narrow mental function." Elementary School Journal. June, 
 1924. Vol. 25, Number 10, pp. 780-88. 
 
 Problem. To determine the amount of transfer in the narrow mental 
 function of the addition of fractions. 
 
 Method. A group of pupils just ready to take up the study of addition 
 of fractions was given tests to make sure that they did not have this 
 ability. Then the group was divided into two groups of equal ability, 
 A and B. Both groups were given the same type of instruction and the 
 
The Third Yearbook 101 
 
 same amount of practice. The practice materials for Group A were so 
 constructed that there were evenly distributed and thorough practices on 
 the following denominators: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 
 21, 24, 28, 30. In Group B the practice was confined to the denomina- 
 tors: 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24. The drill material consisted of ten exercises in 
 addition, two exercises in the reduction of fractions, and one exercise in 
 adding mixed numbers. After the drill period two tests were given both 
 groups, involving denominators practiced by both groups and also denomi- 
 nators practiced upon Group A and not practiced upon by Group B. 
 
 Findings. Almost complete transfer resulted. Group B solved almost 
 as many exercises involving the denominators upon which they had not 
 practiced as did Group A. The correlations between the number of ex- 
 ercises attempted and the number of exercises correct showed practically 
 no variation from Group B with limited training to Group A with general 
 training. 
 
 Note. The particular bearing of this investigation upon the social use 
 of arithmetic lies in the facts that the fractions in the practice material 
 for Group B are virtually the fractions commonly met in business and 
 social transactions and that this investigation suggests that mastery of the 
 manipulations of these will give the necessary command over the uncom- 
 mon fractions if encountered. 
 
 6. WHAT IS THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF MENTAL FACTORS IN THE 
 LEARNING OF ARITHMETIC? 
 
 A study showing the primary importance of interest, attitude, or motive, 
 for successful learning is — 
 
 STUDY NO. 44. Huffaker, Carl Leo. Psychological analysis of learn- 
 ing in arithmetic. Unpublished Doctor's Thesis, 1923. Library of State 
 University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 
 
 Problem. To isolate, describe, and measure the effect of some of the 
 causes of individual variations in general arithmetical ability and the special 
 abilities of which it is composed: (a) the special ability to solve problems 
 stated in words, and (b) the special ability of computation. 
 
 Method. The author had the teacher rate the experimental groups as to 
 attitude, gave them one individual and two group intelligence tests, and 
 then used two achievement tests for testing three kinds of arithmetical 
 ability — namely, general, problem solving, and computation abilities. He 
 then treated them statistically by applying the methods of partial and 
 multiple correlations. 
 
 Conclusions reached. The chief conditioning factors in each of the 
 three kinds of arithmetical ability were found to be of the same order of 
 importance — namely, first, attitude; second, mental age; and third, chrono- 
 logical age. 
 
102 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The author states that "when case studies were made of all pupils whose 
 accomplishment in arithmetic varied widely from their accomplishment in 
 general educational ability, the outstanding feature of the case studies was 
 the tendency of pupils who scored higher in arithmetic than in other sub- 
 jects, to score high in attitude. The opposite is generally true of the pupils 
 who scored relatively higher in other school subjects than in arithmetic." 
 
 7. WHAT IS THE RELATIVE DIFFICULTY, OR THE ORDER OF DIFFICULTY, 
 OF THE PRIMARY NUMBER COMBINATIONS? 
 
 From the curriculum standpoint, this is a fundamental question, and it 
 is surprising that it did not become an object of study until recently. 
 
 STUDY NO. 45. Holloway, Harry Vance. An experimental study to 
 determine the relative difficulty of the elementary number combinations in 
 addition and multiplication. Trenton, N. J., State Gazette Publishing 
 Company, 1915. 
 
 Problem. To determine the relative difficulty of the simple combinations 
 in addition and multiplication. 
 
 Method. In the first part of the investigation a preliminary test involving 
 the 45 combinations in addition was given to the children in Grade I and 
 in the first half of Grade II, and a test involving the 78 combinations in 
 multiplication was given to the children in the second half of Grade II and 
 in the first half of Grade III to discover the particular combinations to 
 which wrong responses were made. After the test, the 45 combinations 
 were arranged in 9 groups of approximately the same difficulty and similarly 
 the 78 combinations in multiplication, in 16 groups. In the respective 
 classes, instruction and testing on the different groups in turn was begun 
 and continued until class responses of 97 per cent correct on the different 
 groups were obtained. Two weeks after beginning instruction on a new 
 group of combinations, a test involving the combinations of the previous 
 groups was given. Then the original list of combinations was arranged in 
 3 groups, and those in multiplication in 5 groups, and instruction was con- 
 tinued until the desired 97 per cent correct responses on these groups were 
 obtained. The final tests involving the original combinations were given. 
 In this portion of the investigation, the number of times each individual 
 combination was missed on the various tests given was taken as an indica- 
 tion of its difficulty. 
 
 As a second portion of the investigation, to check upon this method of 
 determining difficulty, the author gave written tests involving these same 
 sets of combinations to a large number of pupils in Grade III just before 
 and just after the summer vacation. These results were combined with 
 those previously obtained in giving the final difficulty rating of the com- 
 binations. 
 
 General conclusions. 1. In the process of learning, each group of com- 
 binations, power or method is developed whereby subsequent groups are 
 more easily managed. 
 
The Third Yearbook 103 
 
 2. Girls learn the addition combinations with less difficulty than boys by 
 about 10 per cent and make 10 per cent fewer errors in the process. 
 
 3. Girls learn the multiplication combination with about 25 per cent less 
 difficulty than boys, and make about 13 per cent fewer errors in the process 
 of mastery, but boys retain 2.7 per cent better than girls when the whole 
 series of products is considered, excelling especially in the larger ones, while 
 girls excel slightly in retaining the smaller products. 
 
 4. In the process of teaching the addition facts, fewer errors appear in 
 the double numbers even when equal opportunity for making errors is pro- 
 vided; the fewest appearing in 5 — {— 5, and the greatest in 8 -j- 8. 
 
 5. In teaching multiplication the fewest errors appear in the 10's and 
 ll's and the next fewest in the doubles after 3X^. 
 
 6. Combinations in the latter part of the series in both addition and 
 multiplication are more readily learned, but they are also more easily for- 
 gotten. 
 
 7. From the standpoint of skill irt manipulation, difficulty in addition 
 increases with the magnitude of the numbers. 
 
 8. The groups showing the least skill for their manipulation are the 
 same as those showing the greatest number of errors. This shows close 
 correlation between speed and accuracy ; greater speed accompanying greater 
 accuracy. 
 
 STUDY NO. 46. Heilman, J. D. and Shultis, Frank W. "A study in 
 addition." Research Bulletin, Number 1, State Teachers College, Greeley, 
 Colorado. 
 
 Problem. To determine the difficulty order of the combinations in 
 addition. 
 
 Method. The study was based upon the length of time taken by 20 
 pupils in Grades V and VI in responding to the different combinations in 
 addition. The 20 children were chosen from the total number of children 
 in these grades because preliminary tests showed that they manifested suffi- 
 cient variation in responding to the different combinations to indicate clearly 
 difficulty differences among the combinations. Obviously, either the chil- 
 dren who manifested little or no knowledge of the combinations, nor those 
 who knew them so well that their responses to the individual combinations 
 showed no variation could be used. Each of the 20 pupils selected was 
 given an individual examination on 59 combinations in addition. In this 
 examination, the examiner read a combination orally and the child gave 
 the correct response as quickly as possible. The examiner by means of a 
 stop-watch measured the time intervening between the time he ceased 
 reading the combination and the time the child began to give his response. 
 The average time taken by the 20 children to respond to each of the differ- 
 ent combinations was taken as an indication of the difficulty. In connection 
 with the individual examination, each child was questioned as to the method 
 employed in arriving at the response given. On the basis of the results 
 
104 Department of Superintendence 
 
 of these examinations a three-minute drill was given throughout the year. 
 At the end of the year these 20 pupils were re-tested in exactly the same 
 manner as at the beginning of the experiment. The second examination 
 gave a check upon the difficulty of the combinations determined by the first 
 examination. Upon the results of these two examinations a table setting 
 forth the difficulty of the different combinations was developed. 
 
 Findings. Some of the most important findings of the experiment are 
 as follows: 
 
 1. The easiest types of combinations are doubles, such as 2 + 2; other 
 easy combinations are those having one small number, such as 3 -f- 1 ; com- 
 binations with small sums, such as 3 -j- 2 ; combinations with sums one 
 more or one less than twice one of the numbers, such as 4 -j- 3 ; combina- 
 tions with one number an easy multiple of the other, such as 8 + 4. 
 
 2. Combinations with the small number last are easier than those with 
 the small number first, such as 3 + 1 and 1 -(- 3. 
 
 3. The most difficult combination, 7 + 9, requires a response time more 
 than three times as long as the response time of the easiest, 2 — j— 2. 
 
 4. Long response times indicate the use of counting or some other indirect 
 method of addition. The child who responds 16 to the situation, 9 -j- 7, 
 uses much less time than the child who responds by saying 9 + 5 + 2 or 
 9 + 9 — 2. 
 
 5. The data of the experiment furnish the following theoretical table 
 showing the 81 combinations used in all tests, arranged according to diffi- 
 culty, the easiest first: 
 
 2+2 8+8 1+3 4+2 6+3 4+5 8+4 6+7 8+9 
 
 1 + 1 9+9 1+4 5+2 2+8 3+5 3+7 4+9 9+5 
 
 3+3 3+1 1+5' 6+2 2+7 7+3 3+8 7+5 8+6 
 
 5+5 4+1 1+6 2+4 3+6 6+5 4+8 8+5 5+9 
 
 4+4 5+1 1+7 2+5 2+9 9+3 7+4 5+7 6+8 
 
 6+6 6+1 1+8 7+2 4+3 5+6 3+9 5+8 9+6 
 
 7+7 7+1 1+9 8+2 3+4 6+4 4+7 8+7 6+9 
 
 1+2 8+1 3+2 2+6 5+4 8+3 7+6 9+8 9+7 
 
 2+1 9+1 2+3 9+2 5+3 4+6 9+4 7+8 7+9 
 
 STUDY NO. 47. Osburn, W. J. Corrective arithmetic. Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, 1924, Boston, Mass. 
 
 The appendix lists about 1700 .combinations in the four fundamental 
 processes, which the author regards as necessary for tool mastery. 
 
 STUDY NO. 48. Clapp, Frank L. The number combinations , their 
 relative difficulty and the frequency of their appearance in textbooks. Uni- 
 versity of Wisconsin, July, 1924. 120p. __ . 
 
 Method. 1. About 7000 pupils in four school systems were tested for 
 the automatic mastery of the primary number combinations when presented 
 singly. 
 
The Third Yearbook 105 
 
 2. About 3500 pupils in forty-five different school systems were tested 
 for ability in connection with the number combinations when presented in 
 problems with no time limit. 
 
 3. The first two books of two three-book series were analyzed in order 
 to determine the number of times each combination appeared. 
 
 Results. 1. Two sets of tables present the combinations in decreasing 
 order of difficulty for each grade. The first is the result of that part of 
 the investigation referred to in "1" above, the second is the result of that 
 referred to under "2." 
 
 2. Tables are presented showing the number of times each combination 
 appeared in each of texts while other tables show the combinations arranged 
 in decreasing order of frequency of appearance. 
 
 3. Combinations tend to hold the same general position of relative diffi- 
 culty throughout the grades. 
 
 4. The zero combinations afford much greater difficulty when presented 
 singly than when presented in problems. 
 
 5. In general, the larger the members of a combination the greater its 
 difficulty although there are many exceptions. 
 
 6. Pupils have reduced the combinations almost to an automatic level 
 in addition — then come in order multiplication, subtraction, and division. 
 
 7. In actual problems pupils make the smallest percentage of errors on 
 combinations in multiplication — then come in order, subtraction, addition, 
 and division. 
 
 8. The coefficients of correlation between the difficulty of combina- 
 tions when presented singly with a time limit and when presented 
 in problems without a time limit are as follows: Addition -[-.544; Sub- 
 traction +.390; Multiplication +.580; and Division +.022. . 
 
 9. Members of "pairs" of combinations are no more nearly equal in 
 difficulty than are other combinations. 
 
 10. There are 100 simple combinations to be taught in addition, in sub- 
 traction, and in multiplication, and 90 in division. 
 
 11. The number of actual errors in relation to the number of possible 
 errors is greater for certain phases of each of the processes than for the 
 combinations. 
 
 12. The total number of basic combinations in each of the two texts 
 that were analyzed was as follows: 
 
 Text A Text B 
 
 Addition 25,490 28,239 
 
 Subtraction 14,053 11,889 
 
 Multiplication 24,704 29,604 
 
 Division 13,146 11,043 
 
106 Department of Superintendence 
 
 13. The correlation between the difficulty of combinations and the fre- 
 quency of their appearance in the two texts is negative, the coefficients 
 being as follows: 
 
 Text A Text B 
 
 Addition -.452 -.532 
 
 Subtraction -.329 • -.277 
 
 Multiplication -.384 -.465 
 
 Division -.421 -.538 
 
 8. WHAT ARE THE FACTS ABOUT INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND WHAT 
 MAY BE DONE ABOUT THEM? 
 
 The entire testing movement in arithmetic has given evidence on the 
 facts of individual differences. It seems unnecessary to review the data. 
 What to do about individual differences is not so clear. But drill and 
 practice plans are being evolved which wisely used can provide for in- 
 dividual differences in maturity in interest and in ability. 
 
 VI. What Help from Standard Tests? 
 
 Arithmetic deals largely with tool material on a drill basis. Such ma- 
 terial lends itself most readily to standardized testing. Standardized tests 
 in arithmetic have met all reasonable expectations, although the emphasis 
 has been gradually shifting from national standards to individual diagnosis 
 and motivated practice drill. The chief help from standard tests is sum- 
 marized in the following: 
 
 A. By emphasizing tool material they have helped in eliminating the 
 traditional and useless. 
 
 B. Properly used they have great possibilities in motivating drill either 
 for the class or the individual. 
 
 C. They have made possible reaspnable norms of performance that are 
 perfectly definite and adapted to different levels of intelligence. 
 
 D. They have made evident the facts of individual differences. 
 
 E. They have made it safe and easy to release pupils from further drill. 
 
 F. They have become the chief aid in the diagnosis of the difficulties of 
 individual pupils. 
 
 G. For the above reason, they have helped in directing the teacher's 
 time and effort to actual needs of- the class and individuals. 
 
 In general, standardized tests make it possible to write drill specifications 
 that are specific and definite ; to measure the ability of pupils with accuracy 
 and to diagnose their difficulties in terms of specific responses; and to moti- 
 vate, on a class or individual basis, the entire procedure of mastering the 
 drill material of arithmetic. The present tendency is towards the inventory- 
 diagnostic tests that shall cover all needed responses and so make possible 
 a complete check on arithmetic skill. 
 
 The results for reasoning problems are not so definite or so satisfactory. 
 
The Third Yearbook 107 
 
 VII. What is the Method of Curriculum Determination in 
 
 Arithmetic? 
 
 The exceptional teacher or leader of children can, through the mere 
 force of her charming personality and her resourcefulness, lead children 
 through almost any difficulties. The type of motivation that is based on 
 the personal charm of the teacher, while no doubt desirable and acceptable, 
 is not sufficient. In the long run, the center of interest must be in the 
 child or with the child group rather than in the teacher. The problem is 
 to organize a course of study or plan of work in which the material will 
 be most useful to the child and most appealing to him. There is gradually 
 shaping through the force of previous studies, a tentative curriculum-mak- 
 ing procedure for arithmetic. 
 
 The following points will be recognized as being drawn directly from 
 this accumulating scientific data and experience. 
 
 A. The survey method as explained in the preliminary report of the 
 Arithmetic Committee of the National Education Association (Addresses 
 and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1924, pp. 324- 
 330) is the first essential in gathering useful material with reference to 
 processes to use and in convincing teacher, pupil, and patron that processes 
 for which the community has no use may be properly omitted from the 
 work in arithmetic. The survey method does carry conviction and even 
 in a small community secures enough data for determining the useful 
 processes. 
 
 B. Definite standards of motivation need to be set up in order that 
 teachers may not proceed with meaningless drill or formal textbook work. 
 This means: 
 
 1. The basis in actual experience shall be built up before any kind of 
 formal drill work is organized or assigned. 
 
 2. The child sees at every step the use and application of the process or 
 material on which he is worknig. 
 
 3. The work at all times is connected with the personal interests of the 
 children. This is so important that a teacher is justified in omitting drill 
 and other formal work while she takes her class to a cafeteria, to a store, 
 to a station, to a bank, etc., in order to build up experience. 
 
 4. The teacher should take time, as necessary, to develop a feeling of need 
 for the work being done, and this feeling of need should be kept strong. 
 
 5. Pupil behavior patterns should be utilized by the teacher, so that the 
 Arithmetic of the classroom fits into what the child wants to do instead 
 of becoming a formal isolated classroom procedure. 
 
 C. The first work in arithmetic is the organization of experience. The 
 possibilities in this line are well illustrated by Miss Larkin, Number Based 
 on the Child's Experience, in Kindergarten and First Grade, Vol. 2, pages 
 12, 72, 109, 151. Miss Larkin made progress with her children in propor- 
 tion as she kept behind their experience. 
 
108 Department of Superintendence 
 
 D. The next work is a broadening of experience. At this point, definite 
 extension of knowledge begins. The curriculum must provide for new 
 information for the pupils. Starting with present interests, the children 
 must be led out into the larger aspects of business life. This means the 
 organization of life situations, trips, the study of business, the organization 
 of arithmetic work around large community interests, the use of the school 
 bank, the use of advertising from the local papers, in fact it means any 
 procedure by which the children are led into the business situations where 
 arithmetic is used. This becomes the work of the teacher in either making 
 or administering the curriculum. 
 
 E. As formerly indicated, drill must keep behind meaning. Drill is 
 important. But drill can be motivated. It can be aided through real 
 games. Where the need is apparent, even devices are acceptable to the 
 children. If the standards of motivation as set forth in "B" above are 
 observed, and, if the drill is confined to really needed and useful processes, 
 there is nothing that pays better than systematic drill. Such systematiza- 
 tion of drill must become a regular part of the curriculum in arithmetic. 
 Merely to indicate the teaching of a process should be scored in future 
 course of study as of zero value. 
 
 F. In the upper grades, lists of isolated written problems should be 
 replaced by larger life situations involving business and figuring. Life 
 demands thinking in large units rather than the solution of isolated puzzles. 
 For example : 
 
 Should I buy a house or rent? 
 
 Can I afford to own an automobile ? 
 
 What is the cost of a child to age six? 
 
 What does it cost to clothe a school pupil for a year? 
 
 What are the sources of loss in the grocery business? 
 
 What are the marks of a good investment? 
 
 These are samples of the newer type of reasoning situations to which 
 children should be introduced. A good course of study will suggest many 
 such, and arrange so as to avoid duplication. 
 
 G. Needless to say no course of study is satisfactory which does not 
 involve the active participation of the teaching corps, as well as superin- 
 tendent, supervisors, and the entire community. If the final product is to 
 serve the community it should grow out of the community and its activities, 
 as emphasized in point "A" above. But the teachers must help in order to 
 insure careful grading and proper articulation with the needs of the children. 
 
 H. Manifestly, no mere textbook outline deserves the name of curricu- 
 lum, nor does a mere outline of topics. The modern course of study includes 
 in addition to processes, details as to skills and abilities, standards, pro- 
 vision for individual differences methods, standard forms for the solution 
 of processes, suggestions as to tests and remedial treatment, illustrations of 
 good work, suggestions for local applications, a detail of life situations for 
 use in each grade. Nor should the curriculum fail to make clear to the 
 
The Third Yearbook 109 
 
 teacher that the provisions of the curriculum are merely suggestive; the 
 teacher's independence and initiative should be fully protected. 
 
 Comment. The apparent tendency of most of the above studies in 
 arithmetic is in the direction of emphasizing local meanings and require- 
 ments as a basis for curriculum material. A careful comparison of the 
 studies, however, shows that local processes in Texas are duplicated in 
 Illinois and Massachusetts, but the concrete applications vary somewhat. 
 There is no evident conflict between local and national needs. The con- 
 sideration of paramount importance in arithmetic is that of substituting 
 useful and significant subject-matter for the old formal grind on indefinite 
 preparation for something, sometime, somewhere — that is, substituting life 
 experience for verbal memory. In the long run, the best preparation for 
 cooperative living anywhere and everywhere is intelligent participation in 
 the life of one's own community. In the case of arithmetic, we are now 
 reasonably sure that the general need and the local need are so nearly 
 identical, as to give no cause for concern, so long as there is good teaching 
 with the use of meaningful material of present and practical value and of 
 local utility. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 SPELLING 
 
 Ernest Horn, College of Education, State University of Ioiva, Iowa City, Iowa. 
 
 Chairman 
 
 THERE ARE five main groups of problems involved in the improve- 
 ment of spelling: (1) Making the course of study, (2) Deciding 
 what shall be taught in each grade, (3) Determining the most 
 efficient methods of learning and teaching, (4) Providing a satisfactory 
 plan of measuring results, and (5) Determining what text to select, if any. 
 
 Each of these groups of problems contains a number of important sub- 
 problems. For example, in making the course of study one must decide: 
 (a) Whether or not spelling is to be taught incidentally, (b) What words 
 should be taught, (c) How these words should be arranged or grouped, (d) 
 How much time should be given to spelling, (e) What, if anything, should 
 the course of study contain in addition to a word list, and (f ) What should 
 be the relation of the course of study in spelling to the spelling which is done 
 in the writing required for other subjects. 
 
 The summaries in this chapter are limited to those studies which bear 
 on the selection of the words which are to be included in a course of study 
 in spelling. This restriction was decided upon for three reasons: first, 
 the scientific data which bear on this problem are less well-known and less 
 available than those bearing on the other problems; second, since the space 
 allotted to spelling was limited, it seemed better to give an adequate survey 
 of what has been accomplished in solving this problem rather than to give 
 a less adequate survey of a greater number of problems; and, third, the 
 committee, in the brief time allowed, was not able to complete a sufficiently 
 critical analysis of the studies bearing on the other problems. 
 
 In conformity to the procedure in the other chapters in this Yearbook, 
 the various investigations are organized under questions, the earliest in- 
 vestigation being given first and the others following in chronological order. 
 The questions used for group headings for the various investigations are 
 as follows: 
 
 I. What words are most frequently written in life outside the school? 
 
 a. In writing personal letters 
 
 b. In writing business letters 
 
 c. In writing letters and other communications to newspapers 
 
 and magazines 
 
 d. In writing minutes, resolutions, and committee reports 
 
 e. By parents in writing excuses to teachers 
 
 f. In the letters written by literary men 
 
 g. In the correspondence of a single individual 
 h. In letters of application and recommendation - 
 
 II. What words are most frequently used in the writing done in schools ? 
 
 a. In children's themes 
 
 b. In taking examinations 
 
 [110] 
 
The Third Yearbook 111 
 
 III. What is the significance, for purposes of spelling, of the words found 
 in investigations? 
 
 a. Of the vocabulary of reading 
 
 b. Of the vocabulary of speaking 
 
 c. Of the vocabulary of other languages 
 
 d. Of the vocabulary needed in connection with other subjects 
 
 For data bearing on other problems in spelling the reader is referred to 
 the digest and bibliography given in Chapter 3 of the 18th Yearbook, 
 Part II, of the National Society for the Study of Education, published by 
 the Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, and to 
 Tidyman, W. F. The Teaching of Spelling, World Book Company, 
 Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York, 1919. 
 
 I. What Words are Most Frequently Written in Life Outside the 
 
 School? 
 
 Study No. i. Chancellor, W. E. "Spelling: 1000 words." The 
 Journal of Education, Boston: Vol. 71-2. May, 1910. 
 
 Purpose. To find the 1000 most important spelling words. 
 
 Sources. Lists of words submitted by 500 grammar school pupils, each 
 list containing ten words which the pupil thought most worth knowing. 
 
 Letters which the author had received dealing with business, school, 
 political, social, and personal matters. 
 
 Number of lists of words submitted by pupils: 500 
 
 Number of letters examined: Not given 
 
 Number of running words: Not given 
 
 Frequencies of words chosen for 1000-word list: Not given 
 
 Comment. The making of the 1000-word list was the culmination of 
 a series of studies in spelling made by Dr. Chancellor. For five years he 
 had been studying the spelling situation in American schools. He had 
 read one dictionary fifteen times and examined two others carefully and 
 annotated each for spelling purposes. In this way 400,000 words were 
 considered. In addition to this work, he carefully examined nearly every 
 spelling book then on the American market, looked through courses of study 
 in spelling, and read every available article on that subject in current 
 periodicals. Spelling papers, written by thousands of pupils, were also care- 
 
 Special acknowledgment is due to the following persons who kindly assisted the chairman 
 in preparing summaries included in this chapter of the Yearbook. 
 
 To Miss Cora Crowder for summarizing her investigation; to Dr. C. L. Robbins for summa- 
 rizing Andersen's investigation; to Professor V. A. C. Henmon for a summary of the Kaeding 
 investigation and also for a summary of his own investigation; to Miss Annie McCowen and 
 Miss Bernice Orndorff for summarizing the studies of children's themes and for assistance in 
 preparing the manuscript; to Dr. Mary B. C. Byrne and Dr. A. D. Yocum for submitting a 
 summary of their investigation; to Dr. T. J. Kirby for summarizing the studies by Cessander, 
 Capps, and Lester; to Professor W. F. Tidyman for assistance in summarizing the investiga- 
 tions of children's themes; to Dr. E. E. Lewis, Miss Florence Bamberger, and Mrs. Helen 
 Gumlick for assistance in canvassing various studies pertaining to the making of the curriculum 
 in spelling; to Professor M. V. O'Shea for help in summarizing his study; to Dr. F. S. 
 Breed for the summary of the study by Warning. A number of other individuals sent in 
 valuable, summaries bearing upon other phases of the problem of spelling, which could not 
 be included because of the limitations set upon this chapter. 
 
112 Department of Superintendence 
 
 fully studied. As a result of this work, he made a list of 20,000 words, 
 which he felt no grammar school graduate should miss. Different forms 
 of root words were included in this list. 
 
 Dr. Chancellor next sought the answer to this question, "What is the 
 number of new spelling words that an ordinary pupil can acquire?" Tests 
 containing 100 words of from four to eleven letters each were given to 250 
 eighth-grade pupils. All the words had been taught in class previously. 
 The average score was 71 per cent. A similar test which had been given 
 five years before to 10,000 pupils showed almost the same results, 72 per 
 cent. Dr. Chancellor concluded, "I don't believe that the average boy or 
 girl can learn over 75 per cent of 4,000 "words before grammar school 
 graduation." 
 
 The impossibility of teaching 20,000 words to elementary school chil- 
 dren brought up the problem of what words were the most useful of all. 
 It was in an attempt to answer this problem that Dr. Chancellor made his 
 1000-word list. 
 
 He asked each of 500 grammar grade children to write out independ- 
 ently a list of ten words that he or she thought most worth knowing. These 
 lists were carefully examined in an effort to obtain some guiding principles 
 in his work. 
 
 He next canvassed his own letters — "a score or two daily in number, 
 sometimes a hundred" — in order to find what words were most frequently 
 used. These letters dealt with business, school, political, social, and per- 
 sonal matters. 
 
 Dr. Chancellor does not state just what methods were employed in 
 making his 1,000-word list, but apparently no scientific tabulation of words 
 with their frequencies was attempted. He states that he "tried to find 
 what words we all need in common." 
 
 His conclusions were, "These are the 1,000 words that the grammar 
 school graduate should be examined and should attain 90 per cent upon. 
 These are not only the words he will use most frequently ; but they are 
 also, according to my finding in the fashion indicated in this series of 
 articles, the written words that when needed are most needed, that when 
 needed appear indispensable." 
 
 It is probable that in doubting the ability of "the average boy or girl" 
 to "learn over 75 per cent of 4000 words before grammar grade gradua- 
 tion," Chancellor underrated the efficiency of teaching at the time at which 
 his article was written. Certainly we have reliable data to show that, 
 using modern improved methods, it is possible for "the average boy or girl" 
 by the end of the eighth grade to spell more than 4000 words with an 
 accuracy of more than 90 per cent. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Ayres, L. P. The spelling vocabularies of personal 
 and business letters. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1913. 
 
 Purpose. "To find out whether or not there exists a fairly definite body 
 of words so generally used in ordinary correspondence that they should 
 
The Third Yearbook 113 
 
 form the core or basis of the spelling vocabulary taught in the lower 
 grades of our elementary schools." 
 
 Source. Personal and business letters: 
 
 Number of running words analyzed: 23,629 
 Number of different words: 2,001 
 
 Comment. In January, 1913, the Division of Education of the Russell 
 Sage Foundation analyzed the vocabularies of 2,000 short business and 
 personal letters. Twelve sources were used as follows : 
 
 Letters to a firm doing a mail order business 
 
 Letters received by a practicing physician 
 
 Letters to the query department of a city newspaper 
 
 Letters received by a practicing lawyer 
 
 Letters received by school teachers from the parents of pupils 
 
 Miscellaneous business letters to a publishing firm 
 
 Letters received by the secretaries of the Y. W. C. A. 
 
 Letters received by a playground association 
 
 Letters received by a philanthropic organization 
 
 Personal family letters from a large number of sources 
 
 Letters received by a magazine conducting a query department 
 
 A small but varied collection of love letters 
 
 Only the first word in each line was tabulated, or, according to Dr. 
 Ayres, about one-fifth of the words contained in all the letters. The 
 total number of running words actually tabulated was 23,629. Only 
 2,001 different words were found, omitting the names of numbers, persons, 
 and places. "The beginning and ending words, such as 'Dear Sir,' 'Yours 
 truly,' etc., were included only in their proper proportions." The number 
 of times various salutations and conclusions were found is given in tabular 
 form. 
 
 One eighth of all the words appearing were the three most common 
 words I, the, and and. Nine common words formed one fourth of the 
 aggregate number of words tabulated. Forty-three words with their 
 repetitions contributed one half of the number of words tabulated. Table 
 6 shows how a small number of words with their repetitions make up a 
 large proportion of the total running words which Dr. Ayres analyzed. 
 
 TABLE 6.— NUMBER OF SEPARATE WORDS AND THEIR AGGREGATE 
 NUMBER OF APPEARANCES BY EIGHTHS OF THE DISTRIBUTION 
 AFTER WORDS ARE ARRANGED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF FRE- 
 QUENCY. 
 
114 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The bulletin contains a list of 532 words which appeared in the investi- 
 gation with a frequency of six or more. The frequency with which each 
 word was found is given. These words with their repetitions constitute 
 seven-eighths of the 23,629 words tabulated. 
 
 Dr. Ayres points out the fact that "no final conclusions can be drawn 
 from this study because it is too limited in scope to warrant them." 
 
 The chief importance of this study lies in the fact that it was a pioneer 
 investigation. No other single study has been so influential in creating 
 an interest in research for determining the word list in spelling. 
 
 This list of words must not be confused with the 1,000 words given in 
 Ayres' A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. The words in this 
 scale are the result of the compilation of the data from a number of in- 
 vestigations including The Spelling Vocabulary of Personal and Business 
 Letters. A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling is summarized else- 
 where in this chapter. 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. Studley, C. K., and Ware, Allison. Common essen- 
 tials in spelling. Sacramento, Calif. State Printing Office, 1914. 
 
 Purpose. To "provide the teacher with suitable subject-matter for a 
 common school course in spelling." 
 
 Source. ( 1 ) 524 words from Dr. Leonard P. Ayres' Spelling Vocabu- 
 laries of Personal and Business Letters. (2) The 840 words which oc- 
 curred more than twice in the study of 91 Friends' Letters by Miss Mc- 
 Fadden and Dr. Burk. (3) Words collected and tabulated by the authors 
 from 920 compositions written by city and rural school children from 
 grades three to eight of Chico District, California, aggregating nearly 
 200,000 running words, were inspected and 3,459 different words or dif- 
 ferent forms of the same word were found. 
 
 Number of running words for the compilation: Not given 
 Number of words chosen for the spelling list: 3,470 
 
 Comment. The authors do not state whether the frequencies of the 
 different words were kept or not. They state that words "not clearly of 
 common written use in life were omitted in the final compilation." 
 
 An appendix of 462 additional words to be used as supplementary 
 material has been included in the spelling book. 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Nicholson, Anne, A speller for the use of the teachers 
 of California. Sacramento: Calif. State Printing Office, 1914. 
 
 This speller contains, in the appendix, the words from four original in- 
 vestigations, a brief description of which follows : 
 
 A. "Burke, Frederick, Ninety-one friends' letters. Source: personal letters; 
 number of running words: 19,288; number of different words: 752. Comment: 
 There is no description of the manner in which this list of words was com- 
 piled, but the frequencies are given. The number of different words is small 
 for this number of running words. 
 
 B. Members of the Parents' Association. Normal Training School, San Jose, 
 Calif. Source: social letters; number of running words: not given (25 letters) ; 
 
The Third Yearbook 115 
 
 number of different words: 719. Comment: An alphabetical list of the 719 words 
 is given, but no frequencies are reported for them. 
 
 C. California Barrel Company; Source: Business correspondence — 100 let- 
 ters; number of running words: 2412; number of different words: 665. Comment: 
 The frequencies are given for each word. 
 
 D. The Emporium, San Francisco, and Hale's Department Store, San Jose, 
 California; Source: 400 business letters; number of running words: 10,834; num- 
 ber of different words: 1576. Comment: the derived forms were scored but 
 not reported separately. Certain inflected and derived forms are grouped in the 
 reported list under the roots upon which they are based. For this reason only 
 1058 different words are reported. The frequency for each of these 1058 words 
 is given. 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. Cook, W. A., and O'Shea, M. V. The child and 
 his spelling. Indianapolis. The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1914. 
 
 Source. The personal correspondence of 13 people 
 
 Number of running words: approximately 200,000 
 Number of different words: 5,200 
 
 Comment. In Part II of The Child and His Spelling, comprising 142 
 pages, are presented the results of an investigation of the number of words 
 used by a group of adults in their written communications. The present 
 analysis deals only with Part II of The Child and His Spelling. 
 
 In the study of the spelling vocabulary, the authors decided to tabulate 
 the words used by thirteen adults in their correspondence with one an- 
 other. Eight of the correspondents were women and five of them were 
 men. Six of them were connected in family relationships. Some of them 
 had practically no education, not having gone beyond the third grade of 
 the elementary school, while others had graduated from college. Five 
 thousand words were chosen from the letters of each six correspondents. 
 Forty thousand words were selected from the letters of each of three 
 correspondents. Six thousand words were written by one correspondent, 
 eight thousand by another, twenty-four thousand by another, and twelve 
 thousand by another. The topics discussed in these letters related to -a 
 great variety of interests and activities. The authors claim that practically 
 every matter which would be written upon by the typical adult in com- 
 munication with his friends was included in the letters of the correspondents 
 who furnished the material for this investigation. 
 
 In the construction of the spelling vocabulary, the authors first tabulated 
 separately the vocabulary of each of the thirteen correspondents. This 
 was done for the purpose of determining whether the range in individual 
 cases differed greatly and what words were common to all the vocabu- 
 laries. It was maintained by the authors that in determining the spelling 
 vocabulary the use of words by all correspondents should be emphasized 
 as against the frequent usage of certain words by a few correspondents. 
 If a given word occurs frequently in the usage of a few correspondents 
 but if it is also common in the usage of all correspondents, it should play 
 a more important role in the spelling vocabulary than a word which ap- 
 
116 Department of Superintendence 
 
 pears as frequently in the totals but which is not used by all the cor- 
 respondents. The authors found that certain words, not many of them, 
 however, were used excessively by one or two correspondents, and this 
 served to give them a prominence in the frequency of totals out of all 
 proportion to their actual importance in a spelling vocabulary. 
 Four lists of words were finally constructed: 
 
 1. List I comprises 186 words used by every one of the thirteen 
 correspondents ; 
 
 2. List II comprises 577 words which were used by most but not 
 all of the correspondents ; 
 
 3. List III comprises 2207 words which were used by less than a 
 majority of the correspondents ; 
 
 4. List IV comprises 2230 words used by only one of the cor- 
 respondents, and 1804 of these words 'were used only once in the 
 entire correspondence of all of the thirteen writers. To put it 
 another way, 1804 of the words appearing in List IV were used 
 only once in a total of 200,000 words tabulated. 
 
 In presenting these tables the frequency of occurrence of each word is 
 shown ; then it is shown whether each word appears in one or more of 
 three spelling textbooks which were studied in the investigation. Further, 
 it is noted after each word appearing in all the lists whether the word 
 occurs in the spelling vocabulary constructed by Ayres and by Chancellor 
 as a consequence of their investigation of the spelling needs of pupils. 
 
 Tables were constructed showing: 
 
 1. Words which were used by all the women and all the men cor- 
 respondents ; 
 
 2. Words which were used by most but not all of the men and women 
 correspondents ; 
 
 3. Words used principally by women correspondents ; 
 
 4. Words used principally by men correspondents. 
 Proper names were tabulated separately. 
 
 1. In the total of 200,000 words examined there were 1209 different 
 proper names with a total of 9740 occurrences. 
 
 2. In treating the proper names, words that were identical in spelling 
 except for a final s were counted as a single word. 
 
 3. Nicknames, diminutives, and personal idiosyncracies in spelling 
 names were all reduced to standard forms. 
 
 4. Envelope addresses were included in the tabulation. 
 
 5. Local publications, organizations, streets, and family names, ex- 
 cept those of historical characters or prominent persons, were 
 excluded from the lists. 
 
 The authors determined to see to what extent the words which they 
 found occurring most frequently in the material examined were found in 
 three spelling textbooks in general use in the schools. It was found that 
 65 per cent of the words given in the spelling textbooks did not occur 
 
The Third Yearbook 117 
 
 in the spelling vocabulary based upon the letters written by corres- 
 pondents. However, 70 per cent of the words appearing in all the 
 spellers appear also in the lists constructed by the authors to constitute 
 a spelling vocabulary: 27 per cent of the words in List I, 33 per cent of 
 those in List II, 28 per cent of those in List III, and 12 per cent of those 
 in List IV are found in the spelling textbooks. No proper name was 
 found in all the textbooks. 
 
 This investigation is one of a very few which throw light on the nature 
 and extent of vocabularies of individual letter-writers. 
 
 STUDY NO. 6. Ayres, L. P. A measuring scale for ability in spelling. 
 New York: The Russell Sage Foundation. 1915. 
 
 Purpose. To develop "a scale for measuring attainment in the spelling 
 of common words." 
 
 Source. A compilation of the four most extensive studies made up to 
 that time "to identify the words most commonly used in different sorts of 
 English writing." 
 
 Number of running words analyzed was approximately : 386,000 
 Number of words selected: 1,000 
 
 Comment. Although this study was prepared for the purpose of mak- 
 ing a spelling scale, it is useful for the purposes of this chapter since it con- 
 tained a compilation of four investigations. The work was begun in 1914 
 by the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation. The first 
 step was to determine a list of common words. These words were finally 
 chosen by combining the results of four studies. 
 
 "The first of these studies was published by the Rev. J. Knowles in 
 London, England, in 1904 in a pamphlet, The London Point System of 
 Reading for the Blind. The author says of it, 'Taking passages from the 
 English Bible and from various authors, containing 100,000 words, a list 
 was made of the 353 words which occurred most frequently, and the 
 number of times each occurred was noted.' 
 
 "The second of the studies was made by R. C. Eldridge, of Niagara 
 Falls, New York, and the results were published in 1911 in a pamphlet, 
 Six Thousand Common English Words. Mr. Eldridge made an analysis 
 of the vocabularies of 250 different articles taken from four issues of four 
 Sunday newspapers published in Buffalo. He found that they contained 
 a vocabulary of 6002 different words, which with their repetitions made an 
 aggregate of 43,989 running words. He reported the number of times 
 that each word appeared. 
 
 "The third study was conducted by the present writer in 1913 and the 
 results were published by the Division of Education of the Russell Sage 
 Foundation in a monograph, The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and 
 Business Letters. The study consisted of the tabulation of 23,629 words 
 from 2000 short letters written by 2000 people. The total vocabulary 
 
118 Department of Superintendence 
 
 used was found to consist of 2001 different words and the number of 
 appearances of each was reported. 
 
 "The last of these four studies was carried through by W. A. Cook 
 and M. V. O'Shea and the results presented in 1914 in a book, The Child 
 and His Spelling, published by the Bobbs-Merrill Company. This study 
 consisted of the tabulation of some 200,000 words taken from the family 
 correspondence of 13 adults. The total vocabulary was found to consist 
 of 5200 different words and the number of times each occurred was re- 
 ported." 
 
 In addition to determining the thousand words which are used in his 
 spelling scale, Dr. Ayres makes the following comments : 
 
 1. About nine words recur so frequently that they constitute in the aggregate 
 one fourth of the whole number of words written, while about 50 words constitute 
 with their repetitions one-half of all the words we write. With the exception 
 of very, these words are all monosyllables. 
 
 2. At first the purpose was to identify the 2000 most commonly used words, but 
 this project was abandoned because it was soon found to be impossible of realiza- 
 tion. It is easily possible to identify the 10 commonest words in written English. 
 These are probably the, and, of, to, I, a, in, that, you, for. With their repetitions 
 they constitute more than one-fourth of all the words we write. Save for the per- 
 sonal pronouns, they are essential in writing about any subject, whatever its nature, 
 from Aaron through zythum. It is likewise possible to identify the 50 commonest 
 words, for, like the first 10, they are true construction words and necessary no 
 matter what the nature of the subject under consideration. With progressively 
 decreasing reliability the list may be extended to include the £00 commonest words 
 and possibly the 1000 commonest, but not the 2000 commonest, for long before this 
 point is reached the identity of the frequently used words varies according to the 
 subject under consideration. 
 
 It should be pointed out that two of the investigations used in this 
 compilation deal with reading, and two with spelling. Moreover, 200,000 
 of the 223.629 running words of writing vocabularies are taken from the 
 Cook and O'Shea investigation which is based on the family correspondence 
 of thirteen adults. It is not strange, therefore, that later investigations 
 have shown that only about two thirds of the thousand words of this scale 
 are really among the first thousand most frequently used. On the other 
 hand, about 95 per cent of the words are shown, by more recent investiga- 
 tions, to be used frequently enough to be included in a course of study 
 in spelling. 
 
 It is interesting also to note that the available data, aggregating over 
 four and a half million running words, bring changes in Ayres' conclusions 
 ' as to the 10, 50, 100, and 500 commonest words. 
 
 Although this chapter does not deal with spelling scales, it should be 
 pointed out here that this 1000 word scale has been more influential than 
 any other study in stimulating interest in the measurement of spelling. 
 
 STUDY NO. 7. Andersen, W. N. Determination of a spelling vocab- 
 ulary based upon written correspondence. Iowa City: Univ. of Iowa 
 Studies in Education, Vol. II, No. 1, 1917. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 119 
 
 Purpose. ( 1 ) To show comparatively the number of words common 
 to the writing vocabularies of persons in various callings, (2) to show 
 the extent and range of vocabularies used by persons in certain callings, 
 (3) to point out the educational significance of the findings, and (4) inci- 
 dentally to discover what words are commonly misspelled. 
 
 Source. Personal and business letters (3723 in number) written by 
 adults in Iowa, more than 35 different occupations being represented. 
 
 Number of running words: 361,184 
 Number of different words: 9,223 
 
 Comment. Seventh, eighth, and ninth-grade pupils in 23 towns and 
 cities in Iowa were asked to collect letters received by their parents and 
 friends. 
 
 The preliminary scoring was done by pupils under the supervision of 
 superintendents and teachers after practice had been given to established 
 skill in the use of the method prescribed. The final work was done by 
 the investigator with the aid of four trained adult assistants. The tab- 
 ulations made by pupils included the following items : 
 
 All misspelled words 
 
 Number of letters analyzed in making the list 
 
 Occupation and sex of person who wrote the letter 
 
 Occupation and sex of person who received the letter 
 
 Alphabetical arrangement of all words. (Every word of different spelling was 
 counted as a different word, except where the word was pluralized by adding "s" 
 only. Such words were recorded as singular. All proper nouns, except days of 
 the week, names of the months, holidays, and nationalities were excluded.) 
 
 Name of pupil, grade, and town. 
 
 In the final tabulation no attention was paid to the sex of persons writing 
 or receiving the letters and all occupations were classified under six heads 
 as shown in the table below : 
 
 Comparative Vocabulary Range of Different Groups 
 
 Calling 
 
 Letters 
 
 Running Words 
 85,161 
 
 Different Words 
 
 Professional 
 
 824 
 
 5,368 
 
 Business 
 
 1,202 
 
 112,363 
 
 4,105 
 
 Domestic 
 
 700 
 
 61,368 
 
 3,280 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 688 
 
 73,001 
 
 5,861 
 
 Personal 
 
 149 
 
 14,778 
 
 1,980 
 
 Farmers 
 
 160 
 
 14,513 
 
 1,754 
 
 Totals 
 
 3,723 
 
 361,184 
 
 9,223 
 
 Words used only once (3217 in number) constituted about 9 per cent 
 of the running words and about 35 per cent of the total number of differ- 
 ent words. Incidentally, Andersen found 126 words misspelled two or 
 more times, and ten more than ten times each. It is probable, however, 
 that many spelling errors were overlooked by the pupils in their tabula- 
 
120 Department of Superintendence 
 
 tions. There were few words peculiar to any of the callings represented, 
 and these occurred but infrequently. The tabulation by classes shows, how- 
 ever, that a really comprehensive list can be obtained only by a very wide 
 sampling. 
 
 From a total of approximately 361,184 running words, a list of 3087 
 was made by selecting only those which occurred in three or more of the 
 six groups and which also had a frequency of five or more. The frequency 
 of occurrence and spread of distribution are given for each word. This 
 list has been based upon a reasonably good sampling of letters from all 
 classes of people in all parts of one state. The method of securing such a 
 sampling is the most important contribution made by the investigation. It 
 is peculiarly valuable since no selective factor operates to eliminate any 
 group of letter writers. The plan by which pupils did the preliminary 
 scoring seems to have been economical and quite satisfactory when checked 
 later by trained adults. The group divisions did not, as Andersen himself 
 notes, yield results that led to adequate or profitable comparisons. 
 
 STUDY NO. 8. Pryor, H. C. "A suggested minimal spelling list," 
 Sixteenth Yearbook, p. 73. National Society for the Study of Education, 
 Bloomington, 111.: Public School Pub. Co., 1917. 
 
 Purpose. To determine "more definitely what, and how many words 
 should be included in a minimal spelling list." 
 
 Source. A study and compilation were made of the following spelling 
 tests and word lists: 
 
 1. Concrete investigation of the material of English spelling and the child's own 
 
 spelling hook. Franklin W. Jones. 
 
 2. Common essentials in spelling. C. K. Studley and Allison Ware. 
 
 3. The need of intensive work in spelling (unpublished). Algar Woolfolk. 
 
 4. A list of words compiled from children's compositions by Homer J. Smith, 
 
 published in The child and his spelling, by Cook and O'Shea. 
 
 5. List of spelling words. Prepared by the teachers and supervisors of the public 
 
 schools of Johnstown, Pa. 
 
 6. "Spelling in the Boston public schools." McCray's Magazine, March, 1915. 
 
 7. Measuring scale for ability in spelling. Leonard P. Ayres. 
 
 8. Champion spelling book. Warren E. Hicks. 
 
 9. One thousand words. W. E. Chancellor. 
 
 10. The child and his spelling, a list chosen from personal correspondence. W. A. 
 
 Cook and M. V. O'Shea. 
 
 11. Six thousand common English words. R. C. Eldridge. 
 
 Only eleven lists are given, but. by implication Dr. Ayres' list of 542 
 commonest words in his study of The spelling vocabularies of personal and 
 business letters is counted separately from his Measuring scale for ability 
 in spelling. 
 
 Number of running words: The author gives no estimate. 
 
 Number of words checked: The author states that "altogether about 30,000 
 words were checked," which apparently means 30,000 different words. 
 Number of words chosen: 1478. 
 
The Third Yearbook 121 
 
 Comment. "After the lists had been selected, each one was numbered 
 and all the words were checked off in a dictionary. The figure 'one' was 
 placed before every word in the dictionary which occurred in the Eldridge 
 list. 'Two' was placed before each word that was found in the Jones list. 
 The other ten lists were checked against the dictionary in the same fashion. 
 Altogether, about 30,000 words were checked. By far the greater number 
 occurred in only one list, a somewhat smaller number in two lists, and so 
 on down to 121 that were common to 10 lists, 54 common to 11 lists, and 
 only 9 — namely, again, any, believe, look, many, money , remember, there, 
 and through that were found in all of the lists. 
 
 "It was arbitrarily decided to include in the final list all words which 
 occurred in at least six of the twelve lists examined; there were 1309 such 
 words. To this number were added 169 words from the Ayres scale which 
 were not among these 1309 words, making a total of 1478 words." 
 
 The words were arranged by grades by the following method: Eight 
 different graded lists were examined — namely, the California and Johns- 
 town spellers, Hick's Champion spelling book, the Boston, New Orleans, 
 Richmond, Smith, and Woolfolk lists. "Each word in the entire list was 
 assigned to the grade agreed upon by the majority of authors investigated, 
 although in some cases the placing appeared to be pedagogically unsound. 
 Some words, about whose location there was an exact division of opinion, 
 were placed in the lowest grade mentioned. The distribution was as 
 follows : 
 
 343 words 
 
 408 " 
 
 216 " 
 
 187 " 
 
 157 " 
 
 131 " 
 Grade VIII 38 " 
 
 Professor Pryor's evaluation of the graded list is: "Obviously, many of 
 the words, such as am, are not properly placed and therefore the list is not 
 the best for school purposes." 
 
 The technic of the investigation is marred by including the Eldridge list, 
 which is not a writing vocabulary, and the list from the Champion Speller, 
 which is very poor in its vocabulary. 1 However, since no word was taken 
 unless it occurred in at least six investigations, the results are not much 
 affected by these defects in procedure. Indeed, except for grading, this list 
 was probably one of the best in print at the time of its publication. 
 
 STUDY NO. 9. Houser, J. D. "An investigation of the writing 
 vocabularies of representatives of an economic class." Elementary School 
 Journal, Volume 17, 1916-1917, pp. 708-718. 
 
 Grade 
 
 II 
 
 Grade 
 
 III 
 
 Grade 
 
 IV 
 
 Grade 
 
 V 
 
 Grade 
 
 VI 
 
 Grade 
 
 VII 
 
 1 Woody, Clifford. "Application of scientific method in evaluating subject matter of spell- 
 ers." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. I, pp. 1 18-128. 
 
122 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Purpose. To discover the vocabulary used in letters written by farmers 
 about farming. 
 
 Source. 750 letters written by farmers to the Agricultural Department 
 of the University of California. 
 
 Number of running words: approximately 65,500 
 Number of different words: 1,869 
 
 Comment. It should be pointed out that this investigation was limited 
 to one vocation, since it includes only letters written by farmers to professors 
 of agriculture about farm problems. 
 
 816 of the 1869 words were used but once. A list of all words found 
 five or more times is given. Words found in this list, but not in the Ayres 
 list, are printed irx italics. The investigator correctly points out the fact 
 that this does not necessarily mean these words are peculiar to farmers' 
 letters since they might easily occur outside of the words in the Ayres list. 
 
 STUDY NO. io. Clarke, W. F. "Writing vocabularies." Elemen- 
 tary School Journal , Vol. XXI, pp. 349-51. January, 1921. 
 
 Purpose. To find out whether or not the spelling vocabularies based on 
 recent investigations and proposed for use in the public schools, actually 
 contain the words pupils in the public schools will need in later life. 
 
 Source. 2000 letters written to the editor taken from the columns of a 
 large Chicago daily paper. 
 
 Number of running words : 28,292 
 Number of different words : 3,360 
 
 Comment. Mr. Clarke says that in the Ayres 1000-word list there are 
 117 common words such as five, rain, hat, top, dress, etc., which should have 
 occurred in the Chicago list at least three times, and many of them oftener, 
 but which did not occur even once. 237 very common and non-technical 
 words such as add, hay, idle, pint, farmer, etc. which occurred four or more 
 times in the Chicago list are not in the Ayres list. 108 common words 
 such as worse, owner, loyal, rich, etc. which occurred four or more times in 
 the Chicago list were not in the lists in the speller. 
 
 He believes that these facts cast doubt upon the reliability of two 
 assumptions : 
 
 1. That, because a word occurs twelve times in a few lists of 100,000 running 
 words each, it may be expected to recur similiarly in any other list compiled 
 in the same manner. 
 
 2. That a list of words occurring twelve or more times in a few lists of 100,- 
 000 running words will contain all the words apt to occur in other lists of this kind. 
 
 The author's conclusion is that present lists of words proposed for spell- 
 ing vocabularies are inadequate for the needs of the average person. This 
 inadequacy is due, the writer believes, to an insufficient regard for im- 
 portant geographical and social factors. "Numerous other like studies 
 should be made covering the writing vocabulary of many more people in 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 123 
 
 widely scattered and representative localities and of diverse but repre- 
 sentative social groups." 
 
 The author's emphasis upon the need for more extensive and more 
 representative word counts is well-founded. It is interesting to note that 
 more extensive counts of letters written to newspapers and magazines 
 indicate that the vocabulary of such letters differs somewhat from that of 
 personal or business letters. 
 
 STUDY NO. ii. Horn, Ernest. "The spelling vocabularies of bankers' 
 letters." English Journal, Vol. XII, No. 6, June, 1923. 
 
 Purpose. To answer two questions: "First, is there a need for a special 
 spelling list for those who write letters about banking; second, do the 
 correspondence needs of bankers vary according to locality?" 
 
 Source. Bank letters 
 
 Number of letters scored: 1,125 
 Number of running words: 67,531 
 Number of different words : 2,623 
 
 Comment. Letters — in number 1125 — written by bankers to the Na- 
 tional City Bank, New York City, about banking, were tabulated. These 
 letters were chosen by a sampling of the correspondence of fifteen states 
 grouped so as to represent various sections of the country. The. distribution 
 of the letters is shown in Table 7 : 
 
 TABLE 7.— DISTRIBUTION OF THE CORRESPONDENCE OF FIFTEEN 
 
 STATES 
 
 Sections 
 
 Number of 
 Letters 
 
 Running 
 Words 
 
 Different 
 Words 
 
 
 50 
 200 
 125 
 125 
 
 50 
 200 
 
 50 
 300 
 
 25 
 
 2,689 
 8,462 
 9,298 
 
 14,520 
 2,475 
 8,238 
 2,571 
 
 16,758 
 
 2,570 
 
 509 
 
 
 975 
 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 1,306 
 
 Southern 
 
 485 
 954 
 
 
 572 
 
 
 1,432 
 
 Iowa (scored separately in addition to 125 
 
 553 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,125 
 
 67,581 
 
 2,623 
 
 With the exception of the pronoun / and the article a all words occurring 
 in these letters were tabulated. All derived forms were scored separately. 
 The 2,623 words found in this analysis were compared with the vocabu- 
 lary of general correspondence. The vocabulary of .each section was also 
 compared with that of other sections. The investigator's conclusions are: 
 
 "Summarizing, this study does not show that the words used in bankers' 
 correspondence apply at all exclusively to the banking business, and yet the 
 list is in a certain sense a vocational list. The highly inflected character of 
 the words does indicate that those who are to dictate or to type letters in 
 
124 Department of Superintendence 
 
 banking should have more than an average education. Those who are to 
 dictate should be able to express themselves courteously and with great 
 precision, and those who are to take dictation should be trained accordingly. 
 A training which will meet the needs in one section of the country will also 
 meet the needs in other sections." 
 
 STUDY NO. 12. Crowder, Cora. A study of the spelling vocabulary 
 of representative businesses of Saint Paul and Minneapolis, Master's Thesis, 
 University of Minnesota, 1924. 
 
 Purpose. To determine (a) what words are most commonly used by 
 writers of business letters, (b) what is the relationship of such words to 
 those needed in writing personal letters. 
 
 Source. 2258 letters from nine types of business 
 
 Number of running words analyzed: Approximately 200,000 
 Number of different words: 5,088 
 
 Comment. This investigation was carried on over a period of two years 
 from 1922 to 1924. The separate sources of the words are as follows: 
 
 Manufacturing and printing of advertising specialties 
 
 Mail order business 
 
 Life insurance 
 
 Fur manufacturing 
 
 Wholesale dealers in drugs and druggists' supplies 
 
 Wholesale grocers 
 
 Boot and shoe manufacturers 
 
 Wholesale dry goods 
 
 Manufacturing men's furnishings 
 
 With the exceptions noted below, all words in the body of every letter 
 were arranged alphabetically with the total number of times that each 
 word occurred in the whole investigation as well as the number of times 
 in each business. As to duplicate letters, only one copy was tabulated, since 
 it represented only one dictation. Words of the same spelling but different 
 meanings were listed as one word. Plurals in .$• were counted as different 
 words, as were all derived forms. 
 
 The exceptions to the above procedure were the omission of (a) geo- 
 graphical names when used as such, (b) all names of persons and firms, (c) 
 salutations and complimentary closes, (d) all words of two letters (e) its, 
 ours, may, been and bad, (f) the sixty commonest words after Horn. 1 This 
 study contains an alphabetical list of the words found arranged in table form 
 to show (a) the scale location according to Ayres, (b) words not found 
 in Webster's New International Dictionary, 1923, (c) the frequency of 
 each word in each type of correspondence, and (d) the total frequency of 
 each word in the study. 
 
 1 Ernest Horn. University of Iowa, 1921. A compilation of the commonest words from 
 twelve investigations of spelling vocabularies. (Unpublished.) 
 
The Third Yearbook 125 
 
 Subsidiary questions discussed in this study are as follows: (a) What 
 evidence is there of a distinctive vocabulary for each type of business? 
 (b) How much of specialization is observable? (c) To what extent does 
 technical terminology color business vocabulary? (d) Is there a diver- 
 gence between the vocabulary of commercial correspondence and a compo- 
 site reading vocabulary ? 
 
 From comparisons between this and other studies the following con- 
 clusions are presented: "The vocabulary as found in the investigations of 
 business correspondence is of a decidedly general character. It is compara- 
 tively simple as to spelling difficulty. There is little evidence of distinctive 
 vocabularies for each type of business. A comprehensive, composite word 
 list based upon actual tabulations of correspondence is the logical source 
 from which to draw the subject-matter for teaching the spelling of business 
 correspondence. 
 
 "Matters of style, recurrent phrases, the relative frequency of certain 
 words characteristically stamp any one sort of correspondence without 
 materially altering the basic word list. One would not confuse the sources 
 of farmers' letters and bankers' letters in spite of the fact that there are 
 relatively few words appearing in the one sort which do not appear in the 
 other. 
 
 "The 'generalness' of the vocabulary may be accounted for in four ways. 
 In the first place, the greater the number of sources we study, the more 
 of overlapping there appears between different lists. Words which appear 
 to be vocational or technical in one list appear in another- list with a 
 somewhat figurative meaning or in an original and unspecialized us- 
 age. . . . 
 
 "In the third place, the choice of words is conditioned by the most im- 
 portant of limiting factors, the man ivho reads them. By and large, he is 
 not a technician. Hence the correspondent writes to him on the plane of 
 his interest and in the general vocabulary of the laity. 
 
 "The fourth influence toward a general as opposed to a technical style 
 of correspondence is the prevalence of ordering by catalog number instead 
 of by name and description of the article. 
 
 "As to the amount of specialization and technical terminology, we are 
 forced to conclude that there is relatively little. The various investigations 
 show a small amount. There are few words in any one line of business 
 which show a technical character when the list is compared with a composite 
 list of the several lines investigated." 
 
 From the statistical treatment given the data, it is concluded that a com- 
 posite spelling vocabulary of high reliability for the needs of business 
 correspondence can be compiled from the correspondence of various busi- 
 ness enterprises. 
 
 Table 8, showing the divergence between a composite reading vocab- 
 ulary and that of commercial correspondence, is here given, "la" indi- 
 cates the first 500 words in order of frequency; "lb" indicates the second 
 500 words; "2a" indicates the first half of the second thousand words, etc. 
 
126 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The Thorndike list is a composite of the 10,000 words which occur most 
 frequently in a total of 4,565,000 words about one ninth of which are 
 derived from general correspondence and the rest from reading. 
 
 While the tendency of these first five hundred words of the present 
 study to appear early in both lists is very marked, it is far more con- 
 sistent in the correspondence or Horn list. There is an evident divergence 
 between the vocabularies of commercial correspondence and general read- 
 ing. However, many of the 104 words not found in the Thorndike list are 
 
 TABLE 8.— FIRST 500 WORDS OF THE PRESENT STUDY COMPARED FOR 
 FREQUENCY LOCATION WITH HORN 1 AND THORNDIKE 2 
 
 
 Horn 
 
 Thorndike 
 
 la 
 
 260 
 
 104 
 
 53 
 
 31 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 177 
 
 lb 
 
 74 
 
 2a 
 
 46 
 
 2b 
 
 16 
 
 3a 
 
 20 
 
 3b 
 
 17 
 
 4a 
 
 4 
 
 4b 
 
 6 
 
 5a 
 
 10 
 
 5b 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 Total '. 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 1 Horn, Ernest. University of Iowa, 1923. A compilation of the commonest words from twelve 
 investigations of spelling vocabularies. (Unpublished.) 
 
 2 Thorndike, E. L. The teachers word book. New York: Columbia University, 1921. 
 
 probably accounted for by the fact that certain derived forms are not 
 reported separately in that list. The closeness of agreement between the 
 two correspondence lists is an argument for the reliability of a basic spell- 
 ing vocabulary for correspondence that is derived from a sufficient sampling 
 of sources. 
 
 STUDY NO. 13. Warning, Winifred C. An investigation of the 
 word usage of adults in written correspondence. This vocabulary was col- 
 lected in 1913-1917 and has not yet been published. 
 
 Purpose. To secure data on adult spelling needs. 
 
 Source. Written correspondence of adults, containing, letters from 9 
 different sources : 
 
 1. Letters received by a university housing bureau, library, dean's office, and 
 
 business office, 200 in number, yielding 16,337 running words. 
 
 2. Letters received by a large dry goods, firm, including mail orders and gen- 
 
 eral correspondence, 500 in number, yielding 32,375 running words. 
 
 3. Letters received by a real estate firm, 300 in number, yielding 21,067 running 
 
 words. 
 
 4. Letters received by a business college, 100 in number, yielding 8386 running 
 
 words. 
 
 5. Letters received by a newspaper office, 100 in number, yielding 8467 running 
 
 words. 
 
The Third Yearbook 127 
 
 6. Letters received by a seed store, 100 in number, yielding 7316 running words. 
 
 7. Letters from the general correspondence of a prominent educator, 300 in 
 
 number, yielding 27,852 running words. 
 
 8. Form letters, 200 in number, yielding 33,945 running words. 
 
 9. Personal letters, 550 in number, yielding 153,642 running words. 
 
 Total number of letters 2,350 
 
 Total number of running words 309,387 
 
 Total number of different words on a dictionary basis -6,682 
 
 Total number of different words 10,107 
 
 Numbers and the names of persons were omitted from the tabulations. 
 
 The entire study is the work of one person. Comparisons with the re- 
 sults of other similar investigations are now being made, report of which 
 will appear at a later date. 
 
 From the nature and extent of this investigation it seems likely to be 
 an important addition to similar data secured by other investigators. 
 
 STUDY NO. 14. Curtis, Ethel. A study of the correspondence of a 
 single individual over a period of eight years. (As yet unpublished.) 
 
 Purpose. As indicated in the title. 
 
 Number of running words: 230,000 
 
 Number of different words: 6,512 (exclusive of proper nouns) 
 
 Comment. This study was undertaken in order to discover the extent 
 of the vocabulary of a single individual. The letters were taken from the 
 files of a superintendent of schools in a small city. Although letters aggre- 
 gating over 200,000 running words were analyzed, there was no indication 
 that the limits of this individual's vocabulary had been reached. 
 
 STUDY NO. 15. Horn, Ernest. "10,000 Words Most Commonly 
 Used in Writing." State University of Iowa Studies in Education (in 
 preparation). 
 
 Purpose. To determine the words most often needed in the writing 
 done in life outside the school by compiling together all existing data con- 
 cerning adult writing needs. 
 
 Sources. 1. The following investigations by the author: 
 
 a. Vocabulary of Business Letters 
 
 b. The Vocabulary of Letters Written by Literary Men 
 
 c. The Vocabulary of Correspondence of a Personal Nature 
 
 d. The Vocabulary of Letters of Application and Recommendation 
 
 e. The Vocabulary of Material Contributed by Laymen to Newspapers and Mag- 
 
 azines 
 
 f. The Vocabulary of Minutes, Sets of Resolutions, and Reports of Committees 
 
 g. The Vocabulary of Excuses Written by Parents to Teachers 
 
 n. A Compilation of certain investigations made previous to 1922, including the 
 investigations (summarized elsewhere in this chapter) by Andersen, Ayres, 
 Cook and O'Shea, and Burke. In addition it includes an unpublished study, 
 by the author, of 100,000 running words of highly personal correspondence. 
 
128 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 2. Curtis, Ethel. "A study of the correspondence of a single individual 
 over a period of eight years." 
 
 Number of running words: approximately 5,180,000 
 Number of different words: approximately 38,000 
 
 Comment. This compilation was made by combining the alphabetical 
 lists of words resulting from each of the investigations given above. When 
 the total frequency of each word had been determined the words were 
 arranged in order of frequency and the 10,000 most important words se- 
 lected. The measures of importance were frequency and distribution of 
 occurrence in these nine lists. 
 
 All of the investigations used in compiling these 10,000 words were 
 financed wholly or in part by a grant from the Commonwealth Fund, 
 with the exception of that by Clark, that by Houser, those in the Cali- 
 fornia Speller, and those in 1 h. At the time this grant was made, 1922, 
 a total of approximately 800,000 running words of adult correspondence 
 had been analyzed by various investigators. By that time, it was clearly 
 established that the following words would, in a more extensive count, 
 fall within the first 100 words most frequently used. These words were 
 not counted in the investigations made under the grant from the Common- 
 wealth Fund. 
 
 ronouns 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 Miscellarii 
 
 eous 
 
 that 
 
 could 
 
 about 
 
 come 
 
 some 
 
 their 
 
 been 
 
 after 
 
 good 
 
 there 
 
 them 
 
 have 
 
 before 
 
 here 
 
 thing 
 
 these 
 
 must 
 
 from 
 
 just 
 
 time 
 
 they 
 
 shall 
 
 over 
 
 know 
 
 very 
 
 this 
 
 should 
 
 under 
 
 letter 
 
 well 
 
 what 
 
 were 
 
 until 
 
 much 
 
 when 
 
 which 
 
 will 
 
 with 
 
 
 
 your 
 
 would 
 
 
 
 
 yours 
 
 
 
 
 
 In addition, words of less than four letters were omitted, since such words 
 have little or no spelling difficulty, and also proper names of people, places, 
 months, and days. By these omissions, it was possible to score a much 
 wider and more extensive sampling of adult writing needs than would 
 have been possible had all words been scored. 
 
 The total of the frequencies of all words thus omitted, excepting proper 
 names, was found in the 800,000 running words which had already been 
 recorded. This total made up somewhat more than 60 per cent of the 
 800,000 running words. The assumption was made that words thus 
 omitted would, if they had been scored, make up approximately the same 
 percentage of the running words in the other investigations. An estimate 
 of the total number of running words was made by calling the number 
 of running words actually tabulated 40 per cent of the total number of 
 running words examined. It will be seen that the total number of words 
 
The Third Yearbook 129 
 
 in the material examined is somewhat more than two and one half times 
 the number of running words actually recorded. 
 
 Because the number of running words is an estimate, all figures are 
 given in round numbers, but the exact frequencies upon which estimates 
 are based will be printed in the study. The number of different words is 
 also given in round numbers. A description of the various investigations 
 included in this compilation follows, with the exception of two which are 
 summarized earlier in this chapter. 
 
 1 . Investigations by the author : 
 
 a. "Vocabulary of Business Letters." 
 
 Purpose. ( 1 ) To discover the words most commonly needed in busi- 
 ness correspondence; (2) to discover to what degree specialized business 
 words exist; (3) to compare the vocabulary of business correspondence 
 with that of general correspondence. 
 
 Source. The letters from 26 different types of business. 
 
 Number of running words: approximately 1,650,000 
 Number of different words: 15,200 
 
 Comment. In analyzing this vocabulary, the cooperation of Rotary 
 Clubs in different sections of the United States was sought. In addition, 
 a large amount of correspondence was secured by a personal canvass of 
 business firms in Minneapolis and St. Paul by Miss Cora Crowder. Miss 
 Crowder's own independent investigation of business vocabularies is in- 
 cluded, as is the author's "Vocabulary of Banker's Letters," the list from 
 the California Barrel Company, the list from the Emporium and Hale's 
 Department Store, and Houser, "Writing Vocabularies of Representatives 
 of an Economic Class." 
 
 At the outset the intention was to sample an amount of correspondence 
 equal to the relative importance of the business. However, it was found 
 impossible to secure adequate amounts of correspondence from certain types 
 of business. The investigator, therefore, had to be satisfied with the anal- 
 ysis of such letters as could be procured from these 26 different groups. 
 It should be kept in mind that this does not mean there were only 26 
 different firms which contributed correspondence. Under publishing firms, 
 for example, are included letters from 16 different firms. 
 
 The number of different kinds of business and the large number of run- 
 ning words counted are sufficient to indicate the words which have wide- 
 spread usage in various types of business correspondence. The counts for 
 most of the 26 types, however, are not sufficient to afford a satisfactory 
 basis for making special vocational lists. 
 
 b. "The Vocabulary of Letters Written by Literary Men." 
 
 Purpose. To discover in what ways, if any, such vocabulary differs 
 from that found in the letters analyzed in other investigations. 
 
130 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Source. An extensive sampling of the letters of eight well-known 
 American writers and eight well-known English writers. In addition, all 
 of the letters given in E. V. Lucas' The Gentlest Art were analyzed. 
 
 Number of running words: approximately 690,000 
 Number of different words: approximately 23,600 
 
 Comment. The letters of the following American and English writers 
 were analyzed : 
 
 American English 
 
 Abraham Lincoln Lord Chesterfield 
 
 John Hay Percy Bysshe Shelley 
 
 Franklin Lane Lord Byron 
 
 Walter H. Page Charles Lamb 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt Horace Walpole 
 
 James Russell Lowell Robert Browning 
 
 Phillips Brooks Elizabeth Browning 
 
 William Dean Howells Robert Louis Stevenson 
 
 The Gentlest Art is a compilation of letters of well-known writers. 
 
 Although the only use made of this list so far is to compile it with the 
 other correspondence investigations reviewed in this chapter, the data from 
 the list will be used to help answer two questions : ( 1 ) In what ways does 
 the vocabulary of literary men differ from that found in ordinary corre- 
 spondence? (2) Are there discoverable differences between the vocabu- 
 lary of English and American writers? It will also be used for. the pur- 
 pose of comparing the vocabulary of past periods with that of the present. 
 
 The number of different words in this vocabulary is larger, for the 
 amount of material analyzed, than in any other type which was scored. In 
 fact, more different words were found in the correspondence of literary 
 men than were found in any other type of correspondence in spite of the 
 fact that only 690,000 running words were analyzed. This may be ex- 
 plained in part by the fact that these letters were written over a larger 
 geographical area as well as over a longer period of time. On the other 
 hand, an examination of the detailed list shows clearly that literary men 
 use the language with great freedom. It is particularly interesting to note 
 the commonness with which contractions, slang, and colloquial words appear 
 ir these letters. 
 
 c. "The Vocabulary of Correspondence of a Personal Nature" 
 
 Purpose. First, to secure additional data regarding the vocabulary of 
 personal letters; second, to determine whether the vocabulary used in letters 
 varies according to the locality in which the letter is written. 
 
 Source. Letters written to college students by friends and relatives in 
 each of the following geographical divisions and in the states indicated 
 under each division. 
 
The Third Yearbook 131 
 
 Pacific: Washington, Oregon, California. 
 
 Western: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New 
 
 Mexico. 
 South Atlantic: Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, 
 
 West Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, District of Columbia. 
 New England: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 Middle Atlantic: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. 
 South Central: Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, 
 
 Louisiana, Texas. 
 North Central: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, 
 
 Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota. 
 
 Number of running words: approximately 1,402,000 
 Number of different words: approximately 19,200 
 
 Comment. The investigator desired to obtain the vocabulary of highly 
 personal letters from each section of the United States. Requests were 
 therefore sent to professors of education and psychology in universities and 
 colleges in all parts of the country asking that they request students in 
 their classes to make alphabetical lists of the words in the letters they had 
 received from friends and relatives. The instructors were asked to explain 
 that all types of personal letters were desired — love letters, letters from 
 parents or other members of the family, and letters from friends. Since 
 the student did not contribute the letters in their original form, but only an 
 alphabetical list of words, he could be sure no confidence would be betrayed. 
 In this fashion it was possible to get the vocabulary of letters of a highly 
 personal nature when the letters themselves would not have been available 
 to the investigator. 
 
 Each student in handing in his alphabetical list of words reported (a) 
 his name and address, (b) types of letters he had scored, (c) states from 
 which the letters were written, (d) approximate number of running words 
 in the letters. 
 
 The vocabulary secured by this method represented every type of personal 
 letter from love letters of engaged people to the ordinary news letter from 
 home. It is possible that since writers of these letters were friends or 
 relatives of college students, the vocabulary secured is, on the average, that 
 of people of a somewhat higher level of education than that secured by 
 Andersen. On the other hand, it seems likely from the constitution of 
 student bodies in the various universities and colleges that letter writers 
 from every educational level are represented. 
 
 It is probable that words pertaining to education and college life appear 
 somewhat more frequently in this investigation than would be the case had 
 the letters not been written to college students. A consideration of the 
 probable subject-matter of such correspondence, as well as a detailed 
 examination of the word list, shows this to be true. Examples of such 
 words are fraternity, dormitory, examination. On the other hand, an 
 examination of the relationship existing between the writers and recipients 
 
132 Department of Superintendence 
 
 of the letters makes it seem likely that almost every type of human relation- 
 ship was touched upon in these letters. 
 
 d. "Letters of Application and Recommendation" 
 
 Purpose. To find the words used most frequently by students and 
 teachers in applying for positions, and by those who write recommendations 
 for such students and teachers. 
 
 Source. The letters of application and recommendation on file in one 
 normal school. 
 
 Number of running words: approximately 154,000 
 Number of different words: approximately 5,100 
 
 Comment. The amount of material analyzed is probably sufficient to 
 indicate the words most frequently used in letters of this type of application 
 and recommendation. One cannot, of course, generalize from this study 
 as to the vocabulary of letters of application and recommendation in other 
 professions or in business. Many words, such as recommendation, would 
 be found in other types of letters of application. The misspelling of a word 
 in a letter of application is so heavily penalized that similar studies need to 
 be made for other types of professions and business. 
 
 e. "The Vocabulary of Material Contributed by Laymen to Newspapers 
 and Magazines" 
 
 Purpose. To discover in what ways the vocabulary of such contribution 
 differs from that of other correspondence. 
 
 Source. Letters written to the Atlantic Monthly, to the Chicago 
 Tribune, to the Chicago Daily News, and to the Chicago Evening Post. 
 In addition, the vocabulary of Clark's investigation was included. 
 
 Number of running words: 86,000 
 Number of different words: 13,300 
 
 Comment. These contributions to periodicals and newspapers were 
 analyzed in the belief that those who make such contributions have more 
 than average education. The vocabulary thus obtained, like that secured 
 from the letters of literary men, gives some indication of the range and 
 quality of the vocabulary of people of somewhat superior writing ability. 
 
 f% "The Vocabulary of Minutes, Resolutions, and Committee Reports" 
 
 Purpose. To discover the words most frequently used in minutes, resolu- 
 tions, and committee reports. 
 
 Source. The minutes, resolutions and committee reports of learned, 
 professional, and philanthropic associations and societies in the United 
 States. Minutes of various types of women's clubs. Minutes of a list of 
 other organizations. 
 
 Number of running words: 124,000 
 Number of different words: 5,700 
 
The Third Yearbook 133 
 
 Comment. This investigation was undertaken after a canvass of a large 
 number of adults indicated that the writing of minutes, resolutions, and 
 committee reports was practically universal, even though somewhat infre- 
 quent, among individuals who have completed a high-school education. 
 Many of the words most commonly used in minutes are very difficult to 
 spell. An examination of actual sets of minutes shows that misspellings 
 are not infrequent. 
 
 In obtaining data for this investigation, use was made of the minutes of 
 a large number of organizations which were found in printed form. Among 
 these are the following: 
 
 American Association for the Advancement of Science. 
 
 Associated Advertising Clubs of the World. 
 
 Association of American Universities. 
 
 National Municipal League. 
 
 Daughters of the American Revolution. 
 
 National Education Association. 
 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry. 
 
 In addition, a request was sent out to individuals in various communities 
 in the state asking that they secure samples of minutes from local organiza- 
 tions. Returns to this request included two types of minutes: first, those 
 from various types of women's clubs ; and second, those from various other 
 types of associations, such as commercial clubs, boards of education, lodges, 
 athletic associations, and declamatory associations. 
 
 From the amount of material analyzed and from an examination of the 
 detailed word list, it seems probable that the important words peculiar 
 to the writing of minutes, sets of resolutions, and committee 'reports are 
 included in this list. 
 
 g. "The Vocabulary of Excuses Written by Parents to Teachers" 
 
 Purpose. To discover the nature and, extent of this vocabulary. 
 
 Source. Excuses written by parents to teachers in schools located in 
 Ohio, Iowa, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania 
 
 Number of running words: 30,000 
 Number of different words: 900 
 
 Comment. Writing excuses to teachers constitutes a common need for 
 all parents. While the amount of material scored is small, it must be kept 
 in mind that excuses are short. Except for the vocabulary needs arising in 
 special circumstances, it seems probable that this investigation discloses most 
 of the words frequently needed in writing excuses. 
 
 The outstanding impressions given by these excuses are: that they are 
 poorly written, that they seldom show a desire on the part of the parent to 
 cooperate wholeheartedly with the teacher, and that they are full of errors 
 in spelling and in other phases of composition. Certainly no type of mate- 
 
134 Department of Superintendence 
 
 rial which the writer has studied, including children's themes, is so poorly 
 written and so full of errors. 
 
 h. "A Compilation of Certain Investigations of Correspondence Made 
 Previous to 1922" 
 
 Purpose. To combine together, for purposes of comparison, certain 
 investigations of correspondence made previous to 1922 
 
 Source. 
 
 Burke's study. 
 
 Andersen's list. 
 
 Cook and O'Shea list. 
 
 Ayres' list. 
 
 Horn's study of 100,000 running words of highly personal correspondence. 
 
 Number of running words: 678,000 (not including proper names from the Cook & 
 
 O'Shea list or words found but not reported 
 by Ayres, Andersen, and Burke). 
 
 Number of different words: 6,900 
 
 Comment. This compilation was used as a measure of the reliability of 
 other lists. It will be noticed that the total number of running words does 
 not equal the number of running words given in the summaries of these 
 various investigations. This is because very low frequency words were 
 not reported in some of these investigations. The number of running words 
 represents the actual addition of the frequencies taken from these various 
 lists. The number of different words is based on words actually reported 
 in these investigations and is therefore much less than the number actually 
 found. 
 
 General Evaluation of the "10,000 Words Most Frequently Used in Writing" 
 
 A few words pertaining to school matters are undoubtedly overweighted 
 in this summary because of the large number of letters written to students. 
 Words frequently used in business but less frequently used in other types 
 of writing are also given a more important place in the list than would 
 be justified by the number of times a word is used in such writings as is 
 done by the ordinary individual in life outside the school. The overweight- 
 ing of such business words is justified because of the fact that spelling errors 
 are more serious in a business letter than in personal letters. It must be 
 kept in mind that in determining these 10,000 words account was taken not 
 only of the total number of times a word was used but also of the number 
 of different types of writing in which it was found. It seems likely that 
 the high frequency words in this list are, for all practical purposes, those 
 which should be included in a course of study in spelling. 
 
The Third Yearbook 135 
 
 II. What words are most frequently used in writing done in 
 
 school? 
 
 STUDY NO. 16. Jones, F. W. Concrete investigation of the material 
 of English spelling. Vermillion, Univ. of South Dakota, 1915. 
 
 Purpose. "To determine what words, grade for grade, children use in 
 their own free written speech, and what words, therefore, they need to 
 know how to spell." 
 
 Source. 75,000 children's themes 
 
 Number of running words analyzed: 15,000,000 
 Number of different words: 4,532 
 
 Comment. The material used in this investigation consists of the ap- 
 proximate writing vocabularies of 1050 grade students, grades two to eight 
 inclusive, in four States: Illinois, Maryland, Iowa, and South Dakota. 
 Teachers were asked to have students write themes, under regular school 
 conditions, and on any topics of interest to the students. Specific directions 
 were given to the teachers. The theme writing was begun in the third 
 month of the school year and continued until the vocabularies were appar- 
 ently completed. This apparent exhaustion of the child's vocabulary was 
 reached by most of the students at the end of the fortieth theme. The 
 titles of the themes were then varied so as to reach into new fields of 
 experience and stimulate the children to use new words. When a given 
 student failed to use any new words for eight themes, Jones concluded that 
 that student's word-well was dry. The total number of themes examined 
 per student ranged from 56 to 105. 
 
 The 4532 words reported as found are printed, without frequencies, in 
 grade lists. A count was also made of the frequency with which each word 
 was misspelled. The 100 words having the highest number of misspellings 
 are printed under the title "100 Spelling Demons." 
 
 Later investigations have not confirmed Jones' results, but his study has 
 had an important influence in stimulating an interest in the study of chil- 
 dren's themes. The number of words is astonishingly small, considering the 
 total number of running words reported to have been analyzed. More 
 recent investigations have shown clearly that with an adequately stimulat- 
 ing list of theme topics one would secure far more than 4532 words in 
 15,000,000 running words written in grades two to eight. . 
 
 STUDY NO. 17. Bauer, Nicholas. The New Orleans public school 
 spelling list. New Orleans: F. F. Hansell & Bros., 1916. 
 
 Purpose. To prepare a list of words to be used as spelling material in 
 the grades by determining the writing vocabularies of pupils. 
 
 Source. 18,000 children's themes 
 
 Number of running words analyzed: 2,500,000 
 
 Number of different forms of words: approximately 19,000 
 
136 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Comment. The pupils of the New Orleans public schools were required 
 to write on one or more of ninety assigned topics related to child life and 
 activities. The words used by the children of the different grades were 
 arranged alphabetically by the teachers and the frequency of occurrence and 
 of misspelling recorded. The final compilation was made by Superintendent 
 Bauer. 
 
 3037 words having a frequency of forty or more each were assigned to 
 grades as follows : 
 
 Grade 
 
 II 
 
 385 
 
 III 
 
 467 
 
 IV 
 
 476 
 
 V 
 
 543 
 
 VI 
 
 566 
 
 VII 
 
 600 
 
 VIII 
 
 Review of the 3037 words. 
 
 "In making the assignment of words to the grades, the 385 words which 
 had been used the greatest number of times in the third grade were listed 
 as words to be studied by the second-grade pupils. The same method of 
 procedure was followed for the other grades except in the sixth and seventh 
 grades where the remaining 1166 words were apportioned to the two 
 grades." 
 
 A comparison of the words secured in this investigation was made with 
 those given in the study by Cook and O'Shea. It was found that with a 
 very few exceptions all the words given in the first and second lists in 
 Cook and O'Shea were also found among the words frequently used by 
 these children. 
 
 Although Superintendent Bauer makes no pretense of having exhausted 
 the vocabularies of the children of New Orleans, the number of different 
 words found in analyzing two-and-a-half million running words is more 
 than four times as large as that reported by Jones from his analysis of 
 15,000,000 running words. The larger number reported by Bauer agrees 
 much more closely with what we now know about the extent of children's 
 vocabularies. 
 
 STUDY NO. 18. Barthelmess, Harriet M. "The teaching of spell- 
 ing." Annual Report of School Committee. School Document No. 19. 
 Boston: Boston Printing Department, 1916. 
 
 Purpose. "To find out what common words the pupils needed most in 
 their written work (as shown by the actual words they use in their orig- 
 inal composition work) and which of these words they were misspelling 
 most often." 
 
 Source. Lists of words which children most frequently misspell in their 
 written work, prepared by representative teachers from 70 elementary 
 school districts of Boston. 
 
The Third Yearbook 137 
 
 Number of words recorded by teachers: 15,223 
 
 Number of different words recorded by teachers: 5,231 
 
 Number of words selected for minimum list: 840 
 
 Number of words selected for supplementary list: 2,542 
 
 Comment. These words recorded by the teachers were compiled by 
 the Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement into min- 
 imum and supplementary lists of words on the basis of the frequency with 
 which the individual words occurred in the lists of the several teachers. 
 
 "In May, 1915, tests were given in order to determine the degree 
 of difficulty of each word as shown by the ability of a thousand pupils to 
 spell it. In most cases each pupil was asked to spell words from the 
 minimum list of his own grade." 
 
 "The words in the minimum lists were re-listed according to the per 
 cent of accuracy established for each word in its assigned grade." 
 
 Additional words were added to the minimum lists. Two factors gov- 
 erned the selection of these additional words "(1) They are words that 
 appear a sufficient number of times in the teachers' lists to suggest their 
 need by the pupils; (2) they appear in the Ayres List, which indicates that 
 they are among the 1000 most common words." 
 
 "The supplementary lists were revised to include words from the best- 
 known scientific spelling lists that were not already included somewhere 
 in the Boston lists." 
 
 STUDY NO. 19. Kansas City, Missouri, Public Schools. Prelim- 
 inary report of the committee on spelling. Research Bulletin 2. Kansas 
 City, Mo.: Board of Educ, 1916. 
 
 Purpose. To make a minimum word list based on words most fre- 
 quently missed in children's compositions. 
 
 Source. 49,797 compositions written in 55 schools in Kansas City. 
 In addition, opinions of first-grade teachers on 327 different words. 
 
 Number of running words: Not given. 
 
 Total number of different words misspelled: 4448 
 
 Comment. This study is based on the analysis of lists of misspelled 
 words sent in by 683 teachers in 55 schools. The misspellings were those 
 discovered in 49,797 compositions written by 16,591 pupils. Only one 
 misspelling of a word was counted for a given pupil. 4448 were missed. 
 1926 words were missed by three or more pupils. These 1926 words are 
 given in the form of a table in which is shown for each grade the number 
 of pupils who missed the word. 
 
 While the total number of running words is not given, it is probable 
 that about five million running words were examined. This estimate 
 is made on the basis of 100 words to a composition. As can be readily 
 seen, the work of recording errors only is small as compared with that 
 of recording all words. The time saved in recording nothing but errors 
 
138 Department of Superintendence 
 
 was enormous. Since the prevention and correction of spelling errors 
 is the purpose of the investigation, the recording of errors seems sufficient. 
 
 In having the compositions written, an effort was made to find as wide 
 a range of topics as possible. However, from the nature of the topics 
 suggested to the teachers as samples of theme subjects upon which pupils 
 should write, one gets the impression that the subjects were somewhat 
 limited in type. 
 
 The weakness in the investigation is the lack of a well-planned list of 
 theme topics which could be expected to sample adequately the written 
 vocabularies of the children in the various grades. However, this in- 
 vestigation must be counted among the most important of all those which 
 have dealt with children's themes. With an adequate list of theme sub- 
 jects and approximately the same technique, the same type of investigation 
 could profitably be carried out in a number of public school systems. 
 
 STUDY NO. 20. Tidyman, W. F. Survey of the writing vocabularies 
 of public school children in Connecticut. Teachers' Leaflet No. 15, 
 November, 1921. 18 pp. 
 
 Purpose. To supplement previous investigations in three particulars: 
 "(1) to determine the second and third thousand words commonly used 
 by children in their spontaneous compositions, (2) to determine the grades 
 in which all common words are used, and (3) to develop an accurate and 
 expeditious method of examining words in large numbers." 
 
 Source. Compositions written by school children in grades three to 
 nine inclusive. 
 
 Number of running words analyzed: 538,500 
 
 Number of different words: 3,850 occurring two or more times in one 
 
 section of the investigation, omit- 
 ting short words and 102 common 
 words. 
 
 Comment. During the school year of 1917-1918 the author analyzed 
 5000 compositions chosen at random from 150,000 written in 27 schools 
 by children in grades 3-9. The general plan of the procedure was to cor- 
 rect the compositions for spelling; to cut the compositions up so that one 
 line only appeared on a slip of paper ; to throw out words of assuredly 
 common use ; and to sort the remainder into alphabetical and sub-alphabet- 
 ical lists until words of the same kind fell into the same pile ; finally, to 
 count and record the number of times each word was used. The cutting 
 and sorting was made possible by having the compositions "written upon 
 uniformly ruled paper, usually five-eighths inch ruling, on one side of a 
 sheet only. A special effort was made to have children write on the line 
 and to space words well." 
 
 . Some of the words were not counted. Since "the purpose of the in- 
 vestigation was to determine the frequencies of rarer words, the words 
 of assuredly common use were omitted." Words of one or two letters and 
 
The Third Yearbook 139 
 
 a few special words were omitted in all the grades. In addition, "words 
 of three letters were omitted in grades four and above, and all words of 
 four letters were omitted in grades seven and above." The names of 
 persons and places were not counted. 
 
 There is no doubt that the author saved a great deal of time by eliminat- 
 ing short words and very common words, even though some of his 102 
 common words lie far beyond the first 100 words of greatest frequency. 
 Dr. Ayres in reporting his investigation of the spelling vocabulary of 
 personal and business letters pointed out that 99 words with their repeti- 
 tions made up five eighths of all the running words. The extensive data 
 now available indicate that the 100 commonest words with their repetitions 
 make up nearly 59 per cent of all the words which one writes. It is easy 
 to see that the omission of these common words and all short words saves 
 a large amount of time in the final sorting and recording. The bulletin 
 gives what the author considers to be the first, second, and third thousand 
 words. These words are also arranged in grade lists. 
 
 In order to select the first 1000 words, the author took the 1254 words 
 reported in four or more of the following investigations: "those of Chan- 
 cellor, Smith, Cook and O'Shea, Jones, Studley and Ware, and Ayres — 
 and selected from these the 1000 words that were found to be used most 
 frequently in the present investigation. The second and third thousand 
 words were then determined. As a rule, words that occurred at least 15 
 times were placed in the second thousand, and words that occurred between 
 5 and 14 times were placed in the third thousand." 
 
 "In arranging grade lists a word was placed in the grade in which it first 
 occurred. The words are distributed among the grades as follows: 
 
 Grade 
 
 III 
 
 1,103 
 
 Grade 
 
 IV 
 
 726 
 
 Grade 
 
 V 
 
 578 
 
 Grade 
 
 VI 
 
 293 
 
 Grade 
 
 VII 
 
 169 
 
 Grade 
 
 VIII 
 
 113 
 
 Grade 
 
 IX 
 
 22 : 
 
 It should be pointed out that, when one considers the wide range of 
 ability in a given grade, "first occurrence" in a grade is a doubtful method 
 of grading. 
 
 This investigation adds to our knowledge of the vocabulary of chil- 
 dren's themes in which the theme topics are not planned or controlled. 
 The author's method of cutting and sorting words is a contribution. The 
 author's statement is: "It is not an exaggeration to say that, following 
 this method, one can handle words in thousands while by the old checking 
 method he handled them by hundreds. In 48 hours the author, working 
 alone, sorted and counted 48,000 words, including the eliminations noted 
 above." While a comparison with time costs of other methods of recording 
 does not show that the advantages of cutting and sorting are as great as are 
 here indicated, there is no doubt that the elimination of short words and 
 
140 Department of Superintendence 
 
 common words brings a substantial saving. If the cutting and sorting 
 method is to be used, the lines on the paper must be far apart and the 
 words well-spaced. The method has not proved practicable in tabulating 
 the vocabularies of letters. 
 
 STUDY NO. 21. McKee, Grace M. "Children's themes as a source 
 of spelling vocabulary." The Elementary School Journal. Nov., 1924, 
 Chicago : The Univ. of Chicago. For a more detailed discussion see : 
 McKee, Grace M. Children s themes as a source of spelling vocabulary, 
 Master's thesis, University of Iowa, July, 1924. 
 
 Purpose. "First, to determine how adequately certain previous theme 
 investigations have really discovered the vocabulary which children use in 
 writing compositions and, second, to determine whether or not the words 
 reported by previous investigations and the "words found in this investiga- 
 tion are included in such standard lists as the Horn Composite List and the 
 Thorndike Word List." 
 
 Source. 180 themes of sixth-grade pupils in 5 Iowa cities and 2 Illinois 
 cities. 
 
 Number of running words: 18,958 
 Number of different words : 2,329 
 
 Comment. In order to provide a more adequate vocabulary stimula- 
 tion, Mrs. McKee sought to formulate theme subjects which would bear 
 on a great variety of experiences with which sixth-grade children should 
 be familiar. As a guide in formulating the theme subjects, she used as a 
 starting point Bobbitt's classification of the values of life. She then con- 
 structed and assigned 387 theme subjects grouped under the following 
 main headings: 
 
 30_ topics on communication. 
 
 28 topics on health. 
 
 21 topics on unspecialized practical labors. 
 
 8 topics on religion. 
 
 16 topics on citizenship. 
 
 20 topics on social contacts and relationships. 
 
 16 topics on general mental efficiency. 
 
 41 topics on leisure activities. 
 
 180 themes were written by sixth-grade pupils upon subjects selected 
 from this list. Every word in the themes was tabulated, each word form 
 being scored separately. Although but 18,958 running words were scored, 
 2329. different words were found. 
 
 In order to compare her findings with those reported in other investiga- 
 tions of children's themes, Mrs. McKee made a compilation of the vocab- 
 ularies reported by Jones, Smith, Bauer, and Brown. These investigations 
 are described elsewhere in this chapter. She found that there was a great 
 lack of agreement among these various lists as to what words children use 
 
The Third Yearbook 141 
 
 in writing themes. She found but 1475 words which were common to four 
 of the five lists. 
 
 The list of 2329 words was then compared with the word lists in each 
 of these investigations with the following results: 
 
 893 of these words were not found in the Jones list. 
 1,623 of these words were not found in the Smith list. 
 1,154 of these words were not found in the Bauer list. 
 1,174 of these words were not found in the Brown list. 
 1,099 of these words were not found in the Tidyman list. 
 
 587 of these words were not found in any one of the five lists. 
 
 These data seem to indicate clearly that no previous investigation has 
 used a list of topics which was at all adequate to discover what words 
 a child can use in a theme. This defect probably accounts for the lack 
 of agreement among the lists, as well as for the relatively small vocabu- 
 lary found in each in proportion to the number of words analyzed. 
 
 The 1475 words common to four of the five previous theme investiga- 
 tions were then compared with the Horn investigation of adult writing 
 needs and with the Thorndike investigation of the vocabulary of reading. 
 Mrs. McKee draws two conclusions from these comparisons: first, that very 
 few of the words in children's themes were not found in investigations 
 of adult writing or reading needs; and second, that the vocabulary of 
 theme investigations falls so far short of adult requirements as to consti- 
 tute inadequate preparation for adult needs. 
 
 The comparison of Mrs. McKee's list with that of Thorndike and that 
 of Horn shows that 368 of the 2329 words in Mrs. McKee's original 
 investigation are not in the Horn list and that 758 of these words are 
 not in the Thorndike list. The conclusions to be drawn from these figures 
 are: first, when the vocabulary of children is stimulated by an adequate 
 list of theme topics, the vocabulary of the themes secured more nearly 
 resembles that of adult writing than it does that of adult reading or that 
 secured by any of the previous investigations of children's themes ; second, 
 if children write upon a wide list of topics dealing with every phase of 
 their experience, the vocabulary secured will certainly be very much 
 greater than that obtained in any previous investigation of children's themes. 
 
 STUDY NO. 22. Capps, A. G. "Curriculum content of a high school 
 spelling course." Journal of Educational Research 2: 626-655, October, 
 1920. 
 
 Purpose. To discover the words misspelled in the course of the school 
 year by high school pupils in a school of 120 pupils in a town of 1000 
 inhabitants in northern Missouri. 
 
 Source. All the written work of pupils including note-books. 
 
 Number of words analyzed: 956,730 
 
 Number of errors : 3,388 
 
 Number of different words misspelled: 1,925 
 
142 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Comment. Twenty-eight different words were misspelled 10 or more 
 times, totaling 553 misspellings, or 16 per cent of the errors made. Sixty- 
 two different words were misspelled five to nine times, totaling 400 mis- 
 spellings. Forty-four different words were misspelled four times, totaling 
 176 errors. And ninety-nine were misspelled three times, totaling 297 
 errors. Sixty-two of the words misspelled are in the Ayres' Thousand 
 Commonest Words. 
 
 It should be kept in mind that the vocabulary, and therefore the spelling 
 errors, found in the written work of high school students is determined 
 by the nature of the topics written upon. Many of the words reported 
 in this investigation are technical words used in connection with high 
 school subjects and are not found among words frequently used in life 
 outside the school. 
 
 STUDY NO. 23. Lester, John A. "A study of high school spelling 
 material." Journal of Educational Psychology, 13: 65-74, February, 1922; 
 152-159, March, 1922. 
 
 Purpose. To find those words actually misspelled by secondary school 
 seniors from public high schools and preparatory schools. 
 
 Source. The written work of 2414 candidates for the College Board 
 Entrance Examination in English for the seven years, 1913-1919. 
 
 Number of running words analyzed: 1,378,000 (approximately) 
 
 Comment. The total number of misspellings found was 14,002. The 
 total number of misspelled words was 2620. Ten words were misspelled 
 917 times and contributed 6.05 per cent of the misspellings. Fifty words 
 were misspelled 2688 times and contributed 19.2 per cent of the mis- 
 spellings. One hundred words were misspelled 4259 times and contrib- 
 uted 30.4 per cent of the misspellings. 
 
 Table 9 gives the full statement of these facts : 
 
 TABLE 9.— MISSPELLED WORDS TAKEN FROM WRITTEN WORK 
 OF 2414 CANDIDATES FOR THE COLLEGE BOARD ENTRANCE 
 EXAMINATION IN ENGLISH 
 
 
 
 Per Cent of Misspelling 
 
 Number of Words 
 
 Times Misspelled 
 
 Contributed 
 
 10 
 
 917 
 
 6.05 
 
 50 
 
 2,688 
 
 19.2 
 
 100 
 
 4,259 
 
 30.4 
 
 200 
 
 6,161 
 
 44.0 
 
 250 
 
 6,801 
 
 48.6 
 
 300 
 
 7,376 
 
 52.6 
 
 400 
 
 8,275 
 
 59.1 
 
 500 
 
 9,016 
 
 64.4 
 
 600 
 
 9,622 
 
 68.7 
 
 700 
 
 10,122 
 
 72.3 
 
 775 
 
 10,497 
 
 75,0 
 
 1,000 
 
 11,367 
 
 81.0 
 
 2,000 
 
 13,400 
 
 '95.7 
 
 2,620 
 
 14,002 
 
 100.0 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 143 
 
 The fifty words most frequently misspelled are given in the order of 
 the frequency of their misspelling, together with the most frequent ways 
 of misspelling them. The first ten were too, its, believe, together, their, 
 principal, committee, therefore, separate, and pleasant. These ten words 
 contributed 6.05 per cent of the errors. In another source ' the 775 words 
 which contributed 75 per cent of the errors are given in the order of the 
 frequency of their misspelling. Thirty-one per cent of these words are 
 in the Ayres list of the one thousand commonest English words. 
 
 This study is important because it was among the first studies to find the 
 words actually misspelled by secondary school pupils. It must be pointed 
 out that the written work from which the words were selected was highly 
 specialized and included little opportunity for the use of colloquial lan- 
 guage. Then, too, the group that takes the College Entrance Board Ex- 
 aminations is highly selected. What effect these two factors had on the 
 words misspelled is problematical. 
 
 STUDY NO. 24. Cesander, P. K. A basic high school spelling list. 
 Master's thesis in preparation, State University of Iowa. (Mr. Cesander 
 is superintendent of schools, Rushford, Minn.) 
 
 Purpose. To find the words actually misspelled by high school pupils 
 of all grades in written examinations prescribed by the state. 
 
 Source. The examination papers in all high school subjeects for the four 
 grades, written on questions prepared by a state examining board. Papers 
 from a very large per cent of the high schools of one state will be analyzed. 
 
 This list, when completed, will give those words which representative 
 high school pupils of the Middle West misspell in such examinations as 
 are now required. 
 
 Up to date, the following papers have been analyzed with the results 
 shown in Table 10. 
 
 TABLE 10.— WORDS MISSPELLED BY HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS OF 
 THE MIDDLE WEST 
 
 Subject 
 
 Number of 
 Papers 
 
 Number of 
 Running Words 
 
 Number of 
 
 Misspelled 
 
 Words 
 
 Number of 
 Misspellings 
 
 General History I 
 
 General History II 
 
 English I 
 
 163 
 187 
 475 
 377 
 203 
 
 150,000 
 224,438 
 205,119 
 196,419 
 109,830 
 
 320 
 
 350 
 244 
 350 
 320 
 
 725 
 510 
 502 
 
 English II 
 
 470 
 
 General Science 
 
 500 
 
 1 Lester, John A. A spelling review, 1920, Pottstown, Pa. John A. Lester, Hill School, 
 Publisher. 
 
144 Department of Superintendence 
 
 III. What is the significance for purposes of spelling of the words 
 
 found in: 
 
 a. Investigations of the vocabulary of reading. 
 
 STUDY NO. 25. Thorndike, E. L. The teachers word book. New 
 York, Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York City. 
 
 This investigation is not reviewed in detail here, since such a summary 
 belongs more properly to the section on reading. 
 
 This investigation deals with the vocabulary of reading rather than 
 with that of spelling. To quote Professor Thorndike: "It should be 
 noted further that this is not a spelling list. If it is used as an aid in 
 the construction of spelling lists, the derived forms in s, ies, ly, er, r, est, 
 st, s, ed, dj ing, and n should be inserted. They may offer notable diffi- 
 culty in spelling even when easily read and understood by derivation." 
 
 And yet the nature of the English language is such that this list affords 
 valuable additional data upon the words commonly needed in writing. 
 While it is questionable to include in a spelling list a word which occurs 
 in the Thorndike list but not in the important investigations of writing 
 vocabularies, there is no doubt that a word found not only in spelling but 
 also in reading takes on additional importance. This investigation not 
 only contributes the most important collection of data concerning the vo- 
 cabulary of reading, but also furnishes exceedingly valuable data for 
 purposes of measuring the overlap between the vocabulary of reading and 
 the vocabulary of spelling. 
 
 STUDY NO. 26. Dewey, Godfrey. Relativ frequency of English 
 speech sounds. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1923. 
 
 Purpose. "The object of this study was to determin the relativ fre- 
 quency of occurrence, in good English, as written and spoken today, of the 
 various simple sounds and commoner sound combinations — sillables and 
 words — of the English language." 
 
 Source. Approximately 10 per cent of personal and business corre- 
 spondence and 90 per cent of widely varied types of reading matter. 
 
 Number of running words: 106,404 
 Number of different words: 10,161 
 
 Comment. Although this investigation deals chiefly with the vocabu- 
 lary of reading, the author's interest in phonetic spelling leads him to 
 make some interesting comparisons between his own results and those of 
 investigations of writing vocabularies. The book is intended as a contri- 
 bution to phonetics. 
 
 The following investigations of the vocabulary of school readers are of 
 service in determining in the primary grades the relationship of the vocab- 
 ulary of spelling and the vocabulary of reading. These investigations are 
 
The Third Yearbook 145 
 
 merely listed here since they are reviewed in this Yearbook in the chapter 
 on reading. 
 
 Packer, J. L., "The vocabularies of ten first readers." The 20th Yearbook, Part 
 II, Chap. IX. Bloomington, 111.: Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 
 
 Housh, E. T., "Analysis of the vocabularies of ten second year readers." The 
 17th Yearbook, Chap. IV, Bloomington, 111.: Public School Pub. Co., 1918. 
 
 Miller, N. S., "A critical analysis of vocabulary of ten third readers." Master's 
 Thesis, Univ. of Iowa. 
 
 Kircher, H. W., "Analysis of the vocabularies of 37 primers and first readers." 
 The 24th Yearbook, Part I, Chap. VII. Bloomington, 111.: Public School Pub. Co., 
 1925. 
 
 b. Investigations of the vocabulary of speaking. 
 
 STUDY NO. 27. Horn, Ernest. "The vocabulary of children up to 
 and including first grade." The 24th Yearbook of the National Society 
 for the Study of Education, Part I, Chap. VII. Bloomington, 111.: Pub- 
 lic School Pub. Co. 
 
 Purpose. To discover the nature and extent of the spoken vocabulary 
 of young children. 
 
 Source. 1. An investigation by the author of the vocabularies of indi- 
 vidual children varying in age from one to six years. 
 
 2. Horn, Madeline. The Vocabulary of Kindergarten Children. 
 
 3. Packer, P. C. The Spoken Vocabulary of First Grade Children. 
 
 Number of running words: Approximately 200,000 of children of kindergarten 
 
 age ; approximately 70,000 of children in the first 
 grade ; number of running words was not reported 
 by those who contributed the vocabularies of indi- 
 vidual children. 
 
 Number of different words: Approximately 5000. 
 
 Comment. Many of the 5000 different words which were reported 
 occurred but once or twice. In order to secure a more limited list, all 
 words were taken which occurred in three investigations with a frequency 
 of 15 or more, or in two of the investigations with a total frequency of 
 25 or more. This limited list of words is printed without frequencies. 
 This list contains the words which children understand and use most 
 freely up to and including the age of six. It is therefore useful in helping 
 the curriculum maker to determine what words should be included in the 
 primary grades. It is also interesting to compare the number of different 
 words found in the spoken vocabulary of children of not more than six years 
 with that reported in the investigations of children's themes. 
 
 STUDY NO. 28. Graham, L. J. The vocabulary of the geography 
 recitation. Master's thesis, Univ. of Iowa, 1923. 
 
 Purpose. 1. What are the words used by children in classroom recita- 
 tions in geography? 
 
146 Department of Superintendence 
 
 2. In what way does this vocabulary differ from grade to grade ? 
 
 3. How does this vocabulary differ from that of the reading vocabulary 
 reported by Thorndike and from that of adult writing compiled by Horn? 
 
 Source. Stenographic reports of geography lessons. Samplings in long- 
 hand of pupil recitations in geography. 
 
 Number of running words: 106,071 
 Number of different words: 5,519 
 
 Comment. 783 of the 5519 words found in this investigation are geo- 
 graphical names; 3050 are not found in the Thorndike list, 2565 are not 
 found in a compilation of 800,000 running words of adult correspondence. 
 This compilation included the following investigations described else- 
 where in this report: 
 
 1. Cook and O'Shea. 
 
 2. Andersen. 
 
 3. Ayres. 
 
 4. Houser. 
 
 5. Studies reported in the California Speller. 
 
 6. Clark. 
 
 7. Horn, Bankers' letters. 
 
 8. Horn, 100,000 running words of personal correspondence. 
 
 Mr. Graham concludes that it is probable that at least half of the 
 words "which a child uses in his oral recitations in geography are words 
 which he will not use in his writing or find in his general reading." He 
 adds, however, that a much larger sampling will have to be made before 
 such conclusion could be finally accepted. 
 
 STUDY NO. 29. Phares, Mary L. A study of the classroom spoken 
 vocabulary of seventh and eighth grade pupils: Its possible bearing upon 
 the problems of spelling. Master's thesis, State Univ. of Iowa, 1923. 
 
 Purpose. As stated in the title. 
 
 Source. Stenographic reports of recitations. Longhand samplings from 
 pupil recitations in these grades. 
 
 Number of running words: 141,957 
 Number of different words: 7,506 
 
 Comment. There are three significant contributions in this thesis. 
 First, it shows the extensive vocabulary requirements put upon children in 
 these grades ; second, it shows the amount of overlap between this vocabu- 
 lary and that needed in writing letters; third, it adds to the knowledge 
 of the spoken vocabulary requirements in recitations in each of the prom- 
 inent subjects taught in the seventh and eighth grades. 
 
 Miss Phares reports that 53 per cent of, the words found ^n her investi- 
 gation occur also in a compilation of 800,000 running words of corre- 
 
The Third Yearbook 147 
 
 spondence. 51 per cent of the words found in her investigation occur also 
 in the Thorndike list. 
 
 c. Investigations of the vocabulary of other languages. 
 
 STUDY NO. 30. Kaeding, F. W. Hdufigkeitswbrterbuch der deut- 
 schen Sprache. Steglitz bei Berlin: Selbstverlag des Herausgebers, 1898, 
 pp. 671. 
 
 Purpose. To secure adequate data on the frequency of words, syllables, 
 sound combinations, and letters in the German language for a critical ex- 
 amination and revision of German systems of shorthand. 
 
 Source. A wide sampling was taken from literature in the following 
 fields : 
 
 Number of Words. Number of Syllables. 
 
 1. Legal 400,000 810,442 
 
 2. Theological .' 400,000 670,856 
 
 3. Medical 100,000 189,832 
 
 4 Commercial 300,000 597,786 
 
 5. Historical 500,000 894,890 
 
 6. Classical 2,000,000 3,329,087 
 
 7. Letters: 
 
 a. Commercial 100,000 191,282 
 
 b. Military i 200,000 375,468 
 
 c. Private 700,000 1,182,981 
 
 8. Political 900,000 1,745,875 
 
 9. Discoveries 400,000 777,047 
 
 10. General Military 600,000 1,147,974 
 
 11. Miscellaneous 4,306,235 8,086,480 
 
 Number of running words: 10,910,777 
 
 Number of syllables: 20,000,000 
 
 Number of different words: 258,173 (of which 49.14 per cent occur 
 
 but once.) 
 Number of letters: 60,558,018 
 
 Comment. This monumental work was begun in 1891 after the director 
 had presented to associations of stenographic systems the need for fre- 
 quency investigations of words, syllables, sounds, sound combinations, and 
 letters if systems of shorthand are to rest on a scientific basis. The neces- 
 sity for a word count on an extensive scale appeared when comparisons 
 were made of the frequencies of even commonly occurring words with 
 varying material. For example, in forty-five sets of 100,000 words each 
 the range of frequencies for zu was from 974 in one list to 1959 in an- 
 other; for es 278 to 1254; and for er 198 to 1400. Previously published 
 word or syllable counts, based on considerably less than 100,000 syllables 
 were therefore entirely inadequate. 
 
 The research was planned to the last detail. Each word to be counted 
 was written on a card by the participants and the cards sorted into classes 
 according to the number of syllables and according to the type of mate- 
 
148 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 rial on which the count was based. 665 individuals cooperated in this pre- 
 liminary work. Each set contributed was checked at least once, and in 
 difficult sections of the work, twice. 167 cooperators then assisted in 
 grouping all the original material into unit sets of 100,000 words for each 
 sort of literature. Within each set the material was distributed also ac- 
 cording to the number of syllables. Table 1 1 sets forth the summary of 
 words and syllables without the distribution according to type of material. 
 
 TABLE 11.— SUMMARY OF WORDS EXAMINED IN THE GERMAN 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 Number of Syllables Per Word 
 
 Words 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Syllables 
 
 1 Syllable.. 
 
 5,426,326 
 
 3,156,448 
 
 1,410,494 
 
 646,971 
 
 187,738 
 
 54,436 
 
 16,993 
 
 5,038 
 
 1,225 
 
 461 
 
 59 
 
 35 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 49.76 
 
 28.94 
 
 12.93 
 
 5.93 
 
 1.72 
 
 .50 
 
 5,426,326 
 
 2 Syllables 
 
 3 Syllables 
 
 6,312,896 
 4,231,482 
 
 4 Syllables 
 
 2,587,884 
 
 5 Syllables 
 
 938.690 
 
 6 Syllables 
 
 326,616 
 
 7 Syllables . 
 
 118,951 
 
 8 Syllables . . 
 
 
 40,304 
 
 9 Syllables . . 
 
 .22 
 
 11,025 
 
 10 Syllables . . 
 
 4,610 
 
 11 Syllables. . 
 
 
 649 
 
 12 Syllables 
 
 
 420 
 
 13 Syllables 
 
 14 Syllables . 
 
 
 104 
 
 
 28 
 
 5 Syllables . 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 10,906,235 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 
 
 The average number of syllables per word ranged from 2.02 for legal 
 and juristic literature to 1.79 for historical material. The general aver- 
 age for all material is 1.83 syllables per word. 
 
 The next step was the alphabetical arrangement of all the individual 
 words, the card for each word giving the total frequency in the 10,910,777 
 words, the frequency per 100,000 words with each type of material, and 
 the frequency with the individual sets of material. 
 
 The next step was the analysis of the frequencies of each word in 
 derivatives and compounds as prefixes, roots, and suffixes. For example, 
 the frequency of Schloss when appearing alone was counted and also in 
 compounds such as Luftschloss, Kastenschloss, Konig schloss, etc., or of 
 her alone and in compounds such as bisherige, woher, daher, beiher, etc. 
 The prefixes were written on blue cards, the suffixes on red cards, and 
 root words on white cards and counted, being classified also as to the 
 number of syllables in each. 
 
 Finally there was made a count of the letters and the frequency of 
 various combinations which are matters of special interest in the construc- 
 tion of stenographic systems. 
 
 The publication of the enormous mass of material accumulated was of 
 course out of the question. The book gives in detail alphabetically and in 
 order of frequency the words, roots, prefixes, and suffixes that occurred 5000 
 times or more, with an indication of the number of times each was cap- 
 
The Third Yearbook 149 
 
 italized and in small letters. Three words, die, der, and und, constitute 
 9.47 per cent of all words. The 15 commonest words take up 25.22 per 
 cent of written language, while 66 words make up 50.06 per cent, or 
 half, of running discourse. The 320 words which occur 5000 times or 
 more make up 72.25 per cent of the word frequencies. 
 
 Then appears an alphabetical list of the 79,716 words which occur 
 four times or more. The facts presented can be illustrated by an ex- 
 ample. Leben appears in the list as leben (50) 158/483, which means that 
 it occurred 483 times, 158 times as a simple word and capitalized 50 times, 
 while 325 times it appeared in compounds or derivatives. 
 
 The root syllables which appeared 5000 times and more are listed 
 alphabetically and in order of frequency with figures for the frequency 
 among the 258,173 words and the average frequency per 100,000 words 
 There are 401 such forms. There are also listed alphabetically all the 
 root syllables which occurred eight times or more. 
 
 Then are listed the prefixes with all their combinations and a separate 
 frequency list of separable and inseparable prefixes. Similarly are listed 
 the simple and compound suffixes which occur 1000 times or more and a 
 list of all suffixes, final and auxiliary syllables. 
 
 Part III of this stupendous work is a letter count of the 60,558,018 
 letters for the 20,000,000 syllables counted. The frequencies of all letter 
 combinations are tabulated and classified as to appearance in prefixes, roots., 
 and suffixes; complete tabulations are also given of all the vowel and con- 
 sonant sounds and all sound combinations. 
 
 The extraordinary detail of the investigation is indicated finally by the 
 tabulation of the frequencies of different forms of punctuation in 9,580,- 
 000 running words. 
 
 The director met with indifference and open antagonism in his heroic 
 undertaking. Financial support was inadequate and very difficult to se- 
 cure. Only a portion of the tabulations could be published. All the original 
 cards and tables are deposited in the Royal Library of Berlin for the use 
 of other investigators. 
 
 This study is of great value in determining the fundamental ideas for 
 which a vocabulary is needed in any western civilized country. It has val- 
 uable uses also in determining the validity of word counts in other lan- 
 guages. For example, in the compilation of adult writing needs by Horn, 
 the commonest noun was time and the fourth commonest noun was order. 
 It was felt that possibly order was overweighted because of its use in busi- 
 ness letters. However, reference to the most frequent words in the Kaeding 
 list showed Zeit as the commonest noun and Ordnung as the second com- 
 monest noun. 
 
 STUDY NO. 31. Henmon, V. A. C. A French word book, based on 
 a count of 400,000 running words. Madison, Wis. Bulletin of the Bureau 
 of Educ. Research, Univ. of Wisconsin Study No. 2, 1924. (In press.) 
 
150 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Purpose. To determine the 1000 commonest words in French discourse. 
 
 Source. Wide sampling as indicated below. 
 
 Number of running words: 400,000 
 
 Number of different words: 9,187 (reduced to dictionary basis) 
 
 Comment. This study was undertaken in connection with an investiga- 
 tion for the American Classical League inquiry on the relation of the study 
 of Latin to progress in learning French. : The question naturally arose as to 
 the vocabulary in Latin that would be most useful in preparation for the 
 later study of French. Inquiry abroad revealed no word frequency investi- 
 gations in French. The sources used .were as follows: 
 
 Texts edited for use in schools and colleges 80,000 words 
 
 Philosophical prose 20,000 
 
 Magazine articles 50,000 
 
 Newspaper articles 30,000 
 
 Modern French writers (de Maupassant, Daudet, de la 
 
 Brete, etc. ) 140,000 
 
 Poetry 15,000 
 
 Political and military articles and essays 25,000 
 
 Letters and Telegrams 15,000 
 
 Popular fiction 25,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 The tabulation in the published material gives a list of 3500 words 
 which occur five times or more, arranged alphabetically and in .order of 
 frequency. French vocabulary scales similar to Thorndike word scales 
 in English graduated on a basis of the frequency of occurrence found have 
 been prepared for publication. 
 
 In addition to the purposes for which this study was made, it consti- 
 tutes a valuable addition to our knowledge of the fundamental vocabulary 
 needs in any western civilization. A comparison between this vocabulary 
 and that most frequently needed in reading and writing English shows a 
 large overlapping. Where differences occur they indicate in an interest- 
 ing way that where the customs of one country differ from another, a par- 
 allel difference will be found in the vocabularies of the two countries. 
 
 d. Investigations of the vocabulary needed in connection with other 
 school subjects. 
 
 STUDY NO. 32. Byrne, Mary B. C. and Yocum, A. D. An investiga- 
 tion into the word contribution of every subject required or suggested by the 
 New York City curriculum for the first three years in school. (Unpub- 
 ished.) 
 
 Purpose. As indicated in the title. 
 
 Source. Subject-matter of the course of study for three grades. 
 
 Number of running words: Not reported. , 
 
 Number of different words: Not reported. 
 
The Third Yearbook 151 
 
 Comment. This investigation has been carried on over a period of 
 seven years. It has consisted in the analysis and recording of the "vocabu- 
 lary contribution of each subject and activity, regardless of whether the 
 source was game, poem, song, story, dance, hygiene, number, dramatiza- 
 tion, drawing, construction, sewing, trip lesson, nature, lantern-slide lesson, 
 phonograph lesson, picture study, or what not. Every possible vocabulary 
 source has been combed with care to discover the specific word contribu- 
 tion of each subject, and the total vocabulary contribution of all subjects." 
 
 After this vocabulary was determined, further study was made for the 
 purpose of determining the relative worth of each word and also the 
 relative ease or difficulty with which each word is acquired. 
 
 While the reviewer has not seen the detail of the investigation, it seems 
 likely to afford data of value for deciding which words among those of 
 known utility in writing may be most advantageously taught in the first 
 three years of school. 
 
 STUDY NO. 33. Pressey, Luella C. "The determination of the tech- 
 nical vocabulary of school subjects." School and Society, Vol. 20, July 
 19, 1924. 
 
 See also, Pressey, Luella C. "The technical vocabulary of school sub- 
 jects." Bloomington, 111., Public School Pub. Co., 1924. 
 
 While this investigation is primarily a contribution to reading vocab- 
 ularies, it will doubtless prove of use to those who wish to include subject 
 lists in spelling courses of study. If pupils are to be required to learn to 
 spell the principal words used in each of the prominent school subjects, this 
 investigation should prove helpful by showing the most important technical 
 words in each subject. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 READING 
 
 William S. Gray, Dean, School of Education, University of Chicago 
 Chicago, Illinois, Chairman 
 
 MORE THAN five hundred investigations of reading have been 
 reported during the last thirty years. A recent summary of 
 these studies shows that a large proportion of them contribute 
 to a better understanding of the problems of reading instruction and are, 
 therefore, of value in efforts to reorganize courses of study and to improve 
 classroom teaching. 
 
 When the preparation of this section was undertaken it became apparent 
 at once that it would be impossible to summarize in detail in the space 
 assigned to the Sub-Committee on Reading even a small percentage of the 
 studies which are of value in constructing courses of study in reading. The 
 plan was adopted, therefore, of summarizing briefly the results of a large 
 number of investigations that relate directly or indirectly to twelve specific 
 problems that arise in organizing courses of study in reading. A list of 
 these problems follows together with the names of the committee members 
 who prepared the various sections of this chapter. 
 
 I. Aims of reading instruction. (William S. Gray.) 
 II. Fundamental habits in oral and silent reading. (William S. Gray.) 
 
 III. Growth periods or rates of progress in important phases of reading. 
 
 (W. W. Theisen.) 
 
 IV. Children's interests in reading. (Frances Jenkins.) 
 
 V. Results of investigations of reading materials. (W. L. Uhl.) 
 VI. Scientific studies in the field of literature. (S. A. Leonard.) 
 VII. Studies of reading vocabularies. (H. A. Greene.) 
 VIII. The evaluation of teaching techniques. (Laura Zirbes.) 
 IX. The place of phonetics in teaching reading. (Frances Jenkins.) 
 X. Provision for individual differences. (W. W. Theisen.) 
 XI. Diagnosis and remedial work. (Laura Zirbes.) 
 XII. Time allotment. (F. W. Ballou and Elizabeth Hummer.) 
 
 The organization of the report in terms of problems has necessarily re- 
 sulted in reference to certain studies in several different sections. This 
 could not be avoided inasmuch as many studies contribute valuable infor- 
 mation concerning several problems. 
 
 Many other problems relating to curriculum issues would have been 
 discussed and the results of a larger number of investigations summarized 
 in the discussion of each topic, if space had permitted. 
 
 I. Aims of Reading Instruction 
 
 Current statements of aims differ widely — While it is true that the 
 aims of reading have been discussed widely during recent, years, only a 
 
 [152] 
 
The Third Yearbook 153 
 
 limited number of scientific studies have been published. The four in- 
 vestigations to which reference is made here reflect widely different views. 
 
 Aims as reported by elementary-school teachers — In 1917, Gray 1 tab- 
 ulated the "most desirable results or outcomes of the teaching of reading 
 in the elementary school" as reported by 715 teachers of a large city. 
 The various aims and the percentage of teachers mentioning each follow : 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Appreciation of good literature 68 
 
 Ability to comprehend 64 
 
 To secure information 40 
 
 Improvement in oral-reading ability 38 
 
 Enlargement of vocabulary 24 
 
 Mastery of the mechanics of reading 15 
 
 Training for leisure 15 
 
 Improvement in oral and written English 14 
 
 Improvement in study habits 10 
 
 Development of general mental qualities 7 
 
 Ability to reproduce and utilize materials read 6 
 
 Moral training 6 
 
 Use of books 1 
 
 Although these aims include some of the uses of reading in school and 
 modern life their major emphasis is upon the traditional values attached to 
 reading. 
 
 Aims given in state courses of study for rural schools — Reinoehl" made 
 a detailed analysis of the aims of reading as given in 44 state courses of 
 study most of which were issued since 1914. Since less than half of these 
 courses have since been revised, the aims discussed represent to a large 
 extent current objectives of reading in rural schools. The aims which 
 appeared most frequently follow: 
 
 Intelligent interpretation of the printed page with reasonable accuracy and 
 rapidity. 
 
 Ability to read (for others) in pleasing, natural, forceful expressive ways. 
 
 Appreciation of and love for good literature. 
 
 Clean, healthy, profitable, enjoyable employment. 
 
 Creation of a compelling desire to read the best well. 
 
 Develop the power to picture vividly. 
 
 For ethical culture and moral development. 
 
 Develop the power of discriminative reading. 
 
 It is apparent that these aims give most emphasis to intelligent interpre- 
 tation, expressive oral reading, the appreciation of good literature, and the 
 development of permanent interests in reading. 
 
 1 Gray, William S. "Reading in the elementary schools of Indianapolis." Elemen- 
 tary School Journal XIX (January, 1919), 336-53. 
 
 2 Reinoehl, Charles M. Analytical survey of state courses of study for rural 
 elementary schools, pp. 65-6. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1922. No. 42. 
 
154 Department of Superintendence 
 
 A survey of English objectives — The most extensive study of reading 
 aims thus far completed was made by Pendleton 1 who consulted seven 
 sources of information in a painstaking study of English objectives. These 
 sources were statements of 272 teachers of English, statements of 100 edu- 
 cators, the articles, editorials, and notes pertaining to English published in 
 eleven important periodicals during the years 1915-20, 67 standard gen- 
 eral volumes on education, 118 standard volumes about English and the 
 teaching of English, 49 state or municipal courses of study or teachers' 
 manuals in English, and 62 current textbooks on various phases and levels 
 of English. After the aims had been determined they were ranked in the 
 order of importance by eighty teachers of English. Six of the objectives 
 which were considered most important follow: 
 
 The habit of reading for enjoyment literature of the better sort. 
 
 A taste for reading books (not merely magazines) of an excellent sort. 
 
 An attitude of alert interest in the world and all things in it and a desire to 
 increase one's knowledge. 
 
 A perennial never-failing interest in people ; the habit of studying them sym- 
 pathetically. 
 
 The ability to refrain from marking or marring in any way a borrowed book. 
 
 The complete list of objectives include 409 which relate more or less 
 directly to reading. It is evident from the examples given that the ob- 
 jetives which were considered most important reflect largely the special 
 reading interests of teachers of literature. 
 
 Limitations of the reading aims presented — The studies of aims to which 
 reference has been made have serious limitations. They indicate primarily 
 what teachers of reading and literature have emphasized in the past and 
 what has appeared most frequently in courses of study. They summarize 
 current practices rather than seek to determine the most valuable uses of 
 reading in school and in modern social life or the changes which should 
 be made in the aim and content of reading instruction. They are, therefore, 
 of limited value in any effort to reorganize courses of study or to improve 
 and refine the technique of teaching. 
 
 Uses of reading in social life — In a series of investigations including con- 
 ferences with more than 900 adults, Gray, 2 Parsons, 3 and others found 
 "that intelligent reading is a most significant means of familiarizing adults 
 with current events, with significant social issues, with community and 
 national problems and with American institutions, ideals, and aspirations." 
 It was also found to be an indispensable means of attaining vocational 
 
 1 Pendleton, S. C. An inquiry into the current specific objectives in English in 
 the public elementary school and high school, Chap. IV. Doctor's dissertation, 
 The Univ. of Chicago, 1921. 
 
 2 Gray, William S. "The importance of intelligent silent reading." Elementary 
 School Journal, XXIV (January, 1924), pp. 348-52. 
 
 3 Parsons, R. B. A study of adult reading, pp. 96-97. Master's Thesis, The 
 University of Chicago, 1923. 
 
The Third Yearbook 155 
 
 efficiency, of extending experience, of securing a broad outlook on life, and 
 of securing pleasure and profit during leisure hours. The investigations 
 showed that practically all of the reading of adults is done silently. "F.ewer 
 than 5 per cent reported oral reading on other than very infrequent oc- 
 casions." Nevertheless, several important purposes or occasions of oral 
 reading were mentioned. The three reported most frequently were to 
 inform or entertain others in private or public, to increase one's under- 
 standing and appreciation of materials read, and to entertain and interest 
 children in reading. 
 
 Uses of reading in school — Gray made a study of the uses of reading 
 in preparing assignments in 250 fourth, fifth, and sixth grade classrooms 1 
 of Rochester and Buffalo and in 250 high school classes 2 in the central 
 west. These studies showed that reading is used for a wide variety of 
 specific purposes such as finding the author's aim, selecting the main point 
 and supporting details, finding answers to questions, following directions, 
 and securing information to aid in the solution of a problem. The studies 
 showed also that the uses of reading vary in different subjects. Judd and 
 Buswell 3 found that changes in the purposes of reading are accompanied 
 by corresponding changes in the habits employed. It follows that specific 
 training should be given in each important use of reading and that effective 
 habits of reading and study should be taught in each content subject as 
 well as during the literature period. 
 
 Conclusions — The studies to which reference has been made suggest 
 the following tentative conclusions: (a) That the traditional aims of 
 reading fail to give sufficient emphasis to modern reading needs; (b) that 
 one of the primary purposes of reading is to extend the experiences of the 
 reader, stimulate his thinking powers, and enable him to interpret life more 
 intelligently and accurately; (c) that instruction in reading should develop 
 strong motives for and permanent interests in reading that direct and in- 
 spire the present and future life of the reader; (d) that reading should 
 cultivate the attitudes, habits, and skills that are essential in desirable 
 reading activities. These include habits of intelligent interpretation, the 
 fundamental habits of fluent, accurate oral reading and speed of silent 
 reading, effective habits of interpretative oral reading, and skill in the use 
 of books and sources of information. 
 
 II. Fundamental Habits in Oral and Silent Reading . 
 
 The fact has been emphasized that a program of instruction should pro- 
 vide for the development of all essential habits involved in intelligent 
 interpretation, effective oral reading and speed of silent reading. Scientific 
 
 1 Unpublished. 
 
 2 Gray, William S. "The relation between study and reading," pp. 580-6. Na- 
 tional Education Association: Addresses and Proceedings, LVII, 1919. 
 
 3 Judd, Charles H., and Buswell, Guy T. "Silent reading: a study of its types." 
 Chap. III. Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 23, 1922. 
 
156 Department of Superintendence 
 
 studies have distinguished five such habits for both oral and silent read- 
 ing — namely, accurate recognition, span of recognition, rate of recognition, 
 the rhythmical progress of perceptions along the lines, and the accurate 
 return sweep of the eyes from the end of one line to the beginning of the 
 next. It is the purpose of this section to consider the nature of these habits 
 and conditions that affect their development. 
 
 Accuracy and independence in recognition — The fact is generally rec- 
 ognized that the good reader recognizes words independently and ac- 
 curately. Although the pronunciation of words need not be recognized in 
 all silent reading activities a reader should be able to recognize them if 
 occasion demands. Inaccuracies of recognition in oral reading result in 
 errors. Several tabular studies 1 of such errors have been made which 
 reveal interesting information concerning their variety and frequency. 
 The most important types reported are non-recognitions, total mispronun- 
 ciations, partial mispronunciations, omissions, insertions, repetitions, and 
 substitutions. 
 
 The causes of errors or failure 2 in recognition have been classified into 
 ten groups as follows : defective vision ; immature language habits ; self- 
 consciousness and timidity ; lack of interest ; limited reading experience ; 
 carelessness and lack of feeling of responsibility; failure to direct attention 
 to content; inability to analyze words; a narrow span of recognition; and 
 irregular eye-movements. 
 
 The studies to which reference has been made reveal additional facts 
 which should be considered in organizing a program of reading instruction : 
 
 Progress in accuracy of recognition varies with the difficulty of the material 
 read, with the kind of instruction given, and with the conditions that prevail in 
 different schools and school systems. 
 
 Progress in the elimination of errors in simple passages may take place relatively 
 early in the grades. 
 
 Schools which eliminate simple errors early make most rapid progress in develop- 
 ing accuracy and independence in dealing with more difficult words. 
 
 Schools that develop accuracy and independence early are free to devote a 
 relatively larger proportion of time to more valuable reading activities later in 
 the grades. 
 
 1 McGrath, Jane. An experimental study in first grade reading. Master's 
 Thesis, The Univ. of Chicago, 1918. Gray, C. T. "Types of reading ability as 
 exhibited through tests and laboratory experiments." Supplementary Educational 
 Monographs. Vol. I, No. 5, 1917. Chap. II. Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. 
 "Remedial work in reading." Elementary School Journal. XX (May-June, 1920), 
 pp. 68S-701; 772-91. McLeod, L. S. "The influence of increasing difficulty of read- 
 ing material upon rate, errors, and comprehension in oral reading." Elementary 
 School-Journal, XVIII (March, 1918). pp. 523-32. Gray, William S. "Reading in 
 the elementary schools of Indianapolis." Elementary School Journal, XIX (Feb- 
 ruary, 1919). pp. 419-44. 
 
 2 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading, their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 22, 1922, pp. 128-9. Charles H. 
 Judd. Reading: its nature and development. Supplementary Educational Mono- 
 graphs. Vol. II, No. 4, 1918, p. 60. 
 
The Third Yearbook 157 
 
 As the difficulty of the material increases for a given class the character of the 
 errors changes and their number increases. Furthermore, as pupils advance 
 through the grades new types of difficulties are encountered. It follows that the 
 teachers of each grade are confronted with the problem of teaching pupils to 
 recognize words accurately and independently. Courses of study should provide 
 systematic instruction throughout the grades in accuracy and independence of 
 recognition based upon the dominant types of errors made in each grade. 
 
 Various methods have been found valuable in overcoming difficulties in 
 word recognition. The following were used by Gray 1 and others in a 
 number of remedial cases: directing attention to the content; drill on 
 words similar in form until they are recognized as sight words or because 
 of their similar elements ; drill on phonetic elements, practice in word build- 
 ing, and training in the phonetic analysis of short words ; and training in 
 the analysis of polysyllabic words by recognizing familiar parts, dividing 
 words into syllables, and studying prefixes and suffixes. A summary of the 
 evidence with regard to the place of phonetics in a program of instruction 
 will be discussed in a later section. 
 
 Span of recognition — The amount recognized at each fixation of the eye 
 is "a very strong factor in determining speed efficiency in both silent and 
 oral reading." 2 The size of the unit recognized in reading has been meas- 
 ured in terms of the number of fixations of the eyes per line. The results 
 secured by Schmidt in a laboratory experiment appear in Table 12. The 
 entries show that there are wide individual variations and that the amount 
 
 Table 12. Range in Average Number of Words Recognized per Fixation 
 
 Type of Reading Adults High School Students Elementary Pupils 
 
 Oral 1.52 to .87 1.39 to .98 1.62 to .86 
 
 Silent 2.15 to .93 2.04 to 1.04 2.44 to 1.04 
 
 Arranged from Schmidt's data, p. 56. 
 
 recognized per fixation is greater in silent than in oral reading. The greater 
 speed of silent reading is due largely to this difference in span of recogni- 
 tion. 
 
 The entries in Table 12 suggest that there is little growth in span of 
 recognition. This impression is due to the fact that most of the increase 
 comes very early in the grades as shown in an investigation by Buswell 3 . 
 
 1 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading, their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. No. 22, 1922. pp. 101-7. Anderson, C. 
 J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in reading." Elementary School Journal. 
 XX (May-June, 1920). pp. 685-701; 772-91. 
 
 " Schmidt, W. A. An experimental study in the psychology of reading. Sup- 
 plementary Educational Monographs. Vol. I, No. 2, 1917, p. 57. 
 
 3 Buswell, Guy T Fundamental reading habits: a study of their development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. No. 21, 1922, Chap. II. 
 
Type of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reading IB 
 
 IA 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 Silent. 18.6 
 
 15.5 
 
 10.7 
 
 8.9 
 
 7.3 
 
 Oral.. 16.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 10.4 
 
 10.3 
 
 158 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Table 13 includes the average number of fixations per line for both oral 
 and silent reading. The entries in this table show clearly '"that the chief 
 
 Table 13. Average Number of Fixations per Line in Silent and Oral Reading 
 
 School Grades 
 
 V VI VII Fresh. Soph. Jr. Sr. Col. 
 6.9 7.3 6.8 7.2 5.8 5.5 6.4 59 
 8.7 8.9 8.7 9.1 8.3 8.0 9.3 84 
 Arranged from Buswell's data, pp. 26 and 37. 
 
 development in span of recognition comes early in the school course." 
 
 Evidence concerning the effect of training on the span of recognition has 
 been secured by Gray and by O'Brien. Gray 1 gave short exposure exer- 
 cises and practice in rapid reading to two sixth-grade pupils, one a slow 
 reader and the other a rapid reader. The records of their eye-movements 
 before and after the practice period show that training may increase the 
 size of the unit recognized. O'Brien 2 obtained similar evidence from five 
 pupils representing the fourth, fifth, and seventh grades who had received 
 training to increase the speed of silent reading and to decrease vocaliza- 
 tion. The records showed a "noticeable reduction in the number of fixa- 
 tion pauses" in all the grades represented. 
 
 The findings which have been reported show that the first four grades 
 represent the period of most rapid increase in span of recognition and that 
 provision should be made in these grades for appropriate training. The fact 
 should be recognized, however, that practice may prove effective later in 
 the grades in case it is needed. 
 
 Rate of recognition. — A good reader not only recognizes large units at 
 each fixation but he also recognizes units rapidly. Schmidt 3 found that 
 the average duration of reading pauses varied from 214 to 470 thousandths 
 of a second in silent reading and from 230 to 520 thousandths of a second 
 in oral reading. It is evident from these data that some readers recognize 
 given units much more rapidly than other readers. They also show that 
 recognition is more rapid in silent than in oral reading. 
 
 Growth in rate of recognition occurs most rapidly in the primary grades. 
 Buswell's 4 studies show that it "is one element of reading which can be 
 brought to the level of maturity very early in the school period." His 
 data indicate that a rate of recognition "of from 5 to 6 twenty- fifths of a 
 second satisfies the demands of maturity in reading." 
 
 1 Gray, C. T. Types of reading ability as exhibited through tests and laboratory 
 experiments. Supplementary Educational Monographs. Vol. I, No. 5, Chap. V. 
 
 2 O'Brien, J. A. Silent reading, Chap. X. Macmillan Company, New York, 
 1921. 
 
 3 Schmidt, W. A. An experimental study in the psychology of reading. Sup- 
 plementary Educational Monographs. Vol. 1, No. 2, 1917, p. 118. 
 
 4 Buswell, Guy T. Fundamental reading habits; a study of their development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. No. 21, June, 1922, Chap. IT. 
 
The Third Yearbook 159 
 
 Little specific evidence has been obtained concerning the effect of train- 
 ing on rate of recognition. The studies of O'Brien 1 and Gray 2 did not 
 reveal improvement. Their subjects were in the fourth grade or above 
 and the training provided was not given specifically to increase rate of 
 recognition. It remains, therefore, to determine the types of training 
 that are most effective in increasing the rate of recognition and the grades 
 in which results can be secured most economically and effectively. In the 
 meantime, teachers should continue to make use in the primary grades of 
 methods that experience has taught are valuable, such as providing simple 
 selections that are highly charged with interest, developing strong motives 
 for reading, encouraging much independent reading of simple exercises, 
 and providing frequent quick perception exercises. 
 
 Rhythmical progress of perceptions — Huey 3 early observed that "readers 
 showed a strong rhythmic tendency. Each would fall into a reading pace 
 that seemed most natural to him, and would read page after page in almost 
 exactly the same time." Later experiments of Dearborn, Schmidt, Gray, 
 Buswell, and Judd confirm Huey's observations. 
 
 Irregularity in the progress of perceptions has been measured in terms 
 of the number of regressive movements per line. In an analysis of the 
 causes of regressive movements, Buswell 4 discovered four types produced by 
 as many different causes. They are (a) irregularities at the beginning of 
 lines due to inaccurate return sweeps, (b) irregularities on the part of 
 mature readers who overreach their maximum span of recognition, (c) 
 lack of word knowledge, and (d) "periods of confusion." Judd and Bus- 
 well 5 discovered the following additional causes: increase in difficulty of 
 material read, changing from more familiar to less familiar content, and 
 changing the purpose of reading, for example, from rapid reading to study. 
 
 Few efforts have been made to promote the rhythmical progress of per- 
 ceptions or to eliminate regressive movements through specific training ex- 
 ercises, excepting in remedial cases. 6 The latter type of studies shows that 
 
 1 O'Brien, J. A. Silent reading. Chap. X. New York: Macmillan Company, 
 1921. 
 
 2 Gray, C. T. Types of reading ability as exhibited through tests and laboratory 
 experiments. Supplementary Educational Monographs. Vol. I, No. 5, Chap. V. 
 
 3 Huey, E. B. The psychology and pedagogy of reading, p. 175. New York. 
 Macmillan Company, 1912. 
 
 4 Buswell, Guy T. Fundamental reading habits: a study of their development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. No. 21, 1922. pp. 34-36. 
 
 5 Judd, Charles H. and Buswell, Guy T. Silent reading: a study of its types: 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. No. 23, 1922. Chap. II and III. 
 
 6 Gray, William S. "The diagnostic study of an individual case in reading." 
 Elementary School Journal, XXI (April, 1921), pp. 577-594. 
 
 Gray, C. T Types of reading ability as exhibited through tests and laboratory 
 experiments. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. I, No. 5, 1917, p. 153. 
 O'Brien, J. A. Silent reading, p. 266. New York. Macmillan Company, 1921. 
 
160 Department of Superintendence 
 
 training which increases the span of recognition and speed of reading also 
 improves the regularity of eye-movements. Other studies show indirectly 
 that training which increases accuracy and fluency in oral reading and 
 speed in interpreting what is read are equally beneficial. 
 
 Accurate return sweeps — Practically all eye-movement studies reveal the 
 fact that the good reader moves his eyes quickly from the end of one line 
 to the beginning of the next. The error of the poor reader is to make the 
 first fixation on a line too far to the right. The child gains his first idea of 
 the return sweep as the teacher writes sentences on the board for him 
 to read or as she points to the lines on a chart. Most pupils form right 
 habits without additional help. It is only in remedial cases that special 
 help is necessary. In one such case, 1 the ljnes were typewritten about an 
 inch apart. The subject was instructed to move his eyes quickly from the 
 end of one line to the beginning of the next without stopping to look at 
 words on the second line. Ten five-minute practice periods proved very 
 effective as shown by his subsequent reading record. 
 
 Conclusion — The studies to which reference has been made emphasize 
 the importance of the fundamental habits in oral and silent reading. Defi- 
 nite provision should be made throughout the grades for systematic training 
 in habits of accuracy and independence of word recognition. Specific pro- 
 vision should be made in the primary grades for the development of span 
 of recognition and rate of recognition and for remedial training later in 
 the grades, if needed in individual cases. Regular progress of perceptions 
 along the lines and accuracy of return sweeps are promoted by the teacher 
 in early reading activities. Little specific training is required later except- 
 ing in remedial cases. Important as these habits of recognition are, they 
 should never be emphasized at the sacrifice of intelligent interpretation. 
 They are a means to an end and not the primary goal of reading instruction. 
 
 III. Growth Periods or Rates of Progress in Important Phases of 
 
 Reading 
 
 Studies of progress in reading have revealed a number of interesting facts 
 for the practical school man. In general these studies bring out the fact that 
 progress in reading is much slower than need be. Experimental studies have 
 usually shown that it is possible to bring about a decided improvement in 
 reading in a relatively short time if one will but apply the proper remedies. 
 Whether such rates of improvement could be made to continue over a long 
 period or whether improvement under experimental conditions is large be- 
 cause appropriate methods have been tried on many children whose reading 
 was at a low level is impossible to say definitely. 
 
 1 Gray, William S. "The diagnostic study of an individual case in reading." 
 Elementary School Journal. XXI (April, 1921). p. 587. ' 
 
The Third Yearbook 161 
 
 Improvement in rate of reading — The average rate of silent reading for 
 children trained under ordinary conditions when material of the usual type 
 is used to test them, as shown by the averages of figures collected by several 
 investigators, is approximately as follows: 
 
 Table 14. Rates of Silent Reading 
 
 Grades II III IV V VI VII VIII 
 Average from several 
 
 investigations x 84 124 166 196 220 242 256 
 
 O'Brien— After practice 236 278 293 322 393 
 
 O'Brien— Suggested Norm 236 266 296 326 356 
 
 ' Figures for grades II and III represent averages of data secured by Courtis, Gray, and 
 Starch and reported in the Gary Survey. Figures for the remaining grades represent aver- 
 ages of six investigations cited by O'Brien: Silent reading, p. 303. 
 
 Some of the earlier investigations indicated that the largest gains in rate 
 are made below the fourth grade and that there is little gain beyond 
 the fifth grade, a matter which has been attributed by some to the change in 
 character of the reading demands made upon the child at about that time. 1 
 O'Brien's more recent and extensive experiment shows that marked growth 
 in rate of silent reading may continue in all elementary grades under proper 
 training (See Table 14). He conducted an experiment with approximately 
 1200 children. The experimental group was given daily training in rapid 
 silent reading followed by reproduction of what was read during the regular 
 reading period for 39 school days. The control group carried on the regular 
 work in reading. At the end it was found that the group which received the 
 training in speed increased 56 per cent in rate as compared with 25 per cent 
 for the control pupils and made a marked gain in comprehension as well. 
 O'Brien concluded that present average rates in reading in grades III to 
 VIII are needlessly slow and inefficient and that they can be improved by 
 systematic training without any impairment of comprehension, if special 
 stress is placed upon that point.- Gates in the period from November to 
 May produced an improvement in rate of silent reading in grades III to 
 VIII averaging above 2.7 years by using a variety of devices for encouraging 
 rate and comprehension. 
 
 Improvement in comprehension — There is evidence to show that the rate 
 of progress in comprehension through the grades under ordinary conditions 
 is much lower than necessary. The various reports of individual case studies 
 show that for many children at least progress in reading under usual teach- 
 ing conditions is far from ideal. With few exceptions in these individual 
 
 1 Judd, Charles H. Reading: its nature and development. Supplementary Edu- 
 cational Monographs. Vol. II, No. 4, 1918. 
 
 - O'Brien, J. A. Silent reading. The Macmillan Co. 1921. 
 
162 Department of Superintendence 
 
 case studies an improvement of from one to several years' progress in a few 
 months' time resulted from proper diagnosis and appropriate training. 1 
 
 In some instances, both comprehension and rate have been more than 
 doubled. The studies of Uhl and Reichert indicate that comprehension 
 scores may be materially increased in short periods of from two to six weeks' 
 training. Uhl secured marked improvement in comprehension with daily 
 drill periods of fifteen minutes for pupils who showed marked defects. The 
 group of pupils in each grade who were drilled individually gained, in all 
 but a few instances, more than double that of the groups who were not 
 drilled. 2 Reichert by six weeks of carefully supervised instruction in one 
 class secured a gain in comprehension double that made in two control 
 classes. In the supervised class a diagnostic study of individual needs was 
 made and pupils were grouped and given the sort of training which the di- 
 agnosis showed they needed. 3 The improvement obtained by Gates in grades 
 III to VIII from November to May amounted to one and one-half years 
 as measured by the Thorndike-McCall test. On the basis of intelligence 
 quotients the expected improvement would have been but 1.17 years. 4 Thei- 
 sen's study indicates that when pupils are sectioned on the basis of ability the 
 brighter classes make progress far in excess of normal expectancy. 5 In Haw- 
 ley's study in which pupils of the fifth and sixth grades were given twenty 
 weeks' training for the sole purpose of improving quality, there was an actual 
 increase of 43 per cent in the second test over the first. Although no attention 
 was directed toward the improvement of oral reading, the children actually 
 improved in that phase of reading five times as much as they normally would 
 in the same period of time. Even though some slight allowance must be 
 
 1 Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in reading," Elementary 
 School Journal, Vol. XX (May and June, 1920, and January, 1921), pp. 685-701, 
 772-91, 336-48. 
 
 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. Department of Education, The Univ. of 
 Chicago. No. 22, 1922. 
 
 Gray, William S. "Individual difficulties in silent reading in the fourth, fifth, 
 and sixth grades/' The Twentieth Yearbook of The National Society for the Study 
 of Education, Part II, pp. 39-53. 
 
 Geiger, Ruth. "A study in reading diagnosis," Journal of Educational Re- 
 search, VIII (November, 1923), pp. 285-300. 
 
 Leland, Bernice. "Herbert: a study of difficulty in spelling and reading," 
 Journal of Educational Research, VIII (June, 1923), pp. 49-58. • 
 
 2 Uhl, W. L. "The use of results of reading tests as bases for planning remedial 
 work," Elementary School Journal, XVII (December, 1916), pp. 266-75. 
 
 3 .Theisen, W. W. "Factors affecting- results in primary reading," The Twentieth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, pp. 1-24 
 (relevant sections). 
 
 4 Gates, Arthur I. The psychology of reading 'and spelling. Teachers College, 
 Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 129, 1922. 
 
 5 Theisen, W. W. "Does intelligence tell in first-grade reading?" Elementary 
 School Journal, XXII (March, 1922), pp. 530-34. 
 
The Third Yearbook 163 
 
 made for familiarity with the tests in both silent and oral reading the 
 progress made was considerably more than would normally be expected in 
 the course of an entire year. 1 
 
 Improvement in oral and silent reading processes — Buswell's investiga- 
 tions show that there is a rapid increase in eye span, in rate of recognition of 
 words, and in the regular progress of perception along the lines in the first 
 four grades in both silent and oral reading. Thereafter progress continues 
 less rapidly, a fact which he attributed largely to changes in the character of 
 the materials read after the fourth grade. His records reveal a high correla- 
 tion between progress in these elements of reading and in word recognition. 
 "As the reader develops in span of recognition, rate of recognition and regu- 
 larity of procedure along the printed lines, he also becomes more mature in 
 the elements which are measured by the oral test, such as repetitions, omis- 
 sions, substitutions, insertions, and mispronunciations." 2 
 
 Some of the analytical studies of children's reading give rise to pertinent 
 questions concerning the relative emphasis to be placed upon oral and silent 
 reading. One contention is that when the child's reading has developed to 
 a point where the rate of silent reading begins to exceed the rate of articula- 
 tion the major emphasis in reading should be changed. In the first three 
 grades, the rate of articulation appears to be greater than the rate of recogni- 
 tion. Under ordinary conditions, however, the rate of recognizing words 
 increases rapidly and surpasses the rate of articulation by the time the fourth 
 grade is reached. There is no evidence to show that the rate of recognition 
 would not surpass the rate of articulation even earlier were children given 
 suitable training in silent reading in the first few years of school. Owing 
 to the fact that the rate of oral reading cannot exceed the rate of articula- 
 tion and that articulation increases relatively little from grade to grade, the 
 rate of oral reading increases much less rapidly than the rate of silent read- 
 ing and lags far behind it by the time the upper grades are reached. 3 The 
 "stumbling" of fourth grade pupils who were good oral readers in the lower 
 grades is attributed to the fact that the rate of recognition far exceeds the 
 rate of articulation. Professor Judd maintains that such facts as these are 
 
 1 Hawley, W. E. "The effect of clear objectives on the teaching of reading," 
 Journal of Educational Research, III (April, 1921), pp. 254-260. 
 
 2 Buswell, Guy Thomas. Fundamental reading habits: a study of their develop- 
 ment. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. 
 of Chicago. No. 21, 1922. 
 
 3 Courtis, S. A. The Gary public schools- — measurement of classroom products. 
 Ch. VII. General Education Bulletin, 1919. 
 
 Gray, William S. Studies of elementary school reading through standardized 
 tests. Supplementary Educational Monographs. Department of Education, The 
 University of Chicago, Vol. I, No. I, 1917. 
 
 Judd, Charles H. Reading: its nature and development. Supplementary Edu- 
 cational Monographs. Department of Education, The University of Chicago, Vol. 
 2, No. 4, 1918. 
 
164 Department of Superintendence 
 
 evidence of the need of placing the major emphasis upon silent reading from 
 the fourth grade on. 1 Subsequent studies may show that it should receive 
 major emphasis even below the fourth grade. 
 
 Hindrances to progress — The hindrances to progress are legion. It is 
 impossible to tell even approximately how much each is responsible for un- 
 satisfactory progress. Among some of the more evident causes of unsatisfac- 
 tory progress are the following: (1) Lack of definite goals of attainment. 
 The teacher who understands exactly what is expected of her pupils and 
 when to expect it will probably achieve her objectives much more quickly 
 than the one who does not. (2) Low intelligence. The Cleveland study 
 showed that the median achievement of 17 first-grade classes in the slowest 
 group at the end of the year as measured by the Haggerty Tests was from 
 three fourths to one year lower than that of the median of the 16 classes in 
 the brightest group. The best class in the slow group, however, exceeded 
 by far the poorest class in the bright group, showing that lower intelligence 
 does not always mean slower progress in reading. 2 (3) The use of material 
 that is too difficult, lacking in variety, or insufficient in quantity. (4) Mass 
 treatment and failure to provide for individual differences in ability. (5) 
 Undue emphasis upon oral reading. Oral reading as usually practiced is 
 exceedingly wasteful. If a pupil is one of twenty, he waits for his one op- 
 portunity in twenty to read. The teacher commonly insists that he follow 
 closely the one who is reading, thus denying him an opportunity to use or 
 employ his time to better advantage. This insistence that the pupil follow 
 the reader, Judd maintains, "tends to keep all children down in their silent 
 reading to the rate set by the oral reading emphasized in the schools." 1 (6) 
 Vocalization or lip reading. The effect of vocalization is to retard the 
 development of speed. 3 Absence of vocalization is a characteristic of the 
 mature reader. 1 (7) Lack of early training or lack of development in some 
 essential element of reading ability. Children may be retarded in their read- 
 ing development because of something neglected in their previous training as, 
 for example, phonics or practice in phrasing. 4 (8) Fixed attitudes or habits 
 of reading. A child who looks upon reading as a matter of pronouncing 
 words is likely to experience difficulty in getting meaning. The more a 
 pupil's habits become fixed the more difficult it is to secure improvement. 1 
 
 x Judd, Charles H. Reading: its nature and development. Supplementary Edu- 
 cational Monographs. Dept. of Educ, Univ. of Chicago, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1918. 
 
 2 Theisen, W. W. "Does intelligence tell in first-grade reading?'' Elementary 
 School Journal, XXII (March, 1922)", 530-34. 
 
 3 Theisen, W. W. "Factors affecting results in primary reading," The Twentieth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study o,f Education, Part II. pages 1-24. 
 (relevant sections). 
 
 4 Gray, William S. "The diagnostic study of an individual case in reading." 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. XXI (April, 1921), pp. 577-594. 
 
The Third Yearbook 165 
 
 (9) Failure to change to other methods when those in use are no longer 
 appropriate. Methods suitable with young children are frequently in- 
 appropriate with older children. (10) Lack of interest and mental stimula- 
 tion. Children whose interests are not aroused or who are allowed to 
 dawdle along at a slower pace than they are capable of going are not likely 
 to make rapid progress. 1 (11) Home language and standards. (12) Un- 
 trained teachers and absence of proper supervision. Relatively few teachers 
 have had modern training in the teaching of reading. Without a well- 
 trained supervisor to guide them the teaching falls far short of its possi- 
 bilities. (13) Physiological handicaps of hearing and eyesight. 
 
 Aids to progress — An understanding of the causes of slow progress fre- 
 quently suggests the remedy. Most of the causes listed in the paragraph 
 above are fairly easy to remedy if teachers and school officials will but 
 direct their attention to them. Among the steps to be taken are: (1) A 
 careful analysis of objectives and the setting-up of standards of attainment; 
 (2) improvement in the choice of reading materials; (3) adequate pro- 
 vision for individual differences; (4) more emphasis upon silent reading; 
 (5) removal of special difficulties; (6) development of appropriate reading 
 attitudes; (7) choice of methods suitable to the age and development of the 
 child; (8) greater attention to interest and mental effort; (9) training of 
 teachers in modern methods of teaching reading and improved supervision, 
 and (10) treatment of physical defects. 
 
 IV. Children's Interests in Reading 
 
 Definite progress has been made in discovering the reading materials 
 which make the strongest appeal to children, the factors in these materials 
 which appeal to children's interests, and the types of material which should 
 be avoided if the time devoted to reading is to be spent to best advantage. 
 Most of the investigations concerning these matters are referred to in more 
 or less detail in other sections of the report of the Sub-committee on Reading. 
 It is proposed at this point to describe briefly the methods employed in the 
 study of children's interests in reading and to direct attention to certain 
 general conclusions which these studies justify. 
 
 One of the distinguishing characteristics of the more recent studies 2 
 is the fact that the preferences or judgments of children received careful 
 
 1 Brown, H. A. "Formulation of method in reading," Journal of Educational 
 Research, II (June, 1920). 436-451. 
 
 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure," Elementary 
 School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), 505-22. 
 
 2 Dunn, Fannie W. Interest factors in primary reading material. Teachers 
 College, Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 113, 1921, p. 70. 
 
 Jordan, Arthur M. Children's interests in reading. Teachers College, Columbia 
 Univ. Contributions to Education, No. 107, 1921, p. 143. 
 
 Uhl, Willis L. Scientific determination of the content of the elementary school 
 course in reading. Univ. of Wisconsin Studies in the Social Sciences and His- 
 tory, No. 4, 1921, p. 144. 
 
166 Department of Superintendence 
 
 consideration. In the case of younger children this information was ob- 
 tained by having them express choices between pairs of selections read to 
 them. Older pupils wrote answers to carefully prepared questionnaires and 
 took comprehension tests. Both their school and home reading was checked 
 in this way. Careful observations were also made of children's library 
 choices and reports were obtained from publishers showing sales of children's 
 books. Great care was taken to obtain spontaneous responses of children's 
 preferences rather than answers which they thought would please the 
 teachers. The judgments and experiences of teachers with reading materials 
 were checked and rechecked by questionnaires, making available facts which 
 should have wide influence upon the selection and gradation of reading 
 materials. 
 
 Among the factors appealing most strongly to young children 1 are surprise 
 and plot. In addition, boys are attracted by animalness and girls by childness 
 and familiar experience. Older pupils 2 are intelligently responsive to inter- 
 esting action j characters, and problems which challenge their thinking. Sex 
 differences appear between the ages of ten and thirteen, boys being most in- 
 terested in stories of heroism and adventure, and girls in home and school 
 situations, especially those portraying kindness. However, adventure and 
 humor, kindness, faithfulness, and loyalty always make strong appeals to 
 older pupils. 
 
 The factors 3 most to be avoided are over-maturity, too great difficulty, 
 and hard symbolism. There is no question but that certain selections have 
 long been imposed on children before they were prepared for them. Many 
 of the difficulties of teachers have arisen because they have been expected to 
 teach materials of too great difficulty to their pupils. Recent investigations 
 point the way to wise elimination of certain selections which have become 
 traditional. 
 
 An appeal for a greater variety of interesting factual material for pupils 
 of all grades grows out of the discovery 3 of the varied interests of children 
 and of the poverty of well-written material suited to those interests. At 
 the same time children's dislike of selections "written down" for them is 
 evident. Questions arise also concerning the need for a common core of 
 literary material which all elementary pupils shall read and concerning the 
 need for standards by which literary materials may be evaluated and selec- 
 tions appropriate for use in the various grades chosen. 
 
 1 Dunn, Fannie W. Interest factors in primary reading material. Teachers 
 College, Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 113, 1921, p. 70. 
 
 2 Jordan, Arthur M. Children's interests in reading. Teachers College, Colum- 
 bia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 107, 1921, p. 143. 
 
 3 Uhl, Willis L. Scientific determination of the content of the elementary school 
 course in reading. Univ. of Wisconsin Studies in the Social Sciences and History, 
 No. 4, 1921, p. 144. 
 
The Third Yearbook 167 
 
 V. Results of Investigations of Reading Materials 
 
 The results of investigations of reading materials can be discussed in 
 terms of five problems — namely, types of content in readers, the duplication 
 of reading material, the effect of increasing difficulty in speed and quality of 
 reading, the importance of growth stages, and types of desirable reading 
 materials. 
 
 Types of content in readers. Vinal * examined "thirty-three of the best 
 and most used first readers" and reported upon them in 1918. His purpose 
 was to find out how much factual scientific material these books contained. 
 He found that "over 50 per cent of the stories in these readers are about 
 animals. Only 33 per cent of these animal stories are true to nature. The 
 other 66 per cent are either fables or personifications where animals act and 
 talk as human beings. For every five animal stories, there is one plant story 
 and one geography story, such as: The wind, the rain, or the Eskimo. . . . 
 The cat is written about more than any other animal. Out of thirty-eight 
 cat stories fourteen are of the fairy type, fourteen are about cats who talk 
 as human beings, and ten are true to cats and their doings." Most of the 
 stories of cats which are true are of the following style : "See mamma. See 
 kitty. Mamma, see kitty." Vinal summarized his results by saving that 
 first-grade readers should contain more selections which portray the every- 
 day activities of animals or facts about nature. 
 
 Starch 2 conducted an investigation to determine, first, to what extent 
 current textbooks in reading agree or differ as to the nature of the material 
 and as to specific selections included ; and second, to what extent there are 
 changes in the nature of the material from grade to grade. With these 
 aims in view he analyzed the contents of ten textbooks in each elementary 
 school grade and classified them under sixteen different headings. Eighty- 
 three books from twenty-three different sets or series were included in the 
 study. The analysis revealed wide differences in types of content for lower- 
 grade and upper-grade books. For example, the three leading types in the 
 first-grade books studied are "animals," "boys and girls," and "folklore." 
 These constitute 61 per cent of the content of first-grade books, while they 
 constitute only 3.7 per cent of the eighth-grade books. On the other hand, 
 "classics," "history and patriotism," "biography," and "poetry" constitute 
 81.7 per cent of the content of the eighth-grade books, but only 16.7 per 
 cent of the first-grade books. He found also that with the exception of 
 "classics" and "history and patriotism" one or more fourth-grade books 
 omitted each of the sixteen classes of content. The amount of overlapping 
 common to three or more of the ten sixth readers examined is very small. 
 
 1 Vinal, William G. "First-grade readers." Nature-Study Review, XIV, 
 (December, 1918), 371-379. 
 
 2 Starch, Daniel. "The contents of readers," Twentieth Yearbook of the Na- 
 tional Society for the Study of Education, Part II, pp. 145-151. 1921. 
 
168 Department of Superintendence 
 
 One poem, Horatius at the Bridge, was, however, found in six of the ten 
 readers. Two selections, The Chambered Nautilus and The Daffodils, 
 were found in four readers, five in three readers, and eighteen in two 
 readers. 
 
 Herriott 1 attempted to ascertain the extent of the shift of emphasis in 
 readers for Grades VII to VIII from social science content to purely literary 
 content. To do this he analyzed the seventh- and eighth-grade books of 
 five series of readers which are now in use. He found that, with the excep- 
 tion of one series, every seventh reader contains more social science content 
 than does its corresponding eighth reader. There is a corresponding increase 
 in pure literature in all except one of the eighth readers. This change in 
 emphasis indicates a tendency in the eighth grade toward the traditional 
 work of high school. 
 
 Duplication of reading material — Stone 2 analyzed the contents of fifteen 
 second-grade readers to discover the amount of duplication of subject-matter. 
 The books selected represent method and content readers, extreme and con- 
 servative, real and unreal. Their dates of publication varied from 1906 to 
 1916. Although he found little exact duplication save in poetry, he did 
 find that stories were virtually duplicated in many books. The range in 
 amount of duplication was from to 41 selections. In terms of pages, the 
 amount of duplication varied from to 121. A total of seventy-seven selec- 
 tions were duplicated in the fifteen readers. 
 
 The duplication of a few second-reader selections in books for other 
 grades was investigated. It was found that one selection, The Ugly Duck- 
 ling, appeared in three of fifteen third-grade books. Where duplication 
 existed within a grade, there was evidence of agreement as to grading, but 
 the duplication of selections in books for use in different grades indicated 
 failure to grade carefully. In a later paragraph of this section of the chap- 
 ter, namely, the importance of growth stages, the duplication of content is 
 further discussed. 
 
 Effect of decreasing difficulty. McLeod 3 set for himself the task of 
 ascertaining the effect of increasing difficulty of reading material upon 
 rate, types of errors made, and the degree of comprehension. He tested 
 approximately 30 pupils of each grade from the first to the eighth by 
 having them read Gray's Standardized Reading Paragraphs according to 
 directions. As a test of comprehension, five questions were asked following 
 the reading of each paragraph. These questions were given a score value 
 
 1 Herriott, M. E. "The content of seventh^ and eighth-grade readers." English 
 Journal, XII (April, 1923.) 234-240. 
 
 2 Stone, R. E. "Duplication of reading materials in fifteen second-grade read- 
 ers." Elementary School Journal, XX (May, 1920), 702-710. Much of the same 
 data is also reported by Clifford Woody in the Journal of Educational Research, 
 II, 1920, 465-474. 
 
 3 McLeod, L. S. "The influence of increasing difficulty of reading material upon 
 rate, errors, and comprehension in oral reading." The Elementary School Journal, 
 XVIII (March, 1918), 523-532. 
 
The Third Yearbook 169 
 
 of 20 each and grades 5, 10, 15, or 20 according to the degree of correct- 
 ness. 
 
 He found that the rate increases rapidly in Grades I and II and then 
 more slowly until Grade VI. Plateaus in the curve of progress occur from 
 Grades III to V and from Grades VI to VIII. In Grades I and II the 
 rate of reading is slow, but from Grade III upward the rate of recognition 
 is in advance of the rate of vocalization for paragraphs 1 to 4. This is 
 explained by the fact that in Grades I and II, the child is learning to 
 associate printed symbols with words already spoken. When Grade III is 
 reached, the reading vocabulary probably overtakes the spoken vocabulary. 
 At this stage the learning of new words in difficult passages retards the rate 
 of oral reading. 
 
 The types of errors recorded in McLeod's article are mispronunciations, 
 omissions, substitutions, insertions, and repetitions. Of thes*;, mispronunci- 
 ations were the most common in every grade save the second. Gross mis- 
 pronunciations were particularly prominent in the reading of difficult pas- 
 sages. Of the substitutions, it was found that the percentage with "no 
 meaning" increased with the difficulty of the passages: "As the reading 
 becomes more difficult, the thought is lost in the maze of difficult words, 
 and substitutions are very largely on the basis of similarity in appearance in 
 some respect, rather than on the basis of thought-suggestion." 
 
 Comprehension was impeded by the new words met in the more difficult 
 paragraphs. The results indicate that pupils acquire ability to pronounce 
 words more rapidly than ability to derive their meanings. The test records 
 show that the child's meaning vocabulary was frequently exhausted by the 
 time the more difficult paragraphs of the test were reached although the 
 pupil's mastery of the mechanics of reading enables him to continue to 
 pronounce the words. 
 
 The importcuice of growth stages — Uhl 1 attempted to derive standards 
 for grading selections. The following outline shows the procedure used 
 in obtaining the reactions of teachers and pupils to reading matter : 
 
 Reactions from teachers: Analytical questions on the content of basal readers; 
 Classified lists of titles of selections sent to teachers for their comments. 
 
 Reactions from pupils: Representative selections presented directly to pupils 
 who read them silently and reported in writing whether they liked or disliked 
 each selection and why; Pupils' comprehension of the selections measured by 
 questions on the selections. 
 
 1 Uhl, Willis L. Scientific determination of the content of the elementary school 
 course in reading. Univ. of Wisconsin, 1921. Chapter VIII, "The Relation of 
 Reading Selections to the Standards of Grading in Various Schools," pp. 102-107, 
 and Chapter IX, "The Placement of Reading Selections," pp. 108-146. Also re- 
 ported by the same author in The Materials of Reading, Silver, Burdett and Com- 
 pany, 1924. Chapter IV, "The Grading of Content for Reading," pp. 47-74. The 
 plan for this investigation is given in detail in W. W. Charter's Curriculum Con- 
 struction, pp. 316-324. Macmillan Company, 1922. 
 
170 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Judgments concerning the value of several thousand reading selections 
 were obtained from over 3000 selected teachers of Grades I to VIII in- 
 clusive. As a check upon teachers' judgments, tests based on certain 
 standard selections were given to 529 pupils of Grades III to VIII. Meas- 
 ures were obtained of the pupils' interest in and comprehension of each selec- 
 tion. 
 
 An analysis of the responses of teachers shows that scores of selections are 
 duplicated in the courses of study of different grades just as the statistical 
 studies already reviewed lead one to expect. These responses show also 
 that the success of a selection often depends upon the grade in which it 
 is read. For example, The Pied Piper of Hamlin, in various versions was 
 reported for Grades II to VII inclusive, in different cities, while other 
 selections, The Ugly Duckling and The Village Blacksmith, recur in dif- 
 ferent books until pupils are alleged to tire of them. Responses to ques- 
 tionnaires show that children thus re-read certain selections instead of 
 extending their acquaintance with other selections or books. 
 
 Three significant types of misplacement of selections were discovered. 
 These types are exemplified by selections which gain in favor from grade 
 to grade, selections which decline in favor from grade to grade, and selec- 
 tions which are unpopular in any grade because of their difficulty. Over 
 difficult selections were reported more frequently than those of both the 
 other types combined. Selections representing each type, together with the 
 percentages of gain or loss in favor from grade to grade, are cataloged 
 in the reports of this investigation. For example, the percentage of teach- 
 ers approving Christmas at the Cr at chits' increases from 73 in Grade IV 
 to 98 in Grade VIII, and the percentage of pupils approving increases 
 from 81 in Grade IV to 90 in Grade VIII. 
 
 Only a very few times were given selections found to be successful in 
 only one grade. In other words, if a selection is highly desirable for any 
 given grade, it is likely to be a favorite in at least one additional grade. The 
 placement of a selection in a single grade often depends, therefore, upon 
 some consideration other than its difficulty, such as the academic standards 
 of a given school, the social value of the selection, or its relation to other 
 school work. 
 
 Significant positive correlations were found between pupils' interests in 
 and comprehension of selections. Certain selections were, however, readily 
 comprehended, although specific undesirable qualities prevented their being 
 entirely successful in any grade. Conversely, a few selections which con- 
 tained superior interest qualities were favored by pupils whose compre- 
 hension scores for them were low. 
 
 Teachers' and pupils' judgments also show significant positive correla- 
 tions, although teachers generally rate selections slightly higher than pupils 
 do. In view of the increase in pupil interest after a single class discussion, 
 the higher rating by teachers seems to be justified. When the compre- 
 hension scores of different schools were compared, a variability of two or 
 
The Third Yearbook 171 
 
 more grades was found for different selections — for example, in answer- 
 ing questions based on Paul Revere 's Ride, fifth-grade pupils of one school 
 excelled seventh-grade pupils of another school. 
 
 Analyses of the comments of teachers and pupils of different grades show 
 that pupils have varying reasons for interest in selections. Such qualities 
 as personification of animals and repetition add to the interest of primary 
 pupils, while pupils in the later grades seem to have increasing amounts of 
 interest in character analysis and other problematic situations. Several 
 qualities, however, such as dramatic action, adventure, and pleasing char- 
 acters are apparently keys to interest in any grade. How much of the 
 emphasis upon certain qualities is due to the particular subject-matter in 
 the selections cannot be determined from the data obtained. 
 
 Uhl's investigation, so far as it deals with grading, can be summarized 
 as follows. Present-day practice varies widely in the placement of many 
 selections. The success of reading materials depends to a great extent upon 
 the grade in which each selection is read. A moderate amount of flexi- 
 bility in the placement of selections is desirable on account of varying aca- 
 demic standards in different schools and because of the fact that many su- 
 perior selections are successful in more than one grade. Choice of content 
 should be made with reference to the interests of pupils, many of which 
 appear to be fairly constant throughout the elementary grades. 
 
 Desirable qualities of reading material — Jordan 1 employed the question- 
 naire and library methods to discover children's interests in reading. By 
 the questionnaire method, he obtained first, second, and third choices of 
 3598 pupils of Grades VI to XII as to books and magazines. The books 
 named by the children "were classified into adult fiction, juvenile fiction, 
 adventure, biography, history, poetry, science, travel, information, humor, 
 miscellaneous." The magazines named were classified as "adult fiction, 
 juvenile fiction, adventure, nature, pictures, woman's art, science, current 
 events, humor, miscellaneous." 
 
 It was found that books and magazines of adventure ranked highest ac- 
 cording to boys' choices, and that fiction ranked highest according to girls' 
 choices. Favorites with boys were The Call of the Wild, Treasure Island, 
 and Boy Scout Series; with girls the favorites were Little Women, Polly- 
 anna, and The Girl of the Limberlost. The results indicated also that 
 the interest in fiction of both boys and girls increases rapidly from the age 
 of nine to the age of eighteen. The report of this study contains lists of 
 books and magazines classified according to type and the relative fre- 
 quency of each book and magazine. 
 
 Jordan's library investigation was made in eight libraries. Books and 
 book lists were examined to find out the extent of their circulation. Later, 
 he made over eight hundred observations to determine the approximate age 
 
 Jordan, A. M. Children's interests in reading. Teachers College, Columbia 
 Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 107, 1921. This monograph contains a 
 digest of earlier investigations of children's interests in reading. 
 
172 Department of Superintendence 
 
 of children who read different books and to discover differences between the 
 interests of boys and girls. He found great dissimilarity of interest between 
 the sexes. The major interests of boys from ten to thirteen years appeared 
 to be in books about war and scouting, school and sports, Boy Scouts, and 
 strenuous adventure. The most popular authors for these four types of 
 fiction were Altsheler, Barbour, Burton, and Clements, respectively. The 
 interests of girls were chiefly concerned with fiction which portrays home 
 life and school life, fairy stories, stories with historical background, and love 
 stories. The most popular writers of these works of fiction are: home and 
 school, Alcott, Wiggin, Sidney, and Richards; fairy tales, Dodgson ; love 
 stories, Woolsey. An analysis of the books read indicated that boys were 
 most interested in books which appeal "to the instinct of mastery, fighting, 
 love of sensory life for its own sake, original attention and approval and 
 scornful behavior." In the same way it appeared that girls were most inter- 
 ested in books which appeal "to the following instincts: maternal, kindli- 
 ness, attention to others, response to approval and scornful behavior, and 
 to a less degree than in the case of boys, to rivalry." 
 
 Miss Dunn's 1 investigation was conducted to find out "what are the 
 elements in primary reading material that are of interest to children in the 
 first three grades of the elementary school." She began her investigation by 
 analyzing reading selections to discover the various appeals that the exist- 
 ing materials make to readers. She then chose thirty-one representative 
 selections from primary readers so that the following "elemental qualities" 
 were included: child characters; adult characters; boy, the central figure; 
 girl, the central figure ; realistic, historical, and geographical material ; 
 fairy stories, myths, folk stories, fables, and fanciful themes. 
 
 The thirty-one samples were arranged in pairs in such order that certain 
 qualities of likeness and difference existed between each pair of specimens. 
 The samples were then read in pairs to pupils who were requested to indi- 
 cate on "vote slips" their choices for each pair. 
 
 After subjecting her data to statistical treatment, Miss Dunn concluded 
 that characteristic appeals are "surprise and plot for both sexes, animalness 
 for boys, and childness, familiar experience, and to a lesser extent repetition 
 and conversation for girls." Miss Dunn concluded that instead of a 
 child's having a limited range of interests, his "tastes appear rather catholic. 
 Give him a few important elemental qualities which may enter into fact 
 or fiction, into prose or verse, into real or fanciful situations, and he is 
 attracted and pleased." 
 
 1 Dunn, Fannie W. Interest factors in primary reading material. Teacherji 
 College, Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 113, 1921. A more 
 extended resume of Miss Dunn's monograph is included in The Materials of Read- 
 ing, by W. L. Uhl, p. 99-103. 
 
The Third Yearbook • 173 
 
 In pursuing the investigation of reading material referred to in an earlier 
 section of this report, Uhl 1 canvassed teachers and pupils to discover inter- 
 ests in and the effectiveness of reading selections. The information thus 
 obtained was classified and studied with a view to deriving standards for 
 eliminating undesirable selections and detecting superior selections. 
 
 Teachers' responses indicated that aside from incorrect grading of con- 
 tent, the most important undesirable characteristics of reading selections are 
 abstractness, lack of action, unreality, too great length, gloominess, monot- 
 ony, and poor literary style. Teachers rated as "superior" selections which 
 contain combinations of qualities as follows: selections which portray dra- 
 matic action, adventure, heroism, interesting non-dramatic action, humor, 
 fairy or supernatural activities, interesting characters, home life, child life, 
 interesting problems, kindness, faithfulness, animal play, or other activities, 
 personifications, and interesting repetition. Their judgments indicated that 
 selections have too often been included in readers for their alleged didactic 
 qualities rather than for the qualities just mentioned, and that, as a result, 
 many inferior or over-difficult selections have been published. The reports 
 of this investigation contain lists of inferior and superior selections and 
 analyses of selections showing the reasons for the failure or success of certain 
 selections. 
 
 In addition to obtaining judgments about standard selections, Uhl col- 
 lected data from teachers and pupils as to the effectiveness of certain in- 
 formational selections contained in the Community Life Leaflets. 2 These 
 selections were found to be distinctly superior for use in grades VII and 
 VIII. This investigation emphasizes the importance of consulting children 
 in the selection and organization of courses in reading and literature. This 
 view is supported by the judgments of three thousand teachers whose con- 
 viction about the matter was expressed in no uncertain terms. 
 
 In 1919 Gray and Bobbitt 3 made a survey of reading in Indianapolis. 
 After the methods and materials had been examined and tabulated, desir- 
 able standards of practice were set up, and the content of the course of study 
 in reading was judged by these standards. 
 
 Four stages in the acquisition of reading ability were described by Gray : 
 "the initial period in attaching meanings to printed words (first grade) ; 
 the development of the fundamental habits and associations involved in 
 
 1 This investigation is also reported upon in The Materials of reading, by 
 W. L. Uhl, p. 103-148 and in his monograph entitled Scientific determination of 
 the content of the elementary school course in reading. 
 
 'Community Leaflet, No. 18, March 1, 1918. U. S. Bureau of Education, Wash- 
 ington, D. C. 
 
 3 Gray, William S. "Reading in the Elementary Schools of Indianapolis," Chap- 
 ters III and IV. The Elementary School Journal, XIX, March and April, 1919, 
 506-531 and 608-627. 
 
 Bobbitt, Franklin. "Reading in the Elementary Schools of Indianapolis," Chapters 
 V and VI. The Elementary School Journal, XIX, May and June, 1919. 665-688 
 and 741-761. 
 
174 • Department of Superintendence 
 
 fluent oral reading (second and third grades) ; the broadening of experi- 
 ence through extensive silent reading (fourth, fifth, and sixth grades) ; the 
 independent application of reading ability to all phases of school work 
 (seventh and eighth grades.)" 
 
 The fact was emphasized that the content for each stage of development 
 must harmonize with its aim. During the initial period, therefore, the con- 
 tent should be interesting and valuable to children and readily associated 
 with vivid personal experiences. In Grades II and III the content must 
 grip the attention and be simple enough to encourage rapid reading and 
 to secure accuracy. In Grades IV, V, and VI "an abundance of interest- 
 ing reading material is necessary both for the wide extension of reading ex- 
 perience and for the development of ability to attach meanings to words. 
 ." In addition to this easy, extensive reading, Gray advocated the 
 use of material for training in deliberate reading such as is required in prob- 
 lem-solving. 
 
 From this point, Bobbitt continues to the "most pressing current question," 
 which he states as follows: "What is the purpose of the reading experience 
 of intermediate and grammar grades after the simple mechanics of reading 
 has been mastered?" The answer to this question shows the point of view 
 of the entire discussion: "The purpose is to widen the vision and to extend 
 the experience of the pupils beyond the confines of their narrow immediate 
 environment." 
 
 The types of experience to be gained by reading are next analyzed. These 
 types include geographical, historical, civic, scientific, imaginative, and 
 such human experiences as are portrayed in general literature. For exam- 
 ple, "the geographical readings should be such as to permit our children 
 imaginatively to travel through the various cities and countries and regions 
 of the earth. . . . Reading of this character should aim, not at infor- 
 mation, but at experience. . . . The getting of information is a por- 
 tion of the total experience." Such reading is advocated especially in gen- 
 eral literature. The bearing of this type of treatment "on school procedure 
 is easily evident. It demands a wide extension of supplementary and library 
 reading opportunities. It demands much reading ; it demands easy reading ; 
 it calls for interesting reading; it makes necessary a type of technique of 
 education quite different from the relatively ineffective fact-learning type." 
 
 Following these analyses is a list of the books used for required and sup 
 plementary reading in Indianapolis. Having given a statement of what 
 the schools should teach and a list of the books in use, the report continues 
 with an analysis of these books in the light of the aims of the school. The 
 analysis was made with reference to each of the types of content already 
 mentioned. 
 
 Of the concluding recommendations of the survey report, the following 
 deal with the content of reading. 
 
 That the content of the reading be chosen so as to give the pupils width of 
 vision over, and depth of insight into, all important fields of human affairs. 
 
The Third Yearbook 175 
 
 That the reading experience be adapted to the degree of maturity and previous 
 experience of the pupils 
 
 That those responsible for the reading content be fully conscious of the purposes 
 to be served. 
 
 That reading materials should be so graded . . . that the gradient is im- 
 perceptible. 
 
 That there be an abundance of reading experience covering in balanced way 
 all important fields of human experience. 
 
 That the quantity of reading material available be much greater than can be 
 covered by any single pupil, however capable, in order to provide for all desirable 
 types of tastes, desires, and appetites. 
 
 Summary — Investigations have shown that while no single branch of con- 
 tent has a monopoly upon the interests of children, certain types have main- 
 tained a monopoly of space in readers. Statistical investigations show that 
 there is such close agreement upon many favorite selections that certain 
 textbooks contain little or no material which is not duplicated in certain 
 other books. These studies show also that many of these duplications are 
 in books intended for different grades. 
 
 Experimental studies show that children have pronounced likes and dis- 
 likes for certain reading selections and that the proper placement of selec- 
 tions would greatly reduce dislikes. The information obtained from botli 
 teachers and pupils show the need for some degree of flexibility in grading; 
 also that error is more likely to occur as a result of making the course in 
 reading too difficult than of making it too easy. A sufficient array of 
 teachers' and pupils' judgments exists to make possible the correct place- 
 ment of standard selections. 
 
 All investigations here reported support the conclusion that effective 
 training in reading cannot be given when the content is over-difficult. The 
 reasons which support this conclusion are that over-difficult content does 
 not grip the reader's attention, that such content retards the progress by 
 limiting the amount which can be read, and that it forces the child to focus 
 his attention upon the mechanics of reading to the. detriment of compre- 
 hension. Likewise, investigations indicate that the interests of children can 
 be utilized to distinct advantage in both teaching and learning. These 
 investigations show clearly that while children often desert the realm of 
 fine literature for that which provides merely crude passing pleasure, they 
 can be interested also in worth-while literary selections, if they are properly 
 placed as to difficulty. 
 
 Analytical investigations have defined the needs of different periods of 
 development and have shown the need for a miscellany of content to meet 
 these needs. The content should be simple, highly charged with interest, and 
 provided in abundance. It should also serve as a valuable substitute for 
 real experience. 
 
 VI. Scientific Studies in the Field of Literature 
 
 Children's interests in literature and the grading of reading selections — 
 The first study of scientific validity to which reference will be made is 
 
176 Department of Superintendence 
 
 that of Jordan's. 1 He not only used the questionnaire method more guard- 
 edly than the previous investigators whom he reports in his first chapter, 
 but he also made the following useful study of children's reading in public 
 libraries. He assigned points to books according to the number of times 
 they were drawn out, rebound, and waited for in line, and according to the 
 amount of grime on the catalog cards recording them. It is interesting 
 to note that the four most popular authors on the boys' book list totaled con- 
 siderably more than twice as many points as the first four books on the 
 girls' list. This was not because girls read less. Apparently, in spite of the 
 usual separate analysis of qualities enjoyed, the girls read books on boys' 
 lists a good share of the time. Jordan has derived a useful list of the most 
 popular writers at the time of his study and supplemented it with tables 
 of correlation and with an analysis of the psychological factors which prob- 
 ably account for interest in chosen books. 
 
 Two unpublished studies made under Dr. Horn's direction at the Uni- 
 versity of Iowa and summarized by the authors in the Elementary English 
 Review have prepared the way for a scientific determination of the common 
 essentials of a literature course. Mackintosh 2 first selected from good an- 
 thologies one hundred poems for the fifth grade and arranged them in ten 
 groups with like characteristics. These were typed in uniform fashion and 
 read aloud. Each child ranked each poem of the ten from one ("the best 
 poem I ever heard") to six ("the worst I ever heard") ; each pupil also 
 selected five that he liked best, and if he were willing to do so, marked those 
 he would not recommend to another fifth grader. Reasons were also given 
 and used in deriving final summaries of criteria for children's choices. 
 
 As a further experiment, fifty poems selected as best were tried in sev- 
 eral fifth grades totaling 144 pupils without explaining why they were 
 given, and ranks, per cent values, and P. E. values determined. The list 
 derived is significant because it includes excellent new poems not commonly 
 taught so far ; it also omits many poems which have been conventionally ac- 
 cepted. It is valid, of course, only for the titles on the original list of 100 
 verses. The summary of reasons reenforces the view that children like 
 humor, adventure and excitement, dialect, rhythm and rhyme, and under- 
 standable experience. 
 
 Garnett's 3 study of children's choices in prose followed the same gen- 
 eral procedure. The stories, like the poems, were read aloud to fourth- 
 grade children, and 24 of the original list of 80 tried in six fourth-grade 
 classes in Minneapolis including 103 boys and 144 girls. By " a somewhat 
 elaborate system of ranking and voting" these stories were grouped in 
 
 1 Jordan, A. M. Children's interests in reading, Teachers College, Columbia 
 Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 107. 
 
 ~ Mackintosh, Helen K. "A study of children's choices in poetry." The Elemen- 
 tary English Review, I (May, 1924), 85-89. 
 
 3 Garnett, Wilma Leslie. "A study of children's choices in prose." The Elemen- 
 tary English Review, I, June, 1924, pp. 133-137. 
 
The Third Yearbook 177 
 
 "preferred," a "second preferred," and a "least liked" list. The summary 
 of reasons stresses children's dislike of unworthy traits of character, of 
 stories which they term "silly," and of those they have heard too often. Five 
 of the ten stories on the girls' preferred list are also on the boys'. As far 
 as the selections included are concerned the results of this study are very 
 suggestive. It makes use of a method other than empiricism and adult 
 opinion in reaching conclusions concerning children's likes and dislikes in 
 reading. 
 
 Cavins' study, 1 also unpublished, is reviewed briefly by Dr. Lyman in a 
 recent article. 2 His investigation deals with a problem which has not been 
 sufficiently stressed in previous investigations, namely the comprehension of 
 selections. This was tested by asking pupils to copy the lines which ex- 
 pressed the author's purpose or main idea or central thought. Cavins be- 
 lieves that "unless 60 per cent of a grade can unaided discover this core 
 of meaning and 40 per cent answer easy questions satisfactorily, the poem is 
 more suitable for a higher grade." This surely is a sufficiently conservative 
 position ; yet the study demonstrated that "general practice places poems 
 from one to three grades too low in the curriculum." Such studies as this 
 make possible more intelligent practice in the assignment of literary selec- 
 tions, particularly poems, to the various school grades. 
 
 The effects of teaching literature upon the commonly accepted objectives 
 of the subject — Hosic's doctoral study 3 relates to the effect of the teaching 
 of literature in the grades by conventional methods upon the purpose! 
 usually accepted for this subject. Hosic examined four sets of reading 
 books for grades four to six to discover the helps to study which they con- 
 tain. "The emphasis was found to fall upon questions pertaining to the 
 language used or the facts presented rather than upon conduct, technique, 
 or expressional activities." In contrast to this, "imaginative realization 
 of the piece as a whole as a means to enjoyment and the enrichment of 
 experience was found to be central" among authorities as to the nature and 
 purpose of literature. To weight these differing emphases Hosic tested the 
 teaching of "four poems in two pairs of sixth-grade classes so as to alter- 
 nate the methods used. For example, Holmes' Chambered Nautilus was 
 taught by means of an informal suggestive presentation of the whole to 
 Class A and by means of detailed questions to Class B. Then Blake's 
 Tiger was presented by means of detailed questions to Class A and as a whole 
 to Class B. Browning's How They Brought the Good News and Reed's 
 Sheridan's Ride followed in the same way. Classes X and Y were handled 
 similarly," but with poems and methods reversed. In a preliminary test, 
 
 1 Cavins, L. V. Grading poems for schools use. An unpublished doctor's 
 thesis, Department of Education, University of Chicago, 1924. 
 
 2 Lyman, Rollo L. "What poetry shall we teach in the grades?" The Elemen- 
 tary English Review, Vol. 1 (June, 1924), pp. 145-54. 
 
 3 Hosic, James F. Empirical studies in school reading, Teachers College, Colum- 
 bia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 114, 1921. 
 
178 Department of Superintendence 
 
 classes which merely read over or listened to the poems were found to prefer 
 The Tiger and Sheridan s Ride in a proportion of four to one. Neverthe- 
 less, after both methods of teaching described above had been used, each 
 class when tested as to its preferences was found to choose whichever poem 
 had been taught to it as a whole. Thus when studied at too great length 
 favorite poems ranked below the less favored ones which were more skil- 
 fully and reasonably presented. Care was taken to find out that the poems 
 which were not taught at full length were understood in their essential 
 meaning. 
 
 Hosic concludes: "There is apparently a disparity between the aims and 
 methods of literature teaching per se and the aims and methods of classroom 
 teachers and of editors of textbooks. The latter emphasize the linguistic 
 element and familiarity with details of fact. . . . Method in teaching 
 literature is a powerful factor, and may practically determine the attitude 
 of a large majority of a class toward a literary selection. Probably the 
 methods now used both by teachers and editors are largely unfitted to at- 
 tain the objects set up by critical and educational authorities for the study 
 of literature in school." 
 
 Measure of appreciation of poetry — The first successful attempt to de- 
 vise a scientific measure of literary appreciation was that of Abbott and 
 Trabue. 1 The experiment consisted of taking verses of acknowledged and 
 recognizable poetic merit and making three spoiled versions of each: one 
 in which the emotional tone was violated by more or less obvious insincerity 
 and exaggeration ; one in which the imaginative quality was reduced to the 
 prosaic; and one in which the rhythm was rendered either awkward or less 
 fine than in the original. The four versions of each stanza were put on a 
 single page and the reader required to mark one best and one worst. There 
 were in each of the two tests thirteen such groups. Conclusions were all 
 drawn from the choices of best versions. 
 
 As the median judgments did not vary much from a chance distribution 
 in grades V to VIII inclusive and in many cases were negative, the scale 
 is of no value as a measuring device below the high school. In fact, the 
 median judgments are not preponderantly in favor of the best versions until 
 the fourth year of high school and the correlation of the two tests X and Y 
 is only .44 for that grade. It is only as we come to the group of graduate 
 students who are majoring in English and teachers of English that we 
 get as high a median as 9.5 from the thirteen specimens and a correlation of 
 .723 between the two tests. However, a distinct gain in appreciation is 
 possible if the tests are taken and then discussed with high school children 
 and with teachers of literature for that matter although this of course de- 
 stroys their validity as a measuring device. 
 
 Detailed analyses of the versions preferred in certain school years and 
 of the apparent conclusions following upon these facts are significant and 
 
 1 Abbott, Allan, and Trabue, M. R. "A measure of ability to judge poetry." 
 Teachers College Record, Columbia Univ., XXII (March, 1921),' pp. 101-126. 
 
The Third Yearbook 179 
 
 are interestingly discussed by the authors. It is noted that disturbance of the 
 rhythm is felt earliest ; that the prosaic versions drop out of favor after 
 the third year of high school or first year of college in the majority of pu- 
 pils, but that the sentimentalized or emotionally false versions are preferred 
 in nearly half of the poems well into the high school period, and in two in- 
 stances by all save the graduate students. There seems to be clear evidence 
 that sentimentalism, if not positively promoted, is by no means rooted out 
 by the procedures in school courses in literature. The authors are led to 
 question whether there is in schools a tendency to inculcate a liking for ab- 
 surdly false sentiment. 
 
 VII. Reading Vocabularies 
 
 This section describes the purpose of representative studies of reading vo- 
 cabularies, outlines the methods employed in making each investigation, 
 and presents the most important results. On account of the limitations 
 of space, it has been impossible to include reference to all vocabulary studies 
 or to present in detail the conclusions of the investigations to which refer- 
 ence is made. 
 
 Study of the Vocabularies of Beginning Books in Twelve Reading Methods 1 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the vo- 
 cabularies of the beginning books of twelve different sets of readers, each 
 series representing a more or less distinct method of reading. 
 
 Methods. 1. Each word was listed and its frequency determined for each 
 book. Where the letter "s" was used as a suffix, the word was counted 
 with the root word. When other suffixes were added to the root, the words 
 were listed separately. "It's" was not included with "its" but was listed 
 separately. Words connected with a hyphen were counted as two different 
 words. 
 
 2. A study was also made of the number of words common to any two 
 books, to determine the extent to which the vocabularies were similar. 
 
 Results. 1. A total of 1636 different words was found in the twelve 
 beginning books. The number of words introduced in a single book ranges 
 from 157 to 630. 
 
 2. Four of the books have 70 per cent or more of the total number of 
 words occurring less than 10 times; four others from 60 to 69 per cent; 
 three from 50 to 59 per cent ; and but one less than 50 per cent. 
 
 3. Of 1636 different words found in all of the methods, 783 are found 
 in only one book. Only 38 words are common to all twelve books. 
 
 4. A large number of words appear only once in each book. 
 
 1 Selke, Erich, and Selka, G. A. "Study of the vocabularies of beginning books 
 in twelve reading methods." Elementary School Journal, Vol. XXII, June, 1922, 
 745. 
 
180 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 5. The overlapping of vocabulary content of each book is shown defi- 
 nitely in Table 15. 
 
 Table 15. — Number and Frequency of Different Words Introduced in Each of 
 Twelve Beginning Readers 
 
 Number 
 
 Method of words i 2 to 5 
 
 I. Rational Method Ward 546 183 161 
 
 II. Progressive Road 579- 140 204 
 
 III. Beacon 630 164 252 
 
 IV. Riverside 396 30 155 
 
 V.Gordon 383 79 123 
 
 VI. Merrill 427 37 122 
 
 VII. Aldine 157 10 18 
 
 VIII. Edson— Laing 427 65 138 
 
 IX. Lippincott 377 82 67 
 
 X.Reading — Literature 209 6 53 
 
 XI. Natural 436 49 154 
 
 XII. Winston 308 53 111 
 
 6 to 9 10 to 19 20 plus 
 
 43 53 106 
 
 71 78 86 
 
 76 60 78 
 
 70 71 70 
 
 62 75 44 
 
 99 96 83 
 
 16 28 85 
 
 80 81 63 
 
 68 78 82 
 47 45 58 
 
 69 80 84 
 53 51 40 
 
 The Vocabularies of Ten First Readers 1 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this study was to determine the vocabularies 
 of ten first readers in common use in American elementary schools. 
 
 Method. The words of the readers were counted page by page and the 
 frequency of each word listed. 
 
 Results. The report of the study does not indicate the exact number of 
 running words tabulated but an estimate shows it to be around 92,000. A 
 total of 3541 words was found, only 96 of which appear in all ten first 
 readers, and only 69 in nine of the ten readers. Two thousand forty- 
 eight appear four times or less. 
 
 The results are summarized in Tables 17 and 18. The first is a fre- 
 quency table showing the exact number of words appearing with specified 
 frequency. 
 
 Table 16. — Percentage of Total Number of Different Words in Twelve Be- 
 ginning Readers Common to Any Two of These Books 
 
 Method 
 
 ....I II 
 
 Ill 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 XI 
 
 XII 
 
 I 
 
 .... 22 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 ! 22 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 II 
 
 
 35 
 
 27 
 
 3: 
 
 » 34 
 
 18 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 22 32 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 27 
 
 IV 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 46 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 23 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 VII 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 VIII 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 39 
 
 IX 
 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 X 
 
 • • • • . 
 
 . . 
 
 •>■• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Packer, J. L. "The vocabularies of ten first readers," The , Twentieth Year- 
 book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, pp. 127-144. 
 
The Third Yearbook 181 
 
 Table 17. — First Fifteen Words Found in all Readers, with Their Frequencies 
 
 Word Frequency I Word Frequency ; Word Frequency 
 
 the 
 
 5246 
 
 you 
 
 1859 
 
 little 
 
 1037 
 
 and 
 
 3375 
 
 is 
 
 1457 
 
 she 
 
 804 
 
 I 
 
 1929 
 
 it 
 
 1479 
 
 will 
 
 855 
 
 a 
 
 1869 
 
 he 
 
 1015 
 
 not 
 
 732 
 
 to 
 
 1856 
 
 in 
 
 1058 
 
 of 
 
 707 
 
 A Mastery Vocabulary in Primary Reading' 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this article was to describe the necessity for 
 and methods of developing a basic vocabulary built upon a basal reading 
 textbook series in use in a school system. Teachers frequently feel that 
 story readers are unsatisfactory for use due to the large vocabulary involved. 
 To eliminate this difficulty a vocabulary analyses was made of the basic 
 readers (Winston) in this school system (Springfield, 111.). 
 
 Method. The study involved the checking of each book of the series, 
 listing the different words, scoring their frequency in each book, noting the 
 words which held over from volume to volume, and the final selection of the 
 words comprising the mastery vocabulary from those having the highest 
 frequency in the greatest number of stories. The words in the second 
 reader were scored only as different words, no frequency score being kept. 
 Notes were taken of the words which were repeated from the primer and 
 first reader. The list was finally compared with the list submitted by E. T. 
 Housh in the Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
 of Education, Part I, Chapter IV. Since this list is based upon the analy- 
 sis of ten different second readers, presumably a list of words common to his 
 list and an analysis of the Winston second reader would consist of words 
 worth mastering. 
 
 Results. 680 different words were selected for mastery in the first three 
 grades, plus 100 more whose root forms were included in the 680 listed but 
 whose endings were sufficiently different to demand attention. 
 
 This list was then checked against the five groups of five hundred words 
 each having greatest frequency of appearance in Thorndike's "Teachers 
 Word Book." Four hundred eight of the 680 words selected were found 
 in Thorndike's first five hundred. Great similarity was also found between 
 this list and the list in the Horn-Ashbaugh Speller. 
 
 Analysis of the Vocabularies of Ten Second-Year Readers 2 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this study was to determine scientifically the 
 vocabulary of ten second readers in common use. 
 
 Method. The words of each of the ten readers were first counted, page 
 by page, and each word listed, together with the number of times it occurred 
 
 1 Brown, Ethel M. "A mastery vocabulary in primary reading." Bulletin of 
 Department of Elementary School Principals. Second Yearbook, Vol. 2, No. 4 
 (July, 1923), Chap. V. 
 
 2 Housh, E. T. "Analysis of the vocabularies of ten second year readers," The 
 Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 
 I, pp. 40-45. 
 
182 Department of Superintendence 
 
 on the page. From this page list the vocabulary of each book was tabu- 
 lated in a combination of an alphabetical and group system, together with 
 the frequency of recurrence of each word, in the entire book. From these 
 vocabularies a tabulation was made showing the entire vocabulary of the 
 ten books arranged in the same order as the separate vocabularies and con- 
 taining the word-frequencies. 
 
 Results. 1. The vocabulary common to all the readers studied is given 
 together with the frequencies of each- word that appeared fourteen times or 
 more. Throughout the study, every difference in spelling is counted as a 
 new wojd. 
 
 2. A critical analysis of the vocabularies of a series of readers seems to 
 give a measure of their value. 
 
 3. Such an analysis will aid in selecting supplementary readers for 
 use in connection with a given basic text. 
 
 4. The readers in the second grade contain quite different lists of 
 words. Of the thousands of words in the ten readers, only 419 are common 
 to all ten, while when a "method" reader and a "content" reader are com- 
 pared, the number of words common to the two books is still relatively 
 small, ranging only from 655 to 928 words. 
 
 5. Hundreds of the words used in each reader occur only once, twice, 
 or three times in that reader, thus failing to provide drill on these words. 
 
 The Reading Vocabularies of Third-Grade Children 1 
 Purpose. An effort was made in this study to determine the number of 
 words in the reading and spelling vocabularies of third-grade children, the 
 rapidity of growth of these vocabularies from year to year, the frequency of 
 the various words, and the correlation of vocabularies in different texts. 
 
 Method. Each word in each book was counted to determine the num- 
 ber of times it was used in that book. Variations of words were listed as 
 different words. Subject matter was not checked unless the child was re- 
 quired to read it or to spell the words it contained. 
 
 Table 18. — Total Frequencies of Words Found in Textbooks Analyzed 
 
 Different New Used Running 
 
 words words words words 
 
 Beacon Primer 743 743 7,007 
 
 Natural Primer 503 238 265 6,315 
 
 Beacon First 804 395 409 8,455 
 
 Natural First 849 265 584 8,878 
 
 Natural Second 1,770 861 909 25,332 
 
 Natural Third 3,304 1,888 1,416 34,855 
 
 Hamilton's Arithmetic 1,282 529 753 12,574 
 
 New World Speller (Reading) 450 58 392 2,705 
 
 Total (Reading) 9,704 4,977 4,728 106,121 
 
 New World Speller (Spelling 
 
 Vocabulary) ' 1,453 213 1,240 6,767 
 
 1 Gregory, A. C. "The reading vocabularies of third-grade children," Journal 
 of Educational Research, VII (February, 1923), 127-131. 
 
The Third Yearbook 183 
 
 Comment. A list of words of greatest frequency contains 35 of the 50 
 words of greatest frequency listed in the Ayres Spelling Scale. The first 
 13 words in this list of 50 words are the same as the first 13 words in the 
 Ayres list of 1000 commonest words with the exception of the eleventh 
 word. Said appears for that in the Ayres list. These 13 words constitute 
 about 26 per cent of the running words in the third-year reading vocabu- 
 lary. Approximately one-third of the words in this vocabulary occur but 
 once. Undoubtedly this accounts for the persistence of many of these 
 words as difficulties in the upper grades. 
 
 Determination of the Technical Vocabulary of School Subjects 1 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this study was to determine the words abso- 
 lutely essential or important in school subjects. 
 
 Method. 
 
 A. Subjects selected for study: 
 
 1. The mathematics group — arithmetic, algebra, geometry 
 
 2. The language and literature group — English grammar, French grammar, 
 Latin grammar, German grammar, English and American literature 
 
 3. The history and civics group 
 
 4. The science group — general science, geography, biology, chemistry, physics, 
 physiology 
 
 5. The manual arts group — home economics, manual training 
 
 6. The art and music group 
 
 B. Steps in the analysis of texts: 
 
 1. Selected texts in wide use. Number varied with reading matter or diffuse- 
 ness of vocabulary 
 
 2. Each text read through by at least two readers who copied all words that 
 they thought a child might have difficulty in understanding 
 
 Many readers and many texts were used to compensate for any unreliability of 
 the individual reader. 
 
 New words listed at end. More and more readings were listed until three 
 consecutive readings added less than one per cent new terms. 
 
 Readings varied from eight in chemistry to twenty-three in history. Two hun- 
 dred twenty-five were necessary to reach saturation point in ail subjects. 
 
 3. The procedure outlined in step 2 gave a list of words that varied from 291 
 for algebra to 1691 for general science. These words were apparently not of 
 equal importance and were therefore rated by teachers of the subjects as follows: 
 (a) Checked twice words absolutely essential to the given subject; (b) Checked 
 once those words important but not essential; (c) Left unchecked unimportant 
 words. The number of teachers checking ranged from 27 in home economics to 
 103 in arithmetic. The ratings in all subjects totaled 796. 
 
 4. Marked lists were sorted according to subject and tabulated as follows: 
 those words checked twice were given two marks ; those checked once were 
 given one mark; this gave the complete number of checks for each word in each 
 list. (A word double checked by 50 teachers equalled 100 marks; a word double 
 checked by 9 teachers equaled 32 marks.) Each word in the list received its total 
 marks. In algebra 10,931 checks were tabulated; in arithmetic, 71,180; in general 
 science, 68,731 ; etc. 
 
 1 Pressey, L. C. "Determination of the technical vocabulary of school subjects," 
 School and Society, XX (July 19, 1924), 91-96. 
 
184 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 5. Words were divided into four classes. 
 
 (1) Essential vocabulary; those words receiving one-half or more of the possible 
 number of checks. 
 
 (2) Accessory vocabulary; those words receiving from one fourth to one half 
 of the possible number of checks. 
 
 (3) Those words receiving less than one fourth .of the total possible number 
 of checks but which had been found in a third or more of the texts — that is, 
 words appearing in the texts but not rated as important by the teachers. 
 
 (4) Words not receiving one fourth of the total possible checks nor appearing 
 in one third of the texts. These were eliminated. 
 
 The first three classes were kept but differentiated in the printing. The common 
 words in allied subjects were listed. The words common to all subjects in a 
 group were separated. The words common to two or more subjects in a group 
 but not to all were indicated by showing in which subjects they were important. 
 
 The lists were printed using capitals for essential vocabulary, italics for acces- 
 sory vocabulary, ordinary lettering for words appearing in texts but not con- 
 sidered necessary by teachers. 
 
 Results. The results are summarized in Table 19. 
 
 Table 19 — Total Number of Words for Each Class and Each Subject 
 
 Text Words 
 Essential Accessory but not impor- 
 
 (Caps) (Italics) tant (Roman) Total 
 
 Common Mathematics list 117 26 143 
 
 Arithmetic 83 274 49 406 
 
 Algebra 151 116 267 
 
 Geometry 196 184 .... 380 
 
 Common Language list 145 68 ..... 213 
 
 English grammar 11 31 .... 42 
 
 Latin grammar . 22 20 42 
 
 French grammar 15 69 .... 84 
 
 German grammar 20 39 .... 59 
 
 Literature 306 509 21 836 
 
 Common Science list 191 24 .... 215 
 
 General science 916 648 .... 1564 
 
 Biology : 675 677 41 1393 
 
 Chemistry 765 488 44 1297 
 
 Physics 709 331 1040 
 
 Geography 313 690 129 1132 
 
 Physiology 293 493 80 866 
 
 History 542 503 .... 1045 
 
 Music 279 124 .... 403 
 
 Home economics 1189 433 32 1654 
 
 Manual training 365 390 .... 755 
 
 "The number of common words in each group should be added to the 
 
 words for each subject in that group to find the total number of words 
 for each subject. For example,' the arithmetic words equal 406 plus 143 
 
 common words giving a total of 549. The same method is used for other 
 subjects in any group. 
 
The Third Yearbook 185 
 
 Suggested Uses of the Vocabulary Lists: 
 
 1. To point out the technical words for the subjects 
 
 2. In investigating failing pupils 
 
 3. Form a study list for pupils 
 
 4. Attempt to find weak spots in pupils' knowledge of the subject 
 
 5. Indicate a method for rating the "vocabulary burden" of one text 
 
 as against another (i. e. What per cent of the words appear in a 
 text?) 
 
 6. Basis for tests in special vocabularies 
 
 7. Suggest possibility of organizing a subject around the essential vo- 
 
 cabulary 
 
 A Method for Measuring the "Vocabulary Burden" of Textbooks 1 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this study was to develop a method for meas- 
 uring the vocabulary difficulty or burden of public school textbooks. 
 Method. A. Two questions involved in the elaboration of procedure : 
 
 1. How many words in a reliable sampling of the vocabulary of a text and 
 how to select this sampling? 2. How can difficulty be measured best? 
 
 B. Steps — 1. A 1000 word unit was chosen as sufficient. 2. Estimated 
 the number of pages at one line each to get a total of 1000 words. (500 
 pages in a book at 10 words per line using every fifth page.) 3. Every third 
 line used, except in the newspaper, where one page was studied. 4. The 
 different words in each 1000 running word sample were listed alphabetically. 
 5. Each different word was given the index number from Thorndike's 
 Word Book. The theory was that the higher the median index number 
 the easier the vocabulary. 6. A second sampling taken from third line on 
 similar series of pages. 7. Sixteen types of reading matter studied. 
 
 C. Definitions — 1. Vocabulary range-number of different words in 1000 ; 
 
 2. Zero value words — those words not found in the 10,000 of Thorndike's 
 Word Book; 3. weighted median index number — -median index number 
 with zero-value words counted twice. 
 
 Conclusions. 
 
 A. Limitations pointed out by author 
 
 1. Question as to reliability of such a sampling. 
 
 2. A summary like the above leaves out important elements. Any 
 average covers up points that a complete distribution would show. 
 
 3. Any faults and errors in the Thorndike Word List are involved. 
 
 B. Potentialities. 
 
 1. Reliability may be increased by using more 1000 word counts. 
 
 2. Method useful in finding the vocabulary distribution throughout a 
 text, for example, the first chapter versus the last. 
 
 1 Pressey, S. L. and Lively, Bertha A. "A method for measuring the vocabulary- 
 burden of textbooks," Educational Administration and Supervision, Volume IX, 
 October, 1923, 389-398. 
 
186 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 3. Method is far superior to any guess. 
 
 4. Useful in studying overlapping in vocabularies which might be very 
 important, as in general science and chemistry. 
 
 Results. The important results are summarized below: 
 
 Zero Value 
 
 Words Weighted Median 
 12 12 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 86 
 
 88 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 78 
 
 83 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 77 
 
 79 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 71 
 
 62 
 
 24 
 
 . 11 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 43 
 
 34 
 
 43 
 
 54 
 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 67 
 
 69 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 .08 
 
 94 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 Range 
 
 Books 1* 2* 
 
 Second Readers: Jones 371 359 
 
 Horace Mann 412 421 
 
 Aldine 367 353 
 
 Fourth Readers: Jones 471 454 
 
 Aldine 450 455 
 
 Horace Mann 466 472 
 
 Stevenson: Kidnapped 402 415 
 
 Thackeray: Vanity Fair 490 459 
 
 Columbus Dispatch 528 581 
 
 Same without Local Names.. 514 560 
 
 Muzzey : American History. 533 506 
 Ciark: Introduction to 
 
 Science 483 491 
 
 Clark: General Science 480 463 
 
 Hunter: Elements of Biology 464 467 
 
 Elementary Chemistry** .... 399 358 
 
 Kimball: College Physics.. 393 405 
 
 Howell: Physiology 442 473 
 
 * Samplings 
 
 ** McPherson and Henderson 
 
 Word Knowledge in the Elementary School 1 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this study was to determine "the frequency of 
 occurrence of words in the talk our pupil and graduate will or should hear, 
 and the books, articles, letters, and the like, which he will or should hear." 
 
 Method. The words in a part or all of each of forty-one sources in- 
 cluding materials read by children and by adults were counted. A plural 
 formed by adding j- was not counted separately, but entered under the sin- 
 gular form. "The same procedure was followed, except in certain cases for 
 special reasons, with plurals where y is replaced by \es, adverbs formed from 
 adjectives by adding ly, comparatives formed by adding er or r, superlatives 
 formed by adding est or st, verb forrns derived by adding Sj ed or d, n, and 
 ing, in cases where the derived form would probably be easily read and 
 understood by the pupil when he experienced it, if he knew the primary 
 word. Adjectives formed from proper nouns by adding n are also, as a 
 rule, counted with the noun." The frequency of each word was determined 
 first for each source separately. These frequencies were then added and the 
 result thus obtained was called the "sum of credits" or "credit sums." 
 
 1 Thorndike, E. L. "Word knowledge in the elementary , school," Teachers 
 College Record, XXII (September, 1921), 334-370. 
 
The Third Yearbook 187 
 
 Results. The study resulted in the most comprehensive usable word 
 list which is available. Ten thousand of these words, together with their 
 "credit sums" are published in the Teachers Word Book, published by 
 Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 
 The following uses of the word list are suggested by Thorndike: Aids 
 in determining words which merit emphasis in teaching; aids in establishing 
 and clarifying standards for grades and by ages; aids in evaluating text- 
 books or in determining the suitability of their vocabularies; helps in the 
 grading and selection of readers; aids in determining phonic elements which 
 occur most frequently; suggests a basis or standard vocabulary for use 
 in teaching English to foreigners; suggests additions to existing spelling 
 scales; and aids in improving reading tests. 
 
 VIII. The Evaluation of Teaching Techniques 
 
 The problem. Current practice in reading has been the topic of much 
 criticism. Many widely prevalent techniques are so manifestly out of line 
 with sound aims that it would seem to be superfluous to submit them to 
 experimental evaluation. Critical writers 1 have long been convinced of the 
 need for a thoroughgoing reconstruction of reading techniques. Judd main- 
 tains that the time for minor revisions is over and points the need for em- 
 bodying fundamental revisions in an experimental program for evaluation. 
 
 Meanwhile, although numerous independent studies have provided a sci- 
 entific basis for fundamental changes, these have only recently been incor- 
 porated in an inclusive program of reading instruction. 2 Certain special 
 techniques have been evaluated with reference to immediate and restricted 
 outcomes. Such studies are less significant to curriculum workers than ex- 
 periments which eventuate with conclusions of more general import. The 
 increased relative significance of silent reading in grades above the third 
 is quite generally acknowledged, but the traditional techniques of instruc- 
 
 ^attell, J. McK. Mind. 1S86. pp. 65 and 531. 
 
 Huey, E. B. "Preliminary experiments in the physiology and psychology of 
 reading." American Journal of Psychology, XI, (July, 1898) 1-20. 
 
 Dearborn, W. A. The psychology of reading. Columbia Univ. Contributions 
 to Philosophy and Psychology, Vol. XIV, No. 1. New York: Science Press, 1906. 
 136 p. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. "Reading as reasoning." Journal of Educational Psychology 
 (June 1917), pp. 323-32. 
 
 Judd, C. H., with the cooperation of W. S. Gray, C. T. Gray, Katherine Mc- 
 Laughlin, Clara Schmitt, and A. R. Gilliland. Reading: its nature and develop- 
 ment. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. II, No. 4. Chicago: Depart- 
 partment of Education, University of Chicago, 1918. Pp. 146-155. 
 
 2 Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. 
 Bloomington, 111.: Public School Pub. Co., 1925. Pp. 200. 
 
188 Department of Superintendence 
 
 tion in oral reading are so comfortably familiar to teachers that they often 
 persist in the face of cumulative evidence 1 of the significance of silent read- 
 ing. This conservatism is perhaps largely due to the fact that recommenda- 
 tions were not accompanied by specific suggestions as to desirable techniques 
 or preferred procedures. 
 
 Contributions of specific studies. The formulation of practical pro- 
 cedures and the evaluation of techniques are, however, a stupendous co- 
 operative task which has been visioned more clearly than it has been re- 
 alized. 2 Some factors which determine the comparative desirability of vari- 
 ous techniques are psychological. The early investigations of Cattell, Boggs, 
 Huey, 3 show that (a) Meaning should be stressed from the very begin- 
 ning; (b) Words are more readily recognized if presented in context; (c) 
 For beginners especially the procedure should avoid direct emphasis on 
 recognition of words and sounds. 
 
 Buswell 4 compared contrasting methods of beginning reading by a thor- 
 ough-going analysis of pupil performance and concluded that methods should 
 not be judged by their outcomes at the end of the first grade. Immediate 
 results in skill may have been obtained at the expense of habits which influ- 
 ence later development. Thus it is necessary to evaluate techniques with 
 reference to the nature and range of their ultimate effects on reading devel- 
 opment. This study also shows the specific effects of techniques. For exam- 
 ple, training in word recognition cannot be assumed to transfer to, or be 
 automatically transformed into, general reading ability. Abilities are gen- 
 eral only when the specific elements of training and experience have been 
 varied and inclusive. 
 
 1 Judd, C. H. "Relation of school expansion to reading." Elementary School 
 Journal, XXII, (December, 1922), 253-266. 
 
 Gray, W. S. "The importance of intelligent silent reading," Elementary School 
 Journal, XXIV, (January, 1924). 
 
 2 Horn, E. The Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
 Education. Introduction. Bloomington: Public School Publishing Co., 1921. Pp. 
 VII-IX. 
 
 Horn, E. The Objectives in Reading as' a Guide to Remedial and Prophylactic 
 Work," pp. 287-96. Second Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Prin- 
 cipals, Washington : The Department of Elementary School Principals of the 
 N. E. A. 
 
 3 Cattell, J. McK. Mind, 1886. 
 
 Boggs, Lucinda. "How children learn to read," Pedagogical Seminary, XII, 1905. 
 Huey, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. New York : 
 Macmillan, 1908. 
 
 4 Buswell, Guy T. Fundamental reading habits: a study of their development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 21. Chicago: Department of Educa- 
 tion, University of Chicago, 1922. Chapter III, p. 103. 
 
The Third Yearbook 189 
 
 The specific nature of reading habits is also strikingly shown by C. T. 
 Gray, 1 and by Judd and Buswell. 2 In the intermediate grades special sets 
 of habits must be developed to enable pupils to cope with study materials 
 effectively. Teachers should study the effects of instruction and select 
 techniques and organize procedures with reference to their probable out- 
 comes. The purposeful selection of techniques in terms of varied objectives 
 is conducive to flexibility of reactions and the adjustment of reading habits 
 to varying purposes, needs, or content. 
 
 Gates 3 shows that special reading and study technique can be developed 
 and that the transfer from one type of training to another, while positive, 
 is too small to be depended upon. Training must, therefore, be many- 
 sided. Practice exercises should be so framed that the pupils are conscious 
 of the purpose for which they are reading, and so that all pupils are held 
 responsible for the results. Certain test techniques mav suggest economical 
 procedures for such training. 
 
 Horn 4 suggests that speed and comprehension are not the ultimate ob- 
 jectives in teaching reading but that objectives must be stated in terms 
 of needs, situations, and activities in life. He also maintains that techniques 
 must be evaluated broadly and with reference to these objectives, rather 
 than by reference to their effect on standard test scores. That does not 
 imply that comprehension and rate are insignificant but rather that they 
 are too general for the organization and evaluation of specific procedures. 
 
 This criticism is particularly significant with reference to the develop- 
 ment of abilities which are not taken into account by standardized tests. 
 Dr. Hosic's 5 study is an example of a direct evaluation of procedure and 
 non-skill outcomes. Theisen 6 evaluates the effect of extensive reading by 
 correlating amount read with growth in ability. In the same book informal 
 
 1 Gray, C. T. Types of reading ability as exhibited through tests and laboratory 
 experiments. Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 5. Chicago: Depart- 
 ment of Education, Univ. of Chicago, 1917. XIII: 196. 
 
 " Judd, C. H., and Buswell, G. T. Silent reading: a study of the various types. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 23. Chicago: Department of Edu- 
 cation, University of Chicago, 1922. XIV, pp. 160. 
 
 3 Gates, A. I., and Van Alstyne, D. "General and specific effects of training in 
 reading," Teachers College Record, XXV, (March, 1924), 98-123. 
 
 4 Horn, E. "The objectives in reading as a guide to remedial and prophylactic 
 work," 287-96. Second Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Prin- 
 cipals. Wash., D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals of the N. E. A. 
 
 5 Hosic, J. F. Empirical studies in school reading. Teachers College Contribu- 
 tions to Education, No. 114. New York: Teachers College Bureau of Publica- 
 tions, 1921. 
 
 6 Theisen, W. W. "Factors affecting results in primary reading," pp. 1-25. 
 Tiventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloom- 
 ington: Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 
 
190 Department of Superintendence 
 
 tests are used to measure the effectiveness of certain techniques. 1 The 
 latter is an attempt to measure the spread of effects in an activity which 
 combines reading with other activities. Hoover 2 evaluated certain indi- 
 vidual phrase card drills with action responses by using the Monroe Stan- 
 dardized Silent Reading Test before and after a three-month training 
 period and found that the drill sections made more pronounced improvement 
 in both comprehension and rate. 
 
 Another type of evaluation is represented by classroom studies in which 
 the organization of the work takes account of individual differences. The 
 progress of the pupils along the lines of various individual needs is re- 
 ported. By such studies 3 the relative effectiveness of certain types of ad- 
 justment to individual needs and interests is shown. Such adjustments are 
 highly effective when curriculum and materials recognize such needs. These 
 studies also show how the early detection of difficulty is facilitated by the 
 regular use of informal diagnostic tests and checks on extensive reading. 
 
 Summary. The aspects of techniques which have adequate experimental 
 sanction are: 
 
 1. The presentation of words in context in work with beginners. 
 
 2. Emphasis on meaning from the very beginning. 
 
 3. Emphasis on silent reading in grades above the third. 
 
 4. The use of informal tests as a regular part of silent reading technique. 
 
 5. Provision for systematic development of specific reading and study habits 
 through purposeful specific practice. 
 
 6. The use of varied techniques adjusted to varied materials and purposes. 
 
 7. Continued diagnostic teaching and study of pupil reactions for the purpose 
 of effective guidance. 
 
 IX. The Place of Phonetics in Teaching Reading 
 
 Three distinct trends are noticeable in the studies bearing on phonetic 
 training: (1) comparisons of children who have received much training 
 in phonetics with children trained primarily in more varied aspects of read- 
 
 1 Greene, H. A. Measuring comprehension of content material and Heller, 
 Reginia R., and Courtis, S. A. "Exercises developed at Detroit for making reading 
 function." Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa- 
 tion, pp. 114-27, and 153-61. Bloomington: Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 
 
 2 Hoover, J. H. "Motivated drill work in third grade silent reading," pp. 77-89. 
 Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Blooming- 
 ton: Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 
 
 3 Zirbes, L. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure in reading," 
 Elementary School Journal, XVIII, (March, 1918), 505-522. 
 
 Carswell, Marion, and Beatty, W. W. Reading and language in the JVinnetka 
 Public' Schools, pp. 313-29. 
 
 Keller, Helen B., and Fernald, Grace M. "Remedial work for non-readers," pp. 
 333-46. 
 
 Merton, Elda L. "The discovery and correction of reading difficulties," pp. 
 346-63, Second Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals. 
 Wash., D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals of the N. E. A. 
 
The Third Yearbook 191 
 
 ing to determine their ability to interpret, their spontaneity of attack, and 
 their accomplishment in other phases of reading; (2) the discovery of the 
 individual needs of pupils with regard to phonetic training; and (3) the 
 evaluation of phonetic elements to discover the most essential elements for 
 use in training. 
 
 These investigations 1 show that ability to recognize words quickly and 
 independently is essential to contihued progress in reading. The question 
 remains as to the degree to which this fundamental habit should be de- 
 veloped in relation to other fundamental reading habits at different grade 
 levels. Studies of eye movements by Judd 2 show clearly that confusion 
 arises when no satisfactory method of word attack has been developed. He 
 recommends phonetic analysis as a valuable method of attacking new words 
 and of eliminating periods of confusion. 
 
 The tendency of many teachers is to question the wisdom of training in 
 word calling at the expense of right attitudes toward reading and of ability 
 to comprehend. Investigators recognize this difficulty but maintain that 
 training in phonetics is legitimate at a given grade level, provided all essen- 
 tial phases of reading are given adequate emphasis. 
 
 Waste of time and effort are indicated in the case of pupils who have a 
 keen phonic sense when they are held to routine phonic drills. 1 A large 
 number of pupils need basic phonic training. Foreign children without 
 satisfactory language habits, children with speech defects, and certain 
 remedial cases in reading seem to need more intensive training carefully 
 adapted to their specific difficulties. Investigations show clearly that the 
 amount and kind of phonic training must be adapted to individual needs. 
 
 Evaluation of phonetic elements is dependent in part upon agreement as 
 to what constitute such elements. No such agreement exists in the 
 studies 3 which have been published. Each investigator has defined and 
 classified the phonic elements somewhat differently. The frequency of each 
 
 1 Currier, L. B., and Duguid, O. C. "Phonics or no phonics," Elementary School 
 Journal, XVII (December, 1916), 286-87. 
 
 Currier, L. B. "Phonics and no phonics," Elementary School Journal, XXIII, 
 (February, 1923), 448-52. 
 
 Buswell, G. T. Fundamental reading habits: a study of their development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 21, Department of Education, Univ. 
 of Chicago. 
 
 2 Judd, C. H. Reading: its nature and development. Supplementary Educational 
 Monographs, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1918, Department of Education, University of Chicago. 
 
 Ducker, Mabel L. "The present status of the teaching of phonics as shown 
 by an analysis of eighteen reading manuals," Unpublished Master's Thesis, Univ. 
 of Chicago, 1920. 
 
 Osburn, W. J. "The relative value of letter sounds and phonograms," Mimeo- 
 graphed circular issued by State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis- 
 consin, Sept., 1923. 
 
 Vogel, M., Jaycox, E., and Washburne, C. W. "A basic list of phonics for 
 grades I and II," Elementary School Journal. XXIII (February, 1923), 436-43. 
 
192 Department of Superintendence 
 
 element in the reading vocabulary examined in each investigation has been 
 adopted as the measure of its importance. The application of this method 
 to a local situation appears in the Winnetka study, 1 and its relation to 
 tendencies shown in twenty basic series of readers appears in Ducker's 
 study. 2 
 
 Needed scientific investigations in the field of phonetics have been sum- 
 marized by Gray as follows: "A comprehensive study of the frequency of 
 occurrence of all important phonetic elements and of the various combina- 
 tions in which they occur, based on a word list which shows the frequency 
 of words in common use in primary reading materials; the difficulties pre- 
 sented in teaching various elements ; the relative merits of different elements 
 and combinations in unlocking words ; the time at which different elements 
 and combinations of elements should be introduced; the amount of train- 
 ing which different types of pupils need; conditions under which training 
 can be introduced to best advantage; the methods most effective in group 
 instruction and with different types of individuals." 
 
 X. Provision for Individual Differences 
 
 One of the most important educational discoveries of recent years has 
 been the fact that a wide range of abilities is represented in every grade 
 and subject. The existence of individual differences is widely recognized. 
 We know relatively little, however, of the nature, extent, and causes of 
 these differences. The practical problem is to determine as nearly as possi- 
 ble what these differences are and how to deal with them economically. 
 Evidence points to the need of a considerable amount of differentiated 
 instruction whereas mass instruction, except in rare instances, has been the 
 rule. 
 
 The nature of individual differences in reading — The first step is to 
 determine the nature and extent of the differences. Such differences as are 
 included by the general terms, "rate" and "comprehension," are relatively 
 easy to measure, if one will only take the necessary pains to give several 
 standard reading tests. Differences in many of the more subtle reading 
 traits are less readily determined. It is even more difficult to determine 
 the extent of such differences. It is likely that the pupils of a grade differ 
 widely in each of the various ways in which a child is called upon to use 
 reading. Children of a given class when reading the same material for 
 the first time exhibit marked differences in such respects as these: 
 
 1 Vogel, M., Jaycox, E., and Washburne, C. W. "A basic of phonics for 
 Grades I and II," Elementary School Journal, XXIII (Feb., 1923), 436-43. 
 
 " Ducker, Mabel L. "The present status of the teaching of phonics as shown by 
 an analysis of eighteen reading manuals," Unpublished. Master's Thesis, Univ. 
 of Chicago, 1920. 
 
The Third Yearbook 193 
 
 1. Phonetic power or ability to grapple with new words. 
 
 2. General word knowledge. 
 
 3. Familiarity with the specific vocabulary of the particular selection. 
 
 4. Amount of vocalization or lip reading. 
 
 5. The number, order, and length of eye pauses. 1 
 
 6. Space between position of eye and voice in reading a line orally. 2 
 
 7. Number of mispronunciations, substitutions, omissions, and insertions 6f 
 words in oral reading. 
 
 8. Rate of reading orally and silently. 
 
 9. Ability to reproduce after a single reading. 
 
 10. Ability to answer questions of fact based upon the selection. 
 
 11. Ability to find specific words, phrases, or ideas. 
 
 12. Ability to see relationships or contrasts between facts and ideas set forth 
 in the selection. 
 
 13. Ability to adopt a proper reading attitude or to look for the desired things 
 on the printed page. 3 
 
 14. Ability to answer questions requiring reflection and judgment 
 
 15. Ability to visualize the conditions portrayed in selections. 
 
 16. Ability to read "between the lines," to link up with and interpret what is 
 being read in terms of past experience. 
 
 17. Ability to resist suggestions or preconceived notions which tempt the child 
 to form wrong conclusions. 4 
 
 18. Interest, mental activity, and emotional reaction. 
 
 19. Ability to organize, outline, summarize or select the important ideas. 
 
 20. Some do not hear or perceive words in a normal way. 5 
 
 A pupil may exhibit almost any degree of development in any of the 
 various abilities. These abilities probably exist in various sorts of com- 
 binations in different individuals. Some are closely related, but others are 
 not. A child may possess superior ability in some, ordinary skill in certain 
 ones, and inferior ability in others. Unfortunately, we know very little 
 as to the possible limits of most of these abilities. Probably no two chil- 
 dren in any class are alike, or even approximately so. Probably they are 
 no more alike than two men of the same height, but of different races, 
 might be said to be alike. The importance of making these distinctions 
 
 1 Buswell, Guy Thomas. Fundamental reading habits: a study of their develop- 
 ment. Supplementary Educational Monographs. Department of Education, Univ. 
 of Chicago, No. 21, 1922. 
 
 "Buswell, Guy T. An experimental study of the eye-voice span in reading. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. Department of Education, Univ. of 
 Chicago, No. 17, 1920. 
 
 3 Judd, Charles H. and Buswell, Guy T. Silent reading: a study of various 
 types. Supplementary Educational Monographs. Department of Education, Univ. 
 of Chicago, No. 23, 1922. 
 
 4 Osburn, W. J. Graded and diagnostic paragraphs for use in silent reading. 
 Mimeographed Circular of the Wisconsin State Department of Public Instruction. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. "Reading as reasoning," Journal of Educational Psychology, 
 VIII (June, 1917), pp. 323-32. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. "The understanding of sentences," Elementary School Jour- 
 nal, XVIII, (October, 1917), pp. 98-114. 
 
 5 Gates, Arthur I. The psychology of reading and spelling. Teachers College, 
 Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 129, 1922. 
 
194 Department of Superintendence 
 
 with care in connection with certain of the abilities listed has been indicated 
 by Gates and by Courtis. 1 Remedial instruction will doubtless differ for 
 various types of ability. 
 
 The causes of differences — Differences in reading ability are the result 
 of many causes, some of which are suggested by the foregoing statements 
 concerning the nature of differences. Among the more obvious causes of 
 differences may be listed (1) the level of intelligence represented, (2) the 
 methods of teaching employed, (3) interest and mental effort aroused, (4) 
 habitual reading attitudes formed, (5) amount and character of reading 
 done, (6) background of experience and language development, and (7) 
 the extent to which teachers understand the nature of individual differences 
 and the kind of treatment needed. To this list may be added defects of 
 hearing, speech, and vision. The limitations of space make it impossible 
 to discuss more than a few of these. 
 
 Levels of intelligence represented — Studies of the relative attainments of 
 classes sectioned according to ability show decided differences in the progress 
 of the different groups in reading. 2 The actual correlations, however, 
 between reading and intelligence when the latter has been measured by the 
 Stanford-Binet test which requires less reading than the group intelligence 
 tests was not particularly high. 3 When group intelligence tests were used 
 Gates found that the correlation increased from the lower to the higher 
 grades suggesting that possibly intelligence in reading manifests itself most 
 largely after the mechanics of reading have been fairly well mastered. 
 Poor readers, however, have been discovered even among children with 
 intelligence quotients of 120 or over. Judd points out that there are 
 undoubtedly pupils of excellent native ability who are perverted by bad 
 methods of instruction, a matter which Gates' findings tend to confirm. It 
 is possible, therefore, that we have attached too much significance to the 
 level of intelligence attained and not enough to other causes of individual 
 differences. 
 
 Methods of teaching employed — Haphazard and unsystematized methods 
 of attacking the printed page form an important cause of individual differ- 
 
 1 Courtis, S. A. "Analysis of reading ability," Journal of Educational Psychology, 
 IV, (November, 1921), 287-91. 
 
 Gates, Arthur I. The psychology of reading and spelling. Teachers College, 
 Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 129, 1922. 
 
 2 Dickson, Virgil E. "What first-grade children can do in school as related to 
 what is shown by mental tests," Journal of Educational Research, II (June, 1920), 
 475-80. 
 
 Keener, E. E. "The use of measurements in a small city school system," Journal 
 of Educational Research, III (March, 1921) 
 
 Theisen, W. W. "Does intelligence tell in first-grade reading?" Elementary 
 School Journal, XXII (March, 1922), 530-34. 
 
 3 Gates, Arthur I. The psychology of reading and spelling. Teachers College, 
 Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 129, 1922. 
 
The Third Yearbook 195 
 
 ences. 1 The reading accomplishments of most pupils are the outgrowth of 
 various combinations of good, bad, and indifferent methods. For example, 
 Gates reports that some backward readers whom he has studied have had 
 no training whatever in the perception of words and that others have 
 received inappropriate training. In at least one third of these backward 
 readers lack of training or inappropriate training is responsible for a part 
 of the difficulty in reading. 2 Some pupils fortunately develop good reading 
 habits in spite of the lack of specific training. Until quite recently little 
 of the so-called "teaching of reading," aside from mechanical phrases, has 
 been worthy of that term. Fortunately many teachers are being trained 
 to teach silent reading. The fact that there is frequently a low correlation 
 between accomplishment records in different types of silent reading probably 
 indicates lack of training in certain types. 3 
 
 Interest and mental effort aroused — Pupils otherwise equal will develop 
 differences in reading ability on account of differences in interest and mental 
 effort put forth. Zirbes reports that variations in the amount of training 
 and practice needed to correct similar faults in different pupils not only 
 showed differences in native ability but also in mental inertia. "Some pupils 
 never knew their powers because they had not been aroused, but were 
 allowed to putter away at a very low level of attention." The effect of 
 an indifferent attitude is emphasized repeatedly by Gray. 4 Judd finds that 
 some pupils develop a mental lethargy, as the result of poor methods, which 
 simulates very closely native sluggishness of temperament. Zirbes calls 
 attention to the fact that asking pupils to follow the pace of a poor reader 
 when interest is urging them on causes indolence and works against the 
 formation of good reading habits. 5 
 
 Habitual reading attitude formed — Many pupils appear to develop a cer- 
 tain fixed type of attack in all reading activities, regardless of the purpose 
 for which reading is intended on given occasions. Some read rapidly and 
 neglect details. 4 Others form the habit of reading every detail with pains- 
 taking care. Uhl 6 found some pupils who made low scores on account of 
 extreme care and others on account of extreme carelessness. Zirbes points 
 
 1 Judd, Charles H. Reading: its nature and development. Supplementary Edu- 
 cational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. of Chicago, Vol. 2, No. 4, 
 1918. 
 
 2 Gates, Arthur I. The -psychology of reading and spelling, Teachers College, 
 Columbia Univ., Contributions to Education, No. 129, 1922. 
 
 Gates, Arthur I. "A study of reading and spelling with special reference to 
 disability," Journal of Educational Research, VI (June, 1922). 
 
 3 Theisen, W. W. An unpublished study of the relationship of different types 
 of silent reading ability. Milwaukee Public Schools. 
 
 4 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. of 
 Chicago, No. 22, 1922. 
 
 5 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure," Elemen- 
 tary School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918) 505-22. 
 
 Uhl, W. L. "The use of results of reading tests as bases for planning reme- 
 dial work," Elementary School Journal, XVII (December, 1916), 266-75. 
 
196 Department of Superintendence 
 
 out that a preponderance of any one type of reading practice tends to lower 
 the efficiency in neglected types — that is, if careful reading is pursued to 
 the exclusion of rapid silent reading, the reader will lose in ability to scan 
 rapidly material of little value for the purpose of selecting passages which 
 deserve careful reading. 1 Judd and Buswell concluded that reading les- 
 sons which require pupils to search every nook and corner of the line for 
 rhetorical intricacies tend to destroy the habit of reading in a straight- 
 forward fashion. 2 
 
 Amount and character of material read — It is a matter of common belief 
 and there is some statistical evidence to show that the amount and charac- 
 ter of the material read are significant factors in producing individual dif- 
 ferences in reading accomplishment. Zirbes' data show a correlation of 
 0.53 (Spearman) between home reading and rate. Facts secured by Gray, 
 Theisen, and Woody indicate some correlation between reading ability and 
 the amount read. 3 Owing to the fact, however, that some read carelessly 
 it is difficult to determine the real effect of quantitative reading. Further- 
 more, many pupils probably fail to develop good reading habits because 
 much of the material read is too difficult, poorly written, of little content 
 value, or insufficient in quantity. 
 
 Experience — Experience is an additional factor of unknown magnitude 
 in producing differences in children. Lack of experience is a handicap and 
 wide experience a boon to good reading. Gray found that the failure of 
 readers poor in the mechanics of reading to establish fundamental habits 
 of interpretation was due to limited experience. 4 Kindergarten and pre- 
 school experience has considerable bearing upon early development in read- 
 ing. The child with a large fund of experience has a larger supply of 
 associations to aid him in comprehending the meaning and significance of 
 what he reads. New ideas are linked up with familiar experiences of the 
 past. Everyone is familiar with the handicaps under which children com- 
 ing from homes of limited advantages suffer. 
 
 The treatment of individual differences — The primary aim should be to 
 develop the reading ability of every child to its maximum. The object 
 is not to level all differences as some have erroneously believed. Classroom 
 teaching should be so planned that each individual will receive the training 
 he needs without receiving attention which rightfully belongs to other chil- 
 dren. 
 
 1 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure." Elemen- 
 tary School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), 505-22. 
 
 2 Judd, Charles H., and Buswell, Guy T. Silent reading al study of various 
 types. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. 
 of Chicago, No. 23, 1922. 
 
 3 Theisen, W. W. "Factors affecting results in primary reading," The Twentieth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. pp. 1-24 
 (relevant sections). 
 
 * Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago, No. 22, 1922. 
 
The Third Yearbook 197 
 
 Diagnosis — The first step in treatment is an adequate diagnosis of the 
 child's reading ability and of his intelligence. Since few specialized tests 
 are available, teachers will need to depend upon analyses of the responses 
 of pupils to exercises in standard tests which call forth different types of 
 ability and upon informal tests of their own making. 1 
 
 Grouping by ability — In schools of sufficient size pupils may be grouped 
 with profit according to intelligence. 2 This, however, will solve only a 
 part of the difficulty. Within classes, the teacher will find it advisable 
 to group those needing instruction of particular types for as many lessons 
 as may be necessary." During such periods the remaining pupils of the 
 group may be assigned reading from selected library books or given indi- 
 vidual reading problems. 
 
 1 Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in reading." Elementary 
 School Journal, XX (May and June, 1920 and January, 1921). 685-701, 772-91, 
 336-48. 
 
 Gray, C. T. Deficiencies in reading ability, D. C. Heath & Co., 1922. 
 
 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs. Department of Education, The Uni- 
 versity of Chicago, No. 22, 1922. 
 
 Gray, William S. "The diagnostic study of an individual case in reading." 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. XXI (April, 1921), pp. 577-594. 
 
 Gray, William S. "Individual difficulties in silent reading in the fourth, fifth, 
 and sixth grades," The Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
 of Education, Part II, pp. 39-53. 
 
 Geiger, Ruth. "A study in reading diagnosis," Journal of Educational Research, 
 VIII (November, 1923), pp. 285-300. 
 
 Osburn, W. J. Graded and diagnostic paragraphs for use in silent reading. 
 Mimeographed Circular of the Wisconsin State Department of Public Instruction. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. "The understanding of sentences," Elementary School Jour- 
 VIII (June, 1917), pp. 323-32. 
 
 Thorndike,, E. L. "The understanding of sentences," Elementary School Jour- 
 nal, XVIII (October, 1917), pp. 98-114. 
 
 Uhl, W. L. "The use of results of reading tests as bases for planning reme- 
 dial work," Elementary School Journal, XVII (December, 1916), pp. 266-75. 
 
 Waldman, Bessie. "Definite improvement of reading ability in a fourth-grade 
 class," Elementary School Journal, XXI (December, 1920), pp. 273-80. 
 
 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure," Elementary 
 School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), pp. 505-22. 
 
 "Dickson, Virgil E. "What first-grade children can do in school as related to 
 what is shown by mental tests," Journal of Educational Research, II (June, 1920), 
 pp. 475-80. 
 
 Keener, E. E. "The use of measurements in a small city school system," Journal 
 of Educational Research,, III (March, 1921.) 
 
 Theisen, W. W. "Does intelligence tell in first-grade reading?" Elementary 
 School Journal, XXII (March, 1922), pp. 530-34. 
 
 3 Geiger, Ruth. "A study in reading diagnosis," Journal of Educational Re- 
 search, VIII (November, 1923), pp. 285-300. 
 
 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure," Elementary 
 School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), pp. 505-22. 
 
198 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Gradation of materials — Gradation of materials to suit the ability of the 
 children is a rather common practice. 1 Zirbes arranged a collection of 
 library reading material suitable for different ability groups. According 
 to the plan adopted in the upper grades by Superintendent Kircher when at 
 Merrill, Wisconsin, books were arranged in three lots according to diffi- 
 culty. A somewhat similar plan is in use at Winnetka, Illinois, where 
 every child, regardless of his grade in school, is assigned a list of material 
 appropriate for the grade to which his reading test record corresponds. 
 When he completes the assigned list he is retested and given a new list 
 appropriate for the grade which his accomplishment then approximates. 
 Such plans call for less uniformity and more variety in purchasing books. 
 
 Independent reading — Provision of opportunities for independent read- 
 ing has much to commend it. The classroom bookshelf for reading when- 
 ever time permits, supervised home reading, and individual or group prob- 
 lems and projects allow the child to read unhampered at his own pace and 
 according to his own interests. Some teachers use a number of the regular 
 reading periods each week for independent silent reading from library 
 books and magazines. Stronger pupils may be asked to review books for 
 others, or may be given more advanced problems. While such groups are 
 reading independently the teacher may devote his attention to the weaker 
 ones. 2 
 
 Special help — Special help is always necessary for some individuals and 
 for small groups. Special drills for overcoming particular types of weak- 
 ness should be given to those needing it. Such drills may be appropriate 
 for any of the specific reading abilities listed in the section describing in- 
 dividual differences. At times, it is necessary to aim at improvement in 
 some phase other than the one in which real improvement is desired. 3 The 
 case studied by Gray emphasizes the fact that "A pupil may read slowly 
 because of poor or inaccurate habits in other phases of reading. In such 
 cases the pupil's rate of reading cannot be improved until these related 
 habits have been corrected. Therefore, remedial instruction to improve the 
 rate of silent reading may include exercises in the mechanics of oral read- 
 ing and in the interpretation of what is read." 4 Weaknesses common to 
 most members of the class are more profitably treated as class exercises, 
 excusing only such pupils as are clearly not in need of a particular 
 type of training. Rarely should class time be used for drill on exercises 
 
 1 Theisen, W. W. "Provisions for individual differences in the teaching of 
 reading," Journal of Educational Research, II (Sept., 1920), pp. 560-71. 
 
 2 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure," Elemen- 
 tary School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), pp. 505-22. 
 
 3 Buswell, Guy T. Fundamental reading habits: a study of their development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago, No. 21, 1922. 
 
 4 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, . Univ. of Chi- 
 cago, No. 22, 1922. 
 
The Third Yearbook 199 
 
 needed only by a very few. Suggestions for dealing with many specific 
 types of individual difficulties are to be found in the reports of individual 
 case studies. 1 
 
 Exercises to stimulate independent thinking — One of the most readily 
 administered provisions for individual differences is the liberal use of 
 assignments and class exercises which stimulate independent thinking and 
 research. Questions of the problem type which offer possibilities for inde- 
 pendent investigation and study are especially suitable for this purpose. 
 Such exercises permit the brighter pupils to utilize their ability to weigh 
 values, to read between the lines, to see relationships and contrasts, to skim 
 and to select the larger units of organization. 2 Pupils who need training 
 in specific types of interpretation may be assigned problems which require 
 them to exercise the particular type of interpretative ability that is lacking. 3 
 Thus, pupils weak in ability to organize may be given problems requiring 
 organization. 
 
 Development of individual interests — Individual needs may be cared for 
 to some degree by properly developing and capitalizing each child's particu- 
 lar interest. Gray points out in connection with his recommendations for 
 remedial treatment of poor readers that "keen interest must be aroused 
 in reading through the use of material directly related to the pupil's inter- 
 ests." 3 The teacher's most difficult problem is to find where each pupil's 
 interests lie and how to utilize them. Principal Rohan's development of 
 
 1 Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in reading," Elementary 
 School Journal, XX (May and June, 1920 and Jan. 1921), pp. 685-701, 772-91, 
 336-48. 
 
 Gray, C. T. Deficiencies in reading ability. D. C. Heath & Co., 1922. 
 
 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago, No. 22, 1922. 
 
 Gray, William S. "The diagnostic study of an individual case in reading," 
 Elementary School Journal, XXI (April, 1921), pp. 577-94. 
 
 Gray, William S. "Individual difficulties in silent reading in the fourth, fifth, 
 and sixth grades, "The Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
 of Education, Part II, pp. 39-53. 
 
 Geiger, Ruth. "A study in reading diagnosis," Journal of Educational Research, 
 VIII (Nov., 1923), pp. 285-300. 
 
 Uhl, W. L. "The use of results of reading tests as bases for planning reme- 
 dial work," Elementary School Journal, XVII (Dec, 1916), pp. 266-75. 
 
 Waldman, Bessie. "Definite improvement of reading ability in a fourth-grade 
 class," Elementary School Journal, XXI (Dec, 1920), pp. 273-80. 
 
 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure," Elementary 
 School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), pp. 505-22. 
 
 2 Geiger, Ruth. "A study in reading diagnosis," Journal of Educational Re- 
 search, VIII (Nov., 1923), pp. 285-300. 
 
 3 Gray, William S. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Department of Education, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago, No. 22, 1922. 
 
200 Department of Superintendence 
 
 reading interests around club activities is suggestive of a method of ap- 
 proach. 1 When once the pupil's interest has been aroused in the necessary 
 reading material, he frequently develops rapidly without much assistance 
 from the teacher. 
 
 XI. Diagnosis and Remedial Work 
 
 The major implication of diagnostic and remedial work for curriculum 
 workers lies in the study of the causes of difficulty. These show how chil- 
 dren are diverted from normal lines of reading development and how cer- 
 tain specific types of work correct wrong tendencies. The presence of a 
 large number of remedial cases in a school or school system is indicative of 
 a lack or a wrong emphasis in the curriculum. Reduction of the number 
 of deficient readers and the growth in the reading abilities of deficient read- 
 ers are most noticeable when causes of deficiency are investigated and 
 brought under control. Deficiencies of long standing are harder to remedy 
 than incipient defects. Thus prompt provision for individual needs is 
 essential. 
 
 Diagnostic analysis and remedial practice have not yet been validated by 
 application to a sufficient number of cases. To facilitate such analysis and 
 application and to assist the teacher in work with problem cases a chart 2 
 has been prepared from an analysis of outstanding studies. 3 The chart, 
 
 1 Rugg, Harold. "The curriculum for gifted children," The Twenty-third Year- 
 book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Pt. I, pp. 105-108. 
 
 2 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnosis and remedial work," Chapter X. The Ttventy-fourth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington: 
 Public School Pub. Co., 1925. 
 
 "Anderson, C. J., and Merton, E. "Remedial work in reading," Elementary 
 School Journal, XX (May and June, 1920), 685-701, 772-791; XXI (Jan., 1921), 
 336-351. 
 
 Fernald, Grace M., and Keller, Helen. "The effect of kinaesthetic factors in 
 the development of word recognition in the case of non-readers." Journal of 
 Educational Research, V (Dec, 1921), 355-77. 
 
 Gates, A. I. The psychology of reading and spelling with special reference to 
 disability. Teachers College Contributions, Columbia University, No. 129. New 
 York: Teachers College Bureau of Publications, 1922. 
 
 Gray, C. T. Deficiencies in reading ability. New York: D. C. Heath and Co., 
 1923. XIV, 420. 
 
 Gray, W. S. "Diagnostic and remedial steps in reading," Journal of Educa- 
 tional Research, IV (June, 1921), 1-15. 
 
 Gray, W. S., with the cooperation of Kibbe, Delia; Lucas, Laura; and Midler, 
 L. W. Remedial cases in reading: their diagnosis and treatment. Supplementary 
 Educational Monographs, No. 22. Chicago: Department of Education, Univ. of 
 Chicago, VII, 208. 
 
 Hollingworth, L. S. Special talents and defects: their significance for education. 
 New York: Macmillan, 1923. 
 
 Lloyd, S. M., and Gray, C. T. "Reading in a Texas city: diagnosis and remedy." 
 Univ. of Texas Bulletin, No. 1853 (Sept. 20, 1918). VII, 107. Austin: Univ. of 
 Texas. • 
 
 Merton, E. "The discovery and correction of reading difficulties," pp. 346-363. 
 
The Third Yearbook 201 
 
 which is too detailed to include in this report contains lists of deficiencies, 
 probable causes, and appropriate remedial measures, is accompanied by the 
 recommendations that : 
 
 1. Remedial work be preceded by a thoroughgoing inquiry into the nature and 
 causes of the deficiency. 
 
 2. Remedial work be planned with specific reference to individual needs and 
 causes of deficiency. 
 
 3. Records of growth be kept. 
 
 4. The teacher function as a guide and observer in the primary grades, study- 
 ing pupil reactions and making prompt adjustments to individual needs before 
 chronic deficiency and discouragement result. 
 
 5. The presence of any single deficiency in a large number of pupils be investi- 
 gated with the purpose of discovering a general cause requiring curricular ad- 
 justment. 
 
 XII. Time Allotment for Reading 
 
 Time allotment — The amount of time which should be given to reading 
 has been and still is an important issue. One of the most important of 
 the earlier studies was made by Holmes 1 who obtained information from 
 fifty American cities. His data showed that an average of 53 minutes was 
 given to reading each day in the first grade and that the total amount of 
 time decreased gradually from the first to the eighth grade inclusive. The 
 important facts revealed in some of the more recent studies will be sum- 
 marized briefly. 
 
 In Indianapolis and other cities — In the reading survey of Indianapolis, 
 Gray 2 presented the average time allotment for fifty cities as determined by 
 Holmes, the time allotment for Cleveland in 1915, and the time allotment 
 for Indianapolis in 1917. The numbers of hours given to reading in 
 these cities are shown in Table 20. The entries in the table show that In- 
 
 The Second Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals. Wash., 
 D. C. The Department of Elementary School Principals of the N. E. A. 
 
 Osburn, W. J. "Graded and diagnostic paragraphs for use in silent reading." 
 Mimeographed Bull., State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wisconsin, 
 1922. 
 
 Theisen, W. W. "Factors affecting results in primary reading," 1-25. The 
 Tiventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 2. 
 Bloomington; Public School Pub. Co., 1921. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. "Reading as reasoning: a study of mistakes in paragraph 
 reading," Journal of Educational Psychology, VIII (June 1917), pp. 323-332. 
 
 Woolley, Helen T, and Ferris, E. "Diagnosis and treatment of young school 
 failures." Bull., No. 1, 1923. Wash., D. C: Government Printing Office, Depart- 
 ment of the Interior, Bureau of Education. 
 
 Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure in reading," 
 Elementary School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), pp. 505-22. 
 
 1 Holmes, H. E. "Time distribution by subjects and grades in representative 
 cities," Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 
 Part I, 1915, pp. 21-27. 
 
 2 Gray, William S. "Reading in the schools of Indianapolis," Elementary School 
 Journal, XIX (January, 1919), p. 347. 
 
202 Department of Superintendence 
 
 dianapolis gave a relatively small amount of time to reading. The results 
 of the standardized tests which were given showed that the pupils ranked 
 low in reading accomplishment. We may reasonably conclude in view of 
 these facts that Indianapolis was not giving sufficient time to reading to 
 obtain satisfactory results. A second explanation is that the time was not 
 used most effectively. It is possible that both factors were operative in 
 this case. 
 
 In forty-nine large cities — Ayer 1 reported in 1924 the results of a com- 
 parative study of the time allotment for reading in Seattle and 49 large 
 cities. A tabular summary of his data appears in Table 21 in terms of the 
 number of minutes given to reading per week. These findings show clearly 
 that large cities are now giving more time to reading in most grades than 
 was shown in earlier studies, such as Holmes'. Ayer's study revealed also 
 that many large cities are at present modifying their courses of study and 
 time allotments. There is also a tendency in many cities "to give less 
 attention to arbitrary daily time allotments in the primary grades, where the 
 work goes by projects rather than by subjects." 
 
 Table 20. — Number of Hours Given to Reading Per Year by Grades 
 
 City 
 
 
 
 
 Grades 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Average for fifty cities. 
 Cleveland 
 
 i 
 
 266 
 317 
 165 
 
 2 
 
 235 
 317 
 105 
 
 3 
 
 188 
 279 
 120 
 
 4 
 
 153 
 
 196 
 
 75 
 
 5 
 126 
 161 
 
 60 
 
 6 
 117 
 136 
 
 60 
 
 7 
 
 98 
 
 162 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 97 
 
 152 
 
 36 
 
 1280 
 
 1710 
 
 657 
 
 
 
 Table 21. — Number of Minutes Given to Reading Each Week 
 
 I II III IV V VI VII VIII Total 
 
 Average for 
 
 49 cities 421 404 332 245 182 141 142 136 2003 
 
 600 525 425 310 135 135 225 212 2567 
 
 hi thirty-one first-class schools of North Dakota — Kirk 2 made a study 
 of the actual program followed in thirty-one school systems and determined 
 the number of minutes per week spent in recitation. A summary of his 
 findings appear in Table 22. The entries in the table show that the 
 schools of North Dakota are not giving on the average as much time to 
 reading as is done in forty-nine cities. They are giving more time, however, 
 than large cities devoted to reading several years ago when Holmes made 
 his investigation. 
 
 1 Ayer, Fred C. "Average time allotments in 49 large cities compared with 
 Seattle," Second Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, 1924, Nat'l Educ. 
 Assn., Wash., D. C. p. 140. 
 
 2 Kirk, H. H. "Time distribution by subject and grade," Elementary School 
 Journal, XVIII (March, 1923), pp. 535-41. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 203 
 
 In rural schools — Reinoehl 1 made an analysis of the daily time schedules 
 recommended in twenty-six model programs for one year rural schools as 
 published in state courses of study. Information was recorded concerning 
 the number of daily recitation periods and the total number of minutes per 
 week given to reading in each grade. His findings appear in Table 22 and 
 reveal a surprisingly small amount of time given to reading in comparison 
 
 Table 22. — Average Amount of Time Devoted to Reading 
 
 Grades I II III IV V VI 
 
 Average number of minutes per week 325 250 250 125 125 125 
 
 Minimum number of minutes per week 225 125 75 100 75 75 
 
 Maximum number of minutes per week 650 450 400 225 275 200 
 
 with the time allotment in large cities. This fact doubtless explains in 
 part the relatively poor reading accomplishment of rural pupils described 
 in recent surveys. 
 
 Distribution of time between oral and silent reading— -Two studies of 
 time distribution between oral and silent reading will be referred to in 
 this report. The first was made in 1917 by Gray 2 who obtained informa- 
 tion from teachers concerning the percentages of time set aside for read- 
 ing that were given to oral and to silent reading. His findings appear in 
 Table 23. The entires in the table show the number of teachers reporting 
 given percentages of time devoted to (o) oral reading and to (s) silent 
 reading. 
 
 TABLE 23.— NUMBER OF TEACHERS REPORTING DIFFERENT PERCENT- 
 AGES OF READING TIME GIVEN TO ORAL-READING AND TO SILENT- 
 READING INSTRUCTION IN 702 CLASSROOMS OF INDIANAPOLIS 
 
 Grades 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 vin 
 
 Per cent of time 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 15 
 12 
 27 
 15 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 l6' 
 
 "2 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 14 
 15 
 19 
 6 
 1 
 
 1 
 6 
 15 
 19 
 20 
 22 
 9 
 -8 
 
 ' '4 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 "3 
 
 "e>' 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 ' '4' 
 12 
 
 30 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 4 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 1- 10 
 
 
 2 
 4 
 5 
 
 25 
 27 
 22 
 4 
 11 
 
 ' 6' 
 13 
 27 
 25 
 14 
 10 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 11- 20 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 21- 30 
 
 9 
 
 31- 40 
 
 9 
 
 41- 50 
 
 ?,?, 
 
 51- 60 
 
 
 
 61- 70 
 
 8 
 
 71- 80 
 
 15 
 
 81- 90. . 
 
 6 
 
 91-100. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The entries in Table 23 reveal wide variations in practice in each grade. 
 A large majority of the teachers stated that they gave most of their time 
 to oral reading in the first grade and very little of it to silent reading. In 
 
 1 Reinoehl, C. M. Analytical survey of state courses of study for rural elemen- 
 tary schools, Bureau of Education, Bull. No. 42, 1922, pp. 23-24. 
 
 2 Gray, William S. "Reading in the schools of Indianapolis," Elementary School 
 Journal, XIX (Jan., 1919), 348. 
 
204 Department of Superintendence 
 
 the grades above the first a distinct tendency is shown toward an equal 
 distribution of time which becomes most pronounced in the fourth grade. 
 The greatest diversity of practice is revealed in the grades above the fourth. 
 In interpreting Table 23 two facts should be kept in mind: (a) The data 
 were secured in 1917 before schoolroom practice had been greatly influ- 
 enced by the recent emphasis on silent reading; and (b) The records are 
 based on teachers' statements of their practice and not on records of the 
 actual distribution of time. 
 
 A recent study is reported by McGaughey 1 of the practice in 305 cities. 
 His findings show that both oral and silent reading are taught in most 
 grades from the first to the eighth inclusive. This practice is somewhat 
 more universal in the case of oral than, of silent reading. 
 
 Concluding statement — Although definite conclusions concerning time al- 
 lotment for reading cannot be drawn from the studies to which reference 
 has been made, nevertheless, the results of these investigations are suggestive. 
 Quoting from Kirk: "In the absence of all absolute knowledge the practice 
 of the majority would seem to be a more satisfactory standard than no 
 standard at all. A standard that is derived from statistics is better than 
 one that is not derived at all. . . . There ought to be, within certain 
 limits, a time allotment for each subject that would give the most satis- 
 factory results, and it should be at the point where the law of diminishing 
 returns operates most severely." 
 
 It is hoped that within the near future standards may be derived which 
 will be applicable to various types of schools and to classrooms which follow 
 different procedures in teaching pupils to read. 
 
 1 McGaughey, J. R. "Distribution of grades in which elementary school sub- 
 jects are taught," Second Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, p. 146. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 HANDWRITING 
 
 Frank N. Freeman, School of Education, University of Chicago, 
 Chicago, Illinois, Chairman 
 
 THE SUMMARY of the studies on the curriculum in handwriting 
 may be prefaced by a brief survey of the kinds of facts which are 
 pertinent to the determination of curriculum standards in hand- 
 writing. This will furnish a background upon which to project the studies 
 in question and thus determine how far they have covered the field. 
 
 There are at least three classes of facts which have important bearing 
 upon the problem. They are as follows: 
 
 1. The degree of skill which children are able to attain at a certain point 
 in their schooling with a reasonable amount of training. 
 
 The curriculum standards are sometimes expressed wholly in terms of 
 an external demand. This taken alone is never sufficient. A decision must 
 tie based upon considerations which are analogous to those determining one's 
 actions in case of a proposed purchase. Action is determined by both value 
 and purchase price or cost. If it is of little value, even a low cost will not 
 justify its purchase. If it is of great value, it will justify a correspondingly 
 high price. The attainments which children make under various amounts 
 and kinds of training, therefore, must constitute one of the legs which sup- 
 port the curriculum structure. 
 
 2. A second pertinent fact is the quality of writing which prevails among 
 persons who employ handwriting for various purposes. 
 
 The argument supporting the validity of this type of evidence is that if 
 large groups of persons actually get by with a certain quality or speed of 
 writing, that this writing is sufficient for their purposes. This argument 
 has some weight, though it is of course possible that all the persons in ques- 
 tion are writing at a lower quality than would be profitable to them. The 
 argument is perhaps somewhat stronger when it is applied to the relative 
 attainments of different groups of persons. If we find that one vocational 
 group, for example, writes better than another group, this fact is some 
 indication that one vocation makes a higher demand than does the other. 
 
 3. The third pertinent factor is a demand expressed more directly in 
 terms of specific requirements set up by certain vocations, or in terms of the 
 opinion of persons responsible for the employment of individuals. 
 
 The committee has not been able to discover specific demands in which 
 minimum essentials in handwriting for entrance to particular occupations 
 are set up. It has been able, however, to gather together a considerable 
 body of opinion of employing officials concerning the necessity of different 
 grades of handwriting for employees. 
 
 The individual studies will first be reported separately and will then be 
 summarized in the concluding section. 
 
 T205] 
 
206 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Studies Which Are Chiefly Quantitative 
 
 STUDY NO. I. Freeman, Frank N. "Handwriting." Fourteenth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago, 
 Univ. of Chicago Press, pp. 61-67. 
 
 Problem. The problem of this report was two-fold. In the first place 
 it undertook to estimate the capacity of children to develop various degrees 
 of skill in handwriting under the conditions of public school instruction. 
 In the second place, the problem was to secure evidence concerning the 
 demand which is made upon the employees of various types of business in 
 respect to handwriting. 
 
 Method. The method which was used in determining the ability of chil- 
 dren to learn to write was an analysis of the results of widespread surveys 
 by means of tests of handwriting. A comparison was made of the attain- 
 ments of children in a large number of schools and the relationship between 
 the time spent in handwriting and the attainments of pupils was studied. 
 In attacking the second problem a questionnaire was sent to fourteen busi- 
 ness firms relative to the kind of work demanded of their employees, the 
 importance of writing, and the quality and speed of writing which they con- 
 sidered necessary. 
 
 Summary of Findings. The first findings of the report consist of the 
 scores of about thirty-four thousand children in fifty-six cities in speed and 
 quality of handwriting. In addition to the median in speed and quality 
 for grades two to eight, the median of the schools which represents the upper 
 half and lower half of the entire group, respectively, is given. These median 
 scores are shown in Table 24. 
 
 TABLE 24.— AVERAGE SPEED AND QUALITY OF HANDWRITING AND 
 AVERAGE OF UPPER AND LOWER HALVES IN ALL THE SCHOOLS 
 INVESTIGATED 
 
 
 School grade 
 
 
 II 
 
 HI 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 vn 
 
 vm 
 
 [Average of upper half. . 
 
 35.4 
 30.6 
 
 24.4 
 43.5 
 39.7 
 36.8 
 
 47.7 
 43.8 
 37.4 
 46.1 
 42.0 
 38.8 
 
 56.2 
 51.2 
 43.4 
 49.3 
 45.8 
 43.2 
 
 64.9 
 59.1 
 49.9 
 54.5 
 50.5 
 47.4 
 
 69.2 
 62.8 
 52.8 
 58.5 
 54.5 
 51.5 
 
 73.4 
 
 67.9 
 58.5 
 64.7 
 58.9 
 54.2 
 
 77.8 
 73.0 
 
 [Average of lower half.. . 
 [Average of upper half. . 
 
 61.2 
 67.8 
 62.8 
 
 [Average of lower half.. . 
 
 57.6 
 
 It should be noted that in order to be in the upper half a school must 
 be superior in a combination of rate and quality and not in rate or quality 
 alone. 
 
 The question was now raised whether the median of the upper half of 
 the schools might legitimately be taken as a standard of achievement. This 
 would depend upon the causes of superiority. Among the possible causes 
 considered were superior native ability of children, superior ability or train- 
 ing of teachers, a superior method of supervision or of instruction, and a 
 
The Third Yearbook 207 
 
 greater amount of time spent in drill. The first of these explanations was 
 ruled out as being improbable. The last was investigated by comparing 
 the amount of time spent by the twenty-three cities of the upper half and 
 the twenty-three cities of the lower half. The average number of minutes 
 per week spent by the cities in the upper half was 73.4, and by those in the 
 lower half 73.3. The explanation, therefore, must lie in the ability and 
 training of teachers, or in the methods of instruction. It seemed to the 
 author legitimate to adopt as a standard one which could be obtained by 
 superior methods of instruction, not in the exceptional school but in a large 
 number of schools scattered all over the country. 
 
 A special situation was found with reference to speed. While the quality 
 advanced uniformly throughout the grades, speed showed a slower advance 
 in the grades above the fifth. By comparing the speed curve with Gilbert's 
 curve in rate of tapping, it was found that the break came at a correspond- 
 ing point. The diminished gain, therefore, rests upon a natural founda- 
 tion in the child's slackened development. It was found that certain schools, 
 seven in particular, were able to overcome this tendency to a slower de- 
 velopment and to maintain a uniform growth in speed. It was held to be 
 desirable to maintain this uniform growth even at the expense of slightly 
 greater emphasis upon speed in the upper grades. 
 
 From these considerations tentative norms or standards were proposed 
 as shown in Table 25. 
 
 Table 25. — Proposed Standard for Quality and Speed 
 
 Quality 
 Speed . 
 
 
 
 School 
 
 G 
 
 rade 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 44 
 36 
 
 47 
 48 
 
 50 
 56 
 
 55 
 65 
 
 
 59 
 
 72 
 
 64 
 80 
 
 70 
 90 
 
 The results of the questionnaires to business firms are shown in Table 26. 
 Out of twenty-nine cases in which a quality is mentioned, fifteen are of 
 quality 60, and seven of quality, 70. The others scattered from 30 to 90. 
 It is to be presumed that these are occupations in which handwriting is most 
 important. The prevailing opinion, then, appears to be that 60 is sufficiently 
 good with half as many considering 70 as necessary. 
 
 Supplementary data upon the attainment of pupils. In order to 
 determine whether the average attainments which are given in Table 26 
 are representative of school children in general, a number of other investi- 
 gations have been consulted and their results brought together in Table 27. 
 
 Table 27 indicates that there is considerable variation in the achievement 
 found in the various investigations. In quality, for example, the average 
 attainment at the sixth grade varies from 47 to 58.2. 
 
208 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 TABLE 26.— QUALITY OF HANDWRITING REGARDED AS ESSENTIAL BY 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF BUSINESS FIRMS 
 
 Kind of firm 
 
 Kind of work 
 
 Number 
 
 em- 
 ployed 
 
 Quality of writing 
 regarded as essential 
 
 Is speed 
 
 
 Vertical 
 
 Medium 
 slant 
 
 Extreme 
 slant 
 
 tant? 
 
 Correspondence school. . . . 
 
 Department store 
 
 Mail-order house 
 
 Correspondence school. . . . 
 
 Clerical 
 
 Clerical and accounting. 
 Stenography and book- 
 keeping. 
 Entry and bookkeeping. 
 
 File clerk 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 500 
 
 30 
 
 400 
 
 70 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 30 
 
 90 
 70 
 60 
 
 90 or 
 
 better 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 ately 
 Yes 
 
 sale. 
 
 Clerical • 
 
 90 
 
 82 
 
 200 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 38 
 
 53 
 
 100 
 
 Yes 
 
 road department. 
 
 60 
 80 
 
 60 
 70 
 
 Yes 
 
 Mail-order house 
 
 Addressing 
 
 Addressing 
 
 Clerical 
 
 'Distribution" 
 
 Yes 
 Yes 
 
 Department store claim 
 department. 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 60 
 60 
 
 No. 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 ately 
 
 Total 
 
 1,702 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table 27. — Comparative Scores in Quality and Speed 
 Obtained in Seven Investigations 
 
 Quality on Ayres Scale 
 
 Investigator School Grade 
 or 
 
 Source of Data II III IV V VI 
 
 D. Starch (1915) 27 33 37 43 47 
 
 E. J. Ashbaugh (1916) 28.5 35.7 39.8 44.5 49.1 
 
 L. P. Ayres 38 42 46 50 54 
 
 F. N. Freeman (1915) 39.7 42.0 45.8 50.5 54.5 
 
 Cleveland Survey (1916) ... , ... 45 48 
 
 Grand Rapids Survey (1916)..... 29.4 34.5 44.4 51.7 58.2 
 
 St. Louis Survey (1917) 29.9 31.7 36.8 52.1 57.3 
 
 Freeman's average of upper half 
 
 of schools (1915) 43.5 46.1 49.3 54.5 58.9 
 
 Speed 
 Investigator 
 or 
 
 Source of Data II 
 
 D. Starch 31 
 
 E. J. Ashbaugh 39.2 
 
 L. P. Ayres 32 
 
 F. N. Freeman 30.6 
 
 Cleveland Survey (1916) . 
 
 Grand Rapids Survey (1916) 33r5 
 
 St. Louis Survey (1917) 36.7" 
 
 Freeman's average of upper half 
 
 of schools (1915) 35.4 
 
 School Grade 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 53 
 
 57 
 
 52.3 
 
 61 
 
 58 
 
 62 
 
 58.9 
 
 62.8 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 61.4 
 
 68.4 
 
 62.8 
 
 74.2 
 
 64.7 67.8 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 57 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 83 
 
 49.6 
 
 61.9 
 
 65.5 
 
 72.6 
 
 75 
 
 76.5 
 
 44 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 43.8 
 
 51.2 
 
 59.1 
 
 62.8 
 
 67.9 
 
 73.0 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 50.1 
 
 59.3 
 
 64.9 
 
 73.0 
 
 77.9 
 
 84.3 
 
 56.8 
 
 64.0 
 
 65.6 
 
 69.3 
 
 74.7 
 
 72.8 
 
 47.7 56.2 64.9 69.2 73.4 77.8 
 
The Third Yearbook 209 
 
 In speed the average varies from 62.8 to 73. A similar variation may be 
 found in the scores of the eighth grade. It is apparent that the average 
 scores obtained in some cities is considerably higher than that obtained in 
 others. Surveys have repeatedly shown also that the attainment of pupils 
 in different schools varies widely. The attainments of the children in 
 Grand Rapids and St. Louis and the attainments of the upper half of the 
 schools in Freeman's survey agree rather closely. The average attainment 
 found in the other investigations in speed does not depart from these aver- 
 ages. In quality, however, they fall considerably lower. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. L. V. Koos. "The determination of ultimate standards 
 of quality in handwriting for the public schools." Elementary School Jour- 
 nal, February, Vol. 18, pp. 423-446. 
 
 Problem. To determine on a basis of objective measurement the demand 
 for handwriting, first in social correspondence, and second, in a series of 
 vocations. 
 
 Method. The method of determining the quality of handwriting needed 
 for social correspondence was twofold. First, 1053 specimens of actual 
 social correspondence were collected and scored. Second, the judgment of 
 826 adults as to what they consider adequate handwriting for social corre- 
 spondence were collected and tabulated. These adults comprised three 
 groups: students in education, educational workers — mostly teachers and 
 non-teachers. The quality of handwriting necessary for a vocation was 
 determined by measuring or scoring the quality of the writing of 1127 
 employees in a variety of occupations. 
 
 Findings. The findings of the first part of the study, which deals with 
 the requirements of social correspondence, are presented. It will be 
 remembered that these findings are based upon two sources of information. 
 First, the scoring of actual specimens of writing, and second, a tabulation 
 of judgments. The general fact found in the scoring of the specimens is 
 that "only 142, or 13.5 per cent of the total of 1053 correspondents, write 
 better than 60 on the scale, the remaining 86.5 per cent write at the quality 
 60 or less. The average quality of the 1053 specimens is 49.5." To put 
 the matter in another way, 86.5 per cent of these individuals write at a 
 quality of 60 or less on the Ayres Scale. If the average is to be taken as a 
 standard, 50 must be regarded as the requirement. If the point which a 
 very large majority attain is the standard, 60 should be taken as the 
 standard. 
 
 The judgments concerning what degree of excellence is adequate for 
 social correspondence were obtained by supplying the parts of the Ayres 
 Scale separately to 826 adults and asking them to sort the samples into two 
 groups to be designated respectively as adequate and inadequate. These 
 judges were composed of three classes: first, 176 members of classes of edu- 
 cation in the University of Washington; second, 414 teachers in Washing- 
 ton and Ohio; and third, 236 other adults, non-teachers. As between 
 these three groups, the teachers, in general, had a lower standard than did 
 
210 Department of Superintendence 
 
 the non-teachers. The non-teachers would, in general, insist on a some- 
 what higher quality for social correspondence than would the group of 
 students in education and the teacher group. But even the non-teacher 
 group, which set the highest standard, more than 60 per cent consider 
 quality 60 on the Ay res Scale to be satisfactory. 
 
 The results are summed up by Koos: "In the light of these facts it is 
 difficult to see why, for the use under consideration, a pupil should be 
 required to spend the time necessary to learn to write better than the quality 
 60. There is even considerable justification for setting the ultimate 
 standard at 50 as this demand touches every member of society. All the 
 children in the schools should be required to attain the standard set." 
 
 The second part of Koos' study dealt with the vocational demand for 
 handwriting. Handwriting specimens were secured and scored from 1127 
 employees in 24 vocational groups. The tabulation of these scores is repre- 
 sented graphically in Figures 4 and 5. It will be seen that there is 
 large variation in the quality of writing produced by persons in the differ- 
 ent vocational groups. Groups 5 to 10 in Figure 4 and most of the groups 
 in Figure 5 write with a quality between 60 and 70. It is obvious that 
 a considerable amount of handwriting is required in the vocations repre- 
 sented by these groups. The elementary school teachers are included in 
 this statement. It is noteworthy that the high school teachers write more 
 
 Quality on Scale 
 20 30 40 50 60 70 . 80 90 
 
 1. Messenger department... , gj , 
 
 2. Telegraphy 
 
 — Q- 
 
 3. Claim department t r ^ 
 
 4. Credit department. , B— 
 
 5. Railroad department , . 
 
 6. Invoice department # 
 
 7. Accounting department. . . 
 
 8. Distribution department. 
 
 9. Bookkeeping department. 
 
 10. Order department 
 
 11. Account sales department 
 
 12. Miscellaneous 
 
 13. Departments represented 
 
 -B- 
 
 -S- 
 -B- 
 
 -5h 
 
 -B- 
 
 -H- 
 
 in 3 to 1 2 inclusive » B • 
 
 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 go 
 
 Figure 4. — Ranges and averages of the scores of handwriting done by persons in 
 certain occupational groups. (From Table V. The lines represent the range of 
 quality shown by the specimens ; the squares on these lines locate the averages.) 
 (Copied with permission from Koos, op. cit. p. 437.) 
 
The Third Yearbook 211 
 
 > 
 
 3° 
 
 40 
 
 Qu 
 
 alily ^n £cz\s 
 50 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 -0 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 1 . . 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 a- 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 c— 
 
 
 s- 
 
 — a- 
 
 E- 
 
 
 . ■ . * 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 — a— 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 m 
 
 — g}— 
 
 -a — 
 
 IE 
 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 90 
 
 I » t I I • • 
 
 i. "rinters 
 
 .. '.trade-order department in whole- 
 sale establishment 
 
 3. Employees in country banks .... 
 
 4. Employees in insurance office . . . 
 
 5. Addressers for publishingcompany 
 
 6. Addressers for addressing company 
 
 7. Addressers formail-order company 
 
 8. Billing department of mail-order 
 
 company 
 
 g. Check-refunds department of 
 mail-order company 
 
 10. Elementary-schoc! teachers 
 
 11. High-school teachers 
 
 12. University teachers 
 
 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 
 
 Figure 5. — Ranges and averages of the scores of handwriting done by employees 
 in the offices of two packing companies. (From Table VI. The lines represent 
 the range of quality shown by the specimens ; the squares on these lines locate the 
 averages.) (Copied with permission from Koos, op. cit. p. 438.) 
 
 poorly than the elementary school teachers and the university teachers worse 
 than any other vocational group which was tested. This corresponds with 
 the poor writing of the professional group in the study of social corre- 
 spondence. 
 
 The conclusions concerning the second part of the study are summarized 
 as follows: "The quality 60 on the Ayres Measuring Scale for Adult Hand- 
 writing, which we have set up as the ultimate standard of attainment for 
 all school children for purely social purposes, is adequate for the needs of 
 most vocations. This will apply to labor, skilled and unskilled, as well as 
 for the professions, exclusive of teaching in the elementary schools. For 
 that large group who will go into commercial work, for telegraphers, and 
 for teachers in the elementary schools it will be necessary to insist upon the 
 attainment of a somewhat higher quality, but hardly in excess of the quality 
 70." 
 
 The author's further comments concerning the application of this standard 
 may also be quoted. "The fact that some will go into pursuits demanding 
 a quality better than 60 should not be offered as a justification for requiring 
 all pupils to attain that better quality. . . . Since all should be required 
 to learn to write as well as 60 on the scale for purely social use, to train 
 pupils to write this quality is the task of general education; to teach some 
 who are going into commercial or ether vocations requiring a higher quality 
 of handwriting to write this better quality is the task not of general but of 
 vocational education." 
 
212 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Harry Houston, supervisor of penmanship in New Haven, Connecticut, 
 reports an unpublished study made in 1924. The results are reported in 
 Table 28. 
 
 Table 28 — Average Quality and Speed of Handwriting of Several 
 Groups of Employees 
 
 Number Median Median 
 
 Occupations tested legibility speed 
 
 Bank Employees 
 
 a. Using handwriting exclusively 18 51.66 128.33 
 
 b. Using machine writing exclusively 23 51.5 130 
 
 c. Half hand writing and half machine writing. . . 8 54 137.5 
 Department Store Employees 
 
 a. Office Force 25 63.75 111.25 
 
 b. Sales Force 25 49.5 120.62 
 
 City Clerk 12 55 132 
 
 Insurance Office Employees 
 
 a. Using handwriting exclusively 29 60.5 87.9 
 
 b. Machine and hand writing 7 64.37 82 
 
 Mr. Houston's comment upon his study is, "Very few occupations de- 
 mand high skill in handwriting. If students in school write well enough 
 for school purposes, it is believed that their preparation will be adequate for 
 social and business uses." It is to be noted that most of these vocational 
 groups wrote at a much higher speed than do school children. 
 
 Investigations by the Questionnaire Method 
 
 In this section is summarized a number of unpublished questionnaire 
 studies which were designed to ascertain the opinion of business men con- 
 cerning the value of writing and concerning the type or quality of writing 
 which is demanded by modern business. The studies are taken up chrono- 
 logically and each is described briefly. 
 
 In 1917, Mr. J. A. Savage, supervisor of writing in Omaha, Nebraska, 
 issued a questionnaire to about 200 business and professional men of Omaha. 
 This questionnaire consisted of a letter written by a school pupil and a series 
 of questions formulated by Mr. Savage. The questions were as follows : 
 
 Of how much importance is good, rapid business writing in applying for a posi- 
 tion or in being promoted to a better position? 
 
 Is business affected by the handwriting of employees? 
 
 Is economy of time for both the writer and reader considered by the business 
 man in connection with penmanship? 
 
 Is the age of penmanship past? 
 
 Considering the use of the typewriter and of office appliances, is writing still of 
 much importance? 
 
 Is it important that boys and girls learn to make figures well with a pen? 
 
 Is good handwriting a valuable enough asset to make it worth the time and 
 effort necessary to acquire it? 
 
 Such a questionnaire, especially when sent out by a writing supervisor, 
 unquestionably exerts considerable suggestive force in the direction of 
 
The Third Yearbook 213 
 
 answers favorable to handwriting standards. The answers, however, must 
 be considered as of some value in indicating the opinion of business men 
 concerning the business demand. 
 
 The answers contained in 79 letters received in reply to the questionnaire 
 were classified. The classification was somewhat unsatisfactory since most 
 of the answers contained rather general statements instead of the expression 
 of judgment on specific issues. The classification, however, is presented for 
 what it is worth : 
 
 Handwriting essential and of major importance 11 
 
 Handwriting essential and of minor importance 2 
 
 Handwriting essential but importance not indicated 11 
 
 Handwriting important but not essential or not stated whether 
 
 it is essential 54 
 
 Handwriting important in some positions 1 
 
 79 
 
 One gains the general impression from reading the letters that legibility 
 is considered of greatest importance among the various characteristics which 
 handwriting may possess. Speed and ease of writing are regarded as im- 
 portant but subordinate to legibility. A large number of the correspond- 
 ents indicated that good penmanship in an application for a position is an 
 important factor. All who mentioned the fact agreed that legible figures 
 are necessary. 
 
 In 1918, Mr. H. C. Walker, supervisor of penmanship in St. Louis, 
 made a somewhat similar questionnaire study. He submitted to 52 busi- 
 ness men who employ office assistants a series of specimens of pupils' writing 
 and asked them to answer the following questions, after having selected one 
 of the specimens : 
 
 1. Why do you prefer the size and style shown in the specimen you have se- 
 lected? 
 
 2. To what extent do you consider speed important in present day penmanship? 
 
 3. (a) Has the introduction of typewriters and adding machines made the value 
 of good penmanship of less importance? (b) If so, should the time devoted to 
 penmanship practice by public schools be reduced? 
 
 4. Is the specimen you have selected good enough for use in any department of 
 your establishment? 
 
 5. How have you found the penmanship of recent applicants? 
 
 The conclusions drawn by Mr. Walker from his study were as follows: 
 
 First, the style of penmanship preferred by a majority of those employing office 
 help is more compact than we have heretofore been striving for. 
 
 Second, the attempt we have made to develop freedom in penmanship is in 
 keeping with the demands of the business world. 
 
 Third, typewriters and adding machines have not supplanted long-hand writing. 
 As one man stated, "The machines have reduced the volume but not the quality of 
 good penmanship." Another man stated, "The machines have made good writing 
 
214 Department of Superintendence 
 
 less important, but they have not made good writing when needed less im- 
 portant." 
 
 Fourth, the standard of quality in long-hand writing for business purposes is not 
 high. 
 
 In 1922, Miss Florence M. Smith, supervisor of penmanship in East 
 Orange, New Jersey, wrote to eleven firms requesting their opinions con- 
 cerning the value of penmanship in business. While the number of firms 
 was small, they included some of the largest and best known institutions 
 in the country, such as the National City Bank, the Ford Motor Company, 
 and the National Cash Register Company. The officers of each firm who 
 replied expressed their opinion that handwriting was still important in the 
 preparation of children for business careers. 
 
 In 1923, Mr. Arlington Swarts, instructor in penmanship in Washington 
 Junior High School, Rochester, New York, addressed a series of five ques- 
 tions to thirty-four business men. The questions were put in personal inter- 
 views and the Ayres Scale was used as a standard of comparison. All but 
 one expressed the opinion that training in handwriting was essential for 
 business. In response to the question "In the writing observed in your 
 office, where is the greater lack, in speed or in good, plain letter formation?" 
 Twenty-nine replied that the greater lack was in letter formation, and only 
 two in speed. Regarding the quality of writing necessary, twenty-four 
 expressed the opinion that a quality of 60 or below on the Ayres Scale was 
 sufficient. Nine considered 70, 80, or 90 as desirable, and one expressed 
 no opinion. Only seven considered writing of a quality below 50 satisfac- 
 tory. 
 
 In 1924, Miss Myrtle Ely, supervisor of penmanship, St. Paul, Minne- 
 sota, sent a questionnaire and received replies from 118 business men of 
 St. Paul. Over 100 held that penmanship is still an asset to business men; 
 that in passing upon applications for stenographic positions they would con- 
 sider favorably one whose penmanship is best, and other things being equal, 
 a stenographer writing well would have better opportunity for advancement 
 than one writing poorly; and that penmanship is important specifically for 
 the following persons: the bookkeeper, billing clerk, entry clerk, shipping 
 clerk, salesman, and office boy. Eighty-four replied that they would pay 
 a higher salary to a stenographer who writes a small, fluent, "plain-as- 
 print" style of penmanship, than to one who writes poorly. The chief 
 characteristic which seemed to be emphasized in the detailed replies was 
 legibility. 
 
 In 1924, Mr. H. C. Walker, supervisor of handwriting in St. Louis, 
 had interviews with representatives of six different types of business. These 
 represented wholesale houses, bookkeeping, insurance, railways, salesman- 
 ship, and filing. All but the last indicated that speed is necessary, but all 
 but two considered medium speed sufficient. Regarding the quality neces- 
 sary, one reported 30 to be satisfactory, two 40, two 50, seven 60, and one 
 70. The consensus of opinion seemed to be that 60 was a reasonable 
 
The Third Yearbook 215 
 
 standard. Most of those interviewed regarded the quality about 20 above 
 the essential as being an asset. 
 
 Summary and Recommendations 
 
 The conclusions from the foregoing studies and the recommendations 
 which are based upon them are as follows : 
 
 1. Standard of attainment at the end of the sixth grade as deter- 
 mined by children's achievements. The average of the achievements of 
 children selected at random from various parts of the country is from 
 slightly below 50 on the Ayres Scale to about 55. The achievement of the 
 sixth grade in two large cities and in the upper half of cities taken at random 
 is slightly under 60. With these average or median scores may be com- 
 pared the distribution of scores in the sixth grade which is given by Ayres 
 on his Gettysburg edition of his scale. This distribution indicates that 71 
 per cent of the children of the sixth grade write with a quality of 50 or 
 above and that 47 per cent write with a quality of 60 or above. 
 
 Conclusion. So far as the achievement of children indicates it would 
 be legitimate to set up as a standard to be attained by the very large majority 
 of children by the end of the sixth grade a quality equal to 50 on the Ayres 
 Scale. It would be legitimate to set up as the median standard for the 
 grades the quality of 60 on the Ayres Scale. The reasonable standard in 
 speed at the end of the sixth grade is the median rate of 70 letters per 
 minute. 
 
 2. Standards of achievement as indicated by social demand. The 
 social demand may be divided for convenience into three divisions: First, 
 the demand of the school ; second, the unspecialized demand of social corre- 
 spondence and individual needs; and third, the demand of vocations. 
 
 a. The demand of the school — The demand of the school for legi- 
 bility is probably about the same as that which arises in social correspond- 
 ence. The demand for speed is not a definite one but arises out of the 
 needs of economy of time on the part of the individual writer. The child 
 should, therefore, write as rapidly as can reasonably be expected to write 
 without sacrificing quality. The school demand for legibility is the same 
 as that for social correspondence. School demand for speed is set by the 
 achievements of children and may be considered about 70 letters per minute. 
 
 b. The demand of social correspondence — According to Koos' investiga- 
 tion, 86.5 per cent of adults write in social correspondence with a quality of 
 60 or less, and sixty-six per cent write with a quality of 50 or less; 81 per 
 cent of the judges consider the quality 60 or more as satisfactory and 60 per 
 cent consider the quality of 50 or more as satisfactory. These facts seem to 
 indicate that 60 is an adequate standard for the median of the class in the 
 sixth grade and that 50 is an adequate minimum standard to be set up for 
 each child to attain. 
 
 Conclusion. Fifty is an adequate minimum standard and 60 an ade- 
 quate median standard of quality to meet the demands of social corre- 
 
216 Department of Superintendence 
 
 spondence. In speed, the same remark holds as was made under the pre- 
 vious section. 
 
 c. The demand of vocations — In Koos' study it was found that the de- 
 mand of the different vocations Varies considerably. The clerical occupa- 
 tions in which handwriting is an important element demand in general a 
 quality somewhat above 60. The other vocations are satisfied by a quality 
 between 50 and 60. The questionnaire studies which have been made indi- 
 cate that even in the clerical occupations in which handwriting is required, 
 the quality 60 is the one most commonly demanded, although a quality 
 above this is frequently regarded as an asset. In a few specialized voca- 
 tions, such as addressing, a still higher quality is demanded. Speed is usually 
 reckoned as less important than legibility, although a fair degree of speed is 
 desirable. 
 
 Conclusion. Training for specialized vocational demands is not the 
 part of the elementary school. If the quality demanded by general school 
 life and by social correspondence is met, a sufficient foundation will be laid 
 for special training of vocational groups in the junior and senior high 
 schools. This preparation is made when the child attains the standard 
 already set. Some improvement may be expected in the junior high school 
 even without specialized handwriting drill. It will be safe, therefore, to 
 leave a certain margin for growth between the end of the elementary 
 school period and adulthood. 
 
 Final Conclusion. At the end of the sixth grade the child should be 
 expected to write a reasonably fluent and a plain, legible hand. More spe- 
 cifically each child should have set before him as a minimum standard a 
 quality equal to 50 on the Ayres Scale and a speed of 70 letters per minute. 
 Those children who have not attained this standard by the end of the 
 sixth grade should be given continued drill in the seventh grade or the 
 junior high school. The class median standard in quality for the end of 
 the sixth grade should be 60 on the Ayres Scale. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE SOCIAL STUDIES 
 
 Harold 0. Rugg, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University 
 New York City, Chairman 
 
 WHEN A PERSON attempts to make curricula for training citi- 
 zens in the schools one may take one of two courses. He may se- 
 lect the content by an a priori, haphazard, "guessing" method. He 
 may simply write out what should be taught. Or, he may set up a program 
 of investigation that will seek scientifically to discover what specific infor- 
 mation, habits, attitudes, and ideals should be provided. By this method, de- 
 tailed and careful inventories can be made of the specific things or activities 
 about which one needs information and skill, and the problems with which 
 one will be called upon to deal as a citizen in a democracy, and the qualities 
 that best promote one's participating efficiently in the socially desirable 
 aspects of citizenship. 1 
 
 The "guessing" method, although by far the most common method of 
 making courses for the training of citizens, almost inevitably results in the 
 selection and teaching of much content that is either unrelated or rather 
 remotely related to the actual needs of young citizens. Research workers, 
 school administrators, and teachers interested in the revision of the course 
 of study should make use of relatively objective methods for the selection 
 of the content. Even more important, they should demand that authors of 
 textbooks, used as the basic reading materials of the courses in the social 
 sciences, should select their content from the evidence increasingly becom- 
 ing available concerning the socially valuable activities of citizens. This 
 latter statement is crucial because "under the conditions that are general in 
 American elementary and secondary schools, it is the textbook that forms 
 the basis of instruction. What goes into the elementary textbook is there- 
 fore a matter of vital significance. The relative emphasis that is given to 
 various events, the names that are kept alive from generation to genera- 
 tion, the points of view that textbooks reflect, the ideals with which they 
 will tend to indoctrinate their immature readers — all of these factors de- 
 mand consideration in an adequate study of textbooks." 2 
 
 One of the greatest problems in curriculum construction is the selection 
 of content. Writers of textbooks admit that their great problem also is to 
 
 ] The research studies reviewed in this section were collected and analyzed bj 
 Earle Rugg, State Teachers College, Greeley, Colorado. This chapter represents 
 in summary form a part of his forthcoming monograph entitled: Studies in Cur- 
 riculum Construction of the Social Studies. 
 
 "Bagley, W. C, and Rugg, Harold O. The content of American history as taught 
 in seventh and eighth grades. Bulletin 16, School of Education, Univ. of Illinois, 
 Urbana, 111. 1916. 
 
 [2171 
 
218 Department of Superintendence 
 
 decide what facts to include in their books. Tradition has apparently 
 solved the difficulty by including some facts about the entire field of each 
 school subject. A marked characteristic of textbooks is that they are com- 
 prehensive. Textbooks in the social sciences therefore tend to be encyclo- 
 pedias ; they mention many persons, dates, countries, cities, topics, and 
 problems. 
 
 It is obvious that under such an organization that textbooks can not dis- 
 cuss any one fact in great detail. While the mastery of the facts included 
 in the course of study is a learning rather than a curriculum problem, it is 
 nevertheless crucial to revision of the course of study because the use of the 
 socially desirable facts needed in life is hampered when we attempt to 
 teach too many facts and when we- do not give sufficient emphasis to the 
 automization of socially valuable facts. 
 
 In times past, the inclusion of much content in the curriculum was justi- 
 fied partly because of a belief in formal discipline. It was asserted that 
 the study of many facts was proper because of the training that this prac- 
 tice gave the various faculties of the mind. It was also assumed that be- 
 cause one might meet a given fact it should be taught. 
 
 Research of curriculum makers in various school subjects in recent 
 years has been directed to the study of the most frequent, the most general, 
 and the most crucial content. These students of the course of study, after 
 careful tabulation of the comprehensive curricula used in schools and after 
 analyzing the results of educational achievement tests which show ob- 
 jectively how small is the permanent mastery of the information, skills, 
 and appreciations now taught, have carried on scores of semi-scientific 
 investigations to discover what facts, topics, and problems are of greatest 
 relative use. 
 
 The outstanding value of such investigations is to show us by means 
 of impersonal criteria that the facts, topics, and problems of relative value 
 are only a small part of the sum total of human experience and knowledge 
 in each field and also that the socially valuable facts are similarly only a 
 small fraction of the facts, topics, and problems now included in the school 
 curriculum. When it is shown that we do include too many facts and that 
 pupils retain very little of the content taught them, is it not a sound hy- 
 pothesis to experiment by reconstructing curricula and revising teaching 
 procedure so that at least those facts, topics, and problems that have come 
 to be called "the minimal essentials" shall be permanently mastered? This 
 does not imply that other meaningful and needed facts should not be 
 taught or that content aside from that ascertained to be socially valuable 
 for all pupils — the common integrating, education essential to efficient par- 
 ticipation of citizens in a democracy — shall not be given pupils in various 
 localities and of various abilities, capacities, and interests. But we are in- 
 sistent that the most frequently mentioned, the most generally required, and 
 the most crucial content — the information, habits, attitudes, and ideals — be 
 included and mastered. ' 
 
The Third Yearbook 219 
 
 This chapter of the Yearbook principally illustrates investigations deal- 
 ing with facts, topics, and problems that one probably needs to know because 
 he will use them in life. It also indicates relative emphases, for it shows to 
 some degree the relative probability that such facts, topics, and problems are 
 met by the average citizen. 
 
 This summary report has been organized to serve seven purposes. The 
 first is to illustrate four methods that have been used by research workers 
 to determine topics or problems. These four methods are illustrated by four 
 studies which show that one may ( 1 ) ask laymen concerning problems to 
 be taught, (2) analyze political platforms for such data, (3) use the judg- 
 ment of "frontier thinkers" concerning problems, or (4) seek statements of 
 problems in periodicals. The second purpose is to supply evidence from ten 
 studies concerning what facts in history, geography, and civics are needed in 
 order to read books and periodicals intelligently. In the third place, the 
 report summarizes seven studies that indicate what facts and topics are 
 stressed in social science textbooks in wide use in the schools. Fourth, there 
 is illustrated the use of the judgments of content specialists. Fifth, other 
 ways that have been used to indicate what social science facts are needed in 
 life are illustrated. Sixth, examples are given of social activities in which 
 people engage. Seventh, the judgments of adults as to the life values of the 
 social subjects and activities that were part of their instruction in school 
 are reviewed. 
 
 While the evidence from these studies is even yet exceedingly tentative, it 
 is suggestive to curriculum makers. It probably constitutes a sound basis 
 for the selection of the needed facts, topics, and problems to be included in 
 the social science curriculum. 
 
 One should not, of course, accept this evidence as final. Much more 
 research is needed. Many of the experiments should be verified by repeat- 
 ing the technique of the authors of the studies reviewed. One great aspect 
 of citizenship training — the chief province of the social sciences — has not 
 been investigated in any high degree. It is frequently asserted that the chief 
 job of the school is to help boys and girls engage efficiently in socially desir- 
 able activities that they tend to engage in any way and also to help them 
 engage efficiently in more desirable activities. Analyses of the major classes 
 of activities all show that citizenship training is an important objective. 
 But the particularized activities of citizenship have not been ascertained 
 except in a small way. Things that citizens do and ought to do should be 
 investigated, and the qualities that citizens should possess must also be dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Curriculum makers should adopt a wider view of the problems of citizen- 
 ship. To the present time there has been an assumption that citizenship 
 training will be well provided for by the mere organization and teaching 
 of what might be termed "reading" courses in the social sciences — courses in 
 which instruction chiefly emphasizes persons, dates, and events in history, 
 place location facts and data concerning climate, resources, and industries in 
 
220 Department of Superintendence 
 
 geography, and the machinery of government, the powers and duties of 
 governmental officials in civics. A "transfer" has been assumed — namely, 
 that knowledge of such facts will make pupils behave as good citizens. One 
 may well doubt this "transfer" by merely observing citizens about them. 
 
 An important step in curriculum making in the social sciences, is to dis- 
 cover the duties, difficulties, and traits of good citizens, and the situations 
 in which such aspects of citizenship are found and best promoted. 1 In the 
 social situations of life, will be found many opportunities for training citizens 
 in school in the things that good citizens should do. School administrators 
 and teachers are trying to make school life like life outside the school — to 
 make school a miniature society. Every individual lives and should live a 
 social life. A large part of one's day is filled with social contacts. To make 
 these contribute most fully to the proper fulfillment of one's duties as a 
 citizen in a democracy, where the obligations for efficient government rest 
 upon every one, is the pre-eminent task in citizenship training. 
 
 Brief Questions At Issue in Curriculum Construction in the Social Sciences 
 
 What are the objectives or values of the social sciences? 
 
 How shall theoretical aims, outcomes, and objectives be verified ? 
 
 Issue: A priori versus semi-scientific methods of selecting the con- 
 tent of the social science curriculum. 
 
 What criteria shall be used for selecting the content to be included in the 
 social sciences? 
 
 What content in the social sciences shall be required of all pupils. and upon 
 what bases shall it be selected ? 
 
 How can differentiation of curriculum material be made to provide for 
 individual differences in ability and interests of pupils? 
 
 How shall one determine the problems of contemporary society? 
 
 What criteria should be used in determining minimal essential facts? 
 
 What methods shall be employed to determine the things that citizens do ? 
 
 What facts concerning the learning processes of children must be con- 
 sidered in the program of curriculum revision in the social sciences? 
 
 Review of Curriculum Research Studies in the Social Sciences 
 
 This chapter of the Yearbook reports summaries of twenty-four semi- 
 scientific studies which give curriculum makers relatively impersonal ob- 
 jective evidence from which to select the content of the curriculum in the 
 social sciences. These studies are classified into four groups: 
 
 I. Studies that Suggest Possible Methods of Determining Problems and Activities 
 of Contemporary Society: 
 
 a. Discovering problems by analyses of published writings of "frontier 
 thinkers." 
 
 b. Discovering problems by means of the judgments of representative 
 citizens 
 
 1 Two such investigations are now. being made by graduate students in Colorado 
 State Teachers College. These will probably be completed by the summer of 1925. 
 
The Third Yearbook 221 
 
 c. Discovering problems by means of an analysis of political platforms 
 
 d. Discovering problems by means of analyses of newspapers and maga- 
 zines 
 
 II. Studies of Minimal Essentials: 
 
 a. Studies based on a wide range of objective criteria 
 
 b. Studies that contribute data concerning what facts in history, geography, 
 and civics are needed in order to read periodicals and books intelli- 
 gently 
 
 c. Studies that contribute data concerning facts, dates, persons, topics, and 
 problems, stressed in commonly used school textbooks 
 
 d. Studies that endeavor to use the judgments of experts concerning 
 minimal essentials 
 
 e. Studies that suggest minimal essentials upon other standards or criteria 
 
 III. Studies That Are Suggestive for Analysis of the Activities of People or Current 
 Modes of Living: 
 
 IV. Studies That Endeavor to Evaluate the Recreative or Leisure Values of the 
 Social Sciences. 
 
 I. Studies that Suggest Possible Methods of Determining the Problems of 
 
 Contemporary Society 
 
 a. Discovering problems by analyses of published writings of "frontier 
 
 thinkers" 
 
 STUDY NO. I. Rugg, Harold O. Problems of contemporary life as 
 the basis for curriculum making in the social studies. 1 The Twenty-second 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, 1922. 
 pp. 260-273. 
 
 Problem. To discover the insistent and permanent contemporary prob- 
 lems to be used as a basis for organizing materials in the field of the social 
 studies and for promoting a program of citizenship training. 
 
 Method. The theory of Dr. Rugg and his research workers engaged in 
 this task is that the best source for the statement of insistent and persistent 
 contemporary problems is the published works of the so-called "frontier 
 thinkers." Specialists, who have devoted years not only to the detailed 
 intensive study of the theoretical aspects of their specialties, but who, in 
 many cases, have become practically acquainted with these problems in 
 the field, have been deemed by this group of research workers to be best 
 qualified to give an insight into, and a more mature judgment concerning 
 the issues of present-day life. 
 
 The published writings of these men have been analyzed partly because 
 they afford a more convenient basis for discovering these problems than 
 
 1 Detailed analyses of the proportion of space devoted to systematic books in 
 each of the major groups of contemporary problems are still being made by the 
 research group engaged in the collection and organization of The Social Science 
 Pamphlets, the proposed Junior High School social science curriculum, now being 
 experimented upon by Harold O. Rugg, Earle Rugg, and Emma Schweppe. The 
 results of the entire investigation, now in its fourth year, are being published as a 
 series of essays and monographs by Harold O. Rugg. 
 
222 Department of Superintendence 
 
 detailed personal interviews and partly because the published writings of 
 such specialists tend to be more critical than the opinions that one would 
 get from personal or oral interviews with them. 
 
 To determine who were the competent specialists in each field, first, the 
 books in the social science field were listed that appeared in the Book Review 
 Digest for the years 1915-22; and only those books which were rated by 
 competent reviewers as of distinct merit were taken for analysis. Second, 
 more than 200 specialists in the fields of history, government, economics, 
 and sociology and some representative editorial writers were asked to name 
 books from which one might be able to find statements of problems. Each 
 of the specialists was asked only for lists of books within his own special 
 field. Third, these lists were further increased by a critical study of the 
 book reviews in six weekly and several monthly journals over a period of 
 five years following the war. 1 Fourth, a careful canvas of several thousand 
 books in the field of the social sciences on the shelves of the Columbia Uni- 
 versity Library was made. 
 
 From these four lists, over two hundred selected books have been analyzed 
 carefully by this research group for statements of contemporary problems. 
 Over three hundred such problems having to do with issues concerning land, 
 industry and business, population, community life in the American city, edu- 
 cation, governmental problems, and world affairs have been listed. 
 
 Besides these major types of problems within each major class of con- 
 temporary issues, the investigation was concerned with the detailed ques- 
 tions that these writers discuss in connection with their treatment of the 
 problems in their field. 
 
 Findings. The books of "frontier thinkers" listed below are typical of 
 those upon which statements of contemporary problems and issues have been 
 based. The authors of these books were selected as competent specialists on 
 the basis of one or more of the criteria for selection mentioned above. 
 
 Books of "Frontier Thinkers" 
 
 A. Problems of Immigration: 
 
 Jenks, J. W., and Lauch, J. The immigration problem. N. Y., Funk and 
 
 Wagnalls. 
 Kellor, Frances. Immigration and the future. N. Y., G. H. Doran Co. 
 Americanization studies. Allen T. Burns, Editor. N. Y., Harper & Bros. 
 
 B. Problems which Deal with Natural Resources: 
 
 Mead, E. Helping men own farms. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 
 Van Hise, C. R. Conservation of natural resources. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 
 C. Problems of Industry and Business: 
 
 Cole, G. D. H. Chaos and order in industry. London, Mathuen. 
 Federated American Engineering Societies. Waste in industry. N. Y., 
 
 McGraw-Hill Book Co. 
 Gleason, Arthur. What the workers want. N. Y., Harcourt Brace. 
 
 1 As a rule, book reviews are written by men competent in the field of the book 
 that they are reviewing. Many of these reviewers possess as high, if not a higher, 
 rating as specialists in the field, than the writers of the book setting forth the 
 problems. • 
 
The Third Yearbook 223 
 
 Hobson, J. A. Evolution of modern capitalism. N. Y., Scribners. 
 Marshall, L. C. Reading in industrial society. Chicago, University of Chi- 
 cago Press. 
 Tawney, R. H. The acquisitive society. N. Y., Harcourt Brace. 
 Veblen, T. Theory of business enterprise. N. Y., Charles Scribner's Sons 
 Zimmern, A. Nationality and government. N. Y., Robert M. McBride Co. 
 
 D. Problems Involved in Developing and Maintaining an Adequate and Efficient 
 
 Transportation System in America: 
 
 Johnson, E. R. and Van Metrie, T. W. Principles of Transportation. N. Y., 
 D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 E. Problems of the American City: 
 
 Fosdick, Raymond. American police systems. N. Y., Century. 
 
 Howe, F. C. The modern city and its problems. N. Y., Charles Scribner's 
 
 Sons. 
 Whitaker, C. H. The joke about housing. Boston, Marshall, Jones. 
 Wood, Edith. Housing of the unskilled wage earner. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 
 F. Problems of Education and the Formation of Intelligent Public Opinion: 
 
 Lippmann, W. Public opinion. N. Y., Harcourt Brace. 
 Robinson, J. H. Mind in the making. N. Y., Harper & Bros. 
 Wallas, G. The great society. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 
 G. Problems of Government in the American Democracy: 
 
 Beard, C. A. American government and politics. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 Bryce, James. Modern democracies. 2 vols. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 Garner, J. W. Introduction to political science. N. Y., American Book Co. 
 Lippmann, W. Preface to politics. N. Y., Henry Holt. 
 Merriam, C. E. American political ideas. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 Wallas, G. Human nature in politics. London, Constable & Co. 
 H. Problems of World Affairs: 
 
 Moulton, Harold G. and Bass, John F. America and the balance sheet if 
 
 Europe. N. Y., Ronald Press. 
 Bryce, James. International relations. N. Y., Macmillan. 
 Gibbons, H. A. Introduction to world politics. N. Y., Century. 
 
 New Map of Asia, New Map of Africa, New Map of Europe. 
 Keynes, J. M. Economic consequences of the peace. N. Y., Harcourt, Brace. 
 Vanderlip, F. A. What next in Europe. N. Y., Harcourt, Brace. 
 
 Table 29 gives the space allotment in number of pages to any one ques- 
 tion selected at random under six typical major problems presented by 
 writers of twelve books on American community life. The figures in 
 parentheses indicate the total number of pages devoted to each problem. 
 
 Table 29 illustrates the results of this method of analyzing the published 
 writings of specialists for their "opinions" on insistent problems and ques- 
 tions. 
 
 This study indicates the basic problems and questions in the minds of 
 specialists who are perhaps best qualified to state such problems. The next 
 two studies indicate other sources for problems: Cocking asked rep- 
 resentative "lay" citizens for problems and Bassett analyzed political 
 platforms for problems. This study, however, presents the problems and 
 questions that the deepest and keenest students of society, according to their 
 critics, deemed to be of crucial importance to us. 
 
 Another contrast to be noted between this study and other studies using 
 such standards as Cocking and Bassett used is that the latter studies fur- 
 nish the basis for making curricula only for children in life as it is — that 
 is, they tend to ignore the demands of a rapidly changing society. This 
 
224 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 TABLE 29A 
 
 General problems and illustrative 
 questions taken at random 
 
 Bruere, H. 
 
 The New City 
 
 Government. 
 
 1912 
 
 Cooke, M. 
 Our Cities 
 . Awake. 
 
 1918 
 
 Howe, F. 
 The City the 
 
 Hope of 
 
 Democracy. 
 
 1905 
 
 Howe, F. 
 
 The Modern 
 
 City. 
 
 1915 
 
 I. Problem of organizing and 
 maintaining the best form of mu- 
 nicipal government. 
 
 To what extent are corrup- 
 tion or self seeking interests re- 
 sponsible for poor government? 
 
 11-12(1) 
 
 234-236(2) 
 
 1-8(7M) 
 
 43-60(17) 
 61-91(30) 
 92-112(20^) 
 
 50-51(1) 
 59-61(1 34) 
 92-95 (3 M) 
 149-163(15) 
 
 II. Problem of wise city plan- 
 ning. 
 
 To what extent does the city 
 plan and the general "lay out" 
 of the city take into account 
 provision for parks and play- 
 grounds. (Why impt.) 
 
 
 279 (6 lines) 
 
 245-247(2) 
 
 199-200(1) 
 
 III. Problem of providing and 
 maintaining efficient public works 
 in the community. 
 
 How is sewage collected and dis- 
 posed of? 
 
 245 (x) 
 247 (x) 
 
 
 57 (x) 
 
 35(34) 
 36 (x) 
 
 IV. Problem of getting the com- 
 munity to organize and properly 
 maintain educational opportuni- 
 ties for all citizens. 
 
 How and why should communi- 
 ties make wider use of the school 
 plant? 
 
 
 
 
 311-312(134) 
 
 313(34) 
 
 314-316(2) 
 
 V. Problem of developing ade- 
 quate and maintaining proper 
 health agencies in the community. 
 
 Why are health standards low in 
 
 the community? 
 
 88 (x) 
 314-315(13^) 
 319(^) 
 401-413(12^) 
 
 
 188(34) 
 
 265-266 (1M) 
 
 VI. Problem of adequately pro- 
 viding for and improving leisure 
 and recreation by means of di- 
 rected community opportunities 
 for play and for social opportun- 
 ities. 
 
 Is municipal provision for play 
 and social opportunities ade- 
 quate? 
 
 2(x) 21(x) 
 
 22(34) 
 
 239(34) 
 
 240-241(34) 
 
 242-243(34) 
 
 91(H) 
 
 
 316-317(1) 
 375-(x) 
 
 technique of problem analysis not only attempts to find out problems of the 
 day, but because these specialists have for twenty years, at least, been point- 
 ing out these problems and questions, it seems likely that by taking their 
 statements or their opinions, we are more apt to equip children for our 
 rapidly changing society, particularly in the next twenty years. It is inter- 
 esting to note that problems now being discussed were included in the pub- 
 lished writings of these specialists in the 90's and early 1900's. 
 
 "Are we not delinquent representatives of that agency (the school) unless 
 besides making our curriculum keep pace with the changes of that society, 
 we anticipate what those changes are going to be artd use the curriculum to 
 prepare children to meet them?" 
 
 Figure 6 on page 226 indicates how these problems serve as the control 
 for the organization and collection of a wealth of materials in the field of 
 the social sciences. By means of detailed allusions, pupils doubtless will be 
 forced from the organization of material to draw their own conclusions con- 
 cerning current modes of living and contemporary problems and issues. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 225 
 
 TABLE 29B 
 
 Wilcox. 
 Great Cities 
 of America. 
 
 1910 
 
 James, H. 
 Municipal 
 Functions. 
 
 1917 
 
 Munro, 
 W. Mu- 
 nicipal 
 Admin- 
 istration 
 1916 
 
 Righter, C. 
 
 City Man- 
 ager in 
 Dayton. 
 
 1919 
 
 Taylor, G. 
 Satellite 
 Cities. 
 
 1915 
 
 Wilcox. 
 The Ameri- 
 can City. 
 
 1904 
 
 Wilcox. 
 The Study 
 of City 
 Govern- 
 ment 
 1897 
 
 Zueblin. 
 American 
 Municipal 
 Progress. 
 
 1902 
 
 180(x) 
 244-272(28%) 
 308-309 (1%) 
 311-312(1%) 
 381-388(6%) 
 
 276(x) 
 
 
 
 149-151(1*3) 
 
 195-196(*3) 
 
 213-218(5*3) 
 
 20 (*3) 
 93(x) 
 
 19-21(2) 
 
 
 53-54(1) 
 55(*3) 
 213-216(2*3) 
 
 206-207 
 (IK) 
 
 57-58(1) 
 
 
 53-54(1) 
 
 59-60(1) 
 
 121-122(1) 
 
 
 
 19(*3) 
 246-275(29) 
 
 56(J3) 
 
 222(H) 
 295(%) 
 359-360(1) 
 
 5(%)10(x) 
 
 15(%)22(%) 
 56(x)S4(%) 
 227-237 
 (10%) 
 
 183-206 
 
 (23M) 
 
 129-131(2) 
 133(J3) 
 
 183(%)30(x) 
 234 (x) 
 240(x) 
 138(x) 
 166(x) 
 243(x) 
 
 53-54 (*3) 
 
 29-30 (*3) 
 
 105-107(2%) 
 
 
 106-107 
 (IK) 
 
 399-402 
 
 (2%) 
 
 
 218-220(2) 
 220(*3) 
 122(*3) 
 
 56-58(1 K) 
 123(%) 
 
 236-238 
 (1*3) 
 
 
 149-155(6) 
 159-166 
 
 
 (6%) 
 131(*3) 
 
 44(*3) 
 278(1) 
 
 68-70(1 K) 
 
 
 75-78(3%) 
 
 191-192(*3) 
 
 193-194(1) 
 
 144(M) 
 
 192(%) 
 
 192(%) 
 
 205-206(1) 
 
 
 
 163(%) 
 169-170 
 
 aw 
 
 401-402 
 (%) 
 
 84(%) 
 
 237(K) 
 
 448(x) 
 
 19-20(%) 
 
 144(x) 
 181-182(*3) 
 220(*3) 
 223-224(1%) 
 
 111-114(3*3) 
 158-159(1) 
 
 
 241-246(4*3) 
 
 b. Discovering problems by means of the judgments of representative 
 citizens. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Cocking, Walter Dewey. The attitude of the 
 public to the teaching of citizenship. Unpublished Master of Arts Thesis 
 on file in the Library, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 
 
 Problem. To show what the layman regards as the topics that should 
 be emphasized in the teaching of citizenship. 
 
 Method. An attempt was made to obtain a cross section of the public 
 opinion of the State of Iowa. To do this, members of representative 
 classes of society were selected. Over eighteen hundred people were se- 
 lected from the following list : 
 
 Buena Vista Grade teachers Business men 
 
 Home makers Working women 
 
 City superintendents Editors 
 
 Buena Vista rural teachers Common laborers 
 
 County superintendents Bankers 
 
 Clergymen City officials 
 
 Civics teachers State officials 
 
 Lawyers County officials 
 
 American Legion men Farmers 
 
 Political scientists Traveling men 
 A miscellaneous group 
 
226 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 An effort was also made to get a sufficient representation of each group 
 — for example, 500 home makers were chosen to represent the opinion of 
 the mothers of the states. Many of these representatives were members 
 of committees having to do with Americanization and citizenship of their 
 
 Figure 6* 
 
 
 The insistent and perma- 
 nent problems and issues of 
 contemporary economic, so- 
 cial, and political life. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The basic questions that must be answered before 
 an intelligent discussion of the problem and issues 
 of the day is possible. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Episodes, narratives, descriptive 
 graphic, statistical, and pictorial matter 
 which deal with current modes of living 
 and their historical backgrounds and 
 through which basic questions are dis- 
 cussed and an appreciation is developed 
 of the problems and issues of contempo- 
 rary life. 
 
 
 The fundamental gen- 
 eralizations which experts 
 in various fields agree are 
 useful guides for the con- 
 sideration of current 
 modes of living, and of 
 contemporary problems 
 and issues. 
 
 local woman's clubs. To secure representative farmers, the farm presi- 
 dents of 99 county farm bureaus were selected. Some such standard was 
 used to secure proper representatives for each of the groups cited above. Of 
 those selected, 593 suggested topics. 
 
 Findings. "The 593 people in their replies as to what, in their judg- 
 ment, should be emphasized in the teaching of citizenship offered 4728 
 definite suggestions, or an average of 7.97 suggestions per person. It was 
 found that the 4728 suggestions fall into 247 separate and distinct classi- 
 fications." 
 
 1 Rugg, Harold O. Problems of contemporary life as the basis for curriculum 
 making in the social sciences. Chapter XV, Part II, Twenty-second Yearbook of 
 the National Society for the Study of Education. < , 
 
The Third Yearbook 227 
 
 Table 30 gives the frequency of mention of the ten most frequently 
 mentioned topics and the ten least frequently mentioned topics out of the 
 247 citizenship topics suggested by these representative groups of citizens. 
 
 Table 30. — Topics Suggested by Laymen to be Emphasized in the Teaching of 
 
 Citizenship 
 
 Number of 
 Topic times mentioned 
 
 Individual duties, responsibilities, and privileges as a citizen 224 
 
 Duty to vote 221 
 
 Respect and obedience for law 213 
 
 Responsibility of the individual to the community 143 
 
 Cooperation in community affairs 126 
 
 Public health 125 
 
 Honesty 122 
 
 Government, its purpose, importance, growth, benefits, and principles.... 1.16 
 
 Payment of taxes willingly 102 
 
 Respect for the rights of others 101 
 
 Confidence in men 1 
 
 Symbolic meaning of our national capitol 1 
 
 Tolerance 1 
 
 Memorizing orations 1 
 
 Boy Scouts 1 
 
 Respect for war veterans 1 
 
 Memorizing oath of allegiance 1 
 
 Efforts toward advancement 1 
 
 Pride in local state 1 
 
 Work a cure for idleness 1 
 
 A study of Table 30 shows that some curriculum makers obtained from 
 a summary of lay opinion specific points to be taught ; for example, duty to 
 vote, public health, and payment of taxes. Other topics require further 
 and more refined analysis. It is probably of little value to know that one 
 should teach individual duties, responsibilities, and privileges of a citizen 
 or responsibility of the individual to the community, unless one discovers 
 specifically by investigation what the detailed duties or responsibilities of a 
 citizen are. Learning is specific, and if one wishes to teach such topics, 
 one must discover the specific items that should be memorized or that 
 should be automatized. 
 
 Studies are now being undertaken in Colorado State Teachers College, 
 following the technique of interviewing outlined by Dr. Charters, to dis- 
 cover what duties citizens perform, what difficulties they face, and what 
 qualities citizens should possess. 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. Breeze, Retha E. "What constitutes good citizen- 
 ship?" The School Review, Vol. 32, September, 1924, pp. 534-536. 
 
 Problem. To determine those traits or qualities that are supposedly 
 essential to being an efficient citizen. 
 
 Method. A class in education in Will Mayfield College, Missouri, 
 wrote to four hundred of the leading men and women of the United 
 States whose names appeared in the latest edition of Who's Who in 
 
228 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 America. These persons represented fifteen occupations and professions in 
 which the majority of the American people are engaged. They also 
 included people from every state in the Union. These people were asked 
 to give five or more traits that they considered most essential to efficient 
 citizenship. 
 
 Findings. There were 148 people who replied. Different traits to 
 the number of 212 were found in a total of 819 that were submitted. 
 
 Table 31 shows the five most frequently mentioned traits and the five 
 least frequently mentioned traits as indicated in the tables submitted in 
 Miss Breeze's article. 
 
 TABLE 31.— TRAITS OR QUALITIES SUPPOSEDLY ESSENTIAL TO AN 
 
 EFFICIENT CITIZEN 
 
 Highest five 
 
 Honesty 
 
 Knowledge of and an interest and 
 
 participation in national, state, 
 
 and local affairs. 
 
 Industry 
 
 Religious traits, such as reverence for 
 
 God, Christianity, etc. 
 Loyalty 
 
 Frequency 
 
 Lowest five 
 
 Frequency 
 
 58 
 56 
 
 47 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 Fairness 
 
 Initiative 
 
 Energy 
 
 Faithfulness. . . 
 
 Love for others 
 
 The writer of this article says "that the efficient citizen must be honest 
 and industrious, he must be intelligently interested in the affairs of the 
 nation, the state, and the community, and actively participate in them, he 
 must respect and obey the law and advocate its enforcement. Loyalty, 
 patriotism and public spirit must rank high in characterizing him. He 
 must have religious ideals developed within him. To these traits must be 
 added courage, tolerance, intelligence, integrity, open-mindedness, good 
 health, willingness to serve, liberal education, cooperation, unselfishness, 
 and character." 
 
 Such a list, although in all likelihood incomplete, is of value for deter- 
 mining specific traits to be promoted in any program of citizenship train- 
 ing. A much more exhaustive study should be made. 
 
 (c) Discovering problems by means of an analysis of political plat- 
 forms. 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Bassett, B. B. The content of the course of study in 
 civics. Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
 Education, Part I, 1918, pp. 63 to 80. His detailed Ph. D. Disserta- 
 tion, on file in the Library, State University of Iowa, is entitled Civic 
 instruction of the American electorate. 
 
 Problem. To determine by an analysis of political platforms "what 
 are the most significant and most persistent problems of the American 
 people which seek solution through the machinery of government." This 
 purpose was adopted on the theory that there should be civic instruction 
 in a democracy to prepare pupils for the intelligent exercise of the fran- 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 229 
 
 chise. Political platforms were selected as a source for the statement of 
 problems on the theory that these platforms would "reflect" the issues of 
 the day. According to Walter E. Weyl, "The platform does not show 
 what the politician wants ; but does show what that astute person believes 
 that the people want. The superlative value of the platform as evidence 
 is due to the fact that it is always addressed to a potential majority." 
 
 Method. Bassett analyzed the national platforms of all political 
 parties since the first National convention in 1832; State platforms in 
 non-presidential years from 1889 in so far as they deal with National 
 issues; all of the platforms of major parties for 1910; platforms of major 
 parties in certain selected pivotal states — namely, California, Indiana, and 
 New York, since 1850; all platforms of the parties in Iowa since 1889 and 
 the platforms of parties in one southern State. 
 
 Three units of measurement were used: (1) The linear inch, (2) 
 frequency of mention — that is, the number of platforms in which a given 
 topic occurs, and (3) single platform proposals, i. e., the number of dis- 
 tinct proposals under each topic. 
 
 Findings. After detailed analysis of all the topics and sub-topics 
 within the following major political problems according to these various 
 units and measurements, Bassett was able to rank the problems under the 
 following 26 topics: 
 
 1. 
 
 Commerce, Foreign 
 
 14. 
 
 Monetary System 
 
 2. 
 
 Corporations, Interstate 
 
 15. 
 
 Moral Reform 
 
 3. 
 
 Constitution 
 
 16. 
 
 Natural Resources 
 
 4. 
 
 Defense, National 
 
 17. 
 
 Office, Public 
 
 5. 
 
 Education 
 
 18. 
 
 Parties, Political 
 
 6. 
 
 Finance, Public 
 
 19. 
 
 Pensions 
 
 7. 
 
 Foreign Relations 
 
 20. 
 
 Personal Rights 
 
 8. 
 
 Health 
 
 21. 
 
 Postal Service 
 
 9. 
 
 Immigration 
 
 22. 
 
 State Rights 
 
 10. 
 
 Industry 
 
 23. 
 
 Suffrage 
 
 11. 
 
 Justice 
 
 24. 
 
 Territories (and Dependencies 
 
 12. 
 
 Labor 
 
 25. 
 
 Works, Public 
 
 13. 
 
 Legislation 
 
 26. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Table 32 shows the rank of the major problems mentioned by all 
 parties — by the Democratic party, by the Republican party, by the Dem- 
 ocratic and Republican together, and also checks the five highest ranking 
 topics in each campaign. 
 
 Dr. Bassett's study shows that: (1) Certain problems run back 
 through the platforms of the parties because they are inherent in the 
 structure of government; for example, public finance, foreign relations, 
 etc.; (2) Others are persistent from the economic organization of so- 
 ciety — for example, corporations, labor, etc.; and (3) Others are per- 
 sistent because there always are groups of people who are interested in 
 undertaking social reforms. 
 
230 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 TABLE 32.- 
 
 -FREQUENCY RANK OF MAJOR PROBLEMS MENTIONED IN 
 PLATFORMS OF POLITICAL PARTIES 
 
 Rank 
 
 All parties 
 
 Democratic 
 
 Republican 
 
 Democratic and 
 
 Highest five in 
 
 
 
 party 
 
 party 
 
 Republican 
 
 each campaign 
 
 1 
 
 Finance 
 
 Finance 
 
 Finance 
 
 Finance 
 
 Finance 
 
 2 
 
 Office 
 
 Foreign relations 
 
 Foreign relations 
 
 Foreign relations 
 
 Moral reform 
 
 3 
 
 Foreign relations 
 
 Office 
 
 Office 
 
 Office 
 
 Foreign relations 
 
 4 
 
 Moral reform 
 
 State rights 
 
 Commerce 
 
 Nat'l Resources 
 
 Office 
 
 5 
 
 Immigration 
 
 Territories 
 
 Nat'l resources 
 
 Works 
 
 Corporations 
 
 6 
 
 Nat'l resources 
 
 Legislation 
 
 Corporations 
 
 Labor 
 
 Labor 
 
 7 
 
 Labor 
 
 Corporations 
 
 Immigration 
 
 Territories 
 
 Monetary system 
 
 8 
 
 Monetary system 
 
 Nat'l resources 
 
 Justice 
 
 Defence 
 
 Parties 
 
 9 
 
 Defence 
 
 Works 
 
 Monetary system 
 
 Immigration 
 
 Constitution 
 
 10 
 
 Works 
 
 Defence 
 
 Defence 
 
 Commerce 
 
 State rights 
 
 11 
 
 Legislation 
 
 Moral reform 
 
 Labor 
 
 Moral reform 
 
 Territories 
 
 12 
 
 Commerce 
 
 Immigration 
 
 Territories 
 
 Monetary system 
 
 Nat'l resources 
 
 13 
 
 Territories 
 
 Constitution 
 
 Moral reform 
 
 Pensions 
 
 Legislation 
 
 14 
 
 Personal rights - 
 
 Personal rights 
 
 Suffrage 
 
 State rights 
 
 Immigration 
 
 15 
 
 Suffrage 
 
 Pensions 
 
 Postal system 
 
 Constitution 
 
 Pensions 
 
 16 
 
 Constitution 
 
 Monetary system 
 
 Constitution 
 
 Justice 
 
 Personal rights 
 
 17 
 
 Pensions 
 
 Commerce 
 
 Parties 
 
 Personal rights 
 
 Industry 
 
 18 
 
 Parties 
 
 Parties 
 
 Personal rights 
 
 Legislation 
 
 
 19 
 
 State rights 
 
 Education 
 
 State rights 
 
 Parties 
 
 
 20 
 
 Education 
 
 Suffrage 
 
 Education 
 
 Suffrage 
 
 « 
 
 21 
 
 Postal system 
 
 Health 
 
 Health 
 
 Postal system 
 
 
 22 
 
 Justice 
 
 Industry 
 
 Industry 
 
 Education 
 
 
 23 
 
 Industry 
 
 Postal system 
 
 Pensions 
 
 Health 
 
 
 24 
 
 Health 
 
 Justice 
 
 
 Industry 
 
 
 The data show that certain matters of vital interest in times past, such 
 as a strict or liberal construction of the Constitution and State rights are 
 being stressed less; while with the rapid changes in industry, political 
 platforms give more and more space to questions having to do with labor 
 and corporations. In the last twenty-five years America has become in- 
 creasingly a world power, and one finds more attention paid to issues hav- 
 ing to do with foreign relations. From the analysis of Dr. Bassett's de- 
 tailed data, one gets not only a crude check as to the major types of prob- 
 lems summed up in political platforms, but one also obtains in a certain 
 measure the trends or relative emphases to various topics from which it is 
 possible to predict somewhat generally the problems of the next gener- 
 ation. 
 
 A difficulty that arises is that the problems listed are not sufficiently 
 defined. For example, there are many problems having to do with labor, 
 with corporations, and with foreign relations. It is therefore necessary to 
 state definitely the problems within each of these fields and then to deter- 
 mine the amount of space given to each subordinate problem in political 
 platforms. More refined analysis, following Dr. Bassett's lead, is needed. 
 
 Dr. Bassett's list is valuable as a check upon studies that use other cri- 
 teria for determining the content of courses in civics. For example, one 
 may. well use not only the results of the Cocking study, using the judg- 
 ments of representative citizens concerning what ought to be taught, and 
 the Rugg study, using the judgment of the "frontier" specialists in various 
 fields of the social sciences, but also the findings obtained by analyzing the 
 platforms of political parties. ... '< 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 231 
 
 (d) Discovering problems by means of analyses of newspapers and 
 magazines. 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. Davis, Maude Bennett. Topics to be included in 
 instruction in civics as indicated by an analysis of current periodicals. Un- 
 published Master of Art Thesis on file in the Library, Univ. of Chicago, 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Problem. To throw light upon the content of a course of civics by 
 making an analysis of current periodicals. 
 
 Method. First, an analysis of twenty-one periodicals covering the six 
 months, October, 1920, to April, 1921, was made; and second, a similar 
 analysis of the topics listed in the Reader s Guide to Periodical Literature 
 for October, 1920, was made. 
 
 The following standards were used for selecting the magazines. A 
 selected list approved by: (1) The American Library Association, (2) the 
 Massachusetts Library Association, (3) the Reader's Guide to Periodical 
 Literature, (4) three lists recommended for high school use, and (5) a list 
 believed by the writer to represent extreme radical opinion. 
 
 Those magazines dealing with special subjects or devoted to particular 
 interests like juvenile cases and social organizations were rejected. 
 Twenty-one magazines were chosen. Table 33 shows the magazines that 
 were finally selected for analysis. 
 
 TABLE 33- 
 
 -TWENTY-ONE MAGAZINES SELECTED FOR ANALYSIS IN 
 OBTAINING CIVIC TOPICS 
 
 Name of magazine 
 
 Total 
 Circulation 
 
 Number of 
 
 Issues 
 
 analyzed 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of 
 
 pages 
 
 American City 
 
 American 
 
 Atlantic Monthly 
 
 Current History 
 
 Current Opinion 
 
 Forum 
 
 Freeman 
 
 Harper's 
 
 Independent 
 
 Liberator 
 
 Literary Digest 
 
 Nation 
 
 New Republic 
 
 North American Review. 
 
 Outlook 
 
 Review of Reviews 
 
 Saturday Evening Post . . 
 
 Scribner's 
 
 Searchlight 
 
 Survey 
 
 World's Work 
 
 Total number issues and pages analyzed 
 
 9,247 
 
 441,080 
 
 107,776 
 
 40,350 
 
 60,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 '"95",896 
 
 100,589 
 
 40,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 28,960 
 
 35,000 
 
 22,008 
 
 105,340 
 
 172,552 
 
 2,108,923 
 
 97,748 
 
 5,530 
 
 13,686 
 
 126,043 
 
 2 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 
 4 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 205 
 
 270 
 480 
 864 
 
 1,122 
 580 
 762 
 110 
 798 
 600 
 294 
 
 1,176 
 576 
 400 
 864 
 936 
 672 
 600 
 768 
 120 
 696 
 558 
 
 13,246 
 
 After considering the methods of measuring linear space, counting pages, 
 and counting frequency of mention, the latter was employed because the 
 scoring is simpler. The writer assumed that the topics most discussed were 
 
232 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 most important. The method of reckoning was as follows: Each maga- 
 zine in which an item or a group of items appeared was credited with one 
 score. Also each topic was credited with one score. A similar method of 
 scoring was used in tabulating the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. 
 Findings. These tables are illustrative: Table 34 shows the twenty 
 most frequently mentioned sub-topics relating to all phases of government, 
 economics, and sociology. Study I refers to the analysis of the twenty-one 
 magazines listed in Table 33; and Study II refers to the analysis of the 
 Readers' Guide. 
 
 TABLE 34.— TWENTY MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED SUB-TOPICS OF 
 THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 
 
 Topics 
 
 Frequencies 
 from Study I, 
 
 Frequencies 
 from Study II 
 
 
 235 
 
 164 
 
 159 
 
 129 
 
 111 
 
 104 
 
 99 
 
 97 
 
 87 
 
 .76 
 
 71 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 64 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 26 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 Expansion and imperialism 
 
 7 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 Housing : 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 Freedom of speech 
 
 3 
 
 
 15 
 
 Negro problem 
 
 
 
 
 Over three hundred different topics are classified in Table 34 with the 
 total frequency mention under Study I of 5095, and a total frequency 
 mention in Study II of 720. 
 
 From these topics one sees that there is a wide range of types of eco- 
 nomic, sociological, and political topics to be included in a course of civics 
 if one accepts the theory that these courses are valuable in giving people 
 the necessary background to read understandingly current periodicals. 
 
 The great difficulty of such analyses is that the topics overlap. Many of 
 the topics are so broad that before one can determine effectively what 
 should be taught much more refined analysis is necessary. They do suggest, 
 however, that there are outstanding problems connected with many of these 
 topics that might well form the core of a new organization of social science 
 materials. 
 
 The study is also of value if one wishes to make use of current periodi- 
 cals in social science classes, for it gives one relatively objective standards 
 for the choice of topics found in current periodicals to be used as a basis 
 for class discussion. > 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 233 
 
 STUDY NO. 6. Sharon, J. A. An analysis of problems by the news- 
 paper-magazine method. Summarized briefly by Ernest Horn in The ap- 
 plication of research to making a course of study in history. Twenty-second 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II, 
 1922, pp. 242-243. 
 
 Problem. To determine important problems by analysis of newspapers. 
 
 Method. Sharon studied two weeks' issues of each of nine representa- 
 tive newspapers on the assumption that important problems will find a 
 place in our newspapers. His measures were : ( 1 ) The number of arti- 
 cles, and (2) total length or amount of space in linear inches. 
 
 Table 35 reproduces the essential type of topics that are found and indi- 
 cates the number of articles and number of inches in linear space devoted 
 to them. 
 
 TABLE 35.— SOCIAL SCIENCE TOPICS FOUND IN NEWSPAPERS 
 
 Topic 
 
 Taxation 
 
 Foreign relations (not immigration) 
 
 Suffrage 
 
 Monopoly and legislation 
 
 Public service commissions 
 
 Liquor and prohibition 
 
 Money and banking 
 
 Employers and labor 
 
 Pensions (all kinds) 
 
 Workmen's compensation 
 
 Conservation of natural resources . . 
 
 Child labor 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Number of 
 
 Total length 
 
 articles 
 
 in linear inches 
 
 92 
 
 1,058.00 
 
 30 
 
 701.75 
 
 51 
 
 559.75 
 
 45 
 
 551.75 
 
 37 
 
 450.50 
 
 31 
 
 339.50 
 
 14 
 
 186.00 
 
 7 
 
 102.50 
 
 7 
 
 88.00 
 
 10 
 
 78.75 
 
 3 
 
 42.00 
 
 1 
 
 2.80 
 
 50 
 
 760.75 
 
 II. Studies of Minimal Essentials 
 (a) Studies based on a wide range of objective criteria. 
 
 STUDY NO. 7. Rugg, Harold O., and Hockett, John. Objective 
 studies in map location. Social Science Monographs, No. 1. The Lincoln 
 School of Teachers College, New York City, 1924. 
 
 Problem. To determine the relative importance in contemporary life 
 of map (geographic) locations of all kinds. 
 
 Method. Many objective measures of importance were combined to 
 determine rank order lists of cities, regions, rivers, mountains, countries, 
 islands, etc. Map locations were grouped in the following classes: (1) 
 Cities of the United States; (2) cities of the world; (3) countries; (4) 
 sections and regions within or overlapping countries; (5) rivers; (6) moun- 
 tains; (7) islands; (8) bodies of water; (9) states of the United States; 
 and (10) railroads, steamship routes, industrial areas, agricultural areas. 
 
 The following are the criteria which were used to determine the relative 
 importance of the many map locations within each class listed above. 
 
 1. Population. Used as one criterion for determining relative im- 
 portance of cities, both of the United States and foreign countries. 
 
234 Department of Superintendence 
 
 2. Foreign trade. Total exports and imports averaged for several years. 
 Used as a measure for the commercial importance of countries. 
 
 3. Bank clearings. A measure of the commercial importance of the 
 citier. of the United States. Not found to be applicable to foreign cities. ' 
 
 4. Area. Used as a minor measure of importance of countries. 
 
 5. Frequency of use by "frontier thinkers" in critical magazines. A 
 tabulation was made of every reference to a map location in one hundred 
 issues, of the following critical magazines, during the period November, 
 1918, to April, 1924: Our World, International Interpreter, New Re- 
 public, Nation, Outlook, Living Age, Manchester Guardian Weekly. This 
 criterion was applicable to all classes of locations. This analysis gave two 
 measures of relative importance of locations. First, all locations in each 
 class were ranked on the basis of the per cent of the total number of issues 
 in which they were mentioned. Second, the gross frequency of mention of 
 places was used as a less important measure. A total of over 28,000 refer- 
 ences to map locations was found. 
 
 6. Frequency of use by "frontier thinkers" in critical books. A tabula- 
 tion was made of every reference to a map location in fifteen recent, out- 
 standing books dealing with world affairs and problems. Such books as 
 the following were used : Bryce, International Relations; Angell, The 
 Fruits of Victory; Feuter, World History, 1815-1920; Keynes, Economic 
 Consequences of the Peace; Eckel, Coal, Iron and War; and Bowman, 
 The New World. The frequency of mention and the space devoted to 
 map locations were used to determine relative importance of locations. 
 This criterion was found to be applicable to all classes of locations, but with 
 varying significance. 
 
 7. Number of articles in all important magazines. The number of arti- 
 cles dealing with map locations in four volumes of the Readers' Guide and 
 International Index was tabulated and the various locations ranked in 
 order of importance on this criterion. The years 1919, 1920, 1922, and 
 1923 were covered in this analysis. This measure applied to all classes of 
 location. A total of 20,000 articles dealt with 1086 different map lo- 
 cations. 
 
 Table 36. — The First Thirty Cities of the United States 
 Ranked in Order of Importance 
 
 1. New York, N. Y. 11. Cleveland, Ohio. 22. Denver, Colo. 
 
 2. Chicago, 111. 12. New Orleans, La. 23. Portland, Ore. 
 
 3. Philadelphia, Pa. 13. Baltimore, Md. 24. Omaha, Nebr. 
 
 4. Boston, Mass. 14. Kansas City, Mo. 25. Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 5. San Francisco, 15. Brooklyn, N. Y. 26. Newark, N. J. 
 
 Calif. 16. Seattle, Wash. 27. Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 6. Detroit, Mich. 17. Minneapolis, Minn. 28. Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 7. St. Louis, Mo. 18. Cincinnati, Ohio. 29. Toledo, Ohio. 
 
 8. Washington, D. C. 19. Buffalo, N. Y. 30. Louisville, Ky. 
 
 9. Pittsburgh, Pa. 20. Milwaukee, Wis. 
 10. Los Angeles, Calif. 21. Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 235 
 
 8. Washburne's rank order list. Use was made of the investigation of 
 reference to historical and geographic facts found in popular magazines 
 and newspapers, made by Superintendent Washburne, summarized in 
 Study No. 14, on page 251. All map locations were selected from the 
 Washburne rank order list, and reranked for use in this study. 
 
 After weights were assigned to each criterion in each class of locations, 
 final rank order lists were determined for each class of locations, examples 
 of which are given below. 
 
 Findings. The following tables give a part of the rank order list for 
 several classes of map locations, as determined by the Rugg-Hockett study. 
 
 Table 37.— Rank Order List of Fifty Most Important Foreign Cities 
 
 1. Paris 
 
 2. London 
 
 3. Berlin 
 
 4. Vienna 
 
 5. Rome 
 
 6. Moscow 
 
 7. Constantinople 
 
 8. Petrograd 
 
 9. Tokio 
 
 10. Peking 
 
 11. Brussels 
 
 12. Manchester 
 
 13. Versailles 
 
 14. Athens 
 
 15. Budapest 
 
 16. Warsaw 
 
 17. Shanghai 
 
 18. Liverpool 
 
 19. Hamburg 
 
 20. Madrid 
 
 21. Smyrna 
 
 22. Munich 
 
 23. Dublin 
 
 24. Buenos Aires 
 
 25. The Hague 
 
 26. Bagdad 
 
 27. Milan 
 
 28. Mexico City 
 
 29. Geneva 
 
 30. Leipsig 
 
 31. Genoa 
 
 32. Toronto 
 
 33. Copenhagen 
 
 34. Vilna 
 
 35. Prague 
 
 36. Venice 
 
 37. Glasgow 
 
 38. Belfast 
 
 39. Stockholm 
 
 40. Vladivostok 
 
 41. Frankfort 
 
 42. Angora 
 
 43. Mosul 
 
 44. Jerusalem 
 
 45. Riga 
 
 46. Montreal 
 
 47. Singapore 
 
 48. Hongkong 
 
 49. Barcelona 
 
 50. Calcutta 
 
 Table 38. — The First Thirty Countries of the World 
 In Order of Importance 
 
 (Only countries which are members of the League of Nations or eligible to 
 membership are included.) 
 
 1. United States 
 
 2. France 
 
 3. Germany 
 
 4. China 
 
 5. Great Britain 
 
 6. Russia 
 
 7. Japan 
 
 8. Italy 
 
 9. India 
 10. Turkey 
 
 11. Canada 
 
 12. Poland 
 
 13. Egypt 
 
 14. Greece 
 
 15. Spain 
 
 16. Belgium 
 
 17. Ireland 
 
 18. Mexico 
 
 19. Rumania 
 
 20. Hungary 
 
 21. Austria 
 
 22. Czecho-Slovakia 
 
 23. Australia 
 
 24. Netherlands 
 
 25. Jugoslavia 
 
 26. Bulgaria 
 
 27. Switzerland 
 
 28. Persia 
 
 29. Brazil 
 30. Sweden 
 
 b. Studies that contribute data concerning what facts in history, 
 geography and civics are needed in order to read periodicals and books in- 
 telligently. 
 
 STUDY NO. 8. Bagley, W. C. The determination of minimum es- 
 sentials in elementary geography and history. Fourteenth Yearbook of the 
 National Society for the Study of Education. Part I, 1915, pp. 131-139. 
 
236 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Table 39. — The Forty Most Important Sections and Regions of the World 
 
 Arranged in Order of Importance 
 (Countries which are not independent political units are not included.) 
 
 1. Europe 
 
 2. England 
 
 3. America 
 
 4. Africa 
 
 5. Asia 
 
 6. South America 
 
 7. Balkan States 
 
 8. Prussia 
 
 9. Morocco 
 
 10. Siberia 
 
 11. Mesopotamia 
 
 12. Far East 
 
 13. Armenia 
 
 14. Near East 
 
 15. Alsace-Lorraine 
 
 16. Serbia 
 
 17. Macedonia 
 
 18. Asia Minor 
 
 19. Arabia 
 
 20. Manchuria 
 
 21. Albania 
 
 22. Central America 
 
 23. Korea 
 
 24. Algeria 
 
 25. Syria ' 
 
 26. Ukraine 
 
 27. South Africa 
 
 28. Palestine 
 
 29. Shantung 
 
 30. North America 
 
 31. Galicia 
 
 32. Silesia 
 
 33. Bavaria 
 
 34. Lorraine 
 
 35. Bosnia 
 
 36. Latin America 
 
 37. Soudan 
 
 38. Ulster 
 
 39. East Africa 
 
 40. Bohemia 
 
 Table 40. — The Twenty Rivers of Greatest Importance 
 In Order of Rank 
 
 1. 
 
 Rhine 
 
 8. 
 
 Yangste 
 
 15. 
 
 Amazon 
 
 2. 
 
 Nile 
 
 9. 
 
 Saar 
 
 16. 
 
 Congo 
 
 3. 
 
 Danube 
 
 10. 
 
 Jordan 
 
 17. 
 
 Somme 
 
 5. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 11. 
 
 Thames 
 
 18. 
 
 Colorado 
 
 5. 
 
 Hudson 
 
 12. 
 
 Tigris 
 
 19. 
 
 Clyde 
 
 6. 
 
 Volga 
 
 13. 
 
 Scheldt 
 
 20. 
 
 Amur 
 
 7. 
 
 Euphrates 
 
 14. 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 
 
 Table 41. — The Ten Most Important Mountains 
 In Order of Rank 
 
 1. Alps 
 
 2. Caucasus 
 
 3. Rocky 
 
 4. Ural 
 
 5. Carpathian 
 
 6. Andes 
 
 7. Everest 
 
 8. Appalachian 
 
 9. Himalaya 
 10. Mt. Blanc 
 
 Table 42. — The Twenty-five Most Important 
 Bodies of Water in Order of Rank 
 
 1. 
 
 Pacific Ocean 
 
 9. Bosphorus 
 
 18. 
 
 Kiel Canal 
 
 2. 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 10. Suez Canal 
 
 19. 
 
 Niagara Falls 
 
 3. 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 11. Panama Canal 
 
 20. 
 
 Caspian Sea 
 
 4. 
 
 Dardanelles 
 
 12. Great Lakes 
 
 21. 
 
 Persian Gulf 
 
 5. 
 
 Black Sea 
 
 13. North Sea 
 
 22. 
 
 Hudson Bay 
 
 6. 
 
 Adriatic 
 
 14. Caribbean Sea 
 
 23. 
 
 Indian Ocean 
 
 7. 
 
 Baltic 
 
 15. "The Straits" 
 
 24. 
 
 Lake Superior 
 
 8. 
 
 Arctic 
 
 16. Aegean Sea 
 
 17. Red Sea 
 
 25. 
 
 Gulf of Finland 
 
 
 Table 43.- 
 
 —The Twenty-one Most Important Island 
 
 
 
 Groups in Order of Rank 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Philippines 
 
 8. Long Island 
 
 15. 
 
 Crete 
 
 2. 
 
 West Indies 
 
 9. Sakhalin 
 
 16. 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 3. 
 
 Hawaiian 
 
 10. New Guinea 
 
 17. 
 
 Virgin Islands 
 
 4. 
 
 East Indian 
 
 11. Cyprus 
 
 18. 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 5. 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 12. Malta 
 
 19. 
 
 Guam 
 
 6. 
 
 Sicily 
 
 13. Formosa 
 
 20. 
 
 Aland Islands 
 
 7. 
 
 Samoan Islands 
 
 14. Manhattan 
 
 21. 
 
 Madagascar 
 
The Third Yearbook 237 
 
 Problem. The use of newspapers and magazines as a standard for de- 
 termining the kind of geographical information that the school should 
 teach. The theory adopted was that one important way in which people 
 may use geographical information is to enable them to interpret more 
 adequately references to geographical material in their reading of periodi- 
 cal literature. Specifically, the problem was to find by "samplings" of 
 newspapers and magazines the types of references and the frequencies of 
 mention to geographical material. 
 
 Method. Samplings of such magazines as the Outlook and the Literary 
 Digest for a period of seven years ending with 1913 were taken. Two 
 methods of counting the references were tried. First, counting one for each 
 term such as the name of a place or each statement with a geographical or 
 historical content. Second, taking each article as a unit in which the refer- 
 ence occurs in so far as it concerns a certain type of reference. Dr. Bagley 
 says that actual investigations show that the latter method was to be pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 Findings. Table 44 shows the percentage of 2237 references to various 
 types of geographical and historical material in eighteen journals. 
 
 Table 44. — Percentage Distribution of Geographical and Historical Material 
 in Eighteen Journals 
 
 Topics . Per cent 
 
 References to facts of location, size, direction, etc., which may be assumed 
 
 to require for their understanding a knowledge of "place and location" 
 
 geography 53.5 
 
 References to political divisions and facts of government which may be 
 
 assumed to require a knowledge of "political" geography '. 25.1 
 
 References to industries, commerce, products, etc., which may be assumed 
 
 to require a knowledge of "commercial" geography 5.8 
 
 References to people, customs, religion, education, etc., which may be 
 
 assumed to require a knowledge of "social" geography 4.8 
 
 References to places as scenes of historical events, which may be assumed 
 
 to require a knowledge of "historical" geography 1.7 
 
 Other references primarily of local or transitory interest 8.9 
 
 The relative emphasis to continents with North America arbitrarily 
 assigned 100 was: 
 
 North America 100 Africa 4 
 
 Europe 73 South America 3 
 
 Asia 13 Australia 1 
 
 The relative frequency of mention to principal European countries, 
 England being given the arbitrary value of 100, was: 
 
 England 100 Italy 32 
 
 France 80 Turkey 30 
 
 Germany 70 Austria-Hungary 24 
 
 Russia 35 Spain 22 
 
238 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The relative ratings of cities, New York being assigned arbitrarily 100, 
 was: 
 
 New York 100 
 
 London 31 
 
 Boston 27 
 
 Washington 27 
 
 Chicago 26 
 
 Paris 26 
 
 Philadelphia 20 
 
 Berlin IS 
 
 Rome 12 
 
 Constantinople 12 
 
 St Petersburg 7 
 
 Vienna 7 
 
 The relative importance of rivers, seas and gulfs and straits in order of 
 rank was as follows: 
 
 Rivers 
 
 Seas and Gulfs 
 
 Straits 
 
 Mississippi > 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 Dardanelles 
 
 Hudson 
 
 iEgean 
 
 Bosporus 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Magellan 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Black 
 
 Bering 
 
 Rhine 
 
 Adriatic 
 
 
 Nile 
 
 Marmora 
 
 
 Danube 
 
 Red 
 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 Caspian 
 
 
 Potomac 
 
 
 
 La Plata 
 
 
 
 Seine 
 
 
 
 Niagara 
 
 
 
 Rio Grande 
 
 
 
 Columbia 
 
 
 
 Amazon 
 
 
 
 Congo 
 
 
 
 In a similar way historical references were tabulated, although they 
 were mentioned much less frequently than geographical references. 
 
 The frequency of reference to persons in American history, Lincoln be- 
 ing given the arbitrary value of 100, was as follows: 
 
 Lincoln 100 
 
 Washington 66 
 
 Jefferson 51 
 
 Jackson 24 
 
 Grant 20 
 
 Clay 20 
 
 Cleveland 17 
 
 McKinley 17 
 
 Webster 13 
 
 Franklin 10 
 
 J. Q. Adams 10 
 
 Buchanan 10 
 
 References to wars were more frequent than to any other type of his- 
 torical events, the Civil War holding first place. 
 
 References to civic material in periodicals in order of frequency of 
 reference were as follows: (1) The Constitution, (2) amendments to the 
 Constitution, and (3) the Constitutional Convention. 
 
 The Departments in order of frequency of reference were as follows: 
 state, interior, attorney-general's office, treasury, war, post-office, com- 
 merce, and agriculture. 
 
 In one rather "popular" magazine, a sampling of ten years shows that 
 Napoleon is most frequently mentioned, but other historical characters 
 
The Third Yearbook 239 
 
 such as Caesar, Louis XIV, Jeanne d'Arc, and Luther are also frequently 
 mentioned. Dr. Bagley comments that in this magazine analysis, Caesar 
 is referred to more frequently than any American character besides Lin- 
 coln, Washington, Roosevelt; Jeanne d'Arc as often as Cleveland, and 
 Napoleon more frequently than any living political or military character. 
 
 The writer of this report ventures to suggest that certain aspects of 
 European history are mentioned with sufficient frequency to cause one to 
 consider their inclusion in the socially valuable history to be taught in the 
 schools. The most important in order of frequency of reference are: The 
 Renaissance, the French Revolution, the Middle Ages, and the Elizabethan 
 period. 
 
 This is a pioneer study that attempts to "sample" periodical litera- 
 ture in order to obtain data concerning the facts in history and geography 
 that one is likely to encounter in what is probably the preeminent sources 
 of information of the average adult "layman" — namely, newspapers and 
 magazines. 
 
 However, there are limitations to this type of study as Dr. Bagley points 
 out in an article in School and Home Education for December, 1914. His 
 investigation showed that certain newspapers and magazines with large 
 circulations had relatively few references to geography and history ; 
 whereas, those newspapers and magazines "that related and discussed the 
 events and problems of the day on a broad and comprehensive plane, 
 with interpretations and references that involved for their understanding a 
 certain capacity of formal knowledge, appealed in general to a smaller 
 clientele and had in consequence a limited circulation." In other words, one 
 might argue that the level upon which newspapers make their appeal de- 
 pends much upon the extent to which formal education has benefited their 
 readers. The belief that communication of ideas and ideals in a democracy, 
 if we give all the people the tools of knowledge, will be adequately taken 
 care of through newspapers and other forms of current literature should 
 be scrutinized in much more detail. 
 
 The use of allusions in several studies in this section, in all likelihood, is 
 but one means to be utilized in checking the socially valuable basic facts 
 needed for an understanding of present-day society. This method should 
 be further explored. 
 
 STUDY NO. 9. Charters, W. W. A short cut in tabulation. Sum- 
 marized in Curriculum construction. New York, Macmillan Co., 1923. 
 
 Problem. To determine items of place geography to be taught by an 
 analysis of random samplings of newspapers and magazines. 
 
 Method. The first number for October of the Literary Digest in alter- 
 nate years from 1899 to 1913, inclusive, was examined for items in place 
 geography. Advertisements, maps, and lists of places were omitted, but 
 cartoons were included, "because they are essential parts of reading matter 
 widely used to make ideas clear." 
 
240 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 In the analysis, geographic names, such as England, were included and 
 also the names of people as English in order "to obtain a gauge of the im- 
 portance of the country, mention of the activities of the inhabitants was as 
 important as mention of the country." 
 
 "Every reference was tabulated, in contra-distinction to one reference per 
 paragraph or article as is the rule in some studies. This was done because 
 of the effort to obtain a complete analysis. Places of the most minute sort, 
 as the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, were included. Rivers, mountain ranges, 
 lakes, bays, channels, gulfs, seas, and oceans were not included." 
 
 TABLE 45. 
 
 FREQUENCY OF MENTION OF CONTINENTS IN SELECTED 
 ISSUES OF LITERARY DIGEST 
 
 Continent 
 
 Frequency 
 of mention 
 
 Continent 
 
 Frequency 
 of mention 
 
 Continent 
 
 Frequency 
 of mention 
 
 
 3,112 
 190 
 
 Europe 
 
 South America. . 
 
 1,835 
 38 
 
 
 597 
 
 Africa 
 
 Australia 
 
 28 
 
 TABLE 46. 
 
 -FREQUENCY OF MENTION OF COUNTRIES IN SELECTED 
 ISSUES OF LITERARY DIGEST 
 
 Country 
 
 Frequency 
 of mention 
 
 Country 
 
 Frequency 
 of mention 
 
 Country 
 
 Frequency 
 of mention 
 
 United States 
 
 2,712 
 205 
 121 
 78 
 57 
 34 
 23 
 
 British Isles .... 
 
 Japan 
 
 Italy 
 
 India 
 
 Transvaal 
 
 Spain 
 
 Greece 
 
 725 
 202 
 108 
 73 
 54 
 33 
 23 
 
 Germany 
 
 257 
 136 
 
 Russia 
 
 Canada 
 
 Russia 
 
 Orange Free States. . 
 Congo Free State. . . 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Austro-Hungary 
 
 82 
 61 
 43 
 32 
 
 One notes by comparing the samplings of Bagley and Charters a marked 
 resemblance in the relative frequencies of mention of the principal con- 
 tinents and countries of the world. Such studies with other studies listed in 
 this section contribute impersonal evidence upon the crucial problem of 
 relative emphasis to minimal essential facts. 
 
 STUDY NO. 10. Horn, Ernest. Possible defects in the present con- 
 tent of American history as taught in the schools. The Sixteenth Yearbook 
 of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. 1917. pp. 
 156-172. 
 
 Problem. To examine this value of history — namely, that the chief 
 purpose of teaching history in the elementary school is to make pupils 
 more intelligent with respect to crucial activities and problems of present- 
 day life or, as Dr. Horn continues, "this study is planned to determine what 
 the content of the course of study in history would be if all history which 
 is not essential to such intelligence were eliminated and if items which are 
 essential but which do not at present appear in the course of study were 
 added." 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 241 
 
 Method. Dr. Horn's hypothesis was that he could secure by analysis of 
 books dealing with more crucial modern problems at least the sort of history 
 or reference to historical material which these authors deemed essential to 
 the understanding of modern problems. His point of view was a service 
 point of view — that is, to determine what contemporary historians made use 
 of in their discussion of present-day affairs. 
 
 He, therefore, asked the heads of the departments of political science, 
 sociology, and economics of the State University of Iowa to make out a list 
 of such problems and to list the books. Twenty-seven books were listed 
 and analyzed, among them being such books as: Adams, Science of Finance; 
 Adams and Sumner, Labor problems; Johnson, American railway transpor- 
 tation; Seager, Social insurance. 
 
 The twenty-seven books were then analyzed for the six following things 
 according to the outline used by Langlois and Seignobos, Introduction to 
 the study of history, pp. 234-235. 
 
 1. The percentage of historical material in each book 
 
 2. The specific and approximate dates referred to 
 
 3. The historical characters referred to 
 
 4. The frequency of reference to each period of history. The periods in 
 this study were made to correspond to the study made by W. C. 
 Bagley and Harold O. Rugg — The content of American history as 
 taught in the seventh and eighth grades. 
 
 5. The frequency of reference to each of the more important phases of 
 history 
 
 6. Movements, events, conditions, problems, etc. 
 
 Thirty-eight topics similar to the content of the twenty-seven books were 
 also used in the analysis of articles in the International Encyclopedia. One 
 hundred forty-two such articles were analyzed. 
 
 The topics examined in this study are as follows : 
 
 Accident insurance 
 
 Ballot 
 
 Bank, Banking 
 
 Child labor 
 
 Crime 
 
 Civil-service reform 
 
 Conservation 
 
 Coast defense 
 
 Democracy 
 
 Divorce 
 
 Education 
 
 Efficiency 
 
 Fire insurance 
 
 Family 
 
 Feminism 
 
 Hygiene 
 
 Initiative, Referendum, 
 
 etc. 
 Interstate commerce 
 Life insurance 
 Labor 
 
 Merchant marine 
 Monroe Doctrine 
 Milk 
 Negro 
 Regulation of public 
 
 utilities 
 
 Pauperism 
 
 Philippines 
 
 Prisons 
 
 Pure food 
 
 Roads 
 
 Rural credits 
 
 Railways 
 
 Socialism 
 
 Tariff 
 
 Temperance 
 
 Transportation 
 
 Tax 
 
 Woman's suffrage 
 
242 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Findings. Table 47 shows the percentage of references devoted to 
 each period in the problem books, in the International Encyclopedia and in 
 the elementary school histories as analyzed by Bagley and Rugg. 
 
 TABLE 47.— PERCENTAGE OF HISTORICAL REFERENCES DEVOTED TO 
 
 VARIOUS PERIODS 
 
 Period 
 
 Books 
 
 International 
 Encyclopedia 
 
 Elementary 
 Texts 
 
 
 
 3.7 
 0.67 
 2.0 
 3.5 
 6.0 
 11.0 
 74.0 
 
 
 
 0.1 
 2.5 
 3.8 
 1.8 
 4.7 
 85.7 
 
 8.27 
 
 
 19.62 
 
 1764-1783 
 
 13.69 
 
 1784-1812 
 
 14.17 
 
 1812-1861 : 
 
 21.00 
 
 1861-1916 -. 
 
 24.67 
 
 
 
 The Study does not indicate the per cent of historical material in each book. 
 
 The specific and approximate dates referred to — one hundred ninety- 
 four separate dates were found in the books and one hundred ninety-nine 
 in the International; two hundred fifty-three different dates in the two 
 lists. 
 
 Reference to persons. The frequency of mention to the persons in the 
 books and encyclopedia articles combined is as follows : 
 
 Roosevelt 284 
 
 Smith, Adam 214 
 
 Mill, J. S...« 174 
 
 Malthus 74 
 
 Napoleon 64 
 
 Marx, Karl 59 
 
 Owen, Robert 44 
 
 Gompers 41 
 
 Ricardo 38 
 
 Wilson 30 
 
 Washington 29 
 
 Louis XIV 29 
 
 Rousseau 26 
 
 George, Henry 25 
 
 Grant, U. S 18 
 
 Pitt, Wm 16 
 
 Wells, H. G 16 
 
 Gladstone 16 
 
 Wagner, A 15 
 
 Webb 14 
 
 Lassalle 14 
 
 Napoleon III . 12 
 
 William III 10 
 
 Gallatin 10 
 
 Jackson, Andrew 10 
 
 Montaigne 10 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander 9 
 
 Wright, CD 7 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas 24 Shaw, Bernard 6 
 
 Table 48 shows the distribution of references to political, military, and 
 social and economic history in these books on modern problems and ency- 
 clopedia articles as well as in modern history textbooks and the opinions of 
 a proper distribution between the three by the committee of eight. 
 
 TABLE 48.— DISTRIBUTION OF REFERENCES TO POLITICAL, MILITARY 
 AND SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY 
 
 Source 
 
 Political 
 
 Military 
 
 Social and 
 economic 
 
 
 33.0 
 
 42.0 
 18.7 
 37.0 
 
 30.0 
 40.0 
 
 4.7 
 
 1.7 . 
 
 37 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
The Third Yearbook 243 
 
 The most important interpretation to be deduced from the study of 
 these tables is that the historical material that writers of books and arti- 
 cles on modern problems chiefly make use of is relatively recent. The 
 references are principally to dates and persons since the Civil War. 
 
 While Dr. Horn points out that we should have a larger number of 
 books analyzed, perhaps one hundred, and also a larger number of articles 
 in the encyclopedias, he does say, however, that the returns from the 
 books and articles analyzed are so consistent that the data would probably 
 be unmodified except in minor items. 
 
 Moreover, he points out that while the investigators scoring these 
 books for dates, persons, etc., may have made certain mistakes, neverthe- 
 less, because each improved with practice he asserts that the reports repre- 
 sent "a very close approximation to the material actually in the books and 
 articles under these headings." A variation from true description of the 
 data is probably not more than five or ten per cent. 
 
 Summarizing, Dr. Horn does not attempt to answer the question as to 
 the complete content of the course but he does say that he has attempted to 
 investigate the implications of the following assertion, namely, "that his- 
 tory should render pupils more intelligent with regard to modern condi- 
 tions, and problems and activities. If one assumes ( 1 ) that this is the func- 
 tion of history, (2) that the method of research here followed is satisfac- 
 tory, (3) that sufficient data have been collected, then there seems no 
 escape from the conclusion that present elementary and high school courses 
 of study in history are in very serious need of reconstruction." 
 
 Obviously, this does not imply that there are not other functions of his- 
 tory from which one could justify the inclusion of certain material that 
 does not seem to be justified from the examination of the data in this study. 
 Dr. Horn, himself, says that while the data suggest emphases to various 
 items, they do not indicate what the organization of the course should be. 
 Hence, we should keep in mind that we need other methods of attack ir. 
 order to determine additional values of the material taught in American 
 history. 
 
 STUDY NO. ii. Marston, L. R.; McKown, H. C; and Bagley, 
 W. C. The method of determining misplacements of emphasis in seventh 
 and eighth grade history. Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society 
 for the Study of Education, Part I. 1918. pp. 90-96. 
 
 Problem. To determine more "precisely some of the misplacements 
 of emphasis in the present day and relatively recent teaching of elementary 
 history." It was a sequel to the study made by W. C. Bagley and Harold 
 O. Rugg entitled The content of United States history as taught in seventh 
 and eighth grades, that is, both studies were concerned with what are the 
 minimal essentials as revealed by analyses of elementary school history 
 textbooks. 
 
244 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The following criteria were used in measuring present practices: 
 
 "1. Are the relative emphases given to events in the textbooks consistent with 
 the emphases given to the same events in standard books of reference? 
 
 "2. Are the relative emphases given by the textbooks consistent with the judg- 
 ment of students of history regarding the events that should be emphasized? 
 
 "3. Are the relative emphases given by the textbooks consistent with the need 
 for historical knowledge in interpreting current discussions of national problems 
 as these are revealed in periodical literature?" 
 
 This particular study by Marston, McKown, and Bagley was limited 
 to one type of analysis of school histories — the names of persons given 
 prominence by twenty-five elementary textbooks in their treatment of the 
 period between 1765 to 1865 in American history. These names are re- 
 ferred to in the Bagley-Rugg study under the caption, "The Hall of 
 Fame." 
 
 Method. The frequency of mention of these names in "The Hall of 
 Fame" was assumed to be a rating of the importance of these persons in 
 American history. 
 
 To check these a rating on each of the three criteria above was used. 
 
 1. The "Encyclopedia Ratings." Such encyclopedias as the Britannica, 
 The New International, Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, 
 Harper's Encyclopedia of American History were used. 
 
 2. The "Historian's Ratings." The lists, both civil and military, in 
 the "Hall of Fame" were sent to two hundred and five teachers and stu- 
 dents of history in American schools and universities, who were asked to 
 rank these in their order of relative importance. Thirty-three replies were 
 used. 
 
 TABLE 49.— RANKING OF THE FIRST TWENTY-FIVE MEN PROMINENT 
 IN CIVIL LIFE BETWEEN 1765 AND 1865 
 
 Names 
 
 Amalgamated 
 ranking 
 
 25 textbooks 
 
 8 encyclo- 
 pedias 
 
 33 histo- 
 rians 
 
 4 magazines 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23.5 
 23;5 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 10.5 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 10.5 
 14 
 
 20.5 
 16.5 
 18.5 
 14 
 12 
 16.5 
 18.5 
 20.5 
 24.5 
 22.5 
 24.5 
 22.5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 11 
 12 
 
 7 
 17 
 10 
 18 
 15 
 21 
 20 
 16 
 13 
 22 
 19 
 14 
 25 
 24 
 23, 
 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 Andrew Jackson . . 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Clay 
 
 5 
 
 9.5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 John Adams 
 
 J. Q. Adams 
 
 12.5 
 9.5 
 
 17 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 11 
 
 S. A. Douglas .... 
 Van Buren 
 
 14.5 
 14.5 
 12.5 
 23 
 
 Samuel Adams . . . 
 Tyler 
 
 25 
 20 
 
 Polk 
 
 19 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 17 
 
 W. H. Harrison. . . 
 Taylor 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 245 
 
 3. The "Magazines' Ratings." "Samplings" from the files of the fol- 
 lowing four magazines — the Atlantic Monthly, twenty issues; The Nation, 
 seventy-eight issues; Colliers, thirty-eight issues; Saturday Evening Post, 
 twenty issues, for a period of ten years (1904-1913) were read and fre- 
 quencies of mention under the civil and military lists were constructed. 
 The "samplings" were distributed, so that each year was represented by 
 approximately the same number of issues. Each name was credited with 
 only one reference for each article in which it appeared. 
 
 Findings. Table 49 shows the ranking of the first twenty-five men 
 prominent in civil life between 1765 and 1865, according to the amalga- 
 mated ranking, to the twenty-five textbooks, to the eight encyclopedias, to 
 the thirty-three historians, and to the four magazines. 
 
 Table 50 shows the rankings of men prominent in military and naval 
 affairs between 1765 and 1865 according to the same standards as in 
 Table 49. 
 
 TABLE 50.- 
 
 -RANKING OF MEN PROMINENT IN MILITARY AND NAVAL 
 AFFAIRS BETWEEN 1765 AND 1865 
 
 Names 
 
 Amalgamated 
 ranking 
 
 25 textbooks 
 
 6 encyclo- 
 
 33 histo- 
 
 4 magazines 
 
 
 pedias 
 
 rians 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6.5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 4.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 12.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 1 
 
 18.5 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 9.5 
 
 23.5 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 6.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 14.5 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 18.5 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18.5 
 
 23.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 18.5 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 23.5 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 4.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 23.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 18 
 
 9.5 
 
 10 
 
 18.5 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 23.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 20.5 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 20.5 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 Grant 
 
 Washington 
 
 Lee 
 
 Sherman 
 
 McClellan 
 
 "Stonewall" Jack- 
 son 
 
 Arnold 
 
 Greene 
 
 Sheridan 
 
 A. Jackson 
 
 Scott 
 
 J. E. Johnson .... 
 
 Cornwallis 
 
 Farragut 
 
 Burgoyne 
 
 Meade 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Hooker 
 
 Clinton 
 
 Thomas 
 
 Howe 
 
 Schuyler 
 
 W. H. Harrison. . . 
 
 Early 
 
 Gage 
 
 10.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 The displacements of textbooks' civil rankings of four places or more 
 from the amalgamated rankings are as follows : 
 
 Displacement 
 
 A. Textbooks apparently overemphasize the importance of 
 
 Patrick Henry 6 places 
 
 Madison 5 places 
 
 John Adams 4 places 
 
 B. Textbooks apparently underemphasize the importance of 
 
 Franklin 6.5 places 
 
 Webster 6.5 places 
 
 Jefferson Davis 6.5 places 
 
246 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The displacements of textbooks' military rankings of four places or more 
 from amalgamated rankings are as follows: 
 
 Displacement 
 
 A. Textbooks apparently overemphasize the importance of 
 
 Howe 13 places 
 
 Clinton 8.5 places 
 
 Cornwallis 8 places 
 
 J. E. Johnston 5 places 
 
 Burgoyne 4 places 
 
 B. Textbooks apparently underemphasize the importance of 
 
 A. Jackson 13 places 
 
 Farragut 9.5 places 
 
 Sheridan 8 places 
 
 Meade 7.5 places 
 
 "Stonewall" Jackson 6.5 places 
 
 Hooker 5 places 
 
 Greene . 4.5 places 
 
 Scott 4 places 
 
 The study shows more of a tendency to overemphasize or underemphasize 
 the importance of military persons due to the tendency in the past perhaps 
 to stress military history than to overemphasize or underemphasize treat- 
 ment of political affairs. 
 
 STUDY NO. 12. Swisher, J. A. The historical information essential 
 for the intelligent understanding of civic problems. Seventeenth Yearbook 
 of the National Society for the Study of Education. Parti. 1918. pp. 81- 
 89. (Summary of unpublished Dissertation Ph. D. State Univ. of Iowa, 
 Iowa City, Iowa.) 
 
 Problem. What history is most necessary to the intelligent under- 
 standing of modern political problems, conditions and activities ? 
 
 Method. This study is based on the theory, "that if a representative 
 list of the more crucial modern problems could be secured, and if among 
 the books dealing with such problems, those be selected which give the 
 clearest statement of that problem, it might be expected that these books 
 would contain at least the sort of history, or amount of historical reference 
 which, in the judgment of the authors, is essential to a proper understanding 
 of the modern problems that are discussed." Members of the Department 
 of Political Science at the State University of Iowa were asked to list 
 books which deal in a representative way with modern problerris. 
 
 Twenty-two books were given and were used as a basis for Swisher's 
 study. Examples of these books are the following: Adams, Science of 
 Finance; Fairchild, Immigration ; Haynes, Child labor; and Jenks, The 
 trust problem. 
 
 Also twenty-two articles of similar material were checked in the Cyclo- 
 pedia of American Government. 
 
 The material was analyzed for four types of data : ( 1 ) Historical per- 
 sons referred to in each book; (2) specific dates and frequency of reference 
 to various periods in history; (3) the frequency of reference to the leading 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 247 
 
 foreign countries; and (4) historical movements, events, conditions, and 
 problems. 
 
 TABLE 5i.— TWENTY MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED PERSONS IN 
 BOOKS AND CYCLOPEDIA ARTICLES 
 
 Person 
 
 Books 
 
 Roosevelt, President 
 
 Cleveland, President 
 
 McKinley, President 
 
 Smith, Adam. 
 
 Taft, President 
 
 Jackson, President 
 
 Grant, President. 
 
 Mill, John Stuart 
 
 Wilson, President 
 
 Garfield, President .. 
 
 Malthus 
 
 Montesquieu 
 
 Eliot, Charles W 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander 
 
 Harrison, President W. H 
 
 Walker, Francis 
 
 Hughes, Charles Evans 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham 
 
 Bryce, James 
 
 Clay, Henry 
 
 Cobden, Richard 
 
 List, Frederick 
 
 Washington, President 
 
 Cyclopedia Articles 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Taft 
 
 Roosevelt 
 
 Wilson 
 
 Wright, Francis 
 
 Different 
 problems 
 
 10 
 7 
 5 
 5 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 Number of times 
 mentioned 
 
 Product 
 
 250 
 63 
 45 
 55 
 44 
 44 
 40 
 40 
 36 
 32 
 32 
 21 
 16 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 12 
 12 
 
 24 
 24 
 12 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 Table 52 shows the references to dates in books and cyclopedia articles 
 combined. 
 
 TABLE 52.— DATES MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED IN BOOKS AND 
 CYCLOPEDIA ARTICLES 
 
 Date 
 
 Different problems 
 
 Times mentioned 
 
 18°2 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 1887 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 1890 
 
 20 
 
 66 
 
 1893 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 1894 
 
 14 
 
 54 
 
 1896 
 
 13 
 
 43 
 
 1897 
 
 17 
 
 53 
 
 1898 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 1899 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 1900 
 
 18 
 
 73 
 
 1901 
 
 21 
 
 41 
 
 1903 
 
 15 
 
 36 
 
 1904 
 
 11 
 
 37 
 
 1906 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 1907 
 
 18 
 
 61 
 
 1908 
 
 13 
 
 71 
 
 1909 
 
 12 
 
 45 
 
 1910 
 
 17 
 
 78 
 
 1911 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 1912 
 
 19 
 
 69 
 
248 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Findings, a. Persons — A total of 563 different names were found in 
 the twenty-two books. Table 51 shows the references to the most fre- 
 quently mentioned persons both in books and in cyclopedia articles. 
 
 b. Dates — 214 dates were found in the books analyzed and 89 in the 
 cyclopedia articles. 
 
 The first conclusion that one draws from a study of these tables is that 
 the persons and dates made use of by writers of books on modern problems 
 are quite . different from the persons and dates referred to in school his- 
 tories. While some of the names are common to both lists the majority of 
 the names and dates in these tables are different. A second point to be 
 noted is that the majority of the names referred to and the dates men- 
 tioned have to do with recent history — that is, with history of the United 
 States since the Civil War. 
 
 c. Historical periods — The percentage of space given to various periods 
 of United States history in books and in cyclopedia articles as compared 
 with the proportion of space devoted to these periods in a survey of ele- 
 mentary school histories is shown in Table 53. 
 
 TABLE 53.— COMPARISON OF PER CENT OF SPACE GIVEN VARIOUS 
 PERIODS OF HISTORY IN TEXTBOOKS AND BY WRITERS OF CON- 
 TEMPORARY PROBLEMS 
 
 Period 
 
 Books 
 
 International 
 Cyclopedia 
 
 Elementary 
 texts 
 
 Present 
 work 
 
 
 0.1 
 2.5 
 3.8 
 1.8 
 
 4.7 
 85.7 
 
 3.7 
 0.67 
 2.0 
 3.5 
 6.0 
 11.0 
 74.0 
 
 8.27 
 19.62 
 13.69 
 14.17 
 21.00 
 24.67 
 
 
 Colonial to 1764 
 
 0.93 
 2.46 
 
 1764-1783 
 
 1.72 
 
 1783-1812 
 
 4.38 
 
 1812-1861 
 
 16.39 
 
 1861-1916 
 
 74.12 
 
 
 
 It is obvious that the references classified by periods deal preponderantly 
 with those events and movements since 1861. In fact, nearly three-fourths 
 of the references deal with recent history as compared with about one-fourth 
 the emphasis to such events in elementary school histories. 
 
 The outstanding feature, then, of the historical information essential for 
 the understanding of political problems is that this historical information 
 made use of by writers about contemporary problems deals chiefly with 
 materials in relatively recent times, particularly since the Civil War. On 
 the other hand, we should note in Table 53 that whereas most attention by 
 the writers of contemporary problems is given to the history since 1861, 
 74.12 per cent for example, that elementary textbooks give only 24.67 per 
 cent of the allotment of space to the same period. Such a discrepancy 
 between the history used by writers on contemporary problems and the 
 history set forth in textbooks calls at least for more serious study of the 
 bases upon which crucial materials of the past are selected for inclusion in 
 the social science curriculum. ' 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 249 
 
 TABLE 54.— COMPARISON OF BAGLEY'S RESULTS WITH THOMAS' FOR 
 THE MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED CONTINENTS 
 
 Country 
 
 Thomas 
 
 Bagley 
 
 Actual 
 frequency 
 
 North America 
 
 Europe 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 South America 
 Australia 
 
 100 
 172 
 18 
 90 
 63 
 18 
 
 100 
 73 
 13 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 TABLE 55.— FREQUENCY OF MENTION OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES 
 
 Country 
 
 Thomas 
 frequency 
 
 Branom & Reavis 
 score 
 
 United States. . . . 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Great Britain 
 Austria-Hungary . 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Russia 
 
 China 
 
 Italy 
 
 Canada 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Holland 
 
 India 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Siberia 
 
 Japan 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Argentina 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Australia 
 
 90 
 71 
 70 
 53 
 23 
 22 
 20 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 11 
 10 
 10 
 
 30 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 23 
 27 
 26 
 27 
 27 
 20 
 24 
 28 
 25 
 24 
 
 27 
 21 
 21 
 
 
 25 
 20 
 23 
 
 TABLE 56.— FREQUENCY OF MENTION OF THE LARGEST EUROPEAN 
 
 CITIES 
 
 City 
 
 Branom & Reavis 
 Rank 
 
 Thomas 
 frequency 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 
 43 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
250 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 STUDY NO. 13. Thomas, Joel Bert. A study in minimal essentials 
 of geography for the elementary schools. Unpublished Master of Arts 
 Thesis on file in the Library, Univ. of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind. 
 
 Problem. To determine a list of minimal essentials in elementary 
 geography. 
 
 Method. After a review of other studies that attempt to state the mini- 
 mal essentials, Mr. Thomas made a comparative study with the Bagley in- 
 vestigation by the reference method of the allusions in a sampling of the fol- 
 lowing periodicals: The Indianapolis Neivs, The Danville Gazette , and 
 Youth's Companion. Four editions of the first two and six of the latter 
 were selected at random from the period 1911-1918. 
 
 Findings. One hundred and eighty-eight pages of printed matter was 
 found to contain 5027 geographical references. The following tables are 
 given herewith for comparative purposes. 
 
 Table 55 compares the frequency of occurrence of various countries 
 with the score of each country in the Branom-Reavis study. 
 
 Table 56 gives the ranking based upon the scores according to the 
 Branom-Reavis study and the frequency of mention of the largest cities in 
 Europe according to the Thomas study. 
 
 Table 57 compares the rank of the chief cities of the United States ac- 
 cording to the Branom-Reavis list and the Thomas study. In a similar 
 way Mr. Thomas compares rivers, bays, and mountains with the Bagley 
 study. 
 
 TABLE 57.— RANK OF CHIEF CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 City 
 
 Branom & 
 Reavis rank 
 
 Thomas 
 frequency 
 
 Thomas 
 rank 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 93 
 86 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 111 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 7.5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 12 
 
 8 
 11 
 15.5 
 
 7.5 
 15.5 
 
 7 
 21 
 14 
 
 1 
 10 
 21 
 22 
 14 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 
 20 
 16 
 21 
 13 
 14 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seattle 
 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 
 Louisville 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 251 
 
 Table 58 shows the per cent of references to various types of geography 
 in the Thomas study and in the Bagley study. 
 
 TABLE 58.— PER CENT OF REFERENCES TO VARIOUS TYPES OF 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Types of geography 
 
 Thomas 
 Per cent 
 
 Bagley 
 Per cent 
 
 Place geography 
 
 Political geography . . . 
 Commercial geography 
 
 Social geography 
 
 Historical geography. . 
 Unclassified 
 
 45.8 
 
 18.1 
 
 3.2 
 
 8.6 
 
 0.9 
 
 22.8 
 
 53.5 
 
 25.1 
 
 5.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 Mr. Thomas says, "The striking difference in the figures for the unclassi- 
 fied references is due to the large number of local references in the metro- 
 politan and county newspapers. The large per cent of local references in 
 the newspapers is an indication of the relative importance of home geo- 
 graphy." One notes there is a rather marked resemblance between the per- 
 centage of distributions for the other types of geography. 
 
 STUDY NO. 14. Washburne, Carleton W. Basic facts needed in 
 history and geography ; a statistical investigation. The Twenty-second 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. 
 1923, pp. 216-233. 
 
 Problem. To select basic facts in history and geography by an imper- 
 sonal standard for the elementary school course of study in Winnetka, Illi- 
 nois. Dr. Washburne assumed that an important function in the teaching 
 of geography and history was to make children familiar with the facts that 
 are commonly known to intelligent people. The facts frequently alluded to 
 in periodicals must be taught if our children are to read intelligently. 
 
 Method. The type of subject matter, generality of distribution, and 
 period of time covered guided the investigators in this study. 
 
 Four literary periodicals were selected: Atlantic, Bookman, Century, 
 Scribner's; five popular fiction periodicals: American, Cosmopolitan, Sat- 
 urday Evening Post, Ladies' Home Journal, Good Housekeeping ; five 
 news periodicals: World's Work, Literary Digest, Outlook, New 
 Republic, Nation; and four newspapers: New York Times, Chicago 
 Tribune, Chicago Herald-Examiner, and Christian Science Monitor. 
 
 Dr. Washburne says in respect to samplings of these periodicals : "We 
 chose about fifteen issues of each of these periodicals, three every third 
 year, in such a way that one periodical or another covered almost every 
 month of every year from 1905 to May, 1922. In this way we avoided 
 seasonal weighting of items, and secured information over a wide enough 
 range of years to avoid the danger of overemphasis of purely transitory 
 material." Every allusion to a person, place, date, or event was recorded. 
 Altogether there were over 81,000 allusions. 
 
252 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 TABLE 59.— FREQUENCY RANKS OF FIFTY MOST COMMON HISTORICAL 
 AND GEOGRAPHICAL ALLUSIONS 
 
 Allusion 
 
 Number of 
 periodical 
 
 years 
 
 Number of 
 years be- 
 tween first 
 and last 
 allusion 
 
 Number of 
 articles in 
 which allus- 
 ions occur 
 
 Gross 
 number of 
 allusions 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 103 
 103 
 100 
 100 . 
 
 98 
 9.5 
 . 92 
 92 
 86 
 86 
 86 
 86 
 83 
 81 
 81 
 81 
 81 
 78 
 78 
 78 
 78 
 75 
 75 
 75 
 
 75 
 74 
 72 
 72 
 72 
 72 
 72 
 70 
 69 
 66 
 66 
 65 
 63 
 63 
 63 
 63 
 63 
 63 
 62 
 61 
 61 
 61 
 61 
 61 
 59 
 59 
 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 
 IS 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 IS 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 
 1,211 
 1,155 
 1,390 
 911 
 353 
 629 
 674 
 297 
 594 
 516 
 428 
 267 
 400 
 837 
 659 
 202 
 193 
 362 
 288 
 279 
 264 
 457 
 350 
 240 
 
 216 
 
 257 
 255 
 216 
 216 
 213 
 142 
 137 
 124 
 172 
 169 
 380 
 151 
 130 
 124 
 109 
 103 
 178 
 170 
 175 
 133 
 121 
 109 
 148 
 193 
 80 
 
 5,903 
 3,315 
 
 
 3,848 
 
 New York City 
 
 2,386 
 
 
 750 
 
 
 1,303 
 
 
 3,015 
 
 
 564 
 
 New York State 
 
 1,090 
 
 
 1,494 
 
 Italy 
 
 1,140 
 
 
 902 
 
 
 1,539 
 
 
 1,994 
 
 
 1,725 
 
 
 604 
 
 
 269 
 
 
 1,730 
 
 
 674 
 
 
 649 
 
 
 761 
 
 
 899 
 618 
 
 
 814 
 
 Africa (including North and South Africa, 
 etc.) 
 
 441 
 
 Roosevelt, Theodore 
 
 617 
 632 
 337 
 
 
 199 
 
 
 354 
 
 
 160 
 
 
 236 
 176 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 460 
 
 
 789 
 255 
 
 Egypt 
 
 286 
 121 
 
 
 460 
 174 
 
 
 247 
 
 Taft, President. . . 
 
 411 
 
 
 281 
 
 
 219 
 
 
 165 
 
 Washington, George 
 
 Civil War 
 
 Austria (including Austro-Hungary) 
 
 216 
 
 162 
 
 429 
 
 86 
 
 
 
 The frequency of ranks was determined on the basis of : ( 1 ) The 
 number of periodical-years in order to weight the number of periodicals 
 containing allusions year by year; (2) the range of years — that is, the 
 lapse of time from the first year in which an allusion was found to the last; 
 
 (3) the number of articles containing allusions to the item in question; and 
 
 (4) the gross number of allusions. 
 
 Periodical-years gave an almost perfect index as to the probability of 
 meeting allusions to the item. Therefore, items were ranked according to 
 
The Third Yearbook 253 
 
 their periodical-years. Table 59 shows a few of the most frequently men- 
 tioned allusions. 
 
 Before such lists are accepted with any great degree of finality, it is 
 probable that other samplings should be taken. Dr. Washburne's list is 
 significant for the range of the sample — namely, over eighteen years — from 
 1905 to 1922. One might, however, question whether his list of magazines 
 and newspapers is sufficiently representative of the average reading of the 
 Dublic of periodicals. Another investigation of other magazines and news- 
 papers, perhaps with larger circulations, might well be undertaken. If 
 =uch an investigation agrees in its findings with those of Dr. Washburne, 
 we would be in a more definite position to assert that these are the minimal 
 essential facts in geography and history that one encounters in his reading 
 of periodicals. 
 
 STUDY NO. 15. Peters, Charles C. Detailed analysis of one objec- 
 tive of cultural education. Published in Foundations of educational soci- 
 ology. New York, Macmillan Co., 1924, pp. 419-424. 
 
 Problem. To find what information is necessary for the following item 
 of culture: At least superficial acquaintance with a wide variety of mat- 
 ters, so as not to be entirely ignorant of practically anything met with 
 in reading or heard about, but also to "place" them at least roughly in their 
 setting. Peters asserts that this ability to place references and to get satis- 
 faction from it is an important element of culture. The study is included 
 here because it is another check upon the informational facts involving his- 
 tory and geography in popular literature. 
 
 Method. Classes of Professor Peters searched through the most widely 
 read contemporary literature to discover references to history, geography, 
 and the like, because "it is in connection with such literature that the typi- 
 cal person will have occasion to get the satisfactions and questions." 
 
 A study of Mr. H. F. Jenkins, of Little, Brown and Company, in- 
 volving what books have been most widely read within recent years, was 
 used. Twenty-six "best sellers," including such books as Main Street, Four 
 Horsemen of the Apocalypse, The Shepherd of the Hills, Great Heart, The 
 River s Etid, Heart of the West, and The Inside of the Cup, were, there- 
 fore, analyzed for the allusions in which information concerning history, 
 geography, literature, and so on, was called for. Local references were 
 excluded and duplicates counted only if they occurred in a new setting. 
 
 "Besides these twenty-six novels there were covered in the same way 
 twenty-five short stories, four thousand jokes, two thousand comic pictures 
 in the newspapers, and the legends of ten moving picture shows. These 
 lists were then telescoped and the number of times each item occurred thus 
 determined. The most frequently mentioned — New York City — had oc- 
 curred ninety-six times and the others ranged from that down to one time. 
 Motion picture shows and short stories were added until the highest one 
 stood at exactly one hundred. This ought to give a pretty fair sampling of 
 the reading that the rank and file of people do, and hence indicate rather 
 
254 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 TABLEI60. 
 
 -HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL TOPICS IN CONTEMPO- 
 RARY LITERATURE 
 
 Topic 
 
 New York City 
 
 Germany 
 
 France 
 
 England 
 
 The Bible 
 
 London , 
 
 Paris 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Europe 
 
 Ireland 
 
 China 
 
 Boston 
 
 Rome 
 
 Times 
 mentioned 
 
 100 
 55 
 54 
 50 
 44 
 43 
 30 
 29 
 28 
 24 
 23 
 21 
 20 
 
 Topic 
 
 Shakespeare , 
 
 George Washington 
 
 Henry Ford 
 
 Caesar 
 
 New England 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Congress 
 
 Greece 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 Scotland 
 
 California 
 
 Times 
 mentioned 
 
 19 
 19 
 18 
 18 
 17 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 TABLE 61.— AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF SPACE DEVOTED TO NINE 
 HISTORICAL PERIODS IN TEXTS PUBLISHED IN FOUR DIFFERENT 
 INTERVALS 
 
 Historical period 
 
 Average percentage of space devoted to historical 
 periods in textbooks 
 
 Intervals in which textbooks reviewed were published 
 
 1865-1874 
 
 1881-1888 
 
 1890-1904 
 
 1906-1912 
 
 5.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 11.1 
 
 8.2 
 
 21.3 
 
 20.0 
 
 17.4 
 
 15.9 
 
 5.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.6 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.1 
 
 17.6 
 
 17.3 
 
 11.9 
 
 9.5 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.2 
 
 8.7 
 
 14.1 
 
 16.9 
 
 15.6 
 
 19.1 
 
 21.0 
 
 18.8 
 
 14.2 
 
 11.9 
 
 10.2 
 
 8.95 
 
 11.3 
 
 14.9 
 
 14.4 
 
 Discovery and exploration. 
 
 Colonial development 
 
 Colonial wars. . . ., 
 
 Pre-revolution 
 
 Revolution 
 
 1783-1812 
 
 1812-1861 
 
 Civil War to 1865 
 
 1865 to date of publication 
 
 TABLE 62.— PERCENTAGE OF SPACE ALLOTTED TO PERIODS OF AMERI- 
 CAN HISTORY AS GIVEN BY THE COMMITTEE OF EIGHT REPORT, 
 THE STUDY OF W. C. BAGLEY AND HAROLD O. RUGG, AND THE 
 STUDIES OF EARLE RUGG ON: EARLY AMERICAN HISTORY PUB- 
 LISHED BEFORE i860 
 
 Period 
 
 Committee 
 of Eight 
 report 
 
 Study of 
 
 W. C. Bagley 
 
 and H. O. 
 
 Rugg 
 
 Study of 
 current 
 histories 
 
 Early his- 
 tories pub- 
 lished before 
 1860 
 
 Discovery and Exploration 1000-1607 
 
 Colonization 1607-1690 
 
 Colonial Wars 1690-1763 
 
 Pre-Revolutionary War Period 1763-1775. . 
 Revolutionary War 1775-1783 
 
 12.90 
 
 21.20 
 3.10 
 2.06 
 
 14.40 
 8.70 
 
 22.70 
 6.10 
 9.30 
 
 8.27 
 
 15.95 
 
 3.67 
 
 4.11 
 
 9.58 
 
 14.17 
 
 21.01 
 
 10.22 
 
 14.45 
 
 5.73 
 
 8.89 
 
 6.48 
 
 3.50 
 
 5.67 
 
 10.82 
 
 24. 2S 
 
 7.70 
 
 21.69 
 
 5.86 
 
 8.09 
 
 28.73 
 
 6.48 
 
 4.32 
 
 20.36 
 
 Period 1783-1812 
 
 9.60 
 
 Period 1812-1861 
 
 22.76 
 
 Civil War 1861-1865. 
 
 
 Period 1865-1912 
 
 
 Period 1912 to date 
 
 
 
 
The Third Yearbook 255 
 
 reliably the background of information needed for the maximum apprecia- 
 tion of this reading." 
 
 Findings. The most frequently mentioned items are listed in Table 60. 
 
 Dr. Peters' study is further substantiation of the basic minimal essential 
 facts that one encounters in another source of reading — namely, most 
 widely read contemporary literature. With the other studies in this field, 
 it should be used to amplify and check attempts to obtain as complete a list 
 as possible of socially valuable minimal essential facts in geography and 
 history. 
 
 c. Studies that contribute data concerning what facts, dates, persons, 
 topics, problems, etc., are stressed in commonly used school textbooks 
 
 STUDY NO. 16. Bagley, W. C, and Rugg, Harold O. The content 
 of American history as taught in seventh and eighth grades. An analysis 
 of typical school textbooks. Bulletin 16, School of Education, Univ. of 
 Illinois, Urbana, 111. 1915. 
 
 Problem. To show the trends and relative emphases given to the basic 
 materials in United States history taught in seventh and eighth grades, by 
 means of analyzing commonly used textbooks in four periods, namely, 
 1865-1874, 1881-1888, 1890-1904, and 1906-1912. 
 
 This study was undertaken under the assumption that the minimal con- 
 tent of geography and history as taught in the elementary school should in- 
 clude the geographical and historical data with which everyone should be 
 familiar, the facts and principles which might be assumed as part of the 
 culture common to all of the people, the need for knowing what elements of 
 historical and geographical knowledge are now, and have been in the im- 
 mediate past, actually part of the common pabulum of elementary instruc- 
 tion assumed prime importance. It is the textbook that forms the basis of 
 instruction in history in American elementary and secondary schools. 
 
 Method. A careful count of the proportion of space devoted to the 
 major periods and to the subordinate topics within each period as well as 
 the frequency of mention of important persons in each period was made. 
 Out of the latter, the so-called Hall of Fame of important persons in 
 American history was developed. 
 
 Findings. The proportion of space which commonly used textbooks 
 devote to nine periods in American history is shown in Table 61. 
 
 The more important facts set forth in this study may be summarized as 
 follows: In so far as can be determined from the material presented in the 
 textbooks, elementary American history as taught in the seventh and eighth 
 grades has been and still is predominantly political and military history. 
 
 Within the past fifty years, the emphasis upon military affairs as meas- 
 ured by the proportion of space devoted to wars has declined. In general, 
 battles and campaigns are treated less in detail than was formerly the 
 rule, while proportionately more space is devoted to the causes and the re- 
 sults of wars. The lessening emphasis upon the details of the wars is first 
 
256 Department of Superintendence 
 
 noticed in some of the textbooks published between 1881 and 1888, and the 
 tendency has been general and decided since that time. 
 
 The latter books give a perceptibly heavier emphasis to the facts of eco- 
 nomic and industrial development than do the earlier books, although politi- 
 cal development still constitutes the essential core of elementary historical 
 instruction. 
 
 As regards the treatment of specific eras or epochs, the principal increases 
 in emphasis are to be noted in connection with (a) The period 1783-1812 
 (especially in the treatment of the so-called "critical period" between the 
 close of the Revolution and the adoption of the Constitution) ; (b) the 
 non-military affairs of the period 1812-1861; and (c) European events 
 preceding and during the periods of discovery, exploration, and settlement. 
 
 The persons whose names are most frequently mentioned in the ele- 
 mentary textbooks are predominantly those who have been most intimately 
 associated with political development and with military and naval affairs. 
 
 Variations among the several textbooks in respect of persons mentioned 
 are numerous and wide. Most of the books mention a much larger number 
 of names than the average pupil will be likely to remember. Certain names, 
 however, are made to stand out through repetition. 
 
 Variations in the topics and events which constitute the chief content of 
 elementary historical instruction are probably less numerous and less wide 
 than variations in names of persons mentioned. There is always a rather 
 distinct "core" of topics common to most of the books, and these topics may 
 be looked upon as constituting the present "standardized" content of ele- 
 mentary American history. 
 
 Numerous changes have taken place in the construction of elementary 
 textbooks in history during the past fifty years. The more important of 
 these are: (a) A movement toward a simpler "style" with larger emphasis 
 upon clear statements of causal relationships; (b) the introduction and de- 
 velopment of the "problem" as a method of teaching history, and a conse- 
 quent encouragement of "judgment" as contrasted with rote memory, of 
 rational as contrasted with verbatim mastery; (c) a marked decline in the 
 employment of imaginative pictures as illustrations and an increase in the 
 use of pictures that represent sincere attempts to portray actual conditions ; 
 (d) a marked decline in the use of anecdotal materials; and (e) a larger 
 and wider use of maps. 
 
 STUDY NO. 17. Rugg, Earle. "An analysis of social science text- 
 books" taken from a forthcoming publication — Studies in curriculum con- 
 struction in the social sciences. (Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation on 
 file in the Library, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 
 City, 1923.) 
 
 Problem. To evaluate the extent to which social science textbooks 
 meet social and learning needs of junior and senior high school pupils. 
 
 Method. Widely used textbooks were analyzed for references to per- 
 sons, dates, topics, etc., and comparisons were made to see to what extent 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 257 
 
 socially valuable materials were included and whether textbook materials 
 were organized in accordance with the laws of learning. 
 
 Findings. Table 62 shows the relative emphases given periods in Amer- 
 ican history by authors of textbooks for nearly one hundred years, and 
 the distribution of emphasis of one of the most influential committees of 
 the American Historical Association — the Committee of Eight. 
 
 From Table 62 one may ascertain the relative proportions of space al- 
 lotted in textbooks in American History for one hundred years. It is 
 evident that historians are giving more emphasis to recent events and that 
 they are stressing military history less. 
 
 TABLE 63.— PERCENTAGE OF SPACE GIVEN TO POLITICAL, MILITARY 
 AND SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY BY COMMITTEE OF EIGHT 
 AS COMPARED WITH EARLY AND CURRENT HISTORIES 
 
 Political 
 
 Military 
 
 Social and 
 
 economic 
 
 Committee of eight , 
 
 Early histories, published before 1860 
 
 Current histories since 1912 (four elementary and four 
 advanced) 
 
 33.0 
 38.4 
 
 30.0 
 44.3 
 
 14.59 
 
 Books and Encyclopedia Articles Dealing with Modern Problems 
 
 Books on modern problems. 
 Encyclopedia articles 
 
 18.7 
 37.0 
 
 4.7 
 1.7 
 
 37.0 
 17.2 
 
 35.5 
 
 78.0 
 60.0 
 
 TABLE 64.— NUMBER OF PAGES DEVOTED TO CERTAIN SELECTED 
 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC TOPICS IN AMERICAN HISTORY TEXT 8 
 BOOKS 
 
 Topic 
 
 Average 
 
 Average 
 
 number of 
 
 number of 
 
 pages in 8 
 
 pages in 8 
 
 current texts 
 
 early texts 
 
 5.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 7.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 9.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 14.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 6.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 6.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 .5 
 
 X 
 
 Average 
 
 number of 
 
 of pages in 12 
 
 elementary 
 
 texts 
 
 Average 
 
 number of 
 
 of pages in 8 
 
 high school 
 
 texts 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Banking and money chiefly history. 
 
 Canals and roads 
 
 Commerce and trade, foreign and 
 domestio 
 
 Cost of living 
 
 Education 
 
 Fisheries 
 
 Inventions and patents 
 
 Labor 
 
 Manufacturing and business 
 
 Mining 
 
 Natural resources 
 
 Newspapers and literature 
 
 Population (immigration included) 
 
 Postal service 
 
 Railroads 
 
 Religion and the church 
 
 Slavery 
 
 Tariff and trade restraint 
 
 Taxation and debt . 
 
 Telephone and telegraph 
 
 Miscellaneous: includes general 
 social and economic matter 
 and life of people 
 
 21.0 
 
 1.4 
 2.6 
 3.7 
 
 3.3 
 .0 
 x 
 0.4 
 5.3 
 2.6 
 2.5 
 2.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.6 
 5.0 
 3.4 
 
 4.0 
 0.2 
 
 x 
 0.4 
 3.3 
 7.8 
 2.0 
 
 .5 
 
 1.6 
 5.2 
 
 See: Bobbitt, The Curriculum, pp. 110-11. 
 
258 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Table 63 shows that military events are receiving less attention and that 
 political and social and economic matters are increasing in importance in 
 textbooks. On the other hand, one gains an interesting picture of the 
 extent that such texts tend to fall short of presenting the history that is 
 essential to an understanding of modern ways of living and modern prob- 
 lems. The history utilized by writers on contemporary life is preponder- 
 antly economic and social history, while writers of recent textbooks give 
 only about one third of their space to social and economic matters. It 
 should also be noted that high school textbooks deal preponderantly with 
 political history. 
 
 The totals in this table were, as a rule, scattering references, a few lines 
 on a page here and there in different parts of the book. 
 
 Table 64 shows the relatively small amount of space given to basic social 
 and economic matters. When one considers that the history made use of 
 by students of contemporary affairs seems to be preponderantly of a social 
 and economic character, it is evident that we fail to meet social needs in 
 our texts. This indictment is particularly serious when we consider that 
 the study of history constitutes, for a large part of our pupils, their sole 
 opportunity for being made acquainted with the problems and modes of 
 living in the society in which they are forced to live and for whose progress 
 and welfare they are exclusively responsible. 
 
 In a similar way, a study was made of the persons and dates referred to 
 most frequently in textbooks and by writers on problems of modern society. 
 Space prevents the reproduction of these tables. The important conclusion 
 to be noted is that the historical personages and dates made use of by writers 
 on present-day problems are chiefly those persons and dates in recent history. 
 
 Table 65 illustrates what two investigations using varying criteria of 
 social utility indicate as to relative importance of countries to be included 
 in the curriculum. Table 65 combines the rankings of the twenty most 
 frequently mentioned countries according to two standards: first, the 
 frequency ranking in terms of the Branom-Reavis criteria (Area, popula- 
 tion, imports and exports, imports into and exports from the United States), 
 and the second, (the frequency indicated by figures in parentheses to the 
 
 TABLE 65.— TWENTY MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED 
 RANKED ACCORDING TO TWO STANDARDS 
 
 COUNTRIES 
 
 Rank 
 
 Country- 
 
 Rank 
 
 Country 
 
 1 
 
 United States (1) 
 
 11 
 
 China (3) 
 
 2 
 
 Great Britain (7) a 
 
 12 
 
 Brazil (36) 
 
 3 
 
 Germany (4) 
 
 13 
 
 Argentina (44) 
 
 4 
 
 France (2) 
 
 14 
 
 Netherlands (13) 
 
 5 
 
 India (14) 
 
 15 
 
 Mexico (28) 
 
 6 
 
 Austria-Hungary (17) 
 
 16 
 
 Belgium (21) 
 
 7 
 
 Russia (8) 
 
 17 
 
 Australia (16) 
 
 8 
 
 Canada (11) 
 
 18 
 
 Spain (9) 
 
 9 
 
 Italy (5) 
 
 19 
 
 Sweden (19) 
 
 10 
 
 Japan (6) 
 
 20 
 
 Egypt (15) 
 
 1 England instead of Great Britain would rank second in allusions. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 259 
 
 right of the countries) is according to their frequency of reference in news- 
 papers and magazines in Washburne's study. 
 
 It should be noted that fourteen of the twenty most frequently mentioned 
 countries are common to the two lists and that thirteen have a displacement 
 of five or less. These countries, at least, are in all likelihood countries 
 about which children should be taught detailed, socially valuable, facts. 
 And further studies are now under way to guide curriculum makers in the 
 choice of these detailed facts to be selected and taught. 
 
 To what extent do textbooks meet learning needs ? 
 
 Careful analysis reveals the encyclopedic character of the textbooks. 
 
 Table 66 presents the number of pages allotted to a few of fifty-eight 
 civic and economic topics in representative and widely used social science 
 textbooks. 
 
 Obviously with fifty-eight main classes of topics it is impossible, when 
 books are expected to be comprehensive, to give much space to any one topic. 
 It should also be borne in mind that these space allotments are totals for 
 the books, and in the main they represent a ,few lines here or a paragraph 
 there in the text. 
 
 To quote Bobbitt: "If any one believes the average treatment of these 
 topics to be sufficient, he can easily test the matter. Let him send the five 
 pages on banks and banking to a list of prominent bankers requesting their 
 judgment whether it presents an adequate revelation of the growth of bank- 
 ing in our country, and as its outcome, an adequate picture of its present 
 status. Let him send the three or five pages on railroad development to 
 prominent leaders of the railroad world with a similar request. Let him 
 inquire of labor unions if the two or three pages devoted to them present a 
 satisfactory account of the development of their present status and relations. 
 It is not difficult to predict the character of the replies. 
 
 "For each of these topics, and for many others, there is demonstrable 
 need of a full historical treatment. Justice is not to be done to the railroad 
 situation, for example, short of two hundred or five hundred pages. This 
 should present in concrete, vivid narrative a reconstruction of experiences 
 
 TABLE 66.— PAGE ALLOTMENTS TO CIVIC AND ECONOMIC TOPICS IN 
 
 CIVICS TEXTBOOKS 
 
 Topic 
 
 Community Civics 
 
 Advanced Civics 
 
 Problems of 
 democracy 
 
 
 Book 
 A 
 
 Book 
 B 
 
 Book 
 C 
 
 Book 
 A 
 
 Book 
 B 
 
 Book 
 C 
 
 Book 
 A 
 
 Book 
 B 
 
 Citizenship: Who are citizens and what 
 
 1 
 
 7M 
 
 1M 
 
 5 
 Hi 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 12M 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 22}^ 
 
 
 21 
 
 7 l A 
 12K 
 19 
 
 7y 2 
 
 ±A 
 
 6 
 17 
 14 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2H 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3M 
 
 IK 
 
 2 
 
 H 
 
 5H 
 
 5H 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 &V2 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 2M 
 
 2oy 2 
 
 17 
 3 
 
 3J4 
 H 
 1 
 6H 
 
 5 
 
 Conservation 
 
 20M 
 
 
 29 a 
 
 
 5H 
 
 
 7 
 
 Rural life 
 
 8A 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
260 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 involved in the development of railroads, beginning with the early inven- 
 tions and experiments, and tracing the expansion of lines and systems to the 
 present. The story should fully present the personal experiences of rail- 
 road leaders and groups ; only as the 'human element' is central in the story 
 can the reader actually re-live the experiences. But at the same time it 
 should reveal fundamental processes and relationships of all kinds; the 
 social influences that called railroads into being; kinds and amounts of 
 service rendered to different regions; modes of organization, financing, 
 regulation, wages, conditions of work, and the like. The story should be 
 so written that the reader can see and appreciate the valiant national service 
 that the railroads have rendered in pushing back the frontiers and opening 
 up the wilderness for civilization ; in carrying the means of civilized life to 
 every corner of our land; in breaking down isolation, provincialism, and 
 sectionalism; and in promoting the central intra-national welfare. The 
 story should be presented so vividly and sympathetically that the reader can 
 enter whole-heartedly into the action. This provides right conditions for 
 leaving large residues of information acquired through living rather than 
 memorizing; and the materials and experiences out of which the abstract 
 general principles are to be distilled." 
 
 It is obvious that from present textbooks children do not get adequate 
 concepts of common civic and economic matters. 
 
 Table 67 shows the amount of space in pages (or lines where less than 
 one fourth of a page is given) that five representative social science text- 
 books give to the discussion of four housing standards presented in Harap's 
 study. 
 
 Table 67 not only shows the small degree to which social needs, objec- 
 tively determined, are taught but also the fact that only forty or fifty lines 
 at most are devoted to the host of facts about any one standard is some 
 evidence that few real meanings about these standards can be established in 
 the minds of children. 
 
 Because of the demands that textbooks shall be comprehensive — shall 
 include everything in the field — so many facts are included that details 
 about each fact, topic, or principle cannot be given. Writers of textbooks 
 give literally their generalizations based upon their own study and research. 
 They give chiefly the "texts" connected in narrative form. 
 
 TABLE 67.— SPACE IN PAGES GIVEN TO DISCUSSION OF HOUSING STAND- 
 ARDS IN FIVE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTS 
 
 Topic 
 
 Social Science Texts 
 
 
 A 
 
 B C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 Facts one needs to know in buying a home 
 
 Facts one needs to know in order to determine how' 
 
 much to pay when renting a home . 
 
 Facts one needs to know about housing standards 
 
 1 
 2 lines 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 line 
 
 l A 
 l A 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 y 2 
 
 H 
 
 V2 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
The Third Yearbook 261 
 
 If we could assume that every school would use textbooks as guides and 
 would also provide the detailed supplementary material, present practice in 
 the use of textbooks could in some measure be justified. They could then 
 be used as convenient reference books. But practice in our public school is 
 preponderantly to use scarcely any reading materials besides the text. We 
 ask pupils to spend several hundred hours reading material that any normal 
 reader could read in twenty hours at most. 
 
 The authors of textbooks tend to include most facts in the field. For 
 example, careful examination of school textbooks show that the typical 
 history textbook mentions about four hundred different persons one or more 
 times and every date (year) since 1775 one or more times. Also a careful 
 frequency count reveals the fact that eight current histories mention 1409 
 different persons but that only 109 of these historical characters are common 
 to all eight textbooks. Stating this another way, each book tends to em- 
 phasize many persons in history that in the opinion of the authors of other 
 textbooks should be not mentioned. 
 
 The proportion of content that is socially valuable in terms of frequent, 
 universal, or crucial use is relatively small compared to the sum total of 
 human knowledge in that field. Objective evidence must be employed in 
 determining relative values. We then probably will not tend to teach too 
 many facts. And we will be in a better position to give details about these 
 socially valuable facts so that pupils will have opportunities, in terms of the 
 laws of learning, to make such content a permanent part of their equipment 
 in the great task of being efficient, intelligent, and informed citizens. 
 Finally, when we do this, we can demand the permanent mastery of every 
 activity involved in engaging efficiently in the duties of citizenship, and we 
 can demand that pupils exhibit skill in handling the problems, issues, and 
 questions of contemporary society. 
 
 d. Studies that endeavor to use the judgment of experts concerning 
 minimal essentials. 
 
 STUDY NO. 18. Whitbeck, R. H. "Where shall we lay the emphasis 
 in teaching geography?" Education, Volume 31, pp. 108-116. 
 
 Problem. To prepare a list of locational facts to be thoroughly taught 
 and permanently learned in the field of geography. 
 
 Method. Some seventy-five teachers, principals, and superintendents 
 from twenty or more states, representing all kinds of schools, acted as 
 judges to prepare the list of locational facts. 
 
 Committees were chosen to decide upon the cities in a given continent 
 to be included. No city was to be included unless it stood for more than 
 one important thing. The lists of these cities were then passed over to a 
 group of textbook writers in the field of geography consisting of Professors 
 Tarr, Brigham, C. A. McMurry, Philip Emerson, George D. Hubbard, 
 and R. H. Whitbeck. 
 
262 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The following list shows the cities that the committee deemed important 
 enough to be thoroughly taught and permanently mastered on each conti- 
 nent ; the numeral after the name of each city indicates the number of votes 
 out of the six faculty votes that the city received. 
 
 The United States (25) 
 
 New York (6) 
 Chicago (6) 
 Philadelphia (6) 
 St. Louis (6) 
 Boston (6) 
 Baltimore (2) 
 Cleveland (3) 
 Buffalo (3) 
 Pittsburgh (6) 
 San Francisco (6) 
 Cincinnati (2) 
 New Orleans (6) 
 Milwaukee (2) 
 
 London (6) 
 
 Liverpool-Manchester (6) 
 Edinburgh (6) 
 Glasgow (6) 
 Madrid (4) 
 Berlin (6) 
 Hamburg (6) 
 Vienna (4) 
 
 Bombay (6) 
 Calcutta (6) 
 Canton (5) 
 Pekin-Tien-tsin (6) 
 
 (6) 
 
 (6) 
 
 Washington 
 Denver (6) 
 Louisville (2) 
 Minneapolis-St. Paul 
 Kansas Cily (2) 
 Indianapolis (2) 
 Duluth-Superior (5) 
 Salt Lake City (3) 
 Puget Sound Cities (4) 
 Scranton-Wilkes-Barre (3) 
 Galveston (4) 
 Lowell (3) 
 
 Europe (16) 
 
 Rome (6) 
 Naples (3) 
 Athens (6) 
 Constantinople (6) 
 St. Petersburg (6) 
 Paris (6) 
 Marseilles (3) 
 Venice (4) 
 
 Asia (8) 
 
 Hongkong (5) 
 Jerusalem (6) 
 Tokio-Yokohama (6) 
 Mecca-Medina (3) 
 
 Montreal (6) 
 
 Quebec (5) 
 
 Rio de Janeiro (6) 
 
 Western Continent — Exclusive of U. S. (6) 
 
 Buenos Aires (6) 
 Havana (6) 
 Mexico (6) 
 
 (8) 
 
 Africa, Australia, and Scattered Islands 
 
 Cairo (5) Sydney (3) 
 
 Cape Town (5) Manila (6) 
 
 Johannesburg (3) Batavia (3) 
 
 Melbourne (4) Honolulu (6) 
 
 The significant conclusion to be drawn from this study is that only a rela- 
 tively small number of place location facts out of a rather large total list 
 found in geographies are endorsed by even specialists in geography. 
 
 STUDY NO. ig. Wooters, James E. "Elementary American history 
 standards ; results of an investigation carried on to determine the most 
 important dates for memorizing in the elementary school." School and 
 Home Education ,.1914, Vol. 34, pp. 152-155. 
 
 Problem. To ascertain a standard list of dates to be memorized in 
 American history. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 263 
 
 Method. A long list of dates and events rather commonly presented in 
 elementary school histories was included in a questionnaire sent to one hun- 
 dred fifty members of the American Historical Association. These included 
 high school, normal and college teachers of history, city superintendents, 
 and authors of leading school histories. 
 
 These people were asked to rank the twenty most important dates out of 
 the list suggested, marking the most important date first, the next im- 
 portant, second, and so on. Provision was made for omission or addition of 
 dates. Seventy-three replies were used in the final summary. 
 
 In tabulating the ranks, the following arbitrary scheme was adopted for 
 evaluating dates : Each rank of one was valued at twenty points, rank two 
 was given nineteen points; down to rank twenty, valued at one point; for 
 each zero vote, ten points were deducted. 
 
 Findings. Table 68 shows the twenty dates which ranked highest. 
 
 Only five dates— 1492, 1607, 1776, 1789, 1812— received no votes for 
 elimination. The "experts" were also asked to add dates to the lists sub- 
 mitted. Five hundred thirty-nine additions were suggested but only six— 
 1618, 1828, 1860, 1890, 1898, 1902— received four or more votes. 
 
 "The most striking conclusion to be drawn from the investigation is the 
 lack of agreement among those who may be considered specialists in history 
 as to what constitutes the fundamentals of elementary work." 
 
 TABLE 68.— DATES, RANKED AS TO IMPORTANCE FOR MEMORIZING 
 IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rank 
 
 Date 
 
 index 
 
 Rank 
 
 Date 
 
 index 
 
 1 
 
 1776 
 
 1,323 
 
 11 
 
 1812 
 
 752 
 
 2 
 
 1492 
 
 1,261 
 
 12 
 
 1765 
 
 629 
 
 3 
 
 1607 
 
 1,163 
 
 13 
 
 1783 
 
 618 
 
 4 
 
 1789 
 
 1,100 
 
 14 
 
 1865 (Apr. 9) 
 
 601 
 
 5 
 
 1620 
 
 961 
 
 15 
 
 1850 
 
 591 
 
 6 
 
 1803 
 
 955 
 
 16 
 
 1854 
 
 590 
 
 7 
 
 1861 (Apr. 14) 
 
 901 
 
 17 
 
 1775 
 
 585 
 
 8 
 
 1787 
 
 821 
 
 18 
 
 1781 
 
 584 
 
 9 
 
 1863 (Jan. 1) 
 
 808 
 
 19 
 
 1823 
 
 526 
 
 10 
 
 1820 
 
 793 
 
 20 
 
 1846 
 
 470 
 
 e. Studies that suggest minimal essentials upon other standards or criteria 
 
 STUDY NO. 20. Branom, M. E., and Reavis, W. C. The determi- 
 nation and measurement of the minimal essentials of elementary school 
 geography. Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
 Education, Part I. 1918. pp. 27-39. 
 
 Problem. To use certain objective criteria for the selection of a list of 
 the minimal essentials in the field of geography. The writers stated that 
 the list should emphasize relational facts as well as facts of place. They, 
 therefore, set up certain standards for the selection of the facts to be learned 
 and for the relations to be recognized and appreciated. They also had in 
 mind that these minimal essentials should tell whether or not the aims of 
 this subject are being realized. The aims of geography teaching as listed 
 by Branom and Reavis are: 
 
264 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 1. .To impart the more important facts of conventional and practical value 
 
 2. To secure on the part of the pupil the ability to interpret properly the geo- 
 graphical factors that enter into the time and moment 
 
 3. To develop an appreciation of the importance of the United States intrinsically, 
 and its relational aspects to the world as a whole. 
 
 They, therefore, had in mind the requirement of general knowledge about 
 the following: 
 
 1. The relative location of the large land and water bodies 
 
 2. The location of the more important countries of the world 
 
 3. The location of the more important cities of the world 
 
 4. The physical conditions of the more important countries 
 
 5. The occupations of the people and the conditions of transportation 
 
 6. Our commercial relations with these countries 
 
 7. The fundamental relations between the physical factors and human activities. 
 
 TABLE 69.— FIFTY-TWO COUNTRIES RANKED AS TO RELATIVE IMPORT- 
 ANCE 
 
 Country 
 
 
 Popula- 
 
 Total 
 
 Imports 
 
 Total 
 
 Exports 
 
 
 Area 
 
 tion 
 
 imports 
 
 from U.S. 
 
 exports 
 
 toU.S 
 
 Total* 
 
 1. United States 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 2. Great Britain 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 3. Germany 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 4. France 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 5. India 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 6. Austria-Hungary 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 7. Russia 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 9. Italy 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 10. Japan 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 11. China 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 12. Brazil 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 13. Argentina 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 14. Netherlands 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 . 
 
 24 
 
 15. Mexico 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 
 21 
 
 20. Egypt 
 
 20 
 
 21. Turkey 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 .4 
 
 20 
 
 22. Switzerland 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 23. Chile 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 24. So. African Union. . . 
 
 19 
 
 25. Philippine Is 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 26. Peru 
 
 4 
 4 
 1 
 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 27. Cuba 
 
 17 
 
 28. Denmark 
 
 17 
 
 29. Norway 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 30. Algeria 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 31. New Zealand 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 32. Persia 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 33. Portugal 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 2 
 4 
 5 
 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 
 14 
 
 36. Bolivia 
 
 13 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 38. Siam 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 
 11 
 
 40. Morocco 
 
 11 
 
 41. Serbia 
 
 10 
 
 42. Bulgaria 
 
 10 
 
 43. Equador 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 44. Haiti 
 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 45. Tunis 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 47. Costa Rica 
 
 9 
 
 48. Guatemala 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 49. Panama 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 a An arbitrary perfect score of thirty points has been assigned to the United States because it is 
 the home country of^the pupils. 
 
The Third Yearbook 265 
 
 Method. The following standards or criteria were employed : ( 1 ) The 
 area of the country in square miles, (2) population, (3) total value of im- 
 ports, (4) total value of imports from the United States, (5) total value 
 of exports, and (6) total value of exports to the United States. 
 
 The writers assert that "these criteria not only offer objective data of 
 great significance in the study of particular countries, but also afford a 
 means of measuring the relations of the United States to other countries." 
 
 Using as their source of data the Statistical Abstracts of the United 
 States, 1915, fifty-two countries were ranked according to their relative im- 
 portance with respect to each of the six criteria above. 
 
 The fifty-two countries were then divided into quintiles and the rank in 
 the first quintile was given five points, in the second, four points, etc., for 
 each of the six criteria. The total score of a country on the six criteria 
 indicates the relative importance of that country among the countries of 
 the world. 
 
 Findings. Table 69 indicates the total score of each country and its rank 
 in the quintile on the six standards. 
 
 The value of these rankings is that it tends to make one critical of the 
 relative importance of certain countries to be studied. Without sufficient 
 time to cover all countries adequately, the teacher using this and other 
 criteria, such as the criterion of Washburne in his investigation of allusions 
 in newspapers and magazines, may make more certain of covering what is 
 likely to be the most socially valuable subject-matter in the field of geog- 
 raphy. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2i. Alderman, Grover H. "What the Iowa layman 
 should know about courts and law." The School Review. 1922. Volume 
 30. pp. 360-364. 
 
 Problem. To determine the legal facts with which a citizen should be 
 familiar. 
 
 Method. A study was made of causes of litigation as filed in petitions of 
 the office of the County Clerk, Johnson County, Iowa, for the years 1907, 
 1908, and 1909. This was done on the hypothesis that if one could examine 
 the causes which bring the layman in contact with the courts and the law, 
 one could determine what knowledge an Iowa layman should have about 
 the courts and law. 
 
 Findings. Table 70 shows the number of types of action involving 758 
 cases which were brought into the District Court within this period of three 
 5'ears. 
 
 These court cases were classified and 50.3 per cent of all cases had to 
 do with contracts, particularly such as promissory notes, implied contracts, 
 oral contracts, mortgages, leases, wills, etc. ; 44.8 per cent with court writs 
 involving such topics as quieting titles, writ of attachment, decree of divorce, 
 writ of injunction, and estates; and 4.8 per cent had to do with damage 
 claims, such as slander, assault and battery, trespass, etc. 
 
266 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 TABLE 70.— TYPES OF LITIGATION IN JOHNSON COUNTY, IOWA FOR 
 
 1907-1909 
 
 Types of Court Cases 
 
 Written contracts 
 
 Quieting titles 
 
 Divorce cases 
 
 Damage cases 
 
 Implied contracts 
 
 Oral contracts 
 
 Suing for an undivided interest in an estate 
 
 Injunction 
 
 Writs not otherwise mentioned - 
 
 Garnishments 
 
 Cases asking for writs of replevin 
 
 Attempt to break or set aside wills , 
 
 Slander 
 
 Writs of attachment 
 
 Appeal from boards of review or council on assessment 
 
 Habeas Corpus 
 
 Naturalization , 
 
 Partnership cases 
 
 Bastardy 
 
 Tax case 
 
 Appeal bond 
 
 Alimony 
 
 Contempt of court 
 
 Deeds 
 
 Assault and battery 
 
 To incorporate a town 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 199 
 190 
 79 
 65 
 50 
 46 
 34 
 30 
 11 
 10 
 
 758 
 
 We find that laymen should understand the general principles involving 
 written contracts, quieting titles, divorce, damage cases, implied contracts, 
 oral contracts, settling estates and court writs. Alderman checked this type 
 of needed legal information against similar material found in twenty text- 
 books in civics. Assuming that in courses in civics the layman gets his 
 preparation for any possible legal information that he needs, Alderman 
 points out that there is a wide disparity between the type of informa- 
 tion that the analysis of the courts' records shows is important and the type 
 of material that textbooks present about the courts. Textbooks discuss 
 chiefly such topics as how laws are made, federal laws, constitutional laws, 
 and the like, relatively abstract points that the average layman will have 
 little use for. 
 
 STUDY NO. 22. Goss, Ralph Ross. What civic knowledge is needed 
 by an Indiana layman. Unpublished Master of Arts Thesis, on file in the 
 Library, Univ. of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind. 
 
 Problem. To determine what civic knowledge is most needed by the 
 child in his life outside the school, or to discover the types of transactions 
 in life outside the school which require civic knowledge. 
 
 Method. Problems involving civics with which the average individual 
 in life is actually confronted were obtained by asking several classes in cer- 
 tain public schools to collect and bring to school a record of any such 
 transactions that any members of their family had had during the day. An 
 outline of instructions for collecting such data was prepared for the pupils. 
 A list of some twenty typical ways in which civic knowledge might be 
 required was suggested in the instructions, such as recording a deed, taking 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 267 
 
 TABLE 71.— CLASSIFICATION 
 
 OF 
 
 EVERYDAY CIVIC 
 
 TRANSACTIONS 
 
 Divisions of government 
 
 Number of 
 transactions 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 
 
 282 
 204 
 690 
 348 
 260 
 
 15.80 
 
 
 11.10 
 
 
 38.90 
 
 
 19.40 
 
 
 14.80 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,784 
 
 100.00 
 
 
 
 TABLE 72. 
 
 -PER CENT OF TEN TEXTBOOKS DEVOTED TO SIX DIVISIONS 
 OF GOVERNMENT 
 
 
 u 1 
 O 
 
 ■d 
 d a, 
 rt d 
 
 u re 
 d h 
 
 a u 
 
 1° 
 
 W 
 
 < 
 
 d 
 
 es 
 
 u 
 
 4> 
 
 •0 
 
 1 
 
 0! 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 « 
 
 '3 
 
 O 
 
 2.7 
 
 Harrison 
 and Reed 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 M 
 
 be 
 
 a- 
 
 u 
 
 CD 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 9 
 
 •3 
 
 International 
 
 4.1 
 
 14.3 
 
 5.6 
 
 9.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.0 
 
 5.50 
 
 4.45 
 
 
 56.0 
 
 65.3 
 
 72.4 
 
 65.2 
 
 59.4 
 
 66.2 
 
 75.0 
 
 56.4 
 
 52.9 
 
 48.2 
 
 61.70 
 
 57.90 
 
 State 
 
 25.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 20.1 
 
 14.8 
 
 7.0 
 
 27.5 
 
 28.4 
 
 15.4 
 
 16.51 
 
 15.10 
 
 Municipal . . . 
 
 7.4 
 
 9.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 9.3 
 
 8.3 
 
 4.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 11.6 
 
 11.1 
 
 8.35 
 
 8.10 
 
 County 
 
 3.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.92 
 
 2.60 
 
 Township .... 
 
 4.1 
 
 .8 
 
 4.1 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 19.8 
 
 5.02 
 
 3.75 
 
 TABLE 73.— COMPARISON OF MEDIAN PER CENT DEVOTED TO EACH 
 DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT IN TEXTBOOKS AND CIVIC TRANS- 
 ACTIONS 
 
 
 Inter- 
 national 
 
 National 
 
 State 
 
 Municipal 
 
 County 
 
 Township 
 
 Textbooks 
 
 Civic transactions in life out- 
 
 4.45 
 0.00 
 
 57.90 
 15.80 
 
 15.10 
 11.10 
 
 8.10 
 38.90 
 
 2.60 
 19.40 
 
 3.75 
 14.80 
 
 
 
 out naturalization papers, taking up a matter with a Congressman, etc. 
 Eighteen civics classes in nine different schools in Jackson County, Indiana, 
 cooperated. 
 
 The answers received were analyzed and classified under the major heads 
 of conventional civics material, that is, material having to do with the 
 following divisions: national, state, municipal, county, and township govern- 
 ment. 
 
 As a check to determine the extent to which this knowledge was provided 
 for in civics textbooks, ten textbooks were classified under similar heads. 
 
 Findings. The total number of specific situations in which civic knowl- 
 edge was required by the layman were 1784. 
 
 Table 71 shows the number of answers to each main division of govern- 
 ment and also the percentage to each major division. 
 
 Table 72 shows the per cent devoted to each division of civic materials 
 and the average and median per cent for ten commonly used civics books. 
 
 Table 73 compares the median per cent devoted to each division in the 
 textbooks with civic transactions in life outside the schools. 
 
268 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The type and frequency of civic transactions in life outside of school 
 classified under national, state, municipal, county, and township govern- 
 ment were as follows: 
 
 National 
 
 War Savings Stamps 100 
 
 Income Tax 40 
 
 Pension . . . . 34 
 
 Civil Service Examination 30 
 
 Naturalization Papers 30 
 
 Election 20 
 
 Recorded Copyright 8 
 
 Liberty Loans 6 
 
 Army • 6 
 
 Crop Report 2 
 
 Timber Report 2 
 
 Census Report 2 
 
 Red Cross 2 
 
 Total 282 
 
 Municipal 
 
 Health 118 
 
 Bank 78 
 
 Election 72 
 
 Charity 68 
 
 Beautifying City 66 
 
 Notary Work 60 
 
 Police Protection 58 
 
 Improvement of Property 54 
 
 Transaction with Council 42 
 
 Taxes 32 
 
 Fire Department 15 
 
 Property Sale 8 
 
 Court 6 
 
 Lawyer 4 
 
 Will 3 
 
 Building and Loan 2 
 
 Dog License 2 
 
 Moving Permit 2 
 
 Total 690 
 
 Township 
 
 Transactions with Trustee 100 
 
 Bank 68 
 
 Notary Work 24 
 
 Justice of Peace 10 
 
 Farmers Federation 10 
 
 Taxes as Related to Assessor .... 8 
 
 Assessment of Property 6 
 
 Made a Note 6 
 
 Bought Bonds 4 
 
 School Enumeration 2 
 
 Election 2 
 
 Will 2 
 
 Total 242 
 
 State 
 
 Insurance 74 
 
 Auto License 34 
 
 Organization of Corporation .... 30 
 
 Wrote to State Representative... 26 
 
 Election 12 
 
 Transaction with Governor .... 6 
 
 Business with State Supt 6 
 
 Matter with State Officer 4 
 
 Administratorship 4 
 
 Wrote to State Senator 2 
 
 Fire Marshal 2 
 
 Examined Tax Law 2 
 
 Total 204 
 
 County 
 
 Deed Recorded 100 
 
 Business with Co. Supt 60 
 
 Matter with Court • 34 
 
 Mortgage 32 
 
 Taxes 26 
 
 Matter with Clerk 24 
 
 Matter with Co. Officer 22 
 
 Business with Truant Officer . . 8 
 
 County Surveyor 8 
 
 Election 6 
 
 County Treasurer 4 
 
 Assessed by Assessor 4 
 
 Examine Deed 4 
 
 Business with Road Supt 4 
 
 Estate Settled 2 
 
 Insured Property 2 
 
 County Coroner 2 
 
 County Judges 2 
 
 Lien Notes 2 
 
 Contracts 2 
 
 Total 348 
 
The Third Yearbook 269 
 
 Transactions of a local nature are the ones that people use or that the 
 average layman uses most. For example, nearly three fourths of the 
 transactions reported by citizens have to do with local matters such as the 
 aspects of city, county, or township affairs. Only about one sixth of the 
 space in the commonly used civics books is given to local government. 
 
 iVhile this study is limited to some three hundred pupils in a few schools 
 in one county, it does give one some evidence of specific situations in civic 
 knowledge needed by the layman. It is but another means of finding out 
 how the layman uses social science. 
 
 Obviously, these methods should be employed over a larger territory. 
 With such results, writers of school courses in social science could well 
 consider revision of their materials in terms of the obvious need of training 
 and knowledge having to do with local government. 
 
 III. Studies That Are Suggestive for Analysis of the Activities of People or 
 Current Modes of Living 
 
 STUDY NO. 23. Harap, Henry. Education of the consumer. New 
 York, The Macmillan Company, 1924. 
 
 Problem. To discover the things that people do or the economic activ- 
 ities in which they engage — the essential habits, skills, knowledge, and atti- 
 tudes involved in certain economic aspects of life, particularly having to do 
 with unspecialized practical activities in the household. 
 
 Method. Information was gathered as to important household needs. 
 An effort was made to discover what is wrong with the habits of selection 
 and purchase of household articles. Census reports and various reports 
 summarized in trade journals, were used as well as an analysis undertaken 
 by the United States Department of Labor on the selection and purchases 
 involved in a nation-wide survey of 10,000 families of the most important 
 household articles. The research of students of home economics concerning 
 food, clothing, and household materials was utilized. 
 
 Findings. There is a great discrepancy between the economic habits and 
 information that one ought to possess about household matters and the 
 actual information and habits that surveys of consumers' needs in the house- 
 hold show that householders possess. Quantitative data concerning the edu- 
 cational needs of the consumer are presented. These topics illustrate the 
 kind of data gathered: 
 
 Food Consumption 
 
 The chief foods of the nation 
 
 Food selection based upon quantity consumed 
 
 Food selection based upon the amount of money spent for chief food commodities 
 
 Food selection to meet the daily energy requirement 
 
 Selection of food to furnish the requirements of. proteins, fats, and mineral salts 
 
 The buying of food : 
 
 In large quantities 
 
 In packages 
 
 For cash or on credit 
 Waste in the use of food 
 
270 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Housing 
 
 The housing conditions of the nation as revealed by surveys 
 
 Housing standards 
 
 Home ownership 
 
 Tenements and education 
 
 Overcrowding 
 
 Rent and education: 
 
 Rent and income 
 
 What is fair rental 
 
 Rent and taxes 
 
 Rent and the budget 
 Ventilation 
 
 Household Materials 
 
 The chief household commodities 
 
 Building materials 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Paint and varnish 
 
 Metal products, tools, and hardware 
 
 Paper products 
 
 Leather goods 
 
 Floor coverings 
 
 Cleansing and polishing preparations 
 
 Brushes and brooms 
 
 Phonographs 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 Household Skills 
 
 How household skills were determined 
 
 Household skills discovered in surveys 
 
 Skills suggested by the chief commodities consumed in the home 
 
 Skills having to do with: 
 
 Carpentry 
 
 Painting 
 
 Plastering 
 
 Glazing 
 
 Plumbing 
 
 Housecleaning 
 
 Decoration 
 
 Gardening 
 
 Fuel Consumption 
 
 The chief household fuels and their comparative importance 
 
 Relative cost of fuels 
 
 Relative heating values 
 
 Fuel measurement and calculation 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Comparison of the actual with standard consumption of clothing by the people of 
 
 the United States 
 Clothing in the budget 
 Qualitative standards of clothing 
 
 In the main, two classes of material were utilized : First, standards of 
 what" we ought to know and do about consumers' needs ; and second, scien- 
 tific studies of what we actually do know and do concerning these same 
 needs. In brief, he implies that the- curriculum will consider specifically in 
 each instance the economic habits and information that will permit the 
 school to "move" pupils from ascertained deficiencies up' to ascertained 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 271 
 
 TABLE 74.— RELATION OF THE QUALITY OF VEGETABLES CONSUMED 
 TO THEIR FOOD VALUE AND PRICE 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Sweet Potatoes 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Cabbages 
 
 Onions (dry) . . 
 Cantaloupes. . . 
 Watermelons . . 
 
 Celery 
 
 Cucumbers .... 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Beans (green) . . 
 Peas (green) . . . 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 Peppers (green) 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Carrots 
 
 
 
 Value of pro- 
 
 
 duct 
 
 Rank 
 
 (Thousand 
 
 
 Dollars) 
 
 
 639,441 
 
 1 
 
 124,844 
 
 2 
 
 38,675 
 
 3 
 
 21,848 
 
 4 
 
 21,387 
 
 5 
 
 10,767 
 
 6 
 
 10,466 
 
 7 
 
 9,462 
 
 8 
 
 8,579 
 
 9 
 
 8,535 
 
 10 
 
 8,031 
 
 11 
 
 7,165 
 
 12 
 
 5,102 
 
 13 
 
 3,079 
 
 14 
 
 1,716 
 
 15 
 
 1,563 
 
 16 
 
 Composite 
 food value 
 
 414 
 374 
 192 
 367 
 295 
 
 350 
 153 
 299 
 472 
 475 
 368 
 
 810 
 338 
 
 Rank 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 9 
 
 Price per 
 pound 
 (cents) 
 
 4.0 
 8.0 
 
 5.0 
 6.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 '7.6 
 10.0 
 10.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 8.0 
 
 Rank 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 8 
 9 
 
 s Value of products taken from United States Census Reports, Volume X, pp. 62-82. 
 _ b Composite food value from Sherman, H. C. and Gillett, L. H.: Adequacy and economy of some 
 city dietaries, p. 25. The composite value was obtained by assigning energy 40 points and 15 each to 
 protein, phosphorus calcium, and iron. The emphasis here is on mineral salts. 
 
 standards in so far as the abilities will permit. Table 74 illustrates the 
 discrepancy between what people actually eat and what they should eat. 
 
 Note that the cheapest vegetable having the greatest food value — spinach 
 — ranks next to the last in the actual consumption and that peas and beans, 
 that rank second and third in food value, rank eleventh and twelfth in 
 consumption. On the other hand, potatoes rank first in consumption, fourth 
 in food value, and second in cheapness. 
 
 Table 75 shows the relation of quantity of fruits consumed to food value. 
 
 Note that apples rank first in consumption but twelfth in food value ; 
 and that figs which rank first in food value and dates which rank second, 
 
 TABLE 75. 
 
 -RELATION OF QUALITY OF FRUITS CONSUMED TO FOOD 
 
 VALUES 
 
 Fruit 
 
 Value of products 
 
 consumed in 1920 
 
 (Dollars) 
 
 Rank 
 
 Composite 
 food 
 value 
 
 Rank 
 
 Apples 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Strawberries 
 
 Pears 
 
 Plums and prunes 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Currants 
 
 Cranberries 
 
 Figs 
 
 Dates 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 241,911,000 
 
 102,344,000 
 
 96,000,000 
 
 58,039,000 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 24,798,000 
 
 20,962,000 
 
 19,088,000 
 
 9,700,000 
 
 6,076,000 
 
 5,700,000 
 
 4,883,000 
 
 2,088,000 
 
 1,717,000 
 
 1,423,000 
 
 156 
 266 
 177 
 228 
 355 
 228 
 337 
 236 
 
 1,782 
 
 1,240 
 
 228 
 
 253 
 
 » Value of products taken from the United States Department of Agriculture. Weather, Crops, and 
 Markets. May 13, 1922. p. 402. 
 
 b Composite foetid value taken from Sherman, H. C. and Gillett, L. H., Op. cit. p. 25. 
 
272 Department of Superintendence 
 
 are respectively twelfth and thirteenth in consumption — that is, the most 
 nutritive fruits are very much underconsumed. 
 
 In a similar way, other violations are disclosed of what scientific dietary 
 studies indicate we should eat. For example, there is a marked under- 
 consumption of vegetables and marked over-consumption of meat. 
 
 One of the most valuable things about this study is that out of it arises 
 definite, specific objectives in terms of scientific evidence. 
 
 These are among the objectives concerned with the consumption of 
 vegetables and fruits as illustrated, by Tables 74 and 75: 
 
 To give the vegetables their proper place in the thinking and habits of the 
 food plan of the people of our nation. 
 
 To use and to think of potatoes primarily as starch foods. 
 
 To use and to think of the green vegetables primarily as foods rich in calcium, 
 phosphorus, and iron salts. 
 
 To use and to think of the legumes as rich in protein foods, with an abundance 
 of calcium and iron. 
 
 To cultivate the habit of using spinach as a rich and cheap food. 
 
 To use tomatoes less in bulk and more for flavoring. 
 
 To use more dried beans and peas. 
 
 To know the effect of home and commercial canning on beans, peas, and 
 tomatoes. 
 
 To know exactly what place fruits occupy in the food plan. 
 
 To use and think of raisins and prunes as foods rich in iron. 
 
 To consume more figs, dates, raisins, and prunes. 
 
 To know the relation between fresh and dried fruits as well as their comparative 
 quality and economy. 
 
 To know the relation between fresh and canned fruits as well as. their com- 
 parative quality and economy. 
 
 In like manner the data relative to furniture woods show that "the aver- 
 age consumer has no notion of the materials which commonly go into the 
 manufacture of a chair or a bookcase." 
 
 The data also show a marked discrepancy between actual trade practices 
 in the manufacture of furniture and the advertisements as to what furniture 
 contains. They illustrate the fact that these are probably some of the neces- 
 sary objectives: 
 
 To know the common woods which enter into the furniture of the nation — 
 namely, oak, sap gum, red gum, maple, birch, chestnut, and poplar. 
 
 To know the relative cost of the chief furniture woods. 
 
 To identify a veneer. 
 
 To, adjust the budget so as to be able to buy durable furniture instead of cheap 
 furniture. 
 
 To know the relative durability of the chief furniture woods. 
 
 To know what constitutes a complete equipment of furniture in the dining-room, 
 living room, bedroom, and kitchen. 
 
 The most important thing that can be said about this study is that it 
 give:; one detailed, semi-scientific information by which one can determine 
 specifically the particularized bits of information, habits, skills, and attitudes 
 thaJ: must be taught about household matters. It is an important theory 
 
The Third Yearbook 273 
 
 of the curriculum making that a careful study of known standards of habits 
 and information should be made and the degree to which persons possess 
 or do not possess these basic skills and information should also be dis- 
 covered. The curriculum consists, according to this point of view, of that 
 body of knowledge and those skills, attitudes, and appreciations by which 
 pupils can be made ready to engage efficiently in socially desirable activities. 
 
 STUDY NO. 24. Bobbitt, Franklin. How to make a curriculum. The 
 Social Studies. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1924. Chapter VII. 
 
 Problem. To set forth the abilities involved in the things that citizens 
 do. Bobbitt says a good citizen "is one who can perform the fifty, the five 
 hundred, or the five thousand things which the good citizen is called upon 
 by his social position to perform." His problem was to discover what are 
 the things that a citizen has to do in terms of the abilities that we should 
 be conscious of for the efficient performance of these citizenship duties. 
 
 Method. Twelve years of cooperative effort on the part of some fifteen 
 hundred members of graduate classes in "The Curriculum" conducted by 
 the writer at the University of Chicago, resulted in the compilation of a list 
 of abilities. After critical examination by twelve hundred high school teach- 
 ers, this list was used as a basis for determining the objectives in the Junior 
 and Senior High School Departments in Los Angeles, California. It 
 represents, then, the group judgment of nearly three thousand rather experi- 
 enced people plus the judgment of one of the foremost students of the cur- 
 riculum. 
 
 Findings. The following excerpt illustrates the detailed abilities listed : 
 Ability to think, feel, act, and react as an efficient, intelligent, sympathetic, 
 and loyal member of the large social group. Large-group or citizenship 
 consciousness. Sense of membership in the total social group, rather than 
 in some special class. Large-group local consciousness when dealing with 
 local problems; large-group state consciousness when dealing with state 
 responsibilities; large-group national consciousness when dealing with na- 
 tional matters ; large-group world consciousness when dealing with man- 
 kind's responsibilities for world cooperation and management. 
 
 The ability of the citizen to do his individual share in performing those 
 social functions for which all citizens are equally responsible in the establish- 
 ment, organization, maintenance, protection, oversight, and control of the 
 specialized groups and agencies into which society is differentiated for 
 effectiveness of action. The young citizen-in-training is to acquire those 
 abilities which, when adulthood is reached, will enable him to perform the 
 following things in connection with the several specialized social agencies: 
 
 a. Sharing fully in an informed and impelling public opinion, which looks to 
 the general welfare in its control of each service agency. 
 
 b. Setting up in public opinion and maintaining the standards of results to be 
 achieved by each service agency. 
 
 c. Seeing that each service agency aims at the standards of results that are 
 sanctioned by public opinion. 
 
274 Department of Superintendence 
 
 d. Seeing that the service agency employs procedures which are effective in pro- 
 ducing the desired results and which are economical in social costs. 
 
 e. Seeing that the material working conditions necessary for the most effective 
 and economical procedures are supplied. 
 
 f. Seeing that each service agency is provided with personnel and organization 
 of the kind required by the procedures to be employed; and properly rewarded. 
 
 g. Directly or indirectly selecting or approving the selection of the personnel 
 of the agency. 
 
 h. Supplying the funds necessary for the efficient, and in all ways proper, con- 
 duct of the agency. 
 
 i. Currently or periodically examining, directly or through publicity reports, or 
 both, into the results achieved by the agency, and the degree of economy employed. 
 
 j. Where results achieved and degree of economy employed comply with 
 standards of expectation, approving and properly rewarding the labors of those 
 who have thus given good service. 
 
 k. Where results do not reach the standards of expectation, or where there has 
 been waste, finding the causes of the deficiency, and removing them as expeditiously 
 as practicable. 
 
 The abilities which should be acquired are: 
 
 Ability to organize and use social facts effectively in arriving at conclusions. 
 
 The ability to use general principles in analyzing and considering economic, 
 political, and other social problems. 
 
 Ability to discern one's individual rights in the quantity of one's services to the 
 general group. Ability to read one's rights as things earned. 
 
 Ability to see social relations so clearly as to discern the duties of others, indi- 
 viduals and groups, within the social whole. 
 
 Ability to see social relations so clearly as to discern the rights of others within 
 the social whole. 
 
 Ability, disposition, and habit of diversified observation of men, things, and 
 affairs as an enjoyable and fruitful leisure occupation. 
 
 Ability, disposition, and habit of abundant and diversified reading as a means 
 of enjoyable and fruitful indirect observation of men, things, and affairs; of 
 vicarious participation in those affairs; and of entering into the thoughts and moods 
 of others. 
 
 Ability to participate in the more formal public discussion of matters of current 
 interest as an enjoyable and fruitful spare-time occupation. 
 
 Ability, habit, and disposition to follow the leadership of the world's men of 
 vision. 
 
 Ability to read the written or printed expression of others with proper ease, 
 speed, and comprehension. 
 
 Ability to use dictionary, encyclopedia, atlas, handbooks, card catalogues, reader's 
 guides, indexes, and other library and reference helps in finding facts or materials 
 wanted. 
 
 Ability to read and interpret facts expressed by commonly used types of graphs, 
 diagrams, and statistical tables. 
 
 Ability to express facts by means of graphs, diagrams, and statistical tables. 
 
 Ability to use maps with ease and understanding. 
 
 Besides these "abilities" Bobbitt lists in detail the general principles and 
 assumptions of the activities involved in the training of citizenship. This 
 analysis of activities of citizenship is a helpful list for curriculum makers to 
 start with. 
 
The Third Yearbook 275 
 
 IV. Studies That Endeavor to Evaluate the Recreative or Leisure Values of 
 
 the Social Sciences 
 
 STUDY NO. 25. Horn, Ernest. "A study of library withdrawals and 
 books published," found in The application of methods of research to mak- 
 ing the course of study in history. Twenty-second Yearbook of the National 
 Society for the Study of Education, Part II. 1914. pp. 235-239. 
 
 Rugg, Earle. "A further study of library withdrawals and books pub- 
 lished," found in Studies in curriculum construction in the social sciences. 
 Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation on file in the Library, Teacher's College, 
 Columbia University, New York City. 1923. 
 
 Problem. To check the theory that the "layman" reads history for 
 recreation or voluntarily. The proportion of books published was sought 
 on the theory that publishers tend to restrict the number of books of a given 
 class, such as history or science or fine arts, etc. to the "buying" demands 
 of the public. An analysis of book withdrawals from libraries was made to 
 see in what proportion people voluntarily read books in the various fields of 
 knowledge. 
 
 Method. To ascertain what books were withdrawn, an examination was 
 made of the records of the central and branch libraries of New York City 
 for 1913, a year which was free "from unusual influences which might 
 increase or decrease the amount of history normally read." An analysis 
 was made of the proportion of books published of various classes (1913) as 
 summarized in The World Almanac for 1915. 
 
 Jordan in his investigation of Children's interests in reading lends evi- 
 dence to the theory that there is an interest in reading history voluntarily 
 for he shows that in the reading of such books, aside from fiction, the num- 
 ber is large when compared to other types of non-fiction. 
 
 Rugg sent out a question blank to fifty representative public libraries 
 throughout the country asking for their circulation statistics for one year in 
 each of these three groups: a. A year before the war such as 1911, 1912, 
 or 1913; b. A year during the war such as 1915, 1916, or 1917; and c. 
 A year after the war such as 1920, 1921, or 1922. 
 
 Most public libraries are classifying their books according to the so- 
 called Dewey-Dccimal System. According to this system the books num- 
 bered in the 100's pertain to philosophy; in the 200's to religion; in the 
 500's, natural science; 600 to applied science; 700 to fine arts; 800 to 
 literature ; and it also so happens that the books on phases of social 
 science — history, government, economics, sociology, are classified for the 
 most part within either the 300's or the 900's. Hence, librarians filling in 
 the number of books under each of the Dewey-Decimal classes were asked 
 to present the evidence from which could be determined the percentage of 
 books in various classes read. 
 
 In order to exclude as much as possible the reading of such books required 
 by schools of high school and college pupils two other questions were asked : 
 
 1. In your opinion, is any considerable proportion of the social science books in 
 the 300's and 900's withdrawn by school pupils for required readings or by persons 
 
276 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 gathering information for programs in civic organizations? If so, estimate the 
 percentage of such withdrawals. 
 
 2. In your opinion, would your circulation statistics for books in the 300's and 
 900's compared with the other classes such as the 100's, 200's, 500's, etc. warrant 
 the conclusion that the "lay" public in your community voluntarily reads history, 
 geography, economics, government, and sociology? 
 
 Findings. Table 76 compares the number of books published and with- 
 drawn for reading for the years 1913 and 1921. 
 
 In the study of books withdrawn from public libraries, fiction was ex- 
 cluded so the tables below indicate only non-fiction. About 60 per cent of 
 the books withdrawn from public libraries are fiction. Hence, this study 
 included about 40 per cent of the entire number of books withdrawn from 
 public libraries. 
 
 TABLE 76.— COMPARISON OF BOOKS (NON-FICTION) PUBLISHED AND 
 AND WITHDRAWN FROM REPRESENTATIVE CITY LIBRARIES, CLAS- 
 SIFIED ON THE DEWEY DECIMAL SYSTEM 
 
 Subject 
 
 Average per cent of non- 
 fiction total library with- 
 drawals 
 
 Average per cent of books 
 published 1913 and 1921 
 
 Philosophy .... 
 
 Religion 
 
 Philology 
 
 Natural Science 
 Applied Science 
 
 Fine Arts 
 
 Literature 
 
 Social Science. . 
 
 4.3 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.7 
 
 5.6 
 
 11.5 
 
 9.8 
 
 22.0 
 
 40.2 
 
 3.0 
 
 7.4 
 2.8 
 7.0 
 17.2 
 4.0 
 11.5 
 29.2 
 
 Fourteen out of sixteen public libraries, in answer to the question, Do 
 withdrawals represent required reading of students?, replied "Yes, in about 
 51 per cent of the cases." Sixteen out of seventeen libraries announce that 
 the "lay public" voluntarily read social science books. 
 
 This study shows that about four out of the every ten non-fiction books 
 withdrawn are books dealing with the social sciences and that half of these, 
 in the opinion of the librarians, represent what might be termed voluntary 
 reading. All librarians except one tend to support the claim that there is 
 a leisure value or objective to be sought in the teaching of the social sciences. 
 There is a marked similarity between the proportion of books withdrawn in 
 each class of the Dewey-Decimal and the proportion of books published in 
 these classes. 
 
 Major Conclusions to Be Drawn from a Study of This Report 
 
 1. Those facts, topics, and problems that are seemingly required fre- 
 quently or universally, or are crucial to life needs are, relatively speaking, 
 only a small fraction of the sum total of possible facts, topics, and problems. 
 
 2. There is a better basis for including specific facts, topics, or problems 
 in the school curriculum when they are discovered to be socially valuable 
 by two or more investigations than when such facts, topics, or problems 
 are included principally on the judgment of the author of a textbook. 
 
The Third Yearbook 277 
 
 3. While these investigations deal principally with evidence concerning 
 useful facts, topics, and problems, one should bear in mind that certain 
 materials may be valuable for other reasons. But any one who wishes to 
 justify the inclusion of content besides that selected upon standards of 
 social needs herein illustrated should be obligated to report objective evi- 
 dence to show why such content should be taught. This specifically ap- 
 plies to the justification of material for disciplinary, for cultural, or for 
 conventional values. 
 
 4. The rather marked similarity of the evidence of independent investi- 
 gations, made upon differing criteria, gives one relatively impersonal evi- 
 dence to state what content should be included in the social science cur- 
 riculum. 
 
 5. The studies in Section I of this chapter give examples of how one 
 may discover problems of contemporary society. While the school is 
 obligated to train citizens to meet problems and activities of today, it is 
 further obligated to equip individuals to adjust themselves to a dynamic 
 society. It is probable that the school should endeavor to predict not only 
 the training that citizens need now but also that training which they will 
 require to meet the problems, issues, and modes of living some twenty or 
 thirty years hence. The best source for statements of persistent and in- 
 sistent problems and issues in a dynamic society is to be found in the pub- 
 lished works of specialists in the study of society, in the investigations and 
 conclusions of the men and women who have both detailed theoretical 
 acquaintance and practical knowledge of their field. 
 
 6. The relative probability with which one meets references to facts, 
 topics, and problems is probably best evidenced in analysis of the chief and 
 almost the exclusive reading of the layman — the periodical press. Although 
 there are limitations in the use of this method, such as the fact that widely 
 read periodicals tend to contain few allusions to these facts, is it not the 
 obligation of the school to give young citizens detailed analyses and practice 
 in generalization about facts, topics, and problems, so that they can inter- 
 pret them more wisely and form better judgments? These citizens make 
 up the mysterious something that we call public opinion. Their analyses 
 and opinions tend to determine what is done to promote or hinder the prog- 
 ress of civilization. 
 
 7. Not only must curriculum makers provide for practice in problem 
 solving about socially valuable content but also they must provide oppor- 
 tunities for the development of sufficient skill in the performance of the 
 duties and the activities of a citizen. There is available some evidence con- 
 cerning what citizens should do that should be included in the curriculum. 
 
 8. The studies that tell in some detail what is now taught should be 
 studied so that one will have sound criteria bases for the rejection or con- 
 tinued inclusion of content of the social sciences. The curriculum consists 
 of that information, those skills, attitudes, and ideals that should be taught 
 in a way to move pupils from known deficiencies to scientifically determined 
 standards, in so far as their abilities, interests, and capacities permit. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
 
 W. W. Charters, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Chairman 
 
 MOST OF the curriculum studies in language and grammar are 
 reported in Part I of the Sixteenth Yearbook of the National So- 
 ciety for the Study of Education, in a section by W. W. Charters 
 entitled Minimum Essentials in Elementary Language and Grammar. To 
 these are added a few others reported in Curriculum Construction, by the 
 same author. An additional number, which have appeared since the publi- 
 cation of the foregoing, are added in this report. 
 
 For purposes of clarity, we shall adopt the question and answer form 
 and proceed without preliminary discussion to the description of the 
 studies. 
 
 1. What are the objectives of elementary language and grammar courses? 
 
 In the studies, no distinction has been made between elementary and ad- 
 vanced courses. The assumption seems to have been that those courses 
 which deal with common errors should be considered elementary courses. 
 
 One statement and two studies of objectives are reported. The assump- 
 tion is made by Charters in the Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society 
 for the Study of Education that the function of the course in grammar is to 
 give a rational basis for the elimination of the language errors of school 
 children. 
 
 One study of the objectives of language has been made by Searsdn, which 
 is summarized in Study No. 1. His object is to determine just what sorts 
 of language skills seem necessary for men in various occupations. Another 
 study of objectives of English is reported by Charles Pendleton, and is de- 
 scribed in Study No. 2. A third study is reported by Franklin Bobbitt in 
 his book How to Make a Curriculum. These are the objectives derived 
 by the high school teachers of Los Angeles by the use of methods somewhat 
 similar to those used by Pendleton. These are described in Study No. 3. 
 
 2. What is the technical content of language and grammar? 
 
 On the assumption that one function of elementary language is to cor- 
 rect errors of oral and written speech, several investigators have studied the 
 errors of school children. These are tabulated in Table 77. 
 
 The methods of collection varied in some details and are described 
 in the Sixteenth Yearbook and in Curriculum Construction, except the 
 study of Sunne, which follows as Study No. 3. The general conclusions 
 concerning oral errors are as follows: 
 
 "1. All the investigators agree in the finding that errors in verbs are 
 most frequent, constituting as they do about sixty per cent of the grammati- 
 cal errors, except Randolph, whose stenographic reports show the verbs to 
 be about ten. , 
 
 [278] 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 279 
 
 "2. Because it is a well-known fact that when errors become very com- 
 mon they cease to be thought serious and in course of time are accepted as 
 good form, the query naturally arises as to whether or not the most common 
 are considered to be the most serious. Obviously, the most common are 
 serious from the point of view of frequency, but they may not attach so 
 deep a stigma to the user as do some much less common errors. 
 
 "With this in mind, the teachers of Pittsburgh were asked to list the ten 
 errors which each considered to be the worst. These were compiled. The 
 relative frequency with which each was mentioned by teachers and the pro- 
 portional percentage which each was of the total 'worst list' was compiled. 
 
 TABLE 77.— LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR STUDIES 
 
 Investiga- 
 tor 
 
 School 
 
 Oral or 
 
 written 
 
 Language 
 
 or 
 grammar 
 
 Oral 
 
 errors 
 
 Written errors 
 
 Method of 
 
 Pages 
 
 Errors 
 
 collection 
 
 
 Connersville, Ind... 
 Kansas City, Mo.. 
 
 Northern Illinois. . . 
 
 Boise, Idaho 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. . . 
 Speyer School.N.Y. 
 
 Oral 
 Both 
 
 Both 
 
 Oral 
 
 Oral 
 
 Oral 
 
 Both 
 Written 
 
 Both 
 
 Oral 
 
 Oral 
 Oral 
 Oral 
 
 Written 
 
 Both 
 
 Grammar 
 Grammar 
 
 226 
 
 5,883 
 
 
 
 
 Charters 
 and Miller 
 
 Thompson. 
 
 4,819 
 
 10,554 
 
 By teachers, 
 and from writ- 
 ten work. 
 
 Both 
 
 Both 
 
 Both 
 
 Grammar 
 Both 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Both 
 
 Both 
 
 Both 
 
 
 
 
 andfrom writ- 
 ten work. 
 
 
 2,268 
 2,954 
 
 Not given 
 
 
 
 with prelimi- 
 nary study. 
 
 Diebel. 
 Randolph. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 report. 
 
 
 Kansas City, Mo.. . 
 Bonham, Texas. . . 
 
 Hibbing, Minn. . . . 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 
 
 Kansas City, Mo... 
 
 112 
 
 
 
 Marshall 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 10,191 
 11,207 
 25,376 
 
 work of third 
 grade. 
 
 
 
 
 and from writ- 
 ten work. 
 
 
 
 
 and from writ- 
 ten work. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,538 
 
 2,947 
 
 
 
 
 work. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and from writ- 
 ten work. 
 
 This percentage was compared with similar percentages of frequency of 
 occurrence of the error. It was found for 41 specific items that the correla- 
 tion between the frequency of mention by teachers as being one of ten 
 worst errors, with frequency of occurrence, was .63 by the Spearman Foot 
 rule. This is fairly high and suggests that, in general, the gravity follows 
 the frequency when measured in this rough way. 
 
 "The twelve errors in which there was the widest divergence between 
 frequency of occurrence and frequency of mention by the teachers may be 
 divided into two classes. Five errors were, in the opinion of the teachers, 
 much worse than they were frequent. The use of was for were was ranked 
 30.5 in the frequency of error list, but in the teachers' opinion was second 
 
280 Department of Superintendence 
 
 to worst; learn for teach (18) frequency, (36.5) gravity; that there (4), 
 (15.5); double comparatives (26), (34.5), and them there (20), (27). 
 In seven extreme cases the reverse was true. The teachers regarded the 
 errors not as bad as they were frequent. Ain't got ranked twenty-eighth in 
 seriousness in teachers' opinions, but ninth in frequency of occur- 
 rence; give for gave (31.5), (15.5) ; is for are (16), (6) ; misuse of me as 
 in It is me (22.5), (14) ; wrong sequence of pronouns as in Everyone must 
 do their work (36), (28) ; come for came (18), (11); and will for shall 
 (31.5), (24.5). 
 
 "3. In Pittsburgh, twenty-three specific errors with a frequency of over 
 200 constitute 56 per cent of the total. These, with their frequencies in a 
 total of 25,676 errors, are seen in Table 78. 
 
 Table 78 — The Twenty-three Most Frequent Errors in Pittsburgh 
 
 was for were 1555 errors 
 
 seen for saw 1513 errors 
 
 ain't 1361 errors 
 
 can for may 1150 errors 
 
 done for did 895 errors 
 
 is for are 777 errors 
 
 don't for doesn't 721 errors 
 
 this here ,- 684 errors 
 
 John, he went 671 errors 
 
 didn't have no 531 errors 
 
 them things 479 errors 
 
 that there 472 errors 
 
 ain't got 443 errors 
 
 have got 439 errors 
 
 ain't got no 435 errors 
 
 come for came 350 errors 
 
 it was {is, ain't) me 340 errors 
 
 why, there was ' 330 errors 
 
 didn't do nothing 302 errors 
 
 lay for lie 280 errors 
 
 off for from 276 errors 
 
 went for gone 245 errors 
 
 give for gave 202 errors 
 
 "4. Comparison between percentages of error in Kansas City, Detroit, 
 Hibbing, and Pittsburgh is given in Table 79. The two items which are 
 listed in Pittsburgh alone are due to the fact that errors in language rather 
 than errors in grammar were reported by the teachers. The three items 
 mentioned in Hibbing alone present certain interesting facts. The use of 
 adverbs instead of negative verbs is illustrated by / never done it for I didn't 
 do it.- Words omitted are found in such sentences as, / go basement and 
 Mother went Chisholm. 
 
 "This table should be read as follows: The error, 'The subject of the 
 verb not in the nominative case,' constitutes 4 per cent of the total of 5883 
 errors reported in Kansas City, 4 per cent of the 11,207 errors reported in 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 281 
 
 TABLE 79.— COMPARISON OF PERCENTAGES IN ORAL ERRORS IN 
 KANSAS CITY, DETROIT, HIBBING, AND PITTSBURGH 
 
 Per cent 
 
 K. C. 
 
 H. 
 
 Subject of the verb not in the nominative case 
 
 Predicate nominative not in the nominative case 
 
 Object of the verb or preposition not in the objective case. . . . 
 
 Wrong form of pronoun 
 
 First personal pronoun standing first 
 
 Failure of a pronoun to agree with its antecedent 
 
 Confusion of demonstrative adjective and personal pronoun. . . . 
 Failure of a verb to agree with its subject in number and person. 
 
 Confusion of past and present tenses 
 
 Confusion of past tense and past participle 
 
 Wrong tense form 
 
 Wrong verb 
 
 Incorrect use of the mood 
 
 Confusion of comparative and superlative 
 
 Confusion of adjectives and adverbs 
 
 Misplaced modifiers 
 
 Double negatives •.■■•■. 
 
 Confusion of preposition and conjunction 
 
 Syntactical redundance 
 
 Wrong part of speech due to similarity of sound 
 
 Confusion of prepositions 
 
 Pronunciation and enunciation 
 
 Adverb instead of negative form of verb 
 
 Words omitted 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 2 
 
 24 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 9 
 7 
 8 
 5 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 
 13 
 3 
 
 14 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 Total number of errors . 
 
 5,883 
 
 11,207 
 
 10,190 
 
 25,676 
 
 Detroit, and so forth. Any type of error given percentage appeared with 
 a percentage of less than .5. 
 
 "Randolph, in his stenographic report of the speech of children, given in 
 Part I, of the Sixteenth Yearbook, lists 1412 errors in sentence structure out 
 of a total of 2954 errors. None of these are collected from teachers in the 
 other studies. This is a significant difference, and although incomplete 
 answers may have constituted a large part of Randolph's list, other 
 errors not belonging to this class were present. It is, therefore, quite cer- 
 tain that the stenographic report is superior to collection of errors by 
 teachers. 
 
 "5. The grammatical rules and definitions included in the course of 
 study based on the errors of Kansas City children mav be summarized as 
 follows : 
 
 A. Nouns 
 
 (a) Definition 
 
 (b) Inflection (1) number (2) case (possessive) (3) gender (slight use) 
 
 (c) Common and proper 
 
 (d) Syntax — (1) subject of a verb (2) subjective complement (3) object 
 of verb of preposition (4) the indirect object. (These are chiefly of 
 use as an aid in the understanding of pronouns.) 
 
 B. Pronouns 
 
 (a) Definition 
 
 (b) Personal pronouns (case and person, gender, number) 
 
 (c) Compound personal pronouns 
 
 (d) Relative pronouns (gender, case) 
 
282 Department of Superintendence 
 
 C. Adjectives 
 
 (a) Definition - 
 
 (b) Demonstrative adjectives 
 
 (c) Cardinal and ordinal adjectives 
 
 (d) The derivation of proper adjectives 
 
 (e) Comparison of adjectives 
 
 D. Verbs 
 
 (a) Definition 
 
 (b) Transitive and intransitive verbs 
 
 (c) Person 
 
 (d) Number 
 
 (e) Tense (particularly present, past, and past perfect) 
 
 (f) Shall and will 
 
 (g) Can and may 
 
 (h) Mode (very slight) 
 
 (i) Voice 
 
 (j) Past participles 
 
 (k) Infinitive (very slight)— split infinitive 
 
 E. Adverbs 
 
 (a) Definition 
 
 (b) Comparison 
 
 F. Prepositions 
 
 (a) Definition 
 
 (b) Government of case 
 
 G. Conjunctions 
 
 (a) Definition 
 
 (b) Classification 
 H. Misplaced modifiers 
 
 I. Double negatives 
 J. Syntactical redundance 
 
 K. Spelling — when explainable by reference to grammar: — to, a preposition; two, 
 an adjective ; and too, an adverb 
 
 L. Sentence structure 
 
 (a) Definition 
 
 (b) How to write it 
 
 Begins with capital letter 
 
 Ends with a period, exclamation mark, or interrogation mark 
 
 M. Parsing and analysis 
 
 (a) Definition of both 
 
 (b) Division of sentence into parts 
 
 (c) In general, the parsing will follow the elements outlined in the fore- 
 going outline 
 
 (d) The extent to which the parsing will be carried should be determined 
 by the errors of the children 
 
 "Barnes, in general, agrees with the foregoing items. Differences are as 
 follows: He adds collective nouns, although the one who listens to a 
 speaker can only infrequently tell that he has made a mistake in number. 
 He also adds appositives in nouns, none of which were noted in the Kansas 
 City study. He also adds the plural of demonstrative adjectives, which 
 was an oversight in the Kansas City study. He adds gerunds but omits 
 negatives and syntactical redundance, which are possibly not strictly gram- 
 matical in nature. 
 
The Third Yearbook 283 
 
 "6. An examination of these lists shows that grammar is greatly simplified 
 as to both the complexity of the sentences used and the narrow range of 
 facts to be learned. Much of the difficulty of grammar is eliminated. Un- 
 usual tenses, gerundives, infinitive constructions, and most of the mood 
 forms are among those in which mistakes are infrequently made or not 
 made at all. 
 
 "In the Kansas City study, it was found that the following could be 
 omitted from the course of study which was in operation in the schools at 
 the time of the investigation : the exclamatory sentence, the conjunction, 
 the appositive, the nominative of address, the nominative by exclamation, 
 the objective complement, the adverbial objective, the indefinite pronoun, 
 the objective used as a substantive, the classification of adverbs, the noun 
 clause, the conjunctive adverb, the retained objective, the moods (except, 
 possibly, the subjunctive of to be), the infinitive (except the split infinitive), 
 the objective subject, the participle (except the definition and the present 
 and past forms), the nominative absolute, and the gerund. 
 
 "It is evident that some of the items in this list could not have been re- 
 vealed by this method. For instance, one can not tell from reading 
 whether or not the writer should have used an exclamation mark to convey 
 the meaning he intended. Again, the material read did not include in- 
 stances of the nominative of address where the comma was not used cor- 
 rectly ; in fact, the use of the nominative of address was very slight. The 
 oral sentences reported by the teachers did not include noun clauses, and 
 the children's themes which were read seldom used the complex sentence, 
 the preference seeming to be for the compound sentence. 
 
 "It is quite clear that a much more simple set of sentences could be used 
 for analysis and parsing than are presented to children when it is necessary 
 for them to learn to analyze and parse sentences involving subtle rules in 
 grammar which they do not naturally break. 
 
 "7. W. J. Richardson and Charters (Pittsburgh) classified the errors by 
 grades to see what natural eliminations occurred during progress through the 
 grades. Clearly, no absolute standard could be set up, because certain 
 errors may be stressed more heavily and, therefore, noticed more sharply by 
 teachers in the upper grades. But, if a type of error has completely disap- 
 peared, the fact is of some significance. None such, however, were noticed 
 except the use of quite childish incorrect forms of the past and perfect 
 tenses; and in many cases, due to the reason just mentioned, some errors 
 increased in number or total per cent." 
 
 Concerning written errors, Johnson gives the following order of teach- 
 ing emphasis for high school students: 
 
 "(1) Mistakes in capitalization. (2) Mistakes in the use of the apos- 
 trophe. (3) Mistakes in punctuation. (4 ) Mistakes in the use of adjec- 
 tives and adverbs. (5) Mistakes in spelling. (6) Mistakes in pronouns, 
 not including case. (7) Careless omissions and repetitions. (8) Mistakes 
 in the use of verbs. (9) Mistakes in the use of prepositions and conjunc- 
 tions. (10) Sentence meaning not clear. (11) Sentence structure not 
 
284 Department of Superintendence 
 
 grammatical. (12) Mistakes in the use of quotation marks. (13) Mis- 
 takes in the case of pronouns." 
 
 3. How is technical grammar derived? 
 
 The rules broken were stated negatively as, "failure of subject to agree 
 with predicate." Then the rules which were broken were stated positively. 
 When this had been done, the investigators discovered in connection with 
 each rule the definitions necessary to understand it. The rules and defini- 
 tions thus combined indicate the technical content of the grammar which is 
 necessary to give comprehension of the reasons for correct grammatical 
 speech. The results of this method of derivation are given above. 
 
 4. What is the technical content of letter writing? 
 
 Johnson's investigation is reported as Study No. 5. It deals with the 
 letters of college students and is reported because of its direct usefulness in 
 the elementary grades. 
 
 5. What carrying content is used in the teaching of the technique of lan- 
 guage and grammar? 
 
 The distinction between the technique of language and grammar and 
 carrying content is this : The carrying content is the material that is used 
 in order to teach the facts and forms of language and grammar. The car- 
 rying content may be of many kinds : games, reproduction stories, drill exer- 
 cises, picture studies, and the like. 
 
 Two studies are reported : ( 1 ) Paul and Charters collected a large num- 
 ber of language games used in the classrooms in many cities in the United 
 States. These have been published by the Bureau of Education as Bulletin 
 No. 43, 1923, under the caption, Games and other Devices for Improving 
 Pupils' English (price 10^). (2) C. S. Dike, in Education, for Septem- 
 ber, 1924, describes the method by which he has constructed 92 sets of drill 
 exercises, one set for each of the errors which he lists. He has constructed 
 his own exercises and uses them after he has made a diagnosis of the English 
 difficulties of each pupil. This method is significant because the sets of ex- 
 ercises can be made and used by the teachers of any school system. 
 
 6. How should the subject material of language and grammar be gra- 
 dated ? 
 
 No studies of gradation have been reported. However, attempts to fit 
 the instruction to the common errors of the class or to the outstanding 
 errors of the individual have been made. This is done by the use of one or 
 more of the diagnostic tests which are given to the children whose individual 
 errors are noted. The frequency of the error, its persistence, and its 
 seriousness determine the emphasis to be placed upon it. 
 
 7. What differences in vocabulary are found among children? 
 Vocabulary studies have not been included in this synopsis because of 
 
 the fact that vocabulary has been construed as being less a matter of lan- 
 guage proper than of history, arithmetic, and the other subjects in connec- 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 285 
 
 tion with which the vocabulary is used. Attention should be called, how- 
 ever, to two interesting vocabulary studies which have been submitted. 
 W. J. Osburn, in the State Department of Instruction in Wisconsin, has 
 examined the vocabularies of immigrant children, as has Miss Nina Joy 
 Beglinger and her assistants in the Detroit public schools. These are both 
 in mimeographed form. 
 
 STUDY NO. i. Searson, J. W. "Determining a language pro- 
 gram." English Journal, February, 1924, pp. 99-114. 
 
 This is the report of an investigation in which Mr. Searson attempts to 
 determine what language skills seem necessary for men in various occupa- 
 
 TABLE 8o. 
 
 -LANGUAGE SKILLS NECESSARY FOR ORDINARY SUCCESS IN 
 LIFE (7,752 PERSONS FROM 42 STATES) 
 
 Language Skills demanded 
 by public 
 
 co 
 
 a 
 as 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 CD 
 
 s 
 
 714 
 
 boa 
 a g 
 
 S i 
 
 %■£ 
 
 u a 
 Hen 
 
 406 
 
 1 
 
 CD 
 
 O 
 759 
 
 U 
 O 
 
 B 
 S 
 fa 
 
 2,187 
 
 ■0 
 JK 
 
 1 U 
 
 CfiiJ 
 
 397 
 
 |e 
 
 3 
 
 a nJ 
 1,193 
 
 CO 
 
 u 
 <u 
 >> 
 
 si 
 
 si 
 
 ►J 
 
 129 
 
 01 
 a 
 .2 
 '3 
 co 
 
 133 
 
 CO 
 
 u 
 
 0) 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 N 
 
 207 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 CD 
 
 A 
 
 IS 
 V 
 
 H 
 1,136 
 
 a 
 
 cd 
 
 CO M 
 
 0° 
 
 <™ 
 
 481 
 
 "3 
 
 H 
 
 7,752 
 
 Speaking Skills: 
 
 Accurate pronunciation. . . . 
 
 Good conversation 
 
 Clear presentation 
 
 Persuasive skill — 
 
 With customers 
 
 527 
 
 193 
 
 61 
 
 702 
 
 370 
 392 
 351 
 
 402 
 
 682 
 691 
 547 
 
 709 
 
 937 
 
 1,020 
 
 530 
 
 861 
 
 103 
 216 
 119 
 
 19 
 
 257 
 
 313 
 
 91 
 
 14 
 
 121 
 107 
 116 
 
 120 
 118 
 109 
 
 204 
 200 
 205 
 
 1,102 
 
 1,019 
 1,114 
 
 256 
 313 
 215 
 
 3,677 
 4,884 
 3,458 
 
 2,701 
 
 109 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 197 
 14 
 167 
 131 
 169 
 
 
 
 197 
 
 After dinner speaking 
 
 Trade and civic addresses. . . . 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 391 
 
 613 
 
 1 
 
 92 
 
 149 
 
 38 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 82 
 103 
 
 190 
 
 79 
 
 185 
 
 1,797 
 
 37 
 
 28 
 
 71 
 
 212 
 
 75 
 12 
 
 7 
 188 
 
 119 
 90 
 98 
 89 
 
 122 
 72 
 68 
 51 
 
 760 
 
 131 
 
 78 
 
 1,136 
 
 359 
 194 
 287 
 347 
 
 1,392 
 
 891 
 
 1,547 
 
 3,743 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,613 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reading Skills: 
 
 312 
 641 
 403 
 299 
 32 
 98 
 701 
 691 
 522 
 
 219 
 384 
 361 
 97 
 18 
 377 
 395 
 389 
 112 
 
 307 
 563 
 283 
 81 
 16 
 541 
 231 
 639 
 119 
 
 1,290 
 1,993 
 
 795 
 1,431 
 
 130 
 1,863 
 1,813 
 
 759 
 
 481 
 
 197 
 
 340 
 
 251 
 
 72 
 
 29 
 
 101 
 
 179 
 
 81 
 
 113 
 
 417 
 818 
 536 
 79 
 117 
 488 
 613 
 114 
 609 
 
 129 
 
 128 
 
 126 
 
 97 
 
 102 
 
 127 
 
 124 
 
 91 
 
 72 
 
 133 
 
 127 
 
 131 
 
 109 
 
 27 
 
 116 
 
 120 
 
 12 
 
 81 
 
 205 
 
 198 
 
 195 
 
 65 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 185 
 
 19 
 
 48 
 
 1 , 130 
 
 1,044 
 
 961 
 
 568 
 
 93 
 
 1,107 
 
 1,119 
 
 38 
 
 123 
 
 472 
 479 
 408 
 103 
 98 
 411 
 375 
 312 
 410 
 
 4,811 
 
 
 6,715 
 
 
 4,450 
 
 Technical journals 
 
 Plans and specifications 
 
 3,001 
 
 677 
 
 5,255 
 
 Letters, orders, contracts .... 
 
 Description of goods 
 
 Signs and advertisements .... 
 
 5,845 
 3,145 
 2,690 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38,689 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Writing Skills: 
 
 631 
 
 594 
 
 603 
 37 
 49 
 
 127 
 299 
 
 81 
 
 365 
 
 380 
 
 396 
 29 
 11 
 
 151 
 96 
 28 
 
 509 
 561 
 
 413 
 68 
 21 
 
 27 
 58 
 19 
 
 1,213 
 1,633 
 
 817 
 411 
 112 
 
 117 
 103 
 211 
 
 309 
 312 
 
 72 
 
 9 
 12 
 
 93 
 6 
 9 
 
 512 
 538 
 
 71 
 12 
 4 
 
 412 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 118 
 101 
 
 128 
 19 
 53 
 
 97 
 4 
 16 
 
 126 
 114 
 
 96 
 13 
 
 41 
 
 103 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 192 
 167 
 
 193 
 
 141 
 
 13 
 
 76 
 
 15 
 61 
 
 1,131 
 
 1,096 
 
 1,101 
 
 365 
 
 15 
 
 781 
 16 
 41 
 
 465 
 319 
 
 178 
 31 
 93 
 
 361 
 372 
 401 
 
 5,771 
 
 Good penmanship 
 
 Business letters, forms, 
 
 5,815 
 3,068 
 
 
 1,135 
 424 
 
 Specifications and direc- 
 
 2,345 
 
 Clever advertisements 
 
 Clever new stories 
 
 996 
 898 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,452 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 General Language Skiils: 
 Skill to gather, organize, in- 
 
 376 
 315 
 219 
 
 288 
 216 
 187 
 
 18 
 119 
 121 
 
 873 
 
 1,079 
 
 512 
 
 79 
 
 164 
 92 
 
 18 
 
 213 
 
 16 
 
 123 
 
 121 
 82 
 
 118 
 
 126 
 
 89 
 
 176 
 188 
 156 
 
 1,081 
 
 1,059 
 
 653 
 
 465 
 421 
 189 
 
 3,515 
 
 Thinking clearly, cleverly. . 
 
 4,521 
 2,316 
 
 
 
 Total of General Language 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,352 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
286 Department of Superintendence 
 
 tions who desire to make at least an ordinary success of their work. He 
 seeks to determine what is the irreducible minimum of language skill 
 needed and desired by men and women in different vocations. He listed 
 twenty-seven language skills and consulted 7752 persons in forty-two states. 
 The method used in obtaining the information is not given. The gist of the 
 report is presented with the accompanying table, which reads as follows : 
 
 Of the 714 merchants questioned, 527 stated that they needed skill in 
 accurate pronunciation, etc. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Pendleton, Charles S. The social objectives of school 
 English. Published by the author at George Peabody College for Teachers, 
 Nashville, Tenn. pp. 3, 4, 36, 37, 38. 
 
 The investigation reported in this volume is a contribution toward a 
 definition of English as a school subject. Scientific in method, it endeavors 
 to present a statement of the precise ultimate social objectives which are 
 actually set up as goals by present-day teachers of English. 
 
 The study comprises four undertakings. First, it brings together, from 
 widely diverse sources, a particularized catalog of those objectives which 
 have recently been stated by teachers as the outcomes which ought to be 
 attained from school English. This list of objectives almost completely 
 describes present practice and ideals. 
 
 Secondly, the investigation checks and supplements this catalog derived 
 from teachers' statements of their aims. To this end, it examines specifi- 
 cally the English used by many adults in their daily life. The list of ob- 
 jectives which it sets forth is thus verified for actual social validity by being 
 compared with the linguistic abilities of mature leaders in many commu- 
 nities. 
 
 The inquiry undertakes, thirdly, to arrange the items in its catalog 
 according to their importance as judged by teachers. It therefore obtains 
 appraisals from eighty instructors in English and, by means of a statistical 
 combination of these individual ratings, arranges the long list in a sequence. 
 
 Fourthly, in support of this evaluation of the specific objectives of 
 English, it studies carefully the range and competence of the eighty 
 teachers upon whose several judgments its accepted order is based. 
 
 In both the accumulating and the appraising of the goals of school 
 English, the investigation depends upon personal judgments. It does not 
 set up an impersonal, objective scheme, for ascertaining the facts. 
 
 Method. Several sources of material of this general sort were drawn 
 upon to make up this catalog: (1) Direct statements from 272 teachers of 
 English, contributed personally to the investigation; (2) similar direct ut- 
 terances from about 100 educators, not teachers of English but in contact 
 with, the problem; (3) all the articles, editorials, notes, and advertisements 
 pertaining to English which were published in eleven important educational 
 periodicals during five recent years; (4) the relevant portions of 67 stand- 
 ard general writings on education; (5) 118 standard volumes about English 
 or the teaching of English; (6) 49 state or city courses of study, or 
 
The Third Yearbook 287 
 
 teachers' manuals, in English; and (7) 62 widely used school textbooks on 
 various phases and educational levels of this subject. 
 
 To supplement and check the social validity of the catalog thus secured, 
 the actual linguistic usages of many adults were also studied. The group 
 thus investigated consisted of 2759 individuals residing in 99 widely scat- 
 tered communities. All were educated persons, considered to be leaders. 
 The many linguistic abilities listed during this inquiry were collated with 
 those put forward by teachers as school objectives, with the result that no 
 important omissions in the teachers' lists were discovered. 
 
 In all, 1581 objectives were listed. These were then evaluated by 80 
 teachers enrolled in classes in the teaching of English in the University of 
 Chicago. A detailed analysis of the contribution of these judges is given by 
 the author. The 1581 objectives fell into six categories: (a) language, (b) 
 conversation, (c) public speaking, (d) oral reading, (e) writing, and (f ) 
 reading. The first forty-eight objectives, "the sine qua non of public 
 school English, follow, the numbers in the margin indicating the ranking 
 of each objective within the respective categories: 
 
 1. The ability to spell correctly without hesitation all the ordinary words 
 
 of one's writing vocabulary E. 1 
 
 2. The ability to speak, in conversation, in complete sentences, not in broken 
 phrasing B. 1 
 
 3. The ability to write — in ordinary writing situations and without great 
 concentration of attention — English which is grammatically correct. ... E. 2 
 
 4. The attitude of prompt, effective abolishment of any error in one's 
 written English as soon as it is first called to one's attention E. 3 
 
 5. The ability to spell — without great concentration of attention — during 
 one's straightforward writing, all the common words of English written 
 intercommunication. (The common words have been determined scien- 
 tifically by a number of recent scholarly investigations) E. 4 
 
 6. The ability to use intellectual economy in expression — few words, not 
 many; a thing said well once, not poorly and then supplemented by 
 restatement A. 1 
 
 7. The ability to capitalize speedily and accurately in one's writing. ... E. 5 
 
 8. The habit of reading for enjoyment literature of the better sort F. 1 
 
 9. The ability to think quickly in an emergency B. 2 
 
 10. The ability, in conversational situations, to speak the truth tactfully and 
 efficiently B. 3 
 
 11. An attitude of genuine desire to be constructive, not destructive, in one's 
 human relations B. 4 
 
 12. A taste for reading books (not merely magazines) of an excellent sort F. 2 
 
 13. The attitude of maintaining the integrity of one's spoken word as one's 
 
 bond — of "keeping one's word" B. 5 
 
 14. An attitude of alert interest in the world and all things in it, and a 
 desire to increase one's knowledge F. 3 
 
 1 5. Command over an adequate writing vocabulary E. 6 
 
 16. The habit of listening attentively and thoughtfully when being addressed B. 6 
 
 17. The ability to use in conversation only forms of expression which are 
 grammatically correct B. 7 
 
 18. An attitude of intelligent consciousness regarding one's use of language 
 
 as a means of expression A. 2 
 
288 Department of Superintendence 
 
 19. The ability automatically to speak grammatically correct English in one's 
 public address C. 1 
 
 20. An attitude of genuine desire to accomplish through all one's abilities 
 social service, not mere personal aggrandizement B. 8 
 
 21. The ability to punctuate accurately and speedily while writing E. 7 
 
 22. The abilty to spell — without great concentration of attention — during 
 one's straightforward writing, all the words of one's writing vocabulary E. 8 
 
 23. The ability to write effectively simple, straightforward business letters 
 
 in the routine of daily life E. 9 
 
 24. The ability to use fluently and accurately a wide, accurate, and ex- 
 pressive speaking vocabulary . B. 9 
 
 25. A perennial, never-failing interest in people; the habit of studying them 
 sympathetically F. 4 
 
 26. The attitude of expecting oneself without hesitation or doubt to write 
 
 good English E. 10 
 
 27. The ability to refrain from marking or marring in any way a borrowed 
 
 book .... F. 5 
 
 28. An attitude of avoidance of all affectation and lack of genuineness in 
 manner of speaking B. 10 
 
 29. Habitual realization that good physical and mental health is funda- 
 mental to really profitable reading F. 6 
 
 30. A taste for reading the better class of magazines, not the inferior 
 fiction sort F. 7 
 
 31. An attitude of open-mindedness, in conversational situations, and the 
 ability and willingness to change one's mind frankly B. 11 
 
 32. The ability to rest oneself and divert one's mind from business or social 
 perplexities through the enjoyable reading of literature F. 8 
 
 33. The ability to determine quickly and accurately from a dictionary the 
 pronunciation of a word F. 9 
 
 34. The habit of keeping oneself accurately informed upon a considerable 
 number of topics of wide interest and suitability for conversation ...... B. 12 
 
 35. The ability to think rapidly and accurately while speaking before an 
 audience C. 2 
 
 36. An attitude of democracy rather than snobbishness in a conversation B. 13 
 
 37. The habit of striving to excel one's own best records of attainment in 
 various phases of mastery of vocabulary A. 3 
 
 38. An attitude of never injuring in any way library books which one is 
 consulting F. 10 
 
 39. The ability to write one's thoughts fluently in acceptable sentences.... E. 11 
 
 40. Command of so ready and wide a vocabulary that one is not forced 
 into grammatical awkwardness and incorrectness by lack of the right 
 word to use in speech B. 14 
 
 41. The habit of attentiveness and of dynamic purpose to refer to a diction- 
 ary as soon as possible, whenever one meets in any language situation 
 
 a word of which one lacks the mastery A. 4 
 
 42. A genuine, deep-seated interest in the world of books F. 11 
 
 43. A mastery of the spirit and technique of good fellowship — the fine art 
 
 of being a social creature B. 15 
 
 44. Habitual substitution, whenever possible, of an hour's enjoyment of an 
 ennobling book for an hour's intercourse with a degrading person.... F. 12 
 
 45. Habitual facility in recognizing any familiar printed word F. 13 
 
 46. The ability to find quickly and accurately in a dictionary the meaning 
 
 of a word one meets. (This involves many specific abilities.) F. 14 
 
 47. An attitude of avoidance, in a public speech, of all affectation and lack 
 
 of genuineness in manner of speaking , C. 3 
 
The Third Yearbook 289 
 
 48. The ability to use literature as a window through which to look out 
 upon human experiences as a lifelong leisure occupation of maximum 
 f ruitf ulness F. 1 5 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. Bobbitt, Franklin. How to make a curriculum. New 
 York. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924, pp. 246-255. 
 
 The problem was to determine the objectives that should be sought for 
 in the teaching of English expression in the high school. This study is 
 included because it presents a technique which can be applied in the grades 
 equally as well as in the high school. 
 
 Professor Bobbitt presented the English teachers of the high schools of 
 Los Angeles with his well-known list of objectives, guiding principles, and 
 assumptions, and pupil activities and experiences. These are listed in full 
 in How to Make a Curriculum. The English teachers were then to draw 
 up lists which would apply to English expression in the Los Angeles situa- 
 tion. The statement follows: 
 
 'As a starting-point only for the curriculum-maker, we suggest the fol- 
 lowing series of general principles and assumptions as practical guides in his 
 work. Let him modify it as he will, or draw up another. But he should 
 take some position regarding each of the problems here suggested ; and hold 
 to it consistently. 
 
 Guiding Principles and Assumptions 
 
 1. One's expressed language is the objective manifestation of one's thought; at 
 the same time the language is the subjective instrument of one's thought. 
 
 2. In all language expression, the thought is the primary thing, and the language 
 the vehicle; caring for the thought adequately involves caring for the vehicle 
 adequately. The latter is done, however, not for the sake of perfecting the 
 vehicle, but for the sake of perfecting the thought. 
 
 3. Every school department that is developing power to think in some field 
 should develop power to express thought clearly and sequentially in that field. 
 This is to be done not for the sake of the expression but for the sake of adequate 
 thought. At the same time this is the type of experience which normally develops 
 one's powers of expression. 
 
 4. In every department of the school there should be much English expression — 
 for the sake of the thought or content side of the department's work. The ex- 
 pression should be carefully organized and adequate — for the sake of the thought. 
 There should be as much oral expression by each individual pupil as the limited 
 time will permit. There should also be a reasonable amount of written expression 
 in each department. 
 
 5. The distinction which the student himself often draws between expression in 
 his English classes and expression in the classes of history, science, mathematics, 
 etc., is injurious to his attitudes and powers of expression. There should be no 
 possibility of such distinction. 
 
 6. The major experience in developing one's powers of expression is normal 
 participation in the thought-life and language-life of school, home, and general 
 community, under circumstances where one is mainly conscious of human experi- 
 ences and of things objective, and relatively unconscious of the language-vehicle 
 itself. 
 
 7. Language activities should be as unconscious and automatic as possible. 
 
 8. One should be made conscious of only those aspects of his language of which 
 he must be watchful for the sake of exactness and correctness. 
 
290 Department of Superintendence 
 
 9. One should be left unconscious of those aspects of language which one uses 
 properly as a result of unconscious learning. 
 
 10. A diagnostic study of the language-abilities of each individual student needs 
 to be made. Where he reveals weakness, he is to be trained ; where he is already 
 sufficiently strong, he is not to be trained. 
 
 11. Spelling drill for each individual should be centered upon the errors which 
 he makes. 
 
 12. Handwriting drill for each individual should be centered upon the errors 
 in his handwriting. 
 
 13. Pronunciation drill for each individual should be mostly centered upon the 
 errors in his pronunciation. 
 
 14. Grammatical drill for each individual should be mostly centered upon the 
 grammatical errors which are to be eliminated. . 
 
 15. In discovering the language errors and defects of individual pupils, the 
 oral-speech defects of pronunciation, enunciation, voice quality and placement, etc., 
 are to be looked after as carefully as any others. 
 
 16. In each aspect of his expression, the student should keep a record of the 
 types of error against which he should be on guard. His major task is to 
 eliminate these errors. 
 
 17. Only as the pupil is brought to be watchful of himself, without prompting 
 on the part of the teacher, is his training accomplished. 
 
 18. Students should be stimulated to attain each objective as expeditiously as 
 practicable, and with a minimum of teacher-labor. The more it is done without 
 teacher-assistance, through pupil self-direction, as proven by measured results, the 
 greater the credit that should be given. 
 
 19. After the pupil has mastered the elements of formal correctness, all depart- 
 ments should consider it their function to see that he permits no exception to occur 
 in his use of the correct forms. 
 
 20. In the main, matters of form should be made clear only as the difficulty 
 arises. So far as no difficulty arises in the undirected language-life of the individ- 
 ual, he may better remain relatively unconscious of the technical language forms 
 and relationships. 
 
 21. Focusing attention upon the thought is a mode of keeping the language in 
 the background. 
 
 22. All teaching relative to matters of formal correctness will be done by the 
 department of English. Holding pupils responsible for correctness of expression 
 will be a responsibility of departments where expression is a portion of pupil 
 experience. 
 
 23. In matters of formal correctness, the major effort of teachers will not be 
 teaching but rather holding pupils responsible for self-direction in keeping their 
 expression adequate and correct. 
 
 24. Only those facts and principles relative to language should be taught which 
 are necessary for rendering thought and communication more effective. 
 
 25. The way to learn to express one's self effectively in English is to express 
 one's self within normal situations where one greatly wants to express one's self 
 well. 
 
 26. The auditor is as necessary for normal expression as the speaker; the 
 reader, as necessary as the writer. 
 
 27. As one expresses one's self orally, one must feel that there are others before 
 him who are accepting his communication in the spirit in which it is intended. 
 If they are merely sitting critical of his expression, the whole situation is deranging. 
 
 28. Written expression can be made sufficiently serviceable for training purposes 
 only when the writer is conscious that his production is to be read by or to others 
 whom he desires to please, convince, instruct, or impress. He must write within 
 a normal expression-situation. These cannot be manufactured ; they must be dis- 
 covered. Make-believe will not serve the purpose. , 
 
The Third Yearbook 291 
 
 29. When one is expressing himself normally in writing, he must be filled with 
 the consciousness that what he writes is to be read by some one, in the spirit 
 intended by the writer. If he is merely conscious that it is to be examined by a 
 critical-minded teacher, usually the situation is so deranged that the expression is 
 not, and cannot be, normal. 
 
 30. Deficiency in normal expression opportunities under school control is one of 
 the greatest obstacles to effective training in the active use of language. 
 
 31. The English department has not control over a sufficient quantity of normal 
 expression situations to give pupils enough practice in normal written expression. 
 
 32. The student who does not realize the values of proficiency in expression, 
 and who lacks a desire to attain it, is not prepared to profit from the training. 
 Mere driving him will be of little avail. Results gained are but apparent and 
 soon lost after the driving season. The training must begin with laying the 
 proper foundation in attitudes, valuations, and desires. Foundation must precede 
 superstructure. 
 
 33. The most difficult single problem is how to bring pupils to want to use a 
 good quality of English. 
 
 34. In the language itself, the two major things to be cared for are vocabulary 
 and sentence structure. 
 
 35. Normally, the vocabulary grows up almost unconsciously out of one's diverse 
 experiences in which language is a relatively unconscious accompaniment and 
 vehicle of thought. The training problem therefore is not one of direct teaching 
 of words, but rather provision of diversified normal experiences which are 
 accompanied in normal ways by the verbal element. 
 
 36. Normally, one's sentence-sense and power to construct complicated sentences 
 grow up for the most part unconsciously out of one's normal thought experiences. 
 As these grow complex, the sentences keep the pace in complexity. 
 
 37. Paragraph structures will develop naturally from the divisions in the thought 
 itself. One who thinks clearly, adequately, and sequentially will break his thought 
 into its natural paragraph divisions with little attention to the matter. 
 
 38. The organization of the larger unit of discourse is at bottom but an organiza- 
 tion of the thought-content. 
 
 39. Because of the sensitiveness of one's associates to matters of formal correct- 
 ness, errors in language-forms of every kind are to be weeded out as completely 
 as is consistent with a due amount of training effort. The standards will vary 
 greatly among individuals according to original natures and to their social sit- 
 uation. 
 
 40. In general education, literature is to be used mainly for its content or 
 experience values. It is not to be used as a basis of training in English expression 
 any more than history or science. 
 
 41. There is no more reason for tying the English expression up with the 
 literature than with the history or the science. 
 
 42. Training for amateur literary production is to be given only to those of 
 proved capacity, aptitude, and industry — and who require no great amount of 
 teacher effort and assistance. 
 
 43. The general training in English expression is not for vocational literary 
 production, nor for any special type of English expression in any vocation. It is 
 only for the ordinary oral and written expression of everyday life. 
 
 44. Only those are to be trained for vocational literary production who have 
 definitely chosen this as their work; whom studies of capacity show to be fitted 
 for it; and who are capable of a large degree of self-direction in achieving the 
 skills and understanding. 
 
 45. Special vocations require special forms of writing; training to use these, 
 however, should be a portion of the vocational courses and given only to those 
 who are taking these courses. 
 
292 Department of Superintendence 
 
 46. The basic aspects of English expression are the same whether it be oral or 
 written. This being the case, it should be taken care of as one thing; but a thing 
 of many aspects, each one of which should be adequately cared for. 
 
 Objectives of English Expression 
 
 1. Ability to use language in all ways required for proper and effective par- 
 ticipation in the community life. 
 
 2. Ability effectively to organize and present orally one's thought to others : 
 (a) In conversation; (b) In recounting one's experiences; (c) In more serious or 
 formal discussion; (d) In oral report; (e) In giving directions; (f) To an 
 audience. 
 
 3. Ability to pronounce one's words properly. 
 
 4. Ability in speech to use the voice in ways both agreeable and effective. 
 
 5. Command over an adequate reading, speaking, and writing vocabulary. 
 
 6. Ability to use language which is grammatically correct. 
 
 7. Ability effectively to organize and express one's thought in written form : 
 (a) Memoranda; (b) Letters; (c) Reports, news items or articles, systematic dis- 
 cussion of questions; (d) Giving directions; (e) Written addresses. 
 
 8. Ability to write with proper legibility, ease, and speed. 
 
 9. Ability to spell the words of one's writing vocabulary. 
 
 10. Ability to use good form, order, and arrangement in all of one's written 
 work: margins, spacing, alignment, paragraphing, -capitalization, punctuation, 
 syllabication, abbreviations, etc. 
 
 214. Ability to organize and express one's ideas clearly and effectively in the 
 discussion, formal or informal, of social problems. 
 
 312. Ability to converse agreeably and effectively upon a variety of topics and 
 in a mood and manner suitable to the situation. 
 
 405. Ability to utilize conversation as a profitable and enjoyable means of par- 
 ticipating in the thought of the world. 
 
 406. Ability and disposition to give expression to one's thoughts and experiences 
 in proper ways and under proper circumstances. 
 
 502. (25-a) Ability to use language efficiently as the vehicle of one's thoughts. 
 
 Pupil Activities and Experiences 
 "What should a pupil do in order that he may come to use his mother 
 tongue easily, effectively, and correctly? The curriculum-maker will 
 probably begin by formulating the statement of the general types of pupil 
 activity and experience. Some of the things that he will include are 
 probably the following: 
 
 1. The pupil will hear much English of the type which he is expected to use. 
 
 2. He will read much English of the type which he is expected to use. 
 
 3. He will associate much with individuals who use the types of English which 
 he is expected to use. 
 
 4. He will have experiences under conditions which impel him to report or to 
 discuss those experiences. 
 
 5. In every department of the school in which he has opportunities for oral 
 or written expression, he will utilize these opportunities for practice in expressing 
 himself as clearly, effectively, and adequately as practicable. 
 
 6. He will discover the kinds of language errors and deficiencies which appear 
 in his English. 
 
 7. He will keep himself on guard against each known type of error until it has 
 been eliminated and right habits formed. 
 
 8. He will master the technical language information necessary for guidance and 
 judgment in eliminating undesirable language forms. • 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 293 
 
 9. Employing the method devised by the school, he will assist his associates in 
 the discovery of their language errors and shortcomings. 
 
 10. He will utilize the assistance of his associates in discovering his own 
 language errors and shortcomings. 
 
 11. He will express himself frequently and sometimes at length under cir- 
 cumstances where he desires to express himself well. 
 
 12. He will acquire ease and fluency in the use of oral and written English 
 through abundance of experience in using the oral and written forms. 
 
 13. Before expressing himself he will organize the elements of his thought so 
 that the latter may be in proper order, sequence, and relation. 
 
 14. He will have diversity of experiences with innumerable things under cir- 
 cumstances where the experiences are verbalized. 
 
 15. In his pronunciation, spelling, and all of the other aspects of oral and written 
 expression, he will use the best forms of which he has knowledge. 
 
 16. He will permit no exception to right language forms, so far as possible. 
 
 17. He will frequently revise and rewrite, sometimes several times, his written 
 productions. 
 
 18. He will, etc. 
 
 "Before this list is ready for use, it should be indefinitely extended ; yet 
 it should present only the general types of pupil activity and experience and 
 not enter into the details. It is to be an instrument for guidance in 
 
 TABLE 8i.— FORM ERRORS 
 (Relative Order of Frequency) 
 
 Grades 
 
 in 
 
 IV 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 Punctuation at end of sentence: 
 
 1. No period 
 
 2. No question mark 
 
 3. Question mark for period 
 
 4. Period for question mark 
 
 5. Extra period 
 
 6. Extra comma 
 
 Comma: 
 
 7. Series 
 
 8. Address 
 
 9. Comma for period 
 
 10. Period for comma 
 
 11. Comma omitted with loss of clearness 
 
 12. Appositive comma omitted 
 
 Quotation: 
 
 13. Quotation marks omitted 
 
 14. Wrong quotation 
 
 Singular-Plural : 
 
 15. Singular for plural form 
 
 16. Plural for singular form 
 
 Capitalization: 
 
 17. No initial capital 
 
 18. Proper name 
 
 19. Pronoun I 
 
 20. Wrong capitalization 
 
 Possessive: 
 
 21. Wrong possessive form 
 
 a. No apostrophe and $. 
 
 b. Plural for singular possessive and vice versa 
 
 c. No apostrophe. 
 Clauses: 
 
 22. and clauses 
 
 Sentences: 
 
 23. Incomplete sentence 
 
 Abbreviation: 
 
 24. Incorrect form of abbreviation 
 
 Hyphen: 
 
 25. Hyphen omitted 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 11 
 12 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 13 
 16 
 21 
 14 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 20 
 
 2 
 7 
 
 IS 
 4 
 
 24 
 19 
 
 1 
 12 
 19 
 13 
 11 
 23 
 
 15 
 14 
 17 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 20 
 15 
 14 
 23 
 
 16 
 12 
 13 
 17 
 9 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 24 
 15 
 13 
 23 
 
 12 
 17 
 9 
 18 
 11 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 25 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 20 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 24 
 13 
 17 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 16 
 
 10 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 20 
 22 
 12 
 21 
 23 
 
 11 
 14 
 5 
 17 
 15 
 16 
 
 10 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 13 
 
294 Department of Superintendence 
 
 formulating the details of the curriculum. With a completed and finished 
 statement in the hands of the curriculum-making group, they can then 
 reduce the activities to the specifics of experience for first-grade pupils, 
 second-grade pupils, and so on through all the grades to the end of second- 
 ary education." 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Sunne, Dagny. "The effect of locality on language 
 errors," Journal of Educational Research, Volume VIII, pages 239-251, 
 1923. 
 
 The problem of the writer is to parallel in Louisiana the studies of 
 language errors made in the North by a number of writers and to discover 
 the variations and similarities of errors. 
 
 The written work of 4237 children in seven parishes of Louisiana was 
 collected for one week. In addition, the written work of 4381 students in 
 New Orleans schools was collected, and the oral errors of pupils in six 
 parishes were observed by the teachers for one week. 
 
 Table 81 gives the classification of written errors. The frequency rank- 
 ings for each class is given by grades. 
 
 The conclusions of the author follow : 
 
 "In general, this survey of language justifies the following statements. 
 (1) The larger groups of syntactical errors hold relatively the same order 
 in different localities, verb errors taking first rank, next pronoun errors, 
 and next adjective-adverb confusion and redundant expressions. (2) 
 Language errors of children are at least of two types, (a) those peculiar 
 to the community and (b) those generally prevalent. Hence it is not 
 practicable to limit language drill to a definite set of rules. A survey of 
 all written work for two weeks will show concretely the specific abuses 
 that must be remedied. (3) There are indications from this study that 
 syntactical errors may be more readily combated than form errors. The 
 latter, though apparently more simple, are perhaps to a greater extent 
 correlated with mental ability and clear thinking." 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. Johnson, Roy Ivan. "Letter-writing: a curriculum 
 study in English composition," Journal of Educational Research, Volume 
 VI, pages 423-437, 1922. 
 
 This is a study of the standards by which a good letter may be judged 
 and an analysis of defects of students' letters when judged by these standards. 
 
 These problems are solved by the following methods to determine the 
 standards of a good letter. Approximately one hundred and fifty letters 
 were contributed by women of recognized leadership throughout the coun- 
 try — letters taken from their private correspondence files and submitted as 
 samples of "good letters." To these was added a collection of literary 
 letters as a basis for an analysis of student errors as judged by these stand- 
 ards. About 1000 letters from young women of approximately Freshman 
 standing were examined. The letters of women were studied in both cases 
 because the investigation was made for Stephens College which is a junior 
 college for women. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 295 
 
 The characteristics of these letters when analyzed by the investigator 
 were found to be : courtesy, informality, humor, opinions about events, 
 optimism, a few centers of organization, and good form. These were pre- 
 sented in at least fifty per cent of the letters examined. 
 
 In analyzing the student letters, 250 social letters and 750 business letters 
 were studied. The social letters were written by young women of college 
 Freshman standing ; the business letters were written by high school seniors 
 who were considering entering college. The category of errors is similar 
 to that used in another study reported by Mr. Johnson (Table 82), which 
 ran as follows: 
 
 TABLE 82.— THE RELATIVE PREVALENCE OF ERROR IN 250 SOCIAL LET- 
 TERS WITH A TOTAL OF 90,530 WORDS 
 
 (106 Unclassified Errors Not Included in this Table.) 
 
 Error-types 
 
 Number of 
 enors 
 
 Rank 
 
 I. Punctuation 
 
 II. Sentence Structure 
 
 III. Spelling 
 
 IV. Adjectives and Adverbs 
 
 V. Letter Form 
 
 VI. Capitalization 
 
 VII. Diction 
 
 VIII. Apostrophe 
 
 IX. Careless Writing 
 
 X. Verbs 
 
 XI. Prepositions and Conjunctions 
 
 XII. Case 
 
 XIII. Pronouns (not case) 
 
 XIV. Quotation Marks 
 
 Total 
 
 899 
 
 517 
 
 308 
 
 269 
 
 223 
 
 131 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 47 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 2,745 
 
 TABLE 83.— THE RELATIVE PREVALENCE OF ERROR IN 750 BUSINESS 
 LETTERS WITH A TOTAL OF 60,610 WORDS 
 
 Error-types 
 
 Rank 
 
 Punctuation 
 
 Letter Form 
 
 Capitalization 
 
 Sentence Structure 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Verbs 
 
 Apostrophe 
 
 Diction 
 
 Careless Writing 
 
 Prepositions and Conjunctions 
 
 Adjectives and Adverbs 
 
 Quotation Marks 
 
 Pronouns (not case) 
 
 Case 
 
 Total 
 
 A study was also made of the content of the letter according to the other 
 six standards of good letters. These findings could not be tabulated. They 
 were expressed in the following terms : 
 
 "When the social letters were examined from the standpoint of content 
 and general style instead of from the standpoint of mechanical correctness, 
 five obvious weaknesses appeared. The characteristics of excellence estab- 
 
296 Department of Superintendence 
 
 lished by a study of the letters submitted by prominent women (Group I) 
 and of literary letters (Group II) have been used as a standard of judg- 
 ment. It was not possible, however, to draw reliable conclusions in regard 
 to courtesy in student letters. While there were few noticeable instances 
 of discourtesy recognizable, the majority of the letters seemed to lack that 
 thoughtfulness and consideration for the reader which was so obvious in 
 the letters of Group I. A too frequent focusing on self (quite natural and 
 excusable in youth) seemed to exclude completely a consciousness of the 
 interests of the 'other person,' with only a peripheral margin of attention 
 at best. 
 
 "Of optimism there was no lack. The objection, if any, would be the 
 seeming perversion of a healthful cheerfulness into an unballasted hilarity — ■ 
 a superlative gush — innocent of all adequate considerations of fact and cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 "Crudeness in letter-writing is the miscarriage of informality. The use 
 of a slangy phrase that offends the sense of propriety, the continuous use of 
 beheaded sentences, the excessive use of nicknames and familiar epithets, 
 the hilarious and unrestrained treatment of personal experience, and over- 
 indulgence in the 'emotional superlative' may spring from a mis-directed 
 attempt to achieve informality in letter-writing — and there can be no doubt 
 that informality is the result — but it is an informality not pleasing to a dis- 
 criminating mind. This is the first notable weakness of student letters. 
 Evidently the cure lies in the development of good taste, a sense of fitness, 
 and in the careful study and application of the common devices of infor- 
 mality used by good letter-writers. 
 
 "Inferior humor was evident in most of the student letters in which 
 humor was attempted. The two most prevalent humor devices employed 
 were (1) interpolated laughter, and (2) the comedy of 'tragic' occurrences 
 such as the failure of recipes or of attempts to foil the teacher. Many of 
 these instances contained humor possibilities which were ruined in the tell- 
 ing. Interpolated laughter is, of course, inane and intolerable. A few rare 
 instances of it can be found in literary letters which are otherwise un- 
 objectionable. The improvement of the quality of humor employed in 
 student composition can be accomplished through more definite attention to 
 the subject of humor. A sense of humor needs educational direction as 
 much as the capacity for musical appreciation. 
 
 "Few opinions, other than exclamatory outbursts indicating approval 
 or disapproval, were found in the student letters. Actual count showed 
 fewer than ten per cent of them to be opinionative. They were primarily 
 'newsy,' a complete gossip repertory, a catalog of 'she-did's' and 'we-went's.' 
 
 "Lack of organization about central themes was another prominent weak- 
 ness of the student letters. Instead of few centers of organization, there 
 were many. The tendency to 'tell-everything' is probably a natural juve- 
 nile trait, since everything in one's experience is invested with a certain 
 interest; but it is contrary to the best practice as found in the letters of 
 Groups I and II. The value of dominant themes in letters should be 
 stressed." 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 
 
 Elliot R. Downing, Associate Professor of Natural Science, School of Education, 
 University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, Chairman 
 
 Major Problems in the Formation of the Curriculum in Elementary Science 
 
 What attainments and mental attitudes in nature study should be ex- 
 pected of a third-grade pupil ? A sixth-grade pupil ? 
 
 What fundamental principles of life and interrelation of plants and 
 animals and their physical environment should be common knowledge for 
 everyone ? 
 
 Can methods be devised for determining relative social values of topics 
 which might be included in a course in nature study? 
 
 What part of this knowledge should be acquired before the pupil enters 
 senior high school or leaves school entirely? 
 
 What is the order of development of a child's ability to profit by vary- 
 ing sense stimuli ? Can we hope to teach children to recognize animals or 
 plants in detail? Or is the recognition merely that of the whole? If the 
 latter, what are the most important elements in the whole? To illustrate, 
 in teaching children to recognize birds, should attention be directed pri- 
 marily to color or to form? 
 
 To what extent can we hope to cultivate the habit of scientific thinking — 
 that is, the habit of observing carefully and accurately, drawing warranted 
 conclusions or generalizations, and abiding by the results of testing these 
 conclusions ? 
 
 How far can a curriculum provide for acquiring such knowledge and 
 such habits? 
 
 How can the curriculum be adjusted to the growth of the child? At 
 what age level does the child acquire accuracy and a sense of form, color, 
 and relationships, and the ability to analyze and discriminate? How do 
 his interests change from age to age? Can the curriculum be adjusted to 
 such changes? 
 
 What are the errors the child is most likely to make in scientific think- 
 ing? Can the curriculum be so formulated so as to avoid these? 
 
 Can we depend upon the native curiosity of the child to uncover worth- 
 while problems and projects? In how far must the teacher hold his atten- 
 tion to the problem at hand and how far must she supervise the child's 
 selection of pertinent elements? How does this change with advancing 
 age? 
 
 Can we so guide and direct that all we wish the pupil to acquire shall 
 come through projects worked out by him? 
 
 How early does the child acquire esthetic appreciation of form, balance, 
 symmetry of relations ? What elements can be introduced into the curricu- 
 lum to develop these and other esthetic phases? 
 
 How much appeal should be made to the emotional side directly? In- 
 directly ? 
 
 [297] 
 
298 Department of Superintendence 
 
 How prominent should be the economic or useful phases? 
 
 At what stages should the various phases, economic, esthetic, etc., be 
 emphasized ? 
 
 What should be the relation of nature study and general science to read- 
 ing, literature, drawing, art, etc., and how should these relationships be 
 recognized in the curriculum? 
 
 What is the proper grade placement of pictures and of poems illustrative 
 of nature? What are the relative merits of pictures, lantern slides, and 
 motion pictures, and is there a change in this at various grade levels? 
 
 Review of Research Studies in Elementary Science 
 
 STUDY NO. i. Mau, Laura E. "Some experiments regarding the 
 relative interests of children in physical and biological materials in the 
 kindergarten and primary grades." The Nature Study Review, Volume 
 VIII, No. 8. November, 1912. 
 
 Object. To determine whether children are most interested in animal, 
 plant, or physical materials in nature study and in what phases of these 
 materials they are most interested. 
 
 Method. In the kindergartens, first, second, and third grades of eight 
 schools in and about Chicago, Illinois, two tests were conducted, the second 
 like the first but with different materials. The results are based on the 
 returns from some two thousand children in each test. 
 
 The materials used in the first test were: a cat, a pepper plant, and a 
 toy engine; for the second test, ring doves, sensitive plants, and magnets 
 and filings were used. 
 
 The objects were taken into the room and placed on teacher's desk. 
 The children were asked: "If you could have one of these for your very 
 own, which would you choose ?" Replies were whispered to Miss Mau or 
 her assistants and recorded. In the second test, children fed and gave a 
 drink to the hungry, thirsty doves; each child touched the leaf of the 
 sensitive plants and saw the leaflets fold together, the whole leaf drop to 
 its sleep position ; and two children held the magnets near the filings and 
 all saw the filings jump up to the magnets. 
 
 Miss Mau then said she could not stay that day to answer questions but 
 she would come back in ten days and answer such as they might like to 
 ask. On her return, questions were whispered to her or her assistants and 
 recorded. She then hastily grouped them and gave a talk to answer them. 
 It was hoped that the less interesting materials would fade out of the child's 
 mind, the more interesting would remain, and the number and kinds of 
 questions would disclose the answer to the problems investigated. 
 
 Findings. In test one, the children's preferences were: first, the toy 
 engine; second, the cat; and third, the pepper plant. It was feared the 
 results were hardly fair, for the choice lay between a toy and non-toys. 
 Hence, the experiment was repeated with materials that were equally 
 active. 
 
The Third Yearbook 299 
 
 In test two, the expressed preferences were : first, the ring doves ; second, 
 the sensitive plants; and third, the magnets and iron filings. The per cent 
 of all questions asked for the animal was 46 ; plant, 30 ; and physical mate- 
 rial, 24. The questions dealt almost exclusively with identification and the 
 activities of the objects. Identification : Dove, 40.3 per cent; plant, 36.8 per 
 cent; magnet, 34.2 per cent. Activities: Dove, 41 per cent; plant, 47.3 
 per cent ; magnet, 49.9 per cent. 
 
 Questions implying activity on the part of the child exceeded all other 
 activity questions in the kindergarten and declined to grade three. Ques- 
 tions about the activity of the object were least in the kindergarten and 
 increased to grade three where they exceeded the former sort. 
 
 Questions implying motor activity on the part of the child exceeded those 
 implying sensory activity in the kindergarten and grade one: the two sorts 
 were about equal in grade two, but the latter exceeded the former in grade 
 three. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Downing, Elliot Rowland. "Children's interests in 
 nature materials," The Nature Study Review, Volume VIII, No. 9. De- 
 cember. 
 
 Object. To determine whether children are most interested in animal, 
 plant, or physical materials in nature study, and in what phases of these 
 materials they are most interested. 
 
 Method. A study was made of the questions and observations by boys 
 and girls published in the Science Department of St. Nicholas Magazine 
 under, "We Will Ask St. Nicholas About It." Questions were classified, 
 and interests indicated by the number and character of the questions. 
 
 Findings. Of the 742 questions and observations, 61 per cent were on 
 animals; 20.6 per cent on plants; and 11.6 per cent on physical materials. 
 Boys asked a larger per cent of questions about animals and plants ; and 
 girls, about physical materials. The average age was 11.9 years for boys, 
 and 12.08, for girls. The most absorbing items under each head were: 
 ( 1 ) Animal life, of these questions 24.95 per cent concerned insects ; 24.27 
 per cent, birds; and 18.54 per cent, common mammals. (2) Plants, of these 
 questions 36.60 per cent concerned wild flowering plants; 8.5 per cent, 
 garden flowering plants; 23.53 per cent, trees; and 14.38 per cent, fruits 
 and vegetables. (3) Of the total questions 24.39 per cent concerned 
 physical material ; of this material, 42.28 per cent related to elementary 
 physics, and 16.26 per cent astronomical topics. 
 
 Questions on activities and identifications were the dominant sort; there 
 was 62 per cent on the former, 20 per cent on the latter. 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. Trafton, Gilbert H. "Children's interests in nature 
 materials." The Nature Study Review, Volume IX, No. 6. September, 
 1913. 
 
 Object. To test the child's knowledge of plants and animals, and to see 
 Nature from the child's standpoint. 
 
300 Department of Superintendence 
 
 ___ — ___ — _ __ , — r 
 
 Method. Nearly a thousand children of Passaic, New Jersey, were 
 asked the following questions: First, make a list of all birds, insects, and 
 other animals that you have seen in Passaic, except in a menagerie. Describe 
 briefly the most noticeable feature about each of the animals, and tell which 
 you like best, and why? Which ones do you dislike and why? What 
 interests you most about a plant? Make a list of the trees that you know, 
 and of the flowers. Which flower do you like best? What animal, after 
 man, knows most ? Give reasons for your answer. 
 
 Findings. The acquaintance of children with wild plants and animals 
 is very limited. Color was the feature which they noticed most; next, 
 sounds; and next, size. The activities of animals appeal more strongly 
 in upper grades than do appearances. Favored animals in order of prefer- 
 ence: (1) Dog, (2) horse, (3) cat, (4) wild birds, and (5) rabbit. Sixty 
 per cent of the boys expressed no dislike for animals. The animals disliked 
 in order are: (1) Mice and rats, (2) snakes, (3) cats, (4) dogs, (5) 
 mosquitoes, and (6) pigs. 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Patterson, Alice J. "The present status of nature 
 study:" An analysis of Courses of Study. Nature Study Review, Volume 
 IX, No. 8. November, 1913. 
 
 Thompson, Clem O. Science materials used in instruction in the first 
 six grades. Masters Thesis. Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Object. To analyze courses of study in elementary science to see what 
 subjects are most commonly treated and in what grades. 
 
 Method. Analysis of thirty-two state courses of study; nineteen from 
 large cities, and thirty training school courses from small cities. 
 
 Findings. In the eighty-one courses of study, there were 4812 items of 
 animal study, 4588 of plant, and 1548 on physical materials, exclusive of 
 geography. The most frequently recurring group of animal studies were 
 insects, birds, and the common mammals; of plants, wild flowers, trees, 
 and garden plants; of physical topics, fuels, the warming of our homes, 
 thermometers, evaporation, condensation, air movements, air machines, 
 and magnetism. 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. Ayer, Fred C. The psychology of drawing with spe- 
 cial reference to laboratory teaching. Warwick and York, Baltimore. 
 
 Bryson, Olive Flora. The extent to which diagrammatic drawings con- 
 tribute to an understanding of scientific facts. 
 
 Object. To discover whether a diagrammatic drawing fixes in mind the 
 facts to be taught better than the customary sketch. - 
 
 Method. To experimentally try out various types of drawing with 
 several classes of pupils in the high school science classes to see which type 
 fixed facts in mind best regarding the set up of apparatus, structure of 
 plants and animals, and the like. 
 
 Findings. The diagrammatic drawing is more economical of time than 
 is the picture-sketch, and also, even with less time put upOn it, is superior 
 in fixing in the pupils' minds the facts to be retained. 
 
The Third Yearbook 301 
 
 STUDY NO. 6. Finley, Charles W. "Some studies of children's in- 
 terests in science materials." School Science and Mathematics. Volume 
 21, January, 1921, pp. 1-24. 
 
 Object. To secure data on children's interests in plant and animal life 
 and physical phenomena. 
 
 Method. In grades one to eight in thirteen different school systems, a 
 "water dog" or "mud puppy" in a glass aquarium was taken into the class- 
 room. After viewing the animal for a definite period and without discus- 
 sion, the pupils in grades three to eight returned to their seats and in writ- 
 ing asked all the questions they desired to have answered about the animal. 
 In the first and second grades, the pupils whispered their questions, and the 
 teachers recorded them. This experiment involved 1718 pupils. 
 
 A second experiment was tried in five school systems, grades three to 
 eight, and involved 827 pupils. A thirty-minute lesson was divided equally 
 in a presentation of a topic in animal life, one in plant life, and one in ele- 
 mentary physics. For the first, a bird was used ; for the second, a potted 
 plant ; and for the third, a pendulum. On the second day, following the 
 experiment, the pupils were asked to write an essay concerning one of the 
 things presented. The topics chosen were considered as indicative of in- 
 terest. In the second experiment, animal life received most attention in 
 all grades; plant life, second; and the pendulum, third. 
 
 Findings. 8328 questions were asked about the animal. These were 
 accepted as showing types of interests, and were classified under twenty 
 headings, such as, identification, life, history, adaptation, etc. 
 
 STUDY NO. 7. Finley, Charles W., and Caldwell, Otis W. Biology 
 in the public press. Bulletin of the Lincoln School, Teachers College, 
 Columbia University. 
 
 Object. To determine what biological knowledge is referred to in 
 newspapers. 
 
 Method. The complete issues of eleven prominent newspapers for the 
 month of June, 1921, and six for the month of November, 1921, were care- 
 fully reviewed. A total of 13,796 newspaper pages afforded 3061 articles 
 pertaining to biology. 
 
 Findings. Out of the total 3061 articles pertaining to biology found in 
 newspapers, 897 dealt with health ; 775 with animals ; 660 with plants ; 
 533 with food; 81 with organizations of producers; 74 with general na- 
 ture; 47 with evolution; and 14 were fictitious. 
 
 "The conclusion can not be drawn that, since these biological articles 
 have been found and since they are clearly grouped into certain definite 
 headings, therefore these are necessarily the topics toward which all high 
 school instruction in biology should be directed. It may be that there are 
 types of available biological information which should be presented which 
 are omitted in the newspaper articles. Possibly, also, some needful biologi- 
 cal information is as yet unknown to biologists, or if known has not been 
 made available to the public press. Possibly the press would publish, and 
 the public would like to read, much more biological material of much wider 
 
302 Department of Superintendence 
 
 range, if it were made available. These are questions which the present 
 study does not determine, but which should receive later attention. 
 
 "It seems safe to conclude further that since these types of biological 
 knowledge are going to the public in such large quantities all over the whole 
 country, the course in school biology should consider them as part of the 
 legitimate foundation upon which to proceed in constructing a course of 
 study. Other evidences when developed should also be used in whatever 
 ways those new evidences may justify." 
 
 Otis W. Caldwell and W. H. Meier have been experimenting in the 
 organization of a course of study materials for use in elementary science 
 with fifth and sixth grade pupils. One principle of guidance has been to 
 select those major science topics which are simple enough to be interpreted 
 fairly well by young pupils. The problems selected are those relating to 
 the use of science in common experiences. Their selection is not primarily 
 because of usefulness but being useful and thereby desirable, they also add 
 a meaning which stimulates work and thought. The course materials thus 
 selected have been tried and corrected through use with considerable num- 
 ber of pupils in different types of schools and in the hands of different 
 teachers. The topic headings under which this body of course of study ma- 
 terial is now organized are : Some common problems of living ; fire and its 
 uses; light and its uses; fire control; the water supply; household wastes; 
 fire in the preparation of foods; factors in food requirements; production, 
 use and care of milk; animals which injure foods; regulation of the food 
 industry ; sources and qualities of materials for clothing ; home grounds and 
 garden ; home equipment ; hygiene of the home ; transportation ; communica- 
 tion and recreational science. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Thomas D. Wood, Professor of Physical Education, Teachers College 
 Columbia University, Neiv York City, Chairman 
 
 SECTION I. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IN THE FIELDS OF 
 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 In gathering the data for this report, about 150 letters of inquiry were 
 sent to a list which included (1) all state superintendents of public in- 
 struction, (2) about forty city school systems known to be actively inter- 
 ested in health and physical education, (3) schools of education in certain 
 universities and colleges, (4) a miscellaneous list of organizations and per- 
 sons. The selection was made in groups (2), (3) and (4) from the records 
 of the American Child Health Association and Joint Committee on 
 Health Problems of the National Education Association and the American 
 Medical Association which indicate with reasonable comprehensiveness 
 those localities where intensive work is being done in health and physical 
 education. 
 
 In addition, the Readers' Guide, International Book Review, and similar 
 bibliographies were searched for printed reports of research. 
 
 The subcommittee wishes to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many 
 persons who have willingly cooperated in the collection of the materials of 
 this report. Some of the valuable data submitted to the committee could 
 not be included in this report due to the necessary limitation of the scope of 
 the report to research in curriculum construction. The committee neverthe- 
 less gratefully extends its thanks to all who participated in this cooperative 
 undertaking. 
 
 A. Research in Health Education 
 
 The questions which confront the makers of curricula in the field of 
 health education can not in any instance be completely and fully answered 
 by available research. Nevertheless, it is important to indicate what some 
 of the most important questions are, in order to encourage research workers 
 in the future to direct their efforts towards the solution of these funda- 
 mental problems. 
 
 1. What should be the criteria for selection of subject matter and activ- 
 ities in health education? 
 
 2. What standards of achievement in terms of habits, attitudes and 
 knowledge may be reasonably set up for completion of the sixrii grade? 
 Junior high school? Senior high school? 
 
 3. Health needs are continuous throughout life, without much funda- 
 mental variation ; e. g., it is always necessary to care for the teeth. Should 
 the subject matter of the health education curriculum be arranged to deal 
 with all health needs every year ? Or, with only a few each year ? 
 
 [303] 
 
304 Department of Superintendence 
 
 4. How may other school subjects and activities best be utilized to teach 
 health lessons? 
 
 5. In a plan where several school subjects are used to teach health lessons, 
 how may supervision be exercised to prevent useless duplication ? 
 
 6. How may the results of health education be adequately measured? 
 
 . 7. What methods are effective in securing the interest and cooperation 
 of the home? 
 
 8. What is the proper place of dramatic materials, fairy stories, games, 
 and other special devices and entertainment features in a program of health 
 education ? What is their function ; what contribution do they make ? 
 
 9. What factors in the curriculum affect the permanency of health 
 habits ? 
 
 10. What factors in the curriculum affect the formation of attitudes re- 
 lated to health? 
 
 The following research studies have a direct application to curriculum 
 making in the field of health education. They are arranged in chronologi- 
 cal order. 
 
 STUDY NO. i. Wood, Thomas D., and Reesor, Mary. A study in 
 the child's health interests. (Reported as part of an article, "Health in- 
 struction in the elementary school"), Teachers College Record, Vol. XIII, 
 No. 3, May, 1912. pp. 10-13. 
 
 Purpose. The problem was to discover the child's health interests. 
 
 Method. A list of questions bearing upon the subject of health, its mean- 
 ing, means of attaining it, etc., were submitted to pupils in the Speyer 
 School, New York City, and to pupils in the fourth grade of a New York 
 City East Side Boys' School. In the first four grades in the Speyer School, 
 the questions were put orally and to individual children, so there was 
 no opportunity for one child to be influenced by the answers of others. In 
 the other grades, the answers were written and no names were placed upon 
 the papers. No previous preparation had been made, and no suggestions 
 were given them during the time they wrote. 
 
 Findings. "In no answer is there any suggestion that the child is inter- 
 ested in health in the abstract or as a future beneficial state. His sole 
 health concern exists in application and relation to the immediate present. 
 Interest in growing well and strong is nowhere indicated save as this state 
 gives increased power and capacity for present enjoyment." 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Hunt, Jean Lee; Johnson, Buford J.; and Lincoln, 
 Edith M. Health education and the nutrition class. New York, E. P. 
 Dutton & Co. 281 pp. 
 
 Purpose. This experiment was undertaken "to explore the possibilities 
 of the nutrition class in a public school ; to determine how far a school can 
 successfully employ the nutrition class procedure, and in particular how far 
 the procedure itself can be expected to reinforce the school's general pro- 
 gram of health education." 
 
The Third Yearbook 305 
 
 Method. Classes of underweight children were organized during the 
 three years of the experiment in grades 1, 4, 5, 6 and 7. A moderately ex- 
 tensive program of health examination, and correction of defects was car- 
 ried out. Weekly weight records were made, and instruction was given to 
 the children, (a) individually at the time of weighing and (b) in class ses- 
 sions, once a week. The first year, the class sessions were conducted by 
 physicians; the second and third by nutrition workers with some teach- 
 ing skill. The second year, the underweight groups formed separate classes, 
 working together in all of their school work. 
 
 Findings. The study presents more conclusive evidence in regard to 
 control of environment, organization, and administration than in regard to 
 courses of study. 
 
 The measurable results of the experiment were expressed in the weight 
 records. 
 
 However, the various experiences of the three years during which the 
 study was conducted lead the experimenters to draw certain conclusions re- 
 garding the teaching program. 
 
 Four general statements are made as follows: 
 
 1. Gains have been largely dependent on initial physical status and propor- 
 tionate to the relatively superior or inferior condition of the individual considered. 
 
 2. Gains have been largely influenced by the technique employed for enlisting 
 cooperation from the children. 
 
 3. Other conditions being equal, gains have been in direct proportion to the 
 influence exerted on the home and the resulting parental cooperation. 
 
 4. Gains appear to have been appreciably increased when favorable conditions 
 directly affecting the nutritional processes have been introduced within the school 
 environment. 
 
 In regard to the second of these points, more detailed statements are 
 made. 
 
 1. It is necessary to provide sufficient stimulus to insure the child's cooperation 
 in carrying out the prescribed regime at home and elsewhere away from school. 
 
 2. "Evaluation of success and failure for the child must be measured by his 
 cooperation and by individual gain in fitness rather than by his comparative 
 gain in relation to that of his fellows." 
 
 3. ". . . the child must be held responsible only for his cooperation in such 
 activities as his environment affords." 
 
 4. "Thus the success of the school program of health education is dependent on 
 a serious program of education in the community." 
 
 5. Analysis of the activities provided in the nutrition class shows two types, 
 (a) those affecting the child experiences at first hand, and (b) those affording 
 informational (verbal) experiences. The true place of subject matter is to re- 
 inforce and interpret first-hand experiences in a program where health habits 
 are the objectives. 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. Davis, Walter W. "The questionnaire method in 
 health education." Chicago. The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 23, 
 January. 1923. pp. 373-386. 
 
 Purpose. "The main purpose of the investigation was to get at the real 
 facts about the children's health and surroundings. These facts were to 
 
306 Department of Superintendence 
 
 form the basis of a practical course in hygiene for each teacher, for, it was 
 presumed, the answers of each group of pupils would determine the in- 
 struction which that group needed and therefore, the instruction which the 
 teacher should emphasize." 
 
 Method. In February, 1920, a set of hygiene questions was submitted 
 to the pupils of 12 grade schools in Seattle. The results were so promising 
 that the list, slightly revised, was submitted to Grades IV to VIII in all 
 the schools of the city in October, 1920; May, 1921; October, 1921; and 
 May, 1922. About 22,000 pupils answered the questions each time they 
 were submitted. The list of questions included 24 questions about simple 
 habits and health conditions, phrased to be answered by "Yes" and "No." 
 
 The method of compiling records was simple. The teacher computed 
 for her room the percentage of "Yes" answers to the various questions and 
 the central office then computed school and city averages from the teachers' 
 reports. 
 
 No systematic specific attempt to base the course of study immediately 
 upon the results of the questionnaire is reported. The results of the ques- 
 tionnaire seem to have offered guidance in curriculum construction only 
 in a general way. 
 
 Findings, a. There was improvement in practice of health habits as a 
 result of the work done. 
 
 Fractional 
 basis 
 
 Average gain 2.7 11 
 
 Personal health habits 4.5 18 
 
 Health conditions .9 4.5 
 
 Note: The "fractional basis" means that the percentage of gain is reached by 
 using the number of pupils who needed to improve as a basis (this would be only 
 a fraction of all the pupils) and computing what percentage of this number 
 actually did improve. The "100 per cent" basis means that the total number of 
 pupils was used as a basis for computing percentage of improvement. 
 
 Mr. Davis concludes that "the questionnaire has proved helpful to the^ 
 teacher, indicating to her what phases of hygiene to stress." 
 
 b. Since the use of the questionnaire method in surveying health condi- 
 tions is coming constantly into more general use, it is an important question 
 whether or not the questionnaire submitted directly to the pupils gives 
 reliable information. Mr. Davis concludes that the replies given by the 
 children were fairly reliable, "since the reported results were consistent and 
 supported by general knowledge and experience, and by our specific knowl- 
 edge.about the individual schools." 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Committee, Early Elementary Department, Kala- 
 mazoo Public Schools. Tentative revision of achievements section course 
 of Study: Health achievements. Published by Kalamazoo Public Schools. 
 8 pages. ' 
 
The Third Yearbook 307 
 
 Purpose. The problem of this research was to ascertain what achieve- 
 ments in health, practical efficiency, citizenship and leisure may be expected 
 of children of various stages of development. Only health achievements 
 are here reported. 
 
 Method. The "Achievements" were grouped and listed carefully and 
 passed out to the forty-six teachers in the department. Three different 
 groups of children were then measured : 
 
 Group 1. 519 children just entering kindergarten from their homes. These 
 children were observed and checked during their first two weeks of kindergarten 
 experience. 
 
 Group 2. 63 5 children just passing into first grade from kindergarten, who were 
 measured just before promotion. 
 
 Group 3. 638 children passing from first grade into second grade, who were 
 also checked just before promotion. 
 
 In order to determine whether or not a child had achieved a habit, skill, 
 knowledge, or appreciation, close observation and study of each individual 
 child was necessary. A habit was considered to be properly established 
 when the activity was repeated four or five consecutive days with no trans- 
 gressions. 
 
 A skill was considered achieved when a child showed ability in any given 
 activity in keeping with his stage of development. Knowledge was not 
 difficult to measure with children's free conversation, record summaries, and 
 child study charts for reference. The matter of appreciations were checked 
 by the child's emotional response to specific situations. 
 
 Findings. The statistics from the eleven different schools and thirty- 
 three groups were then compiled and the percentages of total number of 
 children in each group having achieved the given habits, skills, etc., were 
 tabulated. In most instances, growth in achievement from that of children 
 of little kindergarten experience to that of children having had both kinder- 
 garten and first-grade experience may be noted. The results are sum- 
 marized in Table 84. As a result of revision, a list of home achievements 
 which may be expected of a child on his entrance to kindergarten is in the 
 process of development. 
 
 Note: The committee of Kalamazoo teachers who are carrying on this work 
 expressed some reluctance to have these tentative results published, since they are 
 still being worked over, and a new revision will appear in January, 1925 or soon 
 thereafter. However, upon request, they submitted their findings to the Yearbook 
 with the statement that this is not to be regarded as a finished piece of work, but 
 as a beginning. 
 
 Table 84. Percentage of Pupils Achieving Health Habits in 
 Kalamazoo., Michigan 
 
 Group I. Percentage of total number of children who upon entering kindergarten 
 had achieved health habits, skills, etc. 
 
 Group II. Percentage of total number of children passing into first grade who 
 had achieved health habits, skills, etc. 
 
 Group III. Percentage of total number of children passing into second grade 
 who had achieved health habits, skills, etc. 
 
308 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Group I Group II Group III 
 
 519 635 638 
 
 Number of children per cent per cent per cent 
 Habits 
 
 1. Drinks plenty of water 48 67 94 
 
 2. Eats with mouth closed and does not talk while 
 
 eating 24 55 48 
 
 3. Does not bring candy to school 68 53 73 
 
 4. Comes to school clean 79 84 81 
 
 5. Washes hands before eating 42 63 76 
 
 6. Uses handkerchief properly 68 66 78 
 
 7. Engages in vigorous activity, out of doors if 
 
 possible 66 65 88 
 
 8. Maintains good posture at all times 56 43 64 
 
 9. Retains self-possession when hurt or in emer- 
 
 gencies 46 61 66 
 
 10. Covers sneeze or cough 23 51 58 
 
 Skills 
 
 1. Makes proper use of drinking apparatus 62 82 91 
 
 2. Manipulates eating utensils properly during 
 
 school lunch (bottle or cup) 36 82 76 
 
 3. Is able to wash own hands and face 61 72 97 
 
 4. Makes proper use of toilet 65 83 95 
 
 5. Has proper control of body 63 70 85 
 
 6. Relaxes during rest period 46 69 79 
 
 7. Retains cheerful demeanor 66 74 86 
 
 8. Avoids getting wet or cold 39 52 69 
 
 Knowledge 
 
 1. Plenty of water is necessary to health 30 52 99 
 
 2. Clean wholesome food is necessary to health.. 45 75 93 
 
 3. Fast and irregular eating is harmful 27 58 80 
 
 4. Milk, eggs, cereals, fruits, coarse bread and 
 
 butter are wholesome foods 43 79 94 
 
 5. Personal cleanliness is necessary to health 49 69 81 
 
 6. Wholesome exercise is necessary to health.... 26 50 75 
 
 7. Going to bed early, with windows open, is nec- 
 
 essary to good health 39 75 88 
 
 Appreciation 
 
 1. Enjoys cold pure water 67 83 92 
 
 2. Enjoys the feeling of cleanliness 64 77 82 
 
 3. Enjoys exhilaration following wholesome vig- 
 
 orous activity 67 64 94 
 
 4. Keenly enjoys fresh air 49 55 94 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. Payne, E. George. . The measurement of social val- 
 ues — A scale for measuring health. Chapter XV — Yearbook for the New 
 York City Association for Scientific Study of Education. Yonkers, N. Y. 
 World Book Company. 1924. pp. 160-172. 
 
 Purpose. The problem was to devise a scale for measuring not merely 
 
 what the child knows, but primarily for measuring the extent to which 
 
 skills, knowledges, and attitudes function in the individual in his social 
 relationships. This study deals with measurement of one group of social 
 values — that is, those related to health. 
 
 Method, (a) The first step in the construction of the scale was the 
 determination of the health practices which are essential to the individual's 
 
The Third Yearbook 309 
 
 health. The health regime of the open air school, the literature and experi- 
 ence of experts were the sources from which the tentative list of desirable 
 health practices was compiled. 
 
 (b) The next step was to estimate the value to be assigned to each item 
 in the scale. This was first decided upon by judgment of those engaged in 
 health work. 
 
 (c) At this point, experimental work began. Three hundred children 
 were selected from the children in elementary and junior high schools. 
 Half of these children were selected from the best conditioned pupils, and 
 half from the worst conditioned. The selection was made by medical 
 inspectors or nurses. The children were examined to determine whether 
 a positive correlation appeared between their practices and their health con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The correlation was marked. Eighty-five per cent of those rated as good 
 or excellent in health by the doctors and nurses were distributed in the 
 upper range of the scale," or received more than 124-178 out of a possible 
 247-355 points, while a similar proportion of those rated unsatisfactory 
 by these experts ranged in the lower half or below 124-178 points. 
 
 (d) Following this preliminary experimentation, the scale was used 
 with fifty thousand school children of the elementary and high schools, 
 with the result that standards of achievement were set up for each grade, 
 and the points were arranged in the light of experience to make a five- 
 hundred point scale. The standard of achievement was determined not by 
 the median, but by the accomplishment of the best conditioned children. 
 
 Findings, a. The correlation between health practices and the actual 
 health of the individual is high enough to warrant the conclusion that there 
 was a close relationship between the health practices as outlined in the 
 scale, and the health condition of the children as determined by the medical 
 examination. 
 
 b. "The possibilities of measurement of social values of education by use 
 of the health scale are best indicated by the values of its use already appear- 
 ing from the experiments so far carried out. Some of these are summarized 
 in the following statements from those using the scale : 
 
 ( 1 ) "The scale acquaints the pupil with clear, definite concise facts, 
 indicating what practices are essential for health. 
 
 (2) "Because the scale can be scored and the results compared with 
 standards, the scale motivates health instruction. 
 
 (3) "The scale provides a valuable outline for the teacher to follow, 
 and provides her with a standard for judging the health practices 
 of children. It makes her conscious of health needs. 
 
 (4) "Since the emphasis is upon practices, the hygiene work will carry 
 over into the home, resulting in closer cooperation at home and 
 school. 
 
 (5) "The scale turns the attention of the teacher from the immediate 
 school objectives to life's practices, with a general beneficial effect 
 not only on instruction in health, but other instruction as well. 
 
310 Department of Superintendence 
 
 "It is safe to generalize from the experience in the use of the health 
 scale (1) that the methods of measurement may be refined to the point of 
 adequate tests of instruction; (2) that appropriate standards may be set up 
 for guidance, and that similar scales may be constructed which will measure 
 the social results of instruction and provide standards for other social objec- 
 tives." 
 
 STUDY NO. 6. Payne, E. George. Survey of heqlth needs of San 
 Antonio, Texas, as a basis of the reconstruction of the curriculum in health 
 and safety education. Unpublished manuscript in possession of author, 
 Professor of Educational Sociology, New York Univ., New York City. 
 
 Purpose. The problem was to determine the health and safety needs of 
 children in San Antonio, Texas, as a basis of the requirements of the recon- 
 struction of the curriculum in that city, and insofar as the facts are typical 
 the reconstruction for the whole state in health and safety education. 
 
 Method. The method was a survey of three typical schools, each 
 representing a stratum of the population, namely: the negro school, the 
 school for Mexican children, and the school for native-born white children. 
 The method of gathering data was through the use of: (1) the Payne 
 health scale; (2) statements of children as to the food consumed during 
 one day, as a check up against the data gathered from the scale; and (3) 
 teachers' observations. The attempt was made to discover the practices of 
 the children relating to food, air, drink, exercise, sleep, posture, cleanliness, 
 cleanliness of clothing, safety and civic practices. 
 
 Findings. The results indicate that a study of an examination of chil- 
 dren's needs in health and safety is necessary in any community before the 
 educational process can go on intelligently and profitably. The survey dis- 
 covered that on the whole the white children showed the best health prac- 
 tices, the Mexicans next, and the negroes, the worst. However, in certain 
 items such as sleep and exercise the needs of the white children were greater 
 than those of either the colored or the Mexican. While it was found 
 that approximately 50 per cent of the children fail to observe health prac- 
 tices necessary to normal growth, both mentally and physically, it is neces- 
 sary to discover in any particular school, grade, or room which of the chil- 
 dren are engaging in unsatisfactory practices and center instruction upon 
 those having different needs. The conclusion from this study is that before 
 education in health and in safety begins, at least the specific needs of chil- 
 dren should be determined. So far as any general conclusions may be 
 drawn they are to the effect that the conclusion from any survey of this 
 kind may be used as a starting-point for the determination of the needs of 
 children of other communities, but the needs of any community must be 
 discovered, as they vary greatly. The health practices also vary according 
 to local customs and conditions. 
 
 STUDY NO. 7. Strang, Ruth. A health information test. To be 
 published in 1925. About 100 pp. 
 
The Third Yearbook 311 
 
 Purpose. To construct a test of general health information and through 
 the test to find out, among other things, what health knowledge children 
 of different grades have acquired. 
 
 Method. The test thus far has been given in two New York City 
 schools in grades 3-8 to approximately 350 children and the per cent of 
 correct responses to each exercise has been calculated. 
 
 Significance in curriculum construction : 
 
 If the tests are given in schools in various parts of the country where 
 good instruction in health has been given, and if the children in a certain 
 grade fail to acquire knowledge of certain facts, this would indicate that 
 these facts are not suitable to the learning capacity of children of that age. 
 This information would give an experimental basis for placing a given 
 fact or group of facts in a certain grade. 
 
 A few of the specific facts found to be most difficult for the group tested 
 
 were: 
 
 The common house fly is usually hatched in manure. 
 
 Pneumonia is directly caused by bacteria. 
 
 Cold baths are good for most people. 
 
 The average number of calories in a glass of whole milk is 150. 
 
 The gastric juice begins the digestion of meat. 
 
 The man who did the most to establish the germ theory of disease was Pasteur. 
 
 Protein is needed for building muscle. 
 
 In general, the more difficult facts were physiological facts, bacteriological 
 and the technical aspects of an adequate diet, specific knowledge such as the 
 distance away from the eyes one should hold a book and the best temperature 
 for a room. 
 
 Some of the facts found to be easiest for this group of children were : 
 
 The best food to eat with cereal is milk. 
 
 Just before meal time the most important thing to do is to wash hands and face. 
 
 At meal time we should sit down at the table and eat slowly. 
 
 Fruits and vegetables are good for us' because they help keep us well. 
 
 The same towel can safely be used by only one person. 
 
 A good food to choose for breakfast is hot cereal. 
 
 There is less danger of your giving a cold to some one else if you cover your 
 face when coughing and sneezing. 
 
 Which do you think is best for a child to drink — coffee, soda, tea, milk, cereal 
 coffee? (to be answered by underlining correct word). 
 
 Three good foods to choose for lunch are hot soup, baked potato, and milk. 
 
 In general, the easiest facts were a statement of the simple fundamental 
 health habits, a knowledge of which are good foods to choose, and general 
 statements such as fruits are healthful, and "a kitchen should be kept 
 clean." 
 
 B. Physical Education Studies 
 
 Some of the important questions which the maker of a curriculum in 
 physical education must meet are as follows: 
 
 1. Has the "job or community analysis" been applied to the specific 
 situation in order that definite objectives or needs may be revealed? 
 
•512 Department op Superintendence 
 
 2, Have all phases oi the program been subjected to scientific investiga- 
 tion and selected on their inn it instead 01 being accepted because of tradi- 
 tional use r* 
 
 ^. I Joes the program fit into the plan of general education in your com- 
 munity, i. <•-, are they properly correlated and coordinated? 
 
 4. Has suflii ieni time been provided to assure a reasonable achievement 
 
 of objectives? 
 
 5. What plan lias been adopted lor training the classroom teacher to 
 
 effectively carry on the program in the elementary school? 
 
 (). Is the program of activities well balanced so as to avoid an over 
 abundance of any one particular phase of tin- work? 
 7. lias provision been made for after school activity? 
 K. ('.an the objectives be effectively measured? 
 
 9. Is the program so constructed as to eliminate the possibility of nervous 
 oi muscular st rain ? 
 
 10. Is the program graded in keeping with psychological age interests? 
 
 11. Do the activities "lead on" or are they merely "ends in themselves"? 
 The following research studies have a direct bearing upon curriculum 
 
 construction in physical education, They are arranged in chronological 
 
 oldel . 
 
 STUDY NO. 8. I'ost, L. M. Grouping children for physical r/Jiciency 
 test. Reports of the National ( 'oininit tee on Standard Physical Efficiency 
 
 Tests for Elementary Schools. City and Rural, pp. 10-11. 
 
 Purpose. A study of age, grade, weight, and height classification. 
 
 Method. The performances oi 25,000 boys in eleven athletic events were 
 taken. The height, weight, age and grade were recorded. 
 
 Findings. The competition placement of any pupil is best determined 
 by taking his age in months plus two times his weight in pounds. Classifica- 
 tion BgureS will result I rom this formula. 
 
 STUDY NO. g. Reilly, Frederick J. "A rational classification of boys 
 and girls for athletic competition." American Physical Education Review 
 Vol. XXIII, No. I. January, 1918. pp. 13-14. 
 
 Purpose. To provide a rational classification for boys and girls in elemen- 
 tary school athletics. Each pupil to be classilied according to an exponent 
 derived by adding his age, grade, height, and weight. After being placed 
 in a respective group he is encouraged to strive for individual proficiency 
 lowa id ;i standard, arbitrarily set up for his respective group, and by means 
 of averaging group scores to compete with all other groups. The grades 
 included are 5A, 5B, 6A, 6B, 7A, 7B, HA, and 8B. These are divided 
 
 into two divisions, Juniors, SA to 6B, and Seniors, 7A to 8B. 
 
 Method, a. In fifteen minutes it was possible to classify a class of forty 
 pupils, by adding the age, grade, height, and weight of each pupil. 
 
 b. This detei mines the pupils' classification for the ensuing year. 
 
The Third Yearbook 313 
 
 c. A system of handicaps was arbitrarily established based on classifica- 
 tion. 
 
 d. Following several years of practice a system of standards for each 
 event has been arranged for boys and girls. These standards are not 
 fixed but are changeable. The object is always to keep them practically 
 within reach of all, yet high enough to serve as an incentive to the best. 
 
 e. In all activities there is a maximum beyond which no credit is given. 
 With the full program the total number of points attainable is 200. 
 
 Findings, a. There is little difference in the distribution of height and 
 weight between the sexes in the last four years of the elementary school. 
 
 b. Mr. Reilly believes that the absolute satisfaction of the pupils after 
 many months of extensive competition is conclusive proof that the scheme 
 is fundamentally correct. 
 
 STUDY NO. 10. McCloy, C. H. "Comparison of athletic activities." 
 American Physical Education Review, Vol. XXVI, pp. 1-13, 1921. 
 
 Purpose. To derive a statistical and mathematical method of devising 
 athletic scoring tables. 
 
 Method. By means of athletic almanacs for the last ten years, Mr. 
 McCloy plotted data for all meets. The pound probability curve was 
 smoothed by arithmetical means. Likewise, a standard deviation curve was 
 plotted. Tables have been worked out showing the amount of kinetic 
 energy used in running, jumping, etc., according to velocity. Through 
 algebraic expressions he determined the formula of the curve. 
 
 Findings. Only 270 individuals out of one million fell out of the range 
 of the curve. 
 
 STUDY NO. ii. Williams, Jesse Feiring; Atkinson, Ruth V.; and 
 Brace, David K. "A comparison of formal gymnastics and play." 
 Teachers College Record, Volume XXIII, pp. 327-360. 1922. 
 
 Purpose. A comparative study of the relative Value of formal gym- 
 nastics and play for fourth grade pupils. 
 
 Method. Two fourth grade classes of equal ratings were selected. One 
 class received instruction in formal gymnastics and the other in a program 
 of play and games. They were tested in October and again in May in 
 posture, skill, alertness, and obedience. Later, statistics were obtained 
 regarding weight, height, girth of chest, strength of right and left fore- 
 arm, and lung capacity. A highly trained supervisor, skilled in both types 
 of work, taught both classes throughout. 
 
 Findings. The results showed that the Play Group made greater prog- 
 ress in all points except the thrusting test with wooden foil, which was one 
 of the tests of skill. 
 
 STUDY NO. 12. Judelsohn, Samuel J. The comparative ability of 
 mentally retarded and normal children in track and field work. Division 
 of Physical Education, Board of Public Education, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
314 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Purpose, a. What are the results, in actual measurements, of the par- 
 ticipation of the mentally retarded child in this type of work? 
 
 b. How does the mentally retarded child compare with the normal child 
 in track and field ability? 
 
 Method. The records of 1524 mentally retarded boys and of 638 men- 
 tally retarded girls were gathered, using the four standard events — stand- 
 ing broad jump, ball throw overhead, 50 yard dash, and chinning for boys 
 and knee raising for girls. The schools involved were 8 concentration 
 centres, where each child receives a daily 30- or 40-minute period in the 
 gymnasium. The performances in each event were recorded monthly and 
 the best record during the school term was used in the investigation. 
 
 To make the comparison with normal children the records of 1210 boys 
 and 814 girls were secured under conditions, as far as was possible, the 
 same as those in the special concentration centres ; i.e., time allotment, 
 equipment, type of teacher, play space, etc. 
 
 From the data secured three sets of tables were formed — one set based 
 upon age, one upon height, and one upon weight. Results were tabulated 
 on the basis of average performance and on the basis of 70 per cent passing 
 performance. (The latter being the point on the distribution table which, 
 if set as an aim, 70 per cent of those measured would pass.) 
 
 Findings. As far as the data in this investigation shows, the following 
 conclusions may be drawn: 
 
 a. Mentally retarded boys are shorter in height and lighter in weight 
 than normal boys ; the girls are shorter in all ages and lighter up to the age 
 of 12, but are about same weight as the normal girls from 13 to 15. 
 
 b. Mentally retarded boys jump and throw farther and run faster than 
 mentally retarded girls. 
 
 c. Mentally retarded boys are from one and a half to three years lower 
 in average performance than normal boys in the four events used ; mentally 
 retarded girls are frorn two to seven years lower than normal girls. 
 
 d. Ability in track and field events should be taken into consideration 
 as one index of the physical age of the child. 
 
 These findings are significant in adjusting the physical education curricu- 
 lum to individual needs. 
 
 SECTION II. RELATIONSHIP OF OTHER KINDS OF RESEARCH 
 
 TO CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION IN THE FIELDS OF 
 
 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 Educational researches in the fields of health and physical education are 
 very limited and represent only a beginning of the studies and carefuly 
 conducted experiments which are requisite for any adequate basis for the 
 makers of curricula in these subjects. Many types of research must be 
 carried on before the activities in these fields can be placed on a firmly 
 scientific basis. There are already available, however, the results of 
 research studies which, while they do not deal directly with curriculum 
 
The Third Yearbook 315 
 
 construction, nevertheless have an important bearing upon that task. The 
 attention of those who are making curricula in these fields is called to the 
 importance of the following kinds of research: 
 
 A. Growth studies. Studies which attempt to ascertain standards of 
 normal growth and development have significantly influenced the content of 
 courses of study in health and physical education by the fact that they set 
 up objective standards of achievement, both for pupil and teacher. 
 
 The "Revised Weight-Height-Age Tables" of Bird T. Baldwin, and 
 Thomas D. Wood, are widely used. They were published by the American 
 Child Health Association in a pamphlet issued in 1923. 
 
 Similarly, studies which seek to discover whether there are correlations 
 between physical and mental achievement, or between height-weight and 
 school classification, have an indirect bearing upon curriculum making, 
 especially in connection with the tendency to place pupils of the same grade 
 in school in x, y, z groups according to the rapidity with which it is pre- 
 sumed that they will advance in their studies. 
 
 The replies to the inquiries of this subcommittee indicate that there is a 
 relatively large amount of research being carried on in studying the relation- 
 ships of physical condition and mental achievement. 
 
 B. Laboratory research. The accuracy of much of the subject matter in 
 health and physical education has been or should be ascertained through 
 laboratory research in physiology, physics, biochemistry, bacteriology, nutri- 
 tion, etc. For example, the discoveries concerning vitamins within ten 
 years have radically changed teaching regarding selection of foods. The 
 investigation of the New York Commission for the Study of Ventilation 
 has changed our teaching about proper heating and ventilating, and has 
 thrown doubt upon some points hitherto unquestioned. 
 
 C. Nutrition class experiments. Nutrition class experiments, usually give 
 more guidance in problems of supervision and administration, cooperation 
 with the home and methods of efficiently reducing malnutrition than in 
 curriculum construction, but they point to certain principles in selection 
 of subject matter, as illustrated in Study No. 2, reported in preceding 
 pages. 
 
 D. Health supervision studies. One of the generally accepted though 
 not practiced principles in health and physical education is that the activ- 
 ities of the course of study should be adapted to the needs of individual 
 children as well as to the groups as a whole. The health examination is 
 one of the most reliable ways of ascertaining individual needs, and health 
 examination records of a class should be consulted as one source of guid- 
 ance in directing classroom activities in health education. Studies made as 
 to the best ways of making and recording health examinations therefore 
 have an indirect bearing upon the course of study. 
 
 E. Dental education studies. Experience with dental education over a 
 period of ten years in Bridgeport, Connecticut, gives evidence that class- 
 room education is an effective method in reducing the number of children 
 
316 Department of Superintendence 
 
 who have defective teeth, thus justifying the inclusion of mouth hygiene 
 in the course of study. 
 
 F. Hygiene of the school plant. Research in this field has an indirect 
 bearing upon course of study activities. For example, what we teach regard- 
 ing open window or open air rooms, may be either supported or contradicted 
 by actual school room conditions. There is still doubt regarding the best 
 procedure in many instances; more research is needed here. 
 
 G. Hygiene of instruction. Very little conclusive research exists in this 
 field, but whatever study has been made, affects our procedure with regard 
 to formation of healthful mental habits of work, study, social relationships, 
 control of emotions in classroom, instruction, etc. These mental habits, 
 while not a part of a formal course of study are an extremely important 
 factor in health education. 
 
 Incompleted Studies, Reports of Which Are Not Yet Available 
 
 The Subcommittee has received notices of the following studies, related 
 to curriculum construction in health and physical education, which are not 
 yet completed, but which will for the most part, be completed within a 
 year. A list of these studies follows : 
 
 Berry, Elmer. Ethical content in physical education — now in preparation as 
 graduate thesis at Harvard. 
 
 Brim, Orville G. Ohio State University. A survey of health conditions, per- 
 sonal and family habits and attitudes in certain rural communities in eight coun- 
 ties in Ohio. 
 
 Cairns, Laura. Critical study of content of health education in secondary 
 schools, with regard to its adequacy in dealing with the chief causes of mortality, 
 morbidity, and disability. To be presented in fulfillment of requirements for the 
 degree of Doctor of Education, at Univ. of California, — probably to be completed 
 in June, 1925. 
 
 Child health demonstrations are now being carried on in Joliet, 111., Fargo, 
 N. Dak. and Athens, Ga., which include health and physical education programs, 
 but reports are not yet available. Findings will be published by Commonwealth 
 Fund and American Child Health Association. 
 
 Cook, Inez M. Physical development and academic achievement. Unpublished 
 thesis for M. A. degree, Univ. of Nebraska. 
 
 Department of Medical Inspection, Trenton Public Schools. Relation of physical 
 defects and progress in school. To be published in July, 1925. 
 
 Goodrich, I. V., Director of standard tests, Public Schools, Lincoln, Nebraska. 
 Relation Between Extreme Underweight and School Work. 
 
 Hetherington, Clark W. (Under auspices of the State Charities Aid Associa- 
 tion and the Milbank Memorial Fund.) Experimental development of a school 
 program in teaching health. 
 
 Psychology of teaching health. A special research program with children and 
 teachers in New York City with cooperation of workers in other cities. 
 
 McCurdy, James Huff. International Y. M. C. A. College, Springfield, Mass. 
 Research on motivation of physical education. Now in progress. 
 
 Norton, H. J. Director of Health Education, Public Schools, Rochester, New 
 York. Results of four years of nutrition class work. To be published in 1925. 
 
 Rowe, Floyd A. Department of Physical Welfare, Cleveland Public Schools, 
 Cleveland, Ohio. Study of needs of entire field in physical welfare in Cleveland 
 for the formulation of a course of study. 
 
The Third Yearbook 317 
 
 Turner, C. E. Professor of Public Health, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
 nology. 
 
 a. Development of methods of health education into a unified program for 
 all ages. 
 
 b. Measure of health improvement resulting from health education program. 
 Wolfe, Katherine K., M. D. Effect of a nutritional program on physical and 
 
 mental improvement of underweight children. Lincoln, Nebraska. 
 
 SECTION III. SUMMARY 
 A. General Summary of Trend of Research Findings in Health Education 
 
 1. A survey of the local community health needs and of the health needs 
 of individual children is the most valid basis for the construction of the 
 curriculum in health education. The submission of a questionnaire to the 
 pupils themselves, at the beginning of the year, gives information to the 
 teacher which is helpful in placing the emphasis where it is most needed. 
 
 2. It is necessary for the school, the home and the community to co- 
 operate if the health education program of the school is to be effective. 
 
 3. The tendency in health education is to measure and evaluate results 
 in terms of its effectiveness in solving the actual health problems of the 
 individual and the community rather than in terms of knowledge alone. 
 Study No. 5 reports the construction of a scale based upon this principle 
 and states that the use of such a scale "turns the attention of the teacher 
 from the immediate school objectives to life practices, with great benefit 
 not only on instruction in health, but other instruction as well." 
 
 The acceptance of the criterion of social utility makes a profound change 
 in the presentation of subject matter as well as in the measurements of 
 results. 
 
 This is not indicated in any of the research studies reported, but is very 
 apparent in courses of study in which an attempt is made to limit subject 
 matter to the materials which boys and girls can actually use in life. 
 Several such courses of study were brought to the attention of this com- 
 mittee, but have not been indicated in this report, since they do not represent 
 the results of controlled research although they are the outcome of extensive 
 and scholarly work. 
 
 4. Although the final measurement of health education values consists 
 in evaluation of its usefulness in solution of health problems, it is also 
 necessary to devise measures of the informational or knowledge aspects of 
 the health education program. Health information tests should be made 
 and tried out to give an experimental basis for placing information in suit- 
 able grades. One such test has been constructed. 
 
 5. Available research does not enable the committee to make a definite 
 statement regarding standards of achievement for any grade. 
 
 Study No. 4 indicates that achievements in health habits, skills, knowl- 
 edge, and appreciations, show appreciable growth from entrance into kinder- 
 garten till the time of completing the first grade. More extensive studies 
 along the same line are needed before minimum standards of achievement 
 can be set up. 
 
318 Department of Superintendence 
 
 6. The subject matter of health education should not emphasize the value 
 of health as an end in itself so much as the value of health as a means to 
 accomplishing interesting and worth-while things. With elementary school 
 children the emphasis should be on the relationship of health to the activ- 
 ities of the immediate present rather than the distant future. 
 
 Note. — Although so little actual research is available in the field of 
 health education, a considerable body of experience points to certain prin- 
 ciples which are generally accepted as sound. A discussion of these prin- 
 ciples falls outside the scope of this report. The most recent and com- 
 prehensive discussion of them is to be found in the report on "Health Edu- 
 cation" of the Joint Committee on Health Problems of the National Edu- 
 cation Association and American Medical Association, "A Program for 
 Public Schools and Teacher Training Institutions," published in June, 
 1924, and available from the National Education Association headquarters 
 at Washington. 
 
 B. General Summary of Trend of Research Findings in Physical Education 
 
 The research studies in physical education point out several definite fac- 
 tors which should be carefully considered in a program of curriculum con- 
 struction. They are as follows: 
 
 a. A study of age, grade, weight, and height is suggested as a satisfac- 
 tory means of classifying students for physical education activities. 
 
 b. The use of a four-point classification (age, grade, height, and weight) 
 has proven a satisfactory means of grouping high school boys for inter- 
 scholastic athletics. 
 
 c. The relationship of physical efficiency may be a potent factor in ad- 
 justing pupils to the correct grade placement. 
 
 d. One study points out that a child's physical ability and development 
 should be considered in classifying him as to acceleration or retardation in 
 school progress. 
 
 e. An experiment shows that play is more effective than formal exercise 
 as a means of reaching the objectives laid down in a physical education 
 program. 
 
 f . Group competition is desirable whenever possible for two chief reasons : 
 
 1. It stimulates pupils to increase their individual achievement. 
 
 2. It is socially effective in that the individual is urged to greater self realiza- 
 tion in keeping with the best group interests. 
 
 g. Little difference exists between height and weight between the sexes 
 in the last four years of elementary school. 
 
 h. The amount of kinetic energy used in running, jumping, etc. has been 
 calculated. From data thus obtained it has been found that only 270 
 individuals out of one million tested, fell out of the distribution curve. 
 
 i. A plan has been evaluated which is physiologically sound whereby 
 basketball tournaments may be conducted, limiting the physical strain of 
 the contesting athletes. , 
 
The Third Yearbook 319 
 
 j. A plan has been evolved for grouping physically defective high school 
 pupils into similar groups for corrective work. 
 
 k. Underweight causes a lessening of motor efficiency, equivalent to from 
 one half to one year of retardation. 
 
 1. A study of mentally retarded pupils yielded the following interesting 
 results : 
 
 1. Mentally retarded boys are shorter in height and lighter in weight than 
 normal boys. The girls are shorter in all ages and lighter up to the age of 12, 
 but are about the same weight as normal girls from 13 to 15 years. 
 
 2. Mentally retarded boys jump and throw farther and run faster than mentally 
 retarded girls. 
 
 3. Mentally retarded boys are from l 1 /^ to 3 years lower in average perform- 
 ance than normal boys in the four events (standing broad jump, ball throw over- 
 head, 50 yard dash and chinning for boys and knee raising for girls). Mentally 
 retarded girls are from 2 to 7 years lower than normal girls. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 Henrietta W. Calvin, Director, Division of Home Economics, Board 
 of Public Education, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Chairman 
 
 Major Problems in the Formation of the Curriculum in Home Economics 
 
 What emphasis should be placed on the knowledge of textile fabrics; 
 color harmonies; hygiene of clothing; relation of foods to health; and of 
 the effect of cleanliness of person, dwelling, and surroundings upon health ? 
 
 To what extent should manipulative skill be stressed ? 
 
 For what coordination with English, arithmetic, geography, and civics, 
 should the home economics curriculum provide ? 
 
 Are results most satisfactory when the home economics curriculum con- 
 sists of short intensive units? 
 
 Should projects selected in home economics be of a type that can be com- 
 pleted before the interest of the pupil wanes? 
 
 Since home economics should contribute to home helpfulness and the 
 formation of health habits, to what extent should the curriculum be based 
 upon home experiences? 
 
 To what extent should curriculum modifications be encouraged in order 
 that the school activities in home economics may be varied to meet the 
 different social and economic needs in the different sections of the larger 
 cities ? 
 
 To what extent should home projects be included in the curriculum? 
 
 To what extent should the home economics curriculum be modified to 
 meet the needs of the overaged or subnormal girl ? 
 
 What time allotment is essential to adequate instruction in home eco- 
 nomics, recognizing as we must, that the curriculum is affected by the 
 time set aside for such instruction? 
 
 RESEARCH STUDIES IN HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION 
 IN GRADES 1 TO 6 
 
 STUDY NO. r. Trilling, Mabel Barbara, Miller, Ethelwyn, and 
 others. Home economics in American schools. Supplementary Educational 
 Monographs. Department of Education, Univ. of Chicago, 1920. pp. 122. 
 
 Purpose. To report the findings of a survey of the status of home 
 economics in public schools of the United States, as a basis for helping to 
 determine the curriculum in elementary and secondary schools. 
 
 Method. Question blanks were sent to 300 cities including two in every 
 state, to discover subjects taught in home economics and the books influenc- 
 ing the curriculum. An analysis was made of these courses of study and 
 of the text and reference books found to be most commonly used. A study 
 was also made of the literature dealing with home economics in search of 
 objectives. In addition the report gives the preliminary organization of 
 
 [320] 
 
The Third Yearbook 321 
 
 tests in measuring skill in machine sewing and content and reasoning tests 
 in textiles and clothing. 
 
 Findings. A. There is a dearth of adequate elementary school material 
 evidenced by the fact that certain books written for the high school and 
 college are being used as texts and reference books in the grades. Only 15 
 per cent of the elementary schools are using texts; 21 per cent reference 
 books. The textbooks used are stressing the acquisition of information and 
 skill with little consideration given to the development of power and judg- 
 ment. 
 
 B. Emphasis in the elementary school is placed on the technical processes 
 involved in food preparation and clothing construction with insufficient con- 
 sideration given to other important phases of home economic work. 
 
 C. There is little evidence of a continuous course of study in the grades 
 suited to the various stages of growth of children. This is shown (a) by the 
 general practice of introducing into the schools in the early grades the study 
 of clothing construction, deferring the work in food for two or more years, 
 (b) by the fact that courses are not arranged on the basis of increasing 
 difficulty to the learner, (c) by the custom of introducing hand sewing 
 into the grades previous to machine sewing. In 14 per cent of the schools 
 the teaching of machine sewing is not mentioned. 
 
 D. The preliminary use of educational tests shows their value in helping 
 to establish minimal essentials and in developing a critical attitude toward 
 the curriculum. It seems safe to predict that the use of the scale for measur- 
 ing machine sewing will lead to the setting of definite standards of attain- 
 ment, will give the inexperienced teacher a definite guide and will be a 
 means of diagnosing difficulties in machine sewing. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Trilling, Mabel Barbara. A study of objectives in 
 the teaching of textiles. Thesis for Master's degree. Unpublished, 1923, 
 90 pp. University of Chicago Library. 
 
 Purpose. The purpose of this study is to offer a contribution toward 
 helping to determine the important topics that should be included in tex- 
 tile courses in typical public schools. 
 
 Method. The material has been obtained from two sources: (a) Facts 
 have been collected from consumers regarding the information they desire 
 when purchasing textiles. The method used was to observe consumers 
 when shopping and to record the questions they ask of salespersons regard- 
 ing the qualities and facts they desire to know about the materials pur- 
 chased, (b) Material has been obtained from an analysis of twelve of 
 the textile books most commonly used in the public schools; this study 
 is based on the assumption that the problems possessing sufficient value to 
 be included in the school curriculum are to be found in textbooks. 
 
 Findings. 1. The study shows that there is sufficient social need for 
 textile information to warrant more time being devoted to this phase of 
 home economics than is at present being given in the majority of elementary 
 and secondary schools. 
 
322 Department of Superintendence 
 
 2. The qualities demanded in fabrics by consumers when in agreement 
 with the facts emphasized by experts may profitably be used to formulate 
 minimal essentials for a beginning course in textiles in the pubic schools. 
 Such material is: 
 
 (1) Knowledge of fibers; kinds and properties 
 
 (2) A study of yarns 
 
 (3) Simple processes of cloth construction, such as spinning and weaving 
 
 (4) Finishing processes 
 
 (5) Imitations and substitutions 
 
 (6) Simple methods of dyeing 
 
 (7) Simple physical and chemical tests 
 
 (8) Study of fabrics and how to use them 
 
 (9) Hygienic aspects of clothing 
 
 3. Those topics which recent books are showing a tendency to eliminate, 
 and which have received no emphasis by consumers should be given little 
 emphasis in school courses. Such material is: 
 
 (1) Historical data 
 
 (2) Detailed technical study of spinning, weaving, and other processes of 
 construction 
 
 (3) Too detailed study of certain finishing processes, such as bleaching and 
 dyeing 
 
 (4) Emphasis on botanical aspects of fibers 
 
 4. There is a body of material included under the topic economics of 
 clothing which has received almost no consideration from consumers of 
 textiles but which has been given certain emphasis in textbooks. It is 
 suggested that a study of the material be continued in textile classes, the 
 emphasis given to this material to be determined through further studies. 
 Certain typical problems are : Clothing budgets, pure fabric laws, standard- 
 ization of styles in fabrics and garments, responsibility of consumers for 
 certain labor conditions, and ethics of shopping. 
 
 5. It is apparent that important contributions for establishing textile ob- 
 jectives are obtained from each of these studies ; neither can be used as the 
 sole source of material, but each should be supplemented by material of the 
 other. 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. Williams, Florence. Standards of attainments for 
 ability in machine sewing. Master's thesis.' University of Chicago Li- 
 brary, Chicago, 111., 1922. 
 
 Purpose. It is the purpose of this investigation (1) to further in a 
 small degree the scientific measurement of achievement in home economics 
 education; (2) to set up standards of attainment in machine sewing for 
 different grades and ages. 
 
 Method. A large number of samples of machine-made hems and 
 French seams, 3117 in all, averaging 300 to the grade, were collected from 
 different school systems in 11 different cities under as carefully controlled 
 conditions as possible. The samples were scored on the Knapp and Wil- 
 
The Third Yearbook 323 
 
 liams scale. This is a scale for measuring ability in machine sewing. It 
 consists of photographic reproductions of samples of machine-made hems 
 and French seams. The scale is analytic in character. Five factors which 
 contribute to a well made French seam or hem are judged separately, and 
 the scale shows three different qualities for each factor. A reproduction of 
 the scale can be found in the University of Chicago Educational Mono- 
 graph Home Economics in American Schools, Mabel Trilling and others. 
 Each sample was judged separately for each of the five factors. Next the 
 average score for each sample was found. The samples were scored for 
 standards of attainment for both different grades and different ages. 
 
 Findings. 1. Only a small number of samples were obtained from the 
 fifth grade. The average score for both the French seam and the hem was 
 low. Because of the small number scored it is impossible to determine 
 whether the score is significant or not. If such a low score had been ob- 
 tained from a large number of samples it would indicate that fifth-grade 
 children could not be expected to attain much skill in machine sewing. 
 
 2. There is a steady rate of increase in ability shown in the average 
 scores for the different grades. 
 
 3. It is interesting to note that the increase in ability for the different 
 ages is not so steady as in the standard of attainment for the different 
 grades. The range of scores in the different grades is almost the same for 
 every grade. 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Winchell, Florence E. How can household arts 
 teaching be made more effective? Lincoln School of Teachers Colleges, 
 New York City, 1923. 24 p. 
 
 "Results of a study made through personal interviews with nineteen 
 women who formerly taught household arts in elementary and secondary 
 schools and are now married and in their own homes." 
 
 Fourteen definite questions were asked, such as : Does it still seem to 
 you that there is a logical sequence which you would always follow in 
 presenting household arts subjects? What specific education for boys do 
 you recommend that would make their attitude in the home better, and 
 woman's work in the home easier? Where have you felt weaknesses in 
 your training, etc. ? The answers were tabulated descriptively. 
 
 The most important conclusion was that household arts teachers be 
 urged to "give the weight of their influence to the establishment of ideals 
 of simple and systematic housekeeping that may free the homemaker for 
 the educational and recreational phases of her family life." 
 
 Other summaries were : ( 1 ) Need of early home training of both boys 
 and girb; (2) food interest the most vital to family; (3) insufficient prep- 
 aration among homemakers for child care; (4) interest, a child factor in 
 elementary school home economics subject matter; and (5) accuracy ad- 
 vantageous, but it is possible for home economics teachers to overemphasize 
 precision in processes. 
 
324 Department of Superintendence 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. Harap, Henry. The education of the consumer: a 
 study in curriculum material. Macmillan, 1924. 360 pp. 
 
 "A study in curriculum material; analysis for educational guidance of 
 the elements of an effective relation between man and his economic en- 
 vironment as it expresses itself in the consumption of food, shelter, fuel, 
 and clothing." 
 
 This study compares the actual present economic habits of our nation 
 with approved standards of consumption in the light of reliable standards of 
 living. 
 
 The studies used in collecting materials were direct surveys of habits of 
 people, statistical reports, and data obtained from many sources. The con- 
 clusions reached were essentially those of objectives concerned with the 
 acquisition of information, development of habits, and development of atti- 
 tudes which give approval or disapproval of economic conditions and pro- 
 posals. The question is raised, Can economic habits be modified? 
 
 The definite objectives set up for the social significance of food, cloth- 
 ing, shelter, etc., are of distinct value to all home economics teachers. The 
 study as a whole suggests the need for home economics materials to be in 
 line with actual conditions of life as they are found in American homes 
 today. See review of this study on page 269 and on page 334. 
 
 STUDY NO. 6. Fulton, Lucy. Home economics materials in the ele- 
 mentary curriculum. Teachers College, Columbia Univ., Office of Re- 
 search in Household Arts Education, 1924. 
 
 The problem as stated was what are the trends or evolutionary tenden- 
 cies in regard to home economics materials offered in the elementary cur- 
 riculum (grades one to six) ? It was assumed the evolutionary tendencies 
 could be seen in field practices shown in printed courses of study, in re- 
 ported practices, and by theories as expressed in the best thinking. 
 
 The data were collected from courses of study of one hundred cities of 
 varying types, superintendents' reports, and special school programs. The 
 validity of this is being checked by previous studies and the theories of 
 general educators, specialists, and reviews of selected judges. 
 
 The conclusions reached are of value in three ways : ( 1 ) They are sug- 
 gestive to general grade teachers; (2) they serve as basic materials for 
 grade home economics tests; and (3) they afford a clarification of home 
 ecnomics' share in the elementary curriculum. 
 
 Tabulated data of this study were not quite complete at the time this re- 
 port was made but will be available in the near future. 
 
 STUDY NO. 7. Roman, Mata. A study to determine the extent to 
 ivhich the food work with fifth grade children functions in their daily 
 living. Elementary School, University of Chicago. In progress. 
 
 Both boys and girls of the fifth and sixth grades of the University of 
 Chicago elementary school have work in foods. The real purpose of the 
 work is to teach children to select their own food wisely. A study has 
 
The Third Yearbook 325 
 
 been undertaken to determine what the children need to be taught and to 
 what extent the children's practices are influenced by the food lessons. 
 
 Method. At the beginning of the year the teacher has a private con- 
 ference with each child during which they make a record of the child's 
 likes, dislikes, prejudices, and all available facts about his present diet. 
 This is supplemented by information gained from the mothers at a group 
 meeting at which the purposes and methods are explained. The course is 
 planned to meet the needs as found. After the end of the course a second 
 record will be taken and findings compared with the first. In order 
 to check the permanency of results, records will again be obtained at the 
 end of the year for comparison. 
 
 It is planned to continue this study with similar groups for several 
 years and to adapt subject matter and methods to suit the needs as re- 
 vealed by the study. 
 
 STUDY NO. 8. Robertson, Annie L. Basic study of home economics 
 educational problems. Teachers College, Columbia Univ., Office of Re- 
 search in Household Arts Education (typewritten form), 1924. 
 
 An attempt to discover the "trend of the times" and to secure a working 
 organization on which to base later research — the major purpose was to 
 bring together a program of cooperative thinking and to take cognizance of 
 the field condition. If home economics educational research is to assist 
 course-of-study makers and curriculum thinkers, then studies made should 
 show up facts and figures relative to the problems or in other terms, short- 
 ages in the field. 
 
 An objective study was made through interviews and reviews of pub- 
 lished writings. The definite question put in the interviews or considered 
 in the reading was "What do you consider some of the outstanding or 
 most insistent problems in public school home economics?" Not more than 
 five problems were recorded from one person. The question was asked of 
 selected personnel from the following groups : ( 1 ) General educators and 
 administrators, (2) home economics teachers and supervisors, (3) mothers 
 and homemakers, (4) social thinking laymen, and (5) social workers. 
 
 Three hundred and fifty problem assertions were obtained, analyzed, 
 filed, and charted. Problems of curriculum materials, child learnings, and 
 instruction were most frequent. The chart "showed-up" the field with its 
 present ills needing diagnostic treatment. The study was not considered 
 finished. It should be carried on to approximately one thousand statements 
 so that the frequency study could be of more value. 
 
 Home economics in the elementary school: A professional group study. 
 
 For more than a year the household arts group of Teachers College, 
 Columbia University, have been meeting, discussing home economics in the 
 various school levels. The conclusions of this group study have been put 
 into form for the elementary school as they relate to (1) purposes, (2) 
 
326 Department of Superintendence 
 
 organization of work, (3) methods of study, (4) outcomes, (5) relation- 
 ships to other subjects, as follows: 
 
 1. Purposes of the work stated with reference to several supplementary 
 bases : 
 
 A. Purposes stated in terms of social or practical objectives 
 
 a. The consumer purposes 
 
 (1) Health-usage as affected by habits and by meaningful information. 
 
 (2) Economic selection with reference to values in terms of both need 
 and cost. 
 
 (3) Art, or aesthetic selection with reference to qualities of beauty. 
 
 b. The citizenship purposes 
 
 (1) Social control regulations with reference to conditions and practices 
 which can be had only by cooperation — problems of health, exploita- 
 tion, economy, and art. 
 
 (2) Social aspects of personal and family problems relative to food, cloth- 
 ing, and shelter. 
 
 c. The occupational participating purposes — home-participation by helping with : 
 
 (1) Food — preparation and service, and care of utensils and implements 
 
 (2) Clothing — care, laundering, and simple repair. 
 
 (3) Housekeeping — bed-making, care of rooms, arrangement and care of 
 furnishings, care of floors, walls, doors and windows. 
 
 (4) Home upkeep — simple repairs of woodwork, furniture, doors, locks, 
 windows, screens, curtain and shade rods and rollers, picture frames, 
 heating plant, plumbing, lighting systems and labor-saving devices 
 and implements, both indoors and outdoors. 
 
 (5) Child care — simple kinds of care relative to the health and happiness 
 of young children. 
 
 (6) Recreation — social life of the home and entertainment of guests. 
 
 B. Purposes stated in terms of psychological objectives 
 
 a. The formation of good habits relative to the use of food and clothing and 
 to participation in home life generally. 
 
 b. The development of intelligence and insight relative to the production and 
 usage of food, clothing and shelter materials, and of the simpler social oi 
 citizenship problems connected with them. 
 
 c. The development of critical judgment for the selection of food, clothing and 
 
 shelter materials with reference to standards of value in health, economy, 
 and art. 
 
 d. The development of an appreciation of, or a liking for, that which is 
 aesthetically of fine quality. 
 
 e. The development of that general dexterity in the manipulation of materials, 
 
 tools, and machines connected with the upkeep of the home which should 
 be common to all boys and girls of twelve years of age. 
 
 2. Organization of the zvork. The work should be distributed through- 
 out the elementary school from the first grade on the basis of capacity in 
 relationship to interests and needs. Some work in each year for each aspect 
 of the whole subject of home life will contribute to the development of 
 habits, intelligence, appreciations, and interests. 
 
 3. Methods of study. Investigative activities, frequently initiated by 
 manipulative or constructive work, and very generally carried forward by 
 
The Third Yearbook 327 
 
 its use, constitute the more significant elements of method. Excursions, 
 readings, home participation and exhibits should all be used. The hand 
 work is a means to clarify ideas, to aid in experiments, and to express orig- 
 inal ideas of design or planning in concrete form. Hand work has its maxi- 
 mum value for growth in both practical efficiency and character when it is 
 employed in achieving some worth-while purpose. 
 
 4. Outcomes. Outcomes for the elementary school period for each re- 
 spective grade should be stated in specific detail as a means of evaluating 
 the work. This is a problem not yet adequately solved. 
 
 5. Relationships to other subjects. As the life problems included in other 
 subjects largely grow out of the practical arts needs, the work in household 
 arts will incorporate many elements from both biological and physical 
 science, from mathematics, from design, from industrial and commercial 
 geography, and from history. Many of the elements of these subjects find 
 their most common applications and uses in the problems of household arts. 
 
 STUDY NO. 9. Rose, Mary Swartz. Food lessons for nutrition 
 classes. Teachers College Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 
 New York City, 1921. 26 p. 
 
 A series of food lessons for children from eight to ten years old. These 
 are the results of experiments conducted by students of nutrition at Teach- 
 ers College in a nutrition centre and Public School No. 43. 
 
 The purpose was to determine the most suitable subject-matter and the 
 best way of presenting it. The material was especially serviceable to the 
 nutrition teacher. 
 
 Summary of Findings 
 
 That home economics is usually limited to the upper two grades — i. e., 
 the fifth and sixth grades. 
 
 That home economics instruction in elementary schools is often narrowed 
 down to include sewing only, whereas all phases of home life should be rep- 
 resented to the extent justified by the intelligence, interests, and abilities of 
 the child of a given age or grade. 
 
 That hand-work is over-emphasized and projects selected are not ar- 
 ranged so as to insure progressive knowledge and skill. 
 
 That ability in home economics work progresses with grade rather than 
 with advance in age. 
 
 That home economics instruction should be in line with actual condi- 
 tions of life as they are found in American homes today. 
 
 There have been few research studies in home economics in elementary 
 schools. In part this is the result of a lack of interest in elementary school 
 problems by those in colleges and universities directing research projects. 
 So great has been the demand for high school home economics teachers and 
 so small has been the supply of well-trained women that the higher insti- 
 tutions of learning have interested themselves in high school problems only. 
 
328 Department of Superintendence 
 
 There are relatively few textbooks in home economics adapted to ele- 
 mentary school work. 
 
 Since home economics instruction must be based, to some extent, on cli- 
 matic, economic, and social conditions and since these vary so greatly in the 
 different sections of the United States, it has been difficult for any textbook 
 writer to include material universally adaptable. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 F. G. Bonser, Professor of Education, Teachers College, 
 Columbia University, Nenv York City, Chairman 
 
 Major Problems in the Formation of the Curriculum in Industrial Arts 
 
 How far should a course in industrial arts emphasize the cultivation of ap- 
 preciation in art, in motor skill, or both? 
 
 To what degree should a project in industrial arts be selected because of its 
 life values? Because of its value to develop skill? 
 
 Shall a separate course of study in industrial arts be set up? 
 
 How far should a course in the common elements of industrial arts serve 
 for an entire city rather than units within a city. 
 
 To what extent shall the varying and transient interests of children dic- 
 tate the content of the industrial arts course? 
 
 To what extent should the selection of subject matter in industrial arts be 
 determined by the needs of the consumer in after life? 
 
 In a school of limited resources should the course of study provide for in- 
 dustrial arts, music, etc., as well as the fundamentals? 
 
 What responsibility and obligations shall the general supervisor, such as the 
 assistant superintendent, principal, or primary supervisor, have in the 
 organization of the course of study in industrial arts, and in determin- 
 ing the content of the course? 
 
 To what extent should home conditions serve as one basis of content in the 
 the course of study in industrial arts? 
 
 Should the subject matter for boys and girls be identical? If so, up to 
 what time? Where should differentiation begin and what should be 
 the nature of it? 
 
 What attention should be given to methods of teaching in the making of a 
 course of study in industrial arts? 
 
 To what extent should standards be developed to test motor skill in indus- 
 trial arts? 
 
 Review of Research Studies in Industrial Arts 
 
 STUDY NO. i. Kent, Ernest B. The constructive interests of chil- 
 dren. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia 
 Univ., 1903. 78 pp. 
 
 This is probably the first attempt to obtain a really scientific basis for 
 selecting constructive work for the elementary school. The purpose of the 
 study was to find the natural constructive interests of children by ascertain- 
 ing what kinds of constructive projects they made voluntarily outside of 
 school. 
 
 The data were obtained by asking children to write, on a blank provided, 
 answers to questions covering: Articles made voluntarily outside of school 
 
 [329] 
 
330 Department of Superintendence 
 
 during the preceding twelve months; for what purpose they were made ; 
 and for whom they were made. Answers were obtained and used from 148 
 children, 63 boys and 85 girls, of from eight to fifteen years of age, in the 
 Horace Mann and Ethical Culture Schools of New York City. 
 
 From the study of results, the objects reported were classified as to ma- 
 terials used, kinds of projects as to use, and for whom made. Age and sex 
 differences were noted. 
 
 For the average boy, about half of the projects are those used in play, and 
 about three-tenths for real use — two-tenths as gifts, and one-tenth for his, 
 own use. For the girls, dolls and toys relating to dolls are the dominant 
 motives for voluntary constructive projects, with the gift interest second. 
 
 The study includes also the kinds of constructive activities and interests 
 reported by 72 talented engineers as they remembered their years of boy- 
 hood between eight and sixteen. Comparisons are made with the results ob- 
 tained from the school boys. The selected group of engineers show from 
 their remembered interests somewhat more constructive activity in me- 
 chanical projects than the school boys. 
 
 In this brief note, mention can not be made of the numerous interesting 
 points and the suggestive questions raised by the study. The number ot 
 children was too small and the limitations of environment too great to 
 permit of generalizations from the investigation. But it is of interest as a 
 pioneer study, using a method which, with the refinements since developed, 
 may be, and is, profitably employed today. The author recognizes fully 
 that voluntary interests, as expressed outside of school are but one factor 
 in determining kinds of industrial arts work. They do represent one factor 
 and an important one — how important, the study does not reveal. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Edgerton, Alonson H. Industrial arts in our ele- 
 mentary schools. Peoria, 111., The Manual Arts Press, 1922. 31 pp. 
 
 This study reviews the industrial arts work in 141 city public school 
 systems, distributed among nineteen states, in 1920-1921. The material 
 is presented in three parts, treating respectively of : ( 1 ) The purposes and 
 content of industrial arts; (2) the relationships of industrial arts to other 
 subjects; and (3) methods of presenting industrial arts units of study. 
 
 The Purposes and Content of Industrial Arts 
 
 The chief reasons reported for offering industrial arts instruction in the 
 first six grades were as follows: 
 
 1. To give a basis for judgment in the selection and use of industrial products 
 and service. (This reason was given by 51 cities.) 
 
 2. To develop an appreciation for the economic and social phases of industry. 
 (This reason was given by 39 cities.) 
 
 3. To offer sufficient experience in industrial processes to meet the pupil's needs 
 and to illustrate the industry. (This reason was given by 32 cities.) 
 
 4. To vitalize geography, history, arithmetic, oral and written expression, and 
 other subjects of the curriculum. (This reason was given by' 19 cities.) 
 
The Third Yearbook 331 
 
 "Although it was discovered that a few of these claims were expressions 
 of future plans rather than the present status and conduct of the work, 
 nevertheless, only about six per cent of these public school systems have 
 made practically no change in the methods of organizing and conducting 
 their elementary industrial work during the past few years .... 
 Over eighty per cent .... show every evidence of having under- 
 gone desirable reorganization in methods and procedure." 
 
 The newer organization tends to abandon the separate lines of work un- 
 der the terms, manual training, domestic science, domestic art, and some 
 phases of drawing and design, and to combine all studies of processes and 
 values of materials under the one term, industrial arts, for the first six 
 grades. Defining the subject as "the study of the changes made by man in 
 materials to increase their values for usage," the emphasis is changed from 
 that of mere manipulation of materials and tools to a study of values for 
 the selection and use of products, using hand work as a means and not alone 
 as an end in itself. The work centers about the needs of everyday life in 
 selecting and using the products of the industries with reference to health, 
 ecnomy, art, and social values, leaving training in productive skills to vo- 
 cational education. Much hand- work is used in developing these values 
 and in promoting the growth of general dexterity. Comparative data for 
 the 141 school systems offering instruction in each type of work, indicate 
 that the greatest emphasis is upon studies of: (1) Shelter and furniture, (2) 
 textiles and clothing, and (3) foods and allied activities. Only five and 
 eight-tenths per cent of the 141 cities give hand work, as such. One de- 
 scriptive type study of an industrial arts unit for each of the six grades is 
 given to illustrate the meaning of the study as organized to represent edu- 
 cational values. 
 
 The Relationship of Industrial Arts to Other Subjects 
 
 The intimate relationships of industrial arts to other subjects are dis- 
 cussed in the report, and illustrations of their profitable use are included. 
 There is found, however, great variation in practice — from practically no 
 use of relationships to very extended use of them. The study includes a 
 report of the methods used by 352 grade and special teachers to utilize the 
 relationships of industrial arts work and English. Eleven descriptive ac- 
 counts of typically good units of work showing profitable correlation are 
 given. The values in saving time, simplifying instruction, and enriching 
 experience as shown by these examples are briefly summarized and discussed. 
 
 Methods of Presenting Units of Study for Industrial Arts 
 
 The merits of the project method as against the assignment of a fixed 
 series of exercises are summarized from the reports of teachers. Of the 141 
 school systems, approximately 91 per cent of the special and grade teachers 
 reporting favored the use of the project method in presenting industrial 
 arts work. Perhaps there is no other subject in which the use of the project 
 
332 Department of Superintendence 
 
 method seems so immediately natural. Twelve illustrative projects in 
 industrial arts are included from among reports by teachers. 
 
 About 41 per cent of the schools reporting offer all work in common for 
 boys and girls through the first six grades ; about 29 per cent offer separate 
 courses in the sixth grade ; and about 22 per cent begin differentiating the 
 work for boys and girls in the fifth grade. Only seven per cent make any 
 differentiation for boys and girls below the fifth grade. 
 
 In a brief summary, it is stated that, "Over two-thirds of the special 
 teachers and supervisors questioned agree with a large number of classroom 
 teachers that, in general, the attendant skill and the related information 
 acquired through the elementary school period are to be justified mainly by 
 resulting growth in thinking power and industrial intelligence." They are 
 convinced that the work "will help pupils to establish those habits and atti- 
 tudes that contribute most to their daily conduct as intelligent consumers 
 and citizens." 
 
 The report is compactly organized, and, with its 29 illustrative units of 
 industrial arts work reported from the practice of teachers in various 
 grades, it is suggestive to both curriculum makers and teachers. 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. National Education Association. "The elementary 
 school curriculum," Second Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, 
 Washington, D. C, 1924, pp. 139-172. 
 
 Facts on the public school curriculum. Research Bulletin of the Na- 
 tional Education Association, Vol. I, No. 5, 1924. pp. 325-336. 
 
 Industrial Arts in Forty-nine Cities Compared with Seattle 
 
 In the Research Bulletin, it is shown that the total average time allot- 
 ment for the first six grades for industrial arts in minutes per week is 214 
 for the 49 cities; for Seattle, 258. The average time allotments by grades 
 in the cities from the 49, offering industrial arts are as follows : 
 
 Grades I 
 
 Minutes per week__ 60 
 Number of cities 18 
 
 It is evident about twice as many cities include industrial arts work in 
 their fifth and sixth grades as in the first and second. 
 
 Manual Arts in Sixty Cities 
 
 The tables in the Research Bulletin show that 38 of the 60 cities allot 
 definite time to manual arts. Averaging this on the basis of the 60 cities, 
 it is shown that 126 minutes per week are given to manual arts. This is 
 one and four-tenths per cent of the total allotted time in minutes per week 
 for the elementary schools. The wide variation will be apparent in the fact 
 that the lowest per cent of time allotted to manual arts in any city is four- 
 tenths of one per cent, and that the highest per cent is five and five-tenths. 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 70 
 
 81 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
The Third Yearbook 333 
 
 As only 38 of the cities report time allotments, it would appear that in 22 
 of the 60 there is no work in manual arts offered. However, differences in 
 terminology make inferences unsafe. Reference to this is made later. 
 
 Distribution of Grades in Which Industrial Arts is Taught in 375 Cities 
 
 Tables of grade distributions contain no work on "industrial arts," but 
 they do include "sewing," "cooking," and "wood work." 
 
 Sewing. Of 205 cities reporting sewing, 121 offer work in some of the 
 first six grades, distributed as follows: 
 
 In grades one to six, 2 cities 
 
 In grades three to five, 1 city 
 
 In grades three to six, 7 cities 
 
 In grades four to five, 1 city 
 
 In grades four to six, 21 cities 
 
 In grades five to six, 31 cities 
 
 In grade six, 58 cities 
 
 Cooking. Of 218 cities reporting cooking, 62 offer work in some of the 
 first six grades, distributed as follows: 
 
 In grades three to six, 2 cities 
 In grades four to six, 1 city 
 
 In grades five to six, 19 cities 
 
 In grade six, 1-0 cities 
 
 Wood Work. Of 231 cities reporting wood work, 136 offer work in 
 some of the first six grades, distributed as follows: 
 
 In grades three to four, 1 city 
 
 In grades three to six, 1 city 
 
 In grades four to six, 11 cities 
 
 In grades five to six, 45 cities 
 
 In grade six, 78 cities 
 
 Since "drawing" is a term known to cover all work with materials in the 
 lower grades in some cities, and since the number reporting drawing is so 
 large for all grades, the distribution of grades in which drawing is taught is 
 included. 
 
 Drawing. Of 312 cities reporting drawing, 309 offer work in some of 
 the six grades, distributed as follows : 
 
 In grades one to four, 1 city 
 
 In grades one to five, 3 cities 
 
 In grades one to six, 293 cities 
 
 In grades two to six, 10 cities 
 
 In grades three to six, 2 cities 
 
 In these studies, the most striking thing is the lack of apparent standards 
 of time allotment or grade placement. Inference is almost forced upon one 
 that variability in content is as great as in time allotment and gradation. 
 The very terminology is so confusing that little can be derived from the 
 reports relating to industrial arts other than a sense of need for bringing 
 
334 Department of Superintendence 
 
 order out of the chaos. In the study of Seattle and the 49 other cities, the 
 term "industrial arts" is used and "drawing" is given a separate place; in 
 the study of the 60 cities, "manual arts" is used and "art education" re- 
 ceives separate treatment; and in the grade distribution study of 375 cities 
 we have neither "industrial arts" or "manual arts," but "sewing," "cook- 
 ing," "wood work," and "drawing." Other terms not included in these re- 
 ports for work about the same as that indicated by the terms in these re- 
 ports are "hand work," "drawing and design," "fine arts," "applied arts" 
 and some others used by some city school systems. That there is overlap- 
 ping or duplication of work under these several terms cannot be known 
 from the data presented, but that there is great variability is evident from 
 an examination of the details of courses of study. 
 
 In all the studies, comparisons of time allotments and grade placements 
 of the art subjects, by whatever name indicated, and the three R's offer 
 suggestions for thought about educational content and values, time expendi- 
 tures, results obtained, and results possible. 
 
 In addition to the really secondary questions of time allotment and grade 
 placement, the studies suggest strongly the need for the education of cur- 
 riculum makers and teachers in the fundamental character of the indus- 
 trial arts field as developed in its most highly educative form in recent years. 
 The possibilities of integration of vitally related parts of the curriculum, 
 hitherto formally separated, should be scientifically studied to find whether 
 it may not result in great economy of both time and effort. These studies 
 are very stimulating in revealing the need for bringing order out of the 
 
 chaos that exists relative to the industrial arts. 
 
 « 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Harap, Henry. Education of the consumer: A study 
 in curriculum material. New York, Macmillan, 1924. 360 p. 
 
 This study is an attempt to ascertain the objectives of American economic 
 life with special reference to the consumption of food, shelter, fuel, and 
 clothing. The major portion consists of evidence of the present economic 
 habits of the people of the United States and an evaluation of these habits 
 in the light of reliable standards of living. 
 
 The study "is partial to no special theory of education." It is an endeavor 
 to present the facts as they are in order that curriculum makers may have 
 an unbiased and reliable source upon which to base selections of materials. 
 The adaptation to any age, grade, or level of experience may be made as the 
 particular school may require. 
 
 Objectives for each particular field are specifically stated — that is, what 
 one should know and be able to do with reference to food, shelter, fuel, and 
 clothing. The numerous government studies and studies of special com- 
 missions on standards of living have been carefully analyzed and the find- 
 ings stated. All available scientific and statistical studies of production, 
 total consumption, and per capita consumption are summarized and com- 
 parisons are made with such standards of what is desirable as we now have. 
 Costs, methods of purchase, and problems of preservation and conservation 
 
The Third Yearbook 335 
 
 are included. Much material of very high value that has hitherto been in- 
 accessible because of its technical form of presentation, or because of its 
 fragmentary distribution, has been made easily available. An extended 
 bibliography makes possible references to the original sources of data. 
 
 This book is an especially useful reference for material in those phases 
 of industrial arts for the elementary school relating to food, shelter, and 
 clothing. See review of this study on page 324. 
 
 The Trend in Industrial Arts 
 
 As is evidenced by the number of studies included, little work has yet 
 been done in industrial arts which can qualify as "scientific research." 
 Studies have been of a practical type,, dealing with the formulation of pur- 
 poses, selecting materials to make courses harmonize with the purposes, and 
 organizing the material selected into usable form for teachers. Little has 
 been attempted by way of evaluation through scientific testing. 
 
 But much has been done in establishing a new point of view and in de- 
 veloping a content of materials and procedure for teachers. The recent 
 books and courses of study in industrial arts show changes under way which 
 statements of mere presence or absence of the subject in the curriculum, or 
 of time allotments, could not do. 
 
 Where changes are evident, they are in the direction of including studies 
 that relate to the use of industrial products with reference to health, eco- 
 nomic, art, and social values along with manipulative or constructive work 
 with materials. The subject is tending more and more to become a study 
 of the industries including hand work as a means instead of a course in mere 
 hand work as such. It is becoming a subject with a content of thought and 
 experience. 
 
 The relationships of the work to other subjects is also receiving greater 
 attention, particularly the relationships to fine arts, to industrial and com- 
 mercial geography and history, and to arithmetic. The increasing use of 
 the project method is leading to greater attention to the study of the interests 
 and activities relating to food, clothing, shelter, and other material supplies 
 with which children are in direct contact. 
 
 Among the courses of study in industrial arts published within the last 
 five years which illustrate well these tendencies are those of Atlanta, Geor- 
 gia; Baltimore, Maryland ; Los Angeles, California; Okmulgee, Oklahoma; 
 Passaic, New Jersey; Seattle, Washington; and St. Cloud, Minnesota. 
 Denver, Colorado, also has such a course in preparation. These courses of 
 study are quite unlike the older courses in "manual training" or "hand 
 work" in that they contain a large body of thought content relating to the 
 everyday needs of life for the use of industrial products. Even more hand 
 work than formerly is provided, but its purpose is in relationship to definite 
 values which it may contribute. 
 
 Among the books on industrial arts for the first six grades which offer 
 work on this basis and show this trend are : 
 
336 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Winslow, Leon. Elementary industrial arts. New York, Macmillan, 1922, 335 p. 
 
 Welling, Jane B., and Calkins, C. W. Social and industrial studies for the 
 elementary grades. Phila., Lippincott, 1923. 331 p. 
 
 Bonser, F. G., and Mossman, L. C. Industrial arts for elementary schools. New 
 York, Macmillan, 1923. 491 p. 
 
 Books giving accounts of work done. by the use of the project method 
 include much material illustrating this newer conception of industrial arts. 
 Among these are : 
 
 Wells, Margaret E. A project curriculum. Phila., Lippincott, 1920. 
 
 Collings, Elsworth. An experiment with a project curriculum. New York, Mac- 
 millan, 1923. 
 
 Burke, Agnes, and others. A conduct curriculum for kindergarten and first grade. 
 New York, Scribner's, 1923. 
 
 Salisbury, Ethel J., and others. An activity curriculum for the kindergarten and 
 primary grades. San Francisco, Harr Wagner, 1924. 
 
 Books recently published in geography and history for the elementary 
 school include much more material than formerly relating to industry. 
 Sources, of material for the study of the industries are becoming increasingly 
 available. In fine arts, more attention than in former years is given to the 
 study of products used in daily life from the standpoint of beauty in rela- 
 tionship to utility, making for improved taste in selection and use. To 
 such an extent is this vital relationship appreciated that in some curricula 
 fine and industrial arts are combined into one study. 
 
 Summary. Standing out most prominently then, two tendencies seem 
 evident in courses in industrial arts : ( 1 ) An increasing emphasis, upon con- 
 tent relating to health, economic, and art values in the use of the material 
 supplies and equipment of life; and (2) a recognition and use of the parts 
 of industrial arts and other subjects closely related, making for economy of 
 time and effort in the teaching of all of these related subjects. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 ART EDUCATION 
 
 Leon L. fVinsloiv, Director of Art, Department of Education 
 Baltimore, Maryland, Chairman 
 
 THE IDEAL elementary school course of study is, perhaps, one in 
 which the entire curriculum is administered on a plan of perfect 
 articulation of the various subjects. In such a course, the inspira- 
 tion for handwork is adequately furnished by the other school subjects. The 
 mission of the subject of art in such a scheme would be quite largely the 
 providing of illustrative and creative handwork. There is no race, no 
 political division, no literature, no history, no science which is not intimately 
 associated with the topics about which such an elementary art course is 
 organized. In the elementary grades, at least, art as a subject is at the 
 disposal of all other subjects. 
 
 The importance of the work of the elementary school in the scheme of 
 art education is sometimes underestimated. If the secondary school courses 
 in art are to function as they should, it is essential that a foundation be laid 
 in the elementary schools. A subject designed to meet the aesthetic needs 
 of the elementary curriculum has already earned a place on many school 
 programs. This subject attempts to combine drawing and construction and 
 to substantiate and reinforce this drawing and construction by a content 
 closely related to the industries. 
 
 Plans for elementary art education consequently include elements from 
 the fields of manual training and fine arts, so-called, and they aim to pro- 
 vide content and experience which shall be of the maximum educational 
 worth. The strength of the best programs consists largely in their adherence 
 to the belief that all work in drawing and construction should contribute 
 to the pupil's personal and social efficiency at the time when the instruction 
 is given. 
 
 Since the teaching of art in the schools cannot cover effectively the whole 
 field of art but must concentrate on problems of immediate value to the 
 pupils, it follows that such teaching must function largely through the 
 projects that the pupils undertake. An art project consists of a lesson or a 
 complete series of lessons which has taken into account the necessary thought 
 content, handwork, or appreciation, or all three, to the end that the general 
 development of the pupil is assured. Expression should be the result of a 
 definite purpose calling for it. The selection of problems and of activities 
 should always be made on the basis of the general educational values as 
 opposed to the restricted training values. 
 
 A proper use of the project method presupposes training on the teacher's 
 part, and it often includes such things as problems, investigations, assign- 
 ments, reference reading, lesson plans, and textbooks. If other subjects are 
 worthy of systematic organization and of sustained intellectual effort on 
 the teacher's and the pupil'spart, the subject of art is also worthy of them. 
 
 [337] 
 
338 Department of Superintendence 
 
 The project method of instruction has been accepted by most of the teachers 
 of art in elementary schools as the inevitable method to be followed. Art 
 as a school subject, therefore, includes not only drawing and art apprecia- 
 tion but also design, color, lettering, and construction, as well as a clearly 
 defined background of elementary science and economics which makes the 
 work more valuable from the general educational side. 
 
 Most of the existing studies in educational measurements dealing with 
 art apply more specifically to drawing, which probably bears somewhat the 
 same relationship to art that penmanship, or writing, bears to literature. 
 The term drawing is certainly not comprehensive enough to include today 
 all that is included in the field of art education. The most valuable studies 
 investigated by the committee were coi.oequently not those concerned with 
 drawing only but those that were concerned with constructive problems in 
 art education which have been developed more recently by a number of 
 leaders in the field of art teaching. 
 
 There is apparently a concensus of opinion among school administrators 
 and directors of art that the purpose of art instruction in the schools is the 
 development of aesthetic appreciation, which implies taste, and the power 
 to produce beautiful things, which implies skill. It is also generally agreed 
 that courses in art may be included in curricula as a part of general educa- 
 tion or as a part of special training. In general education, the courses con- 
 tribute primarily to the pupil's all-round ability to conduct himself as a user 
 of art products ; in special training, they contribute to his ability to conduct 
 himself as a producer of artistic products. The elementary school is con- 
 cerned with appreciation as an aim. 
 
 The mission of the elementary school teacher of art, be he a grade teacher 
 or a specialist, is, therefore, an extremely important one, for all people today 
 are users of art. They are called upon to employ art principles in the selec- 
 tion of clothing, in the furnishing of homes, in business, in professions, and 
 in all walks of life. But aside from the more practical necessities which 
 call for instruction in art, there are also the needs for appreciation and for 
 enjoyment of leisure. 
 
 Greater educational returns have been realized where elementary school 
 art is taught as a general subject by the regular grade teacher and where 
 there has been special supervision, constructive, suggestive, and cooperative 
 in character. Under such administration, art has not failed to become an 
 important and integral part of the curriculum. The success of art teaching 
 in the future will doubtless be dependent on the successful solving of such 
 problems as those raised by the subcommittee. These are given below, 
 followed by a more detailed presentation of the problems from the stand- 
 point of the child, the subject matter, the other subjects in the curriculum, 
 and the teacher and supervisor. 
 
 Major Problems in the Formation of the Curriculum in Art 
 
 1. How does the child's interest in art manifest itself? , 
 (Different periods to be specified.) 
 
The Third Yearbook 339 
 
 2. In what does the child's interest in art consist? His enjoyment of 
 pictures? 
 
 3. What general objectives should be realized through the teaching of 
 art in the elementary school? Special objectives? 
 
 4. To what extent should art be taught as a distinctive subject? 
 
 5. What should be a fair and adequate time allotment for the subject of 
 art in elementary schools? 
 
 6. In developing a course in art instruction, what proportion of time and 
 effort should be given to each of the following: (a) Representative 
 drawing, (b) design, (c) color study, (d) handicrafts, (e) art 
 appreciation, and (f) related content information? 
 
 7. What is the purpose of handwork in the subject of art? 
 
 8. What art problems should be given in each grade? 
 
 9. Should the elementary school subject of art include a study of the 
 industrial arts? 
 
 10. To what extent should art instruction be correlated with other school 
 subjects? 
 
 Statement of Problems with Special Reference to Their Effect on Pupil, 
 Teacher, and Curriculum 
 
 A. From the standpoint of the child : 
 
 1. What are the child's needs that are to be supplied by art education? 
 
 2. What are his natural, inherent abilities for judgment and choice. For 
 expression? 
 
 3. What are his interests? From which phases of art does he most readily get 
 satisfaction? Which phases demand more drill? More effort on the part of 
 the child? 
 
 4. What is the place of the talented child in an art course planned to suit the 
 needs of the average child ? 
 
 5. At what age is a child sensitive to fine gradations of colors, in hue, and 
 intensity as well as in value? 
 
 6. To what extent should the curriculum in art provide for individual differences 
 in children? 
 
 B. From the standpoint of the subject matter: 
 
 1. What changes should be made in aims and objectives of art education? 
 What eliminations should be made from the present subject-matter? 
 What changes should be made in methods of teaching? 
 
 2. What phases of art should an elementary course cover? Which should be 
 most stressed in relation to the needs of children? 
 
 3. What standards of judgment (i.e. choice and appreciation) should be expected 
 of sixth grade children? 
 
 What skills in art expression (i. e., attainments, technical skills, such as technic 
 in drawing, measuring, and all drill phases) should be expected of sixth 
 grade children? 
 
 4. What are the purposes and relative contributions of various phases of art 
 instruction and their uses in other subjects, i.e., illustration and its use in 
 other subjects? perspective drawing? lettering? color study? poster mak- 
 ing? design? construction and handwork, etc.? 
 
340 . Department of Superintendence 
 
 C. From the standpoint of other subjects in the curriculum: 
 
 1. What connection should be made between art and other subjects in the 
 curriculum, i.e., geography, history, reading, spelling, arithmetic, industrial 
 arts, etc.? 
 
 2. How can art strengthen the other subjects in the curriculum? 
 
 D. From the standpoint of teacher and supervisor of art : 
 
 1. What is lacking in the present training of special art teachers and supervisors? 
 
 Studies in Drawing and Art Appreciation 
 
 The psychological studies that have been made contribute little of value 
 to the curriculum maker in respect to elementary school art. Several studies 
 do throw some light, however, on drawing and art expression from the 
 standpoint of the child, while all of the more serious studies demonstrate 
 the adaptability of art instruction to further scientific investigation which 
 should eventually bear results from which the art teacher will be able to 
 formulate guiding principles of practice for which there is at the present 
 time great need. 
 
 STUDY NO. i. Lukens, H. T. "A study of children's drawing." 
 The Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1896. 
 
 In 1896, Lukens carried out a study of children's drawings in which the 
 child's mental attitude toward pictures and drawings were carefully investi- 
 gated. Over 3000 drawings by children were studied. 
 
 Findings. Although no final conclusions were reached, it was found 
 that: 
 
 1. Very young children's drawings of people are automatic, aimless scribbles. 
 By degrees, the aimless tangle of lines is reduced to a few bold telling lines. This 
 seems to correspond to a clarification of the mental image in the child's mind by a 
 gradually greater discrimination on his part between the motor elements, resulting 
 outwardly in mere scribble, and the strictly visual elements, producing lines 
 definitely suggestive of form. 
 
 2. Young children draw "out of their own heads" and not "from the object." This 
 is shown by the test made by having people pose as models for the children. No 
 matter how the models sat, the child always drew full-face views. A review of 
 drawings also showed that children of ten draw sounds and other invisible things 
 such as the mind. Secondly, the little child draws from his own consciousness, and 
 he puts his own consciousness into the pictures. A large proportion of the human 
 figures drawn by children have childishi features. 
 
 3. Pictures properly chosen will develop the natural desire "to know what the 
 picture says" or, as the children often express it "to read the picture," and 
 this seems to be one of the natural, wholesome, and properly stimulating ways of 
 beginning reading. 
 
 4. Drawing can be used to supplement language in tests of the contents of chil- 
 dren's minds. 
 
 5. When drawing to please themselves, children draw objects that they love, 
 and at first mostly as a substitute for those objects when absent. A tabulation of 
 the subjects of 1232 spontaneous drawings of children under ten years show: 
 human beings, 76 per cent; stories, 12 per cent; animals, 7 per cent; plants, 3 per 
 cent; and geometrical figures, ornament and scribble combined, 2 per cent. Chil- 
 
The Third Yearbook 341 
 
 dren's drawings show slight traces of any interest in mere decoration before eleven 
 years of age. 
 
 6. Little children are much more apt to express themselves through drawings 
 than are adolescents. This is probably due to wrong methods of teaching drawing 
 in which excellence of technique is demanded. 
 
 7. Strong, striking, colors; red, blue, and yellow, and sharp contrasts in com- 
 binations are favorites with children, and the softer tints and more harmonious 
 combinations are later effects that have to be learned. The early period of loud 
 colors and gaudy ornament cannot be skipped, if the development is to be natural 
 and healthy. Artistic appreciation of color is a matter of slow growth. 
 
 STUDY NO. 2. Sargent, Walter, and Miller, Elizabeth E. How chil- 
 dren learn to draw. Boston, Ginn and Co., 1916. 
 
 Sargent and Miller, through a series of experimental lessons in which 
 opportunity was given children to draw freely, found in 1916 that interest 
 in "telling something" often furnishes a motive sufficient to inspire good 
 drawing. They also definitely determined that industrious drawing directly 
 from objects unaided by other sorts of study and practice has not proved to 
 be the most effective way, of learning to represent objects. Children be- 
 tween the ages of seven and fifteen learn to draw, if at all, largely by aid 
 of memories of the way others have drawn the things they themselves are 
 attempting to represent. For this reason, a collection of pictorial reference 
 material is a necessary part of the equipment in drawing. The description 
 by another person sends one back to nature with a new capacity for analysis 
 and appreciation. It was also found that progress in ability is not general 
 but specific. Increase in ability to draw means increase in ability to draw 
 those particular things upon which one has been practicing. 
 
 STUDY NO. 3. Thorndike, Edward L. "The measurement of achieve- 
 ment in drawing." Teachers College Record, Columbia Univ., November, 
 1913. 
 
 The pioneer effort to measure a person's ability in drawing was made by 
 Thorndike in 1913 when he constructed a scale which attempted to meas- 
 ure the child's achievement. To do this an objective scale for drawing, the 
 use of which is reasonably free from subjective judgment factors, was con- 
 structed. Rankings of 45 drawings by 376 competent judges were secured ; 
 and a scale formed from 14 selected specimens ranging by more or less 
 unequal units from zero to 17 in merit. Later this original scale was 
 extended and revised by securing the ratings of 4000 drawings by five to 
 15 judgments, together with the ratings of 303 selected drawings by 75 to 
 100 judgments. The revised scale was formed from 70 specimens ranging 
 from zero to 17 in merit. In 1922, Kline and Carey devised a more 
 elaborate scale which they revised in 1923. 
 
 STUDY NO. 4. Kline, Linus W., and Carey, Gertrude L. The Kline- 
 Garey measuring scale for freehand drawing. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins 
 Press, 1923. 
 
 Purpose. The object of the studies carried on by Kline and Carey was 
 to construct a scale which would measure drawing achievement of pupils in 
 
342 Department of Superintendence 
 
 the elementary grades. Sample drawings, 5214, were collected under 
 standard conditions upon four themes; house, rabbit, figure in action, tree, 
 from the kindergarten and twelve grades of the public school. All samples 
 were drawn by the pupils from memory. The first edition was scaled by 
 92 judges, and the steps between the samples in the scale were determined 
 by the statistical methods now applied to educational problems. The revised 
 edition No. 5a, was scaled by 152 judges, the same themes being used as in 
 the original edition. The judges were teachers and supervisors of art as 
 well as professional artists. The larger number of judges gives stability 
 to the position assigned to the samples in the scale and a high degree of 
 reliability. 
 
 Directions for using the scale are given to both pupils and teachers. Those 
 for the pupils are as follows: Move your drawing along the scale folder 
 until a sample is found that appears to match it. Read the description (a 
 critical description is printed under each sample) given below the scale 
 sample, and notice if it describes your own drawing as well. If the descrip- 
 tion does not apply so well to your own drawing, read that of the sample 
 next below in the scale and compare your drawing with this sample. Now, 
 if your drawing matches the sample and fits the description, write on your 
 drawing the number in the scale. But if the second sample and its descrip- 
 tion is not so good as the first, move your drawing to the sample that is 
 just above the first that you used and make a similar comparison. If this 
 is more satisfactory than either of the other two, write on your drawing the 
 number of the scale drawing. This number is the score of your drawing. 
 Again, should your drawing have some features that match one sample and 
 other features that match an adjacent sample give to your drawing a score 
 equal to the average of the two adjacent scale values. 
 
 Part II of the Kline-Carey scale, now ready for publication, is a scale in 
 Design and Composition, based upon some 40,000 drawings collected under 
 standard conditions from nearly all parts of the United States and scaled 
 by 54 judges, the greater number of whom are supervisors of drawing. 
 The themes comprise illustrations, designs, posters, and borders. 
 
 STUDY NO. 5. McCarty, Stella A. Children's drawings. Mount 
 Royal Avenue, Baltimore, Md., William and Wilkins, 1924. 
 
 McCarty and the Child Study Committee of the International Kinder- 
 garten Union in 1923 made a study of interests and abilities as expressed in 
 the drawings of children. Their book is the report of an investigation of 
 the drawings of children of the kindergarten, first and second grades, and 
 of the years four to eight inclusive. 
 
 Purpose. The objectives included: (1) A study of children's interests 
 as indicated by the subjects selected for drawing; (2) the construction of a 
 series of scales especially designed for the measurement of abilities in the 
 early stages of education; (3) the application of the scales as a means of 
 arriving at a number of psychological and educational inferences; and (4) 
 an investigation of the trend of development of certain aspects of technique. 
 
The Third Yearbook 343 
 
 Method. The Committee based its report on the examination of over 
 31,000 free drawings of school children of the ages and grades included 
 which were assembled from representative cities of all parts of the United 
 States. These were first examined to discover the subjects drawn, which 
 showed a range of about 1000 different ideas, a complete list of which is 
 presented showing ages and sexes. The ideas were then classified into a few 
 generic groups, from which general trends of interest might be inferred. 
 Human beings led, having been represented by sixteen per cent of all the 
 children. Then follow, in this order, houses, trees, furniture, vehicles, 
 parts of houses, animals, toys, flowers, etc. 
 
 Findings. It was found that the general tendency of selection changed 
 with age, especially by a notable increase in nature scenes and objects and 
 an equally notable decrease in drawings of human beings. While sex differ- 
 ences were not great, they appeared with some constancy. The boys had a 
 higher percentage of portrayals of historical events, adult social relations, 
 and mechanical concepts. The girls had a higher percentage of portrayals 
 of child activities, domestic life, and the more esthetic aspects of nature. 
 
 Three scales were constructed, the subjects of which were human beings, 
 houses, and compositions including trees. The scales were then used in 
 evaluating all the available drawings which were comparable to them. 
 Tentative forms were established for the several ages and grades. It was 
 found that, while average ability increases with age, there are, as in other 
 abilities, such overlappings that numbers of four year olds reach or exceed 
 the median for eight year children. In general, the ability to draw increased 
 also with psychological age : the six year old children in first grade made a 
 higher average score than those in kindergarten, etc. 
 
 Comparison of the several cities represented showed that school training 
 is responsible for much of the difference in drawing achievement. The per 
 cent of children reaching or exceeding the median for all children varied 
 from 27-8 in one city to 85-6 in another, and these differences are fairly 
 constant for the three subjects of the scales and for the three school grades 
 represented. 
 
 A correlation of drawing with general intelligence was computed by a 
 comparison of the drawing scores of 1420 children with their intelligence 
 quotients by the Stanford-Binet tests. The correlation varied considerably 
 with age, but the coefficient for the group as a whole was .35. It was found 
 that correlation was closer at the lower end of the scale, indicating that 
 some factors of general intelligence are indispensable to drawing. 
 
 The study of technique generally corroborated the findings of previous 
 investigators. Profile drawings were rare with younger children, the per 
 cent increasing from one and four tenths at four years to 32.4 at eight 
 years. The assumption that a mixed type, partly full face, partly profile, 
 is commonly transitional was not confirmed, as only about five per cent of 
 the children employed this form at any age. Outline drawing gradually 
 gave place to mass drawing, the proportion at four years being 73.9 to 25.6 
 
344 Department of Superintendence 
 
 per cent, at eight years 34.5 to 67.9 per cent. In proportion in the relative 
 size of objects, there is evidence of development from two and nine tenths 
 per cent at four years to 26.7 per cent at seven years, with a marked decline 
 at eight years. In balance, or symmetry or arrangement, there appears to 
 be little interest during these years. Perspective is also slightly in evidence 
 with no instances at four years and only one and four tenths per cent at 
 seven years. The mental retardation of the eight year children in the lower 
 primary grades is indicated by the fairly consistent decline in the scores for 
 this year in the employment of balance, proportion, and perspective, and 
 for the 8-6 group in the rating by the scales. Significant sex differences are 
 noted in the greater number of boys employing profile, proportion, and 
 perspective, and of girls employing balanced arrangement. 
 
 Findings. The McCarty study closes with a statement of certain educa- 
 tional inferences from the investigation — notably, the necessity of recogniz- 
 ing individual differences in drawing ability, as fundamental to effective 
 teaching and the equally significant necessity of recognizing that the de- 
 velopment of ability to draw is susceptible to training, is dependent upon 
 factors of enriched experience on one hand, and upon direct stimulation, 
 with judicious guidance toward technique, on the other. 
 
 STUDY NO. 6. Williams, Florence. "An investigation of children's 
 preferences for pictures." Elementary School Journal, October, 1924. 
 
 An interesting experiment to ascertain the preferences of children for 
 pictures was made in 1924 by Williams which points the way toward a 
 somewhat different kind of study which aims to determine the types of 
 pictures that children like best. The report of Miss Williams' study is the 
 account of an experiment made in the Public Art Gallery of Richmond, 
 Indiana. It is not assumed by the author of this study that sufficient data 
 were collected to form the basis of reliable conclusions as to the types of 
 pictures which children prefer. 
 
 The collection of portraits on exhibit included thirty-two oil paintings, 
 twenty-eight colored prints, and a number of miniatures, tintypes, and 
 daguerreotypes. Classes of fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grade children 
 were brought to the gallery to see the exhibit, making a total of 939 chil- 
 dren. The children were asked to look at all of the portraits carefully and 
 pick out the ones they liked best. This was to be done without communica- 
 tion on the part of the children in order to prevent one or two strong- 
 minded members of the class from influencing the vote. Each child handed 
 to the teacher a slip of paper on which he had written the catalog number 
 of the pictures he liked best. The group of miniatures, tintypes, and 
 daguerreotypes were each given one catalog number. 
 
 A second exhibition of paintings by Richmond artists included seventy- 
 four oil paintings, water colors, and pastels. Most of the artists were 
 known personally or by reputation to many of the children. However, 
 each artist exhibited more than one picture and many of the pictures were 
 not legibly signed. Therefore, it is safe to assume that each child made a 
 
The Third Yearbook 345 
 
 selection independent, to some extent, of his liking for a particular artist. 
 Fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grade children visited this exhibit and 
 followed the same procedure as was described for the exhibition of portraits. 
 
 A third exhibition of paintings by Indiana artists consisted of one hun- 
 dred oil paintings, water colors, and wood-block prints. One thousand and 
 ninety-two children visited the exhibit and voted for their favorite picture. 
 When the children visited this exhibition, the pupils in some of the classes 
 were not asked to select the picture which they liked best until after a 
 lesson was given in which the teacher tried to emphasize the merits of 
 certain pictures. Pictures numbered 15 and 98 were discussed; yet each of 
 these pictures received less than fifteen votes. Evidently, the instruction 
 had little to do with the choice of pictures. In every class, there was a 
 large vote for "Mussell Rocks," which was not mentioned in any of the 
 lessons. 
 
 Findings. Miss Williams found that there is a marked tendency for the 
 majority of children to like the same pictures. Most children show a 
 tendency to choose pictures which are examples of good painting. Chil- 
 dren like pictures of people, places, or incidents with which they are familiar. 
 Children show some interest in pictures of children. It has always 
 been assumed that children like pictures of other children, but this fact has 
 probably been exaggerated. In the portrait exhibit, the picture which 
 received the highest percentage of votes was not a picture of a child. Pictures 
 of things unfamiliar to the children, but about which they have read and 
 heard are popular. Pictures which tell a story appeal to children to some 
 extent. This is a fact which art teachers have always assumed to be true. 
 However, it may not be so great a factor in awakening appreciation for 
 pictures as has been supposed. Children like pictures in which there are a 
 few large, easily distinguished objects in the foreground. Instruction 
 influences only to a small extent a person's liking for certain pictures. A 
 study of the technique and composition or facts about the artist apparently 
 contribute little to the enjoyment of the picture. 
 
 STUDY NO. 7. Manuel, Herschel Thurman. Talent in drawing. 
 School and Home Education Monographs, No. 3. Bloomington, 111., 
 Public School Publishing Co., 1919. 
 
 In 1919, Manuel made a study of talent in drawing which contains 
 much of value to the art teacher who would direct the inclination and 
 capacity of pupils toward graphic artistic expression. The objects of this 
 study were to discover what are the essential characteristics of persons 
 talented in drawing and to determine how the test method may be used in 
 the diagnosis of talent. A number of individuals were selected for their 
 recognized talent in drawing. To these persons mental and physical tests 
 were applied, and other information of a non-experimental character, par- 
 ticularly bibliographical, was gathered from different sources. 
 
 Findings. The investigation revealed great individual differences in the 
 
346 Department of Superintendence 
 
 mental and physical characteristics of persons who are talented in drawing. 
 These were some of the findings : 
 
 1. A certain elementary ability in graphic representation, such as is required for 
 success with elementary school drawing, is independent, or partially independent, 
 of general intelligence. 
 
 2. General intelligence conditions the ability of drawers: (a) To acquire the 
 advanced technique into which conceptual factors enter; and (b) to create original 
 drawings of merit. 
 
 3. The motor ability which underlies talent for drawing is specific rather than 
 general; talent for drawing does not presuppose a general motor superiority. 
 
 4. Achievement in handwriting and ability in drawing are relatively inde- 
 pendent of each other. 
 
 5. The ability to discriminate fine differences in visual magnitudes varies in 
 persons talented in drawing. 
 
 6. Tests of memory for visual forms have value in determining the character- 
 istics of one's drawing ability; but one may have a certain ability in graphic 
 representation without a good memory for visual forms, other than the immediate 
 memory required in looking from the object to the drawing surface. 
 
 7. Quality of performance in graphic representation and quality of performance 
 in aesthetic judgment are independent, or at least partially independent variables. 
 
 8. Interest may indicate either a superior innate ability or merely a high develop- 
 ment of a rather ordinary endowment; but it is of immense practical importance 
 as an index of the energy which one is willing to expend in the development of 
 one's ability and in practical achievement. 
 
 9. There is no one psychological constitution for talent in drawing; the essential 
 characteristics vary with the type of talent possessed. 
 
 Manuel also found that the following characteristics, each an independent 
 or partially independent variable, seem closely related to ability in drawing: 
 
 1. The ability mentally to note a visual form, and by certain lines and areas, 
 to reproduce it or significant features of it 
 
 2. Ability to observe 
 
 3. Ability to select from a complex visual situation the most beautiful aspects 
 
 4. Memory of visual forms 
 
 5. Ability mentally to manipulate visual forms 
 
 6. Ability to control hand movements in accordance with visual percept or 
 image 
 
 7. Ability to invent or to bring together into new artistic combinations the 
 elements of different visual experience 
 
 8. Ability to judge the beautiful in line, form, color, and composition 
 
 9. Ability to discriminate differences in color 
 
 10. Ability t<? discriminate differences in visual magnitude 
 
 11. Acuity of vision 
 
 12. Interest in the act and products of drawing 
 
 13. General intelligence 
 
 The test method and diagnosis of drawing talent are summarized by 
 Manuel as follows: 
 
 1. A diagnosis of talent in drawing must be based upon an analysis of the, 
 talent and a measurement of the constituent psychophysical factors. 
 
 2. The following program of tests is recommended for the diagnosis of 
 talent in drawing: 
 
The Third Yearbook 347 
 
 a. Tests of the elementary ability to represent, by lines and areas, the figures 
 and objects observed 
 
 b. Tests of the ability to observe 
 
 c. Tests of ability to select from a complex, visual situation the most representa- 
 
 tive and most beautiful aspects 
 
 d. Tests of memory for visual forms 
 
 e. Tests of ability to control hand movements in accordance with visual precept 
 
 and image 
 
 f. Tests of ability mentally to manipulate visual forms 
 
 g. Tests of ability to invent, to bring together into new artistic combinations the 
 elements of different visual experiences 
 
 h. Tests of ability to judge the beautiful in line, form, color, and composition 
 
 i. Tests of ability to discriminate differences in color 
 
 j. Tests of ability to discriminate differences in visual magnitude 
 
 k. Tests of acuity of vision 
 
 1. Tests of general intelligence 
 
 3. Interpretation of the, results of the tests necessitates standards of 
 achievements with which the performance of a given individual may fairly 
 be compared. 
 
 4. Every child should be given a many-sided opportunity in drawing, and 
 an attempt should be made to develop corresponding interest. 
 
 5. Biographical and personal data of a non-experimental character should 
 be used to assist in the diagnosis of talent in drawing. 
 
 6. It is recommended that tests which are used for the purpose of estimat- 
 ing the possibilities of improvement in any given factor be conducted as 
 instructed-learning tests. 
 
 7. The measurement of many different abilities not primarily related to 
 drawing is necessary to the most effective educational and vocational use of 
 measurements of ability in drawing. 
 
 STUDY NO. 8. Gibson, Katherine. An experiment in measuring the 
 results of fifth-grade class visits to an art museum. Cleveland, Ohio, Un- 
 published Study in Files of Educational Department of Cleveland Museum 
 of Art, 1924. 
 
 Last year, Miss Katherine Gibson carried on an interesting experiment 
 in measuring the results of the visits of fifth-grade classes to the Art Museum 
 in Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Purpose. The problem was to find, if possible, the effect of art lessons 
 on three different groups of children: "X" classes, those made up of the 
 most intelligent, as measured by standard tests; "Y" classes, those of aver- 
 age intelligence; and "Z" classes, those of least intelligence. 
 
 Questions were made out in mimeographed form on seven lessons given 
 in the galleries. The subject in general was colonial art, since fifth-grade 
 classes in Cleveland have both American history and picture study. The 
 questions were given to 59 classes from 26 schools, totaling 2024 children. 
 The results were scored and statistics arranged on the basis of "X," "Y," 
 and "Z" groups ; first, as to intelligence in response to the tests ; second, on 
 the basis of home environment; and third, on racial differences. 
 
348 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Findings. The questions were answered relatively better by the "Y" 
 and "Z" children than by the "X" children. The "X" child did not score 
 high. The "Z" child scored higher than one would be led to expect from 
 other comparative studies of "X," "Y," and "Z" groups. This suggests 
 the conclusion that the child of low intelligence profits by the touch with 
 the concrete objects which he gets in museums. The "X" child evidently 
 was not offered enough chance for original thinking and sufficient richness 
 of material in the lessons given. 
 
 The experiment is being continued this year with a view to finding the 
 right type of lesson for the "X" child. Obviously the same lesson can not 
 be given to the three groups of children. Home environment and racial 
 differences, as they appeared in this experiment, were factors subordinate to 
 that of the "X," "Y," "Z" grouping — that is, to general intelligence as 
 measured by standard tests. 
 
 The studies in drawing and art appreciation that have been made help 
 the elementary teacher to provide instruction which is in some measure ap- 
 propriate both from the standpoint of the child and of the curriculum as a 
 whole. Little children draw to express themselves. Their earliest efforts 
 are scribbles meaningless to the adult. Their later drawings are more pur- 
 poseful and begin to have meaning even for the adult. Genuine art in- 
 struction can and should begin with very young children. This is most 
 often accomplished when pupils are given opportunity to draw to express 
 themselves and to interpret for themselves beautiful pictures by reading, 
 directly from the pictures, the stories that the pictures tell. Children draw- 
 ing to please themselves most often represent people, houses, trees, furni- 
 ture, vehicles, animals, toys, flowers, and other things that they love. The 
 drawings of young children always tell a story. They often show people 
 and things in action. Children prefer strongly contrasting colors to weak 
 colors of similar hue, value, or chroma. 
 
 Telling something often furnishes a motive sufficient to inspire good 
 drawing. Young children should not be required to draw from ob- 
 jects. In the elementary school, design should be stressed far more than 
 representation if the instruction is to be of any value in the field of art ap- 
 preciation. However, in the teaching of drawing as a part of the elementary 
 school subject called art, a generous supply of good pictorial reference ma- 
 terial should always be at hand. By means of this material aesthetic ideals 
 can be developed which will become standards for artistic expression and 
 selection. 
 
 In the subject of art, methods of teaching similar to those advised for 
 other elementary school subjects should be used. Opportunity should be 
 offered continually for genuine experience in purposing, planning, execut- 
 ing, and judging. Critical, fair judgment of one's own work and the work 
 of others makes for a much needed social and emotional stability. Knowing 
 how things are done, the amount of time, effort, and labor involved in pro- 
 duction makes for better social and emotional adjustment. The results and 
 
The Third Yearbook 349 
 
 conclusions of scientific investigation should be made use of in art as in 
 other phases of education. The development of tests for factual informa- 
 tion relating to art should be encouraged as well as the development of 
 tests for the measurement of skill in drawing. A distinction should be 
 made between the aesthetic phase of art instruction and the technical phase 
 that necessitates drill in execution. On the content side the subject of art 
 should be made to connect closely with the other subjects of the curriculum. 
 The project method should be used. Problem solving should play an im- 
 portant part. 
 
 There is need for careful and scientific analysis of the content of the 
 subject of art, the aims of instruction, and the principles underlying in- 
 struction in design, representation, color, construction, and lettering. If 
 these principles are applied only in drawing as a school subject, the results 
 will be unsatisfactory. The principles must be so taught as to apply to all 
 situations in order that they may function in the life of the child, and so 
 that the subject of art may contribute much to every other subject in the 
 course of study. Consequently, art education should be given an important 
 place in the normal-school training of every grade teacher, and it should 
 also be be given more emphasis in the elementary curriculum, more time, 
 and the needed equipment and supplies. 
 
 STUDY NO. 9. Riker, Olive M. Color preferences of elementary 
 school children. A master's thesis on file in the Library of the University 
 of Wisconsin. 
 
 Problem. ( 1 ) Do children prefer intense or saturated colors, or do 
 they prefer a tint or shade of those colors? 
 
 (2) In this, are there any sex differences? 
 
 (3) Is there any difference in choice as children increase in age? 
 
 (4) Is their choice affected by their environment or the locality in which 
 they live? 
 
 Method. Four colors with one tint and one shade of each were used: 
 red, blue, yellow and green, making twelve colors in all. Four charts were 
 used from which the children made their choices. On these charts no color 
 was in the same position on the chart twice, and no color was next to any 
 other color twice. This was to avoid the influences that colors have on 
 each other. The chart itself was neutral gray, 26 by 22 inches. Colored 
 papers were used, each three inches square. Each color had a black letter 
 of identification under it. 
 
 To correlate with English experiments in the same field, the child was 
 given a printed card with places for six choices. Six points were given for 
 the first choice, five for the second, four for the third and so on to the sixth, 
 which received but one point, and averages computed. 
 
 The children were questioned as follows: Which color on this chart do 
 you like best? Put on the first line the letter under the color. Similar 
 procedure followed for the remaining five choices and the same process ap- 
 
350 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 plied to the four charts. A total of 1199 elementary school children in Wis- 
 consin, including grades one to eight, were tested. 
 
 Findings. First choice was given to intense or saturated color as was 
 the second choice, red ranking first, followed closely by intense blue, with 
 a tint of red for third choice. Girls preferred a tint of red for first choice. 
 
 Summary of first choices arranged in order: 
 
 General 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 1. 
 
 Red 
 
 Red Tint 
 
 Red 
 
 2. 
 
 Blue 
 
 Blue 
 
 Blue 
 
 3. 
 
 Red Tint 
 
 Red 
 
 Green 
 
 4. 
 
 Green 
 
 Red Tint 
 
 Blue Tint 
 
 5. 
 
 Blue Tint 
 
 Green 
 
 Red Shade 
 
 6. 
 
 Red Shade 
 
 Red Shade 
 
 Blue Tint 
 
 7. 
 
 Blue Shade 
 
 Green Tint 
 
 Blue Shade 
 
 8. 
 
 Green Tint 
 
 Blue Shade (7) 
 
 Green Shade 
 
 9. 
 
 Green Shade 
 
 Green Shade 
 
 Green Tint 
 
 10. 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellow 
 
 11. 
 
 Yellow Tint 
 
 Yellow Tint 
 
 Yellow Tint 
 
 12. 
 
 Yellow Shade 
 
 Yellow Shade 
 
 Yellow Shade 
 
 (11) 
 
 Answering the questions included in the statement of the problem : 
 
 (1) In the first eight grades, children seem to show an inclination 
 towards the saturated colors. 
 
 (2) There seems to be a slight desire for girls to like more tints and 
 shades than do the boys. 
 
 (3) With changing age, there seems to be a steady change of choice. 
 Red is constant for boys with a tint of red remaining with the girls. Both 
 boys and girls show a steady increase in favor of blue. A tint of blue 
 shows an increase with girls, but a slight decrease with boys. The shade 
 of blue seems to be unpopular with boys of all ages and shows a steady de- 
 cline in favor with girls. Boys and girls have a growing appreciation for 
 green. Appreciation for tints of green decline accompanied by a growing 
 desire for green shades. Yellow remains constant with girls but drops 
 with boys. A tint of yellow shows an upward trend with both boys and 
 girls. Children in the lower grades indicate a slight preference for pale 
 colors. 
 
 (4) Social conditions were marked by decided changes in the color 
 preferences. 
 
 STUDY NO. io. Stewart, Lillian V. The correlation of drawing and 
 handwritinff. An unpublished thesis on file in the library of the University 
 of Wisconsin. 1922. 
 
 Problem. Since it seems that writing has developed through the chan- 
 nels of drawing, and because a child follows the course of primitive man 
 in his learning process, the question naturally follows whether there is any 
 
The Third Yearbook 351 
 
 direct relation between the drawing act and the writing act, and con- 
 versely if he writes poorly will he draw poorly? The following ques- 
 tions were considered : 
 
 1. Does large freehand drawing have the advantage of establishing a poise and 
 muscular control which will facilitate the acquisition of penmanship? 
 
 2. Will drawing give fundamental muscles the development needed for writing? 
 
 3. Should the child learn to draw and write at the same time or would it profit 
 him to learn the former first? 
 
 4. Does drawing which is healthful and hygenic prepare in an easy and nat- 
 ural way for the more exacting task of writing? 
 
 5. Do the habits of neatness, care in execution, and good forms established in 
 drawing aid in the teaching of writing? 
 
 6. Is there any sex difference in the ability to draw? In the ability to write? 
 
 Method. Test in Grade One. Pencils and paper were passed and the 
 following preliminary statement was made: "Today we are going to have 
 a new writing game. I shall read some sentences to you. You will write 
 them as nicely as you can, but instead of writing the last word, draw a 
 picture." A typical sentence begins: This is a bird. 
 
 In Grade Two. The sentences increased in difficulty while two pictures 
 drawn from memory accompanied each sentence, as "I saw a (boy) play- 
 ing (ball)." In grades three and four each pupil was given a sheet of 
 paper upon which were drawn geometric figures. They were given 
 drawing paper and told to reproduce these figures as nearly like the copy 
 as they could. A writing sample accompanied each drawing. The tests 
 for grades five, six and seven, excepting increasingly difficult drawings to 
 reproduce, including vase and other forms, were similar to grades three 
 and four. 
 
 Scoring. The rank method as recommended by Fred C. Ayer in his 
 Psychology of drawing was adopted, necessitating a careful comparison of 
 the drawings and arranging them in the order of ability shown in each. 
 The same plan was used for ranking the writing ability. The average and 
 chance differences were estimated by the Ayre's formula. The numerical 
 value of the correlation was found by the use of Pierson's method adapted 
 to rank differences. 
 
 Findings. From the coefficients worked out, the obvious conclusion is 
 that a direct, positive correlation exists between drawing and writing, 
 higher in the lower than in the upper grades. In the lower grades, the de- 
 gree of correlation is higher among the boys than among the girls while in 
 the higher grades the reverse is true. 
 
 It has been noted that the young child displays excess muscular activity 
 while attempting to write, but if the same child is watched while he 
 draws, these movements are absent. It is because his drawing is large and 
 free. It would therefore appear to be a good plan to train the hand through 
 drawing and develop a steadiness of attention and sureness of eye before 
 teaching writing, which involves very complex and finely coordinated move- 
 ments. Meumann advocates that little writing should be done when the 
 
352 Department of Superintendence 
 
 child first begins, and that little should be acquired as unconsciously as 
 possible. However, the child should be allowed to express himself freely 
 on large surfaces in drawing. Drawing is healthful and hygienic and pre- 
 pares in a natural and easy way for the more exacting task of writing. 
 
 It would profit the child to learn to draw first because the large free 
 work he does in drawing will make the more difficult task of writing easier 
 to acquire. 
 
 If the correlation is direct and positive as between the abilities to write 
 and to draw, then training in the essential habits of neatness, care and ob- 
 servation for drawing must be factors in that correlation since they are 
 dominant factors in the ability to draw well. 
 
 Bibliography — Studies in Art 
 
 Ayer, Fred C. Psychology of drawing with special reference to laboratory teach- 
 ing. Baltimore, Warwick and York, 1916. 
 
 Bach, R. F. "Art in industry illustrated." School Arts Magazine, January, 1924. 
 
 Bailey, Henry Turner. Art education. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. 
 
 Barnes, Earl. "Study of children's drawings." Pedagogical Seminary, December, 
 1893. 
 
 Beard, Florence. "Beauty in education." School Arts Magazine, October, 1922. 
 
 Bennett, C. A. "Art training that will function." Industrial Education Magazine, 
 December, 1923. 
 
 Boas, Belle. Art in the school. New York, Doubleday, Page Co., 1924. 
 
 Bonser, Frederick G. "Some educational deductions from the art of the great 
 periods." Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 
 1908. 
 
 The elementary school curriculum. New York, Macmillan C°-> 1920. 
 
 Bonser, Frederick G., and Mossman, L. C. Industrial arts for elementary schools. 
 New York, Macmillan Co., 1923. 
 
 Brown, Elmer Ellsworth. Notes on children's drawings. Univ. of California, 1897. 
 
 Clark, A. B. The child's attitude toward perspective problems. Stanford Univ., 
 Studies in Education. 
 
 Cooke, Ebenezer. "Art teaching and child nature." London, Journal of Educa- 
 tion, 1885. 
 
 De Garmo, Charles, and Winslow, L. L. Essentials in design. New York, Mac- 
 millan Co., 1924. 
 
 Dewey, John. "Culture and professionalism in education." School and Society, 
 October 13, 1923. 
 
 Dobbs, Ella Victoria. Illustrative handwork for elementary school subjects. New 
 York, Macmillan Co., 1917. 
 
 Dow, Arthur W. Theory and practice of teaching art. Teachers College, Colum- 
 bia University, 1912. 
 
 Edgerton, A. H. "Industrial arts in our elementary schools." Peoria, 111., In- 
 dustrial Education Magazine, 1922. 
 
 Farnum, Royal Bailey. Art education. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1923, 
 No. 13. 
 
 Present status of drawing and art in the elementary and secondary 
 
 schools of the United States. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1914, No. 13. 
 
 Gibson, Katherine. An experiment in measuring the results of fifth grade class 
 •visits to an art museum. Cleveland, Ohio, Unpublished Study in Files of 
 Educational Department of Cleveland Museum of Art, 1924. 
 
 Haney, James Parton. "Art education in the public schools of the United States." 
 New York, American Art Annual, 1908. 
 
The Third Yearbook 353 
 
 Howells, W. D. A little girl among the old masters. Boston, J. R. Osgood and 
 
 Co., 1884. 
 Kline, Linus W., and Carey, Gertrude L. The Kline-Carey measuring scale for 
 
 freehand drawing. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1923. 
 Lukens, H. T. "A study of children's drawing." The Pedagogical Seminary, 
 
 October, 1896. 
 Major, David R. First steps in mental growth. New York, Macmillan Co., 1906. 
 Manuel, Herschel Thurman. Talent in drawing. School and Home Education 
 
 Monographs, No. 3. Bloomington, 111., Public School Publishing Co., 1919. 
 Mathias, Margaret E. The beginnings of art in the public schools. New York, 
 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, 1924. 
 McCarty, Stella A. Children's drawings. Mount Royal Avenue, Baltimore, Md., 
 
 William and Wilkins, 1924. 
 Niles, Helen R. "Aesthetic appreciation and intelligence." School Arts Magazine, 
 
 June, 1924. 
 O'Shea, M. V. The child, his nature and his needs. Valparaiso, Indiana, The 
 
 Children's Foundation, 1924. 
 Riker, Olive M. Color preferences of elementary school children. An unpublished 
 
 thesis on file in the Library of University of Wisconsin. 
 Russell, James E., and Bonser, Frederick G. Industrial education.' Teachers Col- 
 lege, Columbia Univ., 1912. 
 Sargent, Walter. "Problems in the experimental pedagogy of drawing." Journal 
 
 of Educational Psychology, 1912. 
 Instruction in art in the United States. U. S. Bureau of Education, 
 
 Bulletin 1918, No. 43. 
 and Miller, Elizabeth E. How children learn to draw. Boston, Ginn 
 
 and Co., 1916. 
 Stewart, Lillian V. The correlation of drawing and handwriting. An unpub- 
 lished thesis on file in the Library of University of Wisconsin, 1922. 
 Thorndike, Edward L. "The measurement of achievement in drawing." Teachers 
 
 College Record, Columbia Univ., November, 1913. 
 Welling, Jane Betsy. "School art and the department store." Everyday Art Mag- 
 
 agine, June, 1924. 
 
 Social and industrial studies. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott, 1923. 
 
 Suggestions on art education for elementary schools. U. S. Bureau of 
 
 Education, Industrial Education Circular, No. 21, October, 1923. 
 Whitford, W. J. "A brief history of art education in the United States." Elemen- 
 tary School Journal, October, 1923. 
 Williams, Florence. "An investigation of children's preferences for pictures." 
 
 Elementary School Journal, October, 1924. 
 Winslow, Leon L. "The art education we need." Educational Review, 1923. 
 Organization and Teaching of Art. Baltimore, Warwick and York, 
 
 1925. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 Jacob Kwalwasser, Head of Department of Public School Music, State University 
 of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, Chairman 
 
 Suggested Major Problems in the Formation of the Curriculum in Music 
 
 1. What standards of achievement in music should sixth-grade children 
 
 meet? 
 
 2. To what extent should the course of study in music recognize indi- 
 
 vidual differences? Should there be uniform curricular require- 
 ments for all students? 
 
 3. Should the course of study in music be built upon music as a science or 
 
 music as an art? 
 
 4. To what extent should makers of courses of study recognize the sensory 
 
 handicaps and variations in children? Should a special curriculum 
 be devised for selected groups? 
 
 5. When shall the teaching of music as a science begin in the elementary 
 
 schools ? 
 
 6. How shall a course of study in music provide for training in musical 
 
 appreciation and memorization? 
 
 7. To what extent shall scientific testing and standardization be a factor 
 
 in the making of a course of study in music ? 
 
 8. What time allotment should be considered in making a course of 
 
 study in music? 
 
 9. In what form should the course of study be prepared: printed book, 
 
 leaflets, special bulletins? 
 
 10. Has assembly singing a place in every course of study? 
 
 11. To what extent should technical exercise, in distinction from songs, be 
 
 used in a course of study? 
 
 12. Most effective methods of training monotones? 
 
 13. Should music be approached through rhythm? What place should 
 
 rhythm work have in the music curriculum ? 
 
 "The art of music and the graphic and plastic arts are far behind other academic 
 subjects in the attempt to apply the scientific method to their problem of subject 
 matter, theory and pedagogy. This is due to two principal causes: first, that the 
 typical artistic mind is seldom interested in the scientific aspect of the art; and 
 second, that these arts have not yet been thoroughly stabilized and assigned their 
 proper places in the public school curriculum. To this should be added the fact 
 that even today the real artist and musician are primarily engrossed in the art 
 interest and leave to the pedagog and educational administrator, such as the 
 supervisor of art and music, the task of effecting pedagogical adjustments. 
 
 "Because of the extravagant claims made by enthusiasts for music education, 
 and their indiscriminate attempts to force a flat universal music requirement upon 
 every child in the public schools regardless of his innate capacities or abilities to 
 profit by such education, the wholesome growth of music in the public schools has 
 been seriously impeded. Little wonder that many leaders in the field of education 
 
 [354] 
 
The Third Yearbook 355 
 
 have shown indifference and even hostility at times, to some of the naive claims 
 made for music education. 
 
 "In attempting to apply the scientific procedure to the content and pedagogy of 
 music, the pioneer faces the attitude of indifference on the part of educational ad- 
 ministrators ; aloofness and suspicion on the part of creative musicians; and 
 amused tolerance on the part of the school music supervisor. As a result, the 
 meager contributions which have been made, have fallen as crumbs from the 
 tables of other interests, such as psychology of individual differences, and the 
 psychology of music." — Carl E. Seashore. 
 
 Experimental Studies in Music Education 
 
 Probably more scientific work has been done on problems 1, 2, 4, and 7, 
 than upon any others in public school music education. Little or no work 
 of a scientific nature has been done on the other problems listed. It is 
 necessary, therefore, that this report be limited to a discussion and critical 
 evaluation of those experimental studies which have a bearing on the prob- 
 lems enumerated. 
 
 I. Measurement of Talent 
 
 A. The Seashore measures of musical talent. 1 — Probably the most 
 epoch-making work in the history of music education is that of Seashore 
 and his associates in the State University of Iowa on the analysis and 
 measurement of musical talent. On the sensory side, musicianship is ana- 
 lyzed into its irreducible elements. For each of these elements, such as the 
 sense of pitch, the sense of rhythm, etc., specific quantitative measurements 
 are devised. 
 
 These tests make it possible for us to discover the exact musical nature 
 of the child. They make it possible for the teacher to conserve musical 
 talent. With the aid of these tests, music education may now be adapted to 
 utilize the child's innate capacities. The tests reveal the magnitude of in- 
 dividual differences in endowment. If the teacher realizes fully the signifi- 
 cance of these differences, it will enable her to give each child a musical 
 opportunity commensurate with his actual capacity. In order to facilitate 
 the discussion of this work, it may be divided advantageously and treated 
 under three headings — namely, value to the child, value to the teacher, 
 and value to the schools. 
 
 1. Value to the child — (a) The Seashore Measures of Musical Talent 
 tests may be used for the discovery of talent hitherto unrecognized and un- 
 developed. The measures referred to are the sense of pitch, time, intensity, 
 consonance, rhythm, and tonal memory. Frequently, the possessor of talent 
 in music is entirely unaware of its presence and therefore may make no ef- 
 
 1 This review is based upon C. E. Seashore's Psychology of musical talent and 
 numerous articles such as Recent progress in the psychology of musical talent. 
 Music Teachers' National Conference Proceedings, 1920. "A survey of musical 
 talent in public schools," Studies in Child Welfare, Vol. I, No. 2, "Avocational 
 guidance in music," Journal of Applied Psychology, December, 1917, Vol. 1, pp. 
 342-348. 
 
356 Department of Superintendence 
 
 fort to develop it. Investigations reveal that children are not always given 
 music lessons because they are gifted. No defense need be made for the 
 proposition that to the talented should go the opportunities for musical edu- 
 cation and development. 
 
 (b) The tests show the magnitude of individual differences. It is er- 
 roneously assumed that musical endowments are fairly equally distributed. 
 There is an enormous difference in the musical capacities of individuals, 
 as is revealed by these tests. In the same pitch alone, for example, it is the 
 common experience of examiners to find children in the average schoolroom 
 who have one hundred times more sensitiveness in this specific capacity than 
 the poorer members of the class. What is true of the sense of pitch is true 
 of the other five capacities. 
 
 (c) They reveal deficiencies that may or may not be suspected. A child 
 may be entirely unaware of the exact nature of his musical make-up, and 
 discover after much painful experience that his musical disabilities are such 
 as to disqualify him for music study. This condition could have been re- 
 vealed instantly by testing. 
 
 (d) These tests may reveal ear defects that may need immediate atten- 
 tion. The writer's experience with a boy in high school seems apropos. The 
 boy was a violinist and reported to both the orchestra and the harmony class. 
 He held a responsible position in the orchestra and filled it capably, 
 but his sense of hearing that originally controlled his finger movements 
 was substituted by kinaesthesis and motor imagery. His intonation was ap- 
 parently as good as it had ever been, but his ears were not functioning. 
 The test revealed that his hearing was equal to that of the lowest five per 
 cent. A medical examination followed. Treatment restored the hearing 
 that might have been lost, had it not been detected in its early stages. 
 
 (e) These tests may aid the pupil in selecting an instrument. It often 
 happens that a child gets an obsession for an instrument for which he is en- 
 tirely unsuited by nature. Such an undertaking always results in great dis- 
 appointment for the child and a changed attitude toward music thereafter. 
 It is patent that a child with a low pitch discrimination is disqualified 
 from studying the string instruments, where fine discrimination is con- 
 stantly demanded. This obstacle may not hinder the child as much if he 
 can be persuaded to study an instrument that does not involve so much 
 auditory sensitivity. 
 
 2. Value to the teacher — (a) The Seashore tests may aid the teacher in 
 adapting the training in music to the nature of the child. It must be re- 
 membered that nothing that the teacher may attempt to do can create 
 musical talent where it does not exist. The music teacher may only utilize 
 it where it is found. This musical axiom does not seem to be very well 
 understood. It is as impossible for the teacher to create talent as it was 
 for the alchemist to transmute the baser metals into gold. The teacher 
 should know the proficiencies and deficiencies of each child in order to 
 best develop each individual. 
 
The Third Yearbook 357 
 
 (b) They may serve the teacher as placement tests. Public school music 
 as it is administered today is oblivious to the fact that all' children are not 
 equally endowed, and often a bright child who has done little or no work 
 is commended for his accomplishment, whereas the dullard who has worked 
 up to his highest level of achievement, but who has not attained what his 
 more gifted classmate attained, is roundly censured. The difficulty is at- 
 tributable to the fact that the music groups are not homogeneous in respect 
 to their capacities or accomplishment. Some way must be found to take 
 care of the superior in music. The superior child is often retarded, because 
 the music instruction, designed as it is to educate the inferiors in the class, 
 is not sufficiently ambitious to make the superior work. If children were 
 grouped according to their innate capacity and ability to achieve, much 
 more progress could be made with music instruction in the public schools. 
 
 (c) These tests may be employed by the teacher as a check on what the 
 child is doing and what the child is capable of doing. This would aid the 
 teacher in discovering those who are working and those who are not apply- 
 ing themselves. Such a procedure would aid in replacing a very inade- 
 quate system of grading by a more adequate one. 
 
 3. Value to the school — There can be no doubt that music education 
 can be facilitated and made more effectual and economical by the employ- 
 ment of talent and accomplishment tests. We are in the midst of a cam- 
 paign to universalize musical education. This campaign gives music to 
 larger and larger numbers of unfit and tends to underrate and neglect the 
 gifted. It is not the purpose of the writer to speak disparagingly about 
 the attempts of educators to universalize the teaching of music, but it is 
 necessary to show that this movement has resulted in maladjustment and 
 great economic waste. 
 
 It is recommended that the measures of music talent be introduced in 
 the fifth grade first, for this is the earliest age for which music talent test- 
 ing can be made satisfactorily, and it is early enough to make serious ar- 
 rangements for a musical education. The tests should then be repeated 
 again in the eighth grade, just before the great sorting of children into vo- 
 cations of practical life, and into elective courses in high school. 
 
 Brief as this review is, it nevertheless gives the reader some idea of the 
 scope and value of talent testing. Already educators are beginning to ask to 
 Avhat extent the sensory handicaps and variations of children should be 
 recognized in making courses of study. As music education is being ad- 
 ministered today, little or no attention is given to this condition, but as 
 educators realize more and more the magnitude and significance of indi- 
 vidual differences, special courses of study in music will be devised for 
 the more homogeneous groups, and uniform curricular requirements for all 
 grade school children will be a thing of the past. 
 
 B. Revesz tests — The following paragraphs, taken from "Recent lit- 
 erature on the psychology of the musician," by Max Schoen, 1 review the 
 
 1 Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 18, No. 9, September, 1921. 
 
358 Department of Superintendence 
 
 works of Revesz, Schiissler, and Pannenborg. These men have made 
 significant contributions to the psychology of the musical mind. 
 
 "In 1913, Revesz made a preliminary report on an analysis of a boy 
 especially gifted musically, but it was not until 1916 that the full report 
 appeared, and not until 1920 that he published an inventory of musicalness 
 based on his study of the boy prodigy. The problems with which Revesz 
 concerns himself in the 1920 study are: 1. Can a method be devised which 
 will identify the musical mind before the beginning of instruction, even in 
 cases less exceptional than that of the boy examined? 2. Could such a 
 method be applied to adults and to the musically trained? His aim, then, 
 was to find a method of identifying the musical, adapted to children and 
 adults, and to the musically trained and untrained. For this purpose he 
 devised eight tests, based upon musical and acoustical factors, and gave these 
 to 63 boys and girls from seven to twelve years of age. The tests are as 
 follows: 1. The rhythmic sense. Twelve rhythmic groups were arranged 
 in order of difficulty. In the first part of the test the rhythms were pre- 
 sented monotonically and the children were asked to reproduce the rhythm 
 with handclaps. In the second part of the test the same rhythmic forms 
 were presented melodically and a like response was called for from the chil- 
 dren. 2. Absolute pitch. For the second test the experimenter sounded a 
 tone on the piano and the observers were called upon to reproduce the 
 tone on the instrument. 3. Octave recognition and transposition. This 
 test Revesz found too easy for his observers. 4. Relative pitch. He first 
 produced an interval and then sounded any tone on the piano and asked 
 the child to reproduce vocally the given interval, with the new tone for its 
 basis. 5 and 6. The harmonic sense. In these tests the children were 
 asked to reproduce vocally the constituent tones of chords. 7 and 8. 
 Melodic memory and playing by ear. The seventh test deals with memory 
 for melody, and the eighth with the ability to play by ear a known tune. 
 
 "Revesz assumed the vocal reproduction of a melody to have the greatest 
 diagnostic value, and by correlating the other tests with the seventh test, 
 he concluded that the sense of rhythm does not possess great musical 
 significance, but that the spontaneous instrumental reproduction of a known 
 melody, absolute pitch, vocal transposition of an interval, and also the 
 ability to analyze simultaneous intervals, are characteristic manifestations 
 of musicalness. Revesz's investigation has two great merits — his inventory 
 has an empirical basis, and his test material has musical significance. The 
 number of his observers was too small, however, for the establishment of 
 norms. 
 
 "In his study on the earliest appearance of talent, Revesz claims that 
 musical talent necessarily makes its appearance in early youth; at first 
 appears technical equipment, or virtuosity, later, power of interpretation, 
 and then creative power. An examination of the great composers shows 
 that the full development of the creative powers is reached ' between the 
 twentieth and thirtieth years. 
 
The Third Yearbook 359 
 
 "Several briefer studies are available that help to throw light upon 
 specific factors in the more extensive treatments of Revesz and Seashore. 
 Schiissler attempts to account for the unmusical child in a paper based upon 
 historical and statistical material. In the first part of the paper, he reviews 
 briefly the works of Billroth, Max Meyer, Stumpf, Von Meyer, Rupp, 
 Revesz, and several others, as well as the contributions of the anatomical 
 and physiological bases of musicalness. His own contribution consists of 
 a statistical examination of two hundred unmusical children, the criterion 
 for unmusicalness being attainment of a certain grade in school singing. 
 Schiissler's conclusions, based upon the historical review and his statistical 
 data, are as follows: 1. There are between five and ten per cent of un- 
 musical people. The majority of the unmusical, if not all, are not beyond 
 profiting by musical instruction, and should, therefore, not be neglected, 
 but rather given well-planned and intensive instruction. 2. For musical 
 or unmusical capacity, interval memory is of greatest significance. 3. 
 Absolute pitch is of significance only for outstanding musical gift. The 
 unmusical, as compared with the musical, are as a whole less gifted than 
 the musical, i.e., they are not only inferior musically, but also in other 
 mental capacities. 4, Forty-one per cent of the unmusical, fifty-seven per 
 cent of the half musical, and seventy-nine per cent of the musical, make 
 satisfactory progress in school. The school work of the musical is fifteen 
 per cent superior to that of the unmusical. 
 
 "Schiissler's findings on the relation between intelligence and musical- 
 ness are in accord with those of Stumpf, who found that musical children 
 are, as a whole, better students than the unmusical. 
 
 "The Pannenborgs examined 3860 children, 423 musicians, and the 
 biographies of twenty-one composers in an attempt to derive the intellectual 
 and emotional characteristics of the musician. Their conclusions agree 
 with those of Schiissler and Stumpf. Of all the children, 342 boys and 152 
 girls were designated as musical. The musical children were advanced in 
 their school work beyond their years, while the musician was found to have 
 extensive intellectual interests and to be widely gifted, particularly in 
 languages, literature, history, geography, mathematics, natural history, and 
 drawing." 
 
 II. Rhythm and Training 
 
 Great interest has been shown recently in rhythmic training. For years 
 it had no place whatever in our schools, but now it is being stressed by most 
 music teachers and supervisors, as being basic. Music, they claim, must be 
 approached through rhythm. Dalcroze believes that an individual may be 
 made musical by rhythmic training. Absurd as this claim is, it is shared by 
 many music educators. But does rhythmic training improve one's sense of 
 rhythm? This question can be answered only by experimental investiga- 
 tion. In 1923, Miss Naomi Klauer undertook to study the effect of 
 training on the sense of rhythm. 1 The Seashore Rhythm Test was given 
 
 The effect of training in rhythm upon rhythmic discrimination in the inter- 
 mediate grades, Thesis, State University of Iowa. 
 
360 Department of Superintendence 
 
 to seventy-five children in grades four, five, and six. This was followed by 
 intensive rhythmic drill for a period of two months, in which every defen- 
 sible rhythmic device was used. 
 
 Such exercises as marching to music ; beating time, by swinging the arms 
 synchronously with a beat ; breathing in such a way as to maintain a con- 
 currence between beats and inhalation of breath ; clapping the hands so as 
 to give the child tactual, kinaesthetic, auditory and visual experience ; tap- 
 ping out some of the actual rhythms found in the rhythm test; rhythmic 
 exercises in discrimination ; these and many more were used in an attempt 
 to give the child as rich an experience in rhythm as could be afforded. The 
 average gain in the second scores over the first was found to be 3.4 per 
 cent. 
 
 Seventy-five intermediate grade school children in another school were 
 tested twice in a period of three days without any intervening rhythmic 
 training in order to ascertain the maximal effect of improvement due to 
 the repetition of the test alone. The average gain for these three grades 
 was found to be 3.9 per cent. 
 
 Miss Klauer concludes that "this capacity is relatively fixed. The chil- 
 dren remained substantially where they were, in spite of the intensive 
 rhythmic drill to which they were subjected. In this sense, as in the 
 other basic music senses, the music educator must be cognizant of the extent 
 and magnitude of individual differences. Furthermore, the teacher must 
 know definitely the amount of the capacity possessed by each child and 
 devise a program of procedure that will make it possible for each child and 
 realize all that he can on the rhythmic endowment he possesses." 
 
 A. Rhythm and Past Musical Training 
 
 In order to ascertain the influence of past training, on the sense of rhythm, 
 DeGraff x measured 464 university sophomores, part of whom had had 
 training and part of whom had had no training. Each individual was 
 asked to record the number of half hour lessons he had taken in music. 
 The scores of the trained were then correlated with the scores of the 
 untrained in an attempt to show statistically the influence of music train- 
 ing. The Seashore Rhythm Test was used in this study. The mean of 
 the trained scores was found to be 75.50 while the mean of the untrained 
 group was 75.51, which gives the trained group no advantage. That is, 
 the sense of rhythm is more or less innate. Those who have it may utilize 
 it in their music study, but those who are devoid of any great amount of it 
 do not acquire it by training. 
 
 III. Musical Accomplishment Testing 2 
 
 The Kwalwasser-Ruch musical accomplishment test — This test was de- 
 vised last year by the writer in collaboration with Professor Giles M. 
 
 1 DeGraff, Mrs. L. H. Norms on the sensitiveness to rhythm, Thesis, State Uni- 
 versity of Iowa. , 
 
 Kwalwasser, J. "Scientific tests and measurements applied to music," Music 
 Supervisors Journal, May, 1924. 
 
The Third Yearbook 361 
 
 Ruch. This test measures musical knowledge acquired from the fourth to 
 the twelfth grade inclusive. A thorough analysis was made of the most 
 representative courses of study in music in the United States, in order to 
 ascertain the nature of the material to be included in such a test. Ten 
 subjects were derived from the analysis of these courses of study, and a 
 test measuring each formulated. They are : 
 
 1. Knowledge of musical symbols and terms. 
 
 2. Recognition of syllable names from the staff notation. 
 
 3. Detection of pitch errors in the notation of a familiar melody. 
 
 4. Recognition of time errors in the notation of a familiar melody. 
 
 5. Knowledge of pitch or letter names of base and treble notes. 
 
 6. Knowledge of time signatures. 
 
 7. Knowledge of principal major and minor keys. 
 
 8. Knowledge of note values and their symbols. 
 
 9. Knowledge of rest values and their symbols. 
 
 10. Recognition of ten familiar melodies from the notation alone. 
 
 All of the accomplishment tests in music are group tests and as such 
 furnish us with a convenient method of ascertaining what has been 
 achieved in music by the individual, the grade, or the school as compared 
 with other individuals, grades, and schools. The author states that the 
 standardized test is, at the present time, one of the best aids the music 
 teacher can employ to raise the standards of school music. 
 
 What constitutes sixth-grade achievement in music? How does sixth- 
 grade differ from fifth or eighth grade achievement ? Is fifth-grade achieve- 
 ment in music the same all over the United States or do we find what is 
 achieved in the fifth grade in one school attained in the third grade else- 
 where? These questions and many others may be answered by applying 
 a reliable test to the different grades. With the aid of norms, the music 
 supervisor may easily discover how her particular group compares with 
 groups of the same age and grade elsewhere and, by the same token, whether 
 the instruction she is giving is superior or inferior to that given elsewhere. 
 Scores of a reliable test have definite meaning and permit of definite com- 
 parisons. Those needing special training may be discovered and weak 
 points in the music course detected. Remedial methods may then be applied 
 in an effort to bring the music work up to the level of attainment indicated 
 by the norms. 
 
 Accomplishment tests 1 may help to improve the standards of music and 
 music instruction in our schools. They show objectively both progress and 
 retardation. They aid the teacher in giving her adequate knowledge of 
 what the individuals have accomplished. Above all, the exceptional student 
 may be discovered and given an opportunity to develop commensurate with 
 his endowments. It is to the credit of the music educators of this country 
 that they are encouraging and fostering scientific testing in their subject. 
 
 1 Other music accomplishment tests, now available, are the Beach, Mosher, Gil* 
 dersleve, Torgerson, and Hutchinson. 
 
362 Department of Superintendence 
 
 B. Sight-singing Testing 
 
 Early last year, a sight-singing test by E. K. Hillbrand, professor of edu- 
 cation, Dakota Wesleyan University, appeared which was the first attempt 
 to measure objectively, the ability of the intermediate grade school child to 
 translate musical symbols into sounds. This test attempts not only to deter- 
 mine one's proficiency as a sight-singer but also to diagnose difficulties in the 
 deficient performance. The test is an individual test, for according to the 
 author "group tests in sight-singing are impracticable." 
 
 The test contains six short songs. The pupil is permitted to study the 
 songs a few minutes and then is asked to sing them, without any help or 
 accompaniment. Each pupil is tested singly in a quiet room. The various 
 errors made by the pupil while singing are recorded on a copy of the songs. 
 
 Aside from the fact that this test is an individual one and requires too 
 much time to give, it is difficult to score. This test, however, does suggest 
 a procedure that is important for the future of public school music. Sight- 
 singing is a most important part of the music course, yet this is the first 
 attempt to measure objectively sight-singing proficiency. It is conceivable 
 that within the next few years a number of good group sight-singing tests 
 will be produced. 
 
 C. Music Appreciation Testing 
 
 Probably the most elusive trait to measure is one's appreciation of music 
 No one has yet succeeded in measuring the aesthetic response to music 
 successfully. Two Courtis Standard Research Tests on music attempt to 
 measure one's ability to associate experimental facts with music — an ability 
 which may be entirely foreign to genuine music appreciation. The first 
 test measures one's ability to associate life activities with music in which the 
 rhythm predominates, and is incorrectly called "Recognition of Charac- 
 teristic Rhythms." The second test measures one's ability to recognize 
 "Mood from Melody." It has long been a fad in teaching music apprecia- 
 tion, to give every composition presented in the course, a program. Many 
 of these programs are manufactured for the occasion and have no integral 
 relationship to the music presented. This method may stimulate the 
 imagination, but it evokes a response that may be extraneous to the in- 
 tention of the composer. The ability to describe or name a composition is 
 no index of one's appreciation of music. 
 
 Under the title "Scales for Measuring Judgment of Orchestral Music," 
 M. R. Trabue reports an interesting investigation on musical "taste." 1 Mr. 
 Mohler planned the investigation and completed the field work in 1920. 
 Phonograph records of sixteen different musical compositions were used. 
 The "relative merits of these compositions were judged by expert musicians 
 and other intelligent adults, and each composition was assigned a numerical 
 value designating its comparative worth. The test was administered in 
 
 1 Journal of Educational Psychology, December, 1923. 
 
The Third Yearbook 363 
 
 such a manner that the individuals detecting the smallest differences in 
 general merit received the highest scores. 
 
 The most significant finding of this study was "that the characteristics 
 measured by these tests are easily improved by training. There seems to 
 be an unusually large opportunity for improvement of taste for orchestral 
 music through musical training and experience. In almost every case, the 
 group that received training increased its median score ten or more times 
 as much as the untrained group. 
 
 In concluding this report, Trabue presents statistical evidence on the rela- 
 tionship of ability measured by these scales, and general academic ability. 
 The coefficient of correlation between the musical judgment scores and the 
 mental ability scores, based on 39 cases was only .16, although the quad- 
 rant of the correlation, table indicating low academic ability and high 
 musical judgment, contained but one individual. He concludes, therefore, 
 that one must have a sufficient amount of academic ability to make 70 points 
 on the Miller ability test before he can learn to judge orchestral music 
 successfully, but that high general academic ability does not at all imply 
 high ability to judge orchestral music. 
 
 While the results of this study are significant in themselves, the impor- 
 tant contribution of this investigation is in its method of attacking a most 
 difficult problem, that of aesthetic response. 
 
 IV. Curriculum Practices in Junior High School and Grades 5 and 6 1 
 
 This authoritative work covers the curriculum practices of fourteen edu- 
 cational centers. No effort was made to test the results achieved in the 
 fourteen school systems. The report arrives at one perfectly clear conclu- 
 sion — namely, that "the periods of time devoted in various school systems 
 to a given subject of instruction and to sub-divisions of that subject are im- 
 pressively different. The scientific determination of the results of teaching 
 is leading in all of these centers to a scientific evaluation of the materials 
 of instruction. A scientific analysis of the materials of teaching must in 
 turn lead to an analysis of the objectives of instruction. If objectives are 
 to be scientifically established, they must be based upon a scientific study 
 of the needs of pupils as revealed in modern society and of the skills, abili- 
 ties and attitudes conditioning useful citizenship." 
 
 In averaging the number of minutes a week allotted to each constant by 
 the fourteen school systems, it appears that less time is spent on music than 
 on any other junior high school subject. Seventy minutes is spent on music 
 in the seventh, sixty-seven in the eighth and seventy-three in the ninth 
 grade. The average proportional allotment of the school week to the con- 
 stants of the curriculum in the fourteen school systems for the junior high 
 school reveals that only 4.3 per cent of the school time is devoted to music 
 
 1 Glass, J. M. Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 25, November. 
 1924, Univ. of Chicago. 
 
364 Department of Superintendence 
 
 in the seventh grade, 4.0 per cent in the eighth and 4.4 per cent in the ninth 
 grade. 
 
 How to make a curriculum} by Franklin Bobbitt, contains much evidence 
 of a tendency to ascertain the social values of music. "Music electives are, 
 therefore, entering the program of studies as club activities, as major elec- 
 tives in a fine arts curriculum, and as electives supplementary to other 
 major electives or as additional enrichment courses for pupils who can 
 carry extra work. The important socializing effect of the expansion of 
 music courses, both required and elective, should be recalled in an evalua- 
 tion of the development." 
 
 V. Sixth Grade Achievement 
 
 At the fourteenth annual meeting of the Music Supervisors' National 
 Conference held in St. Joseph, Missouri, 1921, members of the Educa- 
 tional Council submitted a standard course of study for graded schools. 
 This course was formulated for the "good or average school representing 
 an easily attainable and a desirable ideal for all schools." This course re- 
 ceived the unanimous endorsement of the members of the Council after it 
 had been "thoroughly analyzed, section by section, phrase by phrase, word 
 by word." The purpose of the course was to direct the attention of edu- 
 cators to standards of attainments toward which the music work in schools 
 generally should go. 
 
 Attainments to be realized, year by year, are to be found at the end of 
 each school grade. At the end of the sixth year, which "marks the close 
 of the primary period, and the end of the sensory and associative stages in 
 the child's life," the Council recommends eight definite attainments. 
 Seven of these attainments were made the basis of a series of investiga- 
 tions, undertaken by Miss Estelle Windhorst. 2 This research was made 
 possible by the generous grant of a fellowship to the State University of 
 Iowa by the Julliard Musical Foundation of New York City. Objective 
 measurements were devised and applied to each of the seven attainments 
 formulated by the Council, in an effort to ascertain the feasibility, and the 
 extent to which each is being realized. Five large cities, highly distinguished 
 for their public school music work, were used in making this study. 
 
 First attainment — This attainment recommended by the Council for the 
 sixth grade is that "every child shall have acquired the use of his singing 
 voice and pleasure in song as a means of expression." This attainment was 
 not reached by all cities. While it is probably true that most children de- 
 rive pleasure from singing, to other children it was plainly an irritant. 
 Many children showed utter indifference in singing, revealing that their 
 
 1 Bobbitt, Franklin. Hoiv to make a curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin 
 Co., 1924. 
 
 2 A Study of the Sixth-Grade Attainments Stated in the Standard Course of 
 Study adopted by the Music Supervisors National Conference in 1921. To be 
 published in the University of Iowa Studies in Psychology. Vol. IX. 
 
The Third Yearbook 365 
 
 musical imagination or emotion had not been aroused. Monotones were 
 found, showing that there was a small percentage of children in the sixth 
 grade who had not acquired "the use of their singing voices." It might be 
 added that all children were measured and rated on accuracy in intonation 
 and sustaining the pitch. The examiner concludes that this attainment 
 may be feasible, but is not realized by all. 
 
 Second attainment — "Every child shall have acquired a repertoire of 
 songs which may be carried into the home and social life, including 
 "America" and the "Star-Spangled Banner." The measurement of some 
 500 children show that those who have found their singing voice were able 
 to sing "America" and on the whole quite accurately, but to the great sur- 
 prise of the examiner, "Silent Night" was even more universally known 
 from memory. Due to its difficulty and unnatural range, "The Star- 
 Spangled Banner" was sung well only by children with exceptional voices. 
 Many children were afraid to attempt it at all, and it was sung very in- 
 accurately by the larger number who tried it. Songs learned in previous 
 years and not frequently reviewed were sung inaccurately either rhyth- 
 mically or melodically. While this aim is feasible, it, too, is not being 
 generally achieved. Some school systems stress repertoire songs, while 
 others neglect this phase of music instruction almost entirely. 
 
 Third attainment — "Every child shall have developed the aural power 
 to know by sound that which he knows by sight and vice versa." This at- 
 tainment is apparently too difficult. Less than 50 per cent of the children 
 measured could recognize "The Star Spangled Banner" from notation; 
 only 18 per cent could recognize "Silent Night" by sound. A distorted 
 version of "America" was presented to the children in which five measures 
 were wrong melodically. Only 9 per cent of the 486 sixth grade children 
 measured could detect all the wrong measures; 21 per cent were able to 
 detect four wrong measures. "America," probably the best-known song 
 both by sight and sound, revealed how few children have attained this 
 ability. 
 
 Fourth attainment — "Every child shall have the ability to sing at sight, 
 using words, a unison song of hymn tune grade, and the easiest three-part 
 songs ; these to be in any key ; to include any of the measures and rhythms 
 in ordinary use ; to contain any accidental signs and tones easily introduced ; 
 and in general to be of the grade of difficulty of folk songs such as the 
 "Minstrel Boy" ; also knowledge of the major and minor keys and their 
 signatures." Forming a tonal image from a notational symbol is a basic 
 skill in sight-singing. Test I of the Kwalwasser-Ruch Accomplishment 
 Test measures one's knowledge of musical terms and symbols. It consists 
 of twenty-five items. The mean score of the children measured 13. Evi- 
 dently, many of the most common symbols and terms are not understood by 
 sixth-grade pupils. The chromatics give children most trouble. The 
 knowledge of key and time signatures is not noticeably acquired. The 
 minor key signatures are hopelessly beyond the sixth-grade child, if we may 
 depend upon the results of this investigation. 
 
366 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Fifth attainment — "Every child talented in musical performance shall 
 have opportunity for its cultivation." This attainment is both desirable 
 and practicable. Most schools encourage participation in choruses, orches- 
 tras and bands. The talented are thus afforded an opportunity to develop 
 their musicianship. 
 
 Sixth attainment — "The children shall have developed a love for the 
 beautiful in music and taste in choosing their songs and the music to which 
 they listen for the enjoyment and pleasure which only good music can give." 
 In spite of the fact that this attainment is very difficult to measure, it is, 
 nevertheless, a most important one. 
 
 Seventh attainment — "The children shall have acquired the ability to 
 appreciate the charm of design in songs sung; to give an account of the 
 salient features of structure in a standard composition after a few hearings 
 of it; to identify at least the three-part song form from hearing; and to 
 recognize and give titles and composers of a reasonable number of standard 
 vocal and instrumental compositions." Only one item of this attainment 
 was measured, namely "the recognition of standard vocal and instrumental 
 compositions." In this less than half of the children came up to this stand- 
 ard formulated by the educational council. ' 
 
 This survey of five schools which are far above the average in musical 
 attainment, shows the difficulty of realizing some of the attainments of the 
 standard course of study. It demonstrates the ease with which the "intan- 
 gible" subjects of music may be measured objectively. It suggests a new 
 method of procedure for making public school music surveys. It reveals 
 the shortcomings of our present efforts to make music more effective and 
 more influential in the lives of our children. It aids the music educator in 
 applying the remedial measures necessary to improve both the teaching and 
 the content of the subject. 
 
 Before concluding this report, a word concerning the future studies in 
 public school music seems apropos. The arts are not easily subjected to the 
 experimental procedure. Yet it is unlikely that music will be systematically 
 and efficiently taught without the application of the experimental pro- 
 cedure. The results already obtained more than warrant the expenditure 
 of time and money on refining the methodology of music teaching. Finally, 
 it promises to give to music education, a science of music pedagogy. 
 
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE 
 SECRETARY 
 
 Cincinnati Meeting, 1925 
 
 To the President, Executive Committee, and Members of the Depart- 
 ment of Superintendence: 
 
 In accordance with the provisions of the constitution, adopted at the 
 Chicago convention in 1922, the third annual report of the activities of the 
 Department of Superintendence is presented herewith. It covers the period 
 from January 1, 1924, to December 31, 1924. 
 
 The year in review — The 1924 convention in Chicago, which empha- 
 sized "Next Forward Steps in American Education," set a high standard 
 of constructive thinking. Small topic group meetings replaced two general 
 sessions and provided unusual opportunity for intimate discussion of im- 
 portant problems. Chicago is handicapped by lack of a convenient ex- 
 hibit hall. The plan of locating the exhibits in hotel rooms does not well 
 adapt itself to our needs. The second Yearbook, which reviewed current 
 elementary school curriculum practice, was distributed to members at Chi- 
 cago. An official report of the convention proceedings was issued in May. 
 
 The preparation of the 1925 Yearbook has been under the direction of 
 the Commission on the Curriculum. The appointment of this Commission 
 was authorized by vote of the Department in 1923, at Cleveland. The 
 Commission met in Washington, June 30, and determined to collect and 
 review research studies in the field of the elementary school curriculum. 
 The Division of Research of the National Education Association under- 
 took active responsibility for this task. Dr. Margaret M. Alltucker, as- 
 sistant director of the division of research, secured much valuable material 
 and assistance in the course of a series of conferences with curriculum 
 specialists in Columbus, Chicago, New York, Pittsburgh, Iowa City, Den- 
 ver, California, and elsewhere. At a second meeting, held October 23 and 
 24, the Commission outlined a comprehensive plan of cooperative effort for 
 curriculum reconstruction, with a view to its consideration and adoption 
 at the Cincinnati convention. Many people have contributed liberally of 
 time and effort in the preparation of the 1925 Yearbook. Especial atten- 
 tion is called to the twelve sub-committees listed at the beginning of Part 
 III. Without their assistance, this volume would have been impossible. 
 
 The Research Bulletin of the National Education Association has been 
 mailed to all members of this Department during the year. These bulletins 
 have dealt with teachers' salaries, retirement laws, the curriculum, tenure, 
 and facts on the public school for American Education Week. It was 
 originally intended to issue a Quarterly of the Department of Superintend- 
 ence, but on further consideration it seemed better to adopt a program of 
 cooperation, thereby securing for our members the excellent publications of 
 the Division of Research. 
 
 [367] 
 
368 Department of Superintendence 
 
 A small beginning has been made with the Educational Research Service, 
 which was authorized two years ago. Forty cities are enrolled thus far. 
 Subscribers are furnished with printed or multigraphed copies of recent 
 educational studies, information is secured in response to individual in- 
 quiries, special tabulations are made involving problems, such as teachers' 
 salaries, and an effort is being made to assist subscribers in solving the 
 questionnaire evil. On account of the newness of the venture and the 
 meagerness of our staff, only enough subscriptions were solicited to afford 
 a fair test of the undertaking. If all goes well, a much greater number can 
 be accepted next year. 
 
 The executive committee — The Executive Committee consists of seven 
 members. The president and the first and second vice presidents are mem- 
 bers ex-officio and are chosen annually. Four members chosen by election, 
 hold office for terms of four years, one member retiring each year. Three 
 meetings of the Executive Committee were held during 1924, the first be- 
 ing in Chicago on February 24. Members present were Superintendents 
 Smith, Beveridge, Clark, Cody, Condon, Ballou and . Mc Andrew. Busi- 
 ness transacted included approval of appointments for the Audit Commit- 
 tee, Resolutions Committee, Tellers and Yearbook Committee. It was 
 voted to contract for copies of the Research Bulletin of the National Edu- 
 cation Association, to be mailed to all members of the Department, and to 
 abandon the plan for the proposed Quarterly of the Department of Super- 
 intendence. In a resolution Dr. Randall J. Condon was commended for his 
 excellent work in conducting the building exhibits at the last two conven- 
 tions. 
 
 The Executive Committee met again in the Auditorium Theater, Chi- 
 cago, Thursday afternoon, February 28. All members were present. The 
 Executive Secretary was authorized to pay convention bills when approved 
 by the retiring president. The vacancy caused in the membership of the 
 Executive Committee by the election of William McAndrew as president 
 of the Department, was filled by the appointment for the unexpired term 
 of Frank D. Boynton, superintendent of schools, Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 The third meeting of the Executive Committee was held in the Gibson 
 Hotel, Cincinnati, Saturday, April 26. Members present were Super- 
 intendents McAndrew, Maddox, Condon, Ballou, Clark, and Boynton. 
 The first vice president, Payson Smith, was absent on account of illness. 
 The budget for the year 1924 was submitted and adopted. It showed esti- 
 mated income of $16,000, and estimated expenditure of $15,995.81. Ap- 
 plications from various organizations for recognition in connection with 
 the winter meeting were received, and on motion, the Executive Secretary 
 was instructed to advise the officers of all such organizations that the De- 
 partment of Superintendence regretted its inability to secure the necessary 
 hotel and other accommodations for additional groups. The publication in 
 the Educational Review of suitable articles and news items was authorized. 
 
 Mr. Edwin C. Broome, chairman of the Commission on the Curriculum, 
 
The Third Yearbook 369 
 
 was present and reported progress. Following a discussion of the magni- 
 tude of the undertaking, the following resolution was adopted : 
 
 "The executive committee approves the suggestion that paid experts and clerical 
 assistance be secured to aid the Commission, provided funds for the purpose can 
 be secured. Inasmuch as no funds are available, a donation will be welcomed, 
 with the understanding that the Department be entirely free to act as it sees fit." 
 
 In behalf of the Commission on the Curriculum, grateful acknowledg- 
 ment is made to the Carnegie Corporation for $5000, made available in 
 accordance with the above resolution for payment of travelling expenses 
 and clerical service. 
 
 The Executive Secretary reported that a vote of members of the Depart- 
 ment on the question of time and place of the winter meeting had been 
 taken by mail. The number who voted for the present date, during the 
 last week of February, was 1232, while 281 asked for a change. To the 
 question, "Would you wish to have the Department meet in the same city 
 each year," 578 voted "Yes" and 1216 voted "No." For the 1925 Con- 
 vention, a great majority favored a city in the Middle West, preferably one 
 in which the Convention had not been held recently. The Executive 
 Committee thereupon considered invitations for the 1925 Convention. 
 After a recess for the purpose of visiting the Cincinnati Music Hall and 
 hotels, Cincinnati was selected as the convention city. 
 
 Financial statement — The budget allotments adopted by the Executive 
 Committee have been closely observed. The income exceeded the estimates 
 by $1,637.93. The expenditures were $589.74 less than the budget allow- 
 ance, thus making the balance at the close of the year over $2,000 more 
 than at its beginning. 
 
 The principal source of revenue is the $5 annual membership fee. 
 Twelve hundred and sixty-three members were enrolled for 1922, 1650 for 
 
 1923, and 2136 for 1924. We have set our goal for 1925 at 3000 members. 
 By 1926 this should be increased to 4000, since there are at least that many 
 eligible persons who attend the conventions more or less regularly. 
 
 By agreement with the National Education Association, the net income 
 from the commercial exhibits at the winter meetings is divided equally be- 
 tween the Department and the parent association, each organization thus 
 deriving funds for convention expenses. The active work of organizing and 
 managing the exhibit is done by the Business Division of the National Edu- 
 cation Association. 
 
 Other income was received from the sale of Yearbooks, which was un- 
 expectedly large, from the Educational Research Service, and from a dona- 
 tion to the Department of the balance remaining in the convention fund 
 contributed by the Chicago hotels. 
 
 The financial statement submitted herewith covers the calendar year 
 
 1924. It includes expenses of the Chicago convention and the preliminary 
 expenditures for the 1925 meeting in Cincinnati. The details follow: 
 
370 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Receipts 
 
 Annual dues, 1533 members 1924 $7665.00 
 
 Annual dues, 494 members 1925 2473.50 
 
 Yearbooks sold 1364.13 
 
 Commercial exhibit, Chicago : 5142.81 
 
 Miscellaneous 33.49 
 
 Research service 525.00 
 
 Balance Chicago convention fund 434.00 
 
 Total receipts $17,637.93 
 
 Balance, January 1 275.84 
 
 $17,913.77 
 Expenditures 
 Chicago Convention: 
 
 Publicity 520.30 
 
 Building reports 295.00 
 
 President expense 55.00 
 
 Secretary expense 505.51 
 
 Programs 496.05 
 
 Registration 516.09 
 
 Stenographic report 155.05 
 
 Honorariums 267.86 
 
 Projection service 25.00 
 
 Chicago railroad certificates 85.50 
 
 Badges 35.70 
 
 Music . . 40.00 
 
 Educational exhibit 60.00 
 
 Total Chicago convention 3,057.06 
 
 Other Items: 
 
 Salary, Executive Secretary 6499.96 
 
 Second Yearbook 2250.38 
 
 Bulletins and Official- Report 354.60 
 
 Other printing 174.25 
 
 Postage and Stationery , 1281.24 
 
 Stenographic and clerical 60.37 
 
 Telephone and telegraph 200.62 
 
 Secretary expense 384.97 
 
 President expense 32.47 
 
 Executive Committee expense 319.85 
 
 Expense, Audit Committee. . . : 25.97 
 
 Research Assistant 537.01 
 
 Commission on Curriculum 86.34 
 
 Surety bonds 30.00 
 
 Collection fees -40 
 
 Cincinnati railroad certificates 85.50 
 
 Office supplies 25.08 
 
 Total general expense 12,349.01 
 
 Total expense for the year $15,406.07 
 
 Balance, December 31, 1924 2,507.70 
 
 $17,913.77 
 
The Third Yearbook 371 
 
 In conclusion — The work of the year has again demonstrated the im- 
 portance of the help and good-will of friends. The headquarters staff of 
 the National Education Association have rendered willing and competent 
 assistance whenever opportunity offered. The school organizations and 
 the chambers of commerce of our convention cities, Chicago and Cincinnati, 
 have diligently served our interests, frequently at great personal incon- 
 venience. Our yearbook and our civic and art exhibits place us under 
 new obligations of gratitude. 
 
 The superintendent of schools has no light responsibility. Public finance, 
 business matters, school buildings, curriculum construction, records and 
 reports, methods of organization, teachers' meetings, are a few of the sub- 
 jects with which he must concern himself. Moreover, these are but items 
 in the great work of guiding and guarding the childhood of America. 
 Upon the successful accomplishment of this task depends the future of our 
 Nation and the preservation of its ideals. The Department of Superin- 
 tendence, through its great winter meeting and year-round service, offers 
 to superintendents of schools a comradeship of common interests and brings 
 inspiration for renewed effort. 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 S. D. Shankland, 
 
 Executive Secretary. 
 
 REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE 
 
 Washington, D. C, January 15, 1925. 
 
 We, the Auditing Committee of the Department of Superintendence of 
 the National Education Association, have this day examined the accounts of 
 the Department of Superintendence from December 31, 1923, to Decem- 
 ber 31, 1924, as presented to us by Secretary S. D. Shankland, and find 
 them to be correct. 
 
 H. V. Holloway, 
 
 W. J. BlCKETT. 
 
List of Members 
 
 The Department of Superintendence 
 
 of the 
 
 National Education Association of the United States 
 
 Corrected to January 10, 1925 
 
 Abbott, Winthrop, A. B. '93, Dartmouth; 
 Supt. of Sch., 36 High, Greenfield, Mass., 
 since 1912. 
 
 Ackley, Clarence E., A. B. '10, A. M. '13, 
 Oberlin Col.; Supt. of Sch., Ashland, Ky., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Adams, Emerson L., A. B. '89, A. M. '92, 
 Bowdoin Col. ; Assist. Com. of Ed. ; State 
 House, Providence, R. I., since 1917. 
 
 Adams, E. Ray, Supt of Sch., Tarkio, Mo. 
 
 Afflerbach, Calvin E., Rural Supervisor, State 
 Dept. of Pub. Instr., Georgetown, Del. 
 
 Agnew, Walter D., M. A. '21, Ph. D. '23, 
 Columbia U.; Pres. Womans Col. of Ala., 
 Fairview Ave., Montgomery, Ala., since 
 1922. 
 
 Akers, A. E., Supt. of Sch., Roanoke Rapids, 
 N. C. 
 
 Alan, John S., A. B. '93, A. M. '00, Thiel 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 529 McKinley Ave., 
 Salem, Ohio, since 1913. 
 
 Alcorn. M. O., M. S. '20, Univ. of Ark.; 
 Supt, of Sch., 213 E. North St., Magnolia, 
 Ark., since 1924. 
 
 Alderman, Grover H., B. A. '13, Iowa State 
 Teachers Col.; M. A. '19, Ph. D. '20, State 
 Univ. of Iowa; Prof, of Ed., Univ. of Ind., 
 525 N. Park Ave., Bloomington, Ind., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Alderson, W. C, A. B. '89, Willamette Univ. ; 
 Co. Sch. Supt., 642 Courthouse, Portland, 
 Ore., since 1916. 
 
 Aldrich, McCall, Supt of Sch., Chino, Calif. 
 
 Alexander, Carter, B. S. '05, A. B. '06, A. M. 
 '08, Univ. of Mo.; Ph.D. '10, Columbia 
 Univ.; Research Asso., T. C. Columbia 
 Univ., Div. of Field Stud., New York, N. Y. 
 
 Alexander, Claude C, Supt. of Sch., Hib- 
 bing, Minn. 
 
 Alexander, James W., Supervisor, Greenwood 
 Sch., Trenton, N. J. 
 
 Alfriend, Kyle T., Prof. Education & Psy- 
 chology, Bessie Tift Col., Forsyth, Ga. 
 
 Alger, John L., A. B. '90, A. M. '95, Brown 
 Univ.; Ed. D. '21, R. I. State Col.; Pres. 
 of R. I. Col. of Ed., Providence, R. I., 
 since 1908. 
 
 Allan, Harold A., A. B. '06, Bates Col.; 
 Director Business Division, N. E. A., 1201 
 Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C, 
 since 1923. 
 
 Allen, A. T., Ph. B. '97, Univ. of N. C. ; 
 D. C. L. '24, Elon Col., N. C. ; State Supt. 
 of Pub. Instr., Raleigh, N. C, since 1923. 
 
 Allen, C. H., Supt. of Sch., Idaho Springs, 
 Colo. 
 
 Allen, I. M., A. B. '96, Lawrence Col.; 
 LL. B. '02, Harvard Univ.; Student in 
 Tchrs. Co., 509 W. 121st St., New York, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Allen, J. H., A. B. '09, Univ. of N. C. ; 
 Supt. of Co. Sch., 33 N. Main St., Reids- 
 ville, N. C. 
 
 Allen, Philemon A., Supt. of Sch., 510 W. 
 Washington St., Bluffton, Ind., since 1881. 
 
 Allen, R. W., Supt. of Sch., Wadesboro, 
 N. C. 
 
 Allman, H. B., B. S. '10, Tri-State Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Rushville, Ind. 
 
 Allsworth, B. H., Supt. of Sch., Primero, 
 Colo. 
 
 Alltucker, Margaret M., B. L. '14, M. A. 
 '19, Ph. D. '22, U. of Calif.; Asst. Dir., 
 Research Div., N. E. A., 1734 N St. 
 N. W., Washington, D. C, since 1923. 
 
 Ames, A. F., Co. Supt. of Sch., Riverside, 
 111. 
 
 Anders, R. G., Co. Supt. of Sch., Hender- 
 sonville, N. C. 
 
 Anderson, A. S., Supt. of Sch., 2f20 S. Fifth 
 Ave., La Grange, 111. 
 
 Anderson, C. J., Asst. State Supt. of Sch.. 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
 Anderson, David Allen, B. A. '08, M. A. 
 '10, Ph. D. '12, U. of Iowa; Head Dept. 
 of Ed. and Psycho., Pa. State Col., 306 
 S. Gill St., State College, Pa., since 1917. 
 
 Anderson, Earl W., A. B. '18, Univ. of 111.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Charleston, 111., since 1919. 
 
 Anderson, Ernest B., B. A. '09, Gustavus 
 Adolphus Co.; Supt. of Sch., 115 Third 
 St., Cloquet, Minn., since 1923. 
 
 Anderson, Homer W., B. A. '10, Des Moines 
 U. ; M. A. '15, State U. of Iowa; Asst. 
 Supt. of Sch., 414 Fourteenth St., Denver, 
 Colo., since 1923. 
 
 Anderson, J. A., Supt. of Sch., Hawley, 
 Minn. 
 
 Anderson, John A., A. B. '97, A. M. '98, 
 Lake Forest; Supt. of Sch., Miles City, 
 Mont., since 1919. 
 
 Andrews, Edwin C, A. B. '89, Williams; 
 Supt. of Sch., P. O. Drawer 292, Green- 
 wich, Conn., since 1910. 
 
 Andrews, J. O., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 2825 
 May St., Ft. Worth, Tex. 
 
 Andrews, L. G., '08, Howard Payne Col. 
 A. B. 18, Univ. of Texas; Supt. of Sch., 
 Navasota, Tex., since 1919. 
 
 Andrews, M. B., A. B. '14, M. A. '16, 
 Trinity Col.; Supt. of Sch., Box 622, 
 Fayetteville, N. C, since 1921. 
 
 [372] 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 373 
 
 Andrews, Sterling M., B. S. '04, Valparaiso 
 U.; Supt. of Sch., Walsenburg, Colo., 
 since 1908. 
 
 Andrews, T. Wingate, A. B. '08, Univ. of 
 N. C. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 271, Salisbury, 
 N. C, since 1917. 
 
 Angel, W. H., A. B. '95, A. M. '99, Ohio 
 Northern Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 823 N. 
 2nd St., Dennison, Ohio, since 1905. 
 
 Antrim, Eugene Marion, A. B. '96. U. of 
 Denver; S. T. B. '00, Boston U., Sch. of 
 Theology; Ph. D. '04, Boston U. ; Pres. 
 Okla. City U., 1218 W. 21st St., Okla- 
 homa City, Okla., since 1923. 
 
 App, Isaac D., B. S. '05, M. S. '10, Susque- 
 hanna Univ.; Co. Supt. of Sch., Harris- 
 burg, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Appel, Frank, A. B. '94, Ohio Wesleyan; 
 Supt. of Sch., 840 8th St., Portsmouth, 
 Ohio, since 1908. 
 
 Appenzellar, J. L., Sup. Prin. of Sch., 
 Wyomissing, Pa. 
 
 Apple, S. B., A. B. '07, Baker Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., High School, Baxter Spring, 
 Kans. ; since 1920. 
 
 Appleby, Flavius Thompson, B. S. '01, Univ. 
 of Tenn. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 382, Florence, 
 Ala., since 1917. 
 
 Aquinas, Sister Thomas, O. S. D., A. B. 
 '12, A. M. '13, Ph. D. '15, Catholic U. 
 of America; Dean Rosary Col., River 
 Forest, 111., since 1923. 
 
 Arendell, J. E., Supt. of Sch., 324 A. S. E., 
 Miami, Okla. 
 
 Armstrong, T. H., 500 Duffy-Powers Bldg., 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Arnett, Frank E., Supt. of Sch., White Sul- 
 phur Springs, W. Va. 
 
 Arnold, E. H., 1466 Chapel St., New Haven, 
 Conn. 
 
 Arnold, E. J., B. S. '17, Wilmington Col.; 
 M. A. '23, Ohio State U. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 Huntsville, Ohio, since 1920. 
 
 Arnold, E. O., Supt. of Sch., Marenisco, 
 Mich. 
 
 Arps, George F., A. B. '04, Leland Stan- 
 ford Jr. U. ; A. M. '05, Indiana Univ.; 
 Ph. D. '08, Leipzig, Germany; Dean Col. 
 of Ed., Prof, of Psycho., Ohio State U., 
 Columbus, Ohio, since 1912. 
 
 Ash, Willoughby Ross, B. S. '18, Heidel- 
 berg U. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 38, Napoleon, 
 Ohio, since 1918. 
 
 Ashbaugh, E. J., A. B. '12, A. M. '13, Ind. 
 U. ; Ph. D. '19, U. of la.; Asst. Dir. Bur. 
 of Ed. Research, Orton Hall, Ohio State 
 U., Columbus, Ohio, since 1921. 
 
 Ashfield, Nora, Asst. Supt. of Sch., Rich- 
 mond, Calif. 
 
 Ashley, Frank L., B. S. 'n, Young-Harris 
 Col.; A. M. '13, Newberry Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Hamlet, N. C, since 1923. 
 
 Atwell, Floyd, Supt. of Sch., 2106 7th Ave., 
 Beaver Falls, Pa. 
 
 Austin, George W., B. S. '06, Grayson Col.; 
 Pres. Okla. Col. for Women, Chickasha, 
 Okla., since 1914. 
 
 Avery, Lewis B., A. M. '8q, Tabor Col. ; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., 1 112 City Hall, Oak- 
 land, Calif., since 1913. 
 
 Avery, M. C, B. S. '10, Wooster; Supt. of 
 Sch., Wadsworth, Ohio, since 1924. 
 
 Avery, William J., Supt. of Sch., Drawer 
 603, Alexandria, La., since 1919. 
 
 Axtelle, George, Dept. of Ed., Honokaa, 
 Hawaii. 
 
 Ayer, Fred C, Prof, of Ed., Univ. of Wash., 
 Seattle, Wash. 
 
 Babb. H. A., B. S. 'n, Univ. of Ky. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Mt. Sterling, Ky., since 1920. 
 
 Bachrodt, Walter L., A. B. '20, A. M. '21, 
 Stanford; Supt. of Sch., San Jose, Calif., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Bacon, Willard H., A. B. '00, Brown Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Westerly, R. I., since 1913. 
 
 Baer, Joseph A., Asst. Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 3840 Mayfield Rd., Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Baggett, John E., Supt. of Sch., Lake For- 
 est, 111. 
 
 Baggs, Louise D., Supt. of Sch., Bristol, Pa. 
 
 Bagnall, Francis Asbury, A. B. 'go, A. M. 
 '00, Wesleyan Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Ad- 
 ams, Mass., since 1901. 
 
 Bailey, D. L., Supt. of Sch., Harbor Springs, 
 Mich. 
 
 Bailey, Edward L., Supt. of Sch., Box 135, 
 
 Jackson, Miss. 
 
 Bailey, John H, Jr., '82, R. I. Col. of Ed.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 533, Anthony, R. I., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Bailey, R. E., A. B. '20, Univ. of Nebr., 
 Newman Grove, Nebr. 
 
 Bair, Carl M., Supt. of Sch., 650 4th Ave., 
 Berlin, N. H. 
 
 Baker, Chilton Clyde, B. S. '96, A. M. '13, 
 Ohio Northern Univ. ; Dist. Supt. of Sch., 
 Grand Rapids, Minn., since 1920. 
 
 Baker, Edna Dean, B. A. '20, M. A. '21, 
 Northwestern U. ; B. E. '13, Nat. Kinder- 
 garten Col. ; Pres. Nat. Kindergarten and 
 Elem. Col., 2944 S. Michigan Ave., Chi- 
 cago, 111., since ig20. 
 
 Baker, Frank E., A. B. '05, Allegheny Col.; 
 A. M. '08, Harvard U. ; A. M. '13, Alle- 
 gheny Col.; Pres. Milwaukee St. Normal, 
 Milwaukee, Wis., since 1923. 
 
 Baker, George Marshall, B. A. '13, Univ. of 
 Minn.; M. A. '14, Columbia Univ., 536 
 S. Clark St., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Baker, N. R., Co. Supt. of Sch., 101 Court 
 House, Birmingham, Ala. 
 
 Baker, Oscar R., Supt. of Sch., 322 E. 
 Franklin St., Winchester, Ind. 
 
 Baker, Sam A., Ed. Director Grolier Society, 
 Jefferson City, Mo. 
 
 Baker, W. D., A. B. '93, A. M. '94, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Clifton, Ariz., since 
 1918. 
 
 Baker, William Elwood, A. B. '16, A. M. 
 
 '20, Colo. St. Teh. Col.; Supt. of Sch., 
 
 311 E. Kiowa St.., Fort Morgan, Colo., 
 since 1924. 
 
374 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Balch, Frank A., '88, Bridgewater Normal 
 Supt. of Sch., 201 Jane St., Weehawken, 
 N. J., since 1914. 
 
 Balcom, A. G„ Asst. Supt. of Sch., New 
 Providence, R. I. 
 
 Baldridge, Chloe C, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Fullerton, Nebr., since 1915. 
 
 Baldwin, William A., B. S. '97, Harvard U. ; 
 Prin. State Normal Sch., Hyannis, Mass., 
 since 1897. 
 
 Baldy, Edward Vincent, A. B. '85, A. M. 
 '86, Mercer U. ; M. T. '89, Southern Bap- 
 tist Tkeo. Sem. ; Pres. of Judson Col., 
 Marion, Ala., since 1923. 
 
 Ballard, Agnes, Co. Supt. of Sch., West 
 Palm Beach, Fla. 
 
 Ballard, N. H., State Supt. of Sch., Atlanta, 
 Ga. 
 
 Ballou, Frank Washington, B. S. '04, Teach- 
 ers Col. Columbia Univ. ; M. A. '08, Univ. 
 of Cincinnati; Ph. D. '14, Harvard Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Washington, D. C, since 
 1920. 
 
 Balsbaugh, E. M., B. S. '01, M. S. '05, 
 Lebanon Valley Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 236 
 S. Eighth St., Lebanon, Pa., since 1914. 
 
 Balveat, F. A., B. A. '11, M. A. '18, Univ. 
 of Okla., Supt. of Sch., 220 S. Hill St., 
 Hobart, Okla., since 1919. 
 
 Bambesberger, Velda C., A. M. 'ig, Univ. 
 of 111.; Dir. of Gr. and Ed. Stats., 613 
 N. Grand St., Okmulgee, Okla., since 
 1920. 
 
 Bank, A. M., Supt. of Sch., Park Rapids, 
 Minn. 
 
 Banks, Charles, B. S. '10, State Teachers 
 Col.; M. A. '14, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Kirksville, Mo., since 1922. 
 
 Banks, L. F., Asst. Supt., 2030 Park Ave., 
 Birmingham, Ala. 
 
 Banta, J. Edward, Prin. City Norm. Sch., 
 529 Stolp Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Banting, George Orton, Ph. B. '15, Univ. of 
 Chicago; Supt. of Sch., Waukesha H. S. 
 Bldg., Waukesha, Wis., since 1920. 
 
 Barber, Charles Emory, A. B. '04, A. M. '05, 
 Univ. of Nebr. ; Supt. of Sch., Alhambra, 
 Calif., since 1915. 
 
 Barber, F. W., A. M. '10, Columbia; Supt. 
 of Sch., Newfield, Middletown, Conn. 
 
 Bardwell, C. M., Supt. of Sch., 429 Fox St., 
 Aurora, 111. 
 
 Bardwell, R. W., Supt. of Sch., 6th Ave. 
 and 21st St., Rock Island, 111. 
 
 Barker, H. L., Supt. of Sch., Bangor, Mich. 
 
 Barker, J. F., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 306 Munic- 
 ipal Bldg., Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Barker, J. M., Supt. of Sch., Depew, N. Y. 
 
 Barker, V. H., Supt. of Sch., Chenoa, 111. 
 
 Barnes, C. H., Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Duluth, Minn. 
 
 Barnes, Harold, A. B. '9^2, Kans. Univ., A. 
 M. 'n, Teh. Col., Columbia Univ.; Sup. 
 Prin. Elem. Ed., Girard, Col., Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., since igii. 
 
 Barnes, Percival S., B. S. '17, A. M. '18, 
 Columbia Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., East Hart- 
 ford, Conn., since 1919. 
 
 Barnes, W. C, Supt. of Sch., 518 W. Chest- 
 nut St., Carthage, Mo. 
 
 Barnett, D'Arcy C, A. B. '98, A. M. '07, 
 ■ Univ. of Md. ; A. M. '11, Columbia Univ.; 
 '13, Columbia Univ. Diploma; Sup. Prin. 
 of Sch., 7 Cleveland St., Caldwell, N. J., 
 since 1911. 
 
 Barr, A. S., Dept. of Supvn., Bd. of Ed., 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Barr, Oscar O., B. S. '18, Teachers Col. 
 Columbia Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., South 
 Amboy, N. J., since 1914. 
 
 Barrett, H. J., A. B. '00, Univ. of Wooster; 
 A. M. '16, Dickinson Col.; Supt. of Sch., 
 409 Walnut Street, Hollidaysburg, Pa., 
 since 1913. 
 
 Barrett, Harry M., B. A. '90, M. A. '93, 
 Allegheny Col.; Litt. D. '14, Univ. of 
 Denver; Dir. Col. of Ed., Univ. of Colo., 
 Boulder, Colo., since 1920. 
 
 Barry, A. G., B. A. '17, B. C. S. '16, Albion; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 299, Nora Springs, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Barthelmeh, Charles, B. S. '22, Kent St. 
 Norm. Col.; Co. Supt. of Sch., New Phila- 
 delphia, Ohio, since 1914. 
 
 Bartlett, Paul B., B. A. '15, Grinnell Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 52, Gilmore City, Iowa, 
 since 1922. 
 
 Barton, James Richard, B. A. '13, Hendrix 
 Col.; M. A. '21, Teh. Col., Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 613 N. Grand Ave., 
 Okmulgee, Okla., since 1924. . 
 
 Bash, Eugene H., B. S. '20, N. E. Mo. State 
 Tchrs Col., Kirksville; Prin. Henry C. 
 Kumpf School, Kansas City, Mo., since 
 1923. 
 
 Bass, E. E., Supt. of Sch., Greenville, Miss. 
 
 Bass, O. W., Co. Supt. of Sch., Fayette- 
 ville, Ark. 
 
 Bassette, Alfred S., A. B. '13, Syracuse U. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Walden, N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Batcheller, D. E., Supt. of Sch., 120 Payne 
 Ave., North Tonawanda, N. Y. 
 
 Bate, William G., B. A. '10, M. A. '15, 
 Ripon Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 8th and North 
 B Sts., Richmond, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Bates, H. L., B. S. '24, Kent St. Col.; Supt. 
 Co. Sch., I. O. O. F. Bldg., Caldwell, 
 Ohio, since 1915. 
 
 Bates, Horace Freeman, A. B. '98, Harvard; 
 Union Supt. of Sch., Swansea, Mass., since 
 1922. 
 
 Bauer, Nicholas, B. S. '97, M. A. '99, Tulane 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., City Hall Annex, 
 New Orleans, La., since 1922. 
 
 Bauman, D. H., Ph. B. '06, Grove City, Pa.; 
 Suprg. Prin., Meyersdale, Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Baumgardner, G. U., B. S. '12, Wooster; 
 County Supt. of Sch., Court House, 
 Wooster, Ohio, since 1914. 
 
 Baumgartner, John, M. S. '20, Univ. of Ark. ; 
 M. A. '22, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., Brinkley, Ark. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 375 
 
 Bawden, William T., A. B. '96, Denison 
 Univ.; B. S. '10, Teh. Col., Columbia U.; 
 Ph. D. '14, Teh. Col., Columbia Univ.; 
 Asso. Supt. Sch., Board of Ed. Bldg., 
 Tulsa, Okla., since 1923. 
 
 Bay, James C, Supt. of Sch., Easton, Pa. 
 
 Baylor, Adelaide Steele, Ph. B. '97, U. of 
 Chi.; M. A. '18, Columbia U. ; Chief of 
 Home Economics Ed. Serv., Fed. Bd. for 
 Voc. Ed., since 1923. 
 
 Bayne, Stephen F., Pub. Sch., No. 1, Van 
 Alst Ave., and Ninth St., Long Island 
 City, N. Y. 
 
 Beach, M. F., Supt. of Sch., Moberly, Mo. 
 
 Beals, R. G., A. B. '07, Earlham Col.; M. A. 
 '09, Indiana Univ., Supt. -Twp. H. S., 
 DeKalb, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Bear, Harris V., A. B. '03, Otterbein Col.; 
 A. M. '10, Harvard Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 301 S. 5th St., Miamisburg, Ohio, since 
 I9I5- 
 
 Beard, R. B., B. S. '18, Bucknell Univ.; 
 Supr. Prin. Pub. Sch., Portage, Pa., since 
 1919. 
 
 Beatty, Edward, Supt. of Sch., Warrens- 
 burg, Mo. 
 
 Becht, J. George, State Supt. of Pub. Inst., 
 Harrisburg, Pa. ' 
 
 Becker, C. F., Ph. B. '08, Mt. Union Col.; 
 M. A. '17, Columbia Univ.; State Normal, 
 Clarion, Pa. 
 
 Bedwell, R. L., Ph. B. '10, Miss. Col.; 
 
 M. A. 'if, Univ. of Miss.; Supt. of Sch., 
 
 220 Jackson Ave., Yazoo City, Miss., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Beede, F. H., B. A. '83, Yale; Supt. of 
 Sch., 169 Church St., New Haven, Conn., 
 since 1899. 
 
 Belisle, Hector L., Supt. of Sch., Fall River, 
 Mass. 
 
 Bell, H. C, Supt. of Sch., Luverne, Minn. 
 
 Bemis, George M., Supt. of Sch., 3 Willow 
 Ave., Salem, Mass. 
 
 Bender, John F., Supt. of Sch., Box 625, 
 Pittsburg, Kans. 
 
 Bender, L. S., Supt. of Sch., Cokeville, Wyo. 
 
 Benezet, L. P., Supt. of Sch., Manchester, 
 N. H. 
 
 Bennett, J. M., A. B. '10, Western Md. Col.; 
 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Salisbury, Md., since 
 
 1917- 
 Bennett, Robert K., Supt. of Sch., no Cross 
 
 St., Central Falls, R. I. 
 
 Bennett, Thomas G., A. B. '09, West, Md. 
 Col.; A. M. '22, Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Centreville, Md. 
 
 Bennett, Ulric J., A. B. '09, Univ. of Ga. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 69, Fitzgerald, 
 Ga., since 1921. 
 
 Bennion, Milton, B. S. '97, Univ. of Utah; 
 M. A. '01, Columbia Univ.; Dean, School 
 of Ed. Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City, 
 Utah, 
 
 Benson, Nelson P., B. S. '08, Washington 
 Square Col.; M. A. '14, Ph. D. '19, 
 N. Y. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Lock Haven, 
 Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Benson, W. W., Supt. of Sch., Decatur, Ala. 
 
 Bentley, J. H, A. B. '03, Wesleyan U., 
 Middletown, Conn.; M. A. '16, Columbia 
 U. ; Y. M. C. A., 2 W. 45th St., New 
 York, N. Y. 
 
 Berg, B. C, Supt. of Sch., Newton, Iowa. 
 
 Berg, Selmer H., B. A. '17, St. Olaf Col.; 
 M. A. '24, U. of Minn.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Stoughton, Wis., since 1924. 
 
 Berry, L. J., B. S. '05, Trinity U., M. A. 
 '22, Columbia U. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 203, 
 San Marcos, Tex. 
 
 Berry, Merrill M., A. B. '19, Baldwin-Wal- 
 lace Col.; A. M. '22, Ohio State U., Supt. 
 of Sch., 147 E. Bridge St., Berea, Ohio. 
 
 Bersagel, E. L., Supt. of Sch., Wakonda, 
 S. Dak. 
 
 Beu, Frank A., A. B. '20, Northwestern 
 Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Hebron, 111., since 
 1921. 
 
 Beumer, Edward H., A. B. '14, B. S. '14, 
 Univ. of Mo., Supt. of Sch., Urbana, 111. 
 
 Beveridge, John H, B. Pd. '97, Ohio Univ. ; 
 M. A. '15, Columbia Univ.; M. A. '15, 
 D. Pd. '17, Ohio Univ.; Pres. Dept. of 
 Superintendence, 1922; Supt. of Sch., 601 
 City Hall, Omaha, Nebr., since 1917. 
 
 Bickett, William J., Ph. B. '01, Ph. D. '22, 
 Grover City; Supt. of Sch., 9 S. Stockton, 
 Trenton, N. J., since 1920. 
 
 Bickford, C. W., Supt. of Sch., 28 Webster 
 St., Lewiston, Maine. 
 
 Biester, Fred, 538 Turner Ave., Glen Ellyn, 
 111. 
 
 Billinghurst, B. D., Supt. of Sch., 729 Evans 
 Ave., Reno, Nev. 
 
 Bimson, O. H, Supt. of Sch., 2015 S. St., 
 University Place, Nebr. 
 
 Binford, J. H, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 312 N. 
 9th St., Richmond, Va. 
 
 Binnion, R. B., Pres., East Tex. State Tchrs. 
 Col., Commerce, Tex. 
 
 Birckhead, Edward F., M. A. '12, Columbia 
 U. ; Ed. M. '23, Harvard U. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Hickman St. School, Winchester, 
 Ky., since 1923. 
 
 Bishop, Charles C, A. B. '06, U. of Wis.; 
 M. A. '19, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Oshkosh, Wis., since 1921. 
 
 Bishop, Fred G., '05, Oshkosh Normal; 
 A. B. '15, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Two Rivers, Wis., since 1920. 
 
 Bishop, Martha V., Dist. Supt. of Sch., 
 7208 Bennett Ave., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Bishop, W. H., Supt. of Sch., Stillwater, 
 
 Okla. 
 Bixby, Herbert D., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Blackwell, John C, B. S. '16, Geo. Peabody 
 Col.; Supt. T. C. I. Sch., 1210 Brown, 
 Marx Bldg., Birmingham, Ala., since 1917. 
 
 Blair, Francis G., State Supt. of Pub. Inst., 
 Capitol Building, Springfield, 111. 
 
 Blair, Hale B., B. S. '12, Ottawa Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 408 S. 8th St., Humboldt, 
 Kans., since 1924. 
 
376 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Blair John L., Supt. of Sch., East Dubuque, 
 
 111. 
 Blair, Parr Dalton, Co. Supt. of Sch., 580 
 
 Walnut Park, Meadville, Pa. 
 
 Blanchard, Charles A., A. B. '70, A. M. '73, 
 Wheaton Col. ; D. D. '90, Monmouth, 
 111.; Pres. Wheaton Col., Wheaton, 111., 
 since 1882. 
 
 Blanton, Annie Webb, B. Lit. '99, M. A. 
 '23, Univ. of Tex.; Adj. Prof, of Ed. 
 Admin., Univ. of Tex., Univ. Sta., Aus- 
 tin, Tex., since 1923. 
 
 Blanton. R. S., M. A. '14, A. B. '13, L. I. 
 '05, Univ. of Fla. ; Co. Supt. of Pub. Inst., 
 Clearwater, Fla., since 1921. 
 
 Bleecker, H. L., Supt. of Sch., Hart, Mich. 
 
 Bliss, D. C, Normal Sch., Trenton, N. J. 
 
 Bliss, Walton B., A. B. '15, Heidelberg 
 Univ. ; Asst. St. Dir. of Ed., State House 
 Annex, Columbus, Ohio, since 1920. 
 
 Blodgett, Frank D., A. B. '93, A. M. '96, 
 LL. D., '18, Amherst Col.; Pres. Adelphi 
 Col., Brooklyn, N. Y., since 1915. 
 
 Board of Education, Franklin, N. J. 
 
 Bocock, C. E., Pres., State Norm. Sch., Al- 
 bion, Idaho. 
 
 Bodwell, E. J., Supt. of Sch., Ames, Iowa. 
 
 Bohlander, J. J., Supt. of Sch., Moorhead, 
 Minn. 
 
 Bolcom, Winfred G., M. A. '15, Univ. of 
 Minn.; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Roches- 
 ter, Minn., since 1919. 
 
 Bonar, Hugh S., M. A., '24, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; B. A. '18, B. Acc'ts. '16, Mt. Mor- 
 ris Col.; Supt. of Sch., 626 North Park 
 St., Richland Center, Wis., since 1923. 
 
 Bonar, J. S.. Asst. State Supv. Rural Sch., 
 3 Arlington Court, Charleston, W. Va. 
 
 Bond, G. G., Supt. of Sch., Athens, Ga. 
 
 Bonner, E. J., Prin. City Norm. Sch., Roches- 
 ter, N. Y. 
 
 Bonner, G. H., A. B., '01, Dickinson Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 246, Kit Carson, 
 Colo, since 1923. 
 
 Booker, W. R., A. B., '16, Indiana Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 610 S. Franklin St., Green- 
 ville, Mich., since 1918. 
 
 Boone, D. J., B. S. 'g8, Mt. Union Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S., Lorain, Ohio, -since 
 1914. 
 
 Borden, Walter W., B. S. '12, Ohio State; 
 Supt. of Sch., Admin. Bldg., South Bend, 
 Ind., since 1919. 
 
 Bosley, L. C, A. B. '91, L. L. B. '98, Cen- 
 tre Col.; Supt. of Sch., 219 So. 4th St., 
 Danville, Ky., since 1918. 
 
 Boucher, C. W., Supt. of Sch., Valparaiso, 
 Irrd. 
 
 Bourgard, Caroline B., State Dir. of Music, 
 1151 E. Broadway, Louisville, Ky., since 
 1923. 
 
 Bowden, R. D., Supt. of Sch., H. S., Ha- 
 vana, 111. 
 
 Bowers, E. V., Supt. of Sch., Galion, Ohio. 
 
 Bowlby, R. S., Supt. of Sch., 285 W. Clin- 
 ton St., Dover, N. J. 
 
 Bowlus, Edgar S., A. B. '11, St. John's 
 Col.; A. B. '12, Univ. of Md. ; A. M. 
 '16, St. John's Col.; Supt. of Sch., Brook- 
 haven, Miss., since 1922. 
 
 Bowman, George A., A. B. '17, Western Re- 
 serve Univ.; Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 
 343, Chillicothe, Ohio, since 1923. 
 
 Bowman, Grover Chester, B. A. '06, Wil- 
 liams; M. A. '12, Yale; Supt. of Sch., 
 City Hall, North Adams, Mass., since 1922. 
 
 Bowton, R. C, A. B., 'n, Ind.; M. A. '15, 
 Wis.; Supt. of Sch., 323 So. Fairfax St., 
 Alexandria, Va., since 1923. 
 
 Boyce, Ella Ruth, Dir. of Kdrgtns., 705 Ful- 
 ton Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Boyd, Paul E., A. B. '16, Centre Col., Dan- 
 ville, Ky. ; Supt. of Sch., Lancaster, Ky., 
 since ig20. 
 
 Boyden, Arthur Clarke, A. M. '83, Amherst 
 Col. ; Prin. State Normal Sch., Box 55, 
 Bridgewater, Mass., since 1906. 
 
 Boyden, Wallace C, A. B. '83, A. M. '86, 
 Amherst Col. ; Prin. Teh. Col. of Boston, 
 Huntington Ave., Boston, Mass., since 
 1900. 
 
 Boyer, Charles B., Supt. of Sch., Atlantic 
 City, N. J., since 1890. 
 
 Boyes, Walter F., County Supt. of Sch., 
 Court House, Galesburg, 111. 
 
 Boynton. Frank David, A. B. '91, Middle- 
 bury Col. ; A. M. '94, Hamilton, Col. ; 
 Ped. D. '03, Syracuse Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Box 96, Ithaca, N. Y., since 1900. 
 
 Bracken, John L., A. M. '22, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; Supt. of Sch., Clayton, Mo., since 
 1923. 
 
 Bradford, Mary C. C, Litt. D. '14, Univ. of 
 Denver; State Supt. of Pub. Instr., 127 
 State Capitol Bldg., Denver, Colo., since 
 1913- 
 
 Bradner, J. W., B. S. '94, Tri. State Col.; 
 A. B. '08, Ind. U. ; A. M. '24, Teh. Col. 
 Columbia U. ; Supt. of Sch., Middlesboro, 
 Ky., since 1922. 
 
 Brady, W. A., Supt. of Sch., Wakefield, 
 R. I. 
 
 Bragdon, Frederick E., B. A. '91, Wes., 
 . . Conn.; M. A. '05, Brown; Supt. of Sch., 
 Egypt, Mass"., since 1918. 
 
 Bragg, Mabel C, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 80 
 Madison Ave., Newtonville, Mass. 
 
 Braham, W. J., A. M. '13; Supt. of Sch., 
 North Platte, Nebr., since 1922. 
 
 Braman, W. J., B. S. '15 Columbia U. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., g Chestnut Ave., Dans- 
 ville, N. Y., since 1919. 
 
 Brame, S. M., A. B. '02, La. State Univ. ; 
 Prin., Bolton H. S., Alexandria, La., since 
 igio. 
 
 Brandenberg, W. A., A. M. '03, Ph.B. '22, 
 Drake Univ.; Pres. Kans. State Teh. Col., 
 1801 S. Broadway, Pittsburg, Kans., since 
 1913. 
 
 Brandon, R. H., Supt. .of Sch., New Paris, 
 Ohio. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 377 
 
 Brandt, Rose K., A. B. '14, U. of Wis.; 
 M. A. '23, Columbia U. ; State Super. 
 Rural Sch., State Dept. of Pub. Inst., 
 Helena, Mont., since 1923. 
 
 Branigan, John, B. Sc, '15, Univ. of Nebr., 
 Supt. of Sch., Gilbert, Ariz., since 1924. 
 
 Braughton, Garnett, Co. Supt. of Sch., Hot 
 Springs, Ark. 
 
 Breckner, Elmer L., A. B. and B. S. '13, 
 Univ. of Mo.; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 
 Olympia, Wash., since 1920. 
 
 Brendlinger, Margaret R., A. B. '95, Vassar 
 Col.; Prin. of Hillside Sch., Norwalk, 
 Conn., since 1908. 
 
 Brennan, P. Frank, Supt. of Sch., 1557 
 Oneida St., Shamokin, Pa. 
 
 Brennan, P. M., Supt. of Sch., Dickson City, 
 Pa. 
 
 Brewer, A. L., L. I. and A. B. '02, Peabody 
 Col. for Tchrs., Supt. of Sch., Tallapoosa, 
 Ga., since 1917. 
 
 Bridges, D. W., Supt. of Sch., 9 Crescent 
 Ave., Fort Thomas, Ky. 
 
 Bright, Ira J., B. S. '16, State Norm. Col.; 
 M. A. '18, Teh. Col. Columbia U. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Times Bldg., Leavenworth, Kans., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Bright, Orville T., Supt. of Sch., Dolton, 
 111. 
 
 Brinkley, E. S., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 1 Pel- 
 ham PL, Norfolk, Va. 
 
 Brinser, Ira S., A. B. '20, Franklin & Mar- 
 shall Col.; Ed. M. *2i, Harvard U. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Lewes, Dela., since 1921. 
 
 Bristow, William H., B. S., '20, Mo. State 
 Teh. Col.; A. M. '22, T. C. Columbia U.; 
 Supg. Prin., Milford, Pa., since 1923. 
 
 Brock, George William, A. B. '00, LL. D. 
 '23, Univ. of Ala.; LL. D. '17, Howard 
 Col.; Pres. State Norm. Sch., Livingston, 
 Ala. 
 
 Brockman, Myron E., A. B., '03, Furman 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Box 378, Chester, 
 S. C. 
 
 Brodhead, John C., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 38 Montclair Ave., Roslindale, Mass. 
 
 Bronsky, Amy, State Norm. Sch., Superior, 
 Wis. 
 
 Brooks, Maro S., A. B. '92, Tufts; Supt. ol 
 Sch., Medford, Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Brooks, R. E., Supt. of Sch., 812 Highlow 
 Ave., Albany, Ga. 
 
 Brooks, T. Latimer, B. A. '06, Dickinson; 
 M. A. '15, Columbia; Supt. of Sch., Somer- 
 ville, N. J., since 1921. 
 
 Brooks, W. G., B. E. '07, Nebr. State Tchrs. 
 Col.; A. B. '10, York Col.; A. M. '15, 
 Tchrs. Col., Columbia U. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 917 Platte Ave., York, Nebr., since 1922. 
 
 Broome, Edwin C, Ph. B. '97, A. M. '98, 
 Brown Univ.; Ph. D. '02, Columbia Univ.; 
 LL. B. '07, St. Lawrence Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Philadelphia, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Brothers, C. A., A. B. 'n, Lake Forest U. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S., D wight, 111. 
 
 Brown, Bertram D., Supt. of Sch., 141 Cen- 
 tral St., Hudson, Mass. 
 
 Brown, C. W., Supt. of Sch., Albert Lea, 
 Minn. 
 
 Brown, Emmett, B. A. '96, Univ. of Nash- 
 ville; Supt. of Sch., H. S., Chambers Bldg., 
 Cleburne, Tex., since 1913. 
 
 Brown, Frederic N., A. B. '99, Harvard U.; 
 Supervising Prin., Verona, N. J., since 
 1903. 
 
 Brown, George Earl, A. M. '19, Denver 
 Univ.; A. B. '13, Colo. State Tchrs. Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Greeley, Colo., since 1916. 
 
 Brown, Harry Alvin, A. B. '03, Bates Col. ; 
 A. B. '07, A. M. '23, Univ. of Colo.; 
 Pres. State Norm. Sch., 440 W. New York 
 Ave., Oshkosh, Wis., since 1917. 
 
 Brown, Helen L., Co. Supt. of Sch., Tomb- 
 stone, Ariz. 
 
 Brown, Howard E., A. B. '10, Syracuse 
 Univ.; A. M. '23, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 517 Ohio St., Medina, N. Y., 
 since igi8. 
 
 Brown, J. Stanley, A. B. '89, LL. D. '14, 
 Denison Univ. ; Pres. State Col. for Teh., 
 Col. Bldg., De Kalb, 111., since igig. 
 
 Brown, R. L., Supt. of Sch., Marshall, Minn. 
 
 Brown, Raymond N., B. S. '09, Amherst; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 256, Thomaston, Conn, 
 since 1921. 
 
 Brown, Roy W., '16, State Normal Diploma; 
 Super. Prin. of Sch., Bergenfield, N.. J., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Brown, Stella E., B. S. '18, Teh. Col., Co- 
 lumbia U.; Supr. Norm. Elem. Dept., Md. 
 State Normal, Seven Belmar Ave., Balti- 
 more, Md., since 1924. 
 
 Brown, T. N., A. B. '13, Ohio State U. ; 
 Supt. of Village Rural Schs., Reynolds- 
 burg, Ohio, since 1920. 
 
 Brown, V. I., Supt. of Sch., Watseka, 111. 
 
 Browning, F. L., Pres. State Tchrs. Assn.; 
 Trenton, Tenn. 
 
 Broyles, V. L., A. M. Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Fulton, Ky., since 1921. 
 
 Brubacher, A. R., B. A. '97, Ph. D. '02, Yale 
 Univ.; Pres. N. Y. State Col. for Teh., 
 State Col., Albany, N. Y., since 19*5- 
 
 Bruce, C. H, A. B. '92, Emery; Supt. of 
 Sch., Macon, Ga., since 1912. 
 
 Bruner, Charles, Supt. of Sch., Kewanee, 111. 
 
 Bruner, Herbert Bascom, A. B. '13, Central 
 Col., Fayette, Mo.; A. M. '15, Mo. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Okmulgee, Okla., since 1918. 
 
 Brunyate, E. R., A. B. '03, A. M. '06, Dick- 
 inson; County Supt. of Sch., Court House, 
 Cape May, N. J., since 1922. 
 
 Bryan, James E., A. B. '90, Johns Hopkins 
 
 Univ.; Ph. D. '08, Univ. of Pa.; Supt. of 
 
 Sch., 412 Linden St., Camden, N. J., since 
 1899. 
 
 Bryan, William L., Pres. Ind. Univ., Bloom- 
 ington, Ind. 
 
378 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Bubeck, Allan E., Ph. B. '13, Dickinson Col.; 
 
 A. M. '24, Columbia Univ. ; Supvg. Prin. 
 Public Sen.. H. S. Bldg., Schuylkill Ha- 
 ven, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Buchner, Edward Franklin, A. B. '89, Lean- 
 der Clark Col.; Ph. D. '93, Yale Univ., 
 LL. D. '24, Univ. of Ala. ; Dir. of Col. 
 for Tchrs., Prof, of Ed., Johns Hopkins 
 U., Baltimore, Md., since 1908. 
 
 Buck, Frank P., A. B. '04, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 295, St. Johns, 
 Mich., since 1910. 
 
 Buckley, Horace Mann, A. B. '08, North- 
 western Univ.; M. A. '12, Columbia Univ.; 
 
 B. D. '13, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., 6701 Delmar Ave., University City, 
 Mo., since 1916. 
 
 Bu Dahn, L. A., B. S., M. A., Columbia 
 Teachers Col.; Supt. of Sch., Asbury 
 Park, N. J., since 1922. 
 
 Buell, R. A., B. A. '01, Beloit, Wis.; Supt. 
 of Sch., H. S., Watertown, Wis., since 
 1924. 
 
 Buellesfield, Henry, Supt. of Sch., 1001 
 Douglass Ave., Yankton, S. Dak. 
 
 Bugbee, L. H., Supt. of Sch., West Hart- 
 ford, Conn. 
 
 Bukcr, W. H., Supt. of Sch., Meredith, 
 N. H. 
 
 Bullock, Agnes I., Co. Supt. of Sch., Eu- 
 reka, 111. 
 
 Bunce, Edgar F., B. S. '16, Tchrs. Col., Co- 
 lumbia U. ; Supr. Prin., H. S. Bldg., Mt. 
 Holly, N. J., since 1918. 
 
 Burdge, Howard G., B. A. '00, Allegheny 
 Col. ; M. A. '-20, Ph. D. '22, Columbia 
 Univ.; Prin. State Norm. Sch., Fredonia, 
 N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Burdick, Ernest H., Supt. of Sch., Middle- 
 town, N. Y. 
 
 Burdick, Raymond C, Supt. of Sch., 85 So. 
 Main St., Ticonderoga, N. Y. 
 
 Burdick, William, State Super, of Physical 
 Ed., 2706 Elsinor Ave., Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Burford, A. D., Supt. of Sch., Hanna, Wyo. 
 
 Burger, M. N., Supt. of Sch., Lawton, Mich. 
 
 Burke, Jeremiah Edmund, B. A. '90, M. A. 
 '93, D. L. '15, Colby Col.; LL. D. '22, 
 Villa Nova Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 15 Beacon 
 St., Boston, Mass., since 192 1. 
 
 Burling, B. B., 747-5ist St., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Burnett, John M., B. S. '12, Univ. of Ala.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Tuscaloosa, Ala., since 1924. 
 
 Burnett, Marguerite H., State Dept. of Pub. 
 Inst., H. S. Bldg., Wilmington, Del. 
 
 Burns, L. W., Supt. of Sch., Box 8, Mar- 
 tinsburg, W. Va. 
 
 Burrell, J. S., B. S. '06, Iowa State; Co. 
 Supt. of Sch., Olivia, Minn., since 1923. 
 
 Burrill, Fred W., A. B. '97, Bates Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., City Hall, Augusta, Maine, 
 since 1922. 
 
 Burris, Carl, B. S. in Ed., '14, Tchrs. Col. 
 '21, Warrensburg, Mo.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Sloan, Iowa. 
 
 Burt, R. F., A. B. '22, Oklahoma Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Glenpool, Okla., since 1922. 
 
 Burt, Rose W., Supt. of Sch., Bessemer, 
 Mich., since 1911. 
 
 Burton, Marion L., Pres. Univ. of Mich., 
 Ann Arbor, Mich. 
 
 Burtsfield, F. A., Supt. of Sch., West La- 
 Fayette, Ind. 
 
 Bush, George C, A. B. '98, A. M., Ind. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., South Pasadena, 
 Calif, since 1907. 
 
 Buswell, G. T., A. B. '13, York Col., Nebr. ; 
 A. M. '16, Ph. D. '20, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Asst. Prof, of Ed., U. of Chicago, Chicago, 
 111., since 1920. 
 
 Butler, L. A., Ph. B. '13, Univ. of Chicago; 
 M. A. '19, Columbia Univ.; M. Ed. '21, 
 Mich., Normal Col.; Supt. of Sch., Grand 
 Rapids, Mich. 
 
 Butler, S. R., Co. Supt. of Sch., 432 Eustis 
 St., Huntsville, Ala. 
 
 Butterfield, E. W., State Supt. of Sch., Con- 
 cord, N. H. 
 
 Button, F. C, A. M. '08, Bethany Col.; 
 Pres. Morehead St. Norm. Sch., Morehead, 
 Ky., since 1923. 
 
 Byrd, C. E., '83, Univ. of Va. ; Parish Supt. 
 of Sch., Shreveport, La., since 1907. 
 
 Byrne, Christopher J., Supt. of Sch., 300 
 Maloney Bldg., Ottawa, 111. 
 
 Byrne, Lee, Assoc. Prof, of Ed., Univ. of 
 Iowa, 416 W. i22d St., New York, N. Y., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Byrns, William D., Ph. B. '13, U. of Wis.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 200 Cayuga St., Iron River, 
 Mich., since 1918. 
 
 Cade, George N., Col. of Ed., U. of Ark., 
 Fayetteville, Ark. 
 
 Caldwell, L. L., Supt. of Sch., Hammond, 
 Ind. 
 
 Caldwell, Otis W., Dir. Lincoln Sch., Dir. 
 Inst, of Child Welfare Res., Tchrs. Col., 
 Columbia U., 425 W. 123d St., New York, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Callahan, John, State Supt. of Pub. Inst., 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
 Cameron, E. T., Ex. Sec, Mich. St. Tchrs. 
 Assn., 809 Prudden Bldg., Lansing, Mich. 
 
 Cameron, Norman W., A. B. '95, A. M. 'oo, 
 Washington Col.; Ph. D. '12, U. of Pa., 
 Supt. of Sch., Pottstown, Pa., since 1924. 
 
 Cammack, Ira I., A. B. '84, Earlham Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 201 Library Bldg.,. Kansas 
 City, Mo., since 1913. 
 
 Camp, Frederick Stanley, B. S. '91, Lehigh; 
 N. Y. Univ. '10; State Super, of Elemen- 
 tary Educ, Hartford, Conn., since ig22. 
 
 Camp, Harold L., B. A. '14, Grinnell Col.; 
 M. A. '17, Cornell U. ; Ph. D. '21, State 
 Univ. of Iowa; Assoc. Prof. Ed., Univ. of 
 N. Dak., Box 431, Univ. Sta., Grand 
 Forks, N. Dak., since 1923. 
 
 Campbell, Doak S., B. A. 'n, Ouachita Col.; 
 Pres. Central Col., Conway, Ark., since 
 1920. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 379 
 
 Campbell, Paul N., Prin. of H. S. ( Okmul- 
 gee, Okla. 
 
 Campton, C. E., Supt. of Sch., Two Har- 
 bors, Minn. 
 
 Canine, Edwin N., A. B. '01, Ind. State 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., East Chicago, Ind., 
 since 1904. 
 
 Cannon, Arthur M., Ph. B. '98, DePauw 
 Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Hood River, Ore- 
 gon, since 1920. 
 
 Cantwell, J. W., A. B. '93, Baylor U. ; A. B. 
 '94, Yale Univ. ; A. M. '02, LL. D. '20, 
 Baylor Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 1105 Holli- 
 day St., Wichita Falls, Tex., since 1923. 
 
 Capen, Samuel Paul, A. B. '98,- Tufts Col. ; 
 A. M. '00, Harvard U. ; Ph. D. '02, U. of 
 Pa.; LL. D. '20, Lafayette Col.; Chanc. 
 Univ. of Buffalo, 3435 Main St., Buffalo, 
 N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Carlson, E. C, Supt. of Sch., Ann Arbor, 
 Mich. 
 
 Carlson, E. W., Supt. of Sch., Champion, 
 
 Mich. 
 
 Carmical, R. C, A. B. '15, Hendrix Col.; 
 Co. Supt. Sch., Rison, Ark., since 1920. 
 
 Carmichael, Omer, A. B. '14, Univ. of Ala., 
 Supt. of Pub. Sch., Box 687, Selma, Ala., 
 since ig20. 
 
 Carney, Mabel, Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ., 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 Carpenter, D. E., Dean, I. C. S., Scranton, 
 Pa. 
 
 Carpenter, D. F., Supt. of Sch., Millers Falls, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Carr, Ernest Palmer, A. B. '01, Brown 
 Univ.; S. M. '05, Brown Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Marlboro, Mass., since 1912. 
 
 Carr, J. P., Supt. of Sch., Vicksburg, Miss. 
 
 Carr, J. W., State Normal Sch., Murray, Ky. 
 
 Carrick, Charles H., A. B., Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. cf Sch., Charlotte, Mich., since 1906. 
 
 Carrick, C. M., Supt. of Sch., Bellevue, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Carrothers, George E., B. A. '09, Ind. Univ.; 
 M. A. '15 T. C. Columbia U. ; Ph. D. '24, 
 Columbia U. ; Prof, of Ed., Dept. of Sch. 
 Admin., Ohio U., Athens, Ohio, since 
 1924. 
 
 Carter, Ewell M., B. S. in Educ, '05, Univ. 
 of Mo. ; Secretary, Mo. State Teachers 
 Assn., Columbia, Mo., since 1915. 
 
 Carter, Mrs. Susanne H, '96 Ore. State 
 Normal; Co. Supt. of Sch., Jacksonville, 
 Ore., since 1920. 
 
 Case, Egbert A., A. B. '04, A. M. '08, Bates 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Windham H. S., 
 Willimantic, Conn., since 1910. 
 
 Casey, Charles C, A. M. '06, Univ. of Den- 
 ver; A. B. '04, Ark. Conference Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Longmont, Colo., since 1913. 
 
 Casey, William V., Supt. of Sch., Boulder, 
 Colo., since 1884. 
 
 Cassady, E. N., Supt. of Sch., Brookfield, 
 111. 
 
 Cassidy, M. A., Supt. of Sch., 169 Ky. Ave., 
 Lexington, Ky. 
 
 Castelo, J. W., Supt. of Sch., La Moille, 111. 
 
 Cawthon, W. S., State Supt. of Sch., Talla- 
 hassee, Fla. 
 
 Cesander, P. K, Supt., Rushford, Minn. 
 
 Chace, S. Howard, A. B. '93, A. M. '96, 
 Brown Univ. ; '02, Hyannis State Nor- 
 mal Sch.; Supt. of Sch., Beverly, Mass., 
 since 1913. 
 
 Chadwick, Raymond D., Ph.B. '09, Frank 
 Col.; M. A. '24, Columbia U. ; Prin. Mor- 
 gan Park High and Stowe Sch., Morgan 
 Park, Duluth, Minn., since 1916. 
 
 Chalmers, James, A. B. '88, Ph.D. '89, Eu- 
 reka Col.; D. D. '02, Wheaton Col.; 
 LL. D. '04 West. Mich. Col.; Fellow, 
 '97-9, U. of St. Andrews, Scotland; Prin. 
 St. Norm. Sch., Framingham, Mass., since 
 1917. 
 
 Chamberlain, Arthur H., B. S. '03, A. M. 
 '04, Columbia U. ; Ex. Sec. Calif. Tchrs. 
 Assn. and Mg. Ed., Sierra Ed. News, 933 
 Phelan Bldg., San Francisco, Calif., since 
 1912. 
 
 Chambers, Will Grant, A. B. '94, M. A. '97, 
 Litt. D. '17, Lafayette Col.; B. S. '95, 
 Ind. St. Norm. Sch.; Dean, Sch. of Ed., 
 Pa. St. Col., State College, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Champion, Charles F., Supvg. Prin., Morris 
 Plains, N. J. 
 
 Chandler, F. H., A. B. 'n, Morningside 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Sheldon, Iowa, since 
 1920. 
 
 Chandler, J. A. C, Pres. College of William 
 and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 
 
 Chapman, Ira T., A. B. '03, Ohio Wesleyan 
 Univ., A. M. '05, Harvard Univ. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., 417 So. Broad St., Elizabeth, N. J., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Chapman, J. Virgil, State Supr. Rural Schs., 
 State Capitol, .Frankfort, Ky., since 1916. 
 
 Chase, W. Linwood, A. B. '20, Univ. of 
 Maine; Supt. of Sch., Boothbay Harbor, 
 Maine, since 1924. 
 
 Chase, Willard O., Supt. of Sch., Old Town, 
 Maine. 
 
 Cherry, H. H, L. L. D., Pres. Western St. 
 Tchrs. Col. and Norm. Sch., Bowling 
 Green, Ky., since 1907, 
 
 Cherry, T. C, A. B. '92, So. Normal Sch.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Bowling Green, Ky., since 
 I9°5- 
 
 Chesney, Mattie, Co. Supt., Wilber, Nebr., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Chew, Samuel L., B. S. '05, Temple Univ.; 
 A. M. '16, Univ. of Pa.; Dist. Supt. of 
 Sch., Northwest Sch., 15th & Race Sts., 
 Philadelphia, Pa., since 1906. 
 
 Child, George N., B. S., Univ. of Utah; 
 Supt. of Sch., 313 City & County Bldg., 
 Salt Lake City, Utah, since 1920. 
 
 Chittenden, Harold E., A. B. '09, Yale Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Naugatuck, Conn., since 
 1918. 
 
380 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Churchill, J. A., A. B., M. A., Ohio North- 
 ern Univ., M. A., Univ. of Oregon; Supt. 
 of Pub. Inst., Capitol Bldg., Salem, Ore- 
 gon, since 1913- 
 
 Clark, C. I., Supt., Drawer N., Stambaugh, 
 Mich. 
 
 Clark, Charles S., A. B. '82, A. M., Dart- 
 mouth; LL. B., Geo. Wash. Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 75 Munroe St., Somerville, Mass., 
 since 1908. 
 
 Clark, E. L., Supt. of Sch., Chelsea, Mich. 
 
 Clark, Henry G., Dist. Supt. of Sch., 208 
 So. Hamline Ave., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Clark, John S., Supt. of Sch., 20 N. St. 
 James St., Waukegan, 111. 
 
 Clark, Louise, B. S. '02, Columbia Univ. ; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, Santa 
 Rosa, Calif., since 1923- 
 
 Clark, M. G., Supt. of Sch., 101 City Bldg., 
 Sioux City, Iowa. 
 
 Clark, Mary R., Prin. Sch. Dept., State 
 Hosp. for Crip. Children, St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Clark, Randolph Lee, Supt. of Sch., 629 N. 
 Dixon St., Gainesville, Tex. 
 
 Clark, Ridgley C, B. A. '08, Bowdoin Col- 
 lege; Supt. of Sch., Seymour, Conn., since 
 1917. 
 
 Clarke, Ernest P., B. S. '83, Mich. Ag. Col., 
 Supt. of Sch., 1922 Niles Ave., St. Joseph, 
 Mich., since 1899. 
 
 Clarke, George B., A. B. '03, Harvard Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., East Pepperell, Mass., since 
 1920. 
 
 Claytor, R. H., Co. Supt. of Sch., Hillsboro, 
 N. C. 
 
 Clemens, Paul B., Asst. Supt. of Sch., Sch. 
 Admin. Bldg., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Clement, J. H., Supt. of Sch., 339 W. 8th, 
 Junction City, Kans. 
 
 Clements, M. K., Co. Supt. of Sch., 211 East 
 St., Athens, Ala. 
 
 Clendenen, Taylor C, Supt. of Sch., 811 
 26th St., Cairo, 111., since 1886. 
 
 Clerk, F. E., Ph. B. '03, Yale Univ.; LL. 
 B. '10, Lincoln-Jefferson; Supt. of Sch., 
 New Trier Township High School, Glen- 
 coe, 111., since 1923. 
 
 Clift, Gilbert B., A. B. '13, Okla. Baptist; 
 Supt. of Sch., Bartlesville, Okla. 
 
 Clifton, A. R., Ph. B. '08, U. of Wis.; 
 M. A. '18, U. of So. Calif.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Monrovia, Calif., since 1918. 
 
 Clough, G. O., B. A. '08, U. of Tex.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Box 266, Tyler, Tex., since 1920. 
 
 Clowes, Frederick Arthur, B. S. A. '08,. To- 
 ronto Univ.; Dir. Voc. Ed., Hilo, Hawaii, 
 since 1917. 
 
 Coats, Marion, A. B. '07, Vassar Col. ; M. A. 
 '12, Radcliffe Col.; Prin. of Bradford 
 Academy, Bradford, Mass., since 1918. 
 
 Cobb, B. B., Supt. of Sch., Waco, Tex. 
 
 Coblentz, C. R., Co. Supt. of Sch., Eaton, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Coburn, William G., A. B. '90, Univ. of 
 Mich.; LL. D. '23, Olivet Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 135 College St., Battle Creek, Mich., 
 since 1895. 
 
 Cocking, Walter D., B. A. '13, Des Moines 
 Col.; M. A. '22, State Univ. of Iowa; 
 Dir. of Jr. Ed., 416 Russell Bldg., San 
 Antonio, Tex., since 1922. 
 
 Cody, Frank, Pd. M. '12, Mich. State Norm. 
 Col.; M. A. '24 Univ. of Mich.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 1354 Bdwy. Ave., Detroit, Mich., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Coffman, Lotus D., B. A. '06, M. A. '10, 
 Ind. Univ.; Ph. D. '11, Columbia Univ.; 
 LL. D. '22, Ind. Univ.; Press. Univ. of 
 Minn., Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Cole, Albert S., A. B. '96, Colby Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Grafton, Mass., since 192 1. 
 
 Cole, Ernest E., 5035 N. Mozart St., Chi- 
 cago, 111. 
 
 Cole, Thomas R., Ph. B. '02; A. M. '03, Up- 
 per la. U. ; Supt. of Sch., Central Bldg., 
 Seattle, Wash. 
 
 Coleman, W. H., A. B. '09, Nebr. Wes. ; 
 A. M. '16, U. of Nebr.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Central Sch. Bldg., Rawlins, Wyo., since 
 1923. 
 
 Collicott, J. G., Supt. of Sch., 64 15th Ave., 
 Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Collins, E. A., Prin. H. S., Bessemer, Ala. 
 
 Collins, J. E., A. B. '03, Miami University, 
 230 W. High St., Oxford, Ohio, since 
 1924. 
 
 Collins, Thomas, Vancouver, B. C, Canada. 
 
 Colson. E. P., Supt. of Sch., North Scitu- 
 ate, R. I. 
 
 Condon, John F., A. B. '82, N. Y. City Col.; 
 A. M. '02, Fordham U. ; Ph. D. '04, N. Y. 
 U. ; Prin. P. S. 12 Bronx, Prof, of Ed., 
 Col. of New Rochelle, 2550 Frisby Ave., 
 New York, N. Y., since 1902. 
 
 Condon, Randall, J. A., A. B. '86, A. M. '89, 
 LL. D. '13, Colby Col.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Denton Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio, since 1913. 
 
 Congdon, Fayette K., A. B. '94, A. M. '97, 
 Syracuse U. ; Supt. of Sch., Northamp- 
 ton, Mass., since 1905. 
 
 Coniff, J. Robinson, State Dept. of Ed., Ba- 
 ton Rouge, La. 
 
 Conn, U. S., Pres. State Teachers Col., 
 Wayne, Nebr. 
 
 Conner, J. Carl, Supt. of Sch., Britton, Okla. 
 
 Considine, M. M. St. John, A. B. '12, Mt. 
 St. Mary's Col. ; A. M. '20, Fordham 
 Univ.; Dean, Mt. St. Mary's Col.; N. 
 Plainfield, N. J., since 1912. 
 
 Converse, Frank E., B. L. '88, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Beloit, Wis., since 
 1897. 
 
 Conwell, Russell H., LL. B. '66, Albany 
 Law Sch. ; D. D. '98, LL. D. '00, Temple 
 Univ. ; Pres. of Temple Univ., Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., since 1884. 
 
 Cook, A. F., B. A. 'io,, Ripon Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Hinsdale, 111., since 1919. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 381 
 
 Cook, Albert S., A. B. '95, A. M. '06, 
 Princeton Univ. ; Litt. D. '24, Univ. of 
 Md., '23, St. Johns Col.; '23, Western 
 Md. Col.; State Supt. of S&h., 15 Aig- 
 burth Rd., Towson, Md., since 1920. 
 
 Cook, Jason O., A. B. '06 A. M. '07, Brown 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Amherst, Mass., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Cook, L. T., Supt. of Sch., sog W. Lindsey, 
 Breckenridge, Tex. 
 
 Cookson, Charles W., A. B., B. Ped. '95, 
 A. M. '07, Ped. D. 'is, Ohio Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Central Ward Sch., Ur- 
 bana, Ohio, since 1924. 
 
 Cooley, R. L., M. A. '24, Univ. of Wis.; 
 Dir. Voc. Ed., 309 6th St., Milwaukee, 
 Wis., since 1912. 
 
 Coon, Charles L., Supt. of Sch., Wilson, 
 N. C. 
 
 Cooper, Charles Hermance, A. B. '77, A. M. 
 '80, Dartmouth Col. ; Pres. Mankato State 
 Teachers Col., Mankato, Minn., since 1898. 
 
 Cooper, Clarence G., B. S. '11, Teachers 
 Col., Columbia Univ. ; Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Towson, Md., since 1920. 
 
 Cooper, Edwin J., Supt. of Sch., Guttenberg, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Cooper, Harry P., 1816 Elliot Ave., Minne- 
 apolis, Minn. 
 
 Cooper, William John, A. B. '06, M. A. '17, 
 Univ. of Calif.; Supt. of Sch., 2525 Tuo 
 lumne St., Fresno, Calif., since 1921. 
 
 Cooper, Wilson C, Dist. Supt. of Sch., Sey- 
 mour and Knox Sts., Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Cope, Alfred B., A. B. '04, Campbell Col. ; 
 
 A. M. '06, U. of Kans. ; Dept. of Ed.; 
 Evansville Col., Evansville, Ind., since 
 1921. 
 
 Cornell, Clare B., Supt. of Sch., Shaker 
 Heights, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Corning, H. M., Supt. of Sch., 813 Tascosa, 
 Trinidad, Colo. 
 
 Corson, David B., Pd. M. '93, Pd. D. '13, 
 Ph. D. '24, N. Y. U.; LL. D. '21, Alfred 
 U. ; Supt. of Sch., 51 Berkeley Ave., New- 
 ark, N. J., since 1918. 
 
 Cortright, E. Everett, M. A. '22, N. Y. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 886 Main St., 
 Bridgeport, Conn., since 1922. 
 
 Cory, Frank M., A. B. '17, Ind. U. ; A. M. 
 '23, Tchrs. Col.; Dist. Supt. of Sch., 221 
 S. Main St., Oxford, Ohio, since 1923. 
 
 Cotton, Carl, A. B. '00, Colby Col.; LL. M. 
 '06, U. of Maine; Supt. of Sch., School 
 Dept., Derry, N. H., since 1920. 
 
 Cotton, F. A., A. B. '02, Butler Col.; Ph. 
 
 B. '02, Univ. of Chicago; LL. D. '05, 
 Franklin Col. ; Pres. Northern Ariz. State 
 Norm., Flagstaff, Ariz., since 1924. 
 
 Cottrill, Fred M., Prin. H. S., Salem, W. 
 Va. 
 
 Cougill, J. R., Supt. of Sch., Chariton, Iowa. 
 
 Coulomb, Charles A., B. S. '05, Temple 
 Univ.; Ph. D. '10, Univ. of Pa.; Asst. 
 Dist. Supt., 4249 Girard Ave., Philadelphia, 
 Pa., since 1916. 
 
 Coulter, B. L., Supt. of Sch., New Albany, 
 
 Miss. 
 
 Coultrap, Harry M., A. B. '06, U. of Cok). ; 
 A. M. '14, Ohio U. ; Supt. of Sch., 10 
 Anderson Blvd., Geneva, 111., since 1912. 
 
 Courtis, Stuart A., B. S. '19, M. A. '21, 
 Tchrs. Col., Columbia U. ; Prof, of Ed., 
 Sch. of Ed., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, 
 Mich., since 1924. 
 
 Cousins, A. B., Pres. S. Tex. State Tchrs. 
 Col., Kingsville, Tex. 
 
 Cowart, Ralph W., M. A. '21, T. C. Colum- 
 bia U. ; B. S. '14, U. of Ala.; B. Pd. '10, 
 Normal Col., Troy, Ala.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Box 71, Albany, Ala., since 1915. 
 
 Cox, Harry S. Supt. of Sch., City Bldg., 
 Covington, Ky. 
 
 Coxe, Charles, A. B., Ph. B. '05, Lafayette 
 Univ., A. M. '12, Harvard Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Lewistown, Pa. 
 
 Coxe, Warren W., B. Sc. '11, Dakota Wes- 
 leyan U. ; Ph. D. '23, Ohio State U. ; 
 Chief, Ed. Measmnts., Bur. St., Dept. of 
 Ed., Albany, N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Craig, Geo. W., Supv. Prin. of Sch., East 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Crandell, C. W., A. B. '19, Supt. of Sch., 
 Cadillac, Mich., since 1920. 
 
 Crane, Arthur G., U. of Wyo., Laramie, 
 Wyo. 
 
 Crane, Arthur W., A. M. '05, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; A. B. '03, Des Moines Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Creston, Iowa, since 1919. 
 
 Cranefield, Edna, Aberdeen Normal, Di- 
 ploma; County Supt. of Sch., Redfield, 
 S. Dak., since 1920. 
 
 Cranmer, Clyde W., Supt. of Sch., Kittan- 
 ning, Pa. 
 
 Crann, J. H, Prin. York Com. H. S., 
 Winterset, Iowa. 
 
 Crawford, Clarence, C, Ph. B. '06, Grove 
 City Col.; Prin. Edinboro St. Norm. Sch., 
 Edinboro, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Crawford, Floyd W., 310 S. 4th St., Niles, 
 
 Mich. 
 
 Crawford, M. J., A. B. '23, Central Mich. 
 Normal Sch., Supt. of Sch., Reed City, 
 Mich, since 1923. 
 
 Creel, L. E., Supt. of Sch., Sheffield, Ala. 
 
 Creswell, Cordelia M., B. Pd. '11, Grand 
 Rapids Kndgtn. Tr. Sch. ; Sup. Special 
 Classes, Bd. of Ed., Strong Jr. H. S. 
 Bldg., Grand Rapids, Mich., since 1910. 
 
 Creutz, L. R., Supt. of Sch., Monroe, Wis. 
 
 Crissman, Geo. R., 411 So. Holden, War- 
 rensburg, Mo. 
 
 Crocker, J. N., Pd. M. '13, T. C, Warrens- 
 burg, Mo.; B. S. '20, Univ. of Mo.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Pub. Libr. Bldg., Sedalia, Mo., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Crockett, John A., Major, 1786 First N., 
 Logan, Utah. 
 
 Cross, H. A., B. A. '16, Grinnell Col.; Prin. 
 Univ. Sch., Iowa State Univ., Iowa City, 
 Iowa., since 1924. 
 
382 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Crozier, Norman R., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 3408 Cole Ave., Dallas, Tex. 
 
 Crumb, Herbert H., A. B. '05, A. M. '09, 
 Hamilton; Supt. of Sch., Endicott, N. Y., 
 since 1913. 
 
 Cubberley, Ellwood P., A. B. '91, Ind. U.; 
 A. M. '02, Ph. D. '05, Columbia U. ; LL. 
 D. '23, Univ. of Iowa; Dean Sch. of Ed., 
 Stanford University, Calif., since 1898. 
 
 Cummings, Frank L., A. B. '04, A. M. '11, 
 U. of Chicago; Supt. of Shorewood Sch., 
 Atwater and Frederick Sts., Milwaukee, 
 Wis., since 1923. 
 
 Cummings, L. O., A. B. '10, A. M. '11, Ed. 
 D. '21, Harvard Univ.; Asst. Prof, of 
 Educ, Harvard Sch. of Ed., Cambridge, 
 Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Cunningham, Helen, Rural Supervisor, Kent 
 Co., Dover, Del. 
 
 Cunningham, J. N., Supt. of Sch., Carroll, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Cunningham, R. J., Ex. Sec. Mont. Ed. 
 Assn., Helena, Mont. 
 
 Curfman, Wayne White,' A. M. '20, T. C. 
 Columbia U. ; Ass't to Supt., 15th and N 
 St., Lincoln, Nebr., since 1920. 
 
 Curtis, George H., A. B. '99, Albion, Mich.; 
 A. B. '04, A. M. '12, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Alpena, Mich., since 1919- 
 
 Curtis, John W., 8401 Dexter Blvd., Detroit, 
 Mich. 
 
 Curtis, W. R., A. B. '08, Ind. Univ.; A. M. 
 '12, Columbia Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Alton, 
 111., since 1921. 
 
 Cushing, Herbert L., A. B. '14, Grand Island 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Ord, Nebr., since 
 1922. 
 
 Cutright, Prudence, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 929 State St., La Crosse, Wis. 
 
 Cutts, C. W., Supt. of Sch., Hanover, N. H. 
 
 Dake, Hattie C, Co. Supt. of Sch., 104 
 Dewey St., Harvard, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Dalche, August Victor, A. B. '10, Tulane 
 U. of La.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., Orleans 
 Parish Sch. Bd. Office, New Orleans, La., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Daniel, Roland B., Supt. of Sch., 1500 
 Broad St., Columbus, Ga. 
 
 Dann, Hollis, Mus. D. '06, Alfred U., State 
 Dir. of Music, 3213 N. Front St., Harris- 
 burg, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Darling, Frederick R., A. B. '03, Univ. of 
 Chicago, Supt. of Sch., Dunkirk, N. Y., 
 since 1916. 
 
 Darling, William T., Supt. of Sch., Wau- 
 watosa, Wis. 
 
 Daugherty, Charles F., B. S. '16, U. of Mo.; 
 A. M. '20, T. C. Columbia U. ; State H. 
 S. Insp., Jefferson City, Mo., since 1923. 
 
 Davee, H. A., Supt. of Sch., River Falls, 
 Wis. 
 
 Davidson, W. M., A. B. '02, Univ. of Kans. ; 
 LL. D. '09, Miami Univ.; LL. D. '09, 
 Univ. of Neb.; LL. D. '16, Bethany Col.; 
 LL. D. '17, Univ. of Pitts.; Supt. of Sch., 
 6814 Thomas Blvd., Pittsburgh, Pa., since 
 1914. 
 
 Davies, John C, B. A. '05, Upper la. Univ. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., La Grange, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Davies, W. J., Supt. of Sch., Grandville, 
 Mich. 
 
 Davis, Charles S., Supt. of Sch., Steelton, 
 Pa. 
 
 Davis, C. R., Prin. High Sch., Auburn, 111. 
 
 Davis, Chester P., Supt. of Sch., 306 Church 
 St., Alva, Okla. 
 
 Davis, Daniel W., Supervising Prin., H. S. 
 Bldg., Pitman, N. J., since 1905. 
 
 Davis, H. A., A. B. '06, Olivet, Mich.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Port Huron, Mich., since 1917. 
 
 Davis, Hughes B., B. A. '17, Okla. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 277, Duncan, Okla., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Davis, H. H., 5316 Pershing Ave., St. 
 Louis, Mo. 
 
 Davis, John C, Supt. of Sch., Chapel St., 
 Needham, Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Davis, J. Thomas, B. S. '20, A. and M. Col., 
 of Tex.; A. B. '18, M. A. '21, Univ. of 
 Tex. ; Dean John Tarleton Agri. Col., 
 Stephenville, Tex., since 1919. 
 
 Davis, Mary Dabney, M. A. '24, T. C, 
 Columbia U. ; Grad. Student at Columbia, 
 Darien, Conn. 
 
 Davis, Morgan D., B. S. '20, Univ. of Nebr.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Upton, Wyo., since 1922. 
 
 Davis, M. G., A. B. '14, Ind. Univ.; A. M. 
 '20, Wis. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Brooklyn, 
 Iowa, since 1921. 
 
 Davis, T. F., A. B. '16, N. W. Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Royal Oak, Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Davis, T. S., Co. Supt. of Sch., Hollidays- 
 burg, Pa. 
 
 Davis, Walter B., Ped. D. '22, Alfred Col.; 
 Supv. Prin., Madison, N. J., since 1920. 
 
 Day, C. E., B. Ph. 'io, Drake Univ.; M. 
 A. '23, U. of la.; Supt; Co. Sch., Aurelia, 
 la., since 1922. 
 
 Deahl, J. N., A. B. '93, Harvard U. ; Ph. D. 
 '06, Columbia U. ; Hd. Dept. of Ed., Prof, 
 of Ed., W. Va. U.; 442 Park St., Morgan- 
 town, W. Va., since 1901. 
 
 Dean, H. A., Supt. of Sch., 33 W. Crystal 
 Lake Ave., Crystal Lake, 111. 
 
 Dean, R. G., Supt. of Sch., California, Pa. 
 
 Deardorff, M. H., Ph. B. '11, A. M. '13, 
 Dickinson Col.; Supt. of Sch., 15 Jackson 
 Ave., Warren, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 DeBell, W. H., Dept. Supt. of Sch., 240 
 21st. Ave., San Francisco, Calif. 
 
 DeButts, Clarence E., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 242 N. Parkside Ave., Chicago, 111. 
 
 De Camp, John A., B. A. '00, M. A. '06, 
 Williams Col.; Supt. of Sch., 13 Elizabeth 
 St., Utica, N. Y., since 1917. 
 
 Decker, Chas. E., M. A. '19, U. of Wis.; 
 Supt. Wethersfield Sch., Kewanee, 111., 
 since 1920. 
 
 De Lay, Glenn A., Supt. of, Sch., Neodesha. 
 Kans. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 383 
 
 Dellicker, Helen Maude, B. S. *i8, M. A. '24, 
 T. C, Columbia U. ; Gram. Supvr., 16 
 Miller Stile Rd., Quincy 69, Mass., since 
 1918. 
 
 Del Manzo, M. C, Supt. of Sch., Lawrence, 
 Kans. 
 
 Delzell, Earl B., A. B. '12, Highland Park 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., 129 E. Clarinda Ave., 
 Shenandoah, la., since 1919. 
 
 Dement, Mrs. Nettie B., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Dempsey, John A., Supt. of Sch., 306 S. 
 Valley Ave., Olyphant, Pa. 
 
 Denison, Edmund D., A. B. '99, N. W. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 224 Warren St., 
 Lake Geneva, Wis., since 1922. 
 
 Denison, H. S., Supt. of Sch., Zeeland, 
 Mich. 
 
 Dennis, A. J., M. A. '07, Scio, Mt. Union; 
 Supt. of Sch., Smithfield, O., since 19 18. 
 
 Dennison, Gertrude, B. A. '98, Alfred Col. ; 
 Supv. Elemen. Gr., Sioux City, la., since 
 1913. 
 
 Denny, W. A., Supt. of Sch., 104 West 8th, 
 Anderson, Ind. 
 
 Densberger, Frank C, A. B. '08, Syracuse 
 Univ.; A. M. '21, Teachers Col., Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 82 Tremaine Ave., 
 Kenmore, N. Y., since 1915. 
 
 Derbyshire, Grant E., Supt. of Sch., 401 E. 
 State, Princeton, Ind. 
 
 Desmond, John J., Jr., A. B. '09, A. M. '10, 
 Harvard Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Market 
 Squ., Chicopee, Mass. 
 
 Dessureau, Dora, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House Bldg., Antigo, Wis., since 1923. 
 
 DeWolf, George E., A. B. '12, Univ. of 
 Nebr. ; M. A. '20, Harvard Univ. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Plattsmouth, Nebr., since 1921. 
 
 Deyo, Louis DeWitt, B. S. '06, A. M. '14, 
 Columbia Univ.; Co. Supt., 52 W. Union 
 Ave., Bound Brook, N. J., since 1923. 
 
 Dick, L. C, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, 
 London, O., since 1917. 
 
 Dickey, Charles E., M. E. '93, Calif. State 
 Normal; B. A. '20, Univ. of Pitts.; Co. 
 Supt. of Sch., 595 Union Arcade, Pitts- 
 burgh, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Dickson, Virgil E., Deputy Supt., 1106 City 
 Hall, Oakland, Calif. 
 
 Diehl, John C, A. B. '87, A. M. '03, Yale; 
 Supt. of Sch., Library Bldg., Erie, Pa., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Diener, U. E., B. S. '17, Miami Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 536 E. Livingston St., 
 Celina, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Dienst, Chas. F., Supt. of Sch., Boise, Idaho. 
 
 Dieterich, H. C, A. B. '05, Ohio State 
 Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 2453 Plymouth Rd., 
 Bexley, Columbus, Ohio, since 1924. 
 
 Dietrich, George C, Ph. B. '98, Ohio State 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 520 W. Ash St., 
 Piqua, Ohio, since 1909. 
 
 Dietrich, H. O., Supt. of Sch., Norristown, 
 Pa. 
 
 Dietrich, John, Supt. of Sch., 703 9th Ave., 
 Helena, Mont. 
 
 Diffendafer, Alton P., '89, State Normal, 
 Lock Haven, Pa. ; Dist. Supt. of Sch., 101 
 Hanover St., Nanticoke, Pa., since 1902. 
 
 Dille, George Earle, B. S. '20, State Tchrs. 
 Col., Kirksville, Mo.; Supt. of Sch., 425 
 N. Clay St., Memphis, Mo., since 1920. 
 
 Dillingham, Paul, A. B. '13, Tufts; Supt. of 
 Sch., Town Hall, Falmouth, Mass., since 
 1923. 
 
 Dimmett, W. S., Supt. of Sch., Rock Falls, 
 111. 
 
 Dinsmore, E. M., Supt. of Sch., 310 W. 
 Michigan, Electra, Tex. 
 
 Dobson, W. C, Supt. of Sch., Nashville, 
 Tenn. 
 
 Dockrill, James C, LL. B. '93, Lake For- 
 rest; 330 E. 22nd St., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Dodd, H. W., Supt. of Sch., 221 S. 17th St., 
 Allentown, Pa. 
 
 Dodson, Edwin Calvin, A. . B. '04, Ind. 
 Univ.; A. M. '14, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Grand Ave. and 16 St., Conners- 
 ville, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Dohner, A. J., A. M. '05, Findlay; Supt. 
 of Sch., n Johnston St., Salem, N. J., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Dolfinger, Emma, Ph. B. '03, U. of Chicago ; 
 M. S. '15, T. C. Columbia U. ; Dir. Health 
 Ed. Div., Am. Child Hlth. Assn., 370 7th 
 Ave., New York, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Domitilla, Mother M., A. B. '14, St. Mary 
 Col. ; Sup. Gen., St. Mary Col., Monroe, 
 Mich., since 1918. 
 
 Dondineau, Arthur, Supv. of Social Sciences, 
 Yost Bldg., Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Donley, H. H, Supt. of Sch., Brush, Colo. 
 
 Dooley, Donald, B. S. '19, Bethany Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 430, St. Clairsville, 
 Ohio, since 1920. 
 
 Dorr, John H., Supt. of Sch., Monongahela, 
 Pa. 
 
 Dorsey, Susan M., A. B. '77, Vassar Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 716 Security Bldg., Los 
 Angeles, Calif., since 1920. 
 
 Doudna, E. G., Ph. B. '16, Wis.; Sec. State 
 Tchrs. Assn., 611 Beaver Bldg., Madi- 
 son, Wis. 
 
 Dougall, John Bernard, B. A. '08, Adelphi 
 Col.; M. A. '24, Yale Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 90 Mountain Ave., Summit, N, J., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Doughton, Isaac, A. B. '06, Harvard; A. M. 
 '22, Univ. of Pa.; Supt. of Sch., Phcenix- 
 ville, Pa., since 19 13. 
 
 Douglass, Bennett C, 89 N. Prospect St., 
 Burlington, Vt. 
 
 Douglass, Carleton E., Ph. B. '99, Univ. of 
 Chicago; A. M. '17, Columbia Univ.; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., Madison and Lafayette, 
 Baltimore, Md., since 1921. 
 
 Douglass, Wesley H, Supt. of Sch., White- 
 field, N. H. 
 
384 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Douthett, Walter R., A. B. '12, Ursinus 
 Col.; A. M. '20, U. of Pa.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Walnut St., Darby, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Dow, H. E., B. A. '06, State U. of la.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Villisca, la., since 1924. 
 
 Dow, Harold F., B. S. '10, Colby; Supt. of 
 Sch. Box D, Swampscott, Mass., since 
 1920. 
 
 Dowling, H. G., Co. Supt. of Sch., Cullman, 
 Ala. 
 
 Drake, Ellis H., A. B. '04, U. of Ind. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., 503 Peck Bldg., Kalamazoo, Mich., 
 since 1915. 
 
 Drake, Flora E., M. A. '17, Columbia U. ; 
 B. A. 'n, Ind.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 150 
 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis, Ind., since 
 1922. 
 
 Drake, O. B., B. S. '02, Ohio Northern 
 Univ.; A. B. '10, Denver Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Canon City, Colo., since 1919- 
 
 Dressel, Herman, B. L. '90, B. A. '95, Nor- 
 wich Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 149 Stewart 
 Ave., Kearney, N. J., since 1907. 
 
 Driver, Lee L., A. B. '19, Ind. Univ.; B. 
 
 A. '19, Earlham Col.; LL. D. '21, Wabash 
 Col.; Dir. of Rural Ed., State Dept. of 
 Pub. Instr., 711 N. 2nd St., Harrisburg, 
 Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Drown, Carrol H., Supt. of Sch., Hopedale, 
 Mass. 
 
 Drum, Warren Nevin, B. S. '14, A. M. '15, 
 Teachers Col., Columbia Univ.; Prin. Cen- 
 tral State Normal, Lock Haven, Pa., since 
 1920. 
 
 Drummond, Glenn, A. B. '09, O. N. U. ; A. 
 
 B. '11, Antioch; Co. Supt. of Sch., Belle- 
 fontaine, O., since 1923. 
 
 Duboc, Jessie L., State Rural Sch. Supvr., 
 Capitol Bldg., Helena, Mont. 
 
 Duffey, H. S., Supt. of Sch., Winchester, Va. 
 
 Duffield, Edmund T., A. B. '04, Middlebury 
 Col., Vt. ; A. M. '08, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 913 S. 5th Ave., Virginia, 
 Minn., since 1920. 
 
 Duncan, Gerald R., Supt. of Sch., Rock 
 Falls, Iowa. 
 
 Duncan, J. F., A. B. '03, U. of Nebr. ; Dean 
 Corner Col., Hd. Dept. of Ed., Bethany, 
 Nebr., since 1919. 
 
 Dunckel, O. E., B. S. '21, Mich. Agr. Col. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 72, Sand Creek, Mich., 
 since ig22. 
 
 Dunn, A. H., Supt. of Sch., Fort Collins, 
 Colo. 
 
 Durant, Thomas J., B. A. '92, Upper la. U. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Sumner, la., since i8gg. 
 
 Dushane, Donald, Supt. of Sch., Columbus, 
 Ind. . 
 
 Dwight, Charles A. S., B. A. '81, Yale Col.; 
 M. A. '01, N. Y. U. ; M. A. '02, Yale U. ; 
 Ph. D. '09, Boston U. ; Hd. Dept. of Ed.; 
 Prof, of Psycho., Keuka Col., Box 126, 
 Keuka Park, N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Eagan, Louella, Dist. Supt. of Sch., 3726 
 Milan St., New Orleans, La. 
 
 Eagleson, J. O., B. S. '09, Muskingum, 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., 317 S. Pickaway St., 
 Circleville, Ohio, since 1920. 
 
 Earley, Albert, State Rural Supv., George- 
 town, Del. 
 
 Early, J. J., A. B. '01, Ind.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Box 897, Sheridan, Wyo., since 1908. 
 
 Earnest, W. W., A. B. '08, A. M. '24, Univ. 
 of 111.; Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 136, 
 Champaign, 111., since 1908. 
 
 Eaton, George D., Supt. of Sch., Clarion, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Eaton, Gertrude F., 1006 Douglas, Sioux 
 City, Iowa. 
 
 Eaton, Henry M., B. A. '17, Fremont Col.; 
 M. Sc. 'oi, Salins Univ.; Co. Supt. Pub. 
 Inst., Court House, Omaha, Nebr., since 
 1923. 
 
 Eckert, Paul Y., A. B. '06, Dickinson; LL. 
 B. '16, Univ. of Ore.; A. M. '20, Dick- 
 inson; Supt. of Sch., Ocean Grove, N. 
 J., since 1920. 
 
 Eckles, Isabel Lancaster, M. A. '23, State 
 
 Tchrs. Col.; State Supt. of Pub. Inst., 
 
 State House, Santa Fe, N. Mex., since 
 1923. 
 
 Eckles, Port, A. B. '14, Hiram Ohio Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Homestead, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Eddy, Arthur W., A. B. '04, Middlebury; 
 Supt. of Sch., 34 Weybridge St., Middle- 
 bury, Vt., since ign. 
 
 Eddy, Theo. V., Supt. of Sch., Three Oaks, 
 Mich. 
 
 Eddy, William Holden, A. B. '92, A. M. '93, 
 Ph. D. '99, Brown U. ; 1st Asst. Supt. 
 Sch., 9 Exchange Terrace, Providence, 
 R. I., since 1918. 
 
 Edgerton, T. A., Supt. of Sch., Humboldt, 
 Kans. 
 
 Edmunds, Henry H., '95, 111. State Normal 
 Univ. Diploma; Supt. of Sch., 617 W. 
 Main, Clinton, 111., since 1907. 
 
 Edwards, H. R., Supt. of Sch., So. Mil- 
 waukee, Wis. 
 
 Egan, Nora L., Dist. Prin., 2672 W. Grand 
 Blvd., Detroit, Mich. - 
 
 Egelhoff, J. A., Supt. of Sch., 605 W. Pine, 
 Jerseyville, 111. 
 
 Eikenberry, W. L., B. S. '94, Univ. of Mich., 
 Hd. Science Dept., Norm. Sch., East 
 Stroudsburg, Pa., since ig22. 
 
 Eilenberger, R. J., Supt. of Sch., Butler, 
 N. J. 
 
 Eisenhart, W. W., B. S. '17, M. A. '21, 
 Univ. of Pa.; Supt. of Sch., Tyrone, Pa., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Elcan, E. G., A. B. '08, Hampden Sidney 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Bainbridge, Ga., since 
 ig2o. 
 
 Eldred, Arvie, Supt. of Sch., Troy, N. Y. 
 
 Eldridge, A. C, Asst. Supt. of Sch., Rock- 
 well Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Elliott, A. W., A. B. '05, Ohio Wesleyan 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 704 N. Gay St., 
 Mt. Vernon, Ohio, since 1921. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 385 
 
 Elliott, E. A., Supt. of Sch., 426 N. 10th 
 St., Fredonia, Kans. 
 
 Ellis, Henry G., A. B. '10, Randolph-Macon 
 Col., Supt. of Sch., City Hall Annex, 
 Petersburg, Va., since 1923. 
 
 Ellis, Melvina, 1029 5th St., Lorain, Ohio. 
 
 Ellis, Radford Terrell, B. A. '15, Tex. 
 Christian U. ; Ex. Sec. Tex. State Tchrs. 
 Assn., 304-305 N. P. Anderson Bldg., 
 Fort Worth, Tex., since 1916. 
 
 Elmendorf, George M., Supt. of Sch., 121 
 Court St., Plattsburg, N. Y. 
 
 Emmett, H. T., Ph. B. '13, Wisconsin Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Worland, Wyo., since 1916. 
 
 Emmons, P. C, A. B. '00, Ind. U. ; A. M. 
 '14, Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of Sch., Misha- 
 waka, Ind., since 1922. 
 
 Endsley, Andrew D., Supt. of Sch., Taren- 
 tum, Pa. 
 
 Engelhardt, Fred, Ph. B. '08, Yale U. ; M. 
 A. '15, Ph. D. '24, T. C. Columbia U. ; 
 Prof. Ed. Admin., Univ. of Minn., Col. 
 of Ed., Minneapolis, Minn., since 1924. 
 
 Engelhardt, N. L., A. B. '03, Yale Univ.; 
 Ph. D. '18, Columbia Univ.; Prof, of Ed., 
 Teachers Col., Columbia Univ., New 
 York, N. Y., since 1918. 
 
 Engleman, F. E., Supt. of Sch., Nevada, 
 Mo. 
 
 Engleman, James O., '01, Ind. State Normal 
 Sch. Diploma; A. B. '05, Ind. Univ.; A. 
 M. '18, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of Sch. 
 Terre Haute, Ind., since 1924. 
 
 Englund, Walter E., Supt. of Sch., Ely, 
 Minn. 
 
 Enright, John, State Com. of Ed., State 
 House, Trenton, N. J. 
 
 Erickson, Anna E., Co. Supt. of Sch., Inter- 
 national Falls, Minn., since 1924. 
 
 Erickson, Arthur G., A. B. 'n, A. M. '16, 
 Univ. of Mich.; M. Ed. '22, Mich. State 
 Normal Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Ypsilanti, 
 Mich., since 1919. 
 
 Erickson, John E., Supt. of Sch., 249 Col- 
 lege Ave., Houghton, Mich. 
 
 Ernst, Lillie R., Ph. B. '92, A. M. '07, 
 Wash. Univ.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 6058 
 Kingsbury Blvd., St. Louis, Mo., since 
 1920. 
 
 Ervin, Walter Evan, Ph. B. '95, DePauw U.; 
 A. M. '12, T. C. Columbia Univ.; Prof. 
 Sec. Ed., Centre Col., Box 232, Danville, 
 Ky., since 1919. 
 
 Erwin. Robert L., A. B. '92, A. M. '07, 
 Yale Univ.; Sc. D. '18, Ohio Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Steubenville, Ohio, since 1907. 
 
 Essery, Florence C, A. B. '14, M. A. '24, 
 Univ. of Mich.; Co. Sch. Com., Court 
 House, Ann Arbor, Mich., since 1924. 
 
 Estill, Harry F., Litt. D. '07, Austin Col. 
 Pres. Sam Houston State Teachers Col., 
 Huntsville, Tex., since 1908. 
 
 Ettinger, William L., B. A. '81, M. A., '91, 
 Manhattan Col.; M. D. '91, New York 
 Univ.; LL. D. '18, Manhattan Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 500 Park Ave., New York, N. Y., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Evans, Anna L., Asso. Dir. Dept. of Rural 
 Ed., Western State Normal Sch., 132 
 Catherine St., Kalamazoo, Mich. 
 
 Evans, Edwin B., Thiel Col., Greenville, Pa. 
 
 Evans, E. O., Supt. of Sch., Evansville, Wis. 
 
 Evans, Frank, '83, George Peabody Col.; 
 LL. D. '20, Univ. of S. Car.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 163 North Dean, Spartanburg, S. C, 
 since 1895. 
 
 Evans, L. B., Co. Supt. of Sch., .Augusta, 
 Ga. 
 
 Evenden, Edward S., '03, Oregon Normal 
 Sch. Diploma.; A. B. '10, A. M. 'ii, Stan- 
 ford Univ.; Ph. D. '19, Columbia Univ.; 
 Prof, of Ed., Tchrs. Col., Columbia Uni- 
 versity, 525 W. 1 20th St., New York, 
 N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Everest, C. A., A. M. '16, U. of Mich.; 
 Prin. Union H. S., Grand Rapids, Mich., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Everett, G. E., B. S. '17, A. M. '19, George 
 Peabody Col.; Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 3, 
 Lakeland, Fla., since 1921. 
 
 Everhart, Frances E., Alliance, Ohio. 
 
 Ewart, Joseph A., A. B. '93, Boston Univ. ; 
 Ed. M. '21, Harvard Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Milton, Mass., -since 1920. 
 
 Ewing, E .F., A. M. '13, Colo. Col.; A. B. 
 '04, Sterling Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Kinsley, 
 Kans., since 1922. 
 
 Fairchild, Milton, B. A., '90, Oberlin Col.; 
 '93 Andover Theo. Sem. ; Independ. Stud. 
 Character Ed. since 1896; Chmn. Character 
 Ed. Inst., 3770 McKinley St. N. W., Wash- 
 ington, D. C., since 1922. 
 
 Fairchild, R. W., Supt. of Sch., Elgin, 111. 
 
 Fairchild, W. W., A. B. '13, Syracuse; Supt. 
 of Sch., City Hall, Rutland, Vt., since 
 
 1921. 
 
 Fales, Lewis A., A. B. '98, Harvard; Supt. 
 of Sch., Sanford St., Attleboro, Mass., 
 since 1905. 
 
 Falk, H. A., Supt. of Sch., Sauk Center, 
 Minn. 
 
 Fannon, E. W., Supt. of Sch., Centerville, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Farmer, Fred B., Supt. of Sch., Storm Lake, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Farrin, Leon M., A. B. '15, Harvard U. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., North Hanover, Mass., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Farris, O. R., Supt. of Sch., Osborne, Kans. 
 
 Farthing, Birney D., Ph. B. '20, Ind. State 
 Normal Sch.; Co. Supt. of Sch., 232 E. 
 2nd St., Rushville, Ind., since 1922. 
 
 Fast, L. W., A. B. '20, A. M. '24, U. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Mt. Clemens, Mich., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Fausey, John R., A. B. '18, Syracuse U. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., 169 Park Ave., West Spring- 
 field, Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Fausold, Chas. D., Supt. of Sch., Perry, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Fausold, Samuel, A. B. '10, Gettysburg Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., High Sch. Bldg., 740 Park 
 Rd., Ambridge, Pa., since 1922. 
 
386 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Faust, Hugh G., A. B. '06, Carson-Newman 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Shawnee, Okla., since 
 1914. 
 
 Fell, E. E., Supt. of Sch., Holland, Mich. 
 
 Fellows, Ernest W., A. B. '94, Grinnell Col.; 
 A. M. 'ii, Univ. of la.; A. M. '17, Tchrs. 
 Col., Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 7 
 Beacon St., Gloucester, Mass., since 192 1. 
 
 Felmley, David, A. B. '81, U. of Mich.; 
 LL. D. '07, U. of 111.; L. H. D. '08, Black- 
 bum Col. ; Pres. 111. St. Norm. Univ., 207 
 North School St., Normal, 111., since 1900. 
 
 Fenner, John K., A. B. '98, Brown Univ.; 
 Supt. of. Sch., 147 Woodbine St., Cran- 
 ston, R. I., since 1917. 
 
 Fenton, F. C, Supt. of Sch., Bensenville, 
 111. 
 
 Fetterly, Clarence A., A. B. '97, A. M. '00, 
 Hamilton; Supv. Prin., Rutherford, N. J., 
 since 191 1. 
 
 Fewell, J. R., Supt. of Sch., Charleston, 
 Miss. 
 
 Fidler, Wm. L., Jr., Supt. of Sch., 185 Car- 
 lyle Rd., Audubon, N. J. 
 
 Fillers, Herbert D., S. B. '16, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; Supt. of Sch., Bo* 95, Corsicana, 
 Tex. 
 
 Finegan, Thomas E., M. A. '94, Hamilton 
 Col.; Pd. D. '09, N. Y. State Col. for 
 Tchrs.; LL. D. '12, Colgate Univ.; LL. D. 
 '17, Hamilton Col.; LL. D. '18, Univ. of 
 Maine; LL. D. '21, Temple Univ.; Litt. 
 D. '20, Univ. of Pa.; LL. D. '21, Dart- 
 mouth Col. ; L. H. D. '22, Susquehanna 
 Univ.; American Ed. Service, 350 Madison 
 Ave., New York City, since 1924. 
 
 Firman, Sidney G., B. S. '04, Pd. M. '05, 
 N. Y. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Glen Ridge, 
 N. J., since 1910. 
 
 Fisher, C. Edward, A. B. '98, St. Lawrence; 
 A. M. '12, Brown; Supt. of Sch., 39 Oak 
 St., Braintree, Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Fisher, Charles M., Supt. Pub. Instr., Court 
 House, Miami, Fla. 
 
 Fisher, E. C, Supt. of Sch., Rock Island, 111. 
 
 Fisher, Henry B., A. B. '96, N. W. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Streator, 111., since 19 14. 
 
 Fishpaugh, Clara B., 117 E. Main St., Buck- 
 hannon, W. Va. 
 
 Fitzgerald, M. E., Supt. of Sch., City Hall, 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 Fitzgerald, R. G., A. B. '15, Univ. of N. C; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Box 18, Greenville, 
 N. C. 
 
 Fitzgibbon, T. F., Supt. of Sch., 47 Orchard 
 Place, Muncie, Ind. 
 
 Fitzsimmons, L. J., A. B. '16, Kans. Univ.; 
 Prin. H. S., Eureka, Kans., since 1920. 
 
 Fletcher, Milton J., A. B. '88, Syracuse U.; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S., Jamestown, N. Y., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Flickinger, C. A., County Supt. of Sch., 
 Court House, Akron, O. 
 
 Flower, O. P., Supt. of Sch., Dubuque, la. 
 
 Foberg, J. A., B. S. '99, U. of 111.; Dir. 
 of Math, and Sc, State Dept. of Pub. 
 Inst., Harrisburg, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Fogle, Oscar M., A. B. '02, Roanoke, Col. ; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Easton, Md., since 1921. 
 
 Foote, John M., M. A. '23, George Pea- 
 body Col. for Tchrs.; State Supr. Elem. 
 and Rur. Sch., Reymond Bldg., Baton 
 Rouge, La., since 19 14. 
 
 Ford, Charles F., Supt. of Sch., 225 4th St., 
 Edwardsville, 111. 
 
 Ford, George M., A. B. '92, LL. B. '96, W. 
 Va. Univ.; State Supt. Sch., Capitol Bldg., 
 Charleston, W. Va., since 1921. 
 
 Foreman, J. W., Supt. of Sch., Goshen, Ind. 
 
 Foster, C. R., B. A. '11, M. A. '14, Univ. 
 of Pittsburgh; Assoc. Supt. of Sch., 729 
 Fulton Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa., since 1923. 
 
 Foster, Charles Smalley, A. B. '05, A. M. 
 
 '06, Antioch Col.; A. M. '11, Uni. of 
 
 Mich.; Asst. Co. Supt. of Sch., Casstown, 
 O., since 1923. 
 
 Foster, H. W., A. B. '77, Cornell Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 205 Garfield Place, South 
 Orange, N. J., since 1900. 
 
 Foust, J. L., Ph. B. '17, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., 1230 Locust St., Owens- 
 burg, Ky., since 1921. 
 
 Fowler, Wade C, B. S. '21, State Tchrs. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., 113 Hawthorne PI., 
 Hiawatha, Kans., since 1923. 
 
 Fowlkes, John Guy, Ph. D., Columbia Univ.; 
 Assoc. Prof, of Ed., 108 Bascom Hall, 
 U. W., Madison, Wis., since 1924. 
 
 Fox, E. E., B. S. '22, George Peabody Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Pontotoc, Miss., since 1922. 
 
 Fox, George, B. S. '23, St. Johns Col.; 
 
 Supt. of Sch., 86 Market St., Annapolis, 
 
 Md., since 1916. 
 Fox, John H., A. B. '17, Dickinson; Tchrs. 
 
 Col., Box 136, Morris Plains, N. J. 
 
 Frampton, S. A., B. S. '09, O. N. U. ; A. 
 B. '20, Wittenberg; Supt. of Sch., H. S. 
 Bldg., Bellefontaine, O., since 1923. 
 
 Francis, George C, Supt. of Sch., 7 Wash- 
 ington St., Manchester, Mass. 
 
 Francis, May E., Supt. of Pub. Inst., State 
 House, Des Moines, Iowa. 
 
 Franklin, B. D., A. B. '23, Univ. of N. C. ; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Newland, N. C, since 
 1923. 
 
 Frazee, Laura, 433 Kenneth Square, Balti- 
 more, Md. 
 
 Frederick, Oliver G., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 1354 Broadway, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Freeman, Frank N., B. A., '04, Wesleyan 
 Univ.; M. A. '06, Ph. D. '08, Yale Univ.; 
 Prof, in Dept. of Ed., Univ. of Chicago, 
 Chicago, 111., since 1909. 
 
 French, J. W., A. B. '12, B. S. '14, Univ. 
 of Kans.; A. M. '22, Tchrs. Col., Colum- 
 bia Univ.; Sup;, of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 
 Winfield, Kans., since 1922. 
 
 French, Lloyd C, A. B. '10, Ripon Col.; 
 Supv. Prin., 1299 Pa. Ave., Monaca, Pa., 
 since 1921. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 387 
 
 French, W. C, A. B. '07, Univ. of Okla.; 
 M. A. '24, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., Drumright, Okla., since 19 16. 
 
 Friend, Lloyd L., State Dept. of Ed., 
 Charleston, W. Va. 
 
 Frits, F. N., A. M. '16, Columbia; Supt. of 
 Sch., Clairton, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Frizzell, Bonner, A. B. '09, Tex. Christian 
 Univ.; B. S. 'n, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., P. O. Drawer 579, Palestine, 
 Tex., since 1919. 
 
 Frohardt, L. P., Supt. of Sch., 2223 D St., 
 Granite City, 111. 
 
 Frostic, F. W., Supt. of Sch., 129 Oak St., 
 Wyandotte, Mich. 
 
 Fuda, Anna M., State Suprvg. Agt., 65 
 Park PI., Meriden, Conn., since 1921. 
 
 Fuehrer, William L., B. E. '10, Schuylkill; 
 LL. B. '16, Hamilton; Supt. of Sch., 417 
 Elm St., Boyne City, Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Fulinder, L. A., Prin. H. S., 634 Lincoln 
 Blvd., Freeport, 111. 
 
 Fuller, Edward H., A. B. '12, A. M. '16, 
 
 Bates Col.; Supt. of Sch., Darien, Conn., 
 
 since 1923. 
 Fullerton, Charles Hayward, B. Ph. '98, M. 
 
 A. '11, Ohio State Univ.; Asst. Supt. of 
 
 Sch., 88 18th Ave., Columbus, O., since 
 
 1916. 
 Fuqua, F. Y., LL. D. '09, Peabody; Co. 
 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 36, Dresden, Tenn., 
 
 since 1915. 
 
 Furry, W. D., A. B. '00, M. A. '04, Notre 
 Dame Univ.; Ph.D. '07, Johns Hopkins 
 Univ. ; Dean and Prof, of Phil, and Ed., 
 Shorter Col., Rome, Ga., since 1919. 
 
 Furth, F. Willard, Supt. of Sch., 400 Fel- 
 ton Ave., Highland Park, N. J. 
 
 Gage, Snyder, J., A. B. '99, Union Col.; 
 Pd. B. '01, Albany Normal Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 98 Grand St., Newburgh, N. Y., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Gallagher, Oscar C, A. B. '96, A. M. '06, 
 Harvard; Supt. of Sch., Town Hall, Brook- 
 line, Mass., since 1919. 
 
 Galloway, T. W., Am. Social Hygiene Assn., 
 370 Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y. 
 
 Gallup, Jackson, Prin. Sch. No. 18, Roches- 
 ter, N. Y. 
 
 Gamble, C. B.', Supt. of Sch., Demopolis, 
 Ala. 
 
 Gamble, William D., A. B. '96, A. M. '01, 
 Westminster; Supt. of Sch., 198 Cedar 
 Ave., Sharon, Pa., since 1913. 
 
 Gamertsfelder, C. C, A. B. '09, Northwest- 
 ern Col.; Supt. of Sch., Decorah, Iowa, 
 since 1921. 
 
 Gamertsfelder, P. G., Supt. of Sch., Elka- 
 der, Iowa. 
 
 Ganders, Harry S., B. Ed. '20, A. M. '22, 
 Univ. of Wash.; Prof, of Ed. Admin., 
 State Tchrs. Col., 4 Lafayette Apts., Gree- 
 ley, Colo., since 1924. 
 
 Gannon, John F., B. A. 'g6, M. A. '02, 
 LL. D. '23, Holy Cross, Col.; B. L. '12, 
 Northeastern Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Room 
 10, City Hall, Pittsfield, Mass., since 1920. 
 
 Garber, T. E., A. B.; M. Pd. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., 202 Lincoln Ave., Bellevue, Pa. 
 
 Garcelon, A. B., Ph. B. '02, J. D. '04, Univ. 
 of Chicago; Supt. of Sch., Room 106 H. S. 
 Bldg., Bangor, Maine, since 1922. 
 
 Garrett, R. E., Ph. B. '23, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., 711 S. State St., Belvidere, 
 111., since 1923. 
 
 Garrison, Levi T., Regional Supervisor State 
 Bd. of Ed., Normal Sch., Willimantic, 
 Conn., since 19 10. 
 
 Garth, Thomas R., A. B. 'og, M. A. *io, 
 Univ. of Denver; Ph. D. '17, Columbia 
 Univ. ; Prof, of Ed., Univ. of Denver, Den- 
 ver, Colo., since 1922. 
 
 Garver, V. A., Supt. of Sch., Doylestown, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Garwood, C. H., Supt. of Sch., 3114 Green 
 St., Harrisburg, Pa. 
 
 Gaskins, Avery E., A. B. '17, Lebanon Univ.; 
 A. B. '23, Salem Col. ; Supt. of Falling 
 Springs. Sch., Renick, W. Va., since 1922. 
 
 Gates, C. Ray, B. E. 'n, Penn State Nor- 
 mal Sch.; B. A. '16, Univ. of Neb.; M. A., 
 20, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 107V2 
 W. 4th, Grand Island, Nebr., since 1922. 
 
 Gaufin, C. E., Supt. of Sch., 218 Vine St 
 Murray, Utah. 
 
 Gaultney, B. H., Co. Supt. of Sch., Pulaski, 
 Tenn. 
 
 Gay, J. C, M. A. '90, Meridian Bus. Col.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Box 3, Hattiesburg, 
 Miss., since 1918. 
 
 Gayler, G. W., Diploma '93, Ind. State Nor- 
 mal Sch.; A. B. '97, Ind. Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 320 Sherman Ave., Macomb, 111., 
 since 1910. 
 
 Geary, Grace, Supt. of Sch., Blaine Bldg., 
 Superior, Wis. 
 
 Gee, Louis, Clyde, M. A. '88, Burritt Col., 
 Tenn.; Supt. of Sch., 3531 Lee St., Green- 
 ville, Tex., since 1907. 
 
 Geer, Florence, Bellevue School, Detroit, 
 Mich. 
 
 Gehres, L. F., Box 1001, Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Geiger, Franklin Paul, B. C. S. '94, A. B 
 '94, A. M. '12, Mt. Union Col.; D. Pd. 
 '18, Ohio Univ.; Supt of Sch., 692 Lin- 
 coln Ave., East Liverpool, Ohio, since 
 1917. 
 
 Geiger, J. D., A. B. '22, Bluffton Col.; 
 Prin. Mt. Vernon, O. H. S., 307 N. Main 
 St., Mt. Vernon, Ohio, since 1924. 
 
 Geiger, Wm. F., A. B. '92, A. M. '22, Dart- 
 mouth Col., Supt. of Sch., 608 No. J. St., 
 Tacoma, Wash., since 1912. 
 
 Geiger, William Herman, Ph. B. '10, Mt. 
 Union Col.; M. A. '12, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., Lisbon, Ohio, since 1917. 
 
 Geiss, Newton W., A. B. '15, Muhlenberg 
 Col.; A. M. '23, U. of Pa.; Sch. Supt. of 
 Oley, Pa., since 1915. 
 
 Gentry, Charles B., A. B. 'n, Warrensburg 
 Norm. Sch.; S. B. '12, Univ. of Chicago; 
 M. S. '19, Cornell Univ.; Dean, Div. 
 Tchr. Tr. Conn. Agr. Col., and State 
 Super. Agr. Ed., State Bd. of Ed., Storrs, 
 Conn., since 1920. 
 
388 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Gentry, S. W. ( B. S. '18 M. A. '20, Pea- 
 body Col.; Supt. of Sch., Kingsport, Tenn., 
 since 192 1. 
 
 Gerberich, G. B., Supt. of Sch., Greenville, 
 Pa. 
 
 Gerberich, J. A., Ph. B. '06, Col. of Wooster; 
 Ph. M. '22, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of Sch., 
 18 Linwood Ave., Danville, O., since 1916. 
 
 Germane, Charles E., Ph. D. '20, Iowa State 
 Univ. ; Dean, Col. of Ed., Des Moines 
 Univ., Des Moines, Iowa, since 1920. 
 
 Gerson, Armand J., M. A. '09, Ph. D. '10, 
 Univ. of Pa.; Assoc. Supt. of Sch., Key- 
 stone Bldg., 19th at Chestnut St., Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Gibbons, Thomas F., A. B. '99, Holy Cross 
 Col.; LL. B. '02, Boston U. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., H. S., Clinton, Mass., since 1915. 
 
 Gibson, Carleton B., A. M. '85, LL. D. '13, 
 Univ. of Ala.; D. Ped. '23, Oglethorpe 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 204 Bull St., Sa- 
 vannah, Ga., since 1916, 
 
 Gibson, John A., Supt. of Sch., 701 N. Mc- 
 Kean St., Butler, Pa. 
 
 Gibson, Joseph E., Supt. of Sch., McComb, 
 Miss. 
 
 Gibson, J. V., Supt. of Sch., Leslie, Mich. 
 
 Gift, E. B., A. B. '07, A. M. '15, Kans. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Manhattan, Kans., 
 since 1915. 
 
 Gilbert, Frank B., A. B. '89, LL. D. '20, 
 Hamilton Col.; Dep. Com. of Ed., State 
 of New York, State Ed. Bldg., Albany, 
 N. Y., since 1919. 
 
 Gilbert, Julius, Diploma '06, Penn State 
 Teachers Col. ; Prin. Beatrice High School, 
 614 No. Fifth, Beatrice, Nebr., since 1918. 
 
 Gilbert, O. G., Prin. Dover St. School, 517 
 Dakota St., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Giles, J. T., A. B. '94, A. M. '02, Ind. Univ.; 
 State High Sch. Supr., 326 W. Wash. 
 St., Madison, Wis., since 1920. 
 
 Gilkey, J. W., Co. Supt. of Sch., Prosser, 
 Wash. 
 
 Gilland, Edwin C, A. B. '07, Lafayette; 
 Supt. of Sch., Red Bank, N. }., since 1920. 
 
 Gilland, Thomas M., A. B. '09, Ursinus 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Donora, Pa., since 
 1918. 
 
 Gilman, John S., A. B. '02, Dartmouth; 
 Supt. of Sch., 26 Academy St., Laconia, 
 N. H., since 1917. 
 
 Gilmore, W. Lee, M. E. '04, State Normal 
 Sch., Slippery Rock, Pa.; A. B. '05, Cen- 
 tral Univ.; B. S. '18, Univ. of Pittsburgh; 
 Supt. of Sch., 618 Penna. Ave., Oakmont, 
 Pa., since 1916. 
 
 Girard, G. R., Supt. of Sch., 35 Rossmore 
 PI., Belleville, N. J. 
 
 Githens, C. E., Ph. B. '96, Ph. M. '99, Ph. 
 D. '06, Franklin; A. M. '02, Bethany; 
 Supt. of Sch., Wheeling, W. Va., since 
 1914. 
 
 Givens, W. E., Supt. of Sch., Dept. of Pub. 
 Inst., P. O. Box 2360, Honolulu, Hawaii. 
 
 Glasgow, J. P., M. A.; Supt. of Sch., Mar- 
 shall, Tex., since 19 16. 
 
 Glass,' Edward C, Supt. of Sch., Lynch- 
 burg, Va., since 1879. 
 
 Glenn, C. B., B. S. '91, M. S. '92, Ala. Poly. 
 Inst.; A. B. '96, Harvard Univ.; LL. D. 
 '18, Univ. of Ala.; Supt. of Sch., 2030 
 Park Ave., Birmingham, Ala., since 1921. 
 
 Glenn,. Earl R., 425 W. 123d St., New York, 
 N." Y. 
 
 Goodier, Floyd T., A. B. '03, Colgate, Univ.; 
 A. M. '09, Teachers Col., Columbia Univ. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Chicago Hgts., 111., since 
 1918. 
 
 Goodrich, L. P., Supt. of Sch., Fond Du 
 Lac, Wis. 
 
 Goodrich, Merton T., B. S. '09, Univ. of 
 Maine; M. A. '12, Clark Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Kennebunk, Maine, since 1919. 
 
 Goodykoontz, Bess, B. A. '20, M. A. '22, 
 Univ. of Iowa; Supt. Elem. Sch., Green 
 Bay, Wis., since 1922. 
 
 Goold, H. R., B. S. '08, N. W. U. ; M. A. 
 '22, U. of Wash.; Supt. of Sch., Renton, 
 Wash, since 1922. 
 
 Gore, W. A., Supt. of Sch., Webster Grove, 
 Mo. 
 
 Gorman, Anna G., B. S. '19, T. C. Colum- 
 bia Univ. ; Asst. Agt. for Tchr. Tr., Mass. 
 St. Dept. of Ed., Div. Voc. Ed., State 
 House, Boston, Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Goslin, Willard E., B. S. '22, State Tchr. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Box 116, Slater, Mo., 
 since 1923 
 
 Gosling, Thomas W., B. A. '94, M. A. '04, 
 Yale Univ.; Ph.D. '11, Univ. of Cincin- 
 nati; Supt. of Sch., 22 W. Dayton St., 
 Madison, Wis., since 1921 .. 
 
 Goudy, William S., Supt. of Sch., Durand, 
 Mich. 
 
 Gould, Arthur L., A. B. '12, A. M. '13, Bos- 
 ton Col.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 15 Beacon 
 St., Boston, Mass., since 1920. 
 
 Gourley, David, Supt. of Sch., American 
 Fork, Utah. 
 
 Gowans, J. W., A. B. '03, Univ. of Kans.; 
 A. M. '18, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 202 E. 14th St., Hutchinson, Kans., since 
 1922. 
 
 Graber, O. C, Supt. of Sch., 320 Grand, 
 Las Animas, Colo. 
 
 Graff, E. U., A. B. '97, A. M. '15, Lake 
 Forest Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 150 N. Merid- 
 ian St., Indianapolis, Ind., since 1917. 
 
 Graham, John G., A. B. '09, A. M. '14, 
 Wooster Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Library 
 Bldg., Huntington, W. Va., since 1922. 
 
 Graham, William A., A. B. '03, Univ. of 
 N. C, A. M. '20, Columbia Univ.; Co. 
 Supt. of Sch., Court House, Wilmington, 
 N. C, since 1920. 
 
 Graves, Frank P., Ph. D., Litt. D., L. H. D., 
 LL. D. ; Pres. of the Univ. and Com. of 
 Ed., The Univ. of the State of N. Y., 
 Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Graves, S. Monroe, A. B. '02, Colgate Univ.; 
 A. M. '12, Ph. D. '13, Harvard Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 31 Elm, St., Wellesley Hills, 
 Mass., since 1914. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 389 
 
 Gray, Olive, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 17 8th 
 Ave., E., Hutchinson, Kans. 
 
 Gray, R. M., Supt. of Sch., Statesville, N. C, 
 since igzi. 
 
 Gray, Wil Lou, Supv. of Adult Sch., Co- 
 lumbia, S. C. 
 
 Gray, William S., Ph. D. '16, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; M. A. '14, Columbia Univ.; S. B. 
 '13, Univ. of Chicago; Dean Col. of Ed.; 
 Prof, of Ed., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 
 111., since 1916. 
 
 Grayum, William H., A. B. '13, State Norm. 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 327, Puyallup, 
 Wash., since ig22. 
 
 Greathead, Elsie Selene, B.' S. '14, M. A. 
 '21, Tchrs. Col., Columbia; Prin. Blvd. 
 Sch., Shaker Heights, 10115 Wilbur Ave., 
 Cleveland, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Green, Clarence, A. B. '03, Univ. of 111. ; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., 407 N. Van Buren St., 
 Auburn, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Green, George Norman, Supt. of Sch., Su- 
 perior, Wyo. 
 
 Greenawalt, William C, A. B. '07, A. M. 
 '12, Franklin & Marshall Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Box 484, Olean, N. Y., since 1920. 
 
 Greenman, A. T., A. B. '17, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 242 N. Elizabeth, Marine 
 City, Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Greer, John N., Asst. Supt. of Sch., Minne- 
 apolis, Minn. 
 
 Greer, Wilson, B. A. '17, Wes. Conn.; State 
 Supvg. Agt., Box 101, Willimantic, Conn., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Greeson, William A., A. B. '79, A. M. '79, 
 Univ. of Mich.; Jr. College; Stratford 
 Arms, Grand Rapids, Mich., since 1924. 
 
 Greist, O. H., Co. Supt of Sch., Court 
 House, Winchester, Ind. 
 
 Gress, Harry E., B. S. '09, A. M. '17, Buck- 
 nell Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 936 Va. Ave., 
 Lancaster, Pa., since 1924. 
 
 Grier, B. M., A. B. '16, Erskine Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., High School, Elberton, Ga., since 
 1920. 
 
 Griffey, Carl H., A. B. 'io, Indiana Univ.; 
 A. M. '16, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., Adrian, Mich., since 1915. 
 
 Griffin, Isaac C, Supt. of Sch., Shelby, 
 N. C., since 1916. 
 
 Griffith, Preston Heath, B. S. '03, La. State 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 1916 America St., 
 Baton Rouge, La., since 19 17. 
 
 Griggs, W. C, Supt. of Sch., Danville, Va. 
 
 Grill, G. W., A. B. '11, Dakota Wes.; Bd. 
 of Ed., 1456 Warren Road, Lakewood, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Grimes, B. J., Supt. of Sch., 67 Broadway, 
 Hagerstown, Md. 
 
 Grimm, S. R., A. B. '11, Wash. & Jeff.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 425 Vermont Ave., Roches- 
 ter, Pa., since 1918. 
 
 Groethe, Amos, A. B. '05, St. Olaf; Supt. 
 of Sch., Rapid City, S. Dak., since ig20. 
 
 Grose, Walter R., A. B., W. Va. Wesleyan 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Buckhannon, W. Va., 
 since 191 2. 
 
 Grout, D. A. Supt. of Sch., 1625 E. Main 
 St., Portland, Oreg. 
 
 Grover, Elbridge, C, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 3379 Berkeley Ave., Cleveland Heights, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Groves, Charles, D., B. Ped. '08, Scio Col.; 
 A. B. '21, Mt. Union Col.; Co. Supt. of 
 Sch., E. Ashtabula St., Jefferson, Ohio, 
 since 1920. 
 
 Gruver, Harvey S., A. B. '02, Otterbein; 
 A. M. '10, Harvard; Supt. of Sch., Lynn, 
 Mass. 
 
 Gruver, John W., A. B. '98, A. M. '01, 
 Lafayette Col.; Supt. of Sch., 133 S. 
 Third St., Bangor, Pa., since 1903. 
 
 Gugle, Marie, A. B. '97, Ohio State Univ., 
 A. M. '13, Columbia, Univ.; Asst. Supt. 
 of Sch., Woodcliff Lodge, R. F. D. 5, 
 Columbus, Ohio, since 1914. 
 
 Gunnison, Viola M., Supt. • of Co. Sch., 
 Black River Falls, Wis. 
 
 Gushee, Walter E., Supt. of Sch., 3 Winsor 
 St., Ludlow, Mass., since 1903. 
 
 Guysi, Alice V., Supv. of Art, 209 Long- 
 fellow Ave., Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Gwinn, J. M., A. B. '02, Univ. of Mo.; 
 
 A. M. '07, T. C. Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 
 of Sch., Bd. of Ed., City Hall, San Fran- 
 cisco, Calif., since 1923. 
 
 Gwynn, P. H, Jr., A. B. '12, A. M. '13, 
 Univ. of N. C. ; Supt. of Sch., Reidsville, 
 N. C, since 1919. 
 
 Haefner, R., Supt. of Sch., Appleton, Minn. 
 
 Hagan, J. J., A. B., Ind. Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Beardstown, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Haisley, Otto W., M. A. '17, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Ann Arbor, Mich. 
 
 Hale, Arthur W., A. B. '06, Amherst; Supt. 
 of Sch., 143 Emmons, Franklin, Mass., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Hale, Florence M., Agt. for Rural Ed., 
 State Dept. of Ed., Augusta, Maine. 
 
 Haley, Harvey H., B. S. '18, Peabody Col.; 
 M. A. '23, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 1 1 15 Walnut St., Blytheville, Ark., since 
 1916. 
 
 Haley, Nelle, B. S. '21, T. C, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supvr. of Instr., 1008 Court St., 
 Saginaw, W. S., Mich., since 1921. 
 
 Hall, C. S., B. S. '10, Hiram Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Belle Fourche, S. D., since 1917. 
 
 Hall, Elizabeth, Asst. Supt. of Sch., City 
 Hall, Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Hall, George F., B. E. '06 Union Col.; 
 M. A. '23, Columbia Univ. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Cliffside Pk. H. S., Grantwood, 
 N. J., since ig2i. 
 
 Hall, J. O., A. B. 'g8, Univ. of Kans.; 
 Supt. of Sch., no E. 12th St., Pawhuska, 
 Okla., since ig22. 
 
 Hall, John W., B. S. '01, M. A. '02, T. C. 
 Columbia Univ. ; Dean of Sch. of Ed., 
 Univ. of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, since 
 ig20. 
 
390 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Hall, Madison, Diploma '12, San Marcos 
 Normal; B. S. '17, M. A. '21, Peabody 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Box 721, Bryan, Tex., 
 since ig2i. 
 
 Hall, R. C, Supt. of Sch., Little Rock, Ark. 
 
 Hall, W. F., Supt. of Sch., Camden, Ark. 
 
 Hall, Wells A., Supt. of Sch., Concord, 
 Mass. 
 
 Halsted, Lloyd D., A. B. '12, Univ. of 
 Nebr. ; Supt. of Sch., Tecumseh, Nebr., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Hamilton, J. N., A. B. '10, Southwestern 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Box 1144, Ponca City, 
 Okla., since 1916. 
 
 Hamilton, Katharine, B. S. '95, Eureka; 
 M. A. '13, Columbia Univ.; Asst. Supt. of 
 Sch., 401 Court House, St. Paul, Minn., 
 since 1917. 
 
 Hamilton, Mae, County Supt. of Sch., Cas- 
 per, Wyo. 
 
 Hamilton, O. A., A. B. '10, Univ. of N. C. ; 
 M. A. '22, Columbia Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 Goldsboro, N. C, since 1918. 
 
 Hamilton, Otto T., A. B. '11, LL. B. 'n, 
 Ind. Univ.; A. M. '18, Teachers Col., Co- 
 lumbia Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 802 S. Hen- 
 ley Ave., Fairmount, Ind., since 1919. 
 
 Hamilton, Robin Lynn, A. B. '05, Mich.; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., Sioux City, Iowa, 
 since 1921. 
 
 Hamilton, W. J., Supt. of Sch., Oak Park, 
 111. 
 
 Hamlin, Benjamin P., B. A. '07, Ph. B. '08, 
 Yale Univ. ; Dist. Supt. Sch., Manches- 
 ter, Vt., since 1919. 
 
 Hammon, M. P., Pres. Tchrs. Col.; Tahle- 
 quah, Okla. 
 
 Hampton, A. C, Supt. of Sch., 908 Main 
 Ave., La Grande, Oregon. 
 
 Hand, Wm. H., 1325 Washington St., Co- 
 lumbia, S. C. 
 
 Handy, Anson B., A. B. '08, Harvard Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Thompsonville, Conn., since 
 1922. 
 
 Hanifan, L. J., Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 
 181, Paducah, Ky. 
 
 Hanna, George W., M. Di. '99, Highland 
 Park Col.; A. B. '18, Des Moines Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 620 Normal Ave., Valley 
 City, N. D., since 1899. 
 
 Harding, W. C, A. B. '12, Coe Col.; M. A.\ 
 '24, Iowa Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Washing- 
 ton, Iowa, since ig20. 
 
 Hardy, John C, A. M. '90, LL. D., '02, 
 Miss. Col.; LL. B. '97, Millsaps Col.; 
 Pres. Baylor Col. for Women, Belton, 
 Tex., since 1912. 
 
 Karman, A. F., Co. Supt. of Sch., Box 776, 
 Montgomery, Ala. 
 
 Harmon, T. A., Supt. of Sch., 315 Third 
 Ave. N. W., Watertown, S. D. 
 
 Harper, James Robb, A. B. '00, Cedarville 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Wilmette, 111., since 
 1908. 
 
 Harper, Thomas B., Supt., 500 Sixth Ave., 
 Belmar, N. J. 
 
 Harper, William J., B. E. '22, Brown Univ.; 
 '10, St. Laurent Col.; Supt. of Sch., 5 
 Lookout Ave., North Providence, R. I. 
 
 Harrington, Don., Supt. of Sch., Albion, 
 Mich. 
 
 Harrington, E. Nettie, Supt. of Sch., On- 
 tonagon, Mich. 
 
 Harrington, F. E., State Bd. of Ed., State 
 Capitol, Hartford, Conn. 
 
 Harris, Alice Louise, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 46 
 Elm St., Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Harris, Edwin M., A. B. '05, Wheaton Col. ; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, Geneva, 
 111. 
 
 Harris, F. R., A. B. '02, Ohio Wes. Univ.; 
 M. A. *io, Harvard Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Harper Hotel, Greenfield, O., since 1923. 
 
 'Harris, Glenn W., Supr. Prin., Whittier 
 Sch., Dunellen, N. J., since 1923. 
 
 Harris, James H., A. B. '91, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Pontiac, Mich., since 1921. 
 
 Harris, William, A. B. '14, A. M. '23, Univ. 
 of 111.; Supt. of Sch., 309 W. Wash. 
 Blvd., Urbana, 111., since 192 1. 
 
 Harris, W. E., Supt. of Sch., Ferndale, Mich. 
 
 Harrison, W. R., B. S. '99, Univ. of Ala.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 400 So. McDonough St., 
 Montgomery, Ala., since 1917. 
 
 Hart, Harris, State Supt. of Pub. Instr., 
 Richmond, Va. 
 
 Hartley, B. W., A. B. '12, Chicago Univ.; 
 M. A. '15, Columbia U. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 Administration Bldg., Louisville, Ky., since 
 1923. 
 
 Hartman, R. M., Supv. Prin. of Sch., At- 
 lantic Highlands, N. J. 
 
 Hartsfield, F. S., A. B. '09, Univ. of Chat- 
 tanooga; Supt. Pub. Inst., Court House, 
 Tallahassee, Fla., since 1917. 
 
 Hartwell, Ernest C, A. B. '05, Albion Col.; 
 A. M. '10, Univ. of Mich.; M. Ped. '12, 
 Mich. State Norm. Col.; D. Ped., N. Y. 
 State Col. for Tchrs.; Supt. of Sch., 1400 
 N. Y. Tel. Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y., since 
 1918. 
 
 Hartwell, Shattuck O., B. A. '88, Amherst 
 Col.; M. Pd. '11, Mich. State Tchrs. 
 Col.; LL. D. '15, Kalamazoo Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 401 Court House, St. Paul, Minn., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Haskell, Charles O., B. A. '13, Defiance Col.; 
 M. A. '20, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., Harvard, 111., since 1918. 
 
 Hatcher W. B., Supt. of Sch., Baton 
 Rouge, La. 
 
 Haviland, L. W., Supt. of Sch., Onarga, 111. 
 
 Hawke, Oscar T., A. B. '14, A. M. '17, Wit- 
 tenberg Col. ; Co. Supt. of Sch., County 
 Bldg., Springfield, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Hawkins, Wilson, Ph. B. 'n, Mt. Union- 
 Scio ; Supt. of Sch., Canton, Ohio, since 
 1918. 
 
 Hawthorne, L. B., Supt. of Sch., Mexico, 
 Mo. 
 
 Hayden, Stanley, Supt. of Sch., Kahoka, Mo. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 391 
 
 Hayes, C. K., B. D. '09, la. State Tchrs. 
 Col.; B. A. '13, la. Wes. Col.; M. A. 
 '23, State Univ. of la.; Supt. of Sch., 
 105 E. 5th St., Muscatine, la., since 1923. 
 
 Haynes, F. B., Co. Supt. of Sch., Union 
 Springs, Ala. 
 
 Hazel, Floyd M., Supt. Lakeview Con. H. S., 
 Battle Creek, Mich. 
 
 Heckert, Eli P.. A. B. '02, A. M. '04, Buck- 
 nell Univ.; Supr. Prin. of Sch., Mauch 
 Chunk, Pa., since 1915- 
 
 Hedges, C. F., Ph. B. '12, Univ. of Wis.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Neenah, Wis., since 1917. 
 
 Heer, Amos L., A. B. '14, B. Pd. '14, Tri 
 State Col.; A. M. '21, Tchrs. Col., Co- 
 lumbia; 65 E. Patterson Ave., Columbus, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Heffelfinger, John B., Supt. of Sch., 720 E. 
 7th, Newton, Kans. 
 
 Hefley, John T., A. B. 'ox, Univ. of Okla. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., 301 Cummings St., Henry- 
 etta, Okla., since 1913- 
 
 Heidelberg, H. B., B. A. '03, Millsaps Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Clarksdale, 
 Miss., since 1905- 
 
 Heightshoe, Agnes E., Supt. of Sch., Perry, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Heinig, W. T., 443 Walnut Rd., Ben Avon, 
 Pa. 
 
 Heinmiller, L. E., Prof, of Ed., State Nor- 
 mal, Slippery Rock, Pa. 
 
 Heise, Bryan, Supt. of Sch., Morenci, Mich. 
 
 Helfrich, A. J., Supt. of Sch., Northville, 
 Mich. 
 
 Heller, Daniel B., A. B. '13, Iowa Wesleyan; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 154, Vermilion, S. D., 
 since ig22. 
 
 Heller, Regenia R., Supv. of Reading Knd- 
 grtns., 100 E. Grand River Ave., Detroit, 
 Mich. 
 
 Helm, Morton C, A. B. '17, A. M. '18, 
 State Univ. of S. Dak.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Bd. of Ed. Bldg., Fairport Harbor, Ohio, 
 since 1920. 
 
 Helms, Walter T., Ph. B. '99, U. of Calif.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Lincoln Sch., Richmond, 
 Calif., since 1909. 
 
 Helter, Henry Harrison, A. B. 'gi, Ohio 
 Wesleyan Univ.; A. M. '12, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 355 W. Fourth St., 
 Mansfield, Ohio, since 1907. 
 
 Hemmer, H. W. A., B. S. '97, Nat. Norm. 
 Univ.; A. B. '24, Ind. State Norm. Sch.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 201 Third, Huntingburg, 
 Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Hemstreet, A. Earle, Ph. B. '11, Pd. B. '11, 
 Syracuse; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 
 Corry, Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Henderson, D. T., Co. Supt. of Sch., Little 
 Rock, Ark. 
 
 Henderson, Lester D., A. B. '11, Tarkio Col.; 
 Com. of Ed., Juneau, Alaska, since 1917. 
 
 Henderson, T. C, Supt. of Sch., Brevard, 
 N. C, since 1905. 
 
 Henderson, T. Edgar, B. S. '23, Univ. of 
 Minn. ; Supt. of Sch., Columbia Heights, 
 4100 Central Ave., Columbia Heights, 
 Minneapolis, Minn., since 1923. 
 
 Hendricks, Eldo L., B. S. '94, LL. D. '16, 
 Franklin Col. ; A. M. '99, Ind. Univ. ; 
 Pres. State Tchrs. Col., 217 E. Gay., War- 
 rensburg, Mo., since 1915. 
 
 Hendrix, H. E., A. B. '01, Ph. B. 'oi, N. 
 W. Col.; LL. B. '08, Erie Col. of Law; 
 A. M. '23, Stanford Univ.; A. M. '03, 
 N. W. Col.; Supt. of Sch., Mesa, Arizona, 
 since 1920. 
 
 Hendry, Frank, A. B. '09, A. M. '14, Univ. 
 of Mich.: Supt. of Sch., 153 Hendrie 
 Blvd., Royal Oak, Mich., since 1915. 
 
 Henely, Eugene, B. S. '90, Ames; Supt. of 
 Sch., H. S., Grinnell, Iowa, since 1905. 
 
 Henmon, V. A. C, A. B. '95, A. M. '98, 
 Bethany Col.; Ph. D. '05, Columbia Univ.; 
 Dir. Sch. of Ed., Univ. of Wis., Madison, 
 Wis., since 1916. 
 
 Henry, David W., B. A. 'n, Norm. Col.; 
 M. A. '16, T. C. Columbia; Dean, Col. 
 of Ed., Univ. of Toledo, Admin. Bldg., 
 nth and 111. St., Toledo, Ohio, since 1919. 
 
 Henzlik, F. E., B. S. '16, Wbg. St. Tchrs. 
 Col.; M. A. '23, Ph. D. '24, T. C. Co- 
 lumbia Univ.; Prof, of Sch. Admin., T. C, 
 Univ. of Nebr., Lincoln, Nebr. 
 
 Herlihy, Charles M., 136 Oxford St., Cam- 
 bridge, Mass. 
 
 Herlinger, H. V., Ph. B. '13, Grove City; 
 Supt. of Sch., Indiana, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Herring, John H., A. M. '09, Ohio Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 25 Perry St., Lambertville, 
 N. J., since 1917. 
 
 Herrington, F. A., A. B. '94, Olivet, Col.; 
 A. M. '04, Indiana Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 DePue, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Herron, A. M., Supt. of Sch., Caney, Kans. 
 
 Herron, Helen, B. A. '11. M. A. '13, Tulane 
 Univ. ; Supr. of Student Teaching, New 
 Orleans Norm. Sch., 1933 Elysian Fields 
 Ave., New Orleans, La. 
 
 Hershmer, John T., Asst. Supt. of Baltimore 
 Co. Sch., Towson, Md. 
 
 Hervey, Henry Dwight, A. B. '89, Denison; 
 Supt. of Sch., Little Falls, N. Y., since 
 1922. 
 
 Heusner, W. S., A. B. '94, Ohio Wesleyan 
 
 Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Salina, Kansas, since 
 
 1913- 
 Hick, Hugh R., B. S. '03, Denison Univ.; 
 
 M. A. '24, T. C, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 
 of Sch., 80S N. Twelfth St., Cambridge, 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Hickey, D. Edward, B. A. in Ed. '10, M. A. 
 '12, Univ. of Minn.; Supt. of Sch., Hill- 
 crest Apts., South St. Paul, Minn., since 
 1911. 
 
 Hickman, J. E., B. S. '92, N. N. Univ., 
 Ohio; A. B. '02. Univ. of Nashville; Supt. 
 of Scr\, Box 696, Ada, Okla., since 1917. 
 
 Hickman, J. H., Supt. of Sch., Hinton, W. 
 Va. 
 
 Hicks, Frank W., A. B. '05, Cornell, Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Minot, N. D. 
 
392 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Higbie, Edgar C, A. B. '07, A. M. '09, Univ. 
 of Minn.; Ph. D. '20, Columbia Univ.; 
 Pres. Eastern State Normal Sch., Madison, 
 S. D., since 1920. 
 
 Higgins, Lothrop D., Prin. State Normal 
 Sch., Danbury, Conn. 
 
 Highley, A. E., B. S. '99, Marion Col.; 
 Diploma '05, Ind. State Normal; A. B. 
 '10, A. M. '11, Ind. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Lafayette, Ind., since 1923. 
 
 Hill, A. B., State Supt. of Pub. Instr., Little 
 Rock, Ark. 
 
 Hill, Albert H., B. A. '87, Richmond, Col.; 
 M. A. '14, Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 1622 W. Grace St., Rich- 
 mond, Va., since 1919. 
 
 Hill, Clyde M., A. M. '15, Columbia Univ.; 
 Pres. State Tchrs. Col., 811 S. Florence 
 St., Springfield, Mo., since 1918. 
 
 Hill, C. Willard, B. S. '19, Kansas State 
 Normal; A. M. '20, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., Marengo, 111., since 1920. 
 
 Hill, E. N., Supt. of Sch., 113 E. Elm St., 
 Olathe, Kans. 
 
 Hill, Henry H., A. B., M. A. '21, Univ. of 
 Va. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 173, Walnut 
 Ridge Ark., since 1922. 
 
 Hill, J. A., B. A. '02, Univ. of Tex.; M. 
 A. '16, Univ. of Calif.; Pres. West Tex. 
 State Tchrs. Col., Canyon, Tex., since 
 1918. 
 
 Hill, Ralph E., A. B. '01, Albion Col.; 
 M. A.. '09, Univ. of Louisville, Supt. of 
 Sch., Somerset, Ky., since 1920. 
 
 Hill, T. P., Asst. State Supv. Rural Sch., 
 Middlebourne, W. Va. 
 
 Hillegas, M. B., 106 Morningside Dr., New- 
 York, N. Y. 
 
 Hillman, James E., B. S. '19, A. M. '20, 
 Ph. D. '24, Geo. Peabody Col. for Tchrs.; 
 Dir. Tchr. Tr., State Dept. Ed., Raleigh, 
 N. C, since 1923. 
 
 Hine, Roderick W., Supt. of Sch., Dedham, 
 Mass. 
 
 Hines, Linnaeus N., A. B. '94, M. A. '08, 
 Ind. Univ., Pres. Ind. State Normal Sch., 
 Terre Haute, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Hinshaw, I. S., Supt. of Sch., Checotah, 
 Okla. 
 
 Hitch, R. M., Dist. Supt., 633 Arlington PL, 
 Chicago, 111., since 1909. 
 
 Hitchcock, Clarence C, B. S. '14, St. Law- 
 rence Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 20 Franklin 
 St., Bridgeton, N. J. 
 
 Hitchcock, Fred S., Supvg. Prin., Chapman 
 Tech. H. S., New London, Conn. 
 
 Hixson, J. H., B. S. in Ed. '22, M. A. '22, 
 Ohio State Univ.; Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Wapakoneta, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Hobbs, William C, A. B. *8i, Bates Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 82 High St., Bristol, R. I., 
 since 1917. 
 
 Hobson, Clifton H., Ph. B. '04, Brown 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Palmer, Mass., since 
 1911. 
 
 Hodge, Lamont F., A. B. '97, A. M. '21, 
 Colgate Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 50 Hamil- 
 ton Ave., Yonkers, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Hodgkins, George W., 1821 Kalorama Road, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Hoffman, Mrs. A. H., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Court- House, Des Moines, la. 
 
 Hoffman, Jason S., A. B. '79, Rutgers; Co. 
 Supt. of Sch., 152 Main St., Flemington, 
 N. J., since 1895. 
 
 Hoffman, Miss M. Gazelle, B. A. 'n, El- 
 mira; Dist. Supt. of Sch., Lewiston, N. 
 Y., since 1915. 
 
 Hogge, Morgan G., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 460 
 S. State St., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Hogue, O. Wendell, 650 Roe Ave., Elmira, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Holbrook, C. Ray, B. Ed. '19, M. A. '22, 
 Univ. of Wash.; Supt. of Sch., Gentry 
 Bldg., San Bernardino, Calif.; since 1923. 
 
 Holdridge, Newton Clark, B. A. '91, M. A. 
 '95, Colgate; Supt. of Sch., Hammonton, 
 N. J., since 1897. 
 
 Holland, N. S., A. B. '17, So. M. E. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Stamford, Tex., since 1919- 
 
 Hollands, W. H., Supt. of Sch., Deer River, 
 Minn. 
 
 Holliday, Lewis P., A. B. '10, Hillsdale 
 Col.; M. A. '17, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Crystal Falls, Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Hollis, E. V., B. S., M. S., Miss. A. and M. 
 Col.; A. M., T. C, Columbia Univ.; Pres. 
 Ga. Norm. Sch., Statesboro, Ga., since 
 1920. 
 
 Holloway, H. V., A. B. '95, A. M. '98, 
 Wash. Col., Md.; Ph. D., '14, Univ. of 
 Pa.; State Supt. of Pub. Ins., Dover, Del., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Holman, Carl, A. B. '09, Bates; Supt. of 
 Sch., Pearl River, N. Y. 
 
 Holman, Orin M., Supt. of Sch., Littleton, 
 N. H. 
 
 Holmes, Henry Wyman, A, B. '03, A. M. 
 '04, Harvard Univ. ; Litt. D. '24, Tufts 
 Col. ; Dean, Grad. Sch. of Ed., 5 Law- 
 rence Hall, Harvard Univ. ; Cambridge, 
 Mass., since 1920. 
 
 Holmes, Stanley H., A. B. '87, A. M. '90, 
 Colby Univ.; Supt. of Sch., City Hall, 
 New Britain, Conn., since 1906. 
 
 Holmes, William H., A. B. '97, Colby Col.; 
 Ph. D. '10, Clark Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 60 
 S. Third Ave., Mount Vernon, N. Y., 
 since 1913. 
 
 Hoist, John H., M. A. '21, Columbia Univ.; 
 Hd. Dept. of Ed., 715 S. Third Ave., 
 Bozeman, Mont., since 1921. 
 
 Holston, Evelyn Turner, B. S. '20, A. M. 
 '21, T. C, Columbia Univ.; Elem. Supvr., 
 Admin. Bldg., Sch. Dept., Springfield, 
 Mass., since 1922. 
 
 Holt, Fred J., Supt. of Sch., Edgerton, Wis. 
 
 Holt, F. O., Supt. of Sch., Janesville, Wis. 
 
 Homberger, E. H., A. B. '12, A. M. '20, 
 Colo. State Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of Sch., 
 1508 Okla., Woodward, Okla., since 1921. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 393 
 
 Honeycutt, A. W., Supt. of Sch., Hender 
 sonville, N. C. 
 
 Hood, W. D., B. A. '94, Yale Univ., Prin. 
 Gilbert School, Winsted, Conn., since 1908 
 
 Hook, T. E., C. E. '08, Ohio Northern 
 Univ.; A. B. '14, A. M. '18, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., 421 Grant St., Troy, 
 Ohio, since 1919. 
 
 Hooper, Elsie E., B. A. '17, Yankton Col.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Plankinton, S. Dak., 
 since ig2i. 
 
 Hopkins, W. Karl, A. B. '06, Univ. of Utah; 
 Supt. of Sch., 538 Twenty-fifth St., Ogden, 
 Utah, since 1919. 
 
 Hopkins, Walter G., Supt. -of Sch., 505 N. 
 7th St., Tonkawa, Okla. 
 
 Horn, Ernest, B. S. '07, A. M. 08, Univ. 
 of Mo.; Ph. D. '14, Columbia Univ.; 
 Prof, of Ed., Dir. of the Univ. Elem. 
 Sch., State Univ. of Iowa., Iowa City 
 Iowa, since 1915. 
 
 Horn, P. W., M. A. '88, Central Col.; LL. 
 D. '17, Southwestern Univ.; Pres. Tex. 
 Tech. Col., Lubbock, Tex., since 1924. 
 
 Hornby, A. M., B. S. '12, Ohio Wes. U. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., 506 E. Findlay St., Carey, 
 Ohio, since 1920. 
 
 Horner, Harlan Hoyt, 212 State St., Albany 
 N. Y. 
 
 Horstman, Elizabeth, R., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Court House, Austin, Minn. 
 
 Horton, A. D., Supt. of Sch., 18 Main St., 
 Weston, W. Va. 
 
 Horton, Deo Wesley, A. B. '09, A. M. '13, 
 Ind. ; Supt. of Sch., Lafayette, Ind. 
 
 Hosic, James F., Ph. B. '01, Ph. M. '02, 
 Chicago Univ. ; Ph. D. '20, Columbia 
 Univ.; Asso. Prof, of Ed., Tchrs. Col., 
 Columbia Univ., 525 W. 120th St., New 
 York, N. Y., since 1921. 
 
 Hoskinson, J. H., A. B. '07, A. M. 'ir, 
 Indiana Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Whiting, 
 Ind., since 1915. 
 
 Hounchell, Paul, Supt. of Sch., Uniontown, 
 Ala. 
 
 Housh, Early T., Ph. B. '04, No. 111. Col.; 
 A. B. '12, Highland Park Col.; M. A., 
 '16, State Univ. of la.; 412 Shops Bldg. 
 Des Moines, Iowa. 
 
 Houston, G. O., Supt. of Sch., De Soto 
 Parish, Mansfield, La., since 1912. 
 
 Howard, Daniel, A. M. '98, Brown Univ. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Windsor, Conn., since 1910. 
 
 Howe, Charles Sumner, B. S. '78, Mass. 
 Agr. Col. and Boston Univ.; Ph. D. '87, 
 Univ. of Wooster; Sc. D. '05, Armour 
 Inst, of Tech.; LL. D. '08, Mt. Union 
 Col.; LL. D. '11, Oberlin Col.; LL. D. 
 '24, Western Reserve Univ. ; Pres. Case 
 Sch. of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio, 
 since 1902. 
 
 Howe, Sherman L., B. A. '93, M. A. '95. 
 Colgate; Supt. of Sch., 163 Wall St., 
 Corning, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Howell, Clarence E., B. S. '17, Jas. Millikin 
 Univ.; A. M. '23, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., 166 William St., New 
 Bedford, Mass., since 1922. 
 
 Howell, D. A., Supt. of Sch., Linden, N. J. 
 
 Howell, Henry B., A. B. '86, Lafayette Col.; 
 A. M. '90, Columbia Univ.; Ph. D. '10, 
 N. Y. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 
 Phillipsburg, N. J., since 1921. 
 
 Howerth, Joseph, A. B. '94, Cornell Univ. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Shamokin, Pa. 
 
 Howes, Alfred F., A. B. '87, A. M. '92, 
 Amherst; Supt. of Sch., 39 Hudson St., 
 Manchester, Conn., since 1911. 
 
 Howes, Herbert H., Supt. of Sch., 55 Flor- 
 ence Ave., Norwood, Mass. 
 
 Hoy, L. B., Supt. of Sch., Gideon, Mo. 
 
 Hoyman, W. H., A. B. '09, Iowa State 
 Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of Sch., Toledo, Iowa, 
 since igi6. 
 
 Hubbard, Warren, Co. Supt. of Sch., 720 De 
 Kalb Ave., Sycamore, 111. 
 
 Hudelson, Earle, College of Ed., Univ: of 
 Minn., Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Huff, Annie Laurie, A. B. '07, M. A. '15, 
 Carson and Newman Col.; Supt. City Sch., 
 Box 611, Pulaski, Tenn., since 1918. 
 
 Huff, Joseph W., A. B. '05, A. M. '06, Univ. 
 of Pa.; Supt. of Sch., Upper Darby Br., 
 Philadelphia, Pa., since 1909. 
 
 Huff, Wm. F., 3030 Vista St., Long Beach, 
 
 Calif. 
 
 Huffman, S. C, Supt. of Sch., Waseca, 
 Minn. 
 
 Huffman, W. Evin, Ph. B. '12, Denison 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 159 Granville Rd. E., 
 Worthington, Ohio, since 1921. 
 
 Hughes, Charles C, Supt. of Sch., City 
 Hall, Sacramento, Calif. 
 
 Hughes, F. B., Supt. of Sch., 823 Gandy 
 St., Denison, Tex. 
 
 Hughes, Hilda, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, La Grange, Ind. 
 
 Hughes, Percy M., A. B. '86, Johns Hop- 
 kins Univ.; LL. B. '90, LL. M. '91, Geo. 
 Wash. U. ; Ph. D. '15, Syracuse U. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Syracuse, N. Y., since 1911. 
 
 Hughes, Rees H., A. B. '13, Washburn Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Parsons, Kans., since 1922. 
 
 Hughey, A. H. '03, Vanderbilt; LL. B. '08, 
 George Washington Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 El Paso, Tex., since 1919. 
 
 Hulten, Charles E., Ph. B., Wisconsin Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 1010 Main St., Marinette, 
 Wis., since 1924. 
 
 Humphrey, Cecil F., 4710 Maryland Ave., 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Humphrey, P. B., B. Pd. '05, M. Pd. '06, 
 State Tchrs. Col.; B. S. 'n, Kirksville, 
 Mo.; Supt. of Sch., Cleveland, Okla., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Hunkins, R. V., B. A. '14, Univ. of Nebr. ; 
 M. A. '21, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., Lead, S. D., since 1922. 
 
 Hunt, Charles W., A. B. '04, Brown Univ. ; 
 A. M. '10, Ph. D. '22, Columbia Univ.; 
 Dean, Cleveland Sch. of Ed., Stearns Rd. 
 and E. 109th St., Cleveland, Ohio, since 
 1924. 
 
394 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Hunt, Harry A., A. B. '01, William and 
 Mary Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Armistead Bldg., 
 Portsmouth, Va., since 1909. 
 
 Hunt, Lyman C, A. B. '12, Univ. of Vt. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Burlington, Vt., since 1922. 
 
 Hunter, Fred M., A. B. '05, Univ. of Nebr. ; 
 A. M. '19, T. C, Columbia Univ.; Ed. 
 D. '24, Univ. of Calif.; Supt. of Sch., 
 City Hall, Oakland, Calif., since 1917. 
 
 Hunter, Hiram T., B. A. '12, Wake Forest 
 Col.; M. A. '17, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Ed. M. '22, Harvard Univ.; Pres. Cul- 
 lowhee State Norm., Cullowhee, N. C, 
 since 1923. 
 
 Hunting, W. J., State Supt. of Pub. Instr., 
 Carson City, Nev. 
 
 Hurst, Albert S., B. A. '99, Univ. of To- 
 ronto; M. A. '04, Ph. D. '05, Yale Univ.; 
 Dean, Tchrs. Col.; Syracuse Univ., Syra- 
 cuse, N. Y., since 1920. 
 
 Hurst, James, Co. Supt. of Sch., Norfolk, 
 Va. 
 
 Husted, Milton F., Supt. of Sch., Municipal 
 Bldg., North Bergen, N. J. 
 
 Huston, W. F., Co. Supt. of Sch., Cam- 
 bridge, 111., since ig20. 
 
 Hutchinson, Harvey O., Supt. of Sch., El- 
 mira, N. Y. 
 
 Hutchinson, Sherburn C, A. B. '92, A. M. 
 '93, Syracuse; Supt. of Sch., Montpelier, 
 Vt., since 1911. 
 
 Hutchison, N. F., A. B. '11, Ind. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Salem, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Hutton, C. E., Supt. of Sch., 200 W. 10th 
 St., Bristow, Okla. 
 
 Hyndman, R. W., A. B. '15, Ind. State 
 Norm.; A. M. '21, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 26 W. Elm St., Canton, 
 111., since 1923. 
 
 Hynes, Edward, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 2005 
 Milan, New Orleans, La. 
 
 Ignatius, Mother M., A. M. '15, Col. of 
 New Rochelle; Dean Col. of New Ro- 
 chelle, New Rochelle, N. Y., since 1918. 
 
 Her, Ernst, S. B. in Ed., Univ. of Chi.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Downers Grove, 111., since 
 1923. 
 
 Imboden, Sarah Mark, Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 463 S. Monroe, Decatur, 111. 
 
 Ingram, Katherine P., A. B. '21, Randolph- 
 Macon Woman's Col.; Supt. of Co. Sch., 
 Bolivar, Tenn., since 1922. 
 
 Inlow, H. E., A. B., Pacific Univ.; LL. B., 
 Univ. of Ore.; Supt. of Sch., Pendleton, 
 Ore., since 1920. 
 
 Inman, J. R., A. B. '05, Hillsdale Col., 
 Mich.; A. M. '14, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Red Oak, la., since 1914. 
 
 Inscoe, L. S., B. A. '15, Wake Forest Col.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Nashville, N. C, since 
 1919. 
 
 Ireland, E. Ward, B. S. '08, Columbia; A. 
 M. '12, Tchrs. Col., N. N. C. ; Regional 
 Supvr. of Sch., 2g Fairview Ave., Dan- 
 bury, Conn., since 1919. 
 
 Ireland, J. W., A. B. '02, A. M. '03, Centre 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., 3" W. Third, Frank- 
 fort, Ky., since 1918. 
 
 Ireland, Ralph P., '93, Bridgewater Normal; 
 '00, Tchrs. Sch. of Science; Ele. Supv. 
 and Dir. of Ext. Work, 1 Kent Circle, 
 Gloucester, Mass., since 1894. 
 
 Irons, R. B., A. B. '07, Wabash Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Winona, Minn., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Irwin, W. W., M. E. '98, Slippery Rock 
 Normal; Supt. of Sch., Meadville, Pa., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Isanogle, Alvey M., A. B. '98, St. Johns 
 Col. ; A. M. '24, Johns Hopkins Univ. ; 
 Prof, of Ed., West. Md. College, West- 
 minster, Md., since 1920. 
 
 Ives, C. A., Dean, Col. of Ed., La. State 
 Univ., Baton Rouge, La. 
 
 Ivy, H. M., A. B. '03, A. M. '04, Central 
 Col., Mo.; Ph. D. '22, Peabody Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., City Hall, Meridian, Miss., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Jack, William B., A. B. '00, Colby Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 30 Eastern Promenade, 
 Portland, Me., since 1922. 
 
 Jackson, F. S., M. E. P. '98, Mansfield 
 
 S. N. S.; Ph. B. *n, Grove City Col.; 
 
 Supt. of Sch., Punxsutawney, Pa., since 
 1908. 
 
 Jackson, F. W., A. B. '07, Bates Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Madison, N. H., since 1921. 
 
 Jackson, Halliday R., A. B. '04, Swathmore 
 Col.; Supervising Prin., 11 N. Weymouth 
 Ave., Ventnor City, N. J., since 1915. 
 
 Jackson, J. A., Ph. B. 'n, Mt. Union Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 841, Clarksburg, W. 
 Va., since igi6. 
 
 Jackson, Lambert L., Ph. D. '06, Columbia 
 Univ.; D. Pd. '06, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Asst. State Com. of Ed., Trenton, N. J., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Jacobs, Walter B., A. B. '82, A. M. '85, 
 Brown Univ.; Dir. Sch. of Ed., Prof, of 
 Ed., 310 Olney St., Providence, R. I., 
 since 1901. 
 
 Jaggard, Guy H., Supt. of Sch., 605 Cedar 
 St., Kingman, Kans. 
 
 Jahr, Charles A., Ph. B. '07, Univ. of Wis.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Elkhorn, Wis., since 1916. 
 
 Jamison, Mary E., Co. Supt. of Sch., Belle 
 Fourche, S. D. 
 
 Jantzen, Daniel F., Supvg. Prin., 3711 N. 
 Central Ave., Phoenix, Ariz. 
 
 Jedlicka, A. J., Supt. of Sch., Proctor, 
 Minn. 
 
 Jeffers, Fred A., Supt. of Sch., Painesdale, 
 Mich. 
 
 Jeffers, Granville B., A. B. '03, Stanford 
 Univ.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 108 Union St., 
 Ed. Bldg., Schenectady, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Jenkins, F. F., A. B. '18, William and Mary 
 Col.; Div. Supt. of Sch., Franklin, Va., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Jenner, G. Levant, Supt. o'f Sch., Bay City, 
 Mich. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 395 
 
 Jennings, Egbert, Supt. of Sch., Kennett, 
 Mo. 
 
 Jennings, M. P., Supt. of Sch., 100 W. 
 Mathews St., Elizabeth City, N. C. 
 
 Jensen, Christian N., B. S. A. '08, Utah 
 Ag. Col.; M. S. A. '09, Ph. D. '12, Cor- 
 nell Univ.; State Supt. of Pub. Instr., 
 Salt Lake City, Utah, since 1922. 
 
 Jensen, D. C, Supt. Jordan Dist. No. 2, 
 Sandy, Utah. 
 
 Jensen, Frank A., M. A. '13, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Rockford, 111., since 
 1914. 
 
 Jessup, Andrew S., A. B. '11, Ind. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 1240, Cheyenne, Wyo., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Jessup, Walter Albert, A. B. '03, Earlham 
 Col. ; M. A. '08, Hanover Col. ; Ph. D. 
 '11, Columbia Univ.; LL. D. '22, Tchrs. 
 Col., Wis.; Pres. State Univ. of la., Old 
 Capitol Bldg., Iowa City, Iowa, since 
 1916. 
 
 Johnson, A. P., Supt. of Sch., Box 435, 
 Kankakee, 111., since 1921. 
 
 Johnson, Antone, B. S. '16, Cornell Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 612, Emmetsburg, la., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Johnson, B. E., Supt. of Sch., Madison, S. 
 Dak. 
 
 Johnson, C. W., Co. Supt. of Sch., P. O. 
 Box 438, Dothan, Ala. 
 
 Johnson, E. W., A. B. '22, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Berrien Springs, Mich., 
 since ig22. 
 
 Johnson, Frank Clinton, A. B. '97, Dart- 
 mouth; A. M. '06, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 10 High St., Ayer, Mass., since 
 1909. 
 
 Johnson, G. L. H., Supt. of Sch., L. D. 
 56, Staunton, Va. 
 
 Johnson, Henry C, A. B. '03, M. A. '07, 
 Univ. of la.; Supt. of Sch., 1512 Upas 
 St., San Diego, Calif., since 1919. 
 
 Johnson, Lillia E., Co. Supt. of Sch., 402 
 N. Oxford Ave., Eau Claire, Wis. 
 
 Johnson, Sexton, A. B. '20, Rollins Winter 
 Park; Supt of Sch., Orlando, Fla., since 
 1916. 
 
 Johnson, S. W., Supt. of Sch., Brooking, 
 S. Dak. 
 
 Johnson, Thomas E., A. B. '16, LL. D. '23, 
 Alma Col.; M. E. D. '21, Mich. State 
 Normal Col.; LL. D. '20, Lincoln Mem. 
 Univ.; LL. D. '23, Olivet Col.; State 
 Supt. of Pub. Instr., Lansing, Mich., since 
 1919- 
 
 Johnston, W. D., Supt. of Sch., Weirton, 
 W. Va. 
 
 Joiner, C. E., B. S. '92, A. M. '95, Le Roy, 
 111., Supt. of Sch., Le Roy, 111. 
 
 Jones, Avery C, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Oshkosh, Wis. 
 
 Jones, C. Edward, Pd. B. '04, Pd. M. '05, 
 N. Y. State Col. for Tchrs.; B. S. '07, 
 M. A. '08, Ph. D. '11, New York Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., City Hall, Albany, N. Y., 
 since 1912. 
 
 Jones, Evan E., A. B. '16, Hamilton; Supt. 
 of Sch., Mechanicsville, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Jones, Frank O., Dist. Supt. N. W. Dist., 
 59 Oakland Terrace, Hartford, Conn. 
 
 Jones H. W., B. S. '09, Cornell Col.; M. A. 
 '22, Univ. Calif.; Supt. of Sch., 800 Mag- 
 nolia Ave., Piedmont, Calif., since 1921. 
 
 Jones, Irene, Supt. of Sch., Leslie, Ark. 
 
 Jones, Margaret R., Wash. Sch., Genesee Co. 
 Norm., Flint, Mich. 
 
 Jones, Olive M., Prin. Pub. Sch. 120, Pres. 
 N. E. A. 1923-24, Park Ave. Hotel, New 
 York, N. Y. 
 
 Jones, Robinson G., A. B. '94, Ohio North- 
 ern Univ.; A. B., M. A. '12, Columbia; D. 
 Ped. '21, Ohio Northern Univ.; Pres. 
 Dept of Superintendence, 1921, Supt. of 
 Sch., Bd. of Ed. Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio, 
 since 1919. 
 
 Jones, R. L., Supt. of Sch., Lyceum Bldg., 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 Jones, T. J., B. L. '96, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 621 71st Ave., West Allis, Wis., 
 since 1907. 
 
 Joseph, Edna, Elem. Supvr., 435 W. Sixth 
 St., Elyria, Ohio. 
 
 Joyce, Darrell, A. B. '03, Miami Univ. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., 209 So. 2nd St., Hamilton, Ohio, 
 since 1903. 
 
 Judd, Charles Hubbard, A. B. '94, Wesleyan 
 Univ. ; Ph. D. 'g6, Leipzig Univ. ; A. M. 
 '07, Yale Univ.; LL. D. '09, Miami Univ.; 
 LL. D. '13, Wesleyan Univ.; Prof, and 
 Head Dept. of Ed., Chairman Dept. of 
 Psychology, Dir. Sch. of Educ, Univ. of 
 Chicago, Chicago, 111., since 1909. 
 
 Kaiser, Mrs. A. A., Co. Supt. of Sch., Box 
 594, Carlsbad, N. M., since 1923. 
 
 Kalder, Arthur A., Supt. of Sch., Hartford, 
 Mich. 
 
 Kaye, Orin W., A. B., Olivet Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Paw Paw, Mich. 
 
 Kealey, Daniel S., A. B. '14, LL. B. '17, 
 Fordham; '18, Stevens Marine Eng. Sch.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Hoboken, N. J., since 1922. 
 
 Keating, John Francis, A. B. '92, Ohio 
 Wesleyan Univ. ; M. A. '06, D. L. '14, 
 Univ. of Denver; Supt. of Sch., Pueblo, 
 Colo., since 1896. 
 
 Keator, Maud, B. A. '14, M. A. '17, Tchrs. 
 Col., Columbia Univ.; Dir. Special Ed. 
 and Stand., State Bd. of Ed., Capitol, 
 Hartford, Conn., since 1922. 
 
 Keeler, L. W., Ph. B. '00, A. M. '10, Mich. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 216 E. 9th St., 
 Michigan City, Ind., since 1904. 
 
 Keen, Philip M., Asst. Supt. of Sch., Bay 
 City, Mich. 
 
 Keene, Charles H., A. B. '98, M. D. '02, 
 Harvard; Director Bureau of Health Ed., 
 State Dept. of Pub. Instr., Harrisburg, 
 Pa., since 192 1. 
 
 Keister, W. H., Supt. of Sch., 218 Franklin 
 St., Harrisonburg, Va., since 1894. 
 
 Keith, Allen P., Supt. of Sch., 166 William 
 St., New Bedford, Mass., since 1908. 
 
396 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Keith, Edna, Diploma '12, Western 111. 
 T. C. ; Elementary Supervisor, 1211 Cass 
 St., Joliet, 111., since 1912. 
 
 Keith, John A. H., A. B. '99, A. M. 'oo, 
 Harvard; D. Pd. '19, Miami Univ.; Prin. 
 btate Normal, Indiana, Pa., since 19 17. 
 
 Keith, W. P., A. B. '06, Ouachita Col.; 
 Supt. ,of Sch., Court House, Pine Bluff, 
 Ark., since 1919. 
 
 Kelder, J. W., Supt. of Sch., 146 Sanborn 
 Ave., Big Rapids, Mich. 
 
 Keller, Charles P., Supt. of Sch., 326 N. 
 Forest Ave., Brazil, Ind. 
 
 Keller, J: A., Co. Supt. of Sch., Andalusia, 
 Ala. 
 
 Keller, Paul G. W., B. S. '01, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; Supt. of Sch., Eau Claire, Wis., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Kelley, Roy B., B. S. '19, Syracuse, Supt. of 
 Sch., H. S. Bldg., Lockport, N. Y., since 
 1921. 
 
 Kelly, B. W., B. S. '02, Earlham; Supt. of 
 fcxh., H. S. Bldg., Greencastle, Ind., since 
 rg2i. 
 
 Kelly, Daniel James, B. S. '04, Pd. D. 'ig, 
 Syracuse; Supt. of Sch., Binghamton, 
 N. Y., since 1912. 
 
 Kemp, W. W., Ph. D. '12, Tchrs. Col. 
 Columbia; Dean Sch. of Ed., Univ. o£ 
 Calif., 417 Library Bldg., U. C, Berke- 
 ley, Calif., since 1923. 
 
 Kendall, F. H., A. B. '87, Ohio Wesleyan 
 Univ.; Co. Supt. of Sch., 205 Mentor Ave. 
 Painesville, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Kenna, J. M., Supt. Agr. H. S., Summit, 
 Miss. 
 
 Kennedy, Feme, Co. Supt. of Sch., Courli 
 House, Redwood Falls, Minn. 
 
 Kennedy, James Wilmer, A. M. '92, N. Y. 
 Univ.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., Bd. of Ed. 
 City Hall, Newark, N. J., since 1907. 
 
 Kenney, Thomas, 1357 12th St., Milwau- 
 kee, Wis. 
 
 Keppel, Mark, Co. Supt. of Sch., 504 Thorpe 
 Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif. 
 
 Kern, Ella M., Co. Supt. of Sch., Grand 
 Island, Nebr., since 1920. 
 
 Ketler, Frank C, A. B. '11, Grove City- 
 Col.; Super. Prin., Midland, Pa., since 
 1921. 
 
 Keyes, Charles H., A. B. '08, Amherst Col.; 
 Ed. M. '24, R. I. Col. of Ed.; Supt. 08 
 Sch., Box 61, Barrington, R. I., since 1919. 
 
 Keyworth, M. R., Supt., 232 W. Grand St. 
 Hamtramck, Mich. 
 
 Kiefer, R, J., Supt. of Sch., 1024 Robbins 
 Ave., Niles, Ohio. 
 
 Kies, Harry D., M. A. '20 State Univ. of 
 la.; Ph. B. Drake Univ.; Supt. of Sch. 
 Mankato, Minn., since 1923. 
 
 Kimball, Justin F., Supt. of Sch., Dallas, 
 Texas. 
 
 King, F. E., Supt. of Sch., 317 N. Mul- 
 berry, Marshall, Mich. 
 
 King, I. F., A. B. '18, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 35 Morse St., Coldwater, 
 Mich., since 1919. 
 
 King, Jeannette Moore, B. S. '92, '20, Univ. 
 of Nashville, Peabody Col.; Co. Supt. of 
 Sch., Court House, Murfreesboro, Tenn., 
 since 1923. 
 
 King, Robert M., 536 So. Clark St., Chi- 
 cago, 111. 
 
 Kingman, Frederic W., A. B. '10, Harvard; 
 Supt. of Sch., 22 Pond St., Natick, Mass., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Kingsford, A- C, Supt. of Sch., Baraboo, 
 Wis. 
 
 Kinney, F. H., Supt. of Sch., Evart, Mich. 
 
 Kinney, G. V., Supt. of Sch., Red Wing, 
 Minn. 
 
 Kircher, H. W., M. Ph. '04, Ph. B. *o 3 , 
 Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 
 Sheboygan, Wis, since 1924. 
 
 Kirk, John R., LL. D. '07, Mo. Wesleyan 
 Col., Park Col.; Pres. State Tchrs. Col., 
 Kirksville, Mo., since 1899. 
 
 Kirk, W. H., B. A. '87, M. A. '90, Baldwin- 
 Wallace Col.; Supt. of Sch., E. Cleveland, 
 O., since 1891. 
 
 Kirkendall, Fred C, B. Pd. '93, M. Pd. '99, 
 D. Pd. '17, Ohio Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Crestview, Dresden Rd., Zanesville, Ohio, 
 since 1917. 
 
 Kirkpatrick, Lee, Supt. of Sch., Paris, Ky. 
 
 Kittrell, Charles A., M. A. '20, State Univ. 
 of la.; Supt. of Sch., Central Bldg., Le 
 Mars, la., since 1922. 
 
 Klager, Benj., B. Pd. '15, Mich. State Nor- 
 mal; A. B. '19, Univ. of Mich.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Manistee, Mich., since 1921. 
 
 Klapper, Paul, B. A. '04, Col. City of N. Y.; 
 Ph. D. '09. N. Y. Univ. ; Prof, of Ed., 
 Dean Sch. of Ed., Col. City of N. Y., 
 New York, N. Y., since 1921. 
 
 Kline, Charles W., A. B. '04, Kans. Univ.; 
 M. A. '19, Columbia Univ.; LL. D. '24, 
 Coe Col.; Supt. of Sch., East H. S. Bldg., 
 Waterloo, Iowa, since 19 n. 
 
 Klonower, Henry, B. S. '15, M. A. '20, 
 
 Univ. of Pa.; Asst. Dir., Tchr. Bur., 
 
 State Dept. of Pub. Instr., Harrisburg, 
 Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Knapp, Ezra Fred, 120 W. Genesee St., 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Knapp, Thad. Johnson, Ph. B. '98, Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Highland Park, Mich., since 
 1911. 
 
 Knarr, H. E., B. Accts. '02, B. S. '09, Val- 
 paraiso Univ.; A. B. '12, A. M. '13, Oska- 
 loosa Col.; Supt. of Sch., Des Plaines, 
 111., since 1922. 
 
 Knode, J. C, A. B. '08, A. M. '22, Univ. 
 of Nebr.; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 
 Laramie, Wyo., since 1921. 
 
 Knoelk, William C, A. B. '07, A. B. '24, 
 Univ. of Wis.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 368 
 Kane Place, Milwaukee, Wis., since ig23. 
 
 Knox, W. F., B. S. '13, Drury Col.; A. M. 
 '21, Univ. of Mo.; Supt.' of Sch., 400 N. 
 Sixth St., St. Charles, Mo. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 397 
 
 Knox, W. J., B. S. '24, S. W. Tex. Tchrs. 
 Col. ; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 414 Russell 
 Bldg., San Antonio, Tex., since 1919. 
 
 Knudsen, Milton H., A. B. '17, B. Y. U. ; 
 M. S. '20, la. State Col.; Ph.D. '22; 
 Pres. Snow College, Ephraim, Utah, since 
 1924. 
 
 Knudtson, O. E., Supt. of Sch., Egan, S. 
 Dak. 
 
 Kocher, Walter L., A. B. '20, Muskingum; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Mingo Junc- 
 tion, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Kolb, Philip A., Ph. B. '01, Univ. of Wis.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Wauwatosa, Wis., since 
 1908. 
 
 Koons, G. J., Diploma '00, Eastern 111. 
 State Normal Sch.; A. B. '12, A. M. '22, 
 Univ. of 111.; Prin. Twp. High Sch., 922 
 N. Chicago St., Pontiac, 111., since 1917. 
 
 Koontz, James A., Supt. of Sch., 827 Pearl 
 Ave., Joplin, Mo. 
 
 Koontz, Norman C, A. B. '11, Yale; Supt. 
 of Sch., Titusville, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Koopman, G. Robert, A. B. '22, Central 
 Mich. Normal; Supt. of Sch., Shepherd, 
 Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Koos, L. V., Univi of Minn., Minneapolis, 
 Minn. 
 
 Korb, O. J., B. S. '18, Kent State Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 1676 Green Road, South 
 Euclid, Ohio, since 1921. 
 
 Kranshaar, R. W., Supt. of Sch., P. O. 
 Box 807, Mobridge, S. Dak. 
 
 Kraybill, A. E., B. Pd. '02, Millersville 
 State Norm. ; A. B. '04, Franklin & Mar- 
 shall Col.; A. M. '05, Harvard; Supt. of 
 Sch., 779 N. Charlotte St., Pottstown, Pa. 
 
 Krebs, Henry C, B. S. '89, State Normal 
 
 Sch., Kutztown, Pa. ; A. M. '23, Rutgers 
 
 Col.; Asso. Prof, of Ed., Col. of William 
 and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 
 
 Kretsinger, R. W., Supt. of Sch., Franklin, 
 Nebr. 
 
 Kroening, Frank, Asst. Supt. of Sch., in 
 Farwell Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Krout, Charles A., ' A. B. '87, A. M. '90, 
 Wittenberg Col.; Supt. of Sch., Tiffin, 
 Ohio, since 1900. 
 
 Kruschke, Walter F., Ph. B. '20, Univ. of 
 Wis.; Supt. of Sch., Kewaunee, Wis., since 
 1921. 
 
 Kuhn, Florence C, Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Charleston, W. Va. 
 
 Laidlaw, John B., B. S. '01, St. Lawrence; 
 Supt. of Sch., 1227 Walnut St., Niagara 
 Falls, N. Y., since 1916. 
 
 Laing, J. B., Supt. of Sch., Roaring Spring, 
 Pa. 
 
 Lake, Charles H., B. A. '09, M. A. '10, Ohio 
 State Univ.; First Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 Bd. of Ed. Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio, since 
 1920. 
 
 Lake, Sebastian, B. S. '15, la. State Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Sac City, la., since 1917. 
 
 Lamb, T. D.. Supt. of Sch., Hundred, W. 
 Va. 
 
 Lamkin, Uel W., N. W. Mo. State Tchrs. 
 Col., Maryville, Mo. 
 
 Lancaster, J. W., B. Ped. '06, M. S. '13, 
 Univ. of Ky. ; Supt. of Sch., Georgetown, 
 Ky., since 1922. 
 
 Lance, Jack, Supt. of Sch., Waynesboro, Ga. 
 
 Lane, Fletcher, A. B. '05, A. M. '23, Univ. 
 of Nebr.; LL. B. '10, Univ. of Tex.; Prof, 
 of Ed., John Tarleton Agr. Col., Stephen- 
 ville, Tex., since 1920. 
 
 Lane, R. E., B. S. '23, M. A. C, Supt. of 
 Sch., 523 Park Lane, East Lansing, Mich., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Lange, Edward G., Supt. of Sch., 201 S. 
 Division St., Waupaca, Wis. 
 
 Lange, Emil, Supt. of Sch., Head Dept. of 
 Ed., So. State Normal Sch., Springfield, 
 S. D. 
 
 Langwith, J. E., A. B. '13, S. W. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 902 N. Rockwell Ave., 
 Terrell, Tex., since 1923. 
 
 Langworthy, Harry W., Ph. B. '07, Alfred; 
 Supt. of Sch., 511 Broad St., Oneida, 
 N. Y., since 1921. 
 
 Lantz, P. G., A. B. '10, Ind. Univ.; A. M. 
 '13, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of Tr. Sch., Cen- 
 tral Mich. Normal Sch., Mt. Pleasant, 
 Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Lapham, P. C, Supt. of Sch., New Hamp- 
 ton, Iowa. 
 
 LaPoe, James L., Supvg. Prin., Room 410, 
 Nat. Deposit Bank Bldg., South Browns- 
 ville, Pa. 
 
 Laramy, Robert Edward, B. A. '96. M, A. 
 '99, Lehigh; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 
 Altoona, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Largent, Samuel D., Supt. of Sch., 908 
 Third Ave., N., Great Falls, Mont, since 
 1891. 
 
 LaRowe, Eugene, A. B. '96, A. M., '98, 
 Univ. of Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Maywood, 
 111., since 1913. 
 
 Lasher, Norman J., A. B. '20, Marion Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 405 So. C, Gas City, Ind., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Latham, Rowland H., B. A. '03, M. A. '03 
 Univ. of Virginia; Supt. of Sch., Masonic 
 Temple, Winston-Salem, N. C., since 1910. 
 
 Lawrence, C. G., Pres. Southern State Norm. 
 Springfield, S. Dak. 
 
 Layde, J. B., Prin., W. De Pere, Wis. 
 
 Leach, G. Sidney, B. A. '03, LL. B. '05, 
 Yale; M. A. '21, Tchrs. Col., Columbia 
 Univ. ; Supervising Prin., 5 Iona PI., Glen 
 Rock, N. J., since 1918. 
 
 Leavenworth, Philip R., B. A. '92 Yale; 
 Dist. Supt. of Sch., Castleton, Vt., since 
 1912. 
 
 Leavitt, Frank M., Asso. Supt. of Sch., 714 
 Fulton Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 LeClair, Mabel, Co. Supt. of Sch., King- 
 man, Ariz. 
 
 Lederle, E. J., A. B. '12, Mich.; Co. Com. 
 of Sch., Pontiac, Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Lee, Charles A., B. S. '17, Mo. Univ.; State 
 Supt. of Sch., Jefferson City, Mo., since 
 1922. 
 
398 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Lee, Glenn M., Supt. of Sch., West Engle- 
 wood, N. J. 
 
 Lee, H. D., Supt. Training Sch., No. Mich. 
 Normal, Marquette, Mich. 
 
 Leffel, James M., Supt. of Sch., 801 E. 
 Main St., Warsaw, Ind. 
 
 Lefler, Millard C, B. A. 'n, Peru State 
 
 Tchrs. Col.; M. A. '16, Nebr. ; Supt. of 
 
 Sch., 15th and N Sts., Lincoln, Nebr., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Lehman, Ezra, Prin. State Norm. Sch., 
 Shippensburg, Pa. 
 
 Lehn, Homer M. B., A. B. '08, Lebanon 
 Valley Col.; A. M. '22, Grove City Col.; 
 Prin. of Sch., Grove City, Pa., since 1913. 
 
 Lemmel, W. H., Supt. of Sch., 300 Maple 
 St., New London, Iowa. 
 
 Lemon, J. E., Supt. of Sch., 422 Maple Ave., 
 Blue Island, 111. 
 
 Leonard, A. L., Co. Supt. of Sch., Hunting- 
 ton, Utah. 
 
 Leonard, Nahum, Diploma '02, Bridge- 
 water, Mass., Normal Sch.; S. B. '05, 
 A. M. 'n, Harvard; Supt. of Sch., 15 
 Pleasant St., North Andover, Mass., since 
 1921. 
 
 Letts, George L., B. S. *io, Tri State Col.; 
 Ph. B. '17, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sth., 126 Clara Place, Elmhurst, 111., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Le Vitt, Clarence H., B. S. '11, A. M. '12, 
 Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of Sch., Savanna, 111., 
 since 19 14. 
 
 Lewis, E. E., A. B. '06, A. M. '07, Stanford; 
 Ph. D. '19, Columbia; Supt. of Sch., 519 
 Thomson St., Flint, Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Lewis, Evan J., A. B., '04, Olivet Col. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Carbondale, Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Lewis, R. F., A. B. '15, Univ. of Wis.; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Reedsburg, 
 Wis., since 1921. 
 
 Lewis, R. I., Supt. of Sch., Shelby, Ohio. 
 
 Lewton, W. W., Supt. of Sch., Cicero, 111. 
 
 Libby, Herschel S., State Bd. of Ed., Cole- 
 chester, Conn. 
 
 Libby, R. J., Agent for Rural Ed., State 
 Dept. of Ed., Augusta, Maine. 
 
 Light, N., Searle, B. A. '08, Yale; Dir. 
 Rural Ed., State Bd. of Ed., Hartford, 
 Conn., since 1915. 
 
 Light, U. L., B. S. 'oo, Ohio Northern; 
 Ph. B., '12, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., 521 N. 5th St., Barberton, O., since 
 1913- 
 
 Lindsey, John Clark, B. A. 'ig, Univ. of 
 S. D. ; M. A. '23, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Mitchell, S. D., since 1918. 
 
 Lippittj Walter O., B. S. '03, Carleton Col.; 
 M. A. '11, State Univ. of Minn.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 821 S. Court St., Fergus Falls, Minn., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Liston, V. M., Supt. of Sch., Neodesha, 
 Kans. 
 
 Littel, C. L., Supt. of Sch., Centralia, Wash. 
 
 Llewelyn, Edgar Julius, A. B. '07, Earlham 
 Col.; A. M. '10, Ind. Univ.; '10, '13, 
 Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Box 428, Newcastle, Ind., since 1917. 
 
 Locke, David C, Co. Supt. of Sch., Beaver, 
 Pa. 
 
 Locke, Offutt Hunter, B. S. '20, Grove City 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 404 Highland Ave., 
 Woodlawn, Pa., since 1910. 
 
 Lockhart, Albert V., A. B. '15, Mo. Wes- 
 leyan Col.; A. M. '17, Northwestern Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Lockport, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Lockhart, John C. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Raleigh, N. C. 
 
 Lockwood, Frank C, Dean Univ. of Ariz., 
 Tucson, Ariz. 
 
 Logan, Anna E.. M. A.. '06, Miami Univ.; 
 Asst. Sunt, of Sch., Denton Bldg., Cin- 
 cinnati, Ohio, since 1915. 
 
 Loofan, T^ck M.. A. B. '15, Drake; Supt. of 
 Sch., H. S. Bldg., Eagle Grove, la., since 
 1922. 
 
 Lombard. J. E., B. S. '02, M. E. '94, Tu- 
 lane; Librarian, State Dept. of Ed., Rev- 
 mond Bldg., Baton Rouge, La., since 1918. 
 
 Long, P. J., Co. Supt. of Sch., Jackson, 
 N. C. 
 
 Longanecker, F. M., B. A. '99, Hiram Col.; 
 M. A. '04, Univ. of Mich.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Box 103, Racine, Wis., since 1918. 
 
 Longbotham. Gilmore Thomas, Co. Supt. 
 of Sch., Court House, Janesville, Wis., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Longman, Marion Walter, A. B. -'io, Albion 
 Col.; A. M. *n, Univ. of Mich.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Muskegon, Mich., since 1921. 
 
 Longsdorf, A. J. B., B. '12, Wooster Col.; 
 A. M. '21, Columia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 201 W. Broadway, No. Baltimore, Ohio, 
 since 1918. 
 
 Loomis, G. F., A. B. 'gt5, A. M. '01, Beloit 
 Col.: Supt. of Sch., 166 Sheridan Road, 
 Kenosha, Wis., since 1921. 
 
 Loomis, Kenneth H., A. B. '20, Univ. of 
 Nebr. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 28, Odell, Nebr., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Loomis, Nellie M., Co. Supt. of Sch., 113 
 7th St., S. E., Watertown, S. D., since 
 1923. 
 
 Loper, John D., M. A. '15, Univ. of Ariz., 
 Supt. of Sch., 331 No. First Ave., Phoe- 
 nix, Arizona, since igog. 
 
 Lord, Arthur B., State Dept. of Ed., Bos- 
 ton, Mass. 
 
 Lord, Livingston C, LL. D. '04, Univ. of 
 111.; A. M. '12, Harvard; Pres. Eastern 
 111. State Teachers Col., Charleston, 111., 
 since i8g8. 
 
 Lovett, A. J., A. B. '79, Northwestern; 
 A. M. '80, McKendree; Supt. of Sch., 300 
 So. Main, Blackwell, Okla., since 1908. 
 
 Lowe, Harold T., Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 
 A., Hope Valley, R. I. 
 
 Lowery, John Glenn, Dean Dept. of Ed., 
 Muskingum Col., New Concord, Ohio. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 399 
 
 Lowrey, Harvey H., M. A. '20, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Springwell, 31st 
 Sta., Detroit, Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Lowrie, Walter C, Supt. of Sch., Rock 
 River, Wyo. 
 
 Lowry, Charles Doak, B. S. '08, A. M. '13, 
 Northwestern Univ. ; Dist. Supt. of Sch., 
 1643 Touhy Ave., Chicago, 111., since 1900. 
 
 Lowry, Harry H., A. B. '12, Bates Col.; 
 A. M. '14, Brown Univ.; Ed. M. '22, Har- 
 vard; Supt. of Sch., Waltham, Mass., 
 since 1924. 
 
 Lowther, L. A., Supt. of Sch., Emporia, 
 Kans. 
 
 Loy, W. M., Ph. B. '14, Franklin & Mar- 
 shall; A. M. '22, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Gibson City, 111.., since 1922. 
 
 Luckey, G. W. A., Specialist Foreign Ed. 
 Systems, U. S. Bur. of Ed., Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 Lull, Herbert Warren, A. B. '74/ Harvard; 
 Supt. of Sch., City Hall, Newport, R. I., 
 since 1900. 
 
 Lumbard, John W., B. A. '96, Amherst Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 8 Lenox Ave., White Plains, 
 N. Y., since 1912. 
 
 Lund, John, A. B. '13, Clark U. ; M. A. 
 '14, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 153 
 So. Main St., Wallingford, Conn., since 
 1923. 
 
 Lutes, Clyde M., B. A. '20, State Univ. of 
 la. ; Supt. of Con. Sch., Searsboro, la., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Lutes, O. S., M. A., State Univ. of la.; Re- 
 search Asst. State Univ. of la., 924 E. 
 Wash., Iowa City, la., since 1924. 
 
 Lyman, Warren, B., Ph. B. '06, Yale; Supt. 
 of Union Sch., 36 Hayden Rowe, Hop- 
 kinton, Mass., since 1917. 
 
 Lynch, C. P., A. B. '86, A. M. '91, Ph. D. 
 '94, Allegheny Col.; Supt. of Sch., 1289 
 Andrews Ave., Lakewood, Ohio, since 
 1911. 
 
 Lynch, H. M., A. B. '20, Elon Col., N. C. ; 
 Prin. H. S., Townsville, N. C. 
 
 Lynch, Wilbur H., A. B. '99, Harvard; 
 Supt. of Sch., 41 Division St., Amster- 
 dam, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Lyon, Elmer E., Supt. of Sch., Covington, 
 La. 
 
 Lyon, Hubert Calloway, B. S. '24, Poto- 
 mac Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Hearne, Tex., 
 since 1921. 
 
 McAlister, Cloyd N., Ph. D. '00, Yale; 
 Dean Normal Sch., Berea Col., Berea, 
 Ky., since 1913. 
 
 McAlister, R. D., B. A. '17, Univ. of Me.; 
 M. A. Columbia; Supvg. Agt., State Bd. 
 of Ed., Box 492, Putnam, Conn., since' 
 1922. 
 
 McAlpine, C. V., Supt. of Sch., 344 E. 
 Washington St., Marseilles, 111. 
 
 McAndrew, William, A. B. '86, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt of Sch., 232 E. Pearson St., 
 Chicago, 111., since 1924, Pres. Dept. of 
 Superintendence, 1924. 
 
 McBee, Mary V., 172 Rutledge Ave., 
 Charleston, S. C. 
 
 McCallum, A. N., Supt. of Sch., 101 E. 
 9th St., Austin, Tex. 
 
 McCann, Josiah S., A. B. '00, Bates; Supt. 
 of Sch., Orange, Mass., since 1919. 
 
 McCartney, Livingstone, Supt. of Sch., Han- 
 nibal, Mo., since 1909. 
 
 McCleary, Thomas Galbraith, A. B. '03, 
 Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of Sch., 630 Lil- 
 lie Ave., Braddock, Pa., since 1920. 
 
 McClelland, Donald W., A. B. '11, Univ. 
 of Vt. ; Supt. of Sch., 819 Main St., Ben- 
 nington, Vt., since 1919. 
 
 McClinton, J. W., A. B. '03, N. W. ; M. A. 
 '18, Columbia; Dir. Better Sch. League, 
 53 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111., since 
 1924- 
 
 McClure, Worth, A. B. '08, Simpson Col.; 
 A. M. '20, Univ. of Wash.; Asst. to Supt. 
 of Sch., 840 Central Bldg., Seattle, Wash., 
 since 1923. 
 
 McCollom, W. W., Supt. of Sch., Union, 
 Okla. 
 
 McComis, Samuel Jay, B. L. '05, Berea 
 Col.; LL. B. '10, Lincoln- Jefferson Univ.; 
 A. M. '17, Univ. of 111.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Venice, 111., since 1918. 
 
 McCommons, J. L., Supt. of Sch., 1327 Kans. 
 Ave., Superior, Nebr. 
 
 McConnell, J. M., State Com. of Ed., State 
 Capitol, St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 McConnell, John Preston, B. A. '90, M. A. 
 '94, Milligan Col.; Ph.D. '04, Univ. of 
 Va. ; Pres. State Tchrs. Col., East Rad- 
 ford, Va., since 1911. 
 
 McCooly, Margaret J., Assoc. Supt. of Sch., 
 500 Park Ave., New York, N. Y. 
 
 McCord, George E., A. B. '01, A. M. '04, 
 Wittenburg Col. ; A. M. '22, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 1533 Limestone St., 
 Springfield, Ohio, since 1920. 
 
 McCord, Marvin O., Supt. of Sch., Wash- 
 ington, Ga. 
 
 McCorkle, Charles E., Ph. B. '09, Ped. D. 
 '18, Ohio Univ.; A. M. '14, Clark Univ.; 
 A. M. '17, Harvard Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Kenmore, Ohio, since 1919. 
 
 McCormick, B. E., A. B. '04, Univ. of 
 Wis., ; Supt. of Sch., 427 So. 14th St., 
 LaCrosse, Wis., since 19 16. 
 
 McCormick, F. S., A. B. '19, Tri State Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Huron, Ohio, since 1923. 
 
 McCoy, O. R., Supt. of Sch., Newmarket, 
 N. H. 
 
 McCready, B. V., Supt. of Sch., Lafayette, 
 Colo. 
 
 McCrory, James L., A. B. 'n, Tarkio Col.; 
 A. M. '17 State Univ. of Iowa; Asst. 
 Supt. of Sch., 610 City Hall, Omaha, 
 Nebr., since 1920. 
 
 McCulloch, W. W., Co. Supt. of Sch., Pon- 
 tiac, 111. 
 
 McCullough, A. M., A. B. '18, Colo. State 
 Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of Sch., 108 E. Chip- 
 pewa St., Paola, Kans., since 1922. 
 
400 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 McDonald, Alexander, B. L. '13, Detroit 
 Col. of Law; A. B. '15, Univ. of Mich.; 
 B. Pd. '08, Mich. State Normal Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 25 W. South Dearborn Ave., 
 River Rouge, Mich., since 1909. 
 
 McDonald, J. M., Supt. of Sch., Kemmerer, 
 Wyo. 
 
 McDougall, R. S., Central State Norm. 
 Sch., Lock Haven, Pa. 
 
 McDowell, Samuel Kline, Diploma '06, 111. 
 State Normal Univ. ; Diploma B. S. '09, 
 Tri-State College; '12 University of 111.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 410 E. Monroe St., Bloom- 
 ington, 111., since 1920. 
 
 McElfish, R. C, A. B. '14, Dickinson; A. M. 
 '16, Columbia; Supv. Prin. of Sch., in 
 Maple Ave., Edgewood, Pittsburgh, Pa., 
 since 1920. 
 
 McElroy, Frank D., B. A. '06, Wabash 
 Col.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., Akron, Ohio, 
 since 1920. 
 
 McGaughy, J. R., A. B. '12, M. A. '15, 
 Park Col.; M. A. '21, Ph. D. '24, Co- 
 lumbia Univ.; Asst. Prof, of Ed., T. C, 
 Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y., since 
 1923. 
 
 McGee, R. R., A. B. 'n, A. M. '15, Univ. 
 of Nebr. ; Supt. of Sch., Columbus, Nebr., 
 since 1922. 
 
 McGehee, Edward G., Jr., A. B. '04, Hamp- 
 den-Sidney Col.; B. S. '17, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Troy Ala., since 
 1921. 
 
 McGilvrey, John E., Pres., Kent State 
 Norm. Col., Kent, Ohio. 
 
 McGinnis, Howard J., State Norm. Sch., 
 West Liberty, W. Va. 
 
 McGinnis, W. C, Supt. of Sch., 10 Cen- 
 tennial Ave., Revere, Mass. 
 
 McGuire, Harry, B. S. '20, K. S. T. Col.; 
 
 Supt. of Sch., 1023 Marion St., Florence, 
 Kans., since 1922. 
 
 McHenry, H. Scott, B. S. '21, Univ. of Pa.; 
 Science Instr., Bloomingdale, N. J., since 
 1923. 
 
 Mcllwaine, Thos. J., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Farmville, Va. 
 
 Mclntire, Ira H., B. A. '06, Indiana Univ.; 
 M. A. '20, Iowa Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 Box 112, Green Bay, Wis., since 1920. 
 
 Mcintosh, W. A., Supt. of Sch., 1308 Polk 
 St., Amarillo, Tex. 
 
 McKee, Clarence A., A. B. '09, Univ. of 
 Mo. ; J. D. '20, Univ. of Ariz. ; A. M. '23, 
 Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Box 117, 
 Glendale, Ariz., since 1921. 
 
 McKee, William P., A. B. '83, Wabash Col. ; 
 M. A. '97, Univ. of Minn.; B. D. '87, 
 Univ. of Chicago; Dean, The Frances 
 Shimer Sch., Mt. Carroll, 111., since 1897. 
 
 McKenny, Charles, A. M. '04, Univ. of Wis.; 
 LL. D. '12, Olivet Col.; Pres. Mich. State 
 Normal Col., Ypsilanti, Mich., since 1912. 
 
 McKenzie, F. A., Pres., Fisk Univ., Nash- 
 ville, Tenn. 
 
 McKenzie, Ury, Supt. of Sch., 223 Oak St., 
 Hot Springs, Ark. 
 
 McKeown, Boyd M., Dean, McMurry Col., 
 Abilene, Tex. 
 
 McKinney, H. T., B. S. '04, Valparaiso 
 Univ.; B. A. '13, M. A. '15, Ph. D. '20, 
 Univ. of 111.; Dept. of Ed., Aurora Col., 
 71 N. View St., Aurora, 111. 
 
 McKinn-ey, Rachel, Columbian Sch., Detroit, 
 Mich. 
 
 McLeod, Beatrice, B. S. '20, Univ. of Ore.; 
 M. A. '22, Univ. of Wash. ; State Dir. of 
 Spec. Ed., Cheyenne, Wyo., since 1923. 
 
 McLure, John R., B. S. 'n, Univ. of Ala.; 
 M. A. '14, Ph. D. '24, Columbia; Prof. 
 of Ed. Admin., School of Ed., Univ. of 
 Ala., University, Ala., since 1924. 
 
 McMahan, C. L., Supt. of Sch., Williams- 
 town, W. Va. 
 
 McMahon, R. J., Supt. of Sch., 21 Han- 
 cock St., New London, Wis. 
 
 McManus, James B., Supt- of Sch., 748 
 Gooding St., La Salle, 111. 
 
 McMillan, Jesse V., Tchrs. Col., Oxford, 
 Ohio. 
 
 McMullan, J. E., Ph. B. '94, DePauw Univ.; 
 Ph. M. '03, Syracuse Univ.; Ph. D. '07, 
 Scio Col.; Dean of Ed., City Col.; 222 
 N. Grove St., Oakland City, Ind., since 
 .1919. 
 
 McMullen, Lynn B., Pres. Northern Ariz. 
 Normal Sch., Flagstaff, Ariz. 
 
 McNabb, H. H., Supt. of Sch., Lilbourn, 
 Mo. 
 
 McPheron, R. L., 341 W. Monroe, Mc- 
 Alester, Okla. 
 
 McProud, B. E., Dean, Tchrs. Col., 100 E. 
 17th, University Place, Nebr. 
 
 McQuilkin, D. E., A. B. '05, A. M. '06, 
 West Va. Univ.; A. M. '08, Harvard; 
 Supt. of Sch., Roanoke, Va., since 1918. 
 
 McVay, Charles S., B. S. '10, Ohio North- 
 ern Univ.; Supt. of Sch., New Philadel- 
 phia, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 McVay, F. W., Supt. of Sch., Canonsburg, 
 Pa. 
 
 McVay, H. R., B. Ph. '90, D. Ped. '15, 
 Ohio Univ. ; Co. Supt. of Sch., Athens, 
 Ohio, since 1923. 
 
 McWhorter, L. N., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 2517 
 Pleasant Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 MacDougall, W. J. B., Supt. of Sch., West 
 Bridgewater, Mass. 
 
 Macelwane, Francis J., Supt. Parochial Sch., 
 2535 Collingwood Ave., Toledo, Ohio. 
 
 Mackey, E. W , Supt. of Sch., Newberry, 
 Mich. 
 
 Macpherson, W. E., Ontario Col. of Ed., 
 371 Bloor St., W., Toronto, Ont., Canada. 
 
 MacQueen, Donald W., Supt. of Sch., El- 
 dorado, Ark. 
 
 MacVean, Ralph J., B. S. '22, Mich. Agr. 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 223 Jefferson St., 
 Lowell, Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Maddox, John J., A. B. '07, Yale Col.; M. 
 A. '12, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 911 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo., since 1921. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 401 
 
 Magnussen, Amanda, A. B. '17, Bethany 
 Col.; A. M. '23, Univ. of Kans. ; Hd. 
 Dept. of Ed., Bethany Col., Lindsborg, 
 Kans., since 1918. 
 
 Mahannah, F. L., Supt. of Sch., Cedar Falls, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Mahoney, Lewis A., Supt. of Sch., Moline, 
 111. 
 
 Main, H. T., B. A. '20, Ohio Wesleyan; 
 bupt. of Sch., 174 W. Lincoln Ave., Dela- 
 ware, Ohio. 
 
 Malcolm, George G., A. B. '06, Univ. of 
 Mich. ; Supt. of Sch., Sault Ste. Marie, 
 Mich., since igi6. 
 
 Mann, Sara C, 511 Englewood Ave., Chi- 
 cago, 111. 
 
 Manuel, H. T., A. B. "09, De Pauw Univ.; 
 A. M. '14, Univ. of Chicago; Ph. D. '17, 
 Univ. of 111.; Dir. Ed. Res., Western State 
 Col. of Colo., Gunnison, Colo., since 1917. 
 
 Marie, Sister Jeanne, A. B. '17, Col. of St. 
 Catherine; A. M. '18, Univ. of Minn.; 
 Ph. D., Belgium; Hd. Ed. Dept., The 
 Col. of St. Catherine, St. Paul, Minn., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Markley, J. H., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 7534 
 Madison St., Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Markley, R. L., A. B. '14, Col. of Emporia; 
 Supt. of Sch., High School, Douglas, Wyo., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Markman, Frank H., A. B. '11, McKendree 
 Col.; Prin. Jersey Twp. H. S., Jersey- 
 ville, 111., since 1921. 
 
 Marks, Sallie B., A. B. '23, S. W. Tchrs. 
 Col., Weatherford, Okla. ; Asst. Supt. of 
 Sch., Box 491, LaCrosse, Wis., since 1924. 
 
 Marquis, R. L., No. Tex. State Tchrs. Col., 
 Denton, Tex. 
 
 Marrs, S. M. N., State Supt. of Pub. Inst., 
 Austin, Tex. 
 
 Marsh, Edward O., A. B. '94, Univ. of 
 Mich.; M. Pd. '18, Mich. State Normal 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Jackson, Mich., since 
 1911. 
 
 Marshall, Farnsworth G., A. B. '03, Bow- 
 doin; Supt. of Sch., Maiden, Mass., since 
 1913- 
 
 Marshall, George H., A. B. '17, Univ. of 
 Kans.; Supt. of Sch., 614 Osage St., 
 Augusta, Kans., since 1917. 
 
 Marston, R. B., B. A. '16, Randolph Macon 
 Col..; M. A. '24, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Sistersville, W. Va., since 
 1920. 
 
 Martin, A. O., B. S. '19, Okla. A. and M. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Vinita, Okla., since 
 1924- 
 
 Martin, C. F., State Cert. '12, by State 
 Bd. of Ed.; Supt. of Sch., Owingsville, 
 Ky. 
 
 Martin, C. I., Co. Supt. of Sch., Pekin, 111. 
 
 Martin, Frank M., A. B. '05, Wash, and 
 Lee Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Durham, N. C, 
 since 1923. 
 
 Martin, Geo. E., A. B. '14, Nebr. Univ.; 
 A. M. '19, Columbia; Pres. State Tchrs. 
 Col., Kearney, Nebr., since 1919. 
 
 Martin, H. G., B. S. '08, Univ. of Mo.; 
 615 City Park Ave., New Orleans, La., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Martin, John Eppes, A. B. '11, M. A. '14, 
 Wash, and Lee Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 Suffolk, Va., since 1917. 
 
 Martin, M. J., A. B. '22, Albion Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 211 E. Knight St., Eaton Rapids, 
 Mich., since 1924. 
 
 Martin, Sutton H., B. A. '95, Univ. of 
 Nebr.; Supt. of Sch., Prescott, Ariz., 
 since 1917. 
 
 Martin, William H., M. S. '04, Franklin 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Wilkinsburg, Pa., 
 Since 1922. 
 
 Martin, W. P. Supt. of Sch., 606 Academy, 
 Dublin, Ga. 
 
 Mason, C. W., Supt. of Sch., Bank and 
 Charlotte Sts., Norfolk, Va. 
 
 Mason, E. G., Supt. of Sch., Rittman, Ohio. 
 
 Mason, M. Phyllis, Ph. B. '15, Dickinson; 
 Rural Supvr., County Bldg., Wilmington, 
 Del., since 1923. 
 
 Mason, Noah M., Dixon Col. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Oglesby, 111., since 1908. 
 
 Masterson, W. G., A. B. '15, A.- M. '17, 
 Greeley, Colo.; Supt. of Sch., 201 N. 
 15th St., Muskogee, Okla., since 1924. 
 
 Maston, R. C, Supt. of Sch., 600 Elm, 
 Martins Ferry, Ohio. 
 
 Mathewson, H. I., '79, Conn. State Normal; 
 Supt. of Sch., Milford, Conn., since 1909. 
 
 Matteson, I. F., Supt. of Sch., Findlay, 
 Ohio, since 191 7. 
 
 Matthews, Arthur J., LL. D. '17, Syracuse 
 Univ. ; Pres. Tempe Normal Sch. of Ariz., 
 Tempe, Ariz., since 1900. 
 
 Matzen, John M., B. S. '08, Fremont Col.; 
 State Supt. of Pub. Instr., Capitol Bldg., 
 Lincoln, Nebr., since 1920. 
 
 Maue, August, Co. Supt. of Sch., 212 Sher- 
 man St., Joliet, 111. 
 
 Maurer, George C, Ph. M. '90, Ph. B. '93, 
 Univ. of Wooster; Supt. of Sch., 323 N. 
 Market St., Wooster, Ohio, since igi2. 
 
 Maxson, C. H., Supt. of Sch., Litchfield 
 Minn. 
 
 Maxson, Henry M., A. B. '77, A. M. '90, 
 Amherst Col.; Pd. D. '00, Alfred Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Plainfield, N. J., since 1892. 
 
 Maxson, Holly W., B. A. '97, Alfred; B. 
 Pd. '98, N. Y. State Normal; M. A. '02, 
 Columbia; Master's Diploma for Supv. 
 '02, Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ.; Supv. 
 Prin. of Sch., West New York, N. J., 
 since 1910. 
 
 May, Walter M., A. B. '05, A. M. '24, Dart- 
 mouth; Deputy Comm. of Ed., State House 
 Annex, Concord, N. H., since 1919. 
 
 Mayberry, Lawrence W., A. B. '01, Kans. 
 Univ.; A. B. '18, A. M. '18, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 1548 Park PL, 
 Wichita, Kans., since 1912. 
 
 Maynard, Milton M., A. B. '08, Univ. of 
 Okla.; M. A. '20, Univ. of 111.; Prof, of 
 Ed., Monmouth Col., 734 E. Boston Ave., 
 Monmouth, 111., since 1909. 
 
402 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Mays, Vernon G., M. A. '05, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Ph. B. '94, Albion Col. ; Prin. Fergus Co. 
 H. S., Lewistown, Mont., since 1923. 
 
 Mead, H. W., A. B. '01, Harvard; Supt. of 
 Sch., East Aurora, N. Y., since 1906. 
 
 Meadows, John C, M. A. '21, Peabody Col. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Amory, Miss. 
 
 Meek, Charles S., A. B. '91, Univ. of Ind. ; 
 A. M. '08, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Bd. of Ed., Toledo, Ohio, since 1921. 
 
 Meek, Lois Hayden, Am. Assn. of Univ. 
 Women, 1634 I St., Washington, D. C. 
 
 Meer, Mary L., B. S. '09, T. C, Columbia 
 Univ. ; Supvr. Prim. Gr., 1401 Kaighn 
 Ave., Camden, N. J. 
 
 Melcher, George, B. S. '89, M. S. '92, Odessa 
 Col.; A. B. 'g8, Drury Col.; A. M. 'ig, 
 T. C, Columbia Univ.; LL. D. '23, Mo. 
 Valley Col.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., Dir. of 
 Res., Library Bldg., Kansas City, Mo., 
 since 1914. 
 
 Melcher, Wm., A. B. 'n, A. M. '12, Drury 
 Col.; A. M. '16, Harvard; Supt. of Sch., 
 439 S. Sixth, Montrose, Colo., since 1918. 
 
 Mendenhall, H. M., A. B. '20, Univ. of Pa.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Upper Darby, Pa., since 
 1917. 
 
 Meredith, Albert B., A. B. '95, M. A. '16, 
 LL. D. '21, Wesleyan Univ.; L. H. D. 
 '21, Upsala Col.; Pd. D. '16, Muhlenberg 
 Col.; State Com. of Ed., Hartford, Conn., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Merrell, A. J., A. B. '88, A. M. 'gi, Univ. 
 of Rochester; Supt. of Sch., H. S., Geneva, 
 N. Y., since 1913. 
 
 Merriam, Burr J., Diploma '98, Oneonta 
 Normal Sch.; B. S. '16, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Framingham, Mass., since 
 1922. 
 
 Merrick, K. C, A. B. '10, Wheaton Col.; 
 A. M. '23, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., Morris, 111., since 1920. 
 
 Merriman, Ethel G., Elemn. Supvr., 25 Burr 
 St., West Hartford, Conn., since 1923. 
 
 Merriman, Justin, Co. Supt. of Sch., Bluff- 
 ton, Ind. 
 
 Merritt, Lillian H., 210 W. Embargo, Rome, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Merwin, Fannie S., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Havana, 111. 
 
 Mesner, F. D., Supt. of Sch., Bellevue, Iowa. 
 
 Metzner, Alice B., B. S. '24, Detroit Tchrs. 
 Col.; Supvr. of Spec. Ed., 100 E. Grand 
 River, Detroit, Mich., since igi6. 
 
 Meyer, A. M., Supt. of Sch., Oxford, Ind. 
 
 Midkiff, F. E., Kamehameha Sch., Hono- 
 lulu, T. H. 
 
 Miley, Jess W., State Supt. of Sch., State 
 House, Topeka, Kans. 
 
 Miller, Alexander W., A. B. '12, Harvard; 
 A. M. '22, Columbia; Supt. of Sch., 
 Scotia, N. Y., since igi8. 
 
 Miller, Augustus G., B. S. '88, S. C. Mil. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 76, Way- 
 cross, Ga., since igi2. 
 
 Miller, Charles A., B. S. '11, M. S. '12, 
 Susquehanna; Supvr. Prin., H. S., South 
 Brownsville, Pa., since 1923. 
 
 Miller, C. F., A. B. '07, A. M. 'og, Mc- 
 Kendree Col.; A. M. '17, T. C, Columbia 
 Univ. ; Supt. of Sch. ; Library Bldg., 
 Galesburg, 111., since 1921. 
 
 Miller, Charles F., Ph. B. '96, DePauw 
 Univ., Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, 
 Goshen, Ind., since ig2i. 
 
 Miller, Charles S., A. B. '13, Allegheny; 
 
 A. M. '15, Univ. of Pittsburgh; Supt. of 
 Sch., Latrobe, Pa., since igi8. 
 
 Miller, Edwin L., A. B. 'go, A. - M. 'gi, 
 Univ. of Mich. ; M. Pd. '24, Mich. State 
 Tchrs. Col.; Supv. Prin. of H. S., 1354 
 Broadway, Detroit, Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Miller, Emma R., Co. Supt. of Sch., West 
 Point, Nebr., since igo7. 
 
 Miller, Frank L., B. A. '82, M. A. '85, Ohio 
 Wesleyan Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 15410 
 Lexington Ave., Harvey, 111., since i8g2. 
 
 Miller, Fred B., 6700 Easton Ave., St. 
 Louis, Mo. 
 
 Miller, H. C, A. B. '10, Lenoir Col.; A. 
 M. '13, Univ. of N. C. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 Box 466, Washington, N. C, since ig23. 
 
 Miller, Harley H., B. S. '16, O. S. Univ.; 
 
 B. S. '20, O. N. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Tiro, Ohio, since 1921. 
 
 Miller, James C, Prof, of Ed., P. O. Box 
 224, Bloomington, Ind. 
 
 Miller, Walter E., B. A. '87, Ohio Wesleyan 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., City H. S., Knox- 
 ville, Tenn., since 1911. 
 
 Mills, C. S., State Sch. Supvg. Agt., 58 E. 
 Main St., Plainville, Conn. 
 
 Mills, W. R., Supt. of Sch., Louisburg, 
 N. C. 
 
 Milne, John, Supt. of Sch., 804 Park Ave., 
 Albuquerque, N. Mex. 
 
 Miner, W. F., Supt. of Sch., Farmington, 
 Maine. 
 
 Minnich, Harvey C, A. M. '08, Ohio Wes- 
 leyan; LL. D. '12, Univ. of Vt. ; Dean 
 Tchrs. Col., Miami Univ., Oxford, Ohio, 
 since 1903. 
 
 Misenar, O. M., Ph. B. '13, Alma Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 521 Sixth St., St. Clair, 
 Mich., since 1918. 
 
 Mitchell, Clovis W., B. S. '08, R. I. State 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Putnam Ave., Green- 
 ville, R. I., since 19 18. 
 
 Mitchell, Irving C, B. S. '13, R. I. State 
 Col.; A. M. '20, Brown; Supt. of Sch., 
 Valley Falls, R. I., since igi8. 
 
 Mitchell, J. C, Supt. of Sch., 1103 Sheridan, 
 Holdrege, Nebr. 
 
 Mitchell, S. C, Supt. of Sch., Benton 
 Harbor, Mich. 
 
 Mniece, Leonard A., Supt. of Sch., Han- 
 cock, Mich. 
 
 Moehlman, Arthur B., A. B. '12, A. M. '21, 
 Ph. D. '23, Univ. of Mich.; Prof, of 
 Admin, and Supv., Sch. of Ed. Univ. of 
 Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich., since ig23. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 403 
 
 Mohn, A. W., Pres. Louisburg Col., Louis- 
 burg, N. C. 
 
 Mohr, Lloyd C, B. S. '16, Adrian Col.; 
 M. A. '22, Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., South Haven, Mich., since 
 1920. 
 
 Molloy, Hugh J., Supt. of Sch., 16 Rutland 
 St., Lowell, Mass. 
 
 Montgomery, A. D., Supt. of Sch., Sullivan, 
 Ind. 
 
 Montgomery, J. J., B. S. '15, Milton Univ.; 
 A. B. '17, Univ. of Minn.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Jacksonville, Tex., since 1924. 
 
 Montgomery, L. C, Supt. of Sch., Box 
 638, Cambria, Wis. 
 
 Montgomery, T. T., Supt. of Sch., 1316 
 S. 8th St., Chickasha, Okla. 
 
 Montoya, A., Co. Supt. of Sch., 216 N. 
 High St., Albuquerque, N. M. 
 
 Moody, A. E., A. B. '07, A. M. '13, Ohio 
 State Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 758 Washing- 
 ton St., Bedford, Ohio, since 1918. 
 
 Moody, Chester A., A. B. '06, Syracuse 
 Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Arlington, Mass., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Moody, V. B., Supt. of Sch., Waterford, 
 Conn. 
 
 Moon, Ward Clinton, A. B. '05, Amherst; 
 Pd. M. 'ro, N. Y. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Poughkeepsie, N. Y., since 1919. 
 
 Moore, A. W., Supt. of Sch., Oelwein, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Moore, E. H., Supt. of Sch., 316 N. Main, 
 Eaton Rapids, Mich. 
 
 Moore, George O., A. B. '04 A. M. '09, 
 Syracuse Univ. ; Asst. Supt. of Sch., Li- 
 brary Bldg., Erie, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Moore, Herbert McComb, B. A. '96, Lake 
 Forest Col.; LL. D. '21, Pittsburgh Univ.; 
 Pres. Lake Forest Col., Lake Forest, 111., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Moore, James Alexander, B. P. '94, Southern 
 Univ.; LL. D. '24, Univ. of Ala.; Co. 
 Supt. of Sch., Jasper, Ala., since 1920. 
 
 Moore, James G., Supt. of Sch., 360 7th 
 Ave. So., Fargo, N. D. 
 
 Moore, Marion E., Supt. of Sch., Lawrence- 
 ville, 111. 
 
 Moore, Millard C, A. B. '07, Colby; Supt. 
 of Sch., 98 Main St., Ashfield, Mass., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Moore, M. E., A. B. '01, Southern Nor. 
 Univ. Tenn. ; A. M. '14, Univ. of Kans. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Beaumont, Texas, since 
 1919. 
 
 Moore, Milton H., A. B. '21, Tex. Christian 
 Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 921 Jennings Ave., 
 Fort. Worth, Tex., since 1915. 
 
 Moore, Roy L., A. B. '05, Eureka Col.; 
 State H. S. Supvr., 901 W. South Grand 
 Ave., Springfield, 111., since 1923. 
 
 Morelock, Oliver J., A. B. '92, A. M. '95, 
 Franklin and Marshall Col.; A. M. '21, 
 Columbia Univ.; Co. Supt. of Sch., Maple- 
 wood, N. J. 
 
 Morgan, Lewis V., A. B. '13, Wheaton Col.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, Wheaton, 
 111., since 1921. 
 
 Morgan, Royal T., Jr., Supt. of Sch., 
 Wheaton, 111. 
 
 Morgan, Walter P., Diploma '95, Ind. State 
 Normal; A. B. '00, Ind. Univ.; Ph. M. 
 '09, Univ. of Chicago; Pres. Western 111. 
 State Teachers Col., Macomb, 111., since 
 1912. 
 
 Morris, Charles A., B. S. '05, Rutgers Col.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, Toms 
 River, N. J., since 1906. 
 
 Morris, Frank A., Supt. of Sch., Manchester, 
 N. H. 
 
 Morris, George, B. S. '89, Rutgers Col.; 
 A. M. '01, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 161 Washington St., Bloomfield, N. J., 
 since 1904. 
 
 Morris, Ida B., Co. Supt. of Sch., St. Mary's, 
 W. Va. 
 
 Morris, M. G., Supvg. Prin., Natrona, Pa. 
 
 Morrison, Fred Wilson, A. B., A. M. '13, 
 Univ. of N. C. ; A. M. '23, Columbia 
 Univ.; Asso. Prof, of Ed., N. C. Col. for 
 Women, Greensboro, N. C, since 1924. 
 
 Morrison, J. Cayce, A. B. '12, Valparaiso, 
 Univ.; M. A. '16, Ph. D. '22. Columbia 
 Univ.; Prof, of Sch. Admin., Dept. Sch. 
 Admin., Ohio State Univ., Columbus, 
 Ohio, since 1923. 
 
 Morse, Herbert N., Bus. Mgr., State Dept. 
 of Pub. Instr., 901 Berkeley Ave., Tren- 
 ton, N. J., since 1898. 
 
 Morse, Orson S., Co. Supt. of Sch., 12 E. 
 First St., Fond Du Lac, Wis. 
 
 Mort, Paul R., Ph. D. '24, Columbia; Asst. 
 Prof, of Ed., T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 New York, N. Y. since 1924. 
 
 Morton, H. D., Pres. Mountain Home Col. ; 
 Mountain Home, Ark. 
 
 Morton. Orion A., Supt. of Sch.. 177 Pros- 
 pect St., Northampton, Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Morton, William Henry, A. B. '09, York 
 
 Col. ; A. M. '12, Univ. of Nebr. ; A. M. 
 
 '23, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Beat- 
 rice, Nebr., since 1922. 
 
 Moseley, Clark C, Diploma '07, State Nor- 
 mal Col.; A. B. '11, Univ. Ala.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Dothan, Ala., since 1922. 
 
 Mosher, Charles L., Ph. B. '99, Ph. M. '02, 
 
 Hamilton, Col.; Supt. of Sch., High 
 
 School, Saratoga Springs, N. Y., since 
 1914. 
 
 Mott, T. A., A. M. '98, Earlham Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Seymour, Ind., since 1913. 
 
 Moyers, A. Edison, A. B. '12, Tabor Col.; 
 M. S. '22, la. State Col.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Sidney, Iowa. 
 
 Mueller, Rudolph C, B. A. '13, Fargo Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 7449 Warren Ave., Forest 
 Park, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Muench, J. F., Supt. of Sch., Mountain 
 Iron, Minn. 
 
 Mugan, Mary A. S., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 Sch. Admin. Offices, Fall River, Mass. 
 
404 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Muir, James N., Supt. of Sch., 132 East 
 Broad St., Bethlehem, Pa. 
 
 Muma, James A., Supt. of Sch., Stephenson, 
 Mich. 
 
 Munch, H. F., B. S. '04, Adrian Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 521 N. Main St., Monmouth, 111., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Munson, Irving, A. B. '13, Augustana Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Momence, 111., since 1920. 
 
 Munson, J. M., Ph. B. '11, Univ. of Chicago; 
 M. Pd. '13, Mich. State Normal Col.; 
 Pres. No. State Normal Sch., Marquette, 
 Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Murphey, D. R., Supt. of Sch., 1708 Wilmer 
 Ave., Anniston, Ala. 
 
 Murphy, Edward A., Supt. of Sch., 2 Harri- 
 son Ave., Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Murphy, E. P., Co. Supt. of Sch., Box 440, 
 Gadsden, Ala. 
 
 Murphy, Joseph E., Supt. of Sch., Box 613, 
 Hurley, Wis. 
 
 Murphy, J. W., Supt. of Sch., 224 N. Taylor 
 St., El Dorado, Kans. 
 
 Murphy, S. S., Supt. of Sch., Mobile, Ala. 
 
 Musselman, Fren, A. B. '10, Ind. Univ.; 
 A. M. '16, Columbia; Dept. of Ed., Kent 
 State Normal Col.; 226 Lincoln St., Kent, 
 Ohio, since 1924. 
 
 Myers, Rachel, A. B. '15, Univ. of 111.; A. 
 M. '22, Columbia Univ.; Dean of Women, 
 Concord State Col.; Athens, W. Va., since 
 1922. 
 
 Myers, William Andrew, A. B. '96, A. M. 
 'gg, Ind. Univ. ; Mgr., Ed. Bureau, 561 
 Highland Drive, Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Mygrant F. V., B. S. 'n Ohio State U. ; 
 West Unity, Ohio, since igi3. 
 
 Nagel, Mrs. Blanche A., Asst. Supt., State 
 Dept., of Ed., Box 674, Olympia, Wash. 
 
 Nants, J. S., 3810 Shaw Ave., St. Louis. 
 Mo. 
 
 Nash, C. A., Supt. of Sch., 41 South Ave., 
 No. St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Nash, M. A., A. B. '19, Okla. Univ.; LL. 
 D. '22, Okla. Bap. Univ.; State Supt. of 
 Pub. Instr., Oklahoma City, Okla., since 
 1922. 
 
 Naylor, A. H., Supt. of Sch., Port Jervis, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Neale, M. G., Dean Sch. of Ed., Univ. of 
 Mo., Columbia, Mo. 
 
 Neff, Charles T., Jr., A. B. '21, W. Va., 
 Univ.; Supt. Independent Dist. Sch., 104 
 Hampshire St., Piedmont, W. Va., since 
 1922. 
 
 Neff, H. D., B. A. '24, E. T. S. T. C. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Haskell, Tex. 
 
 Neighbours, Owen J., A. B. '05, Western 
 Maryland Col.; Ph. M. '10, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; Supt. of Sch., Wabash, Ind., since 
 1916. 
 
 Nelson, A. M., Supt. of Sch., 1406 N St., 
 Auburn, Nebr. 
 
 Nelson, Burton E., B. S. '91, M. S. '95, 
 Western Normal Col.; Pres. The Stout 
 Inst., Menomonie, Wis., since 1923. 
 
 Nelson, Thelma, Dept. State Supt. of Pub. 
 Inst., State House, Des Moines, Iowa. 
 
 Neulen, Lester N., M. A. '23, Columbia 
 Univ.; B. A. '16, St. Olaf Col.; 49 Clare- 
 mont Ave., New York, N. Y. 
 
 Neveln, S. T., A. B. '16, Iowa State Tchrs. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Austin, Minn., since 
 1921. 
 
 Nevelyn, Chas. M., Supt. of Sch., 420 Union, 
 Iowa Falls, Iowa. 
 
 Neverman, Paul F., 1315 Carney Blvd., 
 Marinette, Wis., since 1920. 
 
 Neville, Delta M., A. B. '21, Mo. Valley 
 Col.; Co. Supt. of Sch., Marshall, Mo., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Newell, William A., Supt. of Sch., 1093 
 Central Ave., Pawtucket, R. I., since ig22. 
 
 Newlon, Jesse H., A. B. '07, Ind. Univ.; 
 A. M. '14, Columbia Univ.; LL. D. '22, 
 Denver Univ.; Pres. Nat. Ed. Assn., ig24, 
 Supt. of Sch., 414 14th St., Denver, Colo., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Newlun, Chester, Ph. B. '24, U. of Wis.; 
 Supt. of Sch., W. D. Purdy Jr. H. S., 
 Marshallfield, Wis., since 19 19. 
 
 Newman, R. B., Supt. of Sch., High Sch. 
 Bldg., Oskaloosa, Iowa. 
 
 Newton, J. C, Co. Supt. of Sch., Shelby, 
 N. C. 
 
 Newton, J. H., A. B. '96, Polytech., Ft. 
 Worth, Tex.; Supt. of Sch., 287 E. First 
 St., Cooper, Tex., since 1907. 
 
 Newton, Robert M., L. I. '15, B. S. '16, Col. 
 of Wm. and Mary; Div. Supt., Sch., Court 
 House, Hampton, Va., since 1923. 
 
 Nichols, F. H., Com. of Sch., Flint, Mich. 
 
 Nichols, F. W., Supt of Sch., Dist. 76, 504 
 Lee St., Evanston, 111. 
 
 Nickerson, Fred H., A. B. '86, A. M. '89, 
 Bates; Supt. of Sch., 25 Edgemere Rd., 
 Quincy, Mass., since 1920. 
 
 Nickols, D. F., B. S. '18, Lincoln Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Lincoln, 111., since 1919. 
 
 Nielsen, P. M., Supt. of Sch., Tooele, Utah. 
 
 Niles, Caleb H., B. S. '14, Dartmouth Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 6 South St., Lebanon, N. H., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Nisbet, S. S., A. B. 'ig, Alma Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., H. S., Fremont, Mich., since ig23. 
 
 Noble, E. M., Supt. of Sch., Denton, Md. 
 
 Nolte, K. F., B. A. '12, la. State Tchrs. 
 Col. ; Supt. of Cons. Sch., Hansell, la., , 
 since 1919. 
 
 Noonan, Joseph F., Supt. of Sch., 125 W. 
 Centre St., Mahonoy City, Pa. 
 
 Noonan, Margaret E., Prof, of Elem. Ed., 
 N. Y. U. ; New York, N. Y. 
 
 Norby, B. O., Supt. Con. Sch., Eyota, Minn. 
 
 Norton, John K., M. A. '17, Stanford Univ.; 
 Dir. of Research, N. E}. A., 1201 Sixteenth 
 St., N. W., Washington, D. C., since ig22. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 405 
 
 Norton, Warren P., A. B. '15, Brown Univ.; 
 
 A. M. '23, T. C. Columbia Univ.; Supvg. 
 
 Prin., 24 Ridge Ave., Sharpsville, Pa., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Notley, Llwellyn, Supt. of Sen., Teague, 
 Texas. 
 
 Noyes, E. C, A. B. '98, Yale; A. M. '00, 
 Harvard; Asst. Supt. of Sch., Allegheny 
 Co., 610 Shady Ave., Mt. Lebanon, So. 
 Hills Sta., Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Noyes, William E., Supt. of Sch., Tower, 
 Minn. 
 
 Nugent, M. E., B. A. '10, Carleton Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Larimore, N. D., since 1919. 
 
 Nusbaum, Louis, Asso. Supt. of Sch., 19th 
 St., above Chestnut, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 O'Banion, John W., Supt. of Sch., 504 W. 
 Knox, Ennis, Tex. 
 
 Oberholtzer, Edison Ellsworth, Ph. B. '10, 
 M. A. '15, Univ. of Chicago; LL. D. '21, 
 Univ. . of Tulsa; Supt. of Sch., Houston, 
 Tex., since 1924. 
 
 Oday, H. A., Ph. B. '99, Syracuse Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Mahanoy City, Pa., since 
 1916. 
 
 O'Dell, C. A., Supt. of Sch., Higbie, Mo. 
 
 Odenweller, A. L., Lindenwood Col., St. 
 Charles, Mo. 
 
 Odgers, H. E., A. B. '02, Dickinson Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Parkersburg, W. Va., since 
 1918. 
 
 Offerman, Kate M., B. S. '20, Bowling 
 Green, State Normal; Primary Supvr. 
 Wood Co. Sch., Pemberville, Ohio, since 
 1921. 
 
 Olds, William Edgar, B. A. '16, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., 707 
 S. 13th St., Escanaba, Mich., since 1919. 
 
 O'Leary, John, A. B. '10, Antioch Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Eaton, Ohio, since 1910. 
 
 O'Leary, Wesley A., B. S. '95, Dartmouth 
 Col. ; Asst. State Comm. of Ed., Trenton, 
 N. J., since 1918. 
 
 Oliver, W. I., B. S. '16, Univ. of Mo.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 910 Rogers St., Columbia, Mo. 
 
 Oliver, W. W., A. B. '23, Muskingum Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Caldwell, Ohio. 
 
 Olsen, Martha, 719 Noyes St., Evanston, 
 111. 
 
 O'Neill, James E., Diploma, Mich. North- 
 ern Normal; Supt. of Sch., Baraga, Mich., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Opstad, Iver A., B. A. 'n, Luther Col.; 
 M. A. '19, State Univ. of Iowa; Supt. of 
 Sch., 530 Jefferson St., Iowa City, Iowa, 
 since 1920. 
 
 Orem, Nicholas, Co. Supt. of Sch., Upper 
 Marlboro, Md. 
 
 Osgerby, J. K., Supt. of Sch., East Tawas, 
 Mich. 
 
 Ostergaard, H., B. A. '14, la. State Tchrs. 
 Col.; M. A. '20, la. State Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 506 W. Walnut, Bloomfield, la., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Osuna, J. J., A. B. '12, Penn. State Col.; 
 A. M. '20, Ph. D. '23, Columbia Univ.; 
 Dir. of Tchr. Tr., Univ. of Porto Rico, 
 Rio Piedras, P. R., since 1922. 
 
 Oswald, Walter E., A. B. 'ax, Goshen Col., 
 Supt. of Twp. Cent. Sch., Burghill, Ohio 
 since 1923. 
 
 Otis, E. M., Ph. B. '03, Adelbert W. R. 
 Univ.; A. M. '20, T. C, Columia; Supt. 
 of Sch., 45 River St., Willoughby, Ohio, 
 since 1909. 
 
 Ousterhout, Travers, Supt. of Sch., St. 
 Charles, Mich. 
 
 Overmyer, J. F., M. A. '24, Ohio Northern 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Algona, Iowa, since 
 1904. 
 
 Overturf, Jesse R., B. A. '20, Univ. ot 
 Nebr. ; M. A. '23, Stanford Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 713 W. Elm St., Lodi, Calif., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Packer, P. C, Ph. D. '23, T. C. Columbia 
 Univ.; M. A. 'ax, Univ. of Mich. ; A. B. 
 '18, Univ. of la.; Dean Col. of Ed., Iowa 
 City, la., since 1923. 
 
 Page, A. R., Supt. of Sch., H. S., White- 
 water, Wis. 
 
 Page, John S., A. B. '22, M. A. '24, Univ. 
 of Mich.; Supt. of Sch., 602 E. Grand 
 River Ave., Howell, Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Painter, E. A., A. B. '11, Roanoke Col.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Fincastle, Va., since 
 1917. 
 
 Painter, Walter S., A. M. '14, Columbia; 
 Supt. of Sch., Mt. Vernon, Ind., since 
 I9I.7- 
 
 Palmer, Francis E., Supt. of Iowa Col. for 
 the Blind, Vinton, Iowa. 
 
 Palmer, James J., Dir. of Tr., State Norm. 
 Sch., Edinboro, Pa. 
 
 Palmer, Luella A., B. S. '06, M. A. '15, 
 Columbia Univ.; Dir. of Kndgrtns., 500 
 Park Ave., New York, N. Y., since 1921. 
 
 Palmer, M. C, Prin. Co. Rural Norm., Co- 
 lumbus, Wis. 
 
 Palmer, Rufus H., A. B. '09, A. M. 'xa, 
 Univ. of Denver; A. M. '24, T. C, Co- 
 lumbia Univ. ; Dir. of Elemn. Ed., P. O. 
 Box 896, Denver, Colo., since 1922. 
 
 Parkinson, B. L., B. S. '09, Erskine Col. ; 
 M. A. '20, George Peabody Col.; State 
 H. S. Inspector, 704 Natl. Loan and Ex. 
 Bank Bldg., Columbia, S. C, since 1920. 
 
 Parkinson, William D., A. B. '79, Dart- 
 mouth; LL. B. '81, National Univ.; 
 Prin. Mass. State Normal Sch., Fitchburg, 
 Mass., since 1922. 
 
 Parks, M. M., Pres. Ga. State Col. for Wo- 
 men, Milledgeville, Ga., since 1904. 
 
 Parmelee, L. S., B. S., A. M. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Munising, Mich. 
 
 Parratt, D. W., Supt. Granite Dist., 330 E. 
 21st So. St., Salt Lake, Utah. 
 
 Parsons, A. C, Supt. of Sch., 400 N. Wal- 
 nut, Oklahoma City, Okla. 
 
 Partridge, H. R., A. B. '13, Nebr. Wesleyan 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Alliance, Nebr., 
 since 1920. 
 
406 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Pate, W. R., Supt. of Sch., 809 Box, Butte 
 Ave., Peru, Nebr. 
 
 Patrick, W. Burton, Supt. of Sch., H. S., 
 Orange, N. J. 
 
 Patt, Hermann G., A. B. '06, Colgate; B. D. 
 '10, Newton; Supt. of Sch., Manchester, 
 Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Patterson, Herbert, B. A. '08, M. A. 'n, 
 Conn. Wesleyan Univ.; M. A. 'n, Ph. D. 
 '13, Yale Univ.; Dean Sch. of Ed., Okla- 
 homa A. and M. Col., Stillwater, Okla., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Patterson, James H., A. B. '14, W. Va. 
 Univ. ; A. M. '20, Columbia Univ., Tchrs. 
 Col.; Dist. Supt. of Sch., Thomas, W. Va., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Patterson, John R., Ph. B. '14, Wooster Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Bucyrus, Ohio, since 1919. 
 
 Patton, John S., Supt. of Parish Sch., Homer, 
 La. 
 
 Pauly, Frank R., Diploma '14, Central Tchrs. 
 Col.; B. A. '17, Univ. of Okla.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 300 N. Main St., Sand Springs, 
 Okla., since 1922. 
 
 Payne, E. George, New York Univ., New 
 York, N. Y. 
 
 Peacock, Joseph Leishman, A. B. '00, Brown 
 Univ. ; A. M. '02, Harvard Univ. ; D. D. 
 '21; Colby Col., Pres. Shaw Univ., Ra- 
 leigh, N. C, since 1920. 
 
 Pearse, Carroll G, 3104 Wells St., Milwau- 
 kee, Wis. 
 
 Pearson, M. E., Supt. of Sch., 709 N. 9th 
 St., Kansas City, Kans. 
 
 Pearson, Raymond A., Pres. Iowa State Col., 
 Ames, Iowa. 
 
 Pease, Alvin F., A. B. '75, A. M. '78, 
 Brown Univ. ; Winship Tchrs. Agcy., 6 
 Beacon St., Boston, Mass., since 1898. 
 
 Peck, William R., B. A. '16, M. A. '20 Holy 
 Cross Col.; Supt. of Sch., 184 Chestnut 
 St., Holyoke, Mass., since 1920. 
 
 Peebles, I. E., LL. B. '21, Univ. of Miss.; 
 Asst. State Supt. of Ed., Box 252, Jack- 
 son., Miss., since 1924. 
 
 Peebles, James F., A. B. '16, B. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Marion, Mass., since 1922. 
 
 Peel, J. C, A. B. '15, Elon; M. A. '20, 
 N. C. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Sarasota, Fla. 
 
 Peik, W. E., Col. of Ed., Univ. of Minn., 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Peirce, W. M., Ph. B. '99, 111. Wesleyan 
 Univ. ; Ph. D. '03, Grove City Col. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Ridgeway, Pa., since 1897. 
 
 Pence, A. C, Supt. of Sch., Coshocton, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Penley, F. J., Supvg. Agt., State Bd. of Ed., 
 152 Walnut St., Winsted, Conn. 
 
 Pennell, Charles M., Supt. of Sch., 65 Con- 
 cord, Holliston, Mass. 
 
 Pennell, Mary E., B. S. 'n, A. M. '18, T. C. 
 Columbia Univ.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 517 
 Knickerbocker PI., Kansas City, Mo., since 
 1919. 
 
 Perkins, Charles N., A. B. '93, A. M. '96, 
 Colby; Supt. of Sch., 14 Townsend St., 
 Waltham, Mass., since 19 18. 
 
 Perrault, W. C, A. B. '08, La. State Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., St. Martinville, La., since 
 igig. 
 
 Perrin, H. Ambrose, Diploma '03, 111. S. N. 
 Univ.; Ph. B. '12, M. A. '22, Univ. of 
 Chicago; M. A. '16, James Milliken Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Joliet, 111., since 1922. 
 
 Perrott, C. F., B. A. '18, Iowa State Tchrs. 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Stuttgart, Ark., since 
 1921. 
 
 Perry, Arthur C, Jr., Dist. Supt. of Sch., 
 163 Macon St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Perry, Charles F., Asst. Supt.. of Sch., 336 
 25th St., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Perry, William H., A. B. '93, A. M. '96, 
 Syracuse Univ.; Pd. B. '96, State Normal 
 Col.; Albany, N. Y. ; Pd. M. '08, Pd. D. 
 '09, N. Y. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., City Hall, 
 Leominster, Mass., since 19 14. 
 
 Peters, C. W., A. B. '15, Bucknell; Asst. 
 Supt. of Sch., 557 Chelsea Ave., Wilkins- 
 burg, Pa. 
 
 Petersen, Anna J., Hillcrest D 3, South St. 
 Paul, Minn. 
 
 Peterson, E. T., A. B. '17, Augustana; A. M. 
 Diploma '22, Tchrs. Col.; Dir.. Ed. Re- 
 search, Flint, Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Peterson, Henry, Sch. of Ed., U. A. C, 
 Logan, Utah. 
 
 Peterson, O. E., A. B. '07, Augustana; Ph. 
 M. '10, Univ. of Chicago; Supt, of Sch., 
 615 Roosevelt Court, Sycamore, 111., since 
 1914. 
 
 Petit, L. H., A. B. '10, Campbell Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 410 S. Highland, Chanute, 
 Kans., since 1923. 
 
 Pfaff, Caroline S., B. A. '16, M. A, '18, Tu- 
 lane of La. ; Dist. Supt., 4868 Constance, 
 New Orleans, La., since 1920. 
 
 Phelan, Warren W., A. B. '94, A. M. '96, 
 Columbia Univ. ; Ph. D. '03, G. W. Univ. ; 
 LL. D. '21, Okla. Bap. Univ.; Dean Sch. 
 of Ed., Univ. of Okla., Norman, Okla., 
 since 19 12. 
 
 Phelps, C. L., A. B. '01, A. M. '03, Dart- 
 mouth; Supt. of Sch., Ishpeming, Mich., 
 since 1915. 
 
 Philhower, Charles Alpaugh, B. S. '09, A. M. 
 '12, Dickinson; A. M. '15, Columbia; 
 Supt. of Sch., 303 Mountain Ave., West- 
 field, N. J., since 1917. 
 
 Phillips, Claude A., A. M. '10, Univ. of 
 Chicago; Ph. D. '20, Geo. Peabody Col.; 
 Prof, of Ed., Dir. El. Sch., M. S. Univ., 
 Columbia, Mo., since 1924. 
 
 Phillips, Clyde U., B. S. '18, Kans. State 
 Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of Sch., 313 N. Mul- 
 berry, Eureka, Kans., since 1921. 
 
 Phillips, Guy B., A. B. '13, Univ. of N. C. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 271, Salisbury, 
 N. C, since 1924. 
 
 Phillips, J. J., B. S. '06, Ohio Wesleyan; 
 Supt. of Sch., 410 E. Sixth Ave., Lan- 
 caster, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 407 
 
 Pickell, Frank G., A. B. '09, Ind. Univ.; 
 A. M. '17, T. C, Columbia; Supt. of Sch., 
 Bd. of Ed., Montclair, N. J., since 1923. 
 
 Pickens, Sidney, A. B. '14, Ark. Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 710 Harrison St., Batesville, Ark., 
 since 1909. 
 
 Pierce, B. L., A. B. '18, Oberlin Col.; Co. 
 Supt. of Sch., Sandusky, Ohio, since 1923. 
 
 Pierce, V. P., A. B. '93, Ypsilanti; Supt. of 
 Sch., Yale, Mich. 
 
 Pittman, C. W. E., A. B. '12, Univ. of 
 N. C. ; Supt. of Sch., Beaufort, N. C, since 
 1921. 
 
 Place, George A., Supt. of Sch., ,234 Broad 
 St., Salamanca, N. Y. 
 
 Plenzke, O. H., A. B. '14, Lawrence Col. ; 
 A. M. ^24, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Menasha, Wis., since 1918. 
 
 Plummer, Louis E., B. S. '09, B. C. S. '09, 
 Ohio Northern Univ.; Prin. Fullerton 
 Union H. S. and Jr. Col., Fullerton, Calif., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Polk, Clara M., Diploma '95, R. I. Col. of 
 Ed.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 193 Washington 
 Ave., Providence, R. I., since 1914. 
 
 Poor, Charles L., Supt. of Sch., 407 Fifth 
 St., Traverse City, Mich. 
 
 Pope, Alvin E., B. A. '98, Univ. of Nebr. ; 
 ivi. A. '99, Gallaudet Col. ; Supt. N. J. 
 Sch. for the Deaf, Trenton, N. J., since 
 1917. 
 
 Pope, Delmer Neal, A. B. '03, Roanoke Col.; 
 M. Acct. '08, Boulder Business; Supt. of 
 Sch., 200 So. Lea, Roswell, N. Mex., since 
 1918. 
 
 Pore, O. E., A. B. '06, Col. of Wooster; 
 A. M. '16, Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Riddle Block No. 9, 
 Ravenna, Ohio, since 1916. 
 
 Porter, E. L., B. A. '07, Otterbein ; M. A. 
 '17, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 510 
 Washington St., Ironton, Ohio. 
 
 Porter, Frederick W., B. S. '14 Tufts; Supt. 
 of Sch., 13 Middle St., Stoneham, Mass., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Postell, Mary W., Asst. Supt. of Sch., Care 
 Bd. of Ed., Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Pottenger, Mary O., Elemn. Supvr., Kndgtn. 
 and Prim. Gr., Sch. Dept., City Hall, 
 Springfield, Mass., since 1920. 
 
 Potter, Milton C, B. A. 'gs; Albion Col.; 
 M. A. '05, Univ. of Chicago; Litt. D. 
 '15, Univ. of Denver; Supt. of Sch., Sch. 
 Admin. Bldg., Milwaukee, Wis., since 
 1914. 
 
 Potts, D Walter, Supt. of Sch., 6th and St. 
 Louis Aves., E. St. Louis, 111. 
 
 Potwin, R. W., A. B. 'io, Kansas Univ.; 
 
 Supt. of Sch., McPherson, Kansas, since 
 
 1915- 
 Pound, Edwin Aldine, A. B. '92, Emory 
 
 Univ.; State Supvr. of H. S., Room 103, 
 
 State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga., since 1920. 
 
 Pound, Jere M., Pres. State Normal Col., 
 Athens, Ga. 
 
 Poundstone, W. J., Supt. of Sch., 229 N. 
 Lincoln, Marion, Kansas. 
 
 Powell, Frank V., Supt. of Sch., Platteville, 
 Wis. 
 
 Powell, Rhys, Supt. of Sch., Admin. Bldg., 
 Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Powers, E. W., Supt. of Sch., 210 N. Fourth 
 St., Fairbury, 111. 
 
 Powers, F. R., A. B. '13, Oberlin; A. M. 
 '20, Columbia T. C. ; Supt. of Sch., S. 
 Main, Amherst, Ohio, since 1918. 
 
 Powers, R. E., B. A. '20, Univ. of Tenn. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 17, Lexington, Tenn., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Powers, Sue M., B. S. '20, Peabody Col. j 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Memphis, Tenn., since, 
 1922. 
 
 Pratt, Blanche A., Prince Sch., Winchester, 
 Mass. 
 
 Pratt, C. H, A. B. '08, Bates;- Supt. of Sch., 
 Gray, Me., since 1922. 
 
 Pratt, Orville C, Ph. B. '95, DePauw Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Admin. Bldg., Spokane, 
 Wash., since 1916. 
 
 Prescott, W. B., Supt. of Sch., Opelousas, 
 La. 
 
 Pressey, S. L., Ohio State Univ., Columbus, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Preston, Josephine Corliss, State Supt. of 
 Pub. Instr., Olympia, Wash. 
 
 Price, E. D., M. A. '20, Mo. Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Enid, Okla., since 1915. 
 
 Prior, A. B., Supt. of Sch., Wheelersburg, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Procter, L. C, Supt. of Sch., 1215 N. 3d, 
 Temple, Tex. 
 
 Prout, F. J., Supt. of Sch., Sandusky, Ohio. 
 
 Pruitt, Edgar C, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Springfield, 111., since 1906. 
 
 Pruitt, Eugene Watts, B. A. '09, Wash. Col. ; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Princess Anne, Md., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Prunty, Merle, 313 N. Tacoma, Tulsa, Okla. 
 
 Puckett, C. A., Supt. of Sch., Box 597, 
 Mexia, Tex. 
 
 Puckett, Roswell C, B. E. 'og, State Univ. 
 of la.; M. A. '23, T. C. Columbia Univ.; 
 Prin. Benj. Bosse H. S., Evansville, Ind., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Pugh, Elijah Stewart, A. B. '95, Univ. of 
 Ala. ; Supt. of Sch., Union Springs, Ala., 
 since igi2. 
 
 Purdom, J. Leslie, A. B. '06, Centre Col. ; 
 
 A. W. '11, Pn. D. '18, Harvard,' Prin. 
 
 Harris Tchrs. Col., St. Louis, Mo., since 
 ig22. 
 
 Pyle, Jay C, B. Lit. 'g4, Baylor Univ.; 
 M. A. '22, Austin Col.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Sherman, Tex., since 1907. 
 
 Quackenbush, E. A., Supt. of Sch., To- 
 wanda, Pa. 
 
 Quigley, Samuel, A. B. '05, State Univ. of 
 la.; M. A. '11, Univ. of Chicago; D. 
 Litt. '20, Denver Univ. ; Pres. West. State 
 Col. of Colo., Gunnison, Colo., since igig. 
 
408 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Quinn, James Joseph, A. B. '12, Amherst; 
 A. M. '14, Harvard; Supt. of Sch., Win- 
 chester, Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Radcliffe, Paul Rodney, A. B. '09, Mary- 
 ville; Supt. of Sch., Nutley, N. J., since 
 1920. 
 
 Rae, J. J., Supt of Sch., Caldwell, Idaho. 
 
 Raines, Sigel E., A. B. '97, Ind. St. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Library Bldg., Freeport, 
 111., since 1903. 
 
 Rail, Edward Everett, B. A. '00, Univ. of 
 la. ; Ph. D. '03, Yale Univ. ; Pres. and 
 Prof, of Ed., Northwestern Col. ; Naper- 
 ville, 111., since 1916. 
 
 Ramsey, James W., A. B. '13, Ouachita Col.; 
 M. A. '21, Geo. Peabody Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Fort Smith, Ark. 
 
 Randal, Boyd, A. M. '15, Columbia; A. B. 
 'og, W. Va. Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Box 490, 
 Salem, W. Va., since 1920. 
 
 Randall, Henry H., A. B. '00, Bowdoin; 
 Supt. of Sch., Auburn, Me., since 1907. 
 
 Randle, Gilbert P., Supt. of Sch., Danville, 
 111. 
 
 Ranger, Walter E., A. B. '79, A. M. '83, 
 Bates Col.; A. M. '02, Univ. of Vt. ; 
 LL. D. '07, Bates Col.; Ed. D. '22, R. I. 
 State Col.; State Com. of Ed., 118 State 
 House, Providence, R. I., since 1905/ 
 
 Rapp, Eli M., Co. Supt. of Sch., 134 Cly- 
 mer, Reading, Pa. 
 
 Rather, Arthur A., A. B. '16, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 255 Union St., Ionia, Mich., 
 since 1917. 
 
 Rather, L. H., B. A. '14, Univ. of Tex.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 302, Bonham, Tex., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Rathmann, Carl G., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 911 
 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Rawdon, Howard L., A. B. '04, A. M. '14, 
 Oberlin Col.; Supt. of Sch., Oberlin, Ohio, 
 since 1908. 
 
 Rawlins, Robert E., H. S. Place, Pierre, 
 S. D. 
 
 Raymond, Sister M., O. S. D., B. A. '17, 
 Dominican Col. ; Dean Dominican Col., 
 San Rafael, Calif., since 1920. 
 
 Ream, C. H., Supt. of Sch., Clear Lake, la. 
 
 Reber, Howard L., Supt. of Sch., Vineland, 
 N. J., since 1913. 
 
 Redwine, L. M., Co. Supt. of Sch., Green- 
 wood, Ark. 
 
 Redwing, A. A., Supt. of Sch., Marysville, 
 Mich. 
 
 Reed, Lula A., B. S. '17, M. A. '24, T. C, 
 
 Columbia Univ. ; Supvr. Elemn. Sch., Bd. 
 
 of Ed., 114 W. Wesley, Jackson, Mich., 
 since 1913. 
 
 Reedy, I. D., Ph. B. '22, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., 701 N. Washington St., 
 Bicknell, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Reese, L. W., B. S. '20, Ohio Northern 
 Univ.; 1639 Minn. Ave., Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Rehnstrand, Vera C, Co. Supt. of Sch., 13 16 
 Grand Ave., Superior, Wis. 
 
 Reid, E. M., A. B. '16, M. A. '18, Univ. 
 of Utah; Supt. of Sch., Box 26, Kamas, 
 Utah, since 1923. 
 
 Reid, O. L., A. B. '98, Ind. Univ.; LL. B. 
 '05, Univ. of Louisville; M. A. '22, N. Y. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 20 W. Wood St., 
 Youngstown, Ohio, since ig2o. 
 
 Reid, Robt. L., M. D. '97, A. B. '02, Di- 
 ploma '12, State Univ. of Mo.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 814 N. gth St., Keokuk, Iowa, since 
 1922. 
 
 Reilly, Joseph J., A. B. '04, Holy Cross 
 Col., Worcester; A. M. 'og, Columbia 
 Univ.; Ph. D. '12, Yale Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Box H, Ware, Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Reinertsen, S. G., B. A. '11, St. Olaf Col.; 
 ft". A. '21, Univ. of Colo.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Jackson, Minn., since 1921. 
 
 Remaley, Frank H., A. B. '01, A. M. '09, 
 Otterbein; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 333 Car- 
 negie PI., Pittsburgh, Pa., since 1920. 
 
 Rennolds, William Gregory, Dist. Supt of 
 Sch., Center Cross, Va. 
 
 Replogle, S. H., A. B. '21, Univ. of Pitts.; 
 Asst. Supt. Co. Sch., 5430 Kipling Road, 
 Pittsburgh, Pa., since 19 16. 
 
 Reynolds, Blanche T., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Court House, Ventura, Calif., since 1918. 
 
 Reynolds, F. E., B. A. '8g, Natl. Normal 
 oniv. ; B. A. '08, Defiance Col.; becy.- 
 Treas, Ohio State Tchrs. Asso., 416 Cham- 
 ber of Commerce, Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Reynolds, John W., A. B. '14, Ind. Univ.; 
 Supt of Sch., Redkey, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Reynolds, Mrs. Kate B., Co. Supt of Sch., 
 830 E. 5th St., Tucson, Ariz.,- since 1921. 
 
 Rhett, A. Burnet, M. A. '99, B. A. 'gg, 
 W. Va. ; Supt. of Sch., Charleston, S. C, 
 since 1921. 
 
 Rhoads, L. C, A. B. '19, Univ. of Wash.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 729 So. 4th, Raton, N. Mex., 
 since 1917. 
 
 Rhodes, Jeremiah, Supt. of Sch., 407 Russell 
 bldg., San Antonio, Texas. 
 
 Rice, DuFay R., Pd. B. '07, Mo. State 
 Normal; A. B. 'n, Univ. of Colo.; A. M. 
 '17, T. C. Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Ironwood, Mich., since 1920. 
 
 Rice, H. A., A. B. '20, W. Va. Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Box 8, Grafton, W. Va., since 
 1923. 
 
 Rice, W. H., Supt. of Sch., London, Ohio. 
 
 Richards, Charles W., L. I. '01, Peabody 
 Col.; A. B. '03, Univ. of Nashville; Supt. 
 of Sch., Box 537, Ardmore, Okla., since 
 1911. 
 
 Richardson, E. S., Supt. of Sch., Minden, 
 La. 
 
 Richardson, J. W., B. S. '06, Iowa Wes. ; 
 i<i. A. '13, State Univ. of la.; Supt. of 
 Sch., H. S. Bldg., Hibbing, Minn., since 
 1923. 
 
 Richardson, W. H., A. M. '04, Defiance, 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., 240 Chestnut St., 
 Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, since 1908. 
 
 Richardson, W. L., Dept. of Ed., Butler 
 Univ., Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 409 
 
 Richeson, John J., B. S. '10, Ohio Univ.; 
 
 Ped. D. '17, Miami Univ.; A. M. '21, 
 
 Tchrs. ' Col., Columbia; Supt. of Sch., 
 
 Decatur, 111., since 1921. 
 
 Richmond, D. S., B. A. '20, M. A. '21, Univ. 
 of So. Calif.; Dist. Supt. of Sch., Brawley, 
 Calif., since 1922. 
 
 Richmond J., Supt. of Sch., 2700 Sutton 
 Ave., Maplewood, Mo. 
 
 Riefling, B. Jeannette, B. S. 'n A. B. '13, 
 Mo. Univ.; A. M. '20, Columbia; Grad. 
 Stud. T. C. Columbia Univ.; 106 Morn- 
 ingside Dr., New York, N. Y. 
 
 Riemer, G. C. L., State Normal Sch., 
 Bloomsburg, Pa. 
 
 Riggs, James G., A. B. '88, A. M. '91, Am- 
 herst; Ped. D. '12, State Col. for Tchrs., 
 Albany; Prin. State Normal Sch., Oswego, 
 N. Y., since 1913. 
 
 Ringstrom, N. H., B. A. '18, State Univ. 
 of Iowa; Supt: of Sch., 1415 Pleasant St., 
 Knoxville, Iowa, since 1921. 
 
 Risdon, C. S., Supt. of Sch., Independence, 
 Kans. 
 
 Risley, James H., A. B. '07, Ind. Univ.; 
 Ph. M. '10, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of 
 Sch., Centennial Bldg., Pueblo, Colo., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Rittinger, John W., B. S. '94, Mich. Ag. 
 Col.; Co. Supt of Sch., 410 E. South St., 
 South Bend, Ind., since 1921. 
 
 Robb, S. M., Supt. of Sch., Farrell, Pa. 
 
 Robbins, C. A., Supt. of Sch., Montpelier, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Robbins, Fred W., Ph. B. '98, Pd. D. '15, 
 Bucknell Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 11 12 W. 
 4th St., Williamsport, Pa., since 1914. 
 
 Roberts, Thos. R., Ph. B. '05, Upper la. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Independence, la., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Robertson, C. L., B. A. '11, Univ. of N. D. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., 215 4th Ave., S., James- 
 town, N. D., since 1924. 
 
 Robinson, Albert, A. B. '93, Colby Col. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Peabody, Mass., since 1903. 
 
 Robinson, Ernest W., Supt. of Sch., City 
 Hall, Fitchburg, Mass., since 1917. 
 
 Robinson, Henrietta A., 1660 Calvert Ave., 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Robinson, Louis C, A. B. '05, Wash. Col., 
 Chestertown, Md. ; Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 208 Washington Ave.,' Chestertown, Md., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Rockwell, Leon Howard, B. S. '19, N. Y. 
 Univ.; A. M. '21, Tchrs. Col., Columbia 
 Univ. ; State Normal School, Bloomsburg, 
 Pa. 
 
 Rodes, Lester A., A. M. '17, Univ. of Pa.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Cape May, N. J., since 
 1921. 
 
 Rodgers, J. Harvey, Ed. M. '21, Harvard 
 Univ.; Supvr. Prin., Glassboro, N. J., since 
 1921. 
 
 Rodman, Benedict J., A. B. '06, A. M. 'n, 
 St. Louis Univ. ; Pres. St. Mary's Col. ; 
 St. Marys, Kans., since 1922. 
 
 Rogers, Alex R., Supt. Jr. H. S., Strath- 
 more, Mich., since 1921. 
 
 Rohr, J. E., Supv., Prin., Nekoosa, Wis. 
 
 Rohrbough, E. G., A. B. '00, Allegheny Col.; 
 A. M. '06, Harvard Univ.; Pres. State 
 Normal Sch., Glenville, W. Va., since 1908. 
 
 Root, Frank S., Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 
 33, Fayetteville, Ark. 
 
 Rose, C. E., A. B. '99, Kansas; A. M. '13, 
 Columbia; Supt. of Sch., Safford Sch. 
 Bldg., Tucson, Ariz., since 1920. 
 
 Rosier, Joseph, A. M. '15, Salem Col.; Pres. 
 State Normal Sch., Fairmont, W. Va., 
 since 1915. 
 
 Ross, Carmon, Ph. B. '05, Lafayette Col. ; 
 A. M. '16, Ph. D. '22, Univ. of Pa.; Supvr. 
 Prin., Doylestown, Pa., since igo6. 
 
 Rossman, John G., A. M. '17, Tchrs. Col.; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., 405 Broadway, Gary, 
 Ind., since 1923. 
 
 Roudabush, Charles E., A. B. '03, Lebanon 
 Valley Col.; A. M. '24, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 520 Front St., Minersville, 
 Pa., since 1915. 
 
 Round, Florence H., Co. Supt. of Sch., 702 
 E. Madison Ave., Iola, Kans., since 1921. 
 
 Rouse, Edwin L., A. B. '10, Cotner Col.; 
 A. M. '19, Univ. of Nebr. ; LL. D. Cot- 
 ner Col.; Supt. of Sch., Box 818, Scotts- 
 bluff, Nebr., since 1921. 
 
 Rowland, Albert Lindsay, A. B. '08, Temple 
 Univ.; M. A. '11, Ph. D. '14, Univ. of 
 Pa.; Dir. Tchr. Bur., State Dept. of Pub. 
 Instr., Harrisburg, Pa., since 1919. 
 
 Roy, V. L., B. S. '90, La. State Univ.; 
 Pres. La. State Normal Col. ; Natchitoches, 
 La., since 191 1. 
 
 Royce, Asa M., Pd. B. '04, Univ. of Wis.; 
 Pres. State Norm. Sch., Platteville, Wis., 
 since 1916. 
 
 Rugg, O. Harold, B. S. '08, Dartmouth Col.; 
 C. E. '09, Thayer Sch. of Eng. ; Ph. D. 
 '15, Univ. of 111.; Prof, of Ed., T. C, 
 
 Columbia Univ. ; New York, N. Y., since 
 19 19. 
 
 Ruhl, Howard T., A. B. '07, St. John's Col.; 
 A. M. '17, Columbia Univ.; Co. Supt. of 
 Sch., Prince Frederick, Md., since 1921. 
 
 Rule, James N., B. S. '98, M. S. '01, Wash, 
 and Jeff.; Dept. Supt., State Dept. of Pub. 
 Instr., 3004 N. Second St., Harrisburg, 
 Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Runyan, Charles, 246 Grant Ave., New 
 Brunswick, N. J. 
 
 Russell, F. O., A. B. '15, Defiance Col.; 
 M. A. '19, O. S. U. ; Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Bryan, Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Russell, R. G., Co. Supt. of Sch., Clayton, 
 Mo. 
 
 Russell, William F., A. B. '10, Cornell 
 Univ.; Ph. D. '14, Columbia U. ; Prof, 
 of Ed., T. C, Columbia Univ.; 525 W. 
 120 St., New York, N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Russum, Elizabeth, B. E. 'og, S. W. Tchrs. 
 Col., Springfield, Mo.; B. S. '22, Univ. of 
 Idaho; State Supt. of Pub. Instr., State 
 House, Boise, Idaho. 
 
410 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Rutherford, Kenneth L., A. B. '16, Hobart 
 Col.; M. A. '24, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supvg. Prin., Fayetteville, N. Y., since 
 1920. 
 
 Ryan, Belle M., Asst. Supt. of Sch., Omaha, 
 Nebr. 
 
 Ryan, Orson, Supt. of Sch., Logan, Utah. 
 
 Ryan, W. Carson, Jr., A. B. '07, Harvard; 
 Ph. D. '18, G. W. Univ.; Prof, of Ed., 
 Swathmore Col.; Swathmore, Pa., since 
 1921. 
 
 Saam, Theodore, B. S. 'g8, Lennox Col.; 
 A. N. '03, Univ. of Iowa; Supt. of Sch., 
 Council Bluffs, Iowa, since 1917. 
 
 Sachse, T. J., M. A. '23, T. C, Columbia; 
 Supt. of Sch., Winsted, Conn., since 1923. 
 
 Safford, Adelbert L., Supt. of Sch., Read- 
 ing, Mass. 
 
 St. Clair, Robert E., B. Pd. 'og, Kirksville 
 State Norm.; Ph. B. '16, Univ. of Chicago; 
 M. A. '24, T. C, Columbia Univ.; Prin. 
 Benton Elemn. Sch., 1344 Laurel St., St. 
 Louis, Mo., since 1909. 
 
 St. John, Claude E., Diploma '03, Kans. 
 State Normal Col.; Supt. of Sch., Arkansas 
 City, Kans., since 1918. 
 
 Salisbury, Ethel I., M. A. '17, T. C, Co- 
 lumbia Univ.; Asso. Prof, of Elemn. Ed., 
 Dir. Course of Study, Univ. of Calif.; 822 
 Security Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif., since 
 1919. 
 
 Sampson, William C, Supt. of Sch., 643 
 Chestnut St., Du Bois, Pa. 
 
 Sanborn, Clarence C, A. B. '08, Leland 
 Stanford; Supt. of Sch., 4 Orange St., 
 Farmington, N. H., since 1921. 
 
 Sanders, Grant L., A. B. '12, Ellsworth Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Plover, Iowa, since 1923. 
 
 Sandwick, Richard L., Supt. of Sch., High- 
 land Park, 111. 
 
 Saunders, C. E., Supt. of Sch., Aberdeen, 
 Miss. 
 
 Saunders, Joseph H., A. B., William and 
 Mary Col.; A. M. '24, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 172, Newport News, 
 Va., since 1921. 
 
 Saunders, Robert L., Supt. of Sch.. 1154 
 Clinton Ave., Irvington, N. J. 
 
 Sauvain, Nelson, Supt. of Sch., Devils Lake, 
 N. Dak. 
 
 Savitz, J. J., Prin. Normal Sch., Glassboro, 
 N. J. 
 
 Saxvik, H. O., B .A. '05, Luther Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 622 8th St., Bismarck, N. 
 D., since 1922. 
 
 Scales, Nan B., Supt. of Co. Sch., Steam- 
 boat Springs, Colo., since 1923. 
 
 Schafer, J. J., A. B. '20, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 510 McDonald St., Midland, 
 Mich., since 1919. 
 
 Scheer, R. A., Supt. of Sch., Atlanta, 111. 
 
 Schlagle, F. L., Asst. Supt. of Sch., Library 
 Bldg., Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Schlenvogt, J. H., M. A. '15, B. S. '14, 
 Wis.; Supt. of Con. Sch., Menlo, la., 
 
 since ig22. 
 
 Schmidt, H. W., State Dept. of Pub. Inst., 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
 Schmitt, Irvin H., B. A. '16, Coe Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Milford, la., since 1922. 
 
 Schnekloth, Hermine C., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 11 River View PI., Davenport, Iowa. 
 
 Scholl, Joseph Hiram, Diploma '93, Ind. 
 State Normal Sch.; A. B. '98, Ind. State 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Milton, Ind. 
 
 Schrader, Carl L., State Dept. of Ed., 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 Schreiber, Paul D., B. S. '12, Bucknell 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Port 
 Washington, N. Y., since ig2o. 
 
 Schroeder, Mrs. C. F., Ph. B. '11, Colo. 
 Tchrs. Col.; Co. Supt. of Sch., Julesburg, 
 Colo., since 1920. 
 
 Schuck, Albert C, Supt. of Sch., Freehold, 
 N. J. 
 
 Schuyler, Paul M., Co. Com. 6f Sch., Menom- 
 inee, Mich. 
 
 Schwartz, Harwood Muzzy, B. S. '07, M. 
 S. '10, Hamilton Col.; T. C, Columbia 
 Univ., 439 W. 123rd St., Apt. 7, New 
 York, N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Schwegler, Raymond A., A. B. '99, Brown; 
 M. A. '06, Ottawa; Act. Dean Sch. of 
 Ed., Lawrence, Kans., since 1923. 
 
 Schweickart, E. F., Supt. of Sch., Fremont, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Schweickhard, Philip, B. S., '17, Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., Biwabik, Minn., since 1921. 
 
 Schwerin, Emma, Co. Supt. of Sch., Hart- 
 ington, Nebr., since 1915. 
 
 Schwiering, O. C, Supt. of Sch., Rock 
 Springs, Wyo. 
 
 Scolley, Jennie E., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 229 
 Essex St., Holyoke, Mass., since 1917. 
 
 Scott, C. J., Supt. of Sch., 19 Winans St., 
 East Orange, N. J. 
 
 Scott, Frank A., A. B. '03, Harvard; A. 
 M. '13, Dartmouth; Ed. M. '23, Harvard; 
 Supt. of Sch., 31 Blake St., Belmont 78, 
 Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Scott, Robert E., Supt. of Sch., St. Louis 
 Park, Minn. 
 
 Scott, R. Ray, M. A. '16, Columbia; Hd. 
 Dept. of Ed., W. Va. Wes., 50 Kanawha 
 St., Buckhannon, W. Va., since 1920. 
 
 Scott, Zenos E., B. S. '10, Moorehill Col.; 
 A. M. '13, T. C, Columbia; Supt. of Sch., 
 Springfield, Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Scudder, Jesse M., Supt. of Sch., 958 Sala- 
 monie St., Huntington, Ind. 
 
 Scully, John F., Supt. of Sch., 2gg Ash St., 
 Brockton, Mass. 
 
 Seale, E. C, Co. Supt. of Sch., Elyria, Ohio. 
 
 Sealey. R. M., A. B. '11, Univ. of Fla. ; 
 State Insp. of H. S., Tallahassee, Fla., 
 since ig23. 
 
 Sealock, W. E., A. B. '05, Ohio State Univ.; 
 Ph. D. '16, Columbia Univ.; Dean Col. 
 of Ed., Univ. of Nebr.,,Sta. A, Box 1372, 
 Lincoln, Nebr., since ig22. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 411 
 
 Seaman, W. M., Supt. of Sch., Valley 
 Center, Kans. 
 
 Searle, Albert H., B. A. '21, la. State Tchrs. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Bridgewater, la. 
 
 Seekell, Grace Edith, B. A. '22, Univ. of 
 Mich. ; Supvr. Course of Study for Tr. 
 Sch., West. Normal Tr. Sch., Kalamazoo, 
 Mich., since 1922. 
 
 Seelye, Mary W., Supt. Andrews Inst., Wil- 
 loughby, Ohio. 
 
 Seerly, Homer Horatio, B. Ph. '73, B. D. 
 •75, M. A. '76, LL. D. '01, State Univ. of 
 Iowa; LL. D. '98, Penn. Col., Oskaloosa, 
 Iowa; Pres. of Iowa State Tchrs. Col., 
 Cedar Falls, Iowa, since 1886. 
 
 Selleck, E. R., Supt. of Sch., no W. 7th 
 St., Sterling, 111. 
 
 Sellew, Edward B., B. A. '90, Williams; 
 Supt. of Sch., Middletown, Conn., since 
 1917. 
 
 Selover, Jesse, Supvg. Prin., Sayreville, N. J. 
 
 Sentelle, R. E., A. B. '01, Wake Forest; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Tarboro, N. C, since 
 1920. 
 
 Senter, A. F., Supt. of Sch., 941 S. Main, 
 Ottawa, Kans. 
 
 Serena, Joseph A., A. B. '04, LL. D. '22, 
 Eureka Col.; Pres. S. E. Mo. State Tchrs. 
 Col., Cape Girardeau, Mo., since 1921. 
 
 Sexson, John A., Pd. B. '05, Pd. M. '08, 
 Colo. Normal Sch.; B. A. '12, Colo. State 
 Tchrs. Col.; M. A. '18, Univ. of Denver; 
 Supt. of Sch., Sterling Colo., since 1912. 
 
 Sexton, Jay Wesley, A. B. '02, Albion Col. ; 
 M. A. '12, Univ. of Mich.; Supt. of Sch., 
 City Hall, Lansing, Mich., since 1916. 
 
 Sexton, Mrs. Lena B., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Las Cruces, N. Mex. 
 
 Shackelford, B. G., A. M. '84, Central Col.; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., 911 Locust St., St. 
 Louis, Mo., since 1922. 
 
 Shackelford, E. M., LL. D. '13, Univ. of 
 Ala.; Pres. State Norm. Sch., Troy, Ala., 
 since 1899. 
 
 Shafer, B. F., M. A. '23, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Jacksonville, 
 111., since 1922. 
 
 Shafer, Harry M., Dept. Supt. of Sch., 1268 
 Fifth Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. 
 
 Shaffer, Roscoe D., A. B. '24, Ball Tchrs. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Dunkirk, Ind., since 
 1921. 
 
 Shaffer, Roy Lee, Ph. B. '09, Dickinson ; 
 A. M. '17, Columbia; Asst. State Comm. 
 of Ed., State House, Trenton, N. J., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Shambach, John E., B. A. '14, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supv. Prin. of Sch., 415 Third 
 Ave., Westmont, Johnstown, Pa., since 
 1922. 
 
 Shankland, Sherwood D., A. B. '94, West. 
 Res. Univ.; A. M. '18, Columbia Univ.; 
 Ex. Secy., Dept. of Supt., N. E. A., 1201 
 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C, 
 since 1922. 
 
 Shanley, Miss M. V., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 2 
 Harrison Ave., Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Shannon, J. R., A. B. '17, Ind. State Norm.; 
 A. M. '22, Ind. Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 256 
 E. Columbia St., Danville, Ind., since 
 1923. 
 
 Sharrard, Kate, B. S. '14, M. A. '22, Tchrs. 
 Col., Columbia Univ. ; Grd. Supvr. Pub. 
 Sch., Central Sch. Bldg., York, Pa., since 
 ig22. 
 
 Shaw, Alice L., 38 Outlook Rd., Swamp- 
 scott, Mass. 
 
 Shaw, Fred L., State Supt. of Sch., Capitol, 
 Pierre, S. Dak. 
 
 Shaw, J. O., B. S. '22, Univ. of Mo.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 605 N. 10th St., Frederick, Okla., 
 since 1914. 
 
 Shawkey, M. P., Supt. of Sch., 113 Adams, 
 Huntington, W. Va. 
 
 Sheffer, W. E., Supt. of Sch., 730 W. 7th 
 St., Concordia, Kans. 
 
 Sheffield, John P., B. S. '21, Kans. State 
 , Tchrs. Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Cherryvale, 
 Kans., since 1924. 
 
 Shelburne, L. F., M. A. '14, Univ. of Va. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Clifton Forge, Va., since 
 1923. 
 
 Shelton, Frank M., B. S. '99, Mt. Union 
 Col.; M. A. 'n, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 1401 N. Limestone St., Spring- 
 field, Ohio, since 1924. 
 
 Shepard, James E., Ph. G. '94, Shaw Univ. ; 
 D. D. '12, Muskingum; A. M. '13, Selma 
 Univ.; Prin. State Norm. Sch., Durham, 
 N. C, since 1910. 
 
 Shepherd, Fred S., A. B. '84, Beloit Col.; 
 Ph. D. '97, Univ. of Penna. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Hobart Trust Bldg., Passaic, N. J., 
 since 1914. 
 
 Shepherd, H. P., 1424 A St., Lincoln, Nebr. 
 
 Sheridan, Bernard M., A. B. '87, A. M. '03, 
 Boston Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Lawrence, 
 Mass., since 1904. 
 
 Sherrard, R. M., A. B. '91, A. M. '94, Wash, 
 and Jeff. Col.; Asso. Supt., 732 Fulton 
 Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa., since 1912. 
 
 Shibley, Arleigh P., B. P. 'it, State Tchrs. 
 Col., Kirksville; Supt. of Sch., Wilson 
 Bldg., El Centro, Calif., since 1920. 
 
 Shiels, Albert, A. B. '86, Col. of the City of 
 N. Y.; Pd. M. '96, N. Y. Univ.; A. M. 
 '99, N. Y. Univ.; L. H. D. '11, Muhlen- 
 berg Col.; Prof, of Ed., Teachers Col... 
 Columbia Univ., N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Shigetaka, Abe, Asso. Prof, of Sch. Admin., 
 Tokio Imperial Univ., Tokio, Japan, since 
 1918. 
 
 Shilling, John, Ph. B. '08, A. M. '10, Dick- 
 inson; Asst. State Supt., Dover, Del., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Shinn, Anna Lois, Supt. of Sch., River 
 Forest, 111. 
 
 Shipp, J. H., Supt. of Sch., 221 N. East 
 
 9th, Washington, Ind. 
 Shirley, William F., B. A. '07, Wabash Col.; 
 
 M. A. '21, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 
 Marshalltown, Iowa, since 1920. 
 Shively, Charles A., A. M. '05, Univ. of 
 
 Kans.; Prof, of Ed., 421 W. Juniata St., 
 
 Hays, Kans., since 1905. 
 
412 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Shomaker, S. J., Supt. of Sch., 439 North, 
 Murphysboro, 111. 
 
 Short, E. B., Co. Supt. of Sch., Salem, Ark. 
 
 Shotwell, Fred C, Ph. B. '16, Lafayette 
 Col.; A. M. '21, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supvg. Prin., 1 Sch. Plaza, Franklin, N. 
 J., since 1923. 
 
 Showalter, Noah David, B. A. '08, M. A. 
 '09, Wash. State Col.; Pres. State Tchrs. 
 Col., Cheney, Wash., since 1910. 
 
 Shull, S. E., A. M. '03, Lafayette; Supt. of 
 Sch., 184 Kearny Ave., Perth Amboy, 
 N. J., since 1895. 
 
 Shuman, W. L., A. B. '21, Ohio State Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., R. F. D. 1, South Euclid, 
 Ohio, since 1922. 
 
 Shumway, C. W., B. Ph. '88, Cornell Col.; 
 SLupt. of Sch., 1 1 12 Columbia St., Van- 
 couver, Wash., since 1895. 
 
 Sickles, Frederick James, A. B. '08, Syra 
 cuse Univ.; A. M. '18, T. C, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Roosevelt Jr. H. S., 
 New Brunswick, N. J., since 1923. 
 
 Siders, Walter R., B. S. '91, Fremont Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Pocatello, Idaho, since i8gg. 
 
 Siepert, Albert F., B. S. '13, T. C, Columbia 
 Univ.; A. M. '24, Univ. of Chicago; Hd. 
 Dept. of Ed., Bradley Polytech. Inst., 
 500 Bradley Ave., Peoria, 111., since 1913. 
 
 Sifert, E. R., A. B. '13, Des Moines Univ. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Central Bldg., Webster 
 City, la., since 1921. 
 
 Silke, Lucy S., Supvr. of Art, Elemn. Sch., 
 830 Oakwood Blvd., Chicago, 111., since 
 1914. 
 
 Sill, Robert A., Ed. Dept., Amer. Crayon 
 Co., Sandusky, Ohio. 
 
 Silvernale, John L., Supt. of Sch., 408 Mich. 
 Ave., Menominee, Mich. 
 
 Simmons, W. F., Supt. of Sch., Vicksburg, 
 Mich. 
 
 Simon, H. B., Supt. of Sch., Norfolk, Nebr. 
 
 Simpson, Alfred Dexter, A. B. '13, Syra- 
 cuse; M. A. '23, Yale; Dir. Res. and 
 Surv., State Dept. of Ed., Rm. 42, Capitol, 
 Hartford, Conn., since 1923. 
 
 Simpson, I. Jewell, A. B. '99, West. Md. 
 Col.; A. M. '24, Columbia Univ.; State 
 Supvr. of Elemen. Sch., Preston Apts., 
 Baltimore, Md., since 1922. 
 
 Sims, G. M., B. A. '04, Baylor Univ. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Webster Bldg., Port Arthur, Tex., 
 since 1914. 
 
 Sinclair, F. E., Supt. of Sch., Cassopolis, 
 Mich. 
 
 Singleton, Gordon G., B. S. '19, Univ. of 
 Ga. ; M. A. '24, Tchrs. Col., Columbia 
 Univ.; 525 W. 120 St., New York, N. Y. 
 
 Sipple, E. M., B. P. '07, Mo. State Norm.; 
 
 B. S. '14, Univ. of Mo.; M. A. '24, T. 
 
 C, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 309 
 la. State Bank, Burlington, la., since 
 1919. 
 
 Skelton, William F., B. S. '22, Boston Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Pittsburg, N. H., since 
 1922. 
 
 Skidmore, Charles H., B. L. '01, B. Y. Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Brigham City, Utah. 
 
 Skinner, Avery W., A. B. '92, Syracuse 
 Univ. ; Dir. Exam, and Insp. Div., N. Y. 
 State Dept. of Ed., Albany, N. Y., since 
 19 19. 
 
 Skinner, B. O., Supt. of Sch., 505 Third St., 
 Marietta, Ohio. 
 
 Skinner, John J., S. B. '06, Upper Iowa 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Owatonna, Minn., 
 since 1912. 
 
 Skinner, S. J., A. B. '15, A. M. '16, Univ. 
 of Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Belding, Mich., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Slade, A. A., A. B. '11, State Univ. of la.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 416 C. Y. Ave., Casper, 
 Wyo., since 1920. 
 
 Slater, C. P., B. S. '14, Parsons Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., West Liberty, Iowa., since 1920. 
 
 Slawson, S. J., 72 Park "Ave., Johnstown, 
 Pa. 
 
 Slayton, William H., Supt. of Sch., 140 
 Orchard St., Portsmouth, N. H. 
 
 Sloop, Arthur H., A. B. '02, A. M. '09, Dick- 
 inson Col.; Supt. of Sch., 138 E. Curtin 
 St., Bellefonte, Pa., since 1918. 
 
 Slothower, Harry W., B. S. '15, Albright; 
 Prin. H. S., Mt. Union, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Small, William, Co. Supt. of Sch., Peters- 
 burg, 111. 
 
 Smart, Bessie, Supt. of Sch., Milledgeville, 
 111. 
 
 Smart, Frank L., A. B. '96, Harvard; Supt. 
 of Sch., 1 144 Main, Davenport, Iowa, since 
 1906. 
 
 Smith, Arthur O., M. A. '14, N. Y. Univ.; 
 B. S. '11, N. Y., Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 West Hoboken, N. J.; since 1917. 
 
 Smith, Aubrey G., Supt. of Sch., Medford, 
 Oregon, since 1920. 
 
 Smith, Bela B., B. A. '07, Lafayette Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Connellsville, Pa., since 
 1920. 
 
 Smith, C. A., B. S. '21, Univ. of Utah, 
 Supt. of Sch. Dist. 19, Afton, Wyo., since 
 1921. 
 
 Smith, Carleton Blose, A. B. '19, Oska- 
 loosa, la., Col.; Supt. of Sch., 807 S. 9th 
 St., Pekin, 111., since 1923. 
 
 Smith, C. C, A. B. '12, Lebanon Valley 
 Col.; A. M. '19, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Mt. Union, Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Smith, Erman S., Supt. of Sch., Barrington, 
 111. 
 
 Smith, Ernest A., Supt. of Sch., 1323 Hin- 
 man St., Evanston, 111. 
 
 Smith, F. L., B. S. '10, Syracuse Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Lancaster, N. Y., since 
 1921. 
 
 Smith, George A., Supt. of Sch., Plymouth, 
 Mich. 
 
 Smith, George E., Dept. Supt. of Ed., 232 
 Hoyt, Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Smith, George O., B. S., '01, Valparaiso 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch.; Princeton, 111., since 
 1923. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 413 
 
 Smith, Harry P., Supt. of Sch., Lawrence, 
 Kans. 
 
 Smith, Henry E., B. P. '20, Univ. of Wis.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 618 Madison St., Oconto, 
 Wis., since 1920. 
 
 Smith, H. H., A. B. 'i4-'i5, Wabash Col.; 
 Prin. of Twp. H. S., Savanna, 111., since 
 1920. 
 
 Smith, Henry Lester, Dean Sch. of Ed., 
 Ind. Univ., 215 E. gth St., Bloomington, 
 Ind. 
 
 Smith, J. A., Co. Supt. of Sch., 921 Renkert 
 Bldg., Canton, Ohio. 
 
 Smith, James Francis, Supt. of Sch., Con- 
 cord, Vt. 
 
 Smith, James H., A. M. '16, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; Supt. of Sch., West H. S., Aurora, 
 111., since 1923. 
 
 Smith, Jesse L., Supt. of Sch., 141 S. 2nd 
 St., Highland Park,- 111., since 1902. 
 
 Smith, John L., B. S. '08, R. I. State Col.; 
 
 A. M. '15, Brown Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Saylesville, R. I., since 19 17. 
 
 Smith, Leon O., B. A. '10, M. A. '18, Univ. 
 of Iowa; Asst. Supt. of Sch., City Hall, 
 Omaha, Nebr., since 1919. 
 
 Smith, Leonard, A. B. '09, Middlebury; Supt. 
 of Sch., Morrisville, Vt., since 192^. 
 
 Smith, Lewis Wilbur, A. B. '02, Denison 
 Univ.; A. M. '13, Ph. D. '19, Univ. of 
 Chicago; Supt. H. S. and Jr. Col., 801 
 Buell Ave., Joliet, 111., since 19 19. 
 
 Smith, M. P., B. A. '15, M. A. '17, Univ. 
 of Okla. ; Supt. of Sch., Flat River, Mo., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Smith, Nelson C, M. L. '10, Univ. of .Calif. ; 
 
 B. L. '01, Boston Univ. ; Supv. Prin. of 
 Sch., 135 Woodbridge PL, Leonia, N. J. 
 
 Smith, O. E., Supt. of Sch., Anoka, Minn. 
 
 Smith, Payson, A. M. '03, Tutts; LL. D. 
 '08, Univ. of Me.; '09, Bates; Litt. D. 
 '11, Bowdoin; State Com. of Ed., since 
 1916, Pres. Dept. of Superintendence 1923, 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 Smith, Preston H., Ph. B. '93, Colgate; 
 Supt. of Sch., 651 Broadway, Bayonne, 
 N. J., since 1917. 
 
 Smith, Raymond A., A. B. '00, A. M. '04, 
 Butler Col.; B. D. '05, Yale; Dir. Sch. of 
 Ed., Tex. Christian Univ., Box 78, T. C. 
 Univ., Fort Worth, Tex., since 1920. 
 
 Smith, Robert C, A. B. '05, A. M. '13, 
 Univ. of Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Macomb, 
 111., since 1923. 
 
 Smith, Roy C, A. B. '06, Western Md. ; 
 A. M. '11, Univ. of Pa.; Supt of Sch., 
 Iviorgantown, W. Va., since 1913. 
 
 Smith, R. K., Supt. of Sch., Dawson, Pa. 
 
 Smith, Sim Joe, A. B. '15, Trinity Univ.; 
 LL. B. '21, Univ. of Tex.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Mineral Wells, Tex., since 1923. 
 
 Smith, Thomas W., B. S. '08, Ala. Poly. 
 Inst. ; Co. Supt. of Ed., Court House, 
 Tuscaloosa, Ala., since 1922. 
 
 Smith, William Alexander, A. B. '90, Wil- 
 liams; A. M. '12, Columbia; Supt. of 
 Sch., 348 Passaic St., Hackensack, N. J., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Smith, William F., A. B. '06, Ind. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Central Sch. Bldg., Elwood, 
 Ind., since 1923. 
 
 Smith, William M., Co Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Freehold, N. J. 
 
 Smith, W. S., 616 Henry St., Excelsior 
 Springs, Mo. 
 
 Smith, Z. Mayo, A. B. '01, A. M. '05, De- 
 Pauw Univ.; B. S. A. '19, Purdue Univ.; 
 State Dir. of Voc. Ed., State Supvr. Agri. 
 Ed., 202 Sylvia St., West Lafayette, Ind., 
 since 1913. 
 
 Smith, Z. Merrill, Supt. of Schools, Green- 
 field, Ind. 
 
 Snyder, R. H., A. 3. '12, Ind. Univ.; M. 
 
 A. '19, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of Sch., 
 Box 476, Idaho Falls, Idaho, since 1919. 
 
 Snyder, R. Lee, A. B. '22, Okla. Univ. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Box 788, Nowata, Okla., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Solomon, R. W., Ph. B. '14, Univ. of Chi- 
 cago; Supt. of Sch., 2201 Linden Ave., 
 Middletown, Ohio, since 1917. 
 
 Souers, R. E., M. A. '13, Univ. of Chicago; 
 
 B. A. '11, Miami Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 1132 12th St., Douglas, Ariz., since 1916. 
 
 Spain, Chas. L., A. B. '93, M. A. '20, Ph. 
 D. '23, Univ. of Mich. ; Dept. Supt. of 
 Sch., 1354 Broadway, Detroit, Mich., since 
 1914. 
 
 Spaulding, Frank E., A. B. '89,. LL. D. '20, 
 Amherst; A. M., Ph. - D. '94, Leipsig; 
 A. M., Hon. '20, Yale; Prof, of Ed., Yale 
 Univ., 68 Cold Spring St., New Haven, 
 Conn., since 1920. 
 
 Speer, Robert K., Asst. Dir. Ref. and Res. 
 Bd. of Ed., Montclair, N. J. 
 
 Speerbrecher, Henry, 767 Mineral St., Mil- 
 waukee, Wis. 
 
 Spencer, Dean S., M. A. '12, Univ. of Mich.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Monroe, Mich., since 1918. 
 
 Spencer, P. R., M. A. '21, Columbia; B. A. 
 '15, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of Sch., Tech. 
 H. S., St. Cloud, Minn., since 1920. 
 
 Spencer, Thomas E., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 
 911 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Spires, R. L., B. Ed., '23, 111. State Norm. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Paxton, 111., since 
 1923. 
 
 Spitler, H. Carl, B. S. '17, N. W., Naper- 
 ville, 111.; Supt. of Sch., 602 State St., 
 Petoskey, Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Sporing, E. F., A. B. '20, Wilmington Col., 
 Ohio; Supt. of Sch., Newport, Ky., since 
 1919. 
 
 Sprague, H. A., B. S., A. M., Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., State Normal, Mont- 
 clair, N. J. 
 
 Sprenkle, William H., B. S. '98, M. S. '01, 
 Gettysburg; Supv. Prin., 112 Birmingham 
 Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa., since 1909. 
 
414 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Srygley, Hubbard F., B. S. '16, Peabody 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., 118% W. Martin St., 
 Raleigh, N. C, since 1923. 
 
 Stacy, Chester R., Supt. of Sch., Webster, 
 Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Stahl, H. E., Supt. of Sch., Claymont, Del. 
 
 Stailey, C. E., Supt. of Sch., Athens, Ohio. 
 
 Staley, A. H., Supt. of Sch., 1131 N. Den- 
 ver Ave., Hastings, Nebr. 
 
 Staley, George R., B. S. '00, Syracuse Univ. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., 106 N. George St., Rome 
 N. Y., since 1912. 
 
 Staley, Raymond E., A. B. '12, St. John's 
 
 Col. ; A. M. '24, T. C, Columbia Univ. ; 
 
 Prin. Beall H. and Elemn. Sch., 82 Frost 
 
 Ave., Frostburg, Md., since 1920. 
 
 Stanforth, A. T., Ph. B. '11, Lebanon Univ.; 
 B. S. '14, Muskingum Univ. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Point Pleasant H. S., Point Pleas- 
 ant, W. Va., since 1920. 
 
 Stansbury, V. E., A. B. '19, S. W. ; A. M. 
 '20, Univ. of Chi.; Supt. of Sch., Mt. Ver- 
 non, la., since 1923. 
 
 Stanton, B. F., Supt. of Sch., Alliance, Ohio. 
 
 Stanton, Mrs. Marion W., Supt. of Sch., 8 
 Woodland St., Worcester, Mass., since 
 1922. 
 
 Staples, Le Roy G., A. B. '00, Bates Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., City Hall, Warren, R. I., 
 since 1910. 
 
 Stark, William E., A. B. '95, A. M. '01, 
 Harvard; Supt. of Sch., 35 Seaside Ave., 
 Stamford, Conn., since 1923. 
 
 Starkweather, J. A., A. B. '01, Shurtleff 
 Col.; A. M. '16, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., 226 N. First Ave., E. 
 Duluth, Minn., since 19 19. 
 
 Stearns, P. J., Co. Supt. of Sch., Lilbourn, 
 Mo. 
 
 Stebbins, W. C, 1314 University Ave., 
 Grand Forks, N. D. 
 
 Steel, H. J., 5048 Vincent Ave., So., Minne- 
 apolis, Minn. 
 
 Steele, Harold, B. S. '02, Albion Col.; M. 
 A. '08, Univ. of Wis.; Supt. of Sch., 700 
 Court St., Saginaw, Mich., since 1920. 
 
 Steen, W. O., Supt. of Sch., Topeka, Kans. 
 
 Steiner, C. D., B. S. '12, Oh : o State Univ.; 
 Supt. of Riley Twp. Sch., Pandora, Ohio, 
 since 1922. 
 
 Steiner, Melvin A., B. A. '09, Col. of 
 Wooster, M. A. '13, Univ. of Pittsburgh; 
 Supv. Prin. of Sch., Ingram, Pittsburgh, 
 Pa., since 1918. 
 
 Stephan, Leon B., A. B. '08, A. M. '13, Ind. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Jenkins, Ky., since 
 1921. 
 
 Stephens, W. L., Supt. of Sch., Long Beach, 
 Calif: 
 
 Stetson, Paul C, A- B. '07, Kalamazoo, Col. ; 
 A. B. '07, A. M. '17, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Supt. of Sch., 216 Ludlow Bldg., Dayton, 
 Ohio, since 1921. 
 
 Stevens, Geo. C, Supt. of Sch., Kiowa, Kans. 
 
 Stevens, James M., B. A. '87, M. A. '90, 
 Conn. Wesleyan Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 619 
 Wesley Ave., Ocean City, N. J., since 
 1903. 
 
 Stewart, David H., B. S. '15, Pa. State Col., 
 Supvg. Prin., Mcintosh Bldg., Beaver, 
 Pa., since 1923. 
 
 Stewart, Paul E., L. I. '03, Peabody Col.; 
 A. B. '11, Stanford Univ.; Supt. of bch., 
 Santa Barbara, Calif., since 1919. 
 
 Stiers, John C, Ph. B. '99, Ph. M. '03, 
 Franklin; Supt. of Sch., Union Tr. Bldg., 
 Washington, Pa., since 1918. 
 
 Stillwell, Roy P., 7 Fairview PL, Morris- 
 town, N. J. 
 
 Stilwell, H. W., Supt. of Sch., 1911 Olive 
 St. Texarkana, Texas. 
 
 Stilwell, W. E., A. B. '01, A. M. '03, Har- 
 vard; Hdmst. Univ. Sch., Blair and Hart- 
 ford Aves., Cincinnati, Ohio, since 1903. 
 
 Stimson, Ruf's W., A. B. '95. A. M. '96, 
 Harvard; B. D. '97, Yale; State Supvr. 
 Voc. Agr. Ed., Garrison Hall, Boston, 
 Mass., since 1911. 
 
 Stitt, Edward Walmsley, M. S. '97, Col. of 
 N. Y. City; Ph. D. '24, Univ. of N. Y. 
 City; LL. D. '22, Dickinson Col.; Asso. 
 Supt. of Sch., 1543 St. Nicholas Ave., New 
 York, N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Stockinger, W. A., Diploma '04, Ind. State 
 Normal; B. S. '16, M. A. '17, Columbia 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Noblesville, Ind., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Stoddard, A. J., B. S. '22, Univ. of Nebr.; 
 M. A. '24, T C, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Bronxville, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Stone, Charles R., A. B. '07, Oberlin; Supt. 
 of Sch., Munhall, Penna., since 1915. 
 
 Stone, Charles T., B. A. '96, Bowdoin; 
 Supt. of Sch., 90 Washington St., Long 
 Branch, N. J., since 1921. 
 
 Stonecipher, E. E., B. S. '20, State Tchrs. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Box 294, Sedan, Kans.. 
 since 1922. 
 
 Stoops, R. O., A. B. '97, Lake Forest; 
 A. M. '06, 111. Col.; Ph. D. Columbia '22; 
 Supt. of Sch, York, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Storm, H. C, Supt. of Sch., High Sch., 
 Batavia, 111. 
 
 Stott, James W., Supt. of Sch., 853 E. Wal- 
 nut St., Frankfort, Ind. 
 
 Stout, A. J., B. S. '19, Tchrs. Col., Colum- 
 bia Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Topeka, Kans., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Stout, H. G., A. B. '14, Nebr. Wes. ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Ashland, Nebr., since 1924. 
 
 Stover, James D., A. M. '13, Princeton 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Wyoming, Ohio, 
 since 1921. 
 
 Stowe, A. Monroe, A. M. '04, N. W. Univ.; 
 A. M. '05, Harvard Univ. ; Ph. D. '09, 
 Columbia Univ. ; Pres., Univ. of Toledo, 
 1718 Potomac Drive, Toledo, Ohio, since 
 1914. 
 
 Strahan, Charles J., Dep. Asst. Com. of Ed., 
 State Office Bldg., Trenton, N. J., since 
 1922. 1 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 415 
 
 Stratton, Mason A., Supt. of Sch., H. S. 
 Bldg., Frankfort, N. Y., since 1922. 
 
 Strayer, George D., A. B. '03, Johns Hop- 
 kins; Ph. D. '05, Columbia Univ.; Prof, 
 of Ed. Adm.. Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ., 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 Street, J. P., Supt. of Sch., Bedford, Iowa. 
 
 Striner, John H., Supt. of Sch., 2225 Hamp, 
 Quincy, 111. 
 
 Stringer, S. L., Supt. of Sch., Box 98, 
 Picayune, Miss. 
 
 Strong, Solomon C, B. S. '16, New York 
 Univ.; '02, East Stroudsburg State Nor- 
 mal; Supt. of Sch., West Orange, N. J., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Stroup, F. Neff, Supt. of Sch., Newark, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Struble, J. Roy, A. B. '15, Hillsdale Mich. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., St. James, Minn., 
 since 1918. 
 
 Strunk, L. H., Supt. of Sch., Desloge, Mo. 
 
 Stuart, Josephine B., Asst. Supt., 166 Wil- 
 liam St., New Bedford, Mass. 
 
 Stube, J. H., Dist. Supt. of Sch., 1637 
 Kenilworth Ave., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Studebaker, John W., B. S. '10, Leander 
 Clark Col.; A. M. '17, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 525 Polk Blvd., Des Moines, 
 la., since 1920. 
 
 Study, H. P., A. B. '03, Baker Univ.; M. 
 A. '11, Boston Univ.; Supt. of Sch., H. 
 S. Bldg., Springfield, Mo., since 1924. 
 
 Stutsman, Isaac E., A. B. '09, State Univ. 
 of la.; Supt. of Sch., 212 Taylor St., 
 Sterling, Colo., since 1924. 
 
 Stutzman, G. C, B. A. '17, Knox Col.; 
 M. A. '23, Univ. of la. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 Hanover, 111., since 1923. 
 
 Sullivan, Ella C, Dist. Supt. of Sch., Edge- 
 water Beach Hotel, Chicago, 111., since 
 1900. 
 
 Sutton, Willis A., Ph. B. '03, B. LL. '04, 
 Emory Col.; Supt. of Sch., City Hall, 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Sutton, W. S., Dean Sch. of Ed., Prof, of 
 Ed. Admin., Univ. of Tex., Austin, Tex. 
 
 Swain, C. C, M. A. '18, Columbia Univ.; 
 Pres. State Normal Sch., Mayville, N. D., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Swanson, Oscar E., A. M. '12, Columbia; 
 Diploma '12, Tchrs. Col.; B. S.. '11, North- 
 western; B. S. '01, Valparaiso; Supt. of 
 Sch., 620 Second St., Greenport, N. Y., 
 
 since 1920. 
 
 Sweeney, Ella L., Asst. Supt. of Sch., 9 
 Exchange Terrace, Providence, R. I. 
 
 Tall, Lida Lee, Prin. Md. State Normal 
 Sch., Towson, Md. 
 
 Tallman, Pearle, A. B. '20, Iowa State 
 Tcnrs. Col. ; Supv. of Intermediate Gr., 
 609 Great So. Life Bldg., Houston, Tex., 
 since 1923. 
 
 Tanger, Landis, M. Pd. '03, State Normal 
 Sen., Millersville; Ph. B. '05, Franklin & 
 Marshall Col.; A. M. '13, Univ. of Pa.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Reading, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Tarney, J. Byron, A. B. '02, Ind. Univ.; 
 M. A. '11, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Goffstown, N. H., since 1923. 
 
 Tate, A. R., Supt. of Sch., Onaway, Mich. 
 
 Taubeneck, I. D., B. E. '21, 111. State Nor- 
 mal Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Minier, 111., 
 since 1920. 
 
 Taylor, James F., A. B. '09, A. M. '13, Ind. 
 Univ.; Prin. Denfeld H. S., 708 N. igth 
 Ave., E., Duluth, Minn., since 1918. 
 
 Taylor, M. S., A. M. '12, Pacific Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., North Bend, Ore., since 
 1923. 
 
 Taylor, William S., B. S. '12, Univ. of Ky. ; 
 M. S. '13, Univ. of Wis.; Ph. D. '24, 
 Columbia Univ. ; Dean Col. of Ed. Univ. 
 of Ky., Lexington, Ky., since 1923. 
 
 Teach, Charles Elden, A. B. '03, A. M. '14, 
 Univ. of Nebr. ; Supt. of Sch., City Hall, 
 Bakersfield, Calif., since 1918. 
 
 Teague, C. H., Supt. of Sch., Gladstone, 
 Mich. 
 
 Temple, Alice, Ph. B. '08, Univ. of Chicago; 
 Asst. Prof., Sch. of Ed., Univ. of Chicago, 
 Chicago, 111., since 1909. 
 
 Terhune, Beekman R., A. B. '01, Princeton; 
 A. M. '02, Columbia; Supt. of Sch., 
 Somerset Sch., Plainfield, N. J., since 
 1923. 
 
 Terrell, M. C, A. B. '21, Elau Col.; Co. 
 Supt. of Sch., Graham, N. C. 
 
 Thalman, J. L., A. B. '00, Ohio Wes. ; A. M. 
 '10, Univ. of Mich.; Supt. Proviso H. S., 
 Maywood, 111. 
 
 Thalman, John W., A. B. '00. Ohio Wes- 
 leyan Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Library Bldg., 
 St. Joseph, Mo., since 1920. 
 
 Thames, W. I., A. B. '87, National Normal 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Hattiesburg, Miss., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Theiseh, W. W., B. S. '07, Univ. of Nebr.; 
 A. M. '15, Ph. D. '16, Columbia Univ.; 
 Asst. Supt. of Sch., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Thierstein, John R., A. B. '96, Univ. of 
 Kans. ; Ph. D. 'io, Univ. of Berne; Prof. 
 of Ed., Bethel Col., Newton, Kans., since 
 1921. 
 
 Thomas, A. D., A. B. '05, Lafayette; M. A. 
 '18, Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 585 James St., Hazleton, Pa., since 
 1922. 
 
 Thomas, Augustus O., State Com. of Ed., 
 State House, Augusta, Maine. 
 
 Thomas, H. W., A. B. '15, Univ. of Roches- 
 ter; Supt. of Sch., Johnson, Vt., since 
 1921. 
 
 Thomas, J. O., B. S. '09, Ohio Northern 
 Univ.; Ph. B. '20, Chicago Univ.; A. M. 
 '21, Stanford Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 519 
 W. Cherry St., Flagstaff, Ariz., since 1921. 
 
 Thomas, Lewis Ambrey, B. A. '21, Univ. of 
 Idaho; Supt. of Sch., Box 77, Malad City, 
 Idaho, since 1924. 
 
 Thomas, Malcolm G., A. B. '98, A. M. '02, 
 Union; Supvg. Prin. of Sch., Woodbury 
 H. S., Woodbury, N. J., since 1914. 
 
416 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Thomas, W. W., Supt. of Sch., 722 Cherry 
 St., Springfield, Mo. 
 
 Thompson, Alfred C, B. A. '92, Yale; Ph. 
 D. '13, N. Y. State Col. for Tchrs. ; Prin. 
 State Normal Sch., Brockport, N. Y., 
 since 1910. 
 
 Thompson, Clem O., A. B. '13, Ind. State 
 Normal; A. M. '20, Univ. of Chicago; Hd. 
 Dept. of Ed., Earlham Col., 306 College 
 Ave., Richmond, Ind., since 1923. 
 
 Thompson, Fred M., Supt. of Sch., Horton, 
 Kans. 
 
 Thompson, G. E., A. B. '15, Defiance Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., St. Charles, 111., since 1919. 
 
 Thompson, R. E., Supt. of Sch., 102 N. 
 High, Tuscumbia, Ala. 
 
 Thompson, W. O., A. B. '78, Muskingum 
 Col. ; Pres. Ohio State Univ., Columbus, 
 Ohio, since 1899. 
 
 Thoroman, A. M., Supt. of Sch., Iola, Kans. 
 
 Threlkeld, A. L., B. Pd. 'n, Kirksville State 
 
 Normal; B. S. '19, Univ. of Mo.; Asst. 
 
 Supt. of Sch., Commonwealth Bldg., Den- 
 ver, Colo. 
 
 Tibbetts, Keim K., A. B. '10, Oberlin ; Supt. 
 of Sch., Box P, Gilbert, Minn., since 
 igi8. 
 
 Tidball, Lewis C, Jr., State Com. of Ed., 
 Cheyenne, Wyo. 
 
 Tidwell, R. E., State Dept. of Ed., Mont- 
 gomery, Ala. 
 
 Tiefenthaler, G. E., 829 26th St., Milwaukee, 
 Wis. 
 
 Tiffany, A. R., B. A. '15, Upper Iowa; Supt. 
 of Sch., Cresco, Iowa, since 1921. 
 
 Tighe, Richard J.; Supt. of Sch., Muskogee, 
 Okla. 
 
 Tiley, Pearl M., Prim. Supvr., 3105 W. Main 
 St., Belleville, 111., since 1911. 
 
 Tilley, James M., '89, Normal Diploma; 
 Supt. of Sch., Terre Haute, Ind., since 
 1919. 
 
 Timberman, J. C, B. S. '02, Ohio Northern; 
 Ph. B. '06, Ohio Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., 
 422 E. Broadway, Wellston, Ohio, since 
 1922. 
 
 Tinker, B. W., Supt. of Sch., 98 Randolph 
 Ave., Waterbury, Conn. 
 
 Tipcan, John J., A. B. '22, Geo. Wash. 
 Univ.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., 207 Maryland 
 Ave., Cumberland, Md., since 1915. 
 
 Tireman, L. S., Supt. of Sch., Postville, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Tirey, Ralph N., Supt. of Sch., 507 N. 
 Meridian, Bloomington, Ind. 
 
 Tiss, A. I., A. B. '10, Drake Univ.; M. A. 
 '19, State Univ. of Iowa; Supt. of Sch., 
 Fort Madison, Iowa, since 1920. 
 
 Titsworth, Paul E., Ph. D. '11, Univ. of 
 Wis.; Ph. B. '04, Alfred Univ.; Pres. 
 Wash. Col., 400 Wash. Ave., Chestertown, 
 Md., since 1923. 
 
 Toaz, Robert K., A. B. '93, Rochester; 
 A. M. '12, Tchrs. Col., Columbia; Supt. 
 of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Huntington, N. Y., 
 since 1906. 
 
 Tobey, S. B., Supt. of Sch., Wausau, Wis., 
 since 1905. 
 
 Tomlinson, Charles W., B. A. '16, N. W. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Aurora, Minn., since 
 .1923- 
 
 Tompkins, Jonas M., Dist. Supt. of Sch., 
 587 Windsor Ave., Hartford, Conn. 
 
 Torreyson, B. W., Pres. State Normal Sch., 
 Conway, Ark. 
 
 Towle, Clifton A., Supt. of Sch., 49 High 
 St., Exeter, N. H. 
 
 Towle, L. U., Supt. of Sch., Detroit, Minn. 
 
 Towne, R. H., Supt. of Sch., Glencoe, Minn. 
 
 Townsend, M. Ernest, B. A. '12, M. A. '22, 
 Colgate Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Lathrop 
 Ave. Bldg., Millville, N. J., since 1921. 
 
 Trabue, M. R., B. A. 'n, N. W. Univ.; 
 M. A. '14, Ph. D. '15, Columbia Univ.; 
 Prof, of Ed. Admin., Univ. of N. C, P. O. 
 Box 431, Chapel Hill, N. C, since 1922. 
 
 Tracy, Aaron W., A. B. '19, Brigham Young 
 Univ. ; Pres. Weber Col., 2445 Jefferson 
 Ave., Ogden, Utah, since 1922. 
 
 Transchel, Milton E., Supt. of Sch., 337 East 
 nth St., College View, Nebr. 
 
 Travell, Ira Winthrop, B. A. '90, Williams; 
 Supt. of Sch., Ridgewood, N. J., since 
 1912. 
 
 Travis, Martin B., B. Pd. '06, Mich. Normal 
 Col.; A. B. '09, A. M. '10, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., 212 E.. B St., Iron 
 Mountain, Mich., since 1917. 
 
 Trent, William Woodson, A. B. '12. W. Va, 
 Univ.; A. M. '21, Tchrs. Col., Columbia; 
 Supt. of Sch., Elkins, W. Va., since 1915- 
 
 Trescott, E. O. Ph. B. '91, Hiram Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 125 Highland Ave., Ra- 
 venna, Ohio, since 1906. 
 
 Trester, Arthur L., A. B. '04, Earlham Col. ; 
 A. M. '13, Columbia Univ.; Sec. Ind. H. 
 S. Athletic Assn., Anderson, Ind., since 
 1922. 
 
 Trinder, F. J., State Dir. Voc. Ed., Capitol, 
 Hartford, Conn. 
 
 True, J. A., A. B. '18, Univ. of Nebr.; 
 M. A. '22, Chicago Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 McCook, Nebr., since 1918. 
 
 Trumpsr, May, State Supt. of Pub. Ins., 
 Helena, Mont. 
 
 Truscott, R. W., Supt. of Sch., Loveland, 
 Colo. 
 
 Tuggle, Larkin A., Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Danville, 111., since 1923. 
 
 Tupper, C. R., A. B. '13, A. M. '23, Stan- 
 ford; Supt. of Sch., P. O. Box 1689, 
 Miami, Ariz., since 1919. 
 
 Turner, H. B., A. B. '03, Hiram Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch.; 307 Western Reserve Bank Bldg., 
 Warren, Ohio, since 1916. 
 
 Titus, Carl, Supt. of Sch., Cheboygan, Mich. Turner, J. E., Supt. of Sch., Payette, Idaho. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 417 
 
 Turner, J. W., A. B. '18, Phillips; Pres. 
 S. W. State Tchrs. Col. ; Weatherford, 
 Okla., since 1923. 
 
 Turnmire, H. U. G., B. S. '21, Kirksville 
 St. Tchrs. Col.; Supt. of Sch., Bowling 
 Green, Mo., since 1923. 
 
 Twente, John W., A. M. '16, Univ. of Kans. ; 
 A. M. '22, Ph. D. '23, Columbia Univ.; 
 Hd. Ed. and Psycho., Univ. of N. H., 
 Durham, N. H., since 1922. 
 
 Tyler, Leon Lewis, LL. B. '00, Univ. of 
 Mich. ; A. B. '06, Earlham Col. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Muskegon Heights, Mich., since 
 1920. 
 
 Ueland, Elsa, Pres. Carson Col. Orph. Girls, 
 Flourtown, Pa. 
 
 Underwood, C. C, Ph. B. '07, M. A. 'io, 
 Kenyon Col.; Supt. of Sch., 13 Mills 
 Place, Crawfordsville, Ind., since 1923. 
 
 Underwood, S. B., A. B. '06, Trinity; 
 Teachers' Training Sch., Greenville, N. C, 
 since 1921. 
 
 Updegraff, Harlan, Ph. B. '94, Iowa Cornell 
 Col.; A. M. '98, Ph. D. '08, Columbia 
 Univ. ; Pres. Cornell Col., Mt. Vernon, 
 Iowa. 
 
 Updyke, A. H, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Uthoff, Mary L., Co. Supt. of Sch., Prince- 
 ton, 111., since 1923. 
 
 Utne, Theodore, Supt. of Sch., Alexandria, 
 Minn. 
 
 Van Adestine, Gertrude, Prin. Sch. for Deaf, 
 5759 Second Blvd., Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Van Buskirk, D. A., Diploma '12, Mich. 
 West State Normal; A. B. '16, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Supt. of Sch., Hastings, Mich. 
 
 Vanderbilt, Mabel Tilden, A. B. '01, Vassar 
 Col.; Supvg. Prin., 36 University PL, 
 Princeton, N. J., since 1914. 
 
 Vanderslice, H. R., A. B. '15, Ursinus Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Coatesville, Pa., since 1922. 
 
 Van Devender, Bertha K., Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Basin, Wyo. 
 
 Vandyke, John A., Supt. of Sch., P. O. 
 Box 170, Coleraine, Minn. 
 
 Vann, Leonard L., Supt. of Sch., Bessemer, 
 Ala. 
 
 Van Riper, Paul, Supt. of Sch., 330 N. 
 Merdian, Lebanon, Ind. 
 
 Van Voorhis S., B. A. '09, Huron Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Redfield, S. D. 
 
 Varney, Charles E., Dist. Supt. of Sch., 
 Hyde Bldg., Lee, Mass., since 1922. 
 
 Vasey, Frank T., A. B. '04, Univ. of Nebr. ; 
 A. M. '18, Univ. of Iowa; Supt. of Sch., 
 Mason City, Iowa, since 1918. 
 
 Vaughan, James P., Ph. B. '07, Univ. of 
 Wis.; Supt. of Sch., H. S., Chisholm, 
 Minn., since 1907. 
 
 Vautsmier, Lydia, Supt. of Sch., Elmhurst, 
 111. 
 
 Vernon, C. B., A. B. '14, Baker Univ.; 
 A. M. '20, T. C, Columbia Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Vinton, Iowa, since 1923. 
 
 Verplanck, Fred A., B. A. '88, Yale; Supt. 
 of Sch., 1108 Main St., So. Manchester, 
 Conn., since 1893. 
 
 Vevle, Mendus R., B. A. '14, St. Olaf Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Hutchinson, 
 Minn., since 1922. 
 
 Vieth, A. A., B. S. '12, N. W. Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Merrill, Wis., since 
 1924. 
 
 Vigor, Charles F., Asst. Supt., Mobile, Ala. 
 
 Vincent, P. M., Supt. of Sch., 210 Pine, 
 Stevens Point, Wis. 
 
 Vizcarrondo, Francisco, LL. B. '17, Univ. of 
 P. R. ; Chief Div. of Supvsn., Sec. Dept. 
 of Ed., San Juan, Porto Rico, since 1918. 
 
 Vliet, Clarence, Birmingham, Mich. 
 
 Vogle, William F., A. B. '12, Ind. Univ.; 
 A. M. '17, Tchrs. Col., Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Boonville, Ind., since 1918. 
 
 Von Klein Smid, Rufus B., A. B. '05, A. M. 
 '06, Northwestern; Sc. D. '14, Univ. of 
 Ariz.; J. D. '19, Nat. Univ. of Mex. ; 
 M. D. '20, Univ. Central Quinto, Ecuador; 
 Ph. D., Univ. of Major, San Marcos, 
 Peru; Pres. Univ. of Southern Calif., Los 
 Angeles, Calif., since 1921. 
 
 Voorhees, J. V., Supt. of Sch., Eveleth, 
 Minn. 
 
 Waddell, John F., Ph. B. '20, Wis.; Supt. 
 of Sch., 400 Clermont, Antigo, Wis., since 
 ig22. 
 
 Wade, Charles D., Supt. of Sch., Box 334, 
 Albany, Ala. 
 
 Wade, Edwin C, A. B. '07, Hampden-Sid- 
 ney Col.; A. M. '11, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., H. S. Bldg., Bluefield, 
 W. Va., since 1923. 
 
 Wagenvoord, Alice M., B. S. '16, M. A. '21, 
 Columbia Univ.; Asst. Supt. of Sch., Lans- 
 ing,. Mich., since 1917. 
 
 Wager, Lewis M., Supt. of Sch., Lincoln 
 Sch., North Tiverton, R. I., since 1919. 
 
 Wagner, Charles A., A. B. '06, A. M. '08, 
 Ursinus; Ph. D. '12, Univ. of Penna. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., 526 E. 14th St., Chester, 
 Pa., since 1917. 
 
 Wahlert, Herman H, B. S. '15, Wash. Squ. 
 Col.; M. A. '16, N. Y. Univ.; Asst. Supt. 
 of Sch., Prin. Lincoln Sch., North Bergen, 
 N. J. 
 
 Waite, E. W., Supt. of Sch., Manitowoc, 
 Wis. 
 
 Waits, H. E., Supt. of Sch., 103 E. Pere 
 Marquette, Ludington, Mich. 
 
 Waldo, D. B., Ph. B. '87, A. M. 'qo, Al'iion 
 Col.; LL. D. '10, Kalamazoo Col.; Pres. 
 Western State Normal Sch., Kalamazoo, 
 Mich. 
 
 Walker, Johnston E., B. Ct. '20, U. of N. D. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., Bottineau, N. D., since 1921. 
 
 Walker, Knox, A. B. '15, Mercer Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Carrollton, Ga., since 1922. 
 
 Wallace, S. C, Asst. Co. Supt. of Sch., 428 
 Oakland Ave., Greensburg, Pa., since 
 I9I5- 
 
 Wallace, S. M., Supt. of Sch., 6th & Wash. 
 Sts., Waterloo, Iowa. 
 
418 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Waller, J. C, A. B. '07, Georgetown Col.; 
 A. B. '08, Univ. of Chicago; A. M. '14. 
 Tchrs. Col., Columbia; Supt. of Sch., Hop- 
 kinsville, Ky., since 19 18. 
 
 Walling, W. Levern, A. B. '14, Univ. of 
 Mich.; A. B. '07, Mich. State Normal 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., 17453 Jefferson Ave., 
 E. Grosse Pointe, Mich., since 1921. 
 
 Walls, William Alfred, Supt. of Sch., A. B. 
 '07, Mt. Union Col.; A. M. '13, Columbia 
 Univ.; 52g W. Main St., Kent, Ohio, since 
 1920. 
 
 Walters, Rolland J. D., A. B. '04, Tri State 
 Col.; A. M. '14, T. C, Columbia Univ.; 
 D. Litt. '20, Univ. of Denver; Dir. Tchr. 
 Tr. Univ. of Denver, 2045 So. Clarkson 
 St., Denver, Colo., since 1924. 
 
 Walters, W. F., Co. Supt. of Sch., Court 
 House, Columbia, N. C, since 1920. 
 
 Waltner, Caroline A., A. B. '16, Yankton 
 Col.; B. S. '17, S. D. State Col.; Co. Supt. 
 of Sch., Freeman, S. D., since 1920 
 
 Walton, C. E. A., Supt. of Sch., 90 Lincoln 
 Ave., Little Falls, N. J. 
 
 Walton, E. V., Supt. of Sch., Roselle, N. J. 
 
 Walton, Joseph H., Supt. of Sch., 210 W. 
 8th, Leadville, Colo. 
 
 Waltz, C. A. Supt. of Sch., Xenia, Ohio. 
 
 Walvoord, J. G., Supt. of Sch., 1809 N. 5th 
 Sheboygan, Wis. 
 
 Ward, David A., B. S. '04, Rio Grande Col. ; 
 A. M. '11, Univ. of Chicago; Supt. of Sch., 
 City Hall, Wilmington, Del., since 1921. 
 
 Ward, L. C, A. B. '03, Ind. Univ.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Montgomery and Clinton Sts., 
 Fort Wayne, Ind., since 1920. 
 
 Ward, W. Scott, A. B. '83, Tufts; Supt. of 
 Sch., 73 Green St., Athol, Mass., since 
 1897. 
 
 Wardlaw, Patterson, A. B. '80, LL. D. '06, 
 Erskine; Litt. D. '24, Presby. Col. of S. C. ; 
 Dean Sch. of Ed., Univ. of S. C, 1214 
 College St., Columbia, S. C, since 1894. 
 
 Warner, Stanley F., A. B. '19, Syracuse 
 Univ.; Seneca Falls, N. Y. 
 
 Warner, W. W., Diploma '84, Valparaiso 
 Univ.; Diploma '01, Drexel Inst.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Saginaw, Mich., since 1917- 
 
 Warren, F. H., A. B. '96, Ohio Wes. ; Supt. 
 
 of Sch., 843 N. Main St., Fostoria, Ohio, 
 
 since 1917. 
 
 Warren, Jule B., Box 887, Raleigh, N. C. 
 
 Warren, Julius E., Supt. of Sch., Glovers- 
 ville, N. Y. 
 
 Warren, Milton Charles, Co. Supt. of Sch., 
 Circleville, Ohio. 
 
 Warren, Worcester, A. B. '12, Knox Col.; 
 A. M. '21, Univ of Iowa.; Asst. Supt. of 
 Sch., Bd. of Ed., 886 Main St., Bridge- 
 port, Conn., since 1924. 
 
 Washburn. Justin, Co. Supt. of Sch., Rock 
 Island, 111. 
 
 Washburne, C. W., Ed. D. '22, Univ. of 
 Calif.; Supt. of Sch., Winnetka, 111., since 
 1919. 
 
 Waterman, O. A., Supt. of Sch., Naperville, 
 111. 
 
 Watkin, Earl P., Ph. B. '12, Ph. M. '17, 
 Hamilton Col.; Supt. of Sch., Ilion H. S., 
 Ilion, N. Y., since 1923. 
 
 Watkins, Richard Henry, B. A. '95, Hamp- 
 den-Sidney; Supt. of Sch., Laurel, Miss., 
 since 1907. 
 
 Watson,. Frank K., A. M. '99, Princeton; 
 Supt. of Sch., 20 West St., Danbury, 
 Conn., since 1920. 
 
 Watson, J. W., Supt. of Sch., 401 2nd Ave., 
 Opelika, Ala. 
 
 Watts, Charles H., Co. Supt. of Sch., 513 
 W. Oregon St., Urbana, 111. 
 
 Weaver, E. L., Supt. of Sch., Clarinda, Iowa. 
 
 Weaver, Olney S., B. S. '21, Miami Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Germantown, Ohio, since 
 1921. 
 
 Webb, Edward F., A. B. '97, A. M. '00, 
 Wash. Col. ; Co. Supt. of Sch., Cumber- 
 land, Md., since 1916. 
 
 Webb, F. E., B. A. 'n, Bellevue Col.; Supt. 
 of Sch., Box 2349, Globe, Ariz., since 
 1923. 
 
 Webb, Jesse C, Supt. of Sch., Portland, 
 Ind. 
 
 Webber, Elmer Harrison, B. Pd. '15, Univ. 
 of Me. ; M. A. '23, Bates Col. ; Supt. of 
 Sch., Mapleton, Me., since 1918. 
 
 Weber, S. E., Supt. of Sch., Charleston, 
 W. Va. 
 
 Webster, William F., B. A. '86, Univ. of 
 Minn.; Supt. of Sch., 305 City Hall, 
 Minneapolis, Minn., since 1922. 
 
 Weed, Clarence M., D. Sc. '91, Ohio State 
 
 Univ.; M. Sc. '84, B. Sc. '83, Mich. Agri. 
 
 ' Col.; Prin. State Normal Sch., Lowell, 
 Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Weet, Herbert S., B. A. '99, M. A. '01, 
 Univ. of Rochester; Pd. D. '18, N. * . 
 State Col.; Supt. of Sch., Rochester, N. Y., 
 since 191 1. 
 
 Weglein, David E., Ph. D. '16, A. B. '97, 
 Johns Hopkins Univ.; A. M. '12, Columbia 
 Univ.; First Asst. Supt. of Sch., Balti- 
 more, Md., since 1921. 
 
 Weinlander, M. A., Supt. of Sch., Chassell, 
 Mich. 
 
 Welden, C. R., Co. Supt. of Sch., Wetumpka, 
 Ala., since 1923. 
 
 Welles, James B., A. B. '09, Union Col.; 
 A. M. '13, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Roslyn, N. Y., since 1920. 
 
 Wellman, Florence M., Supt. of Sch., Brat- 
 tleboro, Vt., since 1908. 
 
 Wellman, Justin O., A. B. '98, A. M. '22, 
 Colby; Supt. of Sch., 11 Congress St., 
 Amesbury, Mass., since 1921. 
 
 Wells, Agnes Ermina, A. B. '03, Ph. D. '24, 
 Univ. of Mich.; A. M. '16, Carleton Col.; 
 Dean of Women, Ind. Univ., Bloomington, 
 Ind., since 1918. 
 
 Wells, Geo. K., 1106 E. 62nd St., Chicago, 
 111. 
 
 Wenner, William E., A. B. '97, Westmin- 
 ster; Supt. of Sch., 1 Lake St., Ashtabula, 
 Ohio, since 1909. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 419 
 
 Werman, Mervin J., A. B. '03, A. M. '07, 
 Muhlenberg Col.; Supt. of Co. Sen., R. 
 F. D. 3, Allentown, Pa., since 19 18. 
 
 Werner, J. C, A. B. 'io, F. & M. Col.; 
 Supvg. Prin., 410 Ferree St., Coropolis, 
 Pa., since 1921. 
 
 Werner, Oscar H., Supt. of Sch., A. B. '10, 
 
 Central Wesleyan ; A. M. '12, N. W. 
 
 Univ.; Ph. D. '17, Columbia Univ.; 402 
 S. Bluff, Anthony, Kans., since 1920. 
 
 Wessa, Alice, B. S. '12, Tchrs. Col.; Diploma 
 Columbia Univ. ; Supt. of Sch., Kenil- 
 worth, 111., since 1918. 
 
 West, Henry S., A. B. '93, Ph. D. '99, Johns 
 Hopkins; Supt. of Sch., Sch. Admin. Bldg., 
 Baltimore, Md., since 1920. 
 
 West, Nathaniel G., 223 Warwick Ave., 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 West, Roscoe L., Dir. Elem. Ed., Admin. 
 Bldg., Trenton, N. J. 
 
 Wetherow, E. B., Supt. of Sch., Box 113, 
 La Porte, Ind., since 1922. 
 
 Wheeler, Carlon E., A. B. 'pi, Bates; Supt. 
 of Sch., No. Easton, Mass., since 1918. 
 
 Wheeler, George, B. S. '05, Temple Univ. ; 
 Asso. Supt. of Sch., no E. Gorgas Lane, 
 Philadelphia, Pa., since 1906. 
 
 Wheeler, Ulysses G., A. B. '87, A. M. 'oo, 
 Bates; Supt. of Sch., Newtonville, Mass., 
 since 1914. 
 
 Wheelock, Arthur N., A. M. '81, Univ. of 
 Vermont; Supt. of Sch., Box 569, River- 
 side, Calif., since 1907. 
 
 Wherry, J. Elwood, A. B. '01, A. M. '04, 
 Grove City Col.; Asst. Co. Supt., 209 Va. 
 Ave., Aspinwall, Pa., since ^1916. 
 
 White, Carroll H., B. S. '96, Dartmouth? 
 Supt. of Sch., 25 Richardson St., Barre, 
 Vt., since 1914. 
 
 White, Edna N., A. B. '06, Univ. of 111.; 
 Dir. Merrill Palmer Sch., 71 E. Ferry Ave., 
 Detroit, Mich., since 1920. 
 
 White, F. U., Supt. of Sch., 504 W. Div. St., 
 Galva, 111. 
 
 White, James Asa, A. B. '13, A. M. '14, 
 Univ. of Louisville, Ky. ; Th. M. '14, Th. 
 D. '15, So. Bap. Theo. Sem. ; Pres. Colo. 
 Woman's Col., 17th & Poplar Sts., Den- 
 ver, Colo., since 1923. 
 
 White, Richardson D., A. B. '93, Hampden- 
 Sidney Col.; LL. B. '00, Wash Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Glendale, Calif., since 1913. 
 
 White, Winton J., Supt. of Sch., 82 Knick- 
 erbocker Rd., Englewood, N. J. 
 
 Whitman, George E., B. A. '10, Ohio Wes. 
 Univ.; Dir. of Attend., Census, and Voc. 
 Guid., 421 Rockwell Ave., Cleveland, Ohio, 
 since 1923. 
 
 Whitman, Willard M., A. B. '09, Harvard; 
 Supt. of Sch., Drawer 1035, Marquette, 
 Mich., since 1920. 
 
 Whitmer, J. W., Ph. B. '15, Wooster Col.; 
 Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, Toledo, 
 Ohio, since 1915. 
 
 Whitney, A. S., A. B. '85, Univ. of Mich.; 
 LL. D. '21, Univ. of Syracuse; Dean Sch. 
 of Ed., 930 Church St., Ann Arbor, Mich., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Whitney, Eddy R., A. B. '89, M. S. '93, 
 Hamilton Col.; Supt. of Sch., 106 Glen- 
 wood Blvd., Schenectady, N. Y., since 
 1918. 
 
 Whitney, Fairfield, A. M. '92, Bales Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., 548 Broadway, Everett, 
 Mass., since 1910. 
 
 Whittier, John D., Union Supt. of Sch., So. 
 Hamilton, Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Wiedman, D. E., A. B. '14, Colo. Tchrs. Col., 
 Supt. of Sch., 229 Mason Bldg., Belling- 
 ham, Wash., since 1920. 
 
 Wight, Ambrose B., A. B. '95, M. A. '14 
 Alma; B. Pd. '19, I. S. N. U. ; Asst. Supt. 
 Sch., 400 So. State St., Chicago, 111., 
 since 1919. 
 
 Wilber, H. Z., A. B. '08, Mich. State Nor- 
 mal Col.; A. B. '10, A. M. 'n, Univ. of 
 Mich.; Prof, of Ed., State Normal Col., 
 Ypsilanti, Mich., since 1921. 
 
 Wilde, Arthur Herbert, Ph. D. '01, Harvard; 
 Dean Sch. of Ed., Boston Univ., 125 Fair 
 Oaks Park, Needham, Mass., since 1918. 
 
 Wiley, F. L., A. M. '09, T. C, Columbia 
 Univ.; A. B., B. S. '05, Univ. of Mo.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Cleveland Heights, Ohio, 
 since 1923. 
 
 Wiley, George M., Asst. State Com. of Ed., 
 Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Wilkinson, Thomas G., Supt. of Sch,, Eu- 
 faula, Ala. 
 
 Willard, F. E., Asst. Supt. of Sch., Central 
 Bldg., Seattle, Wash. 
 
 Willard, W. A. L., B. S. '23, Mich. Agr. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., 35 Tolan St., Milan, 
 Mich., since 1923. 
 
 Williams, D. S., Supt. of Sch., Bozeman, 
 Mont. 
 
 Williams, L. E., Supt. of Sch., Rumford, 
 Maine. 
 
 Williams, M. M., Supt. of Sch., 1138 Lin- 
 coln Rd., Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Williams, R. C, Ph. B. '14, Central Col.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Jesup, Iowa, since 1921. 
 
 Williams, R. M., Supt. of Sch., Driver, Va., 
 since 1921. 
 
 Williams, Thomas C, B. S. '15, Va. Mil. 
 Inst.; Co. Supt. of Sch., Box 132, Chester, 
 Va., since 1921. 
 
 Williams, W. C, B. A. '96, Supt. of Sch., 
 City Hall, Greenwood, Miss., since 1920. 
 
 Williamson, Pauline Brooks, B. S. '18, 
 Columbia Univ. ; State Rural Supvr., 
 Health Work, State Dept. of Ed., Rich- 
 mond, Va., since 1922. 
 
 Willingham, Henry J., A. B. '91, A. M. 
 '94, LL. D. 'n, Howard Col.; Pres. State 
 Normal Sch., Florence, Ala., since 1913. 
 
 Willis, H. Brewster, M. A. '17, Univ. of 
 N. J.; Co. Supt. of Sch., Co. Record Bldg., 
 New Brunswick, N. J., since 1887. 
 
 Willis, W. Spader, A. B. '86, Rutger's Univ.; 
 Prin. of State Normal Sch., 217 Belleville 
 Ave., Newark, N. J., since 1911. 
 
 Willman, Edward J., A. B. '18, A. M. '24, 
 Univ. of Mich.; Supt. of Sch., 919 N. 
 Wash. St., Owosso, Mich., since 1921. 
 
420 
 
 Department of Superintendence 
 
 Willsey, Elsie Mae, Ph. B. '13, Univ. of 
 Chicago; Gen. Supt. of Home Economics, 
 Dept. of Ed., San Juan, Porto Rico, since 
 1919. 
 
 Wilmot, Harry L., Asst. Dir. Exten. Dept., 
 State Normal, Indiana, Pa. 
 
 Wilson, Bert, Eureka Col., Eureka, 111. 
 
 Wilson, Charles L., A. B. 'gg, A. M. '07, 
 Marietta Col.; A. M. '17, Columbia Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Kenmawr Ave., Rankin, Pa. 
 
 Wilson, Clara, Co. Supt of Sch., Fairmont, 
 W. Va. 
 
 Wilson, Mrs. E. B., Jefferson, Iowa. 
 
 Wilson, Guy C, i04g S. 10th, East, Salt Lake 
 City, Utah. 
 
 Wilson, Harry Bruce, A. B. '05, Ind. Univ.; 
 M. A. '10, Columbia Univ.; LL. D. '17, 
 Washburn Col.; Supt. of Sch., 2133 All- 
 ston Way, Berkeley, Calif., since igi8. 
 
 Wilson, John R., B. S. '13, Columbia; Supt. 
 of Sch., Paterson, N. J., since 1906. 
 
 Wilson, Lucy L. W., Ph. D. '97, Univ. of Pa.; 
 Prin. So. Phila. H. S., Philadelphia, Pa., 
 since 1916. 
 
 Wilson, Melvin, B. S. '14, M. S. '24, Univ. 
 of Utah; Supt. of Nebo. Sch. Dist., Span- 
 ish Fork, Utah, since 1924. 
 
 Wilson, Otis G., A. B. '07, A. M. '11, W. 
 Va. Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Fairmont, W. 
 Va., since igis. 
 
 Winans, B. A., Supt. of Sch., 230 So. Sixth 
 St., Livingston, Mont. 
 
 Wineland, M. B., Supt. of Sch., nog Second 
 
 St., Juniata, Pa. 
 Winn, G. B., Supt. of Sch., Waxahachie, 
 
 Tex. 
 
 Winship, A. E., Ed. Journal of Ed., 6 
 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Winslow, Issac O., A. B. '78, A. M. '81, 
 Brown Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 9 Exchange 
 Terrace, Providence, R. I., since 1913. 
 
 Winstrom, J. Harry, A. B. '16, Nebr. Univ.; 
 M. A. '23, Iowa State Univ.; Supt. of 
 Sch., Leland Office Bldg., Springfield, 111., 
 since ig23. 
 
 Wirsig, O. A., A. B. '14, Univ. of Nebr., 
 A. M. '24, Columbia Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 
 Kearney, Nebr., since ig2i. 
 
 Wisehart, Roy P., A. B. '10, Ind. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., S3g N. Howard St., Union 
 City, Ind., since ig2o. 
 
 Withers, John W., B. S. 'o, B. A. 'gi, Pd. 
 D. 'g6, Nat. Normal Univ.; M. A. '02, 
 Ph. D. '04, Yale Univ.; LL. D. '17, Wash. 
 Univ.; LL. D. '18, Univ. of Mo.; Dean 
 Sch. of Ed., N. Y. Univ., 51 W. 4th St., 
 New York, N. Y., since 1921. 
 
 Witter, F. L., Supt. of Sch., Burlington, 
 Wis. 
 
 Wolford, C. H., Supt. of Sch., 118 Library 
 PL, Duquesne, Pa. 
 
 Womack, J. P., B. A. '03, Univ. of Ark.; 
 M. A. '18, Geo. Peabody Col.; Supt. of 
 Sch., 610 W. Matthews, Jonesboro, Ark., 
 since 1917 
 
 Wood, James M., Pres. Stephens Col., Co- 
 lumbia, Mo. 
 
 Wood, Oscar S., A. B. '20, Mich. Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Aberdeen, S. D., since 1923. 
 
 Wood, W. A., B. S. '15, Kans. State Tchrs. 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., Pratt, Kans., since 
 1919. 
 
 Wood, Will C, A. M. 'ig, Univ. of So. 
 Calif.; State Supt. of Pub. Instr., Mull 
 Bldg., Sacramento, Calif., since 1919. 
 
 Woodruff, Caroline S., Prin. State Normal 
 Tr. Sch., Castleton, Vt., since ig2o. 
 
 Woodward, E. J., Supt. of Sch., 506 E. 2nd 
 St., Burkburnett, Tex. 
 
 Woodward, H. M., 531 N. 2nd, East, Provo, 
 Utah. 
 
 Woodward, H. R., B. A. '16, Dakota Wes. 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., 205 Connor St., Hot 
 Springs, S. D., since ig22. 
 
 Woolson, Frank S., Supvg. Prin., 118 
 Eighth Ave., Haddon Heights, N. J. 
 
 Woolston, Robert W., Dir. 111. Sch. for the 
 Blind, Jacksonville, 111. 
 
 Worthington, J. E., Prin. High Sch., 301 S. 
 Grand, Waukesha, Wis. 
 
 Worthman, M. F., Supt. of Sch., Decatur, 
 Ind. 
 
 Wright, Arthur Davis, A. B., A. M. '04, Col. 
 of Wm. & Mary; Ed. M. '22, Harvard; 
 Hd. Dept. of Ed., Dartmouth Col., 104 
 Bartlett Hall, Hanover, N. H., since 1921. 
 
 Wright, Clark G., Supt. of Dist. 108, 542 So. 
 Linden Ave., Highland Park, 111., since 
 igi4- 
 
 Wright, Isaac Miles, B. S. '04, Alfred Univ.; 
 Pd. M. '14, Pd. D. '16, N. Y. Univ.; Dir. 
 Sch. of Ed., Muhlenberg Col., 240 No. St. 
 Cloud St., Allentown, Pa., since 1917. 
 
 Wright, Robt. H., Pres. E. Car. Tehrs. Col., 
 9 Greenville, N. C. 
 
 Wright, Wendell W., Arsenal Tech. Schools, 
 Indianapolis, Ind., since 19 ig. 
 
 Wyandt, Jacob W., Supt. of Sch., 20 S. 
 Beech St., Bryan, Ohio. 
 
 Wyland, Mary Jane, Ph. B. '05, Grinnell 
 Col. ; Supt. of Sch., Harlan, Iowa, since 
 1916. 
 
 Wyman, Elwood T., B. A. '90, Colby; Supt. 
 of Sch., Warwick, R. I., since 1921; P. O. 
 Apponaug, R. I. 
 
 Yape, D. S., Supt. of Sch., Republic, Mich. 
 
 Yarbrough, T. W., A. B. '90, Emory Col.; 
 Supt. of Pub. Inst., Sarasota, Fla., since 
 1921. 
 
 Yawberg, A. G., Co. Supt. of Sch., Old 
 Court House, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Yoakam, G. A., 6361 Monitor St., E. E., 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Yoder, J. J., Supt. of Sch., 606 N. nth St., 
 Marysville, Kans. 
 
 York, Ada, Co. Supt. of Sch., Court House, 
 San Diego, Calif. 
 
 Yost, E. W., Co. Sch. Com., Co. Bldg., 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Young, Dale S., B. S. '16, Hedding Col.; 
 M. S. '17, Univ. of 111.; 504 W. Drive 
 W. P., Indianapolis, Ind., since 1919. 
 
The Third Yearbook 
 
 421 
 
 Young, Leonard, A. B. '98, Univ. of Ind. ; 
 Supt. of Sch., 226 N. First Ave., East, 
 Duluth, Minn., since 1923. 
 
 Young, Nathan B., A. B. '88, A. M. '91, 
 Oberlin Col.; Litt. D. '15, Talladega Col.; 
 LL. D., '23, Selma Univ.; Pres. Lincoln 
 Univ. of Mo., Jefferson City, Mo., since 
 1923. 
 
 Young, Oliver O., Prin. H. S., Galesburg, 
 111. 
 
 Young, Ross N., A. B. '12, Upper Iowa 
 Univ.; Supt. of Sch., Stillwater, Minn., 
 since 1922. 
 
 Young, T. T., A. B. '78, Harvard Univ.; 
 Supt. of Dist. Sch. 7, 117 Elm St., Saco, 
 Maine, since 1909. 
 
 Young, Walter S., B. S. 'oi, Dartmouth 
 Col.; Supt. of Sch., City Hall, Room 14, 
 Worcester, Mass., since 1923. 
 
 Zeliff, L. A., Supt. of Sch., Stanberry, Mo. 
 
 Zener, Virgil C, A. B. '10, Univ. of Mich.; 
 M. A. '18, Albright Col.; Prof, of Ed., 
 Albright Col., 19 Behney Ave., Myers- 
 town, Pa., since 1916! 
 
 Ziegler, L. E., A. B. '18, Mo. State Univ.; 
 Supt. of Sch., Maryville, Mo., since 1920. 
 
 Zimmerman, J. C, Supt. of Sch., Castalio, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Zimmers, P. J., M. A. '17, Univ. of Wis.; 
 M. A. '24, Columbia Univ. ; International 
 House, Riverside Drive at 124th St., New 
 York City. 
 
 Zmrhal, J. J., Dist. Supt. of Sch., 4301 W. 
 Cullerton St., Chicago, 111. 
 
 University of Calif. Library, Berkeley, Calif. 
 Col. of Ed., Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 
 
 Kellogg Library, Kans. State Tchrs. Col., 
 Emporia, Kans. 
 
 State Normal, Willimantic, Conn. 
 
 Indianapolis Pub. Library, Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Library Dept., State Normal Col., Natchi- 
 toches, La. 
 
 College of Education, Univ. of Ark., Fayette- 
 ville, Ark. 
 
 Lewiston State Normal School, Lewiston, 
 Idaho. 
 
 Washington State Normal School, Ellens- 
 burg, Wash. 
 
 New York State Library, Univ. of the State 
 of N. Y., Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Library, East Central State Tchrs. Col., Ada, 
 
 Okla. 
 
Index 
 
 SUBJECT INDEX TO AUTHORS OF RESEARCH STUDIES 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 Adams, H. W 
 
 Arps, George F 
 
 Ballard, P. B 
 
 Banting, G. O 
 
 Beach, Leander 
 
 Beatty, W. W 
 
 Breed, F. S 
 
 Camerer, Alice 
 
 Charters, W. W 
 
 Chase, Sara E 
 
 Clapp, Frank L 
 
 Coffman, L. D 
 
 Connard, H. F 
 
 Davies, G. R 
 
 Gallaway, Mrs. T. T 
 
 Gaylord, Harry D 
 
 Gray, P. L 
 
 Hackler, John Monroe 
 
 Hansen, Einar A 
 
 Hanus, Paul H 
 
 Heilman, J. D 
 
 Holloway, Harry Vance 
 
 Huff aker, Carl Leo 
 
 Hunkins, R. V 
 
 Jessup, W. A 
 
 Johnson, T. J 
 
 Knight, F. B 39, 
 
 McClelland, William W 
 
 Mead, C. D 96 : 
 
 Mitchell, H. Edwin 
 
 Moore, Ernest C 
 
 Myers, G. C 94 
 
 Newcomb, R. S 
 
 Noon, Philo G 
 
 Osburn, W. J 99 
 
 Sears, Isabel 96 
 
 Setzafandt, A. O. H...., 
 
 Shultis, Frank W 
 
 Smith, Nila B 
 
 Stevenson, P. R 
 
 Stone, John C 
 
 Taylor, Joseph S 
 
 Uhl, W. L 
 
 Williams, L. W 
 
 Wilson, Guy M 42 
 
 Winch, W. H 
 
 Wise, Carl T 
 
 Woody, Clifford 50, 52 
 
 SPELLING 
 
 Page , . Page 
 
 61 Andersen, W. N 118 
 
 98 Ayres, L. P 112, 117 
 
 96 Barthelmess, Harriet M 136 
 
 92 Bauer, Nicholas 135 
 
 53 Byrne, Mary B. C 150 
 
 97 Capps, A. G 141 
 
 93 Cesander, P. K 143 
 
 57 Chancellor, W. E Ill 
 
 •55 Clarke, W. F 122 
 
 44 Cook, W. A 115 
 
 104 Crowder, Cora 124 
 
 43 Curtis, Ethel 127 
 
 98 Dewey, Godfrey 144 
 
 91 Graham, L. J 145 
 
 59 Henmon, V. A. C 149 
 
 46 Horn, Ernest 123, 127, 145 
 
 96 Houser, J. D 121 
 
 38 Jones, F. W 135 
 
 56 Kaeding, F. W 147 
 
 46 Kansas City Schools 137 
 
 103 Lester, John A 142 
 
 102 McKee, Grace M 140 
 
 101 Nicholson, Anne 114 
 
 93 O'Shea, M. V '. 115 
 
 43 Phares, Mary L 146 
 
 97 Pressey, Luella C 151 
 
 100 Pryor, H. C 120 
 
 97 Studley, C. K 114 
 
 98 Thorndike, E. L...., 144 
 
 48 Tidyman, W. F 138 
 
 55 Ware, Allison 114 
 
 99 Warning, Winifred C 126 
 
 92 Yocum, A. D 150 
 
 50 
 
 104 READING 
 
 98 Abbott, Allan 178 
 
 100 Anderson, C. J 162, 197, 199, 200 
 
 103 Ayer, Fred C 202 
 
 60 Beatty, W. W 190 
 
 93 Bobbitt, Franklin 173 
 
 94 Boggs, Lucinda 188 
 
 37 Brown, Ethel M 181 
 
 99 Brown, H. A 165 
 
 58 Buswell, Guy T 155, 157, 158, 159, 
 
 47 163, 188, 189, 191, 193, 198 
 97 Carswell, Marion 190 
 
 49 Cattell, J. McK 187, 188 
 
 , 53 Cavins, L. V ' 177 
 
 [422] 
 
Page 
 
 Courtis, S. A 163, 194 
 
 Currier, L. B 191 
 
 Dearborn, W. A 187 
 
 Dickson, Virgil E 194, 197 
 
 Ducker, Mabel L 191, 192 
 
 Duguid, O. C 191 
 
 Dunn, Fannie W 165, 166, 172 
 
 Fernald, Grace M 190,200 
 
 Ferris, E 201 
 
 Garnett, Wilma Leslie 176 
 
 Gates, Arthur 1 162,189,193, 
 
 194, 195, 200 
 
 Geiger, Ruth 162,197, 199 
 
 Gilliland, A. R 187 
 
 Gray, C. T 158, 159, 187, 189, 
 
 197, 199, 200 
 
 Gray, WilliamS... 153, 154, 155, 156,157, 
 
 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 173, 187, 188, 
 
 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203 
 
 Greene, H. A ..'.'. 190 
 
 Gregory, A. C 182 
 
 Hawley, W. E 163 
 
 Heller, Reginia R 190 
 
 Herriott, M. E 168 
 
 Hollingworth, L. S 200 
 
 Holmes, H. E 201 
 
 Hoover, J. H 190 
 
 Horn, Ernest 188, 189 
 
 Hosic, James F 177, 189 
 
 Housh, E. T 181 
 
 Huey, E. B 159,187, 188 
 
 Jaycox, E 191, 192 
 
 Jordan, Arthur M.... 165,166,171, 176 
 
 Judd, Charles H.. .155, 156, 159, 161, 163, 
 
 164, 187, 188, 189, 191, 193, 195, 196 
 
 Keener, E. E 194, 197 
 
 Keller, Helen B 190, 200 
 
 Kibbe, Delia 200 
 
 Kirk, H. H 202 
 
 Leland, Bernice 162 
 
 Lively, Bertha A 185 
 
 Lloyd, S. M 200 
 
 Lucas, Laura ■ ■ • 200 
 
 Lyman, Rollo L 177 
 
 McGaughey, J. R 204 
 
 McGrath, Jane 156 
 
 McLaughlin, Katherine 187 
 
 McLeod, L. S 168 
 
 Mackintosh, Helen K 176 
 
 Merton, Elda L.. . 162, 190, 197, 199, 200 
 
 Midler, L. W 200 
 
 O'Brien, J. A 158, 159, 161 
 
 Osburn, W. J 191, 193, 197, 201 
 
 Packer, J. L 180 
 
 Paisons, R. B 154 
 
 Pendleton, S. C 154 
 
 Pressey, L. C 183 
 
 Page 
 
 Pressey, S. L 185 
 
 Reinoehl, Charles M 153, 203 
 
 Rugg, Harold 200 
 
 Schmidt, W. A 157, 158 
 
 Schmitt, Clara 187 
 
 Selke, Erich 179 
 
 Selka, G. A 179 
 
 Starch, Daniel 167 
 
 Stone, R. E 168 
 
 Theisen, W. W.. . 162, 164, 189, 194, 195, 
 
 196, 197, 198, 201 
 Thorndike, E. L.. . 186, 187, 193, 197, 201 
 
 Trabue, M. R 178 
 
 Uhl, W. L 162,165,166,169, 
 
 173, 195, 197, 199 
 
 Van Alstyne, D 189 
 
 Vinal, William G 167 
 
 Vogel, M. 191, 192 
 
 Waldman, Bessie 197, 199 
 
 Washburne, Carlton W 191, 192 
 
 Wooley, Helen T 201 
 
 Zirbes, Laura 165, 190, 195, 196, 197, 
 
 198, 199,200, 201 
 
 HANDWRITING 
 
 Ely, Myrtle 214 
 
 Freeman, Frank N 206 
 
 Houston, Harry 212 
 
 Koos, Leonard V. * 209 
 
 Savage, J. A 212 
 
 Smith, Florence M 214 
 
 Walker, H. C 213, 214 
 
 SOCIAL STUDIES 
 
 Alderman, Grover H 265 
 
 Bagley, William C 217, 235, 243, 255 
 
 Bassett, B. B 228 
 
 Bobbitt, Franklin 273 
 
 Branom, M. E 263 
 
 Breeze, Retha E 227 
 
 Charters, W. W 239 
 
 Cocking, Walter Dewey 225 
 
 Davis, Maude Bennett 231 
 
 Goss, Ralph Ross 266 
 
 Harap, Henry 269 
 
 Hockett, John 233 
 
 Horn, Ernest 240, 275 
 
 Marston, L. R 243 
 
 McKown, H. C 243 
 
 Peters, Charles C 253 
 
 Reavis, W. C 263 
 
 Rugg, Earle 217, 256 
 
 Rugg, Harold O.. .217, 221, 226, 233, 255 
 
 Sharon, J. A 233 
 
 Swisher, J. A 246 
 
 Thomas, Joel Bert 250 
 
 [423] 
 
Page 
 
 Washburne, Carleton W 251 
 
 Whitbeck, R. H 261 
 
 Wooters, James E 262 
 
 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
 
 Bobbitt, Franklin 289 
 
 Johnson, Roy Ivan 294 
 
 Pendleton, Charles S 286 
 
 Searson, J. W 285 
 
 Sunne, Dagny 294 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 Ayer, Fred C. 300 
 
 Caldwell, Otis W 301 
 
 Downing, Elliot R 299 
 
 Finley, Charles W 301 
 
 Mau, Laura E 298 
 
 Meier, W. H 302 
 
 Patterson, Alice J 300 
 
 Trafton, Gilbert H : . . 299 
 
 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL 
 EDUCATION 
 
 Atkinson, Ruth V 313 
 
 Brace, David K . 313 
 
 Davis, Walter W 305 
 
 Hunt, Jean Lee 304 
 
 Johnson, Buford J 304 
 
 Judelsohn, Samuel J 313 
 
 Kalamazoo Public Schools 306 
 
 Lincoln, Edith M 304 
 
 McCloy, C. H 313 
 
 Payne, E. George 308, 310 
 
 Post, L. M 312 
 
 Reesor, Mary 304 
 
 Reilly, Frederick J 312 
 
 Strang, Ruth 310 
 
 Williams, Jesse F 313 
 
 Wood, Thomas D 304 
 
 HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 Fulton, Lucy 324 
 
 Harap, Henry 324 
 
 Miller, Ethelwyn 320 
 
 Robertson, Annie L 325 
 
 Roman, Mata 324 
 
 Rose, Mary Swartz 327 
 
 Trilling, Mabel Barbara 320, 321 
 
 Williams, Florence 322 
 
 Winchell, Florence E 323 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Edgerton, Alonson H 330 
 
 Kent, Ernest B 329 
 
 Harap, Henry 334 
 
 N. E. A. Department of Superin- 
 tendence 332 
 
 ART EDUCATION 
 
 Page 
 
 Ayer, Fred C 3 52 
 
 Bach, R. F 3 52 
 
 Bailey, Henry Turner 352 
 
 Barnes, Earl 352 
 
 Beard, Florence 352 
 
 Bennett, C. A 352 
 
 Boas, Belle 352 
 
 Bonser, Frederick G 3 52, 3 53 
 
 Brown, Elmer Ellsworth 3 52 
 
 Bureau of Education 352 
 
 Carey, Gertrude L 341, 353 
 
 Clark, A. B 352 
 
 Cooke, Ebenezer 352 
 
 De Garmo, Charles 352 
 
 Dewey, John 3 52 
 
 Dobbs, Ella Victoria 352 
 
 Dow, Arthur W 3 52 
 
 Edgerton, A. H 352 
 
 Farnum, Royal Bailey 352 
 
 Gibson, Katherine 347, 3 52 
 
 Haney, James Parton 3 52 
 
 Howells, W. D 3 53 
 
 Kline, Linus W 341, 353 
 
 Lukens, H. T 340, 353 
 
 Major, David R 353 
 
 Manuel, Herschel Thurman.. 345, 353 
 
 Mathias, Margaret E 353 
 
 McCarty, Stella A 342,353 
 
 Miller, Elizabeth E 341, 353 
 
 Mossman, L. C " 3 52 
 
 Niles, Helen R 353 
 
 O'Shea, M. V 353 
 
 Riker, Olive M 349, 353 
 
 Russell, James E 353 
 
 Sargent, Walter 341, 353 
 
 Stewart, Lillian V 350, 353 
 
 Thorndike, Edward L 341, 353 
 
 Welling, Jane Betsy 353 
 
 Whitford, W. J 353 
 
 Williams, Florence 344, 353 
 
 Winslow, Leon L 3 52, 3 53 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 Bobbitt, Franklin 364 
 
 DeGraff, Mrs. L. H 360 
 
 Glass, J. M 363 
 
 Klauer, Naomi 359 
 
 Kwalwasser, J 360 
 
 Pannenborg 358 
 
 Revesz 357, 358 
 
 Schoen, Max 357 
 
 Schiissler 358 
 
 Seashore, C. E , 355 
 
 Trabue, M. R 362 
 
 Windhorst, Estelle 364 
 
 [424] 
 
 1L C 
 
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 7 5 
 
University of 
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