13 « ■/ '? ■ Cfo UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Bureau of Agricultural Economics I ^ UNIV OF FL LIB — U.S. DEPOSITORY UTILIZATION OF COTTON AND OTHER MATERIALS IN CORDAGE AND TWINE By Robert B. Evans, Assistant Agricultural Economist and R. J. Cheatham, Principal Cotton Technologist Washington, D. C. November 1940 This report is the twenty- fourth of a series by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics relating to the utilization of American cotton. Those issued are: A Partial List of Uses of imericaii 'Rav Cotton Cotton Bags in the Wholesale Grocery Trade (Out of prinb. See sixth publication listed) Farm Uses for Cotton and Its Products Cotton Barging for Cotton Domestic Kill Consumption of American Cotton by Grades and Staples Cotton Bags and Other Containers in the Mholessle Grocery Trade Cotton Bags in the Fertilizer Industry Quality of the Cotton Spun in the United States (Year ending July 31, 1928) . The Use of Cotton Bags as Consumer Packages for Potatoes Cotton Consumption in Pov;er Laundries of the United States, 1928 Cotton Picking Sacks, Cotton Picking Sheets, and Tarpaulins Used on Cotton Farms of the United States Staple Length of Foreign-C-roiyn Cotton Consumed in the United States, 1928-1931 Use of Cotton Bags and Other Containers in Flour Mills of the United States - 1931 Comparative Advantages of Jute and Cotton Bagging for American Cotton Bales Use of Cotton Bags and Other Containers in Flour 1 ills of the ■ United States - 1932 Effect of Certain Bale Covers on the Spinning Behavior of Cotton Cotton Fabrics for Bituminous-Surfaced Reads Cotton and Other Materials Utilized in Brgs for Cement Cotton Utilized in Combed Marquisette Cotton Used in Tire Fabrics Cotton Bags and Other Containers in Flour ''ills of the United States, Years Ended June 30, 1933 and 1934 Utilization of Cotton and Other Materials in Fertilizer Bafrs Cotton Fags and Other Containers in Flour "Mills of the United Strtes, Years Ended June 30, 1933 and 1934 Utilization of Cctton and Other Materials in Cordage and Tudne The studies reported in this series are a part of a program of research of the United Stages Department of Agriculture and cooperating agencies en the utilization of American cotton. - 2 - CONTENTS Pag< PRODUCTION 3 History of Cordage and Twine 4 Material r: Used in Cordage and Tv.inc 7 Th ifacturing Pro cogs 11 CORDAGE A PRODUCTS *ND TT SE? 12 Cordage Products 13 Binder Twine 15 Twine 0t ; Bind* r Twine 16 TRENDS IN PRODUCT! I USE (P CORDAGE AND TWIN! 20 Cordage and Twine Other Than Binder Twine 20 Binder Twine 25 COTTON TWINE AND CORDAGTi ' , ITORS INFL1 rSE . . . 28 Cotton Twines for Tving Pac s 29 Cotton Twines f or Fishing . . . . 36 Sevang and Other Cotton Twines 33 Cotton Cordage 59 UTILIZATION OF COTTON IN CORE D TWINE 41 Quantity and Grade of Cotton Used 41 Trends in Consumption of Cotton in Cordage ana . . 43 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 46 - 3 - UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI CULTURE Bureau of Agricultural Economics UTILIZATION OF COTTOh AiTO OTHER MATERIALS T; CORDAGE AND TMNE By Robert B. Evans, Assistant Agricultural Economist and R. J. Cheatham, Principal Cotton Technologist 1/ 2/ INTRODUCTION The demand for American cotton is a reflection of the demand for the thousands of products into which it is manufactured. Consequently, a thorough understanding of this demard involves a know] edge of the raw- material requirements of these products and of the economic and technological factors affecting their use. In order to secure a fund of information on this subject, the Bureau of Agricultural Economics has made a series of studies analyzing certain uses and groups of uses of cotton. The present study has three principal aimt : (l) To determine the quantity of cotton and other fibers used in cordage and twine ; (2) to obtain quantitative information on the grade and staple of lint cotton and on bhe types of cotton waste used in cotton cordage and twine; and (3) to determine the major factors affecting the use ol cotton for this purpose. • Utilization of cotton in cordage and twine is of particular interest because cotton ie here used :.s a cord rather than a.s a fabric. On the ba^is of cencu- data, it is estimated that roughly throe-fourths of the total quanti by of cotton consumed in the United 1 States is made into the various types of cotton woven goods more than 12 inches in width. Another 12 percent, rpproxj mately, is made into other kinds of fabric, chiefly knit geode, or is mixed with other fibers in rayon, silk, and woolen goods. Of the nonfabric uses, thread, twine, and cordage require less than 5 percent of the total cotton used, twine and cordage together requiring about 3 percent. The remaining 8 percent is used chiefly in battings, waddings, and mattress felts, end similar uses, and consists largely of cotton waste removed during processing of other products. 1/ Acknowledgment is rriade of the assistance rendered by various cordage and twine manufacturers and by the Cordage Institute, These cooperation made possible the completion of this survey and report. Acknowledgment also is made of the assistance given by certain staff members of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the T >. S. Tariff Commission. 2/ Formerly members of the Bureau of. Agricultural Economics, now members of . the Southern Regional Research Laboratory, Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering. - Although th quantity of cotton used in cordage and \ is small as compared with tin size of the cotton , it is relatively large us compared with quantities c d in most of the individual uses cf cotton _uid also as corpared with quantities of other fibers usod in cordage and twine. There are swne 1,500 plunts fr on which fibrous substances nay be aco it not r.ore than 25 arc usod commercially in the manufacture of textiles and cordage* Principal fibers used in the manufacture of cordage and twine in this country number 11; namely, siscl, horcquen, abaca 1 (Manila fiber), phormium (Now Zealand fiber), istle (Tampico fiber), cantala (maguey), Mauritius hemp (pit'-ra), jut , • , flax, and cotton. Paper, although not a fib^r, also is used in the manufacture of twine. Although cotton is not considered a " fiber" in the sv • certain other fibers like hemp, it is used in the United States in greater quantities in the manufacture of fcwi • cordt : mbined than ■ other fib< r except henequen. In 1937, estimated consumption of cotton in twine and cordage aggregated 118 Trillion pounds, the eq ivalent f approximately 248, 00" - 'ight boles. Information used in this report was derived in part fror a questionnaire sent to manufacturers, in which ii was requested on cotton utilization in cordage end twine. Replies ".ore obtainec 54 nanuf^.cturcrs, representing 65 percent of th: total cotton twine production and 32 percei bhc total cotton cordage production in 1957. Additional infonr 1 I a 1 derived from the Census of facturcs ^nd rr f various ether official i trad: s:urof r. ry of Cordage „rd -T'-.ir'- The act cf combining two or more coi weak filatel elements, through twisting, into a a >mparativ< ly strong yarn, cord, or thread, may be safely reckoned as one of the first technical achieve- ments cf i .... 'very civilization yot discovered, no natter elemental, has t n proficient in t as practice. The idee, of cordage is so universal that it might well " had multiple erigirs, the idea occurring to many nor. in many parts of the world, separated by great reaches of tine. _/ Primitive poop] rally had access only to th rials at hand for cordage purposes; and, as c result, alrost every conceivable material, both animal and v bio, was use! for this purpose in dif- ferent p.rts of the world. Cotton, for e: , is known to hav. bocii usod for cordage by both th« abora s of the southwestern States jy and by th p] f 1 La Jy befor our | civilisation. _?/ Crawford, M. D. C. , " rii of Co Fibr f Two Worlds and of Many Agos. •4/ Jones, Volnoy H. , A Summary of Data on Aboriginal Cottor. in the Southwest. University Bulletin, Symposium or. Prehistoric Agriculture, October 15, 1936, p. 51. 5/ Royle, J. F. , The Fibrous Plants cf India Fitted for Cordage, Clothing, and Paper, 1855, p. ?. - . 5 - With the gradual increase in trade bctwoon countries, certain fibers gained prominence as being particularly suitable for cordage purposes. Until the last century, the nest important of these was true- hemp. Henp was used in cordage on the ships of Syracuse in 200 B. C. and, according to Pliny, was in common use for the; same purpose among the Romans of the first century. _^ Flax also was used for cordage in ancient and midieval tines but its use for this purooso was comparatively limited as compared with its utilization in woven fabrics. Although jute had long been used in India for cordage and other purposes, it did not become popular in other countries until about 1830, when improvements in spinning machinery made possible its processing on a commercial sc^lo. Abaca' or Manila fiber also was introduced to com- merce about the sane time, coning into widespread use a few years later as the result of the stoppage of Russian hemp supplies during the Crimean War. Other fibers now used in the manufacture of cordage and twine were also introduced into world trade during the nineteenth cen- tury, no now materials having been made available in commercial quantities since 1900..Z/ In the United States, the commercial production if cordage began with the establishing of a ropewalk in Boston in 1642. z/' By 1792, rope- walks wore in operation in all >f the Now England States, as well as in New York, Philadelphia, Maryland, and Virginia. _/ The development of the American merchant marine between the American Revolution and the Civil War provided the impetus for a continued expansion of this industrv. Beforo 1830, rope manufacturing was done by hand. Twisting of the fibers was accomplished by a nan walking backward down the "walk," spinning from, the fiber which was strung about his waist. The twist was imparted to the rope by a wheel, which was at first turned by hand but was later actuated by horse or water power. Soon after 1830 the 'modern fact )ry system began to replace these: methods of making rope and the necessary twist was imparted by rapidly rotating machinery. Inven- tion of the self-binding harvester and the subsequent demand for binder twine opened a large new market for the cordage industry after 1875.-^/ In addition, demands for other types of twine and cordage- from domestic agriculture and industry increased greatly. Generally speaking, cotton cordage and twine have been manufac- tured in separate -mills from those manufacturing cordage and twine from other fibers, owing to differences in the machinery required for spinning yarns. Little is known in regard to how long cotton cordage and twine 6/ Woodheuse, T. , and Kilgour, P., Cordage and Cordage Hemp and Fibres, London, 1919, p. 3.' l/ Oakley, F. I., Long Vegetable Fibers, London, 1928, Introduction. 8/ American Encyclopedia. Article on cordage. 9/ These Ropcmakers Helped Start Fight for Independence in ; 76. Cordage Mag., October 1938, p. 24. IO/ American Encyclopedia. Article on Cordage. - have b^cn manufactured and used in this country, but it is thought that the;'- woro'first imp »rted from England i .r use principally o-iling ssels. C twinos for tyi • s ire said to havo originated as an adaptati< a new uc. f r ;-■ "read;- being manufactured for oarpet weaving and for sewing sails. Several , stablishiaents manufactur- ing seine twine, which is used largely f f r fishing purposes, beggj r - tions more than one 1 • irs ugo s i.t/ anc 1 nets were t : fr - I mestically pr iuc d twines after about 1844.2.-/ Before 1900 the great proportion of cotton twine used f r tying purposes in this errantry " r as of 5, 4, and 5-ply, r the sizes atost >tage pur pound. The introduction of polished coti Ire in 1895 and the appearance on the market ei' heavier ply cotton twinrs about the same tr e, have resulted in cotton twines being used for purposes for which only jute, hemp, and flax twines formerly available. This change, with the accompanying increase in commercial and industrial activity since 1900, has resulted in a tremend us increase in the use of cotton twines. Efforts have been made fro 1 "! tine tc time to standardize specifi- cations and to eliminate unnecessary varieties of cordage qj twine under the Simpliod Practice Program of the National Bureau ef Standards, us a result, recommendations • r tod between 1928 and 1932 which provided standardized specifications for hard- fib or twines, jute twines, flax and hemp twines, and polished cotton twines.i^ In the case of polished cotton twines an elimination of approximately 75 percent cf the nun.be r of c >nstructions was effected, ^is yet there are no standardized specifications for the various types cf cordage or for unpolished cotton twines. Production of cotton twirc and cordage is concentrated at present in the States of Georgia, North Carolina, Nci rsey, Maryland, Texas, and Tennessee, with smaller amounts produced elsewhere. J st of the plants manufacturing twine and c r ■ from fibers other than cott are located in the States ' v Y rk, Massachusetts, Pennsylvanii , T.cvr Jersey, end Ohio, but ther n o fov/ plants elsewhere, including a scattering of prison binder- factories in th Iliddl \ st. In general, twi] i I cordage lante 'om 11 manufacturing processes require:! to transform the raw fiber int : the finished product. However, some cotton twine and cor plants manufacture their product frori purchased yarns, particular] • ills prodi a jialti r. 11/ Compiled from infer-, i n in Davison's Cord , Twine and Duck Tro.de, 1958, Davison Publishing Company, Ridgewo , "". J. 12/ Encyclopedia Britannica. i.rticlo on nets. 13/ United States Department 'of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Washington. Simplified Practice Recommendations R92-28, R110-29, R124-31, R136-32. - 7 Materials Used in Cordage and Twi n c With the exception of cctt. n and minor quantities of flax and hemp, all fibers used in this country in the manufacture of cordage and twine arc imported. These fibers originate in a number of different countries and under a variety of natural environments. Their use in the various types of twine and cordage is controlled both by their physical adaptability to specified requirements arid by the comparative cost at which they arc available. Fibers used for twine and cordage, other than cotton, may be divided into two groups: (l) Hard or "leaf" fibers which are derived from the tissues of leaves and leaf stems of plants and (2) soft or "bast" fibers which are derived from the bast tissues of plant stems. Hard fibers used extensively include henequen, sisal, abaca* (Manila hemp), istle, cantala (maguey), and phormium (hew Zealand fiber). Soft fibers include .jute, hemp, and flax. Although cotton is a seed fiber it is grouped for statistical purposes with the soft fibers in this report. Henequen . - In point . f quantity, henequen fiber is the most extensively used fiber in twine and cordage manufacture in this country, owing to the large amounts used in the manufacture of binder twine. Eenoquon consists of strands of fiber from 3 to 5 feet long, of a nearly white or yellowish white color, which arc derived from the leaves of the henequen plant (Agave fouroroydes )* It is a strong, coarse fiber which is harder than sisal or abaca'. Production of henequen is largely restricted to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, and to Cuba, although small quantities are produced in Salvador and in other areas in Mexico. About two- third o of the Mexican production is exported to the United States. 14/ Besides being used for binder twine, it is used in small ropes, wrapping twines, and in bags. S isal .- Closely allied with henequen in structure and use is sisal, a fiber derived from the sisal plant (Agave sisalana). This fiber is softer, less woody in texture, and lighter in color than henequen, and usually commands a higher price. Its principal use in the United States is in wrapping twines, but it also is used to a vary- ing extent in binder twine and small ropes. In addition to cordage and twine uses, it is used to some extent, either in this country or else- where, in floor coverings, paddings for upholstery and mattresses, plaster board, bags, paper, and so forth. The most important si sal -producing countries are British East Africa and the Dutch East Indies, but quantities also are produced in other sections of Africa and in Haiti. Sisal production has increased more than eightfold since 1920, in marked c ntrast to production of henequen which has renained approximately stationary. 14/ Average 1935-37. - 8 - Table 1.- Av r annual pr f dosigrated fibers in th<- Y/or in th Unit id States ai ' rid .- iuotion consum< ". i.. tin Jhitcd States, 1954-38. Fiber \ World 'pr< ducti( n Stetcs uctj on Cor Ur .sumed ited S e Total : Pcrc ::• rid production : Million pcurds 225 507 382 70 4/ 1,184 ilillioxi p: u. . .'. -licr pounds Perec " Hard fibsrs: 159 147 88 21 71 29 23 Other hard i 'ib^rs . ! 30 Total . . 415 35 Soft fibers: Cott )• . . . 14,200 3,924 1,713 G19 6,077 1 1 3,090 111 :i 3 22 ?0 Flax ■ . ? 6/ 20.. 65 3 6,07S 3,911 19 1/ Compiled f r n official publications, reports of International Institute of Agriculture, aiic 1 from annua] reviews of VJigglosworth & Company, Ltd. 2/ Compiled from "Cotton Production end Distribution" and from records of the Bureau Df Plant Industry. _3y As follows: Cotton, mill consumption; abaca 1 , "other h r fibers," and hemp, quantities f raw fiber made available for conr L nj sisal, hencquen, jute, and flax, quantities of re Lcturec fiber "iadc available for consumption. 4/ Includes phormium, Philippine cantalt (maguey), Mauritius hemp, 1 istle. hj Includes phormium, maguey, istlc. 6/ Less than 0.5 percent. ■ - 1 «. Ab a c a ' or I Ian i 1 a fib c r s i ftcn tor. cd the best cordage fiber because it is longer, stronger, lor urab! tl the other hard fibers. Best grades of this fiber are of a light buff, lustrous colrr, an' 1 consist of fine, even strands 6 to 12 feet long. The fiber is stripped from th ' rlappinp leaf stems which form the stock of the abaca' plant (Musa toxtilis ), a type of banana or plantain rlor.t, the yield of fiber o. grc L: only about 1-1/2 percent to 2 percent of the 'ht of thi • iterial. Abaca' is cultivated in the Philippine Islands and to a limited extent in Sumatra and Borneo. In additi , small qu entities new are being produoed experimentally in Panama. The United States purohases 20 percent t ■> 27 percent of the abaca' produced - 9 - in the- Philippines, chiofly of the highor grades. Abaca 1 is reparoled as the most satisfactory material known for making ships' ropes, hoist- ing ropes, and transmission ropes. It is ■use 1 in the manufacture of wrapping twines and paper, end has been used in the past in the manu- facture of binder twine. Other hard fibers.- Cantala (maguey), from the leaves of the contala plant ( Agave cantala ), cultivated in the Philippine Island and in Java; phormium (New Zealand fiber), from the leases of the harahekc lily ( Phorni um tonax ) growing both wild ond cultivated in New Zealand and under cultivation at St. Helena; Mauritius hemp, from the leaves of the pitcra plant (Furcraca gigantca ) on the Island of Mauritius; and istle or Tampico fiber, extracted " from the leaves ">f several species of Mexican plants which are s jmewhat similar tc the- henequen plant, are other hard fibers used in the manufacture of cordage and twine. They are used for this purpose in limited quantities only, usually nixed with other hard fibers, or with jute, and their consumption varies con- siderably from year to year with cost end availability of other fibers. Soft fibers.- In comparison with hard fibers, soft fibers col- lectively occupy a less important position in the manufacture of twine and cordage in the United States, only about 20 percent of the cordage and 3b' percent of the twine (including binder twine) being made from these materials. With the exception of hemp, utilization cf these fibers in cordage and twine is secondary importance as compared with their utilization in textiles. Table 2.- Estimated consumption of designated fibers in the manu- facture of twine and cordage ir the United States during 1935 and 1037. l/ Fiber : 1935 1937 Hard fibers : Henequen . . . , Sisal . . . . Abaca 1 (Manila) Istle . . . . Other . . . . , Total Soft fibers Cotton . Jute . . , Flax . . , Hemp . . , : Million p< )unds ? 'ili i on pounds : 140 62 76 9 5 119 82 : 84 10 5 : 292 300 • * 89 41 2 3 118 40 3 3 Total .....: 135 164 1/ Rough estimates based on production and consumption data in Census of Manufactures and on other information. - 10 - Cotton .- Cotton is, of course, the most important textile fiber and in quantity produced and consumed exceeds all other plant fibers combined. It is also the most important material used in cordage and twine manufacture in this country from the standpoint of value, and is second only to henequen in quantity used. Although the cotton used in cordage and twine is usually entirely of domestio origin, it is possible that small amounts of foreign cottons have been used :n domestic cordage and twine manufacture during some years. Jute.- In quantity produced, jute is second only to cotton as a plant fiber. Jute consists of soft or b..st fibers from two closely re- lated plants, the round-nod jute (Corchorus eapsularis ) and l«ng-pod jute (Corchorus olitorius), both of which arc cultivated in India, parti- cularly in Bengal. The fibers are light yellow to nearly w) it' or bright copper to deep slate, changing with age to dingy brovn cr Jute is relatively weak as compared with other bast fibers and is not very resistant to moisture conditions. Roughly 80 percent of the jute imported into the United States is in manufactured form, principally as burlap. Of the row fiber imported, about 80 percent is manufactured into bagging, webbing, carpets, yarns, and rov^.r for various uses, and about 20 percent into twine. Utilization in cordage is inconsequential. Flax.- Although flax is one of the most important plant fibers its use in the United States is relatively small, comprising only 2 per- cent of the World's production. Flax is a soft or b..st fiber obtained from the inner bark of the flax plant (Linum usitatis s imum ), which is cultivated for fiber principally in Russia ard the Northern European countries. In North America, small amounts are grown in Canada and in Oregon. The fiber is of dark gray, bluish green, or cr be color, depending on p reparation, makes a strong light strand, and withstands moisture well. About two-thirds of the flax imported into the United States is in the form of manufactured or semimanufactured, goods. Of the raw fiber manufactured in this country, roughly 25 percent is made into twines end fishlincs, and 75 percent into thread, towolings, and ether woven goods. An inconsequential quantity of cordage also is made from this material. e.- Mthough hemp was the most important fiber used in cordage and twine until about the middle of the last century, its use at present is relatively small. It : s e coarser, less flexible fiber than flax, but is strong and durable, though not - c resistant to Belt -. r ater as abaca'. It is derived from the inner bark of the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa), which is cultivated chiefly ir the Soviet Union, Italy, Yugoslavia, Ttoumania, and Chosen, and to a minor extent in Kentucky and Wi scons in in this country. Principal uses at present are in wrapping, m-ttress, sewing, and broom twines, in halibut lines, and in hemp cordage used on ships. - 11 - The Manu f actur ing Proooss Although differing somewhat with the kind of fiber, the process by which raw fiber is converted into cordage and twine consists essentially of three operations: (l) Preparation of the fiber, (2) spinning, and (o) twisting or braiding the required number of yarns into the finished twine or cordage. In the preparation processes, the fibers arc separated, cleaned of foreign matter, straightened and laid parallel, and overlapped, so as to compose a "sliver" or "roving" of the required size for spinning. With fibers other then cotton, a soften- ing or lubricating emulsion is added during this process so that the fibers will work more easily on the spinning machines, and to improve certain properties of the product. Following preparation, the sliver or roving enters the spinning process where "twist" is imparted and the "yarn" is spun. If a twine of single-thread construction is being made, the manufacturing process is completed at this point. Otherwise the yarns are "twisted" or "formed" into strands which may be used in this form or may be twisted again, or braided, with other strands to form twine or cordage. During one or more of the above operations, the cordage or twine may be oiled, tarred, polished, or finished with starches and waxes, or otherwi.se treated for the purpose of preventing rotting, increasing strength or smoothness, or preventing bacterial action. These treat- ments increase the weight of the product bv 2 percent to 15 percent. As a final step the product is wound on cones, balls, tubes, or reels, or is put up in skeins, ceils, etc. A fiber loss ranging from roughly 6 percent to 15 percent or higher, by weight, occurs during the manufacturing process, the loss depending on the type and grade of fiber used rnd on the grade of product being manufactured. All but a fraction of 1 percent of this loss occurs prior to spinning. The average percentage of fib^r loss / in manufacture of cordage and twine is shown in the following figures.—/ Fiber Percentage of less Percen t Manila 6 Sisal 6 Henoquen 10-12 Istle 12-15 Jute 10-15 Fl ox 8 Hemp 15-20 Cotton 15 If Rough average diff< r .cos between weight of raw fiber used and weight of fiber content of product. Based en estimates of manufacturers. - 12 - CORDAGE AHD TWTNE PRODUCTS Cordage and I facturcd for a wido var .' uses and consequentlv th y range in siz< from Large r , suitable p or to-ir/; v ss Is, to thin cotton twines with I breaking strength i Ly 3 pounds. Requir bs for inda are not by Lng a e : : j C fibers, fiber qualities, ar -uo- tions, paving attention at all timer tc the- noocssity of fi proluct wliic rfenn its tr.sk adequately • nd at miniir (t. One of 1 z' ■'' "acteristios of cordage and twine, so far as gauging Lr physical suitability for varirus uses is cencornod, is breaking strongth. Ii ify those products, wo therefor that abaca 1 i twine ire generally used w] aziniun strength' is roc ir :, followed su sivoly by cordage and t ado of sisal ncqucn, ] fl and cotton and jute, as breaking strength boconos of less importance. It should be c-tr- ss . , however, th t breaking Btr ngth d .ys indicate the strength under actual use conditions:, since cj v . twine of some types lose wore strength r flexed tl others. It also should be stressed that bre-.ki: g strongth is only one standard for coicparison and that other b ions such as curability, flexibility, softness, •. , -_.ro oftc\ of equal or proctor irr- portonce. For instance, trie flexibility an! softness c£ cotton -ge are of greater importance in Venetian-blind cords than th- r ter strength of other types >f obrdago. During 1937, production of all types 1 f b r on Ln the United States totaled ^96 nillion pounds valued at 74 rilli Liars* Of this total, 315 nillion poundswore nadc of abaoa 1 , sisal, henequen, ether liar-", fibers; 100 nillion pounds of euttohj 50 nillion pounds of .into, henp, flax, etc.; and - 1 nillion pound." of paper. Principal products nanufactured, in percentages of total production vi In , are a in table 3. .Table 3.- Production >f specified types . f twine and in the United States during 1937 in percentages of total producti 1 value 1 Lnc and cord: -fiber binder twine Other hard-fiber twine Hard- fiber cordage . . Total . . . Cotton twine . . Cotton cordage I bal . . . Jut , fl ax , hemp , etc., t- fi c mp and other cordage Total Paper twine, total Grand total . . Quantity Par ■ 32 I X 21 15 r, 20 iV .0 10( 1/ Loss than 0.5 percent. Value Per" 16 •6 22 46 26 10 15 100 - 13 - Cordage Products Production of cordage comprised 27 percent of the total produc- tion of cordage and twine during 1937 and totaled 132 million .pounds, valued at 24 million dollars. Cordage is defined as "ropes and cords in general" }-W and is distinguished from twine, according to usual acceptance, in that it is three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter or greater* Types of cordage manufactured and their unit value, from the standpoint of fibers used, are given in table 4. Table 4.- Production and value per pound, by types, of cordage manufactured in the United States during 19 37. Prod 1 ictic r • Average Kind ■Quantity Percentage of total value per pound all . types; 1/ Million ■ P« ircent Cents pounds Abaca' (Manila) total or average . . . 88.1 67 16 First grade (pure) . 56.5 43 16 Second and lower grades (pure) . . . 19.0 14 14 Higher grades and specialities . . . 12. G 10 19 Sisal and henequen, total or average . ; 7.9 6 10 2.6 2 4 11 Second and lower grades . 10 All other hard fibers, sisal special- ties, and abaca' mixed with other 8.6 6 16 Total or average, all hard fibers 104.5 7P 16 r> 2/ 21 y 38 : 27. 2 26 All other i •V Total or average, hemp and cotton 27.4 21 26 100 l/ Average selling value at factory. 2/ Less than 0.5 percent. z/ Quantity not reported. Compiled from Census jf Manufactures. 15/ New Standard Dictionary. - 1- - Abaca' cordage .- Production of abaca' (!'aj:ila) cordage exceeds that of all other types of cordage combined both in ouantit .ct-.l value. This typo of cordage is used for the ma^orj general rope- requiring purposes, particularly where maximum strength and durability is needed as in r.arine cordage, hoisting and transmission roe ;s, drilling cables. It is manufactured in various grade?, ranging from "yacht" and "bolt" ropes which are mace from the finest fibc r, through first-grade or "standard Manila," to types known as second-grade and third-grade Manila. 7 lost abaca' cordage is of 3- strand construction with an oil content of from 10 percent to 15 percent, but there are other constructions and specially treated types for special purpos i. A large number of sizes ar I w facturod ranging from three- sixteenths of on inch to 4 inches or more in diaretcr. (Table 5.) As is noted in table 4, two-thirds of all cordage manufactured in 1937 was ^ade from abaca' . Table 5.- Diameter, length per unit of weight, and breaking strength of designated cordage, l/ Type eter Finest : Coarsest size : size Feet pound Fine st : Coarsest size : size Fe et Feet 67 0.23 360 ICO 200 19 l- Breaking strength st : Gear cost size- : size Inches Inches Pounds Pounds No. 1 Manila 2/ 3/ . Hemp, small tarred ropes Cotton rope .... Cotton, braided sash cord 3/16 1/8 3/16 450 105,000 3/8 66 1 q c 105 120 2 25 2,400 5,100 560 l/ Indicating specifications fcr finest and coarsest sizes of each type- in common use, as indicated by Federal Specifications. 2/ Applies to 3- strand rep-:. . . 3/ No specifications an available for other types of hard-fiber cord' ; , but according to the trade they have the fol" - _• tensile strengths, considering No. 1 Manila's strongth as 10° rccnt: v acht and bolt (Manila), 110 percent; To. 2 , . percent; >T o. 1 :isal (Java sisal and comparable fibers'), 75; No. 2 sisal, (henequen end com- parable fibers), 65. Other hard-fib. r cordage *- An additional 12 percent of the cordage manufactured during 1937 was made from hard fibers other 4 abaca'. Of this quantity, about half consisted o^ sisal and henequen cordage and about half of cordage made from "all ol r fibers, sisal specialties (wirc-ropc centers, etc.) and abac.' mixed with oth r hard fibers." These types are available at a lower cost than similar abaca' cordage and serve purposes in which th high r strongth and durability of abaca' are not imperatively ied. Special types include lariat rope, raft ropes for tying logs together, halter ropes for animals, and clothes lines. - 15 - Hemp and jute corda ge- Minor quantities of cordage also are made from hemp and jute. Hemp cordage is generally tarred and although it possesses excellent qualities it is expensive. It once was the dominant type of cordage, but its use in this country at present is confined mainly to small auxiliary ropes on board ships. Sizes in common use in the United States range from less than three-sixteenths of an inch to about one-half inch in diameter with breaking strengths of from about 105 to 2,400 pounds. Jute cordage is much less expensive than hemp and has been used in' the past for general purposes requiring small ropes. Its lack of durability, low tensile strength, and poor resistance to moisture greatly limit its use, and only a small quantity now is manufactured. Cotton cordage.- In addition to the types discussed above, a considerable quantity of cotton cordage is produced. Principal uses of cotton cordage are as clothes lines, windows ash cords, and plot lines. However, a large proportion of the production is used for a variety of purposes like awnings, holding up fishing nets, on ship- board, and in various manufactured articles. This type of cordage is discussed in greater detail later. B inder Twine Binder twine is single-ply, hard-fiber twine used with binders for automatically tying bundles of the various small grains, flax, and grass-seed crops, and corn during harvesting. Owing to its unique use in harvesting these crops, it is used in larger quantities in this country than all other types of twine combined. During 1937, produc- tion of binder twine totaled 158 million pounds or 32 percent of the total production of cordage and twine. Of this quantity, 43 million pounds was manufactured by State-owned prison industries. Nearly all of the binder twine produced domestically at present is made of henequen or sisal. Other hard fibers, including abaca', istle, sunn, and phormium, also have been employed for this purpose at times when price and other considerations favored their use. Henequen and sisal are usually the chief component fibers of the two principal grades of domestic binder twine, which are known as "White Sisal" and "Standard", and which have a length per unit of weight of 500 feet to the pound. Binder twine in other grades averages up to 650 feet to the pound. In the manufacturing process, binder twine is spun on "long line" machinery directly from the sliver of the various hard fibers, The twine is oiled when spun, resulting in the finished product having a nonfibcr content of 15 percent to 18 percent. It is sold in balls, weighing 5 and 8 pounds each, packed in burlap bags of approximately 50 pounds gross weight. - u - Twine Ot 1 ; p . Production of all t-yprs cf tv/iro other th binder twi r>- 'scd 42 pore -nt of tl I r f cordage and I 1937, totaling 207 rillion pounds od at 36 milH Liars. .' .'t- fiber twine made up the hulk of this producti though har -fiber twine was of groator importance than in fc - r y re, Cott - - was the most important single type produced, comprising one-third of the total quantity produ< od ono-half of its value. Productioi average value per pound of the various typos arc ti ble 6. In general, the finest, lightest twines arc : ■ ■ :tton and the coarsest, heaviest twinos from hard fibers. Jute/ flax, e hemp twines occupy intemodiatc p sitions between the two, ~ng in size with the coarser cotton twin s and the finer hard-fiber twines. Sone indication of the. relationship between twines nado from various fibers is indicated by table 7, sh the limits of breaking strength and length per unit of weight for twinos in common use. It should be noted that as rhis tablo does not take into consideration other important factors, it does not fully indicate competitive relationships between twines. Hard-fiber twines .- In comparison with other twinos, hard- fiber twinos are used when a comparatively high strength is the outstanding reauirenent, as for heavy, buikv packages. A considerable variety - f these twines are manufactured, ranging from 750 to 23 feet per pound in length per unit of weight and from 35 to 1,550 pounds in break! strength. Hard-fiber twines are divide''- into five classes in accordan with the kind of fiber use", but with the qualification that t] ss designations are "not intended to o~nvey the impression" that they "are made exclusively from the fiber named. "16/ ">rre than three-fourths of the production is ef the Class IT or Java sisal gr< : tional 15 percent is cf the Class IV lean sisal) gr Dr cf the Class V grade which is designated as "containing at least 66 percent ef istl , and worked on hard-fiber machinery." The remainder consists f small quantities of Class I (Hani la), Class III (New Zealand), ant hard-fiber twines, including those which .r r— i v r '._/ Jut,,- t ~. ri. no s .- Occupying . sition betwocn hard- fib r and cott twines in' size and br ; strength, jut vailabl for a large range of packaging requirements. In gei *al th coarser .iute twines are comparable in tensile strength with t finer si; 16/ Bureau of Standards: Hard Fiber I L _ Li » Simplifi Practice Ropommondation, R-92-38, 1S38. 17/ Individual sizes of • ird-fibor t cr - by the size - f yarn used in feet por pound, and by the numbe] ly ~s, for instance, "900 feet - 2 ply", oto. They all - as "twisted" ar "laid," "l r .i " indicating that I "ns Lv xtra twist • i being plied into twine. The oxtra twist is rov< : - Fr untwist- ing. -17- Table 6.- Production and value per pound of twines (other than binder twines) manufactured in the United States during 1937 Production :ind Quantity Percentage : Average value Million oounds of total : Per pound Percent Cents Hard fiber: : Class I (Manila) : 0.1 Class II (Java sisal) 2/ .••••- 42.4 Class I7(Mexican sisal) : ) Class V(Containing at least 65 . : )- percent istle and worked on :) hard-fiber machinery) : ) 7*9 Other ; 2.5 Total hard fiber : 52.9 Soft fiber: : Cotton ; 73.3 Flax y : 2.1 Hemp . : .9 Jute : 26.0 Jute and istle, mixed ; 14«7 Flax and hemp, hemp and jute mixed...: 2.4 Other soft fiber : 3.7 Total soft fiber : 123 . 1 Paper : 30.6 Total twine : 206. 6 21 4 1 26 59 15 20 11 10 13 35 26 1 V 35 1/ 31 13 16 7 11 1 27 2 13 100 Compiled from Census of Manufactures, 1937. 1/ Less than 0.5 2/ Includes small quantity of Class III, New Zealand. 2/ Includes 131,470 pounds of "linen fishline." hj Value of flax twine only; "linen fishline" valued at $6.44 P er pound. - 18 - Table 7.- Breaking strength and length por unit of weight of -: ■ bod tw] . \J Twine I e< t pound Fin : Bize : size Breaking B ,r st :Coarfl size : size- Cotton, unpolished, first grade . . Cotton, unpolish- ', s c ad ro.de .- Cotton, polished ... Cotton, seine (unpolished) .... 6,834 -4,330 4,820 :',460 Flax, unfinished . . , Henp, fine, finished Henp, fine, unfinished Jute, wrapping, sail, etc. ... Jute, finished ... * Jute, tube rcpe, bale rope, etc. Hard- fiber, Class I (Manila) . . Hard-fibor, Class II (Java Sisal) Hard- fiber, Class III (!Jew Zealand) . Hard-fibor, Class IV (Mexican sisal). Hard-fiber, Class V (istle, mixed) . :,280 .710 1,233 1,710 1,320 4 2 5 432 7o0 51C 510 ■ 669 717 250 65 1,140 243 570 285 65 60 153 23 90 23 23 s Pou D 8 11 12 32 27 37 20 25 65 115 85 102 32 90 69 48 160 600 80 223 115 420 365 1,550 466 1,160 930 l/ Indicating specifications for finest and 'coarsest sizes *eh type in common use. Breaking strength for flax, henp, and jute twines are minimum requirements. For other twines 'they arc approximate averages. Data for cotton twines compiled fron trade catalogs price lists. Data for >thcr twines compiled from Simplified Practice Recommendations of the Bureau of Standards. hard- fiber twines, although they are not so str e the cc .rs st hard- fiber twines. Likewise, fine jute twines compare in yar r pound with medium and coarse cotton twines, - although they dp not have sc gr a yardage per pound as the finest of the cott tr Lnes. About 25 percent cf the total production • f jut- tvrincs is "finished 11 or polished with a sizing solution. This process cements the fibers to. r and glazes the outside of th( t in , resulting in improved smoothness and appearance. Finishe 5 jute i principally for tying packages, the finor sizes being used on small retail and parcel post containers " r sizes -her packages, such as wholesale ress conl rs. They also arc used for tying .tags, fastening sprin L s in furniture, stringing hers and sides of bacon in moat-packing establishments, end for other vari I purposes. - 19 - Unpolished jute twines are designated "by narrss which are indica- tive of their original use. For instance, finer unpolished twines are designated as "wrapping," "sail," "sewing," "miller's," or "baling" twine, while the intermediate sizes are known as "tube rope" and the heavier sizes as "paper-maker's bale rope," "pipe cord," cr "hide rope. "_/ Tube rope was originally made for bundling pipe and metallic tube but most of the demand for this product is now for bundling paper, corru- gated boxes, magazines, and for tying automobile tires, furniture, clothing, packages, and so forth. Greatest demand for the heavier twines is still from paper manufacturers but these twines are used also for wrapping commodities comparable to those on which tube rope is used. Hemp and flax twines.- Hemp and flax twines are manufactured in about the same size and weight range, roughly, as fine and medium- size jute twines but offer considerably greater strength, durability, and flexibility. However, they arc higher priced than other twines and arc used onlv when their special qualities ore sufficiently in demand to justify their higher cost. Finished hamp twines are manu- factured in four qualities— the "AA Italian" and "B American," which are made from pure hemp; and the "AB Italian" and "3C" or "EC American", which are made from hemp mixed with jute. Most of the finished hemp twine production is of the AB Italian type. Unfinished hemp twines are classified into first and second grades of "Italian" and "American" hemp construction, heap twin-os arc used as mattress twines, tufting twines, broom and brush twines, for fastening springs in the manufac- ture of furniture and upholstery, and for certain ether purposes. Flax twines are used in the manufacture of brooms, for sewing bags and other articles, in fishlines and fish nets, and on Jacquard weaving equipment in textile mills. In the size range in which they are manufactured, from 1,140 to 2,230 feet per pound, they offer greater strength than any other twine s. Cotton twines .- In tensile strength and yardage per pound, the medium ar.a coarser sizes of cotton twines are comparable with the finer and medium sizes of jute twines. However, finer cotton twines are not comparable with any other type since they are the only twines sold commercially which have a length of more than 2,300 feet per pound cf weight. Cotton twines are manufactured in a large range of sizes in both polished and unpolished constructions and are available for a large number of uses, but are used principally for tying light packages. These twines are discussed in detail later. 18/ Specifications for jute twines are given in Simplified Practice Recommendations R-110-29 (1930 ) of the Burceu of Standards on "Soft Fiber (jute) Twine." Individual sizes of unpolished jute twine are des- ignated by the yarn weight in pounds and bv the number of ply, as for example, "12-pound 2-ply. " The yam vn ight Is based on the Scotch Spindle System, and is the weight in pounds cf 43,200 feet of yarn. Finished jute twines are designated by arbitrary numbers com- parable to those used for finished hemp twines. - 20 - P; • r i __ _. - An incr t ount cf i ip< r twine is being nanufacturecT Production totaled 31 million pounds s valu d at nearly 2 million dollars during 1937. Undoubt dly mostof t] cr twine manufactured is c; 3 into articles sv d imitation rattan furniture. In addition, ■■;-'. "to t»*ado tcs, considerable qucntities rrc used as electrical insulation eoo twine, handle cord, automobile tacking strip, ing cord. Paper twine is us^d for electrical insulation b'c-us'- of its high dialectric resistance end because oi th ffness and resiliency it gives to th strical product. Paper fleece twine is for tying fleece as it is clipped from sheep, and is roc onm ended for this purpose as any fragment which becomes mixed with the wool will be dissolved in the scouring process. Handle cord is used for handles on paper shopping baj s, .ing cord for seams in upholstery. Automobile tacking strip is rot strictly a tv.ire but a shaped, molded product and is used as its name indie tea* TRENDS IN PRODUCTION AMD USE 0? COR] NE Cord at. Twine Other Than Bindj r Twine Exclusive of binder tv&nc, which is considered separrtoly owing to special factors governing its production and use, the total produc- tion of cordage and t"inc during 1937 was 339 million pounds, valued at 62 million dollars. This total was pproximately equal to the produc- tion during the census years of 1909, 1914, am 1 1919; was considerably smaller than the peak production of 407 million pounds in 192"; but was considerably larger than the total of only 253 million pounds during 1931 (table 8). In general, it may be said that total p] ion, ex- clusive- of binder twine, has shown little or no sustained increase dur- ing the lost 30 years, ar t it has ] b ' ind in e I ris I ' 'ith trends in th«. total industrial production, of the country i sonsi ring increases in population. This picture does not hold true: of all types of cor and twine as sone have increased in irport. : ] : others h - ecrcased. For instance,' production of cotton cordage and twine how comprises 29 per- cent of the total production of cor : ( ;xclusive of binder twine) as coups ith 16 percent in lid 4 and in 1919. Production of cotton twine was more than twice lis large during 1957 (73.3 million pounds) as in 1919 (oi . . ~ ! lion pounds) but was less than in 1929 (88.1 million pounds)* Productior of cotton cordage increased less rapidly between 1919 (17.7 million pounds) and 1937 (27.2 million pounds) but likewise was at a : in in If 29 (23.1 million-pounds) (table 9). Other trends in the production of cordage and tvane during recent years include: (l) A decline in the production of abaca' Ha) cordage frori th< levels prevaili] ring the World Y>iar period and during 1925-29, (2) an alrost complete disappearance of jute cordage fror. use since 1929, and (3) some increase in the production cf hard-fiber twines (other than binder twin ) luring the last few years. - 21 - Table 8.- Quantity and value of cordage and twine exclusive of binder twine and of cotton ocrdage and twine manufactured in the United States during designated years, 1899-1937. Quantity Vol ue Year : Cord* igo : Cotton : Pure or .tag e : Cordage : Cotton : Percentage : an' i : cordage : made of : and : cordage : nade of : twine rand twine: cott on : twine : and twine : cotton : Million Million Perec nt : Million Million Percent : pounc Is pounds s pounds pounds 1899 : 190 1/ 22 1/ -_ : 19 1/ 3 1/ -- 1909 336 58 17 : 33 11 33 1914 322 50 16 ; 39 10 26 1919 : 336 53 16 94 27 29 1921 : 233 — — : 47 WM — 1923 : 558 63 18 74 26 35 1925 : 340 76 22 79 29 37 1927 : 373 95 25 80 29 36 1929 : -107 116 29 90 38 42 1931 : 254 69 27 40 14 35 1933 : 262 87 33 38 18 47 1935 : 279 76 27 46 21 46 1937 : 339 100 29 62 26 42 1/ Does not include cordage produced in cotton goods industry. Compiled from Census of Manufactures. As shown in figure 1, fluctuations from year to year in produc- tion of cordage and twine accompany similar fluctuations in the output of all manufacturing industries. If the index of incustrial production is high, as it was in 1937, production cf cordage and twine also is large. This is not unusual in view of the utilization of cordage and twine in a wide range of industrial activities'. Production trends differ from consumption trends as part of the production is exported and part of the consumption is imported from foreign scurces. Although more cordage and twine other than binder twine was exported than was imported, before 1927, the opposite has been true during the last few years. Imports rose steadily after 1916, in- creasing from 1.5 million pounds during that v> ar to 17.9 million pounds in 1929. Since 1929 they have ranged between 7.6 (1938) and 13.4 (1935) million pounds per year. Nearly all of the cordage and twine imported is of hard, fiber, but small quantities of imports are made of jute, flax, and hemp. In addition, there arc a few imports of cotton crrd.age and twine, particularly of seine twino, but these are not shown separately by foreign commerce statistics. 22 i ■s 8? Rl 31 i o • •4 O X A a e • 31 vtv r* 3 (Tv 1-4 5 £ x a e • 31 31 8. »4 O * P ,h irvcu (M ... . 00 r' (VI— ^ . (VI K\ r-« • • . . . 1— rH.(VI ON O i-4 -STj r*N(\j.»* © . •• . • fvp r- r-4 vo Sj (VI—., .51 VO ■-4 ^4 f-4 vo o o r-4 ... . (VI O r-4 1" vo rn (VI— » 4*— VO r* r-l irvirvr-i (vi «o . . • . . J» f«"VtO (VI If r-4 -3* (VI r-l ■-4 r-4 i . . . • . irvr*M— (VI k> OH (VI r-1.3- H (M O K\«yv tH ... . r-1 tO ITt to orf (vi-— ,ir r-4 J»f (VI ... • (VIVO* .0- {^VD W-— »fr> -»1 V© r— so ir\K"> vo ... . iH rH t>- BO f— .0* i-l — , -*1 • l-l st\t> r— r»-o . . . • . O cvj r~asr4 K\ J- r-l (VI r-4 r-4 . •H pr<\ (VI avj- to -iri vr> 1 KMXVVO O .... 1 KVVO r-« O 1 00 5 l-t 1 to . r-l J- iH ^» ....... I»- (VI K\Q (VI kv^* KMfVI-^ KV h .a- irv f-4 f-4 4TV (VI r-l tO O «TV 4T" ....... irvKNto to »-4j*vp (vi M tovS (VI vo o r-to r-IVO O (TV VO irv to <-< ITv *\& O ITV . . • . . a- irvtM to to ev (vi KvO k\n . . . . . . (vi r-4 irv.a- tyvoo © — ,r*\HT\ r-4 CVI r4 IT>0 O 4T» . ..... . . r— (vi 3 v? ro vB VO . irv 8? VO in ir\ I^V vo »*> irv vo ^ ^ 15 .O V4 55 Si -^1 r-i c an o o o 2 fc. ■4» **■: a o — 4) O O ■s 3 0*5 g • ii* 6 • o 8 o tCM •> o •^ o ssar C5 ►> k 03 § ^ o r S3 31 a * 1 VTA :3 n o J1 IS 12 •H — ■ O Vl •° 2 25 o • • r-4 §•3 *S" -^ -H • U V. -f 441 O J|S5 •. BO 2 0*5 O ♦» »H i-4 • •M r-4 ■ rl • r-l O OVO -i « • - H l«% • o trv e a r-4 • • • & ?! * e Xi si «4 •. O TJ ■ • — US ~* • ♦» ** 9- t -5 h ^ • o. * -. r. O • r) 4t t- • • C cv • *» "2 at t _ M rf — *» -i cr a • • J3 -0 ■0 3 91 n .'tt H «rlK\ P ■ «-4 O, O • C rT a 11 • r-4 r-4 *» • V O o e £1S- - o o •a ° * ^ •O r-4 M M 2 5 o ■ *< i 2 *3fa ^Ol^ol^Sl^^ 23 POUNDS 1 (MILLIONS) Production of cordage and twine ,, - ( other than binder twine 1 - (Millions of pounds) 1 - ' — | A \ - -T'W / 1 \ / *"* * W^ 1 V * \, 1/ / 1 / *?- V / • \ #n "*«/ 4 V + "^ _ • • N. Output of all ^^*" manufacturing industries (l899'100)* • • * 100 • /\ # » / 90 80 70 / / i /N / / \ 1 f - 7 i r - 60 50 / / N^ M- ^^* V * - / / ^ ; >roductioi 1 o/ cofto 1 - / cordage and twine 40 / - / (Millions of pounds ) 30 / / -/ t 20 1 1 1 1 1 INDEX NUMBERS 400 300 200 100 1899 1909 1914 1919 1923 1927 1931 1935 A BUREAU OF CENSUS INDEX OF PHYSICAL VOLUME OF PRODUCTION 1939 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. 38584 BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS FIGURE 1.- TRENDS IN PRODUCTION OF CORDAGE AND TWINF, COTTON CORDAGE AND TWINE, AND IN OUTPUT OF ALL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES DURING CENSUS YEARS, 1899-1937 Production of cordage and twine varies considerably from year to year in accordance with factors such as the state of in- dustrial activity. Although production of cotton cordage and twine increased considerably during the last. 30 years, total pro- duction of cordage and twine (except binder twine) remained at a stationary level. 24 1899 1909 1914 1919 1923 1927 * PROBABLY PARTIALLY INCLUDED WITH CORDAGE PRIOR TO liii 1939 U S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEC JBMI BUREAU OF ACRICUITURAI ECONOMICS FIGURE 2.- PRODUCTION OF DESIGNATED TYPES OF CORDAGE AND TWIN? IN THE UNITED STATES DURING CENSUS YEARS, 1899-1937 Although production of twine ha6 shown an upward trend dur- ing the last 30 years, production of oordage has declined. Cotton twine production increased from 1914 to 1929 but has failed since to equal the record of the latter year. Cotton cordage production has followed a more stable, level trend but likewise reached a maximum in 1929. - 25 - Exports of twine and cordage other than binder twine increased fron about 10 million pounds a year before the World War to a maximum of more than 20 million pounds in 1919. They ronained above the pre- war level during the 1923-29 period, but since 1931 have ranged between only 3,0 million pounds (1932) and 6.6 million pounds (1937) a year.il/ Exports of cotton cordage an! twine varied during the sane period be- tween 2.2 million pounds (1935) and 3.0 million pounds (1937) a year. Total exports of cordage and twine other than binder twine have never totaled more than 4 percent as nuch nor total imports more than 3 percent as much as the total production. Consequently, trends in the consumption of cordage and twine have differed only slightly or not at .11 from trends in the production of these products. However, imports of hard-fiber cordage and twine other than binder twine probably totaled ab rut 10 percent as much as the domestic production of these products during 1939. Cotton, twine and cordage experts equalled only 3 percent as much as the domestic production in 1937. Binder Twine Because of the unique use of binder twine in harvesting certain agricultural crops, trends in the production and consumption of this product differ considerably from trends in the production of cordage and twine other than binder twine. Production of birder twine has been characterized by a continued downward trend for- more than two decades and the total of 158 million pounds which was produced by both private and prison industries in 1937 was only slightly more than half the 302 million pounds manufactured by private industry alone in the peak year of 1914 (table 10). Despite this decline, binder twine com- prised 32 percent of the total production of cordage and twine during 1937. The decline in domestic manufacture of binder twine is explained in part by the disappearance of a substantial export market in binder twine and by the marked increase in imports from foreign countries. Exports :>f binder twine declined from 109 million pounds in 1914 to less than 10 million pounds annually during the last 6 years. Imports of binder twine increased from 11 million pounds in 1925 to 75 million pounds in 1936, 5o million pounds during 1957, and 50 million pounds in 1939. Principal countries from which binder twine is imported at present are Mexico, Netherlands, Belgium, Canada, Cuba, and Great Britain; an rl the principal countries to which it now is exported are Argentina and the Union of South Africa. 19/ Import quantities quoted refer to cmbined imports for consump- tion of (l) hard-fiber cordage and twine other than binder twine; (2) flax, hemp, an- 1 ramie thread, twine an r1 cordage; and (o) jute cordage, twine, and twist. Export quantities quoted refer to total domestic experts of (l) cordage, except binder twine, except of cotton or jute; (2) cotton twine and cordage; (3) and jute yarn, cordage, and twine. - 26 - Tabic 10.- Binder twine production, imports, exports, -nd quantity ade availably for consumption, United S ■ t I , consue years, 1899-1937, Y ■ r 1399 1909 1914 1919 1921 1923 1927 1929 1931 1933 1935 : Imp orts for Produ^ :ion : con bion Million illion pounds P oun r !s 166 2 189 14 302 7 230 13 236 5 295 290 6/ 13 11 228 226 186 200 6 / 16 19 23 46 166 158 1- 56 53 Do- ifcstic orts 1/ ..'illion pounds .vail able for consumption £ 5/ 7 "'illion pounis 109 69 1/, 200 5/ 174 59 182 74 234 54 247 225 17 228 10 159 6 242 o 216 5 211 For fiscal years prior to 1919. Production plus imports minus exports. Wot reported separately until 1910. No data. Production for calendar year 1914 plus imports rnd minus exports for fiscal year ended Juno 30, 1914. 6/ Inc"! ados following amounts manufactured in orisons: (in millions of pounds) 1923, 55,67 1925, 56.3; 1927, 57.8; 1929, 47.3; 1931, 52.2; 1933, 57. lj 1925, 57.3; 1937, 42.8. Compiled from Census of Manufactures and from Foreign Commerce end Navigation of th/: United States. abor factor contributing to the downward trend in birder twine production has been d decline in the eic demand. Tims re- sulted in imarily from the decreasing use of binders attendant upon the increasing use of combines (harvester-threshers). It is estimated that only 60 percent of the total acreage of small grains in the United States is now harvested with binders as compared with 85 percent in 1920. At the same time, tota? acreage of these crops has decreased. As a result of these changes, annual consumption of binder twine is estimated to have declined frcm about 250 million ^ounds in the period 1918-20 to about 175 million pounds at present. 27 POUNDS (MILLIONS) 300 250 200 150 100 50 Non-i prnriu irison ction ^s^ i 1 1 1 t 1 1 k .,-"" * 1 1 1 1 i 1 § § % % \ 1 .-'" 1 « 1 t t I /• r Total i Drod notion ..--""" i 1 « 1 1 1 X % *« Exp orts X X \ * X X \ .*' Imp orts . •** ««• / f „ — —•T^'**-* ■ ^^ *^^ 1 ■» ■** * 1 1 1 1 1899 1909 1914 1919 1923 1927 *N0 DATA FOR PRIOR YEARS 1931 1935 1939 U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS FIGURE 3.- PRODUCTION, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS OF BINDER TWINE, UNITED STATES, DURING CENSUS YEARS, 1899-1937 Production of binder twine in the United States has declined tremendously sinoe 1914 as the result of (l) the increasing use of combines (harvester-threshers) in place of binders, (2) the decline in the acreage of small grain crops, (3) loss of export markets, and (4) inoreased imports. - 28 - Aside 1'rom th< ra noteri, the i at of binder fr.dnc r - quired annually dcponda upon the amount of str , ii sludii ds, produced per acre. This in J urr. ie dep- - Lng conditions and other factors. Consumption is highly s asonal, occurring at harvest , : large stocks arc roquired for sudden demands* Ii crop failures occur, large cirr r -c- ] iKxiy and production du he Dnsuing year may bo curtailed. It is not unusual for bind or- twine Manufacturers tj carry ovr.r as much as half their iotul production in- to the folio..: or. COTTON TWIEE AITD CORDAGE AND FACTORS INFLUENCING THEIR USE In the foregoing section of this report a background of facts has boor presented conocrring th ri'.ls used -.nd the products manu- factured by the cordage and twine industry. In this end the foliov;ing section a more detailed discussion of the ut' ion of cottor in cordage and twine may be found. Typos of cottor tvrines end cordage manufactured are surveyed end factors influencing their use arc dis- cussed. Information also is presented on Lties and grades of cotton used in cordage and twin , i on trends in the corsurption of cotton in this use. Of the total of 100.5 rii?ior pounds ef cotton twine an* 4 cordage manufactured in 1937, 73.3 nillion pounds \ r t in and 27.2 million pounds were cordage. Cotton twine has comprised between 52 percent and 40 percent of the total production of twine other than binder twine during the last 4 biennial census ve rs; cottoi - i between 18 pcrc- : 1 24 percent of the total bion c age. In comparison with other twines, ccttcn twines arc used qualities such as flexibility, softness', light weight, and appearance are of major importence. They are manufactured in a large - ■ cf constructions, qualities, and sizce for . variety cf uses. Although tl r . no definite, standardized classification of these twines, they nay be di viced on the basis t _ir principal uses, into tnree main groups as follows: (l) Twines generally used for tying packages including "wrapping," "sail,™ and "polished" twines j (2) twines used principally for fishing purposes, including "si " incs, "trot- lines," "staging" twines, an ;r fishing lines j and (5) twines used fcr sewing and other purpos • . Of the three groups, twines used for t^ing package s re of grcr.tect importance, and on the basis cf reports from manufacturers estimated tj comprise nearly two-thirds of the total production. Sewing and other twin it: en-el 23 percent -^ the total, approximately, end fishing twines comprise the r ai der of 13 per- cent, (table 11). - 29 - Tabic 11.- Estimated production _/ of cotton twines, by kinds, in the United States, 1935-37. Kind of twine 1935 j 1936 ! 1937 [Million Million Million p ound s p ound s p o und s Tying (Wrapping, sail, and polished) Unpolished (59.7 percent) 31.9. 40.8 43.8 2.9 3.7 4.0 Total (65.2 percent) 34.8 44.5 47.8 Fishing (Seine, trot, staging, and other 6.9 8.9 9.5 11.7 14.9 16.0 53.4 63.3 73.3 l/ Estimated on basis of reports fron manufacturers representing 69 percent of production in 1935, 65 percent in 1937. Total production data for 1936 and 1937 are fron the Census of Manufactures, but are estimated for 1956. Production ef each item is total production mul- tiplied by 'estimated percentage shown in parenthesis. Percentages are average proportions for 3 years as indicated by manufacturers' reports, the proportions varying 1 percent or less from year to year. Cotton Tw inoS for Tying Packages In the first group, composed of twines used for tying purposes, the bulk of the production is of wrapping twines. There are no stand- ardized specifications for wrapping twines, but th::y are unpolished and ordinarilv range in size from a 3-ply construction, with a length of about 6,000 feet to the pound, to a 30-ply construction, with a length of about 670 feet to the pound. The fine 3- and 4-ply sizes, which are beyond the range of the finest noncotton twines, ore reported to be most heavily used, followed by the 16-ply size which is used exten- sivoly for packages of medium size. Some cotton wrapping twines are manufactured entirely from lint cotton but others ar<^ made either partly or entirely from cottcn waste, chiefly card strips and comber noils. Production of lower graces of twine is reported to have in- creased considerably during recent years at the expense of higher grades, owing to changing demands from purchasers. As a general rule, the higher grades for use east of the Rockies arc made of 8's yarn spun from lint cotton and the cheaper grades are made from 6'syarn containing a percentage of waste. In/rapping twines used on the Pacific coast arc made usually fron 6.50s or 3.25s yarn spun from lint cotton. Cotton wrapping twines are available in various colors and arc put up in balls, cones, tubes, and cut lengths. Federal specifications for these twines, which may be taken as approximately representative of twines in commercial use, are shown in table 12. - 50 - Table 12.- Construction, length per poi . , king strength of unpolishod cotton wrapping twine. Ply Minimum average length per pound breaking str< ngth : F( ot vunds 2 : 9,000 3 3 : 6,000 5-1/2 4 : 4,500 8 5 : 3,600 10 6 5,000 12 8 : 2,250 16 10 : 1 , 800 20 14 1,290 28 16 : 1.125 32 24 : 750 48 From Federal Standard Stock Catalog, TT-871, Sept. 16, IPSO; Section IV (part 5) j Federal specifications for twine, cotton, wrapping* Other types of unpolished cotton twines used for tying packages include "sail," "Sea Island," "butchers 1 ," and other twines. Sail twines are identical with the larger sizes of wrj Ln< s and are so called because they once were used extensively for sewis rails. The tern still is applied to twines used for hand sewing, but it also is applied by manufacturers to twines used mainly for tying packages. Sea Island twine is a high-quality twine of cabled c instruction, used almost entirely in the drug trade, It is so named because it originally was made from Sea Island cotton. Butchers' or "packers'" twine is re- presentative of a group of twines which have trade nam* s to indicate the particular use for which they were manufactured. Polished cotton twines.- In addition to the twines discussed above, a substantial quantity of polished cotton twine is used m ai n ly for tying purposes. Polished cotton twines arc- similar te wr ing twines but have been specially treated with a solution of starch, wax, i other materials to obtain greater smoothness and strengtl nd a more attractive appearance. According to standard r . cifications,£2/ there are two types, "special" and "standard." Special twines ere made from 8's yarn twisted in the required number of riles for the size to be rade and standard twines ar< made similarly fror 1 2's yarn. Polished cotton twines in general use have a length per unit weight ranging from 250 to 4,820 feet to the pom c rr ing breaking strengths ranging from 170 to 11 pounds (table 13). 20 Bureau of Standards, Simplified Practice Recommendation R-124-31. - 31 - Table 13.- Construction, length per pound, and breaking strength if polished cotton twines. Twine number Length per pound ! Spc eial Standi urd 8 ' s yarn : Breaking : strength 2 ' s varn Breaking strength : Feet : Ply Pounds Ply Pounds 5 1/ : 4,820 : 4 11 9 1/ : 3,150 : 6 16 12 1/ 15 1/ : 2,325 1,900 : 8 10 23 28 18 1,575 12 34 3 29 24 1,175 : 16 41 A 35 36 : 950 20 57 5 48 48 : 750 24 75 ! 6 56 60 : ' 600 30 85 7 75 4 1/2 : 475 40 110 10 95 6 : 375 : 48 135 : 12 120 7 ; 300 : 60 155 : 15 150 8 : 250 : 72 170 : 18 160 1/ Not manufactured in standard (2's yarn) construction. All figures approximate. Compiled from U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Simplified Practice Recommendation R-124-31 for polished cotton twine, and from trade catalogs. Cheaper grades of polished cotton twine, which do not conform with the specifications given in table 13 have been placed upon the market during the last few years. In general, these twines also are of 8 T s and 2's yarn construction, but as they are manufactured from cotton of lower quality they are inferior in strength to the standard types. Factors influencing use pf cotton twine for tying purposes. - Cotton twines find their principal use in the packaging field as a material for tving the small and medium-sized packages of retail trade. Larger packages, such as those generally used for movements of mer- chandise from factory or wholesaler to retailer, arc tied usually with jute or hard-fiber twines if twines are used at all. There is no exact line of demarcation between use of cotton and other twines, but rather a zone in which both types are in competition. Even in the medium- and small-package field, cotton twine is used on only a fraction of the total packages. An increasing propor- tion of packages consists of boxes or other containers requiring no twine. Paper bags used by grqeers and dry-goods stores are an example of this type. In addition, there is an increasing use of gummed-paper tape for fastening packages in place of twine. - 2 - Cotton- twine sales have been .aore seriously influenced by cc - petition from gummed -paper tape during the last f rs than by com- petition from noncotton twines. A widespreao tendency to substitute this material for cotton twines has been noted in certain types of retail stores like the limited-price variety stores, particularly where large numbers of packages of identical size ar at a single place. Gummed-paper tape ras developed about 35 years ago, and its first general use occurred in connection with corrugated and fiber shipping containers. Its use for parcel- sealing purposes hos been a later rnd, judging from estimates ip 1933 that this use required only 10 percent of all sealing tapes,£l/ a loss important development. Gummed-paper sealing tapes now generally in use for- binding medium and small packages are- made of a 35-pound Kraft paper which has been coated with an adhesive compound weighing approxir rcent of the finished product. This tspe is sold in 500- foot and 800-foot rolls and /in widths of three-fourths of ' an inch, 1, l-l/4, and 1-1/2 inches. —l/ One of the- advantages claimed for gummed-papcr t is that much smaller amount of tape is required' for binding e package than if twine is used. Th^ amount used oi' each' varies with th skage, but as a general rule it is estimated that from 3 to 8 times more cotton twine than gummed-paper tape is required per package* However, gummed tape generally costs from 1 to 5 times as touch per foot medium and fine sizes of cotton wra >ping twin . Another advantage claimed for i . d-paper tape is that it speeds up the wrapping process and thus saves the time both of clerk and of the waiting customer. Other advantages •. r- that it seals packages, affording safety against pilfering, and gives the package a smooth surface. The fact that advertising legends may be printed on the tape has the effect of reducing the expense char| tble to wrappi costs. One of the chief disadvantages of gummed-paf r tape is t] \ machines are required to dispense it and that these- machines zc times require a considcrablr initial invest'-. \ , "ticularly if packages are wrrpped at a numb r <^f stations in an stablishment. The simplest s used for this purpos cost $3 or ' . Llo lever- op orated machines suitable lor dry-goods stores or groceries range from $12 to $40 in cost. Othor disadvantages are that re- - s the adhesive quality or the tape is not alt< r i isfactory end that tho dispensing machines occasic - rcquir . •« If I gummed-tape seal or •. pack ge becomes loosf or broken, it cannot be replaced so readily as a loosened twini wrapping. Twine enables a package to be grasped and carried more ( e.sily. 2\, Letter to Agricultur at Administration frc i Bed Industries Association. 22/ 'National Bureau of Standards, Simplified Practice He commend at ion R-114-30; Tape; Sealing, No. 1 Kraft paper. - S3 - There is no doubt that gummed-paper tape is nor: being used for a larger number of packaging purposes formerly requiring cotton and other kinds of twine, rnd that this replacement tendency is continuing. Hew far it will continue is not easily surmised. Without doubt both twines and gummed tape sooner or later will fine 1 positions in the mar- ket for wrapping materials in which each has clearly recognizee 1 ad- vantages, but the extent tc which er.ch will be used is as yet uncertain. Competit ion from other twin es.- Cotton twines also compete with other types of twine as a material for tying packages. This com- petition is intense and has resulted in considerable shifts in kinds of twine used. Present competitive relationships between twines, on the basis of the footage of designated strength that is obtainable per unit of cost ar. shown in figure 4. As indicated in the upper left corner, the finest sizes of cotton twines yield a greater footage per unit of cost than, any ethen type and ane the only twines for sale com- mercially with breaking strengths of less than 20 pounds. It is note- worthy that the most extensively used sizes cf cotton wrapping twines fall within this group. In the medium- strength range, cotton twines of int mediate and coarser sizes encounter competition from twines made of jute, hemp, and flax. Jute twines her- compete on fairly even price terms with cotton twines but hemp and flax twines of equal tensile strength are available only at a higher cost. The ceareest sizes of cotton twines also are comparable in strength with the finest sizes of hard-fiber twines, some types of which offer a considerably greater footage per unit of cost. For requirements demanding a breaking strength cf more, thon about 160 pounds, only hard tibor and jute twines, rnd to a small extent herp twines, are used. Although certain sizes of cotton seine twines are manufactured with breaking strengths nanging up to 600 pounds, they ane too expensive for ordinarv wrapping purposes. If cotton twines rise or fo.ll in price as com^e.rid with ether twines, their competitive situation improves or deteriorates as the case may be. As indicated in figure 5, the price of cotton wrapping twine showed a downward trend from 1927 to 1932, both absolutely and relative to the price ef twines made of other fibers. Following an abrupt rise in 1935, it remained at a comparatively stable level until 1937 when it again declined. During recent months the price of cotton twines has again increased, but this increase lies been accompanied by similar changes in the prices of jute and hard-fiber twines. Although prices of various twines have been discussed on the basis of breaking strength, it should be remembered that breaking strength is an important footer in twine competition only insofar as the requirements of particular situations dictate. Cotton twines sometimes are preferred to twines of higher breaking strength, as they are easier to manipulate or to break. They are preferred some- times too, because of their cxuparati- T e resistance to friction or breaking when the twine is knotted or passed over on edge or corner. This last factor sor'otir-es is ref erred te as "workin t strength." 34 T .. .. ! --r^-r ■ 1 i i ■ T ] X 4 X _» K / 1 , 1 1 ■ 88 W M K 1- 3 *- -. •» a » > u / - 55; » u . B z - 5 a e i: :i : ?5 SbsIs SI / /4- ■ \>'r 1 GEND ICATE BRE SOLO FOR ' » - O z i ii ! __ * s / a / / ■ | 1 L LETTERS IND CE ( FOOTACE OTTON C ARD FIBER. CI ARD FIBER. CL F EACH ITPE C NG. ETC Is • 5 . ?4 .4*/ •- A \ by * ft • • M m 6 " k 1 a a, a a -> SHAL AND PR J o X I I H, O J I 535 i -• r« m X ¥ iVtJ ,7/k * /As // / V - / ^ 4:: " -/ - - f^V - - o w ', *y " - • 1 I /^ J " - i JVM/ - " - Si • * ! c ^ m - " • 1 I xi /■ 'M 3 m, / * 3 ■ 1 CD ■c A e 5 • I " y / 1 1/ N - :■ / / •J G ~ •* ■ 1 - •* e • • e - o - o U • 1 | | | o »' " - ' S "> " / / j • - •X c o " 1 O 1 1 1 1 1 i i i 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ' -3 s> "fl 3 -C G a cr •P -H t CD (4 $ a ■ S s ■h -p O ^ •<*< ■H O H e> cr> i Cm M CC rH ►l u N Q C x> >» h SD •"*< r-l ■ a b. 01 «J 3 a, O rH J= ^> -p Cv a "v. >- G - ->l ►_3 <^< ^ c •H j_j O 4> U |H ^3 ■P O a, J , « G CD a O CO G O CO C O -H ■P « 3 ■ IL P CO CD lJ.. X X ■H s It O O -H X X £ i CO s CO Jt d CD C OS Cm 3 § E 1 • u OS rH -p t «♦ X as O G C H r O i 10 -p -P •H rH W)+> X as c O a CD M f> -p i O X Pn C h -p OS 03 O 4» CD bi- N 10 as G •H 1 (« CD J-, O X as U O -P O CO ^ < o O O 35 CENTS PER POUND 40 30 20 10 JUTE ( fine finished No. 18. N. Y. ) II ullh'i TV L L t \J TWINE S BINDER ( Standard factory ) i IiiiiiIh 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 lulu Ouiuii TWINES COTTON (No. 1 wrapping, unpolished, factory) liuiuiu ■'"I i I I"'"l 1..I.|1iiIiiIi,I I |ImI II I,|I||ImI,|1.|I||I||I. 40 30 20 10 CORDAGE COTTON (2nd grade, 6/16-inch, factory) MANILA (Abaca') ( 1st grade, 3/4-inch, N. Y. ) SISA L ( 2nd grade. Mex 3/4- inch. N. Y.) liiiiiliiii.li.ii.l,.iiil,ii.iLii,,l,,ii,l,.ii.liiiiiliiii,l,,i,,l.ii,il,.i,,li.i.il..iiili.iiil..i..liiii.l..iiil I,, i,, I,, in I Li,,l, l i..Li,iLi,iL,iiil l ,ii l Liii 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. 38588 BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS FIGURE 5.- AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICES PER POUND OF CERTAIN TYPES OF TWINE AND CORDAGE, BY MONTHS, 1926-40 Prices of ootton twines and cordage fluctuate more widely than prices of other types. At present they are intermediate be- tween the low and high extremes of the last eight years. Since prices are given for certain types only and on a weight basis, they indicate trends in prices rather than competitive relation- ships during any given period. - 36 - Other faotors porti Ln d t suitability of at ,ro its elasticity, diamet >r, a] , -vl touch. Cotton twin< is more olastic tl -..■ r t rinos and nay t or di sadvanta^o if it is bo be subjected to a mriod stress. Ii tlio diamot . t o small, thero nay be a tendency to cut fingers r the package. On the other hand, too gr at a bull: nay be & di Appearanco of a twj.no, its natural or artificial color, and its stainlessnoss, also aro of considerable importance if the twine is to be used for retail pt ' s. The natural white ool< r of high-quality cott ine oftei Ives it cu vanti u -. c# Touch, r whether the twine is soft, pliable, stiff, or hard, is still ther factor. Citt r.'s softness is an advantagt wlien the twine is mani- pulated by hand but it is a disadvantage if a c ;ively stiff, non-kinkinc twine is desired. The l ■' n 'ss overcomes this disad** .■ to son:, extent by incr the rigidity arc' smoothness of the twine, but it also results in sr se in softness. In summary, the r irk t for 11 kinds of tying tvii.es en 1 . gummed tape has decreased idng to an increased use of containers like bags, cartons, and envelopes which requiro ro fast- 1. The share of this market secured b: r c.tt n twine is dependent upon competitive factors referred t. "b ve, and evidence indicates that although ootton twine has rore than held A ts own 1 ro] 1 ■ •; .ther kinds of twine, it has lost part of its market bo jar. ed tape. As cotton wrappin£ twines arc used largelj in rctai] business, it is be expected that their consumption w uld -vary '.ircctly with fluctua- tions ir the amount of business, but little quantitative proof is available to support this assumption. O^.r short periods jf ti] cotton-twine sales ulso are influenced to sore extent by buyers' policies .f timing their purchases in an eff- rt to take advantage of fluctuati >ns in the cotton market. C otto n Twines for Fishi] A socond », r U P °f cotton twines includes twines used prinarily for fishing purpos< 6 either in the manufacture and repair of fish nets ;r as fishlines. Theso twines are known as seine twines, trotlinos, staging twines, fishlines, arc! others, and are estimated t: rise approximately 13 percent (9.Z nillion pounds in 1937) of the total products "' cottoi 4 : , Pith the exc i f some fishlines which ".re br-.iV I, all twires in this r characterised by having a cabled construction, bein ade up ■ f tl r r r r strands, each of which c -rsists in turn of p number n f ,r :.rs twisted togeth r. Of tho total production of cott r twines u for fish- ing, more thar 85 percent are seine twinc6. Seine twines arc divi into soft, medium, hard, and extra bard-laid constructions, ace r - t the degree of twist imparted in the forming and cabling opera- tions, and are nado in various sizes which arc designated by the number of individual yarns >r threads of which each consists, length per unit of L b, sis r fr bely 3,460 feet - 57 - per pound to 75 foot per pound and less, but no re commonly used sizes range between 1,700 and 500 feet per pound. All arc cf 3- strand con- struction except soft-laid soino twines nf size 20 and larger which are composed of 4 strands. According to manufacturers, most seine twines arc used in the manufacture; or repair of netting, the medium- laid constructions being preferred for this purpose. However, soft-laid seine twines are used for hanging nets when drying and for tying nets together, and hard or extra hard-laid seine twines are used as fishing lines, being too rigid to knot without difficulty. Those uses are estimated to require about 90 percent of the production cf seine twines, the remainder going into such nonfishing uses as laundry nets, tennis nets, and mason's chalk lines. Table 14.- Approximate length per pound and breaking strength of cotton twines used for fishing, l/ : Length per Bro aking : pound strength 1Lllia :Finest:Co arsest :Finest :Coarsest : size : size . size : size : Feet P'eet Pounds Pounds Seine twine: : Soft-laid (6 to 240 thread) . . . .: 5,460 35 : 12 486 Medium-laid (6 to 240 thread) . . . : 5, .500 65 : 12 600 Hard-laid (6 to 240 thread) ....:. 2,900 75 12 484 Extra hard-laid (6 to 120 thread) . : 2,900 150 12 240 Meter cord (60 to 260 thread) . . . . : 260 55 150 610 Trotline (24 to 155 thread) : 510 50 60 550 Staging twine (9 to 55 thread) . . .: 1,580 545 ! 25 84 l/ Specifications shown are for finest and coa rscst e izes c f each kind of twine, construction of which is indicat cd by c lata in par en- theses. Specifications arc compiled from trade literc .ture but are not necessarily representative of twines produced by all manufacturers, Other cotton twines used primarily for fishing include trotline, staging, meter cord, and fishline. Trotline is the "loader" line which is strung out during fishing operations, and staging twine is the small hook lino suspended at intervals from it. Large sizes of seine twine that are used chiefly for hanging nets are sometimes called meter cord, particularly in the Groat Lakes Region. Cotton fishlines consist partly >f cabled twines that arc identical with seine twines and partlv of braided twines, the braided construction sometimes be- ing preferred because of its resistance to tangling and untwisting. - 38 - Fact o rs influe ncing consumption of cotton fishing twines.- As compared with other libers, cotton occupies u dominant position in •ting the needs of the fi c hing industry. Nettings nade cr cc' x on twines are estimated to comprise auout 72 percent by weight of i '.1 netting used ir the United States as compare'" -'_th 8 percent c r - posed of linen nettings am! 20 percent of ma.i^ia netting.^/ With the exception of a small quantity of homo halibut line and small quantities in weight of silk and linen fish lines for noncommercial fishing, cotton twines arc the only fishlines used. Shifts from fishing tackle made of on--* fiber to tackle made of another, as a v suit of price changes, are reported to bo neglig- ible, since each kind of tackle has well-defined uses with requir - ments which do not permit ready substitution. However, it is likely that price fluctuations are of some importance in determining the quantity of tackle that car. be sold and it is therefore noteworthy that those prices have shown -considerable variation in recent years. For instance, the price of medium-laid, 9-thread seine twine fell from a peak of about 59 cents per pound during 1923 to a minimum of 31 cents in 193.3, and was quoted at 38 cents per pound in July 1940. Of much greater importance than price changes are fluctuations in the volume and profitability of fishing activity. When fishing is unprofitable, old nuts and other tackle, which in' better times would be replaced, are kept in use by dint of much repairing and with some loss of efficiency in fishing operations* Furthermore, fishing is carried on with fewer nets. Sewing and Other Cotton Twines A third group of twiner:, comprising about one-fifth of the total production of cotton twine, includes twines not used either for tving or fishing purposes. More than half of the production of this group consists of sewing twines, which arc used for sewing bags and other articles requiring a yarn or cord that is heavier than is ordinarilv implied by the term thread. These twines often are identical with certain sizes of wrapping twines, which sometimes are advertised as b..ing suitable for sewing purposes. Other twines included in this group are used for a variety of purposes, as indicated by their names. "Hop" twines and "pea" twines, which are used in agriculture to support growing vines, are indica- tive of one type of use, ard "tobacco" twines, that arc used for mak- ing draw strings for small sacks of tobacco end for tying 1 af tobacco, arc indicative of another. Other products include "broom" twines that are employed in the manufacture of brooms; "top" twines 23/ Estimated on b?.sis of production, imports, and exports figur given in table 1, Nets and Hotting and Other Fishing Gear, Report of U. S. Tariff Commission to the United States Senate, Washington, 1937. (Report No. 117 — Second Series. ) - 39 - for spinning tops; cabled "kite" twiner for flying kites; "webbing cord" used in the manufacture of upholstery; and "mattress tufting cord," for uso in the rnanufactu.ro of mattresses, to mention a few. Although twines included in this group possess the charact- istics required for their particular uses, they usually are identi- cal with cortain types of tying twines, and their use is influenced by similar technological and price comparisons with other kinds of twine. In addition, their uso is controlled by the requirements and conditions prevailing in each use. Cottoa Cordage In comparison with other cordage, cotton cordage finds wide use for reauire nents whom tensile strength is secondary to such qualities as flexibility, softness, and appearance. Production of cotton cordage in 19 57 was second only to production of abaca' cordage in quantity and value, and during the last 3 biennial census years has comprised between 20 percent and 25 percent of the total production of all types of cordage. Classified according to construction, cotton cordage is of two tvpes, braided ~nd twisted. On the basis of reports from 27 manufacturers, representing nearly one-third of the production, it is estimated that about 60 percort of the total production is braided and about 40 percent is twisted (table 15). Table 15.- Estimated oroduction of cotton cordage by kinds in the United States, 1935-37. 1/ Kind 1935 \ 1936 | 1937 Million Million Mi 1 1 i on , pounds' pounds pounds Braided cordage (60 percent) ..... 13.7 16.0 16.3 Twisted cordage (40 percent) 9.1 10.6 10.9 22.5 CP. O 27.2 1/ Estimated on the basis of reports from manufacturers representing 29 percent of production in 1935, 32 percent in 1037. Total produc- tion data for 1935 and 1957 arc from the Census of Manufactures but are estimated for 1936. Production of each item is total multiplied by estimated percentage shown in parenthesBSi Percentages arc average proportions for 3 years as indicated by manufacturers' reports, the proportion varying 1 percent or less from year to year. Braided cotton cordage ordinarily is made in sizes ranging from threo-sixteenths of an inch to one-half inch ir diameter and these sizes are designated as number 6, number 16, and so forth, according to the number of thirty-seconds of an inch in the diameter - 40 - ~uronent. Most extensive uso of braided cor as clothes-* lino and as windowsash cord but substantial quinti ;.? es also r rc used as Venetian- blind cord, trolley cor'', flag ha! ' rds, bell cords 5 or.d for other varied requirements. Most extorsive ■ lv used sizes are numbers 6, 7, and 8, numbers 6 and 7 boi- r fcrred Tor clothesline and numbers 7 and 8 sh cord. Most of th/ braidod cotton cordage is glazed or polished to incroasc smoothness and durability. Several grades arc manufactured, ranging frora constructions composed of rovfngs nr.de of cotton waste which are braided about a center "lord " ith clay or other foreign materials to constructions made entirely from lint cotton yarns. Federal specifications for braided sash cor .. which are considered to be applicable to the better commercial grades of this product are shown in table 16. Similar data for twisted cotton rope also are shown. Table 16.- Diameter, length per pound, and breaking strength of cotton cordage, /l Br - Le'ed sash cor- Rope Size :Length per [Diameter: pound :Breaking : strength "Diameter : Length | r : : Breaking : strength : (minimum) : (r.inir urn. ) .(normal ) : (minimum) : (minimum) : Inches : Feet : Pounds : Inches : F( ct : Pounds 6 : 6/32 225 ■ 1/8 200 120 7 ■ 7/32 51 272 i ^16 90 250 8 • 8/^2 *0 328 1/4 52 420 10 10/32 27 440 3/8 2 3.5 890 12 • 12/32 19.5 560 3/4 13. £ 6 1,450 3,100 1 3.5 5,100 l/ Federal specifications' as compiled from Federal Standard Stock Catalogue, Section T-C 571; T-R 571. In comparison with broddc I cordage, twisted cotton cordage or rope has greater tensile strength but is not so smocth and is mere likely to suffer from abrasions. _ It in manufactured in sizes ranging from three-sixteenthr of an inch to 1-1/4 inch s or more in diameter, the sizes of less than one-half inch diameter being used most exten- sively. Probably half of the total production is used as plow', on farms. It also is used in the building trades, in clotheslines and well rcpes, as small ropes on ships, for awnings and Venetian blinds, for tying bundles, as transmission er driving rop<_s, and in other ways. Several qualities are manufactured, ranging from grades made entirely of cotton waste to constructions composed of yarns made entirely from cotton lint. It is unpolished usually. - 41 - Factors in fluencin g use o f cotton cordage,- Owing to the number of uses to which cotton cordage is applied and the lack of information concerning many of then, it is impossible to completely analyze the demand for these products. However, there is evidence of decreased use of certain products which should be recognized. For instance, the consumption of cotton sash cords has been adversely affected by the use of chains on windows and by the increased use of casement windows which do not require pulleys. The use of cotton clotheslines undoubtedly has declined with the trend towards the use of large, commercial laundries. It also is likely that use of cotton plow lines has declined with the change frjm horse to tractor as a means of motive power on farms. But there is no quantitative backing for any of these stot^ments. In view of the fact that con- sumption of cotton cordage has been maintained, it may be concluded that increased use for certain purposes has counterbalanced losses in others. For instance, use of cotton cordage in Venetian blinds undoubtedly has increased. Cotton cordage encounters competition from cordage made of other fibers, particularly in clothesline, but there is nothing to indicate recent substantial losses or gains as a result of this com- petition. Instead, fluctuations in production and consumption appear to be the result of changing demands for cordage on the part of con- sumers as a re suit of changing prices and changing business and other conditions. UTILIZATION OF COTTON III CORDAGE AND TWINE Quantity and Grade of Cotton Used According to reports received from manufacturers, the quantity of cotton used in the manufacture of cotton cordage and twine during 1937 averaged 1.10 pounds per pound of product. Although this amount was the average for the entire production, the quantity used per pound of different products varied with factors such as the quality of the product, kind of cotton used, and in regard to -whether the product was polished or not. For instance, an average of 1.24 pounds was reported c msured for each pound of seine and other fishing twines manufactured but the average quantity used per pound Df braided cordage, some types of which are glazed or loaded with noncotton materials, was only 1.09 pounds. For all twines combined, average consumption of cotton per pound of product was 1.19 pounds j for cordage, 1.15 pounds. Applying the above data to total production figures, it is esti- mated that 118 million pounds of cotton, or the equivalent of 248,000 bales of 478 pounds net weight, v;ere used in cordage and twine during 1937 (table 17). Most of this quantity, 182,000 bales, is estimated to have been used in twine, but nearly 66,000 boles is estimated to have been required in the manufacture of cordage. Similar estimates for previous years, assuming \ise ^f same quantity of cotton per pound of finished product, are given in tabic, 13. - 42 - Table 17.- Production of cotton cordage and twine, percentage of production included in survey, }j quantity of cotton reported used per pound of product, and estimated to 4 consumption of cotton in coruage and twine, by kind of product j United States, 1937. : Produc tion : Cotton cons Kind of product :Percent of : total : included :in survey : Total : 2/ .Average j [ pound of product . Total sail, : Percent 58 81 56 " .ill ion pounds Pounds 1.18 4/ 1.24 1.19 Million pounds Tying twines (wrapping, 47.8 9.5 : 16.0 j 56.2 Fishing twines (seine, t staging, etc. ) ... Sewing and other twines rot, : • • • • • • 11.8 19.0 60 73.3 : 1.19 87.0 22 28 16.4 i 10.9 : 1.09 1.24 17.8 13.5 24 27.2 : 1.15 31. 3 age . : Total twine and cord 50 100.5 : 1.18 118.3 1/ Percentage of total production for which reports were recorded froir. mo.nufacturos giving cotton utilization data. ?J Production: Estimated for individual kinds. See tables 12, 16. Zj Product of total production multiplied by average cotton consumed per pound of product. 4/ Weighed average of 1.06 pounds for polished twines, 1.18 pounds for wrapping and sail twines. Of the total cotton reported used for cordage and twine during 1937, slightly more than one-fourth was cotton waste and slightly less than three-fourths was cotton lint. The proportion of cotton waste used in various nroducts differed considerably, ranging from'an average of only 5 percent in seine and other fishing twines to 85 per- cent in twisted cordaga. In general, twines have a larger proportion of cotton lint than cordage, but some manufacturers reported twines Lch we re made lrrgcly from waste and others reported cordage made entirely from cotton lint. More than 40 percent of the waste used consisted of card strips and more than 20 percent was comber waste. Other kinds of waste used extensively included fly and thread. - 43 - Table 18. - Production of cotton cordage and twine in the United States during designated years, 1899-19 37, and estimated cotton equivalents. 1/ Year Prod uction Cotton equivalent l/ Twine 1 Co rdage , Total Twine Cordage ! Total • Million Mi llion Million 1,000 1,000 1 , 000 : pounds 20 pounds 2/ 2 pounds : 2/ 22 : bales 50 bales bales 1899 2/ 4 2/ 54 1909 34 24 58 s 85 59 144 1914 31 19 50 - 78 45 123 1919 35 18 53 i 88 43 131 1921 — 17 — — 42 — 1923 : 59 24 63 : 97 59 156 1925. : 50 26 76 : 124 62 186 1927 ; 66 27 93 ; 164 66 ' 230 1929 j 88 28 116 : 219 67 286 1931 : 48 21 69 : 118 50 168 1933 : 60 27 87 : ; .149. 65 .- 214 1935 ! 53 23 76 : 133 54 187 3/1936 j 68 27 95 : 170 64 234 1937 : 73 27 100 : 182 66 248 1/ Estimated cotton and cotton waste required to produce stated quantity of cordage and twine, based on loss in manufacturing of 15.8 percent for twine; 13.0 percent for cordage. Bales are of 478 pounds rn t weight. jy Poos not include production of cordage in cotton goods- -industry. 'hj Production during 1936 estimated.' Compiled frem Census of Manu- factures - for other years. Most of the cotton lint used in cordage and twine was of seven- eighths of an inch or fifteen-sixteenths of an inch staple and more than half was strict low middling in grade . . Hovcv r, quantities of cotton in all grades between good ordinary and strict middling inclu- sive and of all staple lengths between thirteen- sixteenths of an inch and 1-3/ 32-inches, inclusive, were reported used. An analysis of cotton used in various products, showing grades and staples of cotton line and kinds of cotton waste used is given in table 19. Trends in Consumption of Cotton in Cordage .wine As indicated in table 20, consumption of cotton in cordage and twine showed a continued upward tr nd from 1914 to 1929, except pos- sibly during the 1919-21 period. By 1929, the quantity of cotton - 44 - & 3 00 I rH i ^ & cd fj) +z -U CO G KO.zt \f\ LO 1 -D 1 00 rH 1 lO I roCM ro l i~- - 1 LO 8 00 Tj CD J" r\M 1 1 1 r-H i I 1 rH •H ^ o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 rH f5 8 CD PL, -d co -U 5| G 0) r— i o\\JD i CMiro 1 1 1 CM CM 1 III v£> I 3 i cm r^-LO i 1 LO I i i 1 1 O o CO rH CJ F-l 1 | III 1 I i i 1 r-i F-i o CO CP o PL, 4D Sh 00 G CD CD G rOCM rH X> rH OMOiVjO nO =t CPvCM rH J" 8 ro r»— O^ roCM 1 i 1 CP> •h -d ,G G o m i i 1 rH co co o ^ U 1 I 1 CD LO -+J Ph G oo 8 CMH W LOv 1 _t 1 v£)UJ CT\ I lO IO00 1 CM 1 ! 1 LT\ 8 •H CO l roJ- i ax 00 I | 1 1 CT> ^3 G o 1 1 1 1 t-{ CO -H ^ 1 •H & CO fa -^> PL, 4-> »§ G Cj^OO CM en rH CM CM I — *X> ro H VO CMUD cr\j- 1 J- rH 8 CO rH CMJ3- 60 roCM 1 bd •H -H o 1 rH ££ CO PL, 0) -P V G c\i mr— 1 I rOLOCO 1 x> 1 rOLOLO | ro VD O CO cm c\i lO II ro 1 3- 1 ro 1 1 jHt O xi o 1 1 l 1 1 1 rH ^ F-l o CO o PL, 52 G I^-VQ cu co r-\ rororoCM ro lO r— oo crvx) ro 1 t\ LO 8 g CO rH CM J" r-\ 00 rH CM CM 1 00 •H CJ 1 rH IS CO PL, | o +? CO CO G rH^X) C3> x» rH CM CM f — O^ro =r CM CM CM ^t CM 1 CM j- o CD rH CO HJ" r— rH CM C\J rH 1 r^ o -d tJ G O 1 rH o 3 & u CO o +-> PL, CO -t-> • >» CO 3 (0 G 1 1 G •H G O G O 'w eg o d -p ^ y -d 03 -d +j -jj co g co . • cd O G • TJ . f • o -t-i rH -H *3 P a o o CD • 00 CO CJ 00 rH • e w E 1 o S3 cd 00 4^ • r-j O Xi Xi ' ' 1 Tj ! ^ 4^> ^ s; ru oo • to rHOCJ • £i JGCO'd'd «&-HO c 1 a - 00 O •H CO • -U p., G G -O O-UQ-H OrHO HH «H -tJ § G ^ $ • o co-h-h -a^a o ^ettflHTjctO'c «*-! o f-, - O -• 4-s Eh +3 -H O -h Eh t^) G Ti Fh •f- EH O G 4J G oo p, OOCM'XI^G C^ +J.H+J-H4-5 (OrH OUD -H^' >s CJ rH O S O >s-^~--. G r-i r-\ £> -r4 T) t* -H c u G O -»J O <0 Fh a ) O O-P o +3 -d ^J o "C P u +-> Tl-P O tO o O CO O -t-> rQ rOrH tH-^.00--^ U T3 U ■£ U c a -^ | 1 LO--^rO 4-> - 8 c O h 0 00 +J +3 -1-5 o o o 1 * o o EH - 45 - used in these products had increased to the equivalent of 236,000 bales as compered with 123,000 bales in 1914. This increase was propor- tionately greater than the increase in consumption of cotton in all industries, and as a result the percentage of the total cotton con- sumption used in cordage and twine rose from 2.2 percent in 1914 to 4.0 percent in 1929. Table 20.- Total cotton consumed, and quantity consumed in cordage and twine in the United States during designated years, 1914-37. Calendar year , cons : cord Estimated umpticn in aec and twine 1/ Total consumption in all industries ' 1/ Percentage consumed in cordage and twine 1, 000 bale ;S 1 ,000 bales 1,000 bales 1914 123 5,449 2.3 1919 131 5,920 2.2 1923 156 6,521 2.4 1925 186 6,433 2.9 1927 230 7,405 3.1 1929 286 7,050 4.1 1931 : 158 5,ei4 3.1 1933 214 6,211 3.4 1935 187 5,651 3.3 1936 y 234 7,104 3.3 1937 243 7,418 3.3 1/ From data in table 18. ZJ Compiled from United States Bureau of the Census Gotten Produc- tion and Distribution, Bulletin 175 and preceding issues. j3y\ Estimated on basis r f reports from manufacturers. Since 1929 the upward swing in consumption of cotton in cordage and tv.lnr has beer broken off an' 1 quantities used annually have ranged from as little as 169,000 boles in 1931 and 187,000 boles" in 1955 to as much as 24-3,000 bales in 1C57. Despite the lev; level :f consumption during son.e of these years, a larrer proportion of cordage and twine other than bineer twine was made from octton thar. during all y^ars before 1929. Tore over, the percentage ef total cotton consumption which was used for cordage and .tvdn< was equal to or greater than at any time before 1929. Even in absolute quantities, c msumptien in 1937 was greater than during any previous year except 1929. It may bo concluded, therefore, that consunrtien of cotton in tadno and cordage at least is being sustained, oven though there is no definite indication of on upward trend. - 46 - Undoubtedly the most important factor i -. * consump- tion of cotton in c rdage and twine during the las : years has been business conditions. Although fluctuo.ti ms in quantities consul have not coincided with fluctuations in bi is activity duri every year sine-- 1929, the abrupt decline after 195 the r. r increase from 1935 tc 1C37 (see table 20) car. be ascribed chiefly to this factor. In view of the magnitude of those chang be concluded that so far as the in .tc future is c ncerned, the important factor determining consumption of cotton oordag twine is likely to be business conditions. Other faci ihich may be of importance are changing price relationships, changing uses, i technological developments. Although such factors nay be >f c nsiderable importance, they arc unlikely tc influence consumption as much as changes in business activity. Changes in price relati '^, unless extreme, are likely to be of only limited importance. Changing uses and technological developments may be of great importance Dver a 1 period of time, but their impact is likely tc be felt only gradually. SUTxIAPY AND CONCLUSIONS Between 3 and 4 percent of the total quantity P cotl - sumed annually in the United States during the years since 1925 has been used in the manufacture of cordage and twir . Consumption of cotton in this use is estimated to have averaged more than 200,000 bales annually during the last 7 years and ti have totaled 248,000 bales in 1937. In addition to eott n, a number of other fibers are used in cordage and twine. These fibers include henequen, sisal, abaca' (Manila fiber), istle (Tampico fiber), and other hard fibersj jute, hemp, and flax. Paper also is used in the manufacture of twine. Of the total of 496 million pounds >f cordage ana twino manu- factured in 193 7 , 315 million pounds was marie f the various hard fibers; 100 million pounds of cotton; 50 mill: unds f jute, h flax, etc.; and 31 million pounds of paper. Production of all typos of cor totaled 152 million pounds during 1937, and comprised 2 7 percent f the total producti c ~f cordage and twine- About ono- fifth of all cor cotton and is used for clotheslines, wii w-s o ?• , pi - lines, and a variety cf other uses where flexibility, softness, : appearance arc >f major importance. Practicclly all f the remai is made from hard fib.rs, chiefly abaca'. Thcs ypes are us chiefly for hoistin , ropes, and sthor requir re high tensile strength is the most needed quality. This strength eit . t be secured from cctt n r can be bt only at a much higher cost and by use of much ! r cordage. Since coto r i r types of cordage generally are used for Per ' ■cquir ncnts, Lticn between the tw: is limit : . - 47 - Production of all types of twine other than binder twine totaled 207 million pounds duririg 19 37, or 4 2 percent of the total production of cordage and twine. In general the finest, lightest twines are made from cotton and the coarsest, heaviest twines are made from hard fibers. Jute, flax, and hemp twines occupy inter- mediate positions between the two,' overlapping in size with the coarser cotton twines and the finer, hard- fiber twines. Of the total quantity of twines produced during 1937, 35 percent were cotton; 26 percent were hard-fiber; 24 percent were jute, hemp, flax, etc., and mixtures thereof; and 15 percent were paper. Two- thirds of the cotton twine manufactured consists of twines used chiefly for tying purposes such as wrapping twines. These twines dominate the small-package field, are not used for heaviest packages, but compete directly with jute and other twines for tying medium- size packages. Consumption of cotton tying twines has been adversely affected by increased use of packages not requiring tying such as bags, and by gummed-paper tape, which competes on the basis of time- saved clerk and customer rather than on the basis of price. Another 13 percent of the cotton twine manufactured consists of seine and other similar twines which are used in the- manufacture or repair of fishnets or as fish lines. In these uses cotton meets certain woll-defined requirements which do not permit ready substi- tution. Consumption depends largely on fluctuations in the volume and profitability of fishing activity. About one-fifth of the cotton twine produced is used for sew- ing and other miscellaneous purposes. These twines usually are identical with certain types of cotton tying twines and their use is influenced by similar technological and price comparisons with other kinds of twine. In addition their use is controlled by the requirements and conditions prevailing in each use. An additional 32 percent or 158 million pounds of the total production of cordage and twine during 1937 consisted of one product, binder twine. Binder twine is a single-ply twine, made chiefly of sisal and henequen, which is used with binders for automatically tying bundles of the various small grains, flax and grass-seed crops, and corn during harvesting. There is no technological objection to the use of cotton for this purpose which could not bo overcome, but the fibers now used are so low in price that use of cotton is precluded. Total production of all types of cordage and twine other than binder twine has varied considerably from year to ve&r with business conditions and other factors, but appears to have shown little or no sustained increase during the last 30 years. However, cotton's share of this production has increased from 18 percent or less before 1925 to 29 percent in 1937. Production of bind< r twine has declined tremendously since 1914 as a result of declining exports, increased imports, and declining consumption attendant upon decreased acreage of small-grain crops and increased use cf combines. - 48 - UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA "III" 3 1262 08918 7214 According to reports r* i :'s, an av< ro of 1.18 pounds, of cotton sod for each pound sottoi ■ - • and twine manufactured in 1937. 0^ the. t Bed, slightly -fourth was cotton waste i bly lose than three-fourths v r as cotton lint. Tor- th< n 4C I the waste used was card strips and mor than 20 pore- i somber w« ~te. Most of the cotton lint used was oi' seven- eighths )f ni or fifteen-sixteenths of an inch staple and nore than half vas strict low middling in grade. The percentage of waste an- of cotton used varied with bhc type of product. 'i ' Undoubtedly business conditions have been the most important factor influencing the consumption of cotton in cordage and twine during the last few years, and this factor is likely to continue to "be most important in the immediate future. Other factors of i. - portance are changing price relationships, changing us c , i • .- nological developments. Changes ir. price relationships, urJcss extrc , are likely to be of only United importance. Changing uses and technological developments nay be of. ^roat importance over a 1< . period of tine, but their effect is likely to be felt only gradually.