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Gift of the Panama Canal Museum 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2013 
 
 http://archive.org/details/triumphaOOaver 
 
Copyright, Harris & Swing, Washington, l>. O. 
 
 COLONEL GEORGE WASHINGTON GOETHALS, 
 
 THE BUILDER OF THE PANAMA CANAL, 
 
 Who might be classed as the most absolute despot on earth, although a benevolent one, and the 
 squarest boss a man ever worked for. He is a thorough engineer, a righteous judge, and a stern 
 executioner rolled into one. He realizes that man is but human, and for simple infractions of 
 the rules, is always ready to give the offender another chance, but there will be no second time. 
 A man of prodigious memory, quick to grasp details be they trivial affairs of every day life, or 
 questions of moment; an ear for every one, and the friend of all. The American Nation owes 
 much to the men who rendered yeoman service on the Isthmus; they cannot be too highly re- 
 warded. It owes much to that peerless leader, George Washington Goethals, who, for over six 
 long years has kept the goal steadily in sight, who has never, for a single instant, permitted his de- 
 termination to waver, who has fought inch by inch until every obstacle has been overcome, and 
 who, through his forceful personality and sense of justice, has compelled the admiration of every- 
 one with whom he has come in contact. 
 
America's Triumph 
 
 AT 
 
 PANAMA 
 
 PANORAMA AND STORY OF 
 THE CONSTRUCTION AND 
 OPERATION OF THE 
 WORLD'S GIANT WATERWAY 
 FROM OCEAN TO OCEAN 
 
 By RALPH EMMETT AVERY 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 A TRIP TO THE PANAMA CANAL 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 WILLIAM C. HASKINS 
 
 OF THE CANAL RECORD 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE REGAN PRINTING HOUSE 
 
 Chicago 
 
Copyright, 1913, 
 
 by 
 RALPH E. AVERY 
 
 [4 
 
Dedicated to the 
 
 Men of Brain and Brawn of Our Country, Whose 
 
 Matchless Skill and Inspiring Courage 
 
 Made the Dream of Ages a Reality 
 
 in the Construction of the 
 
 Panama Canal 
 
 [5] 
 
[ 6 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 HE eighth wonder of the world, the crowning 
 achievement of man's greatest undertaking, 
 is the construction of the Panama Canal by 
 the Government of the United States and, 
 since this stupendous work has been accomplished in 
 much shorter time than was thought possible, there are 
 necessarily many reasons for congratulations for the 
 skill and perseverance displayed aside from the fact 
 that in completing this enterprise our government has 
 at the same time succeeded in changing the commercial 
 highways of the world. 
 
 Doubtless for centuries to come the world-wonders 
 of the Panama Canal will be told in story and in picture, 
 but the eloquence of the theme itself will never be ex- 
 hausted while reverence for mighty deeds finds lodg- 
 ment in the hearts of men. 
 
 Recognizing as much as one man could the magni- 
 tude and importance of the work being performed on 
 the Isthmus, the Author for almost two years dwelt 
 among the activities of this gigantic enterprise, and in 
 these pages authentically presents to the reader his 
 chronicles of the step-bv-step progress of the construc- 
 tion from beginning to completion, as well as the suc- 
 cessful installation of the world's majestic waterway 
 from ocean to ocean. 
 
 Clothed as it is in a beauty of typography and art 
 illustrations in keeping with the grandeur of the subject 
 he feels assured of a cordial reception on the part of 
 the public of the result of his efforts. 
 
 The Author. 
 
 [ 7 ] 
 
SUNRISE, SUNSET AND MOONLIGHT SCENES ON PANAMA BAY. 
 
 During February and March the moon is particularly bright, due to the clear atmosphere 
 which prevails in the height of the dry season. On certain brilliant evenings it is possible to 
 read in the moonlight. The cloud effects are perfect and the rainbows magnificent. One of the 
 prettiest effects, which happens but rarely, is a rainbow at night. 
 
 [8] 
 
HE history of the Panama Canal begins with the search for a western 
 waterway to the Indies, and for fame and gold, by those hardy 
 adventurers who followed in the wake of Columbus. These men, 
 fresh from the Moorish wars, and equipped for a struggle with Italy 
 which did not come to pass, looked for new fields to conquer. Nothing suited 
 them better than the discovery of a New World peopled by heathens waiting 
 to be converted by the sword to the Christian faith, after their gold, of which 
 they seemed to have plenty, was stripped from them to fill the empty coffers 
 of Spain. 
 
 This search by the followers of Columbus was fairly successful, so far as 
 fame and gold were concerned and, although no direct water route was found 
 to the Indies to the west, it naturally led to the settlement of the Isthmus of 
 Panama, the narrow strip of land separating the two great oceans and forming 
 the connecting link between North and South America. The establishment 
 of settlements on both coasts and the short distance between them, led to the 
 building of crude roads and trails for the early mule trains. These trails led 
 to the construction of a railroad, and the railroad to a ship canal, for trade 
 follows settlers, and water is the natural highway between nations. The story 
 of the Isthmus is, therefore, in a measure, the evolution of transportation routes. 
 
 EARLY DISCOVERERS 
 
 The first European to sail along the coast of Panama was Rodrigo de 
 Bastidas, who sailed from Cadiz in October, 1500, and first touched the 
 continent near the island of Trinidad, and from there went west as far as 
 Nombre de Dios. With him on that voyage was Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who, 
 later, was to discover the great South Sea, and Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed 
 with Columbus on his second voyage and was considered one of the most able 
 mariners of his day. 
 
 Columbus sailed from Cadiz on his fourth and last voyage in search of a 
 passageway to the Indies in May, 1502. On this voyage he skirted the shores 
 of Honduras and Costa Rica, to Almirante Bay and Chiriqui Lagoon on the 
 coast of Panama. At the latter place he was told by the Indians that, if he 
 
 [ ] 
 
T>A^D_v-PIVIDED <^THE: WQgUD> TTKITED 
 
 would continue his course to the east, he would soon come to a narrow place 
 between the two seas, and this led him to believe that his search for a strait was 
 nearing success; that he would soon pass into the Indian Ocean and thence 
 around the Cape of Good Hope to Spain, surpassing the achievement of Vasco 
 
 de Gama, the Portuguese, who had 
 already sailed around Africa (1497- 
 1498) in his search for a water route to 
 the Indies. Columbus continued on his 
 way and passed the site of the present 
 city of Colon at the Atlantic entrance to 
 the Canal, and on November 2, 1502, 
 arrived at a harbor 18 miles northeast, 
 which he named Porto Bello, signifying 
 beautiful port. He stayed there a week 
 stormbound, and then continued on 
 past Nombre de Dios, thus overlapping 
 the voyage of Bastidas. He gave up 
 his unsuccessful search for a strait 
 eventually, and took to the more prac- 
 tical work of hunting for gold. His 
 attempt to found a colony at the mouth 
 of the Rio Belen, southwest of Colon, 
 failed, and on May 1, 1503, he sailed 
 from the shores of the Isthmus. He 
 died on May 20, 1506, still believing 
 that he had discovered the eastern 
 shores of Asia. This belief was shared 
 by all the early voyagers until the dis- 
 covery of the Pacific Ocean in 1513. 
 
 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT 
 
 Statue of Columbus and Indian Girl. Pre- 
 sented to General Mosquera of Colombia in 
 1868, by the Empress Eugenie, and afterwards 
 turned over to Count DeLesseps. Now occu- 
 pies a commanding position on Cristobal Point. 
 
 After the unsuccessful attempt of 
 Columbus to found a settlement in 
 Castilla del Oro (Golden Castile), as the Isthmus was termed, two colonizers 
 were sent out by King Ferdinand. One of these, Diego de Nicuesa, a Spanish 
 nobleman, more fitted for the court than for a command in the wilderness, was 
 given control of all the land between Cape Gracias a Dios, Nicaragua, and the 
 Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, the eastern limit of the present Republic of Panama. 
 The other was Alonso de Ojeda, who accompanied Columbus on his second 
 voyage, and in addition had made two trips to the continent independently. 
 Ojeda was placed in charge of the land east and south of the Gulf of Uraba 
 called Nueva Andalucia. Both of these expeditions outfitted and sailed from 
 Santo Domingo in November, 1509. 
 
 Associated with Ojeda were Juan de la Cosa, as lieutenant in the future 
 government, and a lawyer named Bachelleer Enciso, who furnished most of 
 the money to equip the expedition. It was arranged that Enciso should remain 
 at Santo Domingo to collect recruits and supplies, procure another ship, and join 
 Ojeda later at the proposed colony. 
 
 Ojeda landed near the present city of Cartagena, Colombia, founded in 
 1531. Here he attacked and overcame the Indians with a part of his force, 
 
 [ 10] 
 
CTTLB Tv\N-D DIVIDED q^HE WQRkD> TTXITED 
 
 but in following up his victory, his men became scattered, and all those who had 
 landed were killed, with the exception of himself and one other. Among the 
 killed was the veteran Juan de la Cosa. Ojeda then entered the Gulf of 
 Uraba and founded the town of San Sebastian on the eastern shore, but was 
 soon compelled to return to Santo Domingo to obtain men and supplies. He 
 left the new colony in charge of his lieutenant, Francisco Pizarro, famous in his- 
 tory as the conqueror and despoiler of Peru, with the understanding that if he did 
 not return within 50 days the colonists should decide among themselves the best 
 course to follow. He finally reached Santo Domingo, after suffering ship- 
 wreck and many hardships on the island of Cuba, and found that Enciso had 
 departed long before with abundant supplies for the colony, but he was unable 
 to recruit another force to follow. 
 
 Pizarro and his men, suffering for lack of food, waited anxiously and in 
 vain for the return of Ojeda, and then abandoned the colony and sailed for 
 Cartagena. Here they found Enciso with reinforcements and provisions. 
 With Enciso was a stowaway in the person of Vasco Nunez de Balboa. Enciso 
 insisted on Pizarro and his men returning with him to San Sebastian. On their 
 arrival, they found the settlement destroyed by Indians. They were without 
 food, and at the suggestion of Balboa, who had sailed along these shores with 
 Bastidas, they crossed the Gulf of Uraba, where it was reported the Indians 
 were less warlike and provisions could be obtained. It was necessary, however, 
 for them to defeat a band of Indians under a powerful chief named Cemaco, 
 who disputed their landing, but they obtained the much needed supplies, and 
 founded the settlement of Santa Maria de la Antigua, the first on the Isthmus. 
 They were now in the territory which had been assigned by the King to Xicuesa 
 and, consequently, had no right there. The ambitious Balboa took advantage 
 
 Columbus Island where Christopher Columbus stopped to repair and scrape the 
 bottom of his ships before proceeding on to Spain. 
 
 [ 11 ] 
 
Tv\N-P DIVIDED — q-HE Wom^_u^Trr^ 
 
 of this circumstance and the fact that Enciso was disliked by his men, for the 
 reason that he allowed no private trading with the Indians, to depose him, and 
 asked Nicuesa to come and take charge of the colony. 
 
 November 2, 1502, Columbus arrived at this harbor, 18 miles northeast of Colon, which he 
 named Porto Bello, signifying beautiful port. Rock for the concrete used in the locks at Gatun 
 was obtained at this point. 
 
 Nicuesa had already sailed from Santo Domingo, taking along with him 
 about 700 colonists. During the voyage, a terrific storm arose, wrecking some 
 of his ships and causing the loss of 400 lives. In the tempest the ships became 
 separated; some of them reached the coast at the mouth of the Belen River, 
 and others the mouth of the Chagres River. After collecting his men, Nicuesa 
 left the Belen River, and after doubling Manzanillo Point shortly landed, 
 saying: "We will remain here in the name of God." This was the site of the 
 town of Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. During 
 American canal times, the sand for the concrete in Gatun Locks was obtained 
 here, and in 1910 and 1911, the sand dredge cut through the hulks of two old 
 ships, believed to be relics of the days of Nicuesa. The dredge pumps also 
 drew up bullets and other small articles. 
 
 Nicuesa' s situation was desperate, as he was without arms or provisions, 
 but fortunately there arrived shortly his lieutenant Colmenares, who brought 
 supplies, as well as information concerning the new settlement at Antigua. 
 Nicuesa declared his intention of going there and taking all the gold found by 
 Ojeda's men as rightfully belonging to him. News of his intention reached 
 Antigua before he did and, on his arrival, he was met by an armed mob, 
 secretly urged on by Balboa, which cast him adrift in a leaky brigantine along 
 with 17 followers who had remained faithful to him. They were never heard 
 of again. Of the two expeditions, one was now left at Antigua, and of the two 
 men sent by the King of Spain to colonize the mainland, both were gone. 
 Balboa the stowaway ruled in Darien, March 1, 1511. 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE SOUTH SEA 
 
 The first move Balboa made on finding himself in charge of the colony was 
 to secure his position by persuading Enciso and those who had led the mob in 
 
 [ 12 ] 
 
J>AM-D piVIDED ctthb WQBl£g>>_I JNJTEP 
 
 the attack on Nicuesa to return to Spain. Knowing that they would immedi- 
 ately go to the King and ask that he be dispossessed, he started in to obtain the 
 gold which he knew the King thought more of than all else, and to make new 
 discoveries which would help his cause. The gold he obtained from the 
 Indian chiefs of the Darien. It was made the price of peace, and Balboa 
 showed his shrewdness by making allies of the Indians after he had obtained 
 their treasure. Such an alliance he made with Careta, the cacique of Coyba, 
 who after his village had been sacked by the Spaniards, left with Balboa one of 
 his daughters as a hostage. Balboa accepted the Indian maiden, of whom 
 he became very fond and, although they were i^ever married according to the 
 Christian rites, she considered herself his wife. 
 
 Balboa started from Antigua on September 6, 1513, to cross the Isthmus 
 and find the great sea to the south, of which the Indians, knowing the cupidity 
 of the Spaniards, had told him glowing tales of the riches of the great race of 
 people which inhabited its shores. Fighting the different tribes which he met 
 on the way, subduing and making friends with them, on September 25, he 
 reached a hill in Darien from which it was said the South Sea could be seen. 
 Halting his men, Balboa made the ascent alone, and was the first European to 
 gaze upon this heretofore unknown ocean. Six days later, September 29, 1513, 
 four hundred years ago, he waded into the ocean and took possession in the 
 name of the sovereigns of Spain. This was in the Gulf of San Miguel, so named 
 for the reason that it was discovered on St. Michael's Day. He also performed 
 a similar ceremony when he reached a point of land at the entrance to the gulf. 
 Balboa subdued the local Indian chiefs, who gave him presents of gold and also 
 many pearls from the Pearl Islands a few miles off the shore, and confirmed 
 the rumors of a powerful and rich nation to the south. The Pearl Islands, so 
 
 A family of Indians, Darien. 
 
 [ 13 ] 
 
JiAN-D piVIDED <THE WO^^JIINJTED 
 
 named by Balboa, could be plainly seen, but he did not visit them at that time 
 on account of the roughness of the sea and the frailty of the available Indian 
 canoes. He named the largest of the islands, Isla Rica, which is now known 
 as San Miguel, or Rey Island. 
 
 Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. Sand was obtained 
 here for the cement used in the Gatun Locks. 
 
 Balboa returned triumphant to Antigua after an absence of about four 
 months. His messenger telling of his great discovery did not reach the King, 
 unfortunately, until after that monarch, listening to Enciso's complaints, had 
 sent out a new governor to take charge of the colony. 
 
 balboa's unfortunate end 
 
 The new governor was named Pedro Arias de Avila, commonly called 
 "Pedrarias the Cruel," which nickname he won in the New World by his 
 method of extorting gold from the Indians. With Pedrarias was Hernando de 
 Soto, who was later to discover the Mississippi River, and Diego de Almagro, 
 who was to become the partner of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. Unlike 
 Balboa, Pedrarias did not try to make friends with the Indians, but in many 
 instances repaid the hospitality which they extended to him as a friend of 
 
 Balboa with the utmost treachery, 
 destroying their villages, killing 
 women and children, and selling 
 those who survived into slavery. 
 He undid what Balboa had been in 
 a fair way of accomplishing, that is, 
 the settlement of Darien, for the In- 
 dians were everywhere aroused and 
 repaid cruelty with cruelty as often 
 as an opportunity was presented. 
 Pedrarias strove to establish 
 a line of posts for communication 
 between the two oceans in accord- 
 ance with the ideas of Balboa, but 
 Shrines are common along the waysides and at without success. The first of these 
 the entrance to villages, but this one has been was located Oil the Atlantic Coast 
 placed in a hollow tree. The photographer dis- , named Sinta Cruz 
 
 covered it near Gorgona. at a P'ace named Sania V.1UZ. 
 
 [ 14 1 
 
Jy\M-D piVIDED cTTHB WORUD, JTKITED 
 
 In the meantime, the King had recognized Balboa's discovery with a 
 commission as Adelantado of the South Seas and Viceroy of the Pacific coast, 
 an empty title, as he was subject to the orders of Pedrarias. Pedrarias, jealous 
 of Balboa's achievement, held up this commission 
 and kept Balboa fighting for his liberty in the court 
 of Antigua on trumped up charges. Finally Balboa 
 made an alliance with Pedrarias by promising to 
 marry one of his daughters, who was at that time 
 in Spain, and went a few miles up the coast to a 
 place called Acla, between Antigua and Santa Cruz, 
 where he established a settlement and had timbers 
 cut and shaped which could be readily built into 
 ships with which to explore the new sea which he 
 had discovered. These timbers were carried across 
 the Isthmus by Indian slaves and were set up in 
 San Miguel Bay. 
 
 While at the Pearl Islands, from where he made 
 several short cruises, Balboa heard of the coming 
 of a new governor to supersede Pedrarias. Think- 
 ing this governor might be hostile to his plans, he 
 sent messengers to Antigua to see whether or not he 
 had arrived. If he had, he instructed the messengers 
 to return without allowing their presence to become 
 known, and he would then leave on his voyage of 
 discovery before orders for his recall could be 
 delivered. His messengers went to Antigua and 
 found Pedrarias still in charge, for the new governor 
 had died on his arrival. One of them, however, 
 told Pedrarias that Balboa was contemplating treachery and the founding of 
 an independent colony on the Pacific coast. The bitterness and jealousy 
 
 A wayside cross, or shrine. 
 Some of these are very old. 
 
 Village of San Miguel on Rey Island, one of the larger of the Pearl Island Group. 
 
 [ 15 ] 
 
T)AM-P piVIDED crrn& WORkD^ TTKITED 
 
 of Pedrarias for Balboa again came to life, and he sent Francisco Pizarro, 
 who was later to finish the work Balboa had planned to do, to bring him back 
 to Acla. At Acla, Balboa was given a mockery of a trial for treason and was 
 beheaded with four companions in the latter part of 1517. Second only to 
 the discovery of the South Sea was the demonstration of the practicability of 
 an Isthmian transit. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF OLD PANAMA 
 
 Pedrarias seeing the advantage of a settlement on the new ocean as an 
 outfitting station for future exploring expeditions, crossed the Isthmus and, on 
 August 15, 1519, founded Panama, situated about five miles east from the new 
 city. The name "Panama" is supposed to have come from an Indian word 
 meaning a place abounding in fish, and tradition relates that the town was built 
 on the site of an Indian fishing village. In the same year the Atlantic port was 
 transferred to Nombre de Dios, directly north of old Panama, and a few years 
 later Antigua and Acla were abandoned to the Indians. 
 
 Some of the interior villages have no jails stout enough to hold a prisoner, 
 so the stocks are resorted to. 
 
 On September 15, 1521, the settlement at Panama was made a city by 
 royal decree, and the first bishopric in the Americas was removed there from 
 Antigua. The new governor sent out, opportunely for Pedrarias, died on his 
 arrival, as did several others who followed, and Pedrarias ruled until the arrival 
 of Pedros de los Rios, who took charge on July 30, 1526. Before his arrival, 
 Pedrarias took refuge in Nicaragua where he had already established a settle- 
 ment. , 
 
 SPAIN S POWER SPREADS 
 
 Following this period in Isthmian history many parties set out inland to 
 explore the country, and outposts were located in the provinces of Chiriqui and 
 Veraguas. These explorations were made in accordance with the desires of 
 Charles V, who took a great interest in the exploration of the South Sea and the 
 discovery of a strait connecting it with the Atlantic Ocean. After he came to 
 the throne of Spain in 1516, he charged the governors of his American colonies 
 to examine the coast line from Darien to Mexico for a possible waterway. 
 
 In accordance with this policy, Gil Gonzales de Avila was sent out from 
 
 f 10 1 
 
Spain in 1521, with instructions to make a search along the coast for the western 
 opening of a strait. Gonzales dismantled and transported his ships across the 
 Isthmus and rebuilt them on the Pacific side. In January, 1522, he sailed from 
 Panama bay and went as far as the Bay of Fonseca, where he landed and 
 discovered Lake Nicaragua. On this voyage Gonzales met men sent out on 
 similar service by Cortez, who, later, established a transit route across the Isth- 
 mus of Tehuantepec in Mexico, following pretty closely the present railroad. 
 This route was started in much the same manner as the one across Darien, 
 through the necessity of transporting suitable lumber from the Atlantic coast of 
 the Isthmus to build ships with which to explore the Pacific coast. When 
 Pedrarias learned of the discovery of Lake Nicaragua, he immediately laid 
 claim to it, and as the country was rich in gold, established a city at Granada 
 
 Old Fort at Porto Bello. 
 
 near the shores of the lake after subduing the Indians. In 1529, Captain 
 Diego Machuca thoroughly explored the lake and discovered its eastern outlet, 
 the San Juan River. Sailing down this stream he finally reached the Atlantic 
 Ocean, and sailed along the coast until he arrived at Nombre de Dios, thus 
 opening up another route across the American Isthmus. 
 
 The first extensive explorations to the south were the voyages of Pizarrc 
 and Almagro in 1524, which ended in the conquest of Peru. In 1527, an 
 expedition sailed up the Rio Grande, carried their canoes across the divide 
 at Culebra to a tributary of the Chagres, down which they sailed to its mouth, 
 thus going over the present Canal route. 
 
 PERIOD OF THE GREAT TRADE 
 
 Permanent settlements were now located at Nombre de Dios and at 
 Panama, and between these two points was established a paved trail or "royal 
 
 I 17 1 
 
JvMsL-P piVIDED cmB WOBJyP> TTKITED 
 
 highway," for the commerce across the Isthmus at that time was steadily on 
 the increase, making Panama a place of mercantile importance. In 1534, a 
 route by water for boats and light draft vessels was established from Nombre 
 de Dios along the coast and up the Chagres River to the head of navigation at 
 Cruces. From Cruces there was another trail to the city of Panama. Over 
 these trails pack trains carried on the trade, the river being used in the wet 
 seasons, and when the attacks of the Indians and Cimaroons, (negro slaves, 
 who rebelled and were outlawed), became too frequent on the overland trail. 
 This trade consisted of gold and ornaments stripped from the temples of the 
 Incas, gold from the mines of Darien and Veraguas on the Isthmus, silver from 
 Bolivia, pearls, and also wool, indigo, mahogany, dye woods, cocoa, and 
 tobacco, all bound for Spain, for which the colonists received clothing and food- 
 
 The three ancient bells of Cruces. This town was one of the oldest on the Isthmus, and was 
 the head of navigation on the Rio Chagres before the days of the railroad. Abandoned in 1913 
 on account of its being in the lake area. 
 
 stuffs in return. For nearly two hundred years the trails from Panama to the 
 towns of Nombre de Dios and Porto Bello were the richest trade routes in the 
 world. Some of this trade even originated across the Pacific in the Philippines 
 and the Indies. Later, after the period of the great trade, 1550-1750, and up 
 to the time of the Panama railroad, the part water and part overland trail from 
 the mouth of the Chagres to Cruces, 34 miles, and thence to Panama, 18 miles, 
 was used by the colonists when California and Oregon were opened to settle- 
 ment, and by the gold seekers in California in the days of '49. 
 
 After Nombre de Dios was destroyed in 1597 by Sir Francis Drake, the 
 royal port was changed to Porto Bello, 17 miles to the southwest. This change 
 was beneficial, as Nombre de Dios was always unhealthful, while Porto Bello 
 had a better harbor and was nearer to the mouth of the Chagres and Panama. 
 
 [ 1* ] 
 
CTMB TvAN-D . DIVIDED —-CTKE, WORL>D> TTXITED 
 
 Porto Bello became one of the strongest fortified of the Spanish settlements in 
 the New World. Here, came the Spanish galleons once a year to collect the 
 King's treasure, and to bring supplies for the colonists, and here, each year, on 
 the arrival of the ships, the merchants would congregate to take part in a big 
 fair which was held during the annual visit of the fleet. 
 
 The town is situated on a bay about a mile and a half long by 2,500 feet 
 wide, and the ruins of five of the six forts which guarded it, as well as an old 
 custom house, can still be seen, although partly covered with jungle growth. 
 One of the six forts was on the side of the hill on the opposite side of the bay 
 from the old town and where the Isthmian Canal Commission has been quarry- 
 ing rock for the past four years for Canal work, and it was dug away by steam- 
 shovels. After Porto Bello became the royal port on the Atlantic, the Chagres 
 
 Mouth of the Chagres River. The old fort on the left and one of the turrets on the right. 
 
 River and the Cruces trail came into general use as a highway, although there 
 was also an overland road, and to protect this route from pirates who were 
 becoming bold enough to attack fortified towns, Fort San Lorenzo was built in 
 1601 at the river mouth. 
 
 THF. SCOTCH BUBBLE 
 
 England lost its opportunity in 1698-1700 to gain a foothold in the Isthmian 
 trade by failing to lend its aid to the colonization scheme of William Patterson, 
 ;i Scotch financier, who had already founded the Bank of England. Patterson's 
 plan, which eventually cost about 2,000 lives and $100, WOO in money, was 
 designed to break up the monopoly of the British East India Company in the 
 Oriental trade by founding a colony on the shores of Darien, and opening up a 
 free trade route across the Isthmus from Acla to the Gulf of San Miguel, over 
 the same route taken by Balboa nearly 200 years before. Permission for the 
 
 1 10 1 
 
CTHB TyAN-D . DIVIDED — cm& wouijd, ttkited 
 
 formation of the company with this end in view was obtained from King William. 
 His approval, however, was later withdrawn at the instigation of the East India 
 Company, when it realized that its monopoly was in jeopardy, and instructions 
 were issued to the governors of the British colonies in the West Indies and 
 North America to withhold any aid to the Scots who had already departed for 
 Darien. The opposition of the East India Company forced the new project 
 to return all the money subscribed for stock in England, and to raise the 
 necessary funds in Scotland only. 
 
 On November 1, 1698, three ships and two tenders containing 1,200 men 
 reached the Darien from Leith, and founded the town of New Edinburgh on 
 the Gulf of Calidonia, near Acla. Here they were welcomed by the San Bias 
 Indians who saw in them future allies against the Spaniards. But the Scots 
 had no intention of fighting, much to the disappointment of the Indians, although 
 they must have known that their invasion would be resisted by the Spaniards. 
 The first expedition managed to stay eight months, during which time their 
 numbers were sadly reduced by sickness and famine. On June 20, 1699, 
 two hundred and fifty survivors, with Patterson who had gone out to the colony 
 as a volunteer, and whose wife and son had died there, left for New York, which 
 place they reached on August 13. Meanwhile, the company at home, not 
 knowing of the abandonment of the colony, sent out a second band of 300 
 recruits. This party arrived at New Edinburgh on August 13, the same day 
 that their predecessors reached New York. Finding the half-completed Fort 
 St. Andrew deserted, they immediately left for Jamaica with the exception of 
 a few men who insisted upon remaining. A third expedition consisting of 
 four ships and 1,300 men was sent out from Scotland, and reached New Edin- 
 burgh on November 30, although rumors of the failure of the first attempt had 
 been received. 
 
 At last the Spaniards determined to oust the invaders who, unable to 
 accomplish much on account of internal bickerings, the opposition of England, 
 and a nigh death rate, sent out a fleet of ships from Cartagena on February 
 25, 1700, to invest the port by sea, while a land force blockaded it in the rear. 
 On March 31, after many sorties against the Spanish forces, the colonists 
 surrendered and were allowed to depart with honors. The colony had been 
 reduced to about 360 persons, and these were so sick and feeble that it is said 
 the Spaniards had to help them aboard their ships and set the sails for them. 
 
 'A Nation given to the world, 
 
 A giant's task begun, 
 Show what our Uncle Sam can do 
 
 In an orbit of the sun. 
 O great indeed is our Uncle Sam 
 
 And his greatness ne'er shall cease! 
 For greatest of all his conquests won, 
 
 Are his victories of peace! " 
 
 —Gilbert, 
 
 [20] 
 
'PAIN monopolized the early trade with its colonies and this policy 
 eventually lost its control of the countries of Central and South 
 America. The first direct result was the entering of English, French 
 and Dutch free traders and later, buccaneers and pirates, all of whom 
 ranged up and down the coast of the Spanish Main preying upon commerce 
 and even attacking the fortified towns. 
 
 Up to the time Sir Henry Morgan became Governor of Jamaica, after the 
 sack of Panama in 1671, there was very little difference between free traders, 
 privateers, buccaneers and pirates, their object being the same, — the easy 
 acquisition of gold and other loot by preying upon the commerce of Spain. 
 From 1550 to 1750, the Isthmian trade route was open to such attacks. After 
 the sack of Panama, however, England endeavored to put a stop to piracy in 
 the West Indies (Jamaica was the outfitting station for many ships sailing under 
 commissions granted by the governor who received a share in the spoils), and 
 after that time the pirates were hunted as a common enemy, and they in turn 
 preyed upon the shipping of all nations. 
 
 The result of the depredations of these freebooters finally forced Spanish 
 shipping to give the waters of the Indies a wide berth, and to take the longer 
 route through the Straits of Magellan to the colonies on the Pacific, although 
 this trade was already beginning to decline, partly through the failure of the 
 colonies to develop after the easily won treasures of the Incas began to give out, 
 and partly through the decadence of Spain as a sea power. 
 
 The free traders, who finally developed into pirates, were generally 
 welcomed by the colonists, unofficially, as Spain was not a manufacturing 
 country and was unable to supply their needs, and because it was greatly to their 
 benefit to obtain goods of a better quality upon which no taxes had been paid 
 to the King. The traders were forbidden entry into the ports, and were com- 
 pelled to smuggle their goods in at convenient points along the coast and in 
 secret harbors. The custom of treating these men as pirates when caught, 
 naturally led them to protect themselves and, when the opportunity offered, 
 to retaliate in kind, and they finally became buccaneers or pirates in name as 
 well as in fact. The name buccaneer was given to the free traders by the 
 
 [ 21 ] 
 
g tgLE JvAN-P DIVIDED ^THE WQGLkD> TTKITED 
 
 boucaniers, men engaged in supplying them with smoke-eured meat for their 
 
 drake's expedition 
 
 
 The first Englishman to make his name feared by the Spanish in the 
 West Indies was Sir Francis Drake. In 1568, Sir John Hawkins, with 
 
 an English fleet, entered the harbor 
 of Vera Cruz, Mexico, to trade 
 with the Spaniards. He was re- 
 ceived by the officials of the port 
 in a friendly manner and invited to 
 anchor. As soon as his ships were 
 anchored under the guns of the 
 forts, he was attacked and all his 
 ships destroyed, with the exception 
 of two which managed to escape, 
 one belonging to himself and the 
 other to his cousin Francis Drake. 
 Drake returned to England and 
 endeavored to obtain satisfaction 
 for his losses through his govern- 
 ment, but was unable to do so. He 
 then decided to collect his own 
 indemnity by attacking Spanish 
 shipping as he had been attacked. 
 He obtained Letters of Marque from 
 Queen Elizabeth, and, in 1571-1572, 
 made two preliminary voyages to 
 the West Indies, principally to pre- 
 pare for future raids and to learn 
 how the Spaniards handled the golden harvest from Peru. In 1572, he re- 
 turned with two ships, in the holds of which were stored the parts of three 
 small sailing boats, and on July 29, having put the boats together, he attacked 
 and captured Nombre de Dios where the King's treasure house was at that 
 time located. He would have made a rich haul of the gold waiting for the 
 arrival of the fleet from Spain had he not been w T ounded in the assault on the 
 town. 
 
 Drake then made his headquarters on the coast, and made many forays 
 on shipping, even taking ships from under the guns of Cartagena. With the 
 help or the Indians, who since the days of Pedrarias were always ready to help 
 the enemies of Spain, and of the Cimaroons (as escaped negro slaves w T ho had 
 banded together in the jungle and waged continual war on the Spanish pack 
 trains were called), he crossed the Isthmus to the Pacific, in time to see a Peru- 
 vian plate fleet riding at anchor in the bay of Panama. He planned to ambush 
 the pack train carrying the treasure from this fleet near Venta Cruz, or Cruces, 
 but failed to obtain any gold, the Spaniards aware of his presence, sending a 
 train of mules bearing provisions in advance. He captured and sacked 
 Cruces but, as thus was merely a stopping place for the pack trains, he procured 
 very little booty. Another ambush outside of Nombre de Dios was more 
 successful, his men taking away all the gold they could carry and burying 
 
 [22] 
 
 Sir Henry Morgan. 
 
CTRB JvANP . DIVIDED ^TJ^ElWOBJj^ tixited 
 
 several tons of silver in the vicinity. In 1573, he returned to England and 
 started to organize a fleet to go to the Pacific, but John Oxenham who had been 
 with him when he crossed the Isthmus, forestalled him in his desire to be the 
 first Englishman to sail upon those waters. 
 
 John Oxenham crossed the Isthmus in 1575, with the help of the Indians, 
 over the same route traversed by Balboa, and launched a small boat on the 
 Pacific. He stayed in the vicinity of the Pearl Islands taking several small 
 Spanish prizes, and finally captured one of the treasure galleons from Peru. 
 Oxenham and his crew were finally captured by the Spaniards and put to death. 
 
 Drake returned to the West Indies on November 15, 1577, sailed through 
 the Straits of Magellan, swept the west coast of South America as far north as 
 California, without attacking the city of Panama, crossed the Pacific, passed 
 around the Cape of Good Hope and landed in England in 1580, having gone 
 completely around the world. In 1595, he again returned to the Isthmus, and, 
 with Sir John Hawkins, captured and burned Nombre de Dios, and started 
 across the Isthmus to attack the city of Panama, but the Spaniards had barri- 
 caded the royal road so effectively that the English gave up the attempt. They 
 went to Porto Bello instead, and just previous to the attack on that place, 
 January 28, 1596, Drake died and was buried at the mouth of the bay. 
 
 Drake's example was followed by William Parker, who attacked and sacked 
 Porto Bello in lGO^. From the time of Drake, Porto Bello had little rest from 
 attack; its forts were rebuilt only to be again destroyed. 
 
 FALL OF OLD PANAMA 
 
 Henry Morgan was one of the first of the pirates to attack the mainland. 
 In June, 1608, he plundered Porto Bello, and at that time sent a message to 
 
 Section of wall and Spanish cannon, with embrasure, in old fort at Porto Bello. 
 
 [23 ] 
 
CTMB |v\ND . DIVIDED -^<n^HE WQBfefi UNITED 
 
 the Governor of Panama that he would return in a short time to take that city. 
 As he promised, he returned to the Isthmus two years later, sent an advance 
 force, which attacked and captured Fort San Lorenzo at the mouth of the 
 Chagres, placed a garrison there and at Porto Bello, and started up the Chagres 
 and overland with 1,200 men, the Spaniards retreating before him. It took the 
 Englishmen nine days to make the journey, and they suffered greatly for want 
 of food as the Spaniards in their retreat on Panama laid waste to the country. 
 Panama was captured on January 28, 1671. Before the city fell fire broke out 
 and the place was entirely ruined. Morgan was accused of having set fire to 
 the town, but it was more likely that it was caused by a spark blown into an 
 open powder magazine, which had been ordered destroyed by the Governor, 
 Don Juan Perez de Guzman. However, Morgan stayed in the ruins nearly a 
 month, collecting booty, and also plundered the neighboring islands and the 
 surrounding country. He then returned to San Lorenzo, and sailed to Jamaica 
 with the largest share of the booty, leaving his companions to leave the Isthmus 
 as best they could. The attack on Panama was made when England was at 
 peace with Spain, and the British Government was forced to suppress buccan- 
 eering in Jamaica on account of the storm of protest aroused. Morgan was 
 made Lieutenant-Governor of Jamaica, was later knighted and became 
 governor of the island, in which capacity he did good work in suppressing 
 piracy. His appointment would appear to have been made by the King on the 
 theory that it takes a thief to catch a thief. 
 
 OTHER ATTEMPTS 
 
 Although Drake and Morgan were no longer feared, the Isthmus was not 
 yet free from the raids of numerous other pirates, French and English, who 
 
 Wall of the old fort at Porto Bello, showing entrance, and watch tower. 
 
 [24 ] 
 
CTFIB JyAN-D DIVIDED -^c-THE WOELUP, TTKITED 
 
 attacked Porto Bello, crossed the Isthmus, and raided up and down the coast 
 of the Pacific. Captain John Coxon plundered Porto Bello in 1679, and in 
 the following year crossed the Isthmus to the Pacific in company with Captain 
 Richard Sawkins, Bartholomew Sharp, Peter Harris and Edmund Cook, 
 
 ^^BHBH 
 
 Jyb^^. 
 
 A\ 
 
 
 HvW 
 
 J^mm 
 
 | ^ [ jX Jjtf Jjj.- . , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !■ 
 
 
 
 
 ^■d^x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - r 
 
 i 
 
 "v-2GjiK^nmBB 
 
 ^^HEf-17^^^^ 
 
 **3^M 
 
 . ^^ ^*, *** - . .. / • 
 
 
 
 - -' ' 
 
 - 
 
 
 T- 
 
 -v- ■■-■■ 1 
 
 Scene in the village of Chagres at the mouth of the river of that name. 
 
 accompanied by over 300 men. They crossed the Isthmus of Darien, guided 
 by the Indians, in April, 1680, and attacked Santa Maria, an outpost on the 
 Tuvra River. Not finding the expected gold at Santa Maria, they voyaged 
 in canoes and in two barks, captured by Captains Sharp and Cook, to Panama. 
 Arriving off Panama, they were attacked by three Spanish ships near the 
 island of Perico. In the fight which ensued on April 23, 1680, the English 
 were victorious, but they failed to attack the city owing to a disagreement 
 between themselves as to who should be leader, although thev staved in the 
 vicinity many days picking up prizes. Captain Sawkins was killed later in an 
 attack on the mining town of Pueblo Nuevo, in the Province of Veraguas. 
 Captain Coxon had already left with his men to recross the Isthmus to the boats 
 left on the Atlantic, and Captain Harris died from wounds received in the 
 battle of Perico, leaving Captains Sharp and Cook to continue their voyages 
 in the South Sea. Captain Sharp returned to England where he was tried for 
 piracy, but escaped hanging on account of lack of evidence. From 1680 to 1688, 
 pirate raids wiped out every settlement on the Pacific coast of Darien. In 1688, 
 England became the ally of Spain, and the pirates ceased operations for the 
 time being. 
 
 War broke out between England and Spain in 1738, and in 1739 Porto 
 Bello was again captured and destroyed by Admiral Edward Vernon of the 
 British Navy. In 1710, Vernon captured Fort San Lorenzo, and in 174 c 2, he 
 again took Porto Bello and prepared an assault on the new city of Panama 
 against which a fleet was going around the Horn under command of Captain 
 Anson. However, Vernon's men began to fall sick, so he gave up the attempt 
 
 [ 25 ] 
 

 ^ 
 
 ^Bl^c^^iidRTO^Ya^^ 
 
 The tower is the most important remaining evidence of the greatness of the first city of 
 Panama, destroyed by Morgan in 1671. It is located about six miles southeast of Panama City. 
 The wealth of Peru was transported over the old masonry bridges centuries ago. 
 
 [ 26] 
 
on Panama and went to Cartagena instead, at which place he met with a decisive 
 defeat. Anson learning of this event, left to attack Manila and the new city of 
 Panama was again saved. 
 
 The last of the Spanish galleons from Peru during the latter part of 1739 
 
 Pile of cannonballs at Fort San Lorenzo, used by the early Spaniards in resisting 
 the attacks of the buccaneers. 
 
 found upon its arrival at Panama that Porto Bello was being attacked by 
 Admiral Vernon, so it returned to Guayaquil and sent its treasure to Cartagena 
 over the trail from Quito to Bogota. Thus the commerce of the Spanish 
 galleons across the Isthmus ceased, and the gradual decay of the towns on the 
 Isthmus wherein lived the merchants and traders set in. 
 
 "From sacked Porto Bello redhanded they came, 
 All bloodstained from conquest unworthy the name, 
 To the mouth of the Chagres, where, high on the hill, 
 San Lorenzo kept guard, to plunder and kill 
 Its devoted defenders, who courageously fought 
 For homes, wives and children, accounting as naught 
 Their lives held so precious, so cherished before, 
 Could they drive the fierce pirates away from their shore. 
 Three days they repulsed them, but to find every night 
 The foe still upon them in ne'er-ending fight. 
 Their arms could not conquer the powers of hell! 
 San Lorenzo surrendered — ingloriously fell ! 
 Burned, famished and bleeding from many a wound, 
 Thev lav while their stronghold was razed to the ground." 
 
 —Gilbert. 
 
$1 f& 
 
 mm 
 
 HE project of connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific has attracted the 
 attention of the civilized world since the discovery of the Isthmus. 
 In the years 1534 to 1536, studies were made under the direction of 
 the then governor of Panama, Pascual Andagoya, in compliance with 
 a royal decree, dated February 20, 1534, for a ship canal across the Isthmus by 
 cutting from the Chagres River to the headwaters of the Rio Grande, but the 
 idea was abandoned on account of the excessive cost. 
 
 With a revival of interest in the subject, many routes were suggested and 
 many surveys were made at different points where the width of the American 
 Isthmus was found to be favorable, or where rivers and lakes were found that 
 might be utilized as a possible passageway. Of the many routes proposed, it 
 has been found that the one across Nicaragua, utilizing the San Juan River and 
 Lake Nicaragua, and that at Panama along the line of the Panama railroad, 
 utilizing the valley of the Chagres River and the Rio Grande, are the only 
 practicable ones. Of the others, those which gained the most attention and 
 which were given the most study were across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in 
 Mexico, and three in Panama, the Darien, or Atrato River, the San Bias, and 
 the Calidonia Bay routes. 
 
 TEHUANTEPEC 
 
 The Tehuantepec route, where the Spaniards under Cortez, after the 
 conquest of Mexico, built a road across the Isthmus, is the best location, geo- 
 graphically, for a canal, it being so much closer to the Pacific and Gulf ports of 
 the United States, while the distance from New York is practically the same as 
 from Panama. However, the summit level at this point was found to be in the 
 neighborhood of 700 feet and very broad, and it is doubtful if a sufficient supply 
 of water could be obtained for it even if it could be materially lowered by exca- 
 vation. When the French were at work on the Panama project, Captain James 
 B. Eads selected this place for the location of a ship railway with large cars to 
 transport ships from one ocean to the other. This never got beyond the 
 "scheme" stage, although at that time it was considered practicable by engineers. 
 
 [ 28 1 
 
.IjAjSD PIVIDED cn\m WOI3LDD> TTKITED 
 
 There is now an ordinary standard-gage railroad engaged at this point in 
 carrying transcontinental freight. 
 
 ATRATO RIVER AND TRIBUTARIES 
 
 Various projects have been proposed to utilize the Atrato river, which flows 
 almost directly north about 200 miles into the Gulf of Darien, at the point where 
 the Isthmus joins the continent of South America, and several of its tributaries, 
 which approach the Pacific coast very closely. There is an Indian legend that 
 canoes can be carried for a short distance from the headwaters of the Atrato to 
 another river flowing into the Pacific. The Atrato is a silt-bearing river and has 
 a considerable fall, and is not in itself adapted to the use of ocean-going ships. 
 It would necessitate continual dredging for a hundred miles to canalize it, and a 
 cut through the continental divide much greater than the Cut at Culebra. The 
 streams flowing into the Pacific are little more than mountain torrents. On 
 this account this route has not been considered with as much favor as the more 
 northerly ones. There is a widely circulated story that King Philip III, in the 
 period 1616 to 1619, issued an edict at the request of Pere Acosta forbidding 
 further consideration of the project on the ground that the will of God was made 
 manifest by the fact that He had created an isthmus instead of a strait, and that 
 it would be impiety for man to put asunder what God had joined. Probably 
 a more reasonable objection was that a ship canal would make the Spanish 
 colonies too easily accessible to their enemies. The policy of King Philip was 
 adhered to for over 200 years after his death in 1698. 
 
 CALIDONIA 
 
 The Calidonia route is where Balboa crossed to the Pacific in 1513, and is 
 the one which William Patterson chose in 1698 for a line of transit across the 
 Isthmus to control the trade of the Pacific with the east. This route starts 
 from Calidonia Bay on the Atlantic where Patterson's colony of New Edinburgh 
 was located, to San Miguel Bay on the Pacific. At first this appears to be an 
 ideal location for a ship canal on account of the short distance, 35 miles, between 
 the two oceans. It was advocated by Dr. Edward Cullen of Dublin in 1850. 
 He claimed that the summit level on this line was not over 150 feet. It was 
 partly explored by Mr. Lionel Grisborne, an English engineer, in 1852, and he 
 reaffirmed the claim of Dr. Cullen. Later explorations, among them those of 
 Lieutenant Isaac G. Strain, U. S. N., in 1854, and by the United States Darien 
 expedition in 1870, failed to confirm this low altitude. It was found that the 
 summit level is at least 1,000 feet above the sea. Although the Isthmus is very 
 narrow at this point, the excavation required is so great that it was proposed to 
 build a tunnel 4.2 miles long through the mountains through which ships might 
 pass. This project has long been considered impossible. 
 
 SAN BLAS 
 
 The San Bias route from the Gulf of San Bias to the Bayano River, which 
 flows into the Pacific about 15 miles from the Pacific entrance of the present 
 canal, is across the narrowest part of the Isthmus, the distance being about 30 
 miles from shore to shore. The distance from the Atlantic tidewater to tide- 
 water in the Bayano River is about two-thirds of that distance. This route was 
 explored under the direction of Mr. Frederick M. Kelley in 1857, and subse- 
 quently by an expedition under Commander Thomas Oliver Selfridge, Jr., 
 
 [ 29 ] 
 
j>A^d prviDED — ^^TBElJNOW^U tikited 
 
 U. S. N., in 1870. The difficulty here, as on the Calidonia route, lies in the 
 height of the summit, to cross which tunnels from eight to ten miles long were 
 also proposed. 
 
 The result of all these explorations and surveys resulted in the conviction 
 that no other route compared in practicability with that of Panama and Nica- 
 ragua. 
 
 NICARAGUA 
 
 This route, utilizing Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan River, which flows 
 out of it into the Atlantic, was used as an isthmian transit by the Spaniards as 
 early as 1529. It became the subject of investigation as a possible Canal route 
 in 1825, wdien the newly federated state of Central America advised the United 
 States that it would encourage any such project by Americans. Several 
 surveys were made, but no construction work was attempted. In 1850-1852 
 an American, O. W. Childs, organized a company under an agreement with 
 Nicaragua, and established a transit route, partly by water and partly by stage 
 road. This transit company also made surveys for a ship canal along this route. 
 It forfeited its concession in 1858 without doing any work on the proposed canal. 
 Later surveys were made by the United States under Commander E. P. Lull, 
 and in 1889 canal construction was begun when the Maritime Canal Company 
 of Nicaragua, composed of Americans, was formed under a concession from 
 Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Financial difficulties, however, stopped the work 
 and the company failed in 1893. For some years after efforts were made to 
 induce the United States Government to finance the project, with the result 
 that, in 1895, Congress provided for a board of engineers to ascertain the 
 feasibility and cost of a canal at this point. This board, appointed by President 
 Cleveland, consisted of Colonel William Ludlow, U. S. A., Civil Engineer M. 
 
 Swinging bridge, Chame. 
 
 f 30] 
 
CTHB Tv^D DIVIDED— -^THE WOBX>D, JTKITED 
 
 T. Endicott, U. S. N., and Civil Engineer Alfred Noble. They reported that 
 the Canal was feasible, but recommended further surveys and investigations. 
 Accordingly a commission was appointed by President McKinley, which con- 
 sisted of Rear Admiral J. G. Walker, Colonel Peter C. Hains, and Lewis M. 
 Haupt. Before the work of this commission was completed Congress provided, 
 in 1899, for increasing it for the purpose of making surveys, comparisons and a 
 thorough examination of all possible routes from Tehuantepec to the Atrato 
 River. The Commission, which became known as the Isthmian Canal 
 Commission, was now reinforced by the appointment of Colonel O. H. Ernst, 
 Alfred Noble, Geo. S. Morrison, and AVilliam H. Burr, engineers, and Professor 
 Emory R. Johnson and Samuel Pasco as experts, respectively, on the com- 
 mercial and political aspects of the problem. Explorations were made of the 
 entire Isthmus, but no favorable route was found other than that at Nicaragua 
 and that at Panama. The Commission reported on November 16, 1901, in 
 favor of the construction of a canal across Nicaragua, provided the property of 
 the New French Canal Company on the Isthmus of Panama could not be 
 purchased for $40,000,000, nearly one-third of the price asked. 
 
 The total length of the canal proposed at Nicaragua was about 187 miles, 47 
 miles of which was in deep water in Lake Nicaragua, 17 miles in the river not 
 requiring improvement, leaving 121 miles of river to be canalized. It was to 
 have nine locks. The difficulties which would have to be overcome are about 
 the same as at Panama. However, the longer distance at Nicaragua and the 
 proximity to active volcanoes made it less desirable than the Panama route. 
 The latter was more advantageous because of the Panama railroad and the 
 extensive plant and work of the French. 
 
 PANAMA 
 
 The Panama Canal project, like the others, was the subject of many 
 studies and surveys, the first, as stated above, being made in 1534. None of 
 the surveys however were thorough prior to the one made by the Isthmian Canal 
 Commission in 1890. Simon Bolivar, in 1827, caused a survey to be made of 
 the route by an English surveyor, and in 183.5 the Lnited States sent Charles 
 Biddle to investigate possible water or railroad routes across the Isthmus. 
 He obtained a concession from New Granada (Colombia) for a railroad, but 
 nothing further was done at that time. A few years later, 1838, a company of 
 Frenchmen obtained a similar concession, and a report that a summit pass of 
 37 feet above sea level caused the French Government to send out Napoleon 
 Garella to make a survey which corrected this error. He recommended a lock 
 canal with a summit level of about 100 feet above sea level, a tunnel of 3^ miles 
 through the divide, and 18 locks to make the required lift. It was not until 
 May, 1876, that the Government of Colombia gave to the French Canal Com- 
 pany the concession under which the first canal work was done, although the 
 Panama railroad was built in 18,50-5, and other surveys had been made under 
 the direction of the United States Government in 18.54 and 1866. While the 
 French were at work on the Canal many studies were made of the project by 
 officers of the United States Navy. 
 
 31 
 
^h& Panama Railroad 
 
 HiK 
 
 - 
 
 aF 
 
 ROM 1750 to 1849, trade across the Isthmus was at a standstill, and 
 the old pack trails from Porto Bello and from Cruces on the Chagres 
 became nearly obliterated through disuse. Spain's belated change of 
 policy, the granting of free trade to the colonies, came too late to be 
 of much benefit to Panama. A few ships discharged their cargoes at the mouth 
 of the Chagres for transportation over the Cruces trail, but there were no ade- 
 quate facilities for handling any great amount of trade had there been any. 
 What little trade there was went around Cape Horn or via the Cape of Good 
 Hope. The Isthmus became a place of so little importance that it was reduced 
 from a viceregency in 1718, when it became a province of New Granada (the 
 old name for Colombia). It obtained its independence from Spain on Sep- 
 tember 26, 1821. 
 
 In 1849, however, the Isthmus again came to life with the steady flow of 
 emigrants bound for California, where gold had been discovered during the 
 previous year. California and Oregon had also been thrown open to settle- 
 ment, and the Isthmian transit became almost a necessity, for the only other 
 means of communication with those states were the long overland journey by 
 wagon train across the American continent, and the long voyage around South 
 America. Thus the Isthmus as a trade route again came to the front. 
 
 The advantages of an Isthmian railroad as a means of developing the trade 
 of the United States with the growing republics of Central and South America 
 was realized as early as 1835, when President Andrew Jackson appointed Mr. 
 Charles Biddle as a commissioner to visit the different routes best adapted for 
 interoceanic communication by rail or by water between the two oceans. Mr. 
 Biddle visited the Isthmus, went to Bogota, and obtained from the Government 
 of New Granada a concession for constructing a railroad across the American 
 Isthmus. He returned to the United States in 1837 with this document, but 
 died before he was able to prepare a report, so nothing further was done at 
 that time. In 1847, a French syndicate, headed by Mateo Kline obtained a 
 similar concession, but was unable to raise the money necessary to carry out the 
 work. In December, 1848, three far-sighted Americans, William H. Aspinwall, 
 Henry Chauncey, and John L. Stephens, entered into a contract with New 
 
 [ 32 ] 
 
CTfLE Tv\NP DIVIDED cm& WORI^^Tj^ITgD 
 
 Granada to build the road, and the Panama Railroad Company, with a capital- 
 ization of $1,000,000, was incorporated under a charter granted in the state of 
 New York. Aspinwall, in the same year, obtained from Congress a contract 
 for carrying United States mail by steamer from Panama to California and 
 Oregon, as a part of his railroad scheme. A similar mail contract authorized 
 by Congress on the Atlantic side, New York and New Orleans to Chagres, 
 was obtained at the same time by Mr. George Law. 
 
 As soon as the concession was obtained from New Granada, Mr. Stephens, 
 accompanied by Mr. J. L. Baldwin, an engineer, went over the proposed route 
 for the road and, finding a summit pass of a little less than 300 feet, decided that 
 
 High trestle for embankment fill. The new line was built on a 95-foot level and across the 
 lowlands of the Gatun Lake region a number of long and high trestles for embankment fills, some 
 of them 90 feet high, had to be built. 
 
 [33] 
 
Jv\M-D piVIDED — CTHE WQRkD> TTKITED 
 
 it was feasible. In the early part of 1849, a party of engineers in charge of 
 Colonel G. H. Hughes of the United States Topographical Corps, was sent to 
 locate the line. Finding a summit ridge of 287 feet, a line was laid out not 
 exceeding 50 miles in length from ocean to ocean, with the Atlantic terminus 
 on Navy Bay, as Limon Bay was formerly called, and with the Pacific terminus 
 in Panama City. 
 
 A contract was then entered into with two experienced contractors, Colonel 
 Geo. M. Totten and John C. Trautwine, for the construction of the line. 
 These men decided upon Gorgona, on the Chagres river, 31 miles from Colon, 
 as the base of operations toward Panama, thinking that material could be easily 
 landed there by boat. However, the river was so low in the dry season and so 
 swift in the rainy season that light draft steamers were found out of the question 
 
 Loading dirt train for trestle fill. 
 
 for the transportation of railroad material. At the same time the increasing 
 rush to the California gold fields by way of the Isthmus, made river transporta- 
 tion and the cost of labor prohibitive, and the contractors begged the company 
 to release them from their obligation. This the company did, and, deciding 
 to undertake the construction work itself, retained Messrs. Totten and Traut- 
 wine in its service. 
 
 FIRST WORK ON THE PANAMA RAILROAD 
 
 Clearing on Manzanillo Island began in May, 1850. This was a low 
 swampy plot of land of about 600 acres separated from the mainland by a 
 narrow arm of the sea, and is the site of the present city of Colon. Although 
 clearings had been made, residence upon the island was impossible and for the 
 
 [ 34] 
 
CPHE Tv\N-D DIVIDED cr^K WORbD, JTNITED 
 
 first few months the men engaged in making the surveys, and the laborers 
 brought from Cartagena, Colombia, were obliged to live on board an old brig 
 anchored in the bay. When this became overcrowded, as additions were made 
 to the force, it was supplemented by the hull of a condemned steamboat. The 
 village of Aspinwall was founded on February 2, 1852, but on account of 
 Colombia's refusal to recognize the name, it was later rechristened Colon, in 
 honor of Columbus. 
 
 The first seven miles of the road was through an extensive swamp, covered 
 with jungle, and the surveyors were compelled to work in water and slime up 
 to their waists. In a short time the entire force suffered with malarial fever, and 
 great difficulty was experienced in obtaining sufficient laborers. Irishmen 
 were brought from the United States, negros from Jamaica, and natives from 
 the adjacent tropical countries, and fever made inroads on all of them. The 
 importation of Chinese coolies was tried, and nearly 1,000 of that race were 
 
 Scene on the Panama railroad, near El Diablo, Ancon Hill in the distance. 
 Corozal-Ancon wagon road on the left. 
 
 brought from China. Native hill rice, tea, and opium were supplied them, 
 but within a few weeks disease broke out among them, and, many becoming 
 melancholy, are said to have committed suicide, so that inside of 60 days scarcely 
 200 able-bodied remained. The high mortality of these Chinese laborers, 
 probably helped develop the story that each of the ties on the original Panama 
 railroad represented the life of a laborer. The facts in the case make the story 
 ridiculous. There were at least 150,000 cross-ties in the original road, including 
 sidings and yards, while the largest number of employes at any one time was 
 not over 7,000, and the road was completed in four years. According to the 
 most authentic records, the total mortality during the construction period was 
 about 1,200. Added to the difficulties of maintaining a labor force, was the 
 necessity of bringing nearly all food and supplies from New York, a distance 
 of nearly 2,000 miles. 
 
 By the first of October, 1851, the track had been laid as far as Gatun, and 
 
 [ 35] 
 
Cp-HE JvAND . piVIDED ^crT -gj&^^ Qi^^ _IJNJTED 
 
 The largest railroad bridge on the new line, spanning the Chagres River at Gamboa. It is 1,320 
 feet long. The Chagres River empties into the Canal at this point. 
 
 in the following month, 1,000 passengers were carried to that station from 
 Colon. These passengers had arrived at Chagres for the California transit in 
 two ships, but could not be landed there on account of a heavy storm, and were 
 disembarked at Colon. This happened most opportunely for the railroad, as 
 the original million dollars had been expended and things were beginning to 
 look dark to the stockholders. When the news reached New York that 
 passengers had been carried as far as Gatun, seven miles by rail, even though 
 they had been carried on flat cars, the company's stock immediately rose in 
 price. The work was pushed on with renewed vigor, for, from this time on, 
 there was a small and steady income which could be applied to the construction 
 expense. In July, 1852, the road had reached Barbacoas, a total distance of 
 23 miles, where it was necessary to construct a bridge 300 feet long to span the 
 Chagres. 
 
 On October 10, Mr. John L. Stephens, who was president of the company, 
 died in New York, and his successor, Mr. W. C. Young, decided to have the 
 remainder of the work accomplished by contract. The contractor, however, 
 failed to fulfill his obligation and after a year's delay, the company again decided 
 to do the work. 
 
 COMPLETION OF THE ENTERPRISE 
 
 On the 27th of January, 1855, at midnight and in rain, the last rail to the 
 summit ridge at Culebra, 37 miles from Colon and 11 miles from Panama, was 
 laid, and in the meantime, work had been advancing steadily from Panama 
 city, to which point material had been transported around Cape Horn. On 
 the following day, the first locomotive passed from ocean to ocean, nearly four 
 years after ground was first broken. The completed road was 47 miles 3.020 
 feet long, with a maximum grade of 60 feet to the mile, in order to surmount the 
 summit ridge at elevation 287 feet. The first president was Mr. David Hoadley. 
 
 [ 36] 
 
CTME TvAN-P DIVIDED— q^\B WOBIjD> TTKITED 
 
 Although track had been laid from ocean to ocean, the railroad was in poor 
 physical condition, and it was not until 1859 that its construction account was 
 finally closed, at a total expenditure up to that time of $8,000,000. The road 
 was properly ballasted, heavier rails were laid, using hardwood ties, bridges of 
 iron replaced flimsy wooden structures, and station buildings and wharves were 
 erected. To cross waterways, 170 bridges and culverts had been built and the 
 wooden bridge at Barbacoas was replaced by one of iron. 
 
 The road was a paying investment from the time when the first 11 miles were 
 opened in 1852, for, as new sections were built they were put into immediate ser- 
 vice for passengers and freight, and at the end of 1855, the year the entire road was 
 opened, its income from passengers and freight was $'-2, 125,232.31. ^Yhen the 
 original construction account was closed in January, 1859, the gross earnings 
 amounted to $8,146,605.00, while operating expenses, together with deprecia- 
 tion amounted to $2,174,876.51, leaving a balance of $5,971,728.66, as legitimate 
 earnings for a period of seven years, during the last four of which the road was 
 open throughout its entire length. Dividends have been paid every year on the 
 stock, with the exception of a few years previous to the taking over of the road 
 from the French Canal Company by the United States. The average dividend 
 during the years 1852-1881 was 16 per cent., and since that period, five per cent; 
 the smallest dividend was two per cent, in 1885, and the largest 44 per cent, in 
 1868. In 1865, the capital stock was increased from $5,000,000 to $7,000,000. 
 In 1881, the year when the road was sold to the French Canal Company, a 
 
 The station of the Panama Railroad at Panama City always presents an active scene at train 
 time. A new first class station has taken the place of the old one shown here. All passenger 
 locomotives are oil-burning and the coaches are thoroughly up-to-date, having first and second 
 class accommodations. The tunnel at Miraflores is 736 feet long. 
 
 [ 37 ] 
 
JyAN-P piVIDED — ctthe: WORL^TH^ITTgD 
 
 dividend of 52^ per cent, was declared, but this not only represented the earnings 
 for that year, but also included the assets and surplus on hand at that time. 
 
 EARLY RATES NEARLY PROHIBITIVE 
 
 The following table of rates, placed in effect when the road was first opened 
 in 1855, remained in force for 20 years, and following the company's policy, 
 were intended to be prohibitive at first, on the theory that they would be lowered 
 when the company had had an opportunity to improve its line, will explain in a 
 measure the large profits made on this road which cost about $170,000 a mile 
 to build: 
 
 Fare, Panama to Colon, lst-class. 
 Fare, Panama to Colon, 2d-class. 
 
 Charge for baggage 
 
 Freight rate, lst-class 
 
 Freight rate, 2d-class 
 
 Freight rate, 3d-class 
 
 1885 
 
 $25.00 
 10.00 
 
 .10 per lb. 
 3.00 per cwt. 
 2.00 per cwt. 
 1.00 per cwt. 
 
 1903 
 
 $5.00 
 2.25 
 .02 perlb. 
 .40 percu. ft. 
 1.20 per cwt. 
 .80 per cwt. 
 
 1907 
 
 $2.40 
 1.45 
 .02 per lb. 
 .50 per cwt. 
 .44 per cwt. 
 .32 per cwt. 
 
 At the present time the first-class passenger fare is $2.40, with 150 pounds of 
 baggage free; second-class, half of that rate. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF STEAMSHIP SERVICE 
 
 In 1856, the company established a steamship service between Panama 
 and San Jose de Guatemala, thus opening up the rich coffee country of Central 
 
 The Panama Railroad operates a steamship service with a fleet of six vessels plying between 
 New York and Colon, two of which were purchased in 1908 for the carrying of cement. This 
 is the Panama, one of the passenger steamers. 
 
 [ 38] 
 
CTKE, TvANP DIVIDED— ^CTREz WQELkD> TTKITED 
 
 America. This line continued until October, 1872, when it was taken over by 
 the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. At one time the road had a line of its 
 own between San Francisco and Panama, but this was withdrawn in 1902. In 
 1893, the present Panama Railroad Steamship Line was established between 
 New York and Colon, and there are now six ships in this service, the Ancon, 
 Cristobal, Panama, Colon, Allianca and Advance, although the two former 
 vessels purchased in 1908 are owned by the Canal Commission, and have been 
 used mainly in transporting cement to the Isthmus. 
 
 CONCESSIONARY RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES 
 
 The terms of the original concession granted by the Government of New 
 Granada provided, among other things, the exclusive privilege of building a 
 railroad on the Isthmus of Panama; that no undertaking for the opening of a 
 canal to connect the two oceans would be permitted without the consent of the 
 railroad company; that the railroad company should have the exclusive privilege 
 of building wagon roads across the Isthmus and the use of the Chagres for 
 steamer travel, and the exclusive privilege of the use of the ports at the two 
 termini for the anchorage of vessels, and for the loading and unloading of cargo. 
 
 This concession was to remain in force 49 years from the day of the road's 
 completion, subject to the right of New Granada to take possession at the 
 expiration of 20 years upon the payment of $5,000,000, or at the expiration of 
 40 years upon the payment of $2,000,000. The provisions of the contract were 
 modified several times, but its exclusive features remained practically the same. 
 In 1867, it was renewed for 99 years on payment of $1,000,000 in cash, and an 
 annual payment of $250,000 guaranteed to New Granada. The railroad also 
 obligated itself to extend the road to the islands in the bay of Panama. This 
 extension of the contract for 99 years was secured 12 years after the opening of 
 the road by Colonel Totten, when it was realized that New Granada would 
 surely raise the necessary $5,000,000 to obtain the road after 20 years of opera- 
 tion, a road costing $8,000,000 to build and, at that time paving 24 per cent on a 
 capitalization of $7,000,000. 
 
 Two years later, 1869, the Union Pacific was completed across the 
 American continent, with a consequent decline of California trade across the 
 Isthmus. The loss of this trade would have been offset by the trade of Central 
 and South America, had the company seized the opportunity, but its policy, 
 apparently, was to make all it could there and then let the future take care 
 of itself. In 1868, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company withdrew its line of 
 steamers from the Isthmian transit, and sent its ships to England via the Strait 
 of Magellan, and transferred its repair shops and coaling station from the island 
 of Taboga to Callao, Peru. It was forced to do this by the shortsighted policy 
 of the railroad's directors who refused to ratify a traffic agreement profitable 
 to both, which had been tentatively drawn up, giving the company where 
 freight originated the right to make a through charge to be divided equally 
 between the three carriers, the railroad and the steamship lines on either side 
 of the Isthmus. The steamship company took most of its trade with it and an 
 idea of what was lost to the railroad can be obtained from the fact that, in 1874, 
 it had 54 steamers, with a total of 124,000 tons, in operation between Valparaiso 
 and Liverpool. Only its smaller boats were sent to Panama, and these merely 
 to act as feeders to the main line on their return south. This policy of offering- 
 no encouragement to steamship lines also forced the Panama, New Zealand 
 
 [39] 
 
The headquarters of the Panama Railroad are located at Colon. The new line runs on the east side 
 of the canal and is 47.11 miles long. It was completed on May 25, 1912, at a cost of $8,984,922.18. 
 
 40 
 
J>AM-D piVIDED —<?T7\E WORLjD, TTKITED 
 
 and Australian Steamship Company to give up its attempt to inaugurate a 
 monthly service via Wellington to Sydney, connecting with the Royal Mail 
 Steam Packet Company, operating between Southampton and Colon. 
 
 In spite of this policy of taking more than the trade could stand, the railroad 
 continued to pay dividends, but it would undoubtedly have done a much more 
 profitable business had it endeavored to help, instead of oppressing the growing 
 trade of Central and South America. 
 
 CHANGES IX OWNERSHIP 
 
 When the French operations were begun in 1881, the French Canal 
 Company found that in order to build a canal it would first have to gain the 
 consent of the railroad or to purchase it. The latter plan was followed, and in 
 June of that year, 68,888 of the 70,000 shares were obtained for a little over 
 $20,000,000 or two and one-half times what the road had originally cost to 
 build. In addition to the amount expended for shares, bonuses paid brought 
 the total cost to a little over $25,000,000. When the United States, on May 4, 
 1904, took over the affairs of the New French Canal Company, they came into 
 possession of these shares, and obtained the remainder, 1,112 shares, by private 
 purchase at a cost of $1.57,118.24, or an average price of $140.00 per share. 
 The entire stock of the Panama Railroad and Steamship Company is now 
 owned by the United States, with the exception of one share transferred to each 
 of the directors to enable them to qualify under the articles of incorporation. 
 The Chairman and Chief Engineer of the Isthmian Canal Commission is also 
 President of the Panama Railroad Company. 
 
 Since it has become a government-owned corporation, the road has become 
 secondary to the Canal work, although it is still a common carrier, and carries 
 
 The railroad station at Gatun, which is the only station of a permanent type so far 
 constructed, except at Colon and Panama City. 
 
 [ 41 1 
 
CTMB ^AN-P . divided — qr iE 
 
 * TTKITED 
 
 Old Washington Hotel, showing statue of the Panama Railroad founders, Henry Chauncey, Wm. 
 H. Aspinwall and John L. Stephens. A new modern hotel has taken the place of the old one. 
 
 about 70,000 tons of commercial freight a month, which is about one-half of the 
 total amount, the balance being handled for the company and for the Canal 
 work. 
 
 When the road was turned over by the French it was found to be in a 
 neglected condition, with obsolete equipment and rolling stock. Since that 
 time terminal wharves, equipped with modern cargo cranes, have been con- 
 structed, terminal yards, warehouses and machine shops provided, new and 
 powerful locomotives, 12 of which are oil burners, larger cars for passengers 
 and freight put into service, heavier rails laid, bridges strengthened to enable 
 them to carry the heavier equipment, and the whole line double-tracked. 
 Permanent reinforced concrete stations have been built at Colon, Gatun and 
 Panama, and a modern concrete hotel, the Washington, costing upwards of 
 $650,000 has been constructed on Colon beach. 
 
 THE NEW MAIN LINE 
 
 The relocated, or new main line of the railroad runs on the east side of the 
 canal for its entire length of 47.11 miles. From Colon to Mindi, 4.17 miles, 
 and from Corozal to Panama, the old location was used, but the remaining 
 40 miles are new road. From Gatun, the line skirts the north shore of the lake 
 for about four miles, and then turns south, crossing the eastern arm of the lake 
 on a high trestle fill at an elevation of 95 feet above sea level. Near Caimito, 
 the road approaches the canal again, and parallels it to Gamboa. Originally, 
 it was planned to carry the road through Culebra Cut on a 40-foot berm, 10 feet 
 above the water level, but slides caused the abandonment of the project, and it 
 was built on a high level around Gold Hill instead. Its highest point is 271 
 
 [ 42 1 
 
CTHB T^ANP^ DIVID ED-^CT-^EL^yOJQjyD, TTKITED 
 
 feet above sea level near LaPita, and where the continental divide is crossed, 
 opposite Culebra, the height is 241 feet. From the south end of Culebra Cut 
 at Paraiso, the railroad runs practically parallel with the canal to Panama. 
 Where the road crosses the Gatun River, near Monte Lirio, a steel girder bridge 
 with a lift span has been erected to permit native sailing craft to pass into the 
 east arm of the lake, and at Gamboa, the Chagres River is crossed with a steel 
 girder bridge one-quarter of a mile long. At Miraflores, the road passes through 
 a tunnel 736 feet long. 
 
 The new line was completed on May 2.5, 1912, at a cost of $8,984,922.18, 
 but passenger trains were not run over it for its entire length until September 2, 
 1913, when the former crossing at Gamboa dike was abandoned on account of 
 the rise of Gatun Lake. On that date a new schedule was placed in effect, 
 whereby the main line trains run all the way from Colon to Panama on the east 
 side of the canal, and the towns on the west bank are served with a shuttle train 
 service from Panama to Bas Obispo, the present terminus of the old double- 
 track line. The shuttle trains now cross the canal, near Paraiso on a trestle 
 bridge, but as this will have to be removed to permit the navigation of the canal, 
 a wooden pontoon bridge will be built in the same locality of sufficient width for 
 a single track and a roadway for vehicles. This is not intended for a permanent 
 crossing but only to such time as the villages on the west bank of the canal can 
 be abandoned. South of Corozal, a change will be made in the road which will 
 have the effect of placing the new town of Balboa on the main line, with its 
 terminus at Panama as at present. The railroad possesses modern passenger 
 terminals at both ends. The one in Colon is of concrete block construction, 
 and was opened on July 23, 1909. It is not particularly attractive from an 
 architectural standpoint. The new station in Panama, costing about $100,000, 
 was completed in the latter part of 1913. The only other station of a permanent 
 type so far constructed is at Gatun, built in 1909. 
 
 The new Hotel Washington at Colon. Cost about §500,000. 
 Operated by the Panama Railroad. 
 
 f 43 1 
 
CTHE, |v\N-D . DIVIDED -^<^THE WOB^E TIXITED 
 
 The total mileage of the road, exclusive of sidings, is 58.79, as follows: 
 Main line, 47.11 miles; Pedro Miguel to Bas Obispo, 9.12 miles, and Panama 
 to Balboa 2.56 miles. 
 
 BUSIEST SHORT LINE IN THE WORLD 
 
 During the years 1911-1912 the road carried 777,121 first-class passengers, 
 and 1,980,550 second-class passengers, an increase of over 300,000 for the year. 
 During the fiscal year just closed, the passenger traffic is expected to show 
 material increase due in part to the increased tourist travel. Freight amounting 
 to 1,871,076 tons was transported over the railroad during 1911-1912, divided 
 as follows: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Through commercial freight 36.80 
 
 Local and I. C. C. freight 49 . 93 
 
 Local commercial freight 10 . 37 
 
 Panama Railroad Company's freight 2 . 90 
 
 The net revenue from its operation was $1,997,280.80. The steamship 
 line, on the other hand, has not paid as an investment, except as a feeder for the 
 railroad, and for the benefit of the Isthmian Canal Commission. It has had a 
 steady freight and passenger traffic, but the cargoes have consisted principally 
 of canal supplies, and the passengers have been mostly employes of the Canal 
 Commission and railroad, who are carried at a reduced rate. The net deficit 
 from the operation of the steamship line for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1912, 
 was $305,742.85. 
 
 With the completion of the canal it is possible that the road will be electri- 
 fied, obtaining the necessary power from the hydroelectric plant at Gatun spill- 
 way, and will be devoted almost entirely to local traffic. This traffic will, no 
 doubt, be considerable, for Colon and Panama will always be important cities. 
 
 New Panama railroad passenger terminal in Panama, just completed. 
 
 f 44 1 
 
HE French attempt to construct a waterway across the Isthmus was 
 foredoomed to failure because the project fell into the hands of 
 promoters and speculators. A contributory cause was the very high 
 sick and death rate among the French employes on the Isthmus. This 
 added greatly to the cost of administration and resulted in an unstable labor 
 force. Many of the best engineers left the Isthmus after short service, or died, 
 and these constant changes made it difficult to pursue any regular plan to keep 
 up an effective organization to carry on the work. The company had to pay 
 high wages and offer special inducements to persuade men to take the chance of 
 one in five of surviving an attack of yellow fever which they were liable to 
 contract. Had the work been in charge of a rich and powerful government, 
 public opinion would not have allowed the work to have been carried on at such 
 an appalling cost of life. When the enterprise was started the method of 
 transmission of malaria and yellow fever was unknown, and, even if the French 
 had taken the sanitary precautions prevailing at that time, they could not have 
 stamped out these two fevers which gave the Isthmus the reputation of being 
 the most unhealthy place in the world for a white man. As a private corpora- 
 tion, it could not enforce sanitary regulations had it desired to do so, for, unlike 
 the United States, it did not acquire absolute jurisdiction over the Canal strip, 
 but was at the mercy of the Colombian courts. 
 
 Other causes were extravagance, which naturally developed into graft, 
 for the supply of money which came flowing into the coffers of the company 
 from eager investors beguiled by the name of De Lesseps seemed inexhaustible; 
 the lack of suitable machinery, the want of preparation, and misguided leader- 
 ship. All these mistakes have served as warning signals to the Canal Com- 
 mission, so that the failure of the French has contributed, in a large measure, to 
 the success of the Americans. 
 
 DE LESSEPS PROMOTER 
 
 The first French Canal Company, La Societe International du Canal 
 Interoceanique, inaugurated the undertaking with an exclusive concession from 
 Colombia, but with an incomplete survey of the proposed work, and an esti- 
 mate of cost and time placed much too low. The necessary money was 
 
 [ 45 ] 
 
JaAHP piVIDED ^CTHB WORL>D> TTKITED 
 
 Count Ferdinand de Lesseps. His name will 
 always be linked with the great enterprise 
 as it was under his direction and control 
 that the work first took definite form. 
 
 obtained from the French middle 
 classes, who were induced to part with 
 their savings through the magic name of 
 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had just 
 brought to a successful close his great 
 work at Suez, and who was placed at the 
 head of the new enterprise. De Lesseps 
 was honest and sincere, but he was an 
 old man, somewhat blinded by his pre- 
 vious good fortune, and, therefore, 
 easily deluded. He was enthusiastic 
 over the idea of a canal connecting the 
 Atlantic with the Pacific, and made 
 himself and others believe that the work 
 could be accomplished more quickly 
 and much easier than the Suez. His 
 ability as a missionary made him valu- 
 able to the promoters, for the difficulties 
 of the work across the Isthmus, as com- 
 pared with the work at Suez should 
 have been apparent even to the layman. 
 He was not an expert engineer; it did 
 not require any engineering ability, but 
 merely imagination, to see the practica- 
 bility of cutting a sea level channel 
 through the low desert region of upper 
 Egypt, while at Panama, a hilly and 
 
 Former headquarters of De Lesseps, Cristobal, now used by the Canal Commission. 
 
 [46] 
 
CTTLB Tv\NP DIVIDED- ^THE WORU^XTNITBD 
 
 rock country had to be traversed, torrential streams diverted, and a tidal basin 
 constructed, problems which the world's foremost engineers have differed in 
 the solution. And yet De Lesseps sincerely believed that he was to achieve a 
 second triumph, and much easier than his first. (The Suez Canal was opened 
 in 1869, took ten years to build, and cost about $100,000,000, or a million 
 dollars a mile. This low cost was due to the fact that the cut was made through 
 a stretch of level sand, and Said Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, a large stock- 
 holder in the enterprise, practically forced his subjects to work on the project 
 in much the same manner as Rameses of old). 
 
 PROCURING THE CONCESSION 
 
 The concession for the privilege of constructing the Canal was obtained 
 from Colombia in May, 1876, by General Stephen Tiirr, a Hungarian, who had 
 become acquainted with De Lesseps when the latter was planning his work at 
 Suez, and who was later incited by the Frenchman's success in an effort to 
 duplicate the feat at Panama. He organized a provisional company in France 
 and sent an engineering party to the Isthmus in November, 1876, to make 
 explorations and surveys. The party was in charge of Lieutenant Napoleon 
 Bonapart Wyse, of the French Navy, a brother-in-law of General Tiirr, and at 
 that time only 23 years of age. The first expedition was only partly successful, 
 several of its members falling; victims to disease. Wvse was again sent out in 
 the spring of 1878 with Lieutenant Armand Reclus, also of the French Navy. 
 On this trip he obtained a new concession, approved May 18, 1878, in the name 
 of the association presided over by General Tiirr, which modified and extended 
 the former one, so as to give the promoters the exclusive privilege of building a 
 canal across the Isthmus anywhere within the United States of Colombia. 
 This concession was to remain in force 99 years, provided the necessary per- 
 mission was obtained from the Panama Railroad Company which held a 
 
 The old port of Colon in 1884, during the early French days. This photograph 
 was taken with a wet plate, a relic of photography. 
 
 [ 47 ] 
 
£L£IL 
 
 piviPED — c- pnB W QBkP^TINJTgg 
 
 Cristobal street scene in the French days. The scenes of the old French days have changed 
 with newer ideas. This section is now filled with roomy houses and quarters for the canal 
 employes and I. C. C. manufacturing plants. 
 
 monopoly of the Isthmian route. Work was to be begun not later than 1883, 
 and was to be completed within 12 years, with an extension of six years in case 
 the original term proved too short. 
 
 Although Wyse went over not more than two-thirds of the distance from 
 Panama to Colon, he submitted what were supposed to be complete plans and 
 a statement of cost for a sea level canal between the two points, following the 
 line of the Panama railroad. These plans and estimates were submitted to an 
 international engineering congress which was convened in Paris, May 14-29, 
 1879, in accordance with the terms of the concession, with Ferdinand de 
 Lesseps at its head. These plans were the basis of a decision by the congress in 
 favor of a sea level canal, following the route of the Panama railroad, by way 
 of the pass at Culebra, using the valley of the Chagres river on the Atlantic 
 side, and the valley of the Rio Grande on the Pacific side of the continental 
 divide. It is pertinent to note that in this congress, consisting of 136 delegates 
 from France, Germany, the United States and other countries, only 42 were 
 engineers, while the remainder were promoters, politicians, speculators, and 
 personal friends of De Lesseps. The Wyse concession and plans were "shoved 
 through," approved, and turned over to La Societe International du Canal 
 Interoceanique, commonly known as the first French Canal Company, for a 
 consideration of $2,000,000. This was the first "step in the dark," taken by the 
 company. 
 
 DE LESSEPS' PLAN. 
 
 De Lesseps made two visits to the Isthmus, the first in December, 1879, and 
 the second in 1886, remaining for about two months on each occasion. On 
 his first visit he was accompanied by his wife, three of his children, and an 
 international technical commission, consisting of nine members. At one of the 
 
 [ 48 j 
 
Jv\ND piVIDED — <nrHE L 3y_Og^D ) TTNJTED 
 
 numerous receptions and banquets tendered him, he said: 'There are only 
 two great difficulties to be overcome, the Chagres River, and the deep cutting 
 at the summit. The first can be surmounted by turning the headwaters of the 
 river into another channel, and the second will disappear before the wells which 
 will be sunk and charged with explosives of sufficient force to remove vast 
 quantities at each discharge." 
 
 The engineering commission, after a superficial study of the route and 
 former incomplete surveys, in a report submitted February 14, 1880, estimated 
 the cost at $168,600,000. The engineering congress estimated the cost at 
 $214,000,000. On February 20, De Lesseps reduced this estimate to $131,600,- 
 000, and again on March 1, without apparent reason, to $120,000,000. The 
 proposed sea level canal was to have a uniform depth of 29.5 feet, a bottom 
 width of 72 feet, and a width on the water line of about 90 feet, and involved 
 excavation estimated at 157,000,000 cubic yards. The engineering congress 
 estimated seven or eight years as the time required to complete the work. 
 De Lesseps, w T ith his usual optimism, reduced the time to six years. To 
 control the floods of the Chagres River, various schemes were proposed, the 
 principal one being the construction of a dam at Gamboa, a little below Cruces, 
 and the construction of channels to the sea to carry the impounded water away 
 from the canal. On account of the great difference in the tides of the two 
 oceans, a maximum of two and one-half feet in the Atlantic and 21 feet in the 
 Pacific, a tidal basin or lock was to have been built at the Pacific entrance. 
 (The high tide on the Pacific side is due to the fact that the Bay of Panama is 
 funnel-shaped). No work was ever accomplished on either of these two 
 
 Front Street, Colon, during the flourishing French days, with the pay car 
 
 at the old depot. 
 
 [ W ] 
 
A group of views of Balboa and the canal entrance and operations, during the days of both 
 the First and Second French Companies. The wharf was the first constructed by the French. 
 The one-sided dump cars shown in the top picture are now obsolete. 
 
 [ 50] 
 
projects. A dam at Gamboa was found later to be impracticable, and the 
 problem of the diversion of the Chagres River was left to some future time. 
 
 INAUGURATING THE WORK 
 
 On January 1, 1880, the ceremony of breaking the ground was to have 
 been performed by De Lesseps at the mouth of the Rio Grande, about three 
 miles west of Panama city. The boat bearing a party of ladies and gentlemen 
 who were to take part was delayed in starting, with the result that it could not 
 get within two or three miles of the shore on account of the ebbing tide. This, 
 however, did not dampen the ardor of the versatile Frenchman, as the arrival 
 of the steamer in the entrance of the river mouth was considered by him a 
 sufficient beginning. The first blow was thereupon struck with a pick in a box 
 of earth upon the deck of the steamer, while the observers aided their imagina- 
 
 Limon Bay in the busy French days. 
 
 tion by copious draughts of champagne. On January 10, 1880, De Lesseps, 
 with another party of civil and church dignitaries, went to Culebra to witness 
 the first blast. Accounts differ as to this event. Tracy Robinson, the oldest 
 American on the Isthmus, states in his book on Panama, that the blast never 
 came off, and as he was present, he ought to know. On the other hand, the 
 "Star and Herald" of the day following gives a circumstantial account of the 
 affair, ending with: "The mine had been carefully laid in an exceedingly hard 
 and compact formation of basalt at a few feet below the summit, and charged 
 with 30 kilograms of explosive. The operation was performed with complete 
 success, and immense amount of solid rock being hurled from its original 
 position." No photographs of the incident are extant. 
 
 Actual excavation work did not commence in Culebra Cut until some time 
 
 [ 51 ] 
 
cms Jv\NP DIVIDED c T3iE L 3y_o^jyD ) TJNJTED 
 
 The pick and shovel brigade. 
 
 later. "The Bulletin du Canal Interoceanique," published by the company 
 for the benefit of the stockholders, of February 1, 1882, states: "The first 
 work in the great cut of the maritime canal was formally inaugurated today 
 (Jan. 20, 1882), at Empire in the presence of the dignitaries of the state, the 
 leading citizens of the city and a great assemblage of the people. The first 
 locomotive has arrived at the newly opened excavation. The city of Panama 
 is celebrating the event with a great fete." 
 
 De Lesseps left Colon for the United States on February 22, 1880, for the 
 purpose of interesting Americans in the undertaking. Although he was 
 received with a great deal of enthusiasm everywhere, he was unable to dispose 
 of the stock which he had thoughtfully reserved. Americans were interested 
 in a canal, but not in a canal under French control. He then proceeded on a 
 similar tour of Europe, where he was more successful from a pecuniary point of 
 view. The first issue of stock, 600,000 shares of $100 each, was subscribed twice 
 over, mostly taken in France. These shares were distributed among 100,000 
 persons, indicating the great Frenchman's popularity with the people of his 
 country. In 1888, when the company failed, the total subscriptions, stocks and 
 bond issues, had reached $393,505,100, and the shareholders numbered 200,000. 
 
 Two years of feverish preparation followed which witnessed the making 
 of hasty surveys, the bringing together of machinery and a labor force, and the 
 erection of quarters and hospitals. The actual construction work was let to a 
 firm of French contractors, Couvreaux & Hersent, but they soon realized the 
 difficulties of the undertaking and withdrew from the last part of their contract. 
 
 FRENCH LABOR FORCE 
 
 There seems to have been little difficulty experienced in obtaining a labor 
 force, which in 1888, numbered about 20,000 men. Nine-tenths of these were 
 
 [52 ] 
 
CTME Tv\NP . DIVIDED GT1\& AVORDD.JTNITED 
 
 negroes from the West Indies, and many of them held clerical and other similar 
 positions. The white employes, mainly from France, were treated with 
 extreme generosity. Economy was an unknown factor in the administration 
 of affairs of the first company. The average pay of a clerk was $125 per 
 month, and of a division chief from $ t 200 to $300 per month. After two years' 
 service, five months vacation, with free traveling expenses to and from France, 
 were granted. The hours of labor for the clerical force was from 8 to 11 a. m., 
 and 2 to 5 p. m., six hours a day. Free quarters, furniture, bedding, lamps, 
 kitchen utensils, etc., were provided. As there was no system of accounting 
 in vogue, many did quite a profitable business in the buying and selling of the 
 company's furniture. This was merely one of the petty forms of graft in 
 vogue, however. Enormous salaries were paid to the directors, engineers, and 
 other officers on the Isthmus. The director-generals lived in a house that cost 
 $100,000, now used as the American Legation in Panama City; they received 
 $.50,000 a year, and when they went out on the work they were allowed $50 a 
 day additional. One of the private cars in which they rode cost $42,000. 
 
 LA FOLIE DINGLER 
 
 There formerly stood on an artificial terrace on the western slope of Ancon 
 Hill a building that commanded ready attention from passersby on the road 
 from Panama to La Boca, now Balboa. It was the prospective home of M. 
 Jules Dingier, probably the foremost director-general of the first French com- 
 pany, prospective, because he never occupied it. Work on the mansion was 
 begun shortly after he came to the Isthmus in February, 1883, and the cost 
 including the grounds is said to have been about $50,000. For many vears 
 
 La Folie Dingier, built for M. Julius Dingier in the first French Company's days, but never oc- 
 cupied by him. The experience of M. Dingier on the Isthmus constitutes one of the saddest 
 incidents in French canal history. His son, daughter and wife all contracted the dreaded yellow 
 fever and died. 
 
 [ 53 ] 
 
<THE< T^AN-P . DIVIDED ^CTHB WOBJ^B, TTKITED 
 
 The village of Empire in the old French days. The French began their first 
 excavation in the cut near this point in 1882. 
 
 it had been called La Folie Dingier, or Dingler's Folly. The experience of 
 M. Dingier on the Isthmus constitutes, perhaps, one of the saddest incidents 
 in French canal history. Stories of the fatal effect the climate of the Isthmus 
 was said to have on foreigners reached France, but Dingier scoffed at these 
 reports. "I am going to show them," he is credited with having said, "that 
 only drunkards and the dissipated contract yellow fever and die." In this 
 spirit he brought with him to the Isthmus, his wife, son, and daughter. His 
 son, who was made director of posts, shortly fell victim to yellow fever and died. 
 Dingier subsequently went to France on leave of absence', and upon the return 
 of himself and family to the Isthmus, his daughter met with the fate of his son. 
 On his return from a second trip to France, his wife also sickened and died from 
 the same fell disease. Dingier later relinquished his post and went back to France 
 a man broken in mind and body. At the time the American Government took 
 possession, La Folie Dingier had fallen into partial decay. Needed repairs 
 
 The French at work in the Canal at Cucaracha, 1885, just around 
 the point from Gold Hill. 
 
 [ 54 1 
 
cthb T)A3SL-P_,DIVIde:d — crn& WQBfcg»_l Doited 
 
 Canal between Empire and Culebra, showing the French 
 method of excavation, in 1888. 
 
 were made and for several years the building was utilized as a detention station 
 for the quarantine service. It was sold in 1910 for $525, and removed to make 
 way for quarry work on the side of Aneon Hill. 
 
 During the period of greatest activity there were probably 2,000 Frenchmen 
 on the Isthmus, all non-immune to yellow fever. Life was a gamble and, with 
 no suitable social diversion, they naturally resorted to the only forms of amuse- 
 ment available, the saloons, gambling rooms, and houses of ill-repute. Colon 
 and Panama became the Mecca of the parasites of society, the non-workers who 
 live on vice, with the result that an efficient labor force could not be kept long 
 under such conditions, and it was continually changing. 
 
 In the center of the Cut at the end of the first French Company's days, 1889. 
 The first French Company operated from 1881 to 1889. 
 
 [ 55] 
 
CTHE, Tv\NP DIVIDED-— CTHB WOBIjB, TTKITED 
 
 Culebra Cut in the earliest times of the second French Company, 1894. 
 THE SICK POORLY CARED FOR 
 
 Two hospitals were built in 1883, which, with additions and alterations 
 have been in constant use by the Americans. Ancon hospital originally cost 
 $5,600,000, and Colon hospital cost $1,400,000, a total of $7,000,000. 
 
 The hospitals, although fairly well equipped, with excellent doctors and 
 surgeons and supplied with the best medicines and instruments of the time, were 
 poorly managed. They were handled under contract, and the administration 
 
 Looking South from Culebra in the second French Company's days, 1895. 
 The second French Company operated from 1894 to 1904. 
 
 [ 56] 
 
b_A,]gr) piVIDEP— -CfHB WOM>D> UNITED 
 
 The Cut as it appeared in 1904 when the Americans began the work. Contractor's Hill on 
 the right; Gold Hill on the left. Note the succession of benches, lying one above the other. 
 The Americans have followed this same method in excavating. 
 
 was left almost entirely to French Sisters of Charity, who, although they were 
 devoted and religious women, were not trained nurses. These worthy women 
 left the wards at night after prayer, closing the doors and windows tight to 
 keep out the night mists, which were supposed to bring malarial fever, leaving 
 the patients without any other care than that which was given by the less feeble 
 among themselves. When the wards were opened for morning prayer it was 
 
 The valley of the Rio Grande in the French days. The present canal is between the hills. 
 The old Panama Railroad bridge is shown at the south end of the Cut. 
 
 [ 57 j 
 
hAfiiD prviDED — ctthe: worl)D, jtxited 
 
 often found that some patient had died during the night, who might have been 
 saved with proper attention. The legs of the hospital beds were placed in tins 
 of water to keep insects from crawling up. These pans of stagnant water, and 
 also the many ornamental basins containing flowers and plants in the grounds 
 outside made ideal breeding places for mosquitoes, and it is quite probable 
 that many patients fell victim to fever while in the hospital suffering with some 
 minor illness, due to the unscreened windows and doors. 
 
 The Cut in French times, showing their cableway plan of excavation. These cableways 
 carried the material out of the canal and deposited it to one side, but unfortunately not far enough, 
 for much of it has slid back into the Cut, causing extra excavation. 
 
 The hospital records show that during the construction period of the old 
 company — 1881 to 1889 — there were 5,618 deaths, 1,041 of which were from 
 yellow fever. The old yellow fever ward in Ancon hospital, now ward No. 16, 
 was called St. Charles, and it is believed that more people died from yellow fever 
 in it than in any other one building in the world. The West Indian negroes 
 were immune to yellow fever, and very few of them were admitted to the 
 hospitals. The victims, therefore, were nearly all white persons, and mostly 
 Frenchmen. A large proportion of the sick did not enter the hospitals, as the 
 contractors were charged one dollar a day for skilled medical treatment of 
 employes. Colonel Gorgas estimates the number of laborers who died from 
 1881 to 1889 at 22,189, or a rate of something over 240 per thousand per year. 
 He also estimates that as many died of yellow fever outside the hospitals as in, 
 and places the total number of deaths from that disease at 2,082. In September 
 1884, during an attack of yellow fever, the Canal Company lost 654 employes out 
 of a force of about 18,000. This is in part based on surmise, for the truth was 
 partly suppressed or minimized by the Canal Company in order not to destroy 
 the confidence of the people in the project, and outside of the hospital rolls, the 
 records were incomplete. A virulent form of malaria, known as "Chagres 
 fever," caused a greater toll in lives than any other one disease. The negro 
 laborers, although immune from yellow fever, succumbed quickly to attacks 
 of this form of malaria. 
 
 [ 58 ] 
 
CTfLB Jv\N-P , DIVIDED -^crrHB WQIgLUD, TIKITED 
 
 Under the new canal company, the hospitals were turned over to the Sisters 
 of Charity who took care of the few patients admitted at a fixed charge. As 
 the revenue from patients was small, they had a hard time to keep them open 
 at all, and were compelled to sell flowers, fruits, vegetables and other products 
 from the hospital grounds. When the Americans took charge these women 
 were replaced by trained nurses. 
 
 THE CRASH 
 
 The crash came in December, 1888. At this time $156,654,687.00 had 
 been expended on the Isthmus, and in Paris, $78,140,330.00, a total of $234,- 
 795,017.00. This vast sum is said to have been "one-third expended on the 
 canal work, one-third wasted, and one-third stolen." Of that spent at Panama, 
 salaries and expenses of management aggregated $16,540,883; rents and main- 
 tenance of leased property, $3,301,070; material and supplies, $29,722,856; 
 buildings, $15,397,282; construction and engineering expenses, $89,434,225; 
 land purchases, $950,655; and medical and religious attendance, $1,836,768. 
 In view of the various forms of graft, extravagance and waste, it is not sur- 
 prising that there was so little to show in actual work accomplished. At the 
 end of eight years the work was about two-fifths completed. 
 
 A French excavator opening a pioneer trench in the south end of the Cut. This was the 
 best known method of excavating in that day. 
 
 The work was let to contractors, very few of whom faithfully performed 
 the service for which they were paid. Many made small fortunes. Those 
 who were intrusted with the work of excavation were paid for the amount of 
 spoil which they took from the canal prism. As there was no data available 
 on the cost of such work, it was impossible to even estimate what the charge 
 should be. In many cases the contractors took out what was most easily 
 excavated, avoiding the hard spots. One notable exception to this was the 
 dredging work done by the American Dredging and Contracting Company, 
 which dredged the opening of the Canal from Colon to beyond Gatun. 
 
 [ 59 ] 
 
First French Company's days. Dredges working in the canal at Mindi. 
 
 Two French ladder dredges working on the Chagres River, opposite Gorgona 20 years ago. 
 
 The French suction dredges with the carrying pipes, were effective in excavating, but like 
 their cableways, did not carry the spoil far enough. 
 
 f 60 1 
 
CTMB Jv\NP . DIVIDED cn\& AVORbp^TTNITEp 
 
 Much worthless material was shipped to the Isthmus, due to ill advised 
 buying, the French manufacturers undoubtedly in many instances cleaning 
 house to their profit at the expense of the Canal stockholders. When the 
 Americans took over the property they found torch lights in one storehouse 
 apparently brought to the Isthmus to be used in the celebration of the opening 
 of the Canal. At another time a lot of wooden shovels, made from one piece, 
 were brought to light. They have been referred to as snow shovels, but were 
 evidently intended for handling sand or ashes. A ton or more of rusted pen 
 points found in the stationery store furnished additional proof as to where 
 some of the money went. 
 
 Early in 1885, it became apparent that the Canal could not be completed 
 under the sea level plan within the time or estimated cost. During the previous 
 year the promoters foresaw the end, and began to sell their stock. M. Leon 
 Bover, who succeeded Dingier as director had time to report before his death 
 from yellow fever a few months after his arrival on the Isthmus, that the canal 
 could not be completed by 1889, and to submit a plan for a lock canal. In May. 
 
 Old French dump cars. Steel cars, 18 feet long, were used exclusively. The cars dumped on one 
 side only, and were too small for economical use. Most of these were scrapped by the Americans. 
 
 1885, M. De Lesseps asked the French Government for authority to issue 
 lottery bonds for a loan of $120,000,000, to replenish the depleted treasury. 
 Before granting permission, the Government sent out M. Armand Rousseau, 
 an eminent engineer, to investigate conditions. He reported that the canal 
 could not be finished within the time and cost estimated unless changed to the 
 lock plan. Similar reports were made by an engineer sent out by the company, 
 and by the agent of the Colombian Government on the Isthmus, the latter 
 stating that the canal could not be completed before the expiration of the 
 concession in 1892. In February, 1885, Lieutenants Winslow and McLean of 
 the United States Navy, reported that there remained to be excavated 180,000,- 
 000 cubic yards; that the work would take 26 years at the then rate of progress, 
 and that the cost would total $350,000,000. 
 
 M. De Lesseps withdrew his request for permission to issue lottery bonds, 
 but would not consent to a change in plans. He obtained temporary financial 
 relief by the issue of bonds to the value of about $70,000,000, but as money 
 again began to get scarce, he consented to a change in plan, and in October, 
 1887, a temporary lock canal, with summit level above the flood line of the 
 
 [ 61 ] 
 
lE Tv\ND DIVIDED CTHB WORLjD> TIKITED 
 
 Chagres River, to be supplied with water by pumping, was decided upon. 
 Under the new plan, it was estimated that the cost would reach $351,000,000 
 and would require 20 years to build. There had already been spent at this time 
 nearly $250,000,000, and only about two-fifths of the work had been ac- 
 complished. The end was in sight. 
 
 Work was pushed forward under the new plan until May, 1880, when the 
 company became bankrupt and a liquidator was appointed to take charge. 
 Under the liquidator, the work gradually diminished and was finally suspended 
 on May 15, 1889. It was soon realized that the only way anything could be 
 saved to the stockholders was to continue the project. Late in 1889, the 
 receiver appointed a commission composed of French and foreign engineers, 
 eleven in number, to visit the Isthmus and determine whether or not the canal 
 could be completed. This commission reported on May 5, 1890, that a lock 
 canal might be completed within eight years at a cost of $174,600,000. It 
 reported that the plant on hand was in good condition and would probably 
 
 Old French locomotives. One hundred and nineteen of these were rebuilt 
 and used by the Americans. 
 
 suffice for completing the canal. It also estimated the value of the plant and 
 the work already accomplished at $87,300,000, or one-half of the total cost. 
 
 Meanwhile, as a result of the exposure and investigation of the affairs of 
 the old company, M. De Lesseps and his son Charles were sentenced to five 
 years imprisonment, and similar sentences were imposed upon several others 
 of their associates. The French Court of Appeals annulled the sentence of 
 Charles de Lesseps, and that against his father was never executed for, at that 
 time, January 10, 1893, he was 88 years old and a physical and mental wreck; 
 he died in the month of December, following. 
 
 As the Wyse concession had nearly expired, the receiver obtained from 
 Colombia an extension of ten years. It was stipulated that the new company 
 should be formed and work upon the canal resumed on or before February 28, 
 1893. As this condition was not fulfilled, a second extension of 10 years was 
 obtained, to run not later than October 31, 1894. 
 
 THE SECOND OR NEW COMPANY 
 
 The Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, the New French Canal 
 Company, as it is generally known, was organized under a special law on 
 October 20, 1894, with a capital stock of $13,000,000, with shares valued at $20 
 each. Six hundred thousand shares were sold for cash, the greater part being 
 taken by the receiver, the contractors, and others, who had been interested in 
 
 [ 62] 
 

 
 
 
 • 
 
 s§ 
 
 The top picture shows Bas Obispo in the first French Company's days, at the northern end 
 of their proposed lock. The center picture shows French cranes at work. The French using 
 laborers to fill cars is shown in the lower picture. Cableways, in the distance, were also used for 
 handling spoil. 
 
 [ 63] 
 
CTJHLE Tv\NP . 
 
 <ZT1\& WOBIjD, TTKITED 
 
 the old company and escaped criminal prosecution by taking the new stock; 
 and 50,000 shares given to the Colombian Government for the extension of the 
 concession. The new company took possession in 1894, and work was im- 
 mediately resumed in Culebra Cut with a force large enough to comply with 
 the terms of the concession. As excavation work at this point was necessary 
 under any plans that might be decided upon, it was continued, while elaborate 
 and extensive studies of the Canal project were begun by competent engineers. 
 The plan finally adopted by the new company involved two levels above 
 the sea, one an artificial lake to be created by a dam across the Chagres River at 
 
 A number of old French dredges, which were valueless except as junk, 
 when the United States acquired them. 
 
 Bohio, and another a high level canal through Culebra Cut at an elevation of 
 68.08 feet above mean tide, to be fed by water by a channel leading from a 
 reservoir to be constructed at Alhajuela in the upper Chagres River valley. 
 The lake level was to be reached from the Atlantic by a flight of two locks, and 
 the summit level by a second flight of two locks. On the Pacific side four other 
 locks were provided for, the two middle ones at Pedro Miguel being combined 
 in one flight, and the others being located at Paraiso and Miraflores. On the 
 Atlantic side there was to be a sea level channel to Bohio, 17 miles inland, and 
 on the Pacific side at Miraflores, about 8 miles inland. The depth of the 
 canal was to be 29.5 feet, with a bottom width of 98 feet. The locks were to be 
 in duplicate, 738.22 feet long, 82.02 feet wide, with a normal depth of 29.5 
 feet. The lifts were to vary from 26 to 33 feet. 
 
 A second plan was also worked out in which the upper level was omitted, 
 the cut through the divide being deepened to 32 feet above sea level, making the 
 artificial lake created by the dam at Bohio the summit level. Under this plan 
 the feeder from Alhajuela was omitted, although the dam was to be retained to 
 control the Chagres. One flight of locks on the Atlantic side and one lock on 
 the Pacific side were also to be omitted. The estimated cost of completing the 
 canal under this plan was not much greater than the first, and all work on the 
 first plan for several years would be equally available under the second. 
 
 Although the first plan was adopted on December 30, 1899, no effort was 
 made to carry it out, on account of the interest being shown by the United States 
 in a canal across Nicaragua. It was realized that if the United States should 
 undertake to construct such a waterway, the work accomplished and the plant 
 on the Isthmus would be practically worthless. In 1895, there was a force of 
 
 [ 64 ] 
 
crHB J^AN-P . DIVIDED —GTTW WO^Pj TTNJTED 
 
 men numbering about 2,000 at work in Culebra Cut, and a year later this was 
 increased to 3,600. This was the largest number of men employed under the 
 new company, for only enough work was done to hold the concession and keep 
 the equipment in a salable condition. The French at that time were beginning 
 to look for a purchaser; they wanted $100,000,000 for the work and equipment, 
 but the only likely buyer was the United States. The Isthmian Canal Com- 
 mission, appointed by the Spooner Act of 1899, reported in November, 1901, 
 in favor of the Nicaragua route unless the French company was willing to sell 
 out at $40,000,000. This recommendation became a law on June 28, 1902, 
 and the New Panama Canal Company was practically forced to sell for that 
 amount or get nothing. 
 
 Although the French on the Isthmus worked under difficulties which 
 eventually forced them to give up the Canal undertaking, they removed with 
 their clumsy side excavators, now obsolete dredges, small Decauville cars and 
 toy Belgium locomotives, a considerable amount of material from the 
 Canal prism, a large part of which has been found useful under the present 
 plan. 
 
 The old company excavated 66, 743, .551 cubic yards, from 1881 to 1889, and 
 the new company excavated 11,403,409 cubic yards up to 1904, a total of 78,- 
 146,960 cubic yards; 18,646,000 cubic yards of this total were taken from 
 Culebra Cut, the operation of the new company being practically confined to 
 
 
 
 
 
 ogf 
 
 
 ^KL 
 
 1 
 
 
 ¥ 
 
 it * ' , ■ ■ 
 
 * > 
 
 I 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 M| ■" J 
 
 mtmJinUtfti ' i4fc**ftf*-.'iw<ilfiillff 
 
 *y *■'{'. " " 
 
 A pile of old French dump cars. Many tons of this scrap material have been collected 
 
 along the line of the Canal. 
 
 that portion of the work. Of this total, it has been figured that 29. 908, 000 cubic 
 yards have been useful to the Americans. The old company dredged a channel 
 from deep water in Panama bay to the wharves at Balboa which has been used 
 by ships docking at that port. On the Atlantic side, the channel dredged inland, 
 known as the French canal, was found useful upon deepening in bringing sand 
 and stone for the locks and spillway concrete at Gatun. 
 
 The French also turned over valuable surveys and studies of the work, 
 together with plans that have been found of great value to the American or- 
 ganization. The best of this class of work was done under the new company. 
 
 [65 ] 
 
CJ^VE^^AM-D piVIDED q^HE WOBJyD> TTKITED 
 
 This is especially true of the records kept of the flow and floods of the Chagres 
 River, together with rainfall records, so essential to the present plan. 
 
 FRENCH AID TO AMERICAN PROJECT 
 
 Much of the work of preparation during the first two years of American 
 occupation — 1904-1905 — would have been seriously delayed without the 
 French supplies and equipment. In the shops and storehouses were found a 
 plentiful supply of repair parts, shop tools, stationary engines, material and 
 supplies of all kinds of good quality. At Gorgona, where the principal shops 
 were located, known during the French times as Bas Matachin shops, were 
 found sheds filled with old locomotives, cranes and excavators. One hundred 
 car loads of foundry and machine shop material were removed from this point. 
 Repair shops were found at Empire, Paraiso, Gatun and Bohio. A small 
 machine shop was uncovered in the jungle at Caimito Mulato, when American 
 
 Another view of a part of the old machinery, a legacy from the French. All of the junk 
 along the line of the Canal, both French and American, is being turned into dollars, having been 
 sold to a Chicago wrecking concern. 
 
 engineers were running the center line of the Canal. There was also a dry dock 
 at Cristobal, which was originally 190 feet long, 32 feet wide and 16 feet deep 
 over the sills at ordinary high tide. At Balboa on the Pacific side, there was 
 located a repair and marine shop for the floating equipment. The old French 
 shops in every case formed the nucleus of the larger and better equipped shops 
 maintained by the Americans during the period of construction. 
 
 During the first two years of American occupation, French locomotives 
 were the only ones available by the Isthmian Canal Commission. On June 30, 
 1906, there were 106 in service, and only 15 American locomotives. The same 
 is true of the French dump cars. In 1904, there were 308 in service, and in 
 1905, over 2,000 had been repaired and put in commission, as compared with 
 300 American-built cars. At the present time there are about 100 French 
 locomotives and 200 Decauville dump cars in serviceable condition. In 
 December, 1904, there were six old French excavators working in Culebra Cut, 
 
 [66] 
 
CTHJES TvANP . DIVIDED -—ct -he: WOBlJa TTKITED 
 
 which had been overhauled and placed in service. These were similar to ladder 
 dredges, and the excavation was accomplished by an endless chain of buckets 
 which carried earth and rock from one side and dropped it into a hopper from 
 which it fell into dump cars on the other side. These machines were effective 
 only when working in soft material. They remained at work 18 months before 
 they were replaced by modern steam shovels. 
 
 The floating equipment on hand was considerable, and many dredges, 
 clapets or self-propelling hopper barges, tugs, launches, etc., were found in the 
 marine graveyards at Folks River, Cristobal, and in the mouth of the Rio 
 Grande at the Pacific entrance to the Canal, as well as along the banks of the 
 Chagres River. Many of these were floated, rebuilt and placed in commission. 
 On account of the excellent material used in the construction of this equipment, 
 most of which was Scotch-built, the Americans found it highly profitable to 
 repair them. Heavy coats of paint and oil, which 20 or more rainy seasons 
 
 A laborer looking for his belongings after a flood. The damage and loss of property 
 caused by the floods during the rainy season is clearly pictured here. 
 
 could not penetrate, had been given the machinery when it was retired, so that 
 when the hulls were not worth repairing, the valuable parts w r ere used elsewhere. 
 Several dredges were reconstructed from parts of others. A Scotch ladder dredge 
 with a capacity of about 130,000 cubic yards per month w T as repaired at a cost 
 of about $30,000, which, when new, cost about $ L 200,000. At the present time 
 there are several French dredges doing excellent work on the Canal. 
 
 Two thousand, one hundred and forty-nine buildings scattered along the line 
 of the Panama Railroad were included in the turn-over. These were generally 
 small and ill-suited for use, other than as laborers' barracks or storehouses, but 
 it was found profitable to repair some 1,500 of them even after they had stood 
 unused for ten years or more. The large piles of French scrap, old locomotives, 
 boilers, dump cars, parts of machines, etc., which used to be one of the sights 
 along the line of the Panama railroad have slowly disappeared. Much of it 
 has been sold as junk to contractors, while the copper, brass, white metal, rails, 
 and cast iron have been used in the foundry at Gorgona. Old French rails 
 
 [67] 
 
qTHB TvAND DIVIDED crrBK WORkE>> TTKITED 
 
 have been used in the reinforcement of concrete in the lock walls, for the repair 
 of dump cars, and for telephone and telegraph poles. 
 
 Seven years after the Canal was taken over from the French, May, 1911, 
 the present Isthmian Canal Commission made a careful official estimate of 
 the value to the Commission of the franchises, equipment, material, work done, 
 and property of various kinds for which the United States paid the French Canal 
 Company $40,000,000. It places the total value at over $42,000,000 divided 
 as follows: 
 
 Excavation, useful to the Canal, 29,708,000 cubic yards $25,389,240.00 
 
 Panama Railroad Stock 9,644,320.00 
 
 Plant and material, used, and sold for scrap 2,112,063.00 
 
 Buildings, used 2,054,203.00 
 
 Surveys, plans, maps, and records 2,000,000.00 
 
 Land 1,000,000.00 
 
 Clearings, roads, etc 100,000.00 
 
 Ship channel in Panama Bay, four years' use 500,000.00 
 
 Total $42,799,826.00 
 
 A mechanical oddity — tree grown through an old French dump car. 
 
 68 1 
 
N Isthmian Canal Commission organized for the construction of the 
 Canal was appointed under the provisions of An Act of Congress 
 approved June 28, 1902, called the Spooner Act. This Act author- 
 ized the President to acquire, in behalf of the United States, at a cost 
 not exceeding $40,000,000, the rights, franchises, property, etc., including the 
 shares of the Panama railroad, owned by the New French Canal Company, 
 and to obtain from the Republic of Colombia perpetual control of the necessary 
 strip of land across the Isthmus, which control should also include the right to 
 perpetually maintain and operate the Panama railroad, and jurisdiction over 
 the ports at either end. 
 
 If the President should be unable to obtain a satisfactory title to the prop- 
 erty, and the control of the necessary territory, within a reasonable time and 
 upon reasonable terms, then the Commission was authorized to construct a 
 waterway across Nicaragua, using Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan River, 
 after the President had first obtained perpetual control, by treaty with Costa 
 Rica and Nicaragua. The impossibility of the United States to come to a 
 satisfactory agreement with Colombia, who thought that the United States was 
 now committed to construct a canal across Panama and, therefore, could be 
 made to pay a larger amount than first offered, led to the revolution of November 
 3, 1903, by which Panama, a state of Colombia became the Republic of Panama, 
 and the signing of a treaty by the new Republic by which the United States was 
 granted in perpetuity the necessary territory. This strip of land, known as 
 the Canal Zone, containing about 436 square miles, extends from deep water in 
 the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific (three miles from the low water mark 
 on either side), and five miles on either side of the center line of the canal. 
 Included in this grant are the Islands of Naos, Perico, Flamenco and Culebra 
 in the Bay of Panama, which are now connected with the mainland by a break- 
 water, and upon which fortifications are being placed. The cities of Panama 
 and Colon are excluded from the limits of the Canal Zone, but the United States 
 exercises sanitary control over them, and also has the right to maintain public 
 order in them in case the Republic of Panama should not be able in the judg- 
 ment of the United States to do so. 
 
 [ 69 ] 
 
MEMBERS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 
 
 COL. GEO. W. GOETHALS, U. S. A., 
 Chairman and Chief Engineer. 
 
 COL. WILLIAM C. GORGAS, U. S. A. 
 Chief Sanitary Officer. 
 
 COL. HARRY F. HODGES, U. S. A., 
 Assistant Chief Engineer. 
 
 H. H. ROUSSEAU, CIVIL ENGINEER, U. S. NAVY, 
 Assistant to the Chief Engineer. 
 
 Copyright, Harris & Ewing, Washington, D. C. 
 
 [ 70 ] 
 
MEMBERS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 
 
 COL. WILLIAM L. SIBERT. U. S. A.. 
 Division Engineer of the Atlantic Division. 
 
 HON. RICHARD LEE METCALFE. 
 Head of Department of Civil Administration. 
 
 Copyright. Harris & Ewina 
 
 , and Clinedinst. Washington 
 
 [ 71 ] 
 
 COL. D. D. GAILLARD, 
 Division Engineer of the Central Division. 
 
 JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP, 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 P. C. 
 
CTMB TaAN-P , DIVIDED -^<^THE: WQRLjD, TTKITEB 
 
 As compensation to the Republic of Panama, the United States paid 
 $10,000,000, and agreed to make an annual payment of $2.50,000, to begin nine 
 years after the date of the treaty. These annual payments commenced in 
 February, 1913. 
 
 J ' ORGANIZATION OF THE CANAL COMMISSION 
 
 The first meeting of the Isthmian Canal Commission was held in Washing- 
 ton, D. C, on March 22, 1904, with the following members appointed by the 
 President: Rear- Admiral John G. Walker, Chairman; Major-General George 
 W. Davis, U. S. A., William Barclay Parsons, C. E., William H. Burr, C. E., 
 Benjamin H. Harrod, C. E., Ewald Grunsky, C. E., and Frank J. Hecker. 
 On May 9, 1904 Ex-President Roosevelt, by Executive Order, placed the 
 immediate supervision of its work, both in the construction of the canal and in 
 the exercise of such governmental powers deemed necessary under the treaty 
 with Panama in the Canal Zone, in the hands of the Secretary of War, William 
 H. Taft 
 
 The full Commission first arrived on the Isthmus on April 5, and estab- 
 lished temporary headquarters in the old De Lesseps residence in Cristobal. 
 A thorough study was made of the plans and methods of work as carried on by 
 the French, in which work it was assisted by Maj. William M. Black and 
 Lieutenant Mark Brooke, U. S. Corps of Engineers, and by M. Renaudin, the 
 resident representative of the New Panama Canal Company. From this 
 examination it was found that new and extended surveys would be necessary 
 before any of the problems of location and construction could be settled, so the 
 first step of the Commission on its return to the United States on April 29, was 
 the organization of engineering parties. Five of these were organized, the first 
 leaving for the Isthmus about the middle of May, and the others shortly after. 
 Surveys and investigations were made by these parties of the proposed harbor 
 improvements of Colon, the proposed dams for the control of the Chagres River 
 at Gatun, Bohio and Gamboa, and the design of water works and sewers for 
 the cities of Colon and Panama. 
 
 TAKING POSSESSION CHANGE IN CHIEF ENGINEER 
 
 The United States represented by Lieutenant Brooke, U. S. A., took 
 possession of the French canal property on May 4, 1904, and operations were 
 continued with the same employes and laborers, about 700, that had been left 
 by the French company, for work had been continuous in Culebra Cut from 
 the beginning in 1881, except for a few years, in order to hold the franchise. 
 Although neither the equipment nor the organization of this force was adequate, 
 it was considered advisable to maintain it for the time being and to gradually 
 introduce necessary changes in the organization and in the equipment. 
 
 Lieutenant Brooke remained in charge of this work until the arrival of 
 Major-General Davis, who was appointed Governor of the Isthmus on May 8, 
 1904, and arrived on May 17. On the day of his arrival it was announced to 
 the inhabitants of the Canal Zone that the territory had been occupied by the 
 United States of America. This was a little bit too precipitate for the Pana- 
 manians who had been accustomed under the French regime to much speech- 
 making, feasting, and champagne drinking when any undertaking was put into 
 operation, so they protested to the State Department, to the end that, to their 
 minds, more fitting ceremonies were later indulged in. Governor Davis was 
 also placed in temporary charge of the construction work until the Chief 
 
 [ 72] 
 
Ex- President" 
 Theodore Roosevelt 
 
 President 
 Woodrow Wilson 
 
 The chroniclers of history for all time will associate the names of Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson 
 with the world's greatest undertaking, — the construction of the Panama Canal. Students of the 
 subject will doubtless concede that to Theodore Roosevelt should be accorded the distinction of 
 inaugurating the enterprise, to his successor, former President Taft should belong the honor of 
 four years of faithful service in carrying forward the stupendous work so encouragingly begun, 
 and to President Woodrow Wilson falls the duty of installing the splendid success which the re- 
 sources, perseverance and indomitable courage of American citizenship have rendered possible. 
 
 [ 73 ] 
 
crra& Tv\N-P DIVIDED cm B WOia)D> TTKITED 
 
 Engineer, Mr. John F. Wallace, entered upon his duties on June 1, 1904. Mr. 
 Wallace resigned as Chief Engineer on June 25, 1905, after serving one year, 
 and was succeeded by Mr. John F. Stevens on July 20, 1905. 
 
 Mr. Wallace, who had become dissatisfied with the working methods of 
 the first Commission was made a member of the Commission under an Executive 
 Order dated April 1, 1905, which reorganized it, and gave to him full control 
 in the department of construction and engineering. This reorganization was 
 brought about by the Secretary of War who, by direction of the President in 
 March, 1905, requested the resignations of the commissioners, which were at 
 once tendered. It was believed that this change would make a more effective 
 force for doing the required work, and do away with the long delays occasioned 
 in purchasing material and supplies and in the accomplishment of work by 
 government "red tape" which had become so irksome to Mr. Wallace. His 
 resignation shortly after this change, six days after his return to the Isthmus 
 from Washington, was hard to understand, but it is possible that the question of 
 health entered considerably into his decision, for it was at this time that the 
 first outbreak of yellow fever among the Americans had occurred and the first 
 victim was Mrs. Frank Seager, the wife of Mr. Wallace's private secretary. 
 
 THE NEW COMMISSION 
 
 The new Commission created under the above mentioned Order consisted 
 of the same number of members, seven, but full power was practically vested in 
 three members who were placed in charge of the three executive departments 
 created. One department was under the direction of the Chairman of the 
 Commission, Theodore P. Shonts, and took charge of the fiscal affairs, the 
 purchase and delivery of material and supplies, the accounts, bookkeeping, 
 and audits, and the commercial operations in the United States of the Panama 
 railroad and steamship lines, with headquarters in Washington; another, under 
 the Governor of the Zone, Charles E. Magoon, which looked after the ad- 
 ministration and enforcement of law in the Zone, the sanitation of the Canal 
 Zone and the cities of Panama and Colon, and the custody of all supplies and 
 construction necessary for sanitary purposes, and the third, under the Chief 
 Engineer, John F. Wallace, which had charge of the work of construction, the 
 custody of all supplies and plant on the Isthmus and the practical operation of 
 the railroad on the Isthmus with special view to its utilization in the Canal 
 construction work. 
 
 An executive committee of not less than three members, a majority of 
 whom constituted a quorum was also created to act in place of the full com- 
 mission, which had heretofore only met quarterly, during the intervals between 
 meetings, in order to secure the uninterrupted course of the work. This 
 executive committee met twice a week in the office of the Governor on the 
 Isthmus until it was abolished on November 17, 1906. 
 
 The new department of Government and Sanitation was placed in charge 
 of Mr. Charles E. Magoon, as a member of the Commission, vice Major-Gen- 
 eral Geo. W. Davis, who returned to the United States on May 9, 1905, in ac- 
 cordance with instructions received from the Secretary of War, on account of 
 failing health. When General Davis left the Isthmus he turned the work over to 
 Col. W. C. Gorgas, the Chief Sanitary Officer, who acted as Governor until 
 May 25, when Governor Magoon assumed the duties of his office. 
 
 The new Commission now consisted of seven members, as follows: Chair- 
 
 [74] 
 
SOME OF THE MEN ON THE BIG JOB. 
 (1.) Hezekiah A. Gudger, Chief Justice of the Canal Zone Supreme Court. (2.) Frank 
 Feuille, Counsel and Chief Attorney of the Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Rail- 
 road. (3.) H. A. A. Smith, Examiner of Accounts. (4.) A. S. Zinn, Resident Engineer in the 
 Central Division, who has been identified with the work in Culebra Cut since 1906. (5.) Henry 
 Goldmark, designing engineer, in charge of the lock gates of the Canal. (6.) T. B. Monniche, 
 designing engineer, in charge of the emergency dams of the locks. (7.) John H. McLean, 
 Disbursing Officer of the Isthmian Canal Commission. (8.) Capt. Robert E. Wood, U. S. A., 
 Chief Quartermaster of the Isthmian Canal Commission. (9.) W. G. Comber, Resident Engineer 
 of the Sixth (Dredging) Division. (10.) Capt. Charles W. Barber, Chief of Canal Zone Police. 
 (11.) C. E. Weidman, Chief of the Fire Department. (12.) Tom M. Cooke, Chief, Division of 
 Posts, Customs, and Revenues. (13.) Lieut. Col. Eugene T. Wilson, Subsistence Officer. (14.) 
 George M. Wells, Resident Engineer, Department of Municipal Engineering. (15.) Harry O. 
 Cole, Resident Engineer, Fifth Division. 
 
 [ 
 
 1 
 
CTHB TvAN-D , DIVIDED ^<^THB WOBJ^D, TTKITED 
 
 man, Theodore P. Shonts, Charles E. Magoon, also Governor of the Canal 
 Zone, Rear- Admiral Mordecai T. Endicott, Brigadier-General Peter C. Hains, 
 U. S. A. (retired), Col. Oswald H. Ernst, U. S. A., Benjamin M. Harrod, and 
 John F. Wallace, also Chief Engineer. 
 
 COMMISSION AGAIN REORGANIZED 
 
 On November 17, 1906, the commission was again reorganized by Execu- 
 tive Order in order to promote harmony and to secure results by more direct 
 methods and a centralization of power. In order to do this, the following 
 departments were created under the new organization: Chairman, Chief 
 Engineer, General Counsel, who took over the duties of the Governor, Chief 
 Sanitary Officer, General Purchasing Officer, General Auditor, Disbursing 
 Officer, and Manager of Labor and Quarters. 
 
 On September 25, 1906, Gov. Charles E. Magoon, was transferred to 
 administer affairs in Cuba, and was succeeded by Richard Reid Rogers the 
 General Counsel in Washington on November 19, 1906. While Mr. Rogers 
 was in Washington, Mr. H. D. Reed acted as head of the department on the 
 Isthmus until the arrival of Mr. Jo. C. S. Blackburn who was appointed as 
 Head of the Department of Civil Administration on April 1, 1907. On April 
 2, 1907, the authority of the Governor, or Chief Executive of the Canal Zone, 
 was transferred by order of the Secretary of War to the Chairman's office, so 
 from that time the Chairman and Chief Engineer has in reality been Governor 
 of the Canal Zone also. 
 
 Mr. Shonts resigned effective March 4, 1907, and the resignation of 
 General Hains, Major Harrod, and Rear-Admiral Endicott, were accepted on 
 March 16, 1907. Finally, Mr. Stevens resigned effective April 1, 1907. The 
 resignation of Mr. Stevens was as great a surprise as that of Mr. Wallace. 
 According to the report current at the time, the chief engineer became alarmed 
 over the possibility of awarding the contract for the construction of the canal 
 to the Oliver-Bangs combination, and wrote a letter to the President, setting 
 forth that the canal organization had been pretty well perfected ; that more dirt 
 had been taken out during the previous 30 days than had ever been taken out 
 before in the same length of time; that he did not care to share the work of 
 building the canal with anyone, nor be hampered with men less familiar with the 
 subject than himself. He intimated that if his wishes were not complied with 
 he would quit. The letter is said to have caused ex-President Roosevelt 
 something of a shock, but with his characteristic spontaneity of action, he cabled 
 acceptance of the "resignation." 
 
 In order to get competent men who were used to working under Govern- 
 ment regulations and orders, and who would "stick," ex-President Roosevelt 
 resorted to the Army, with the result that three officers of the Corps of Engineers, 
 U. S. A., the Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks, U. S. N., an officer of the 
 Medical Corps, U. S. A., and two civilians were appointed in their places, thus 
 practically abandoning the plan of carrying on the work under civilian direction. 
 Under this new organization a combination of the positions of Chairman and 
 Chief Engineer was effected, and the creation of the Department of Sanitation, 
 distinct from Civil Administration was made. It was also required that the 
 commissioners take their station on the Isthmus and thus be in direct touch 
 
 [ 76] 
 
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 with the work under their charge. This new commission assumed its duties 
 on April 1, 1907, and consisted of the following: 
 
 Col. Geo. W. Goethals, U. S. A., Chairman and Chief Engineer; Col. D. D. 
 Gaillard, U. S. A., Head of Department of Excavation and Dredging; Lieut.- 
 Col. Wm. L. Sibert, U. S. A., Head of Department of Lock and Dam Construc- 
 tion; Col. W. C. Gorgas, U. S. A., Chief Sanitary Officer; Civil Engineer H. H. 
 Rousseau, U. S. N., Head of Department of Municipal Engineering, Motive 
 Power and Machinery and Building Construction; Jackson Smith, Manager, 
 Labor, Quarters and Subsistence; Jo. C. S. Blackburn, Head of Department of 
 Civil Administration; Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Secretary. 
 
 The personnel of the above commission has remained unchanged with three 
 exceptions. Jackson Smith resigned on September 15, 1908, and the depart- 
 ment of labor and quarters is now a part of the Quartermaster's Department 
 under direction of Captain R. E. Wood, U. S. A., and the Subsistence Depart- 
 
 John F. Wallace, first Chief Engineer of the John F. Stevens, second Chief Engineer. He 
 
 Panama Canal. He entered upon his duties June was appointed July 20, 1905, and resigned April 
 1, 1904, and resigned June 25, 1905. 1, 1907, Col. Geo. W. Goethals, taking his place. 
 
 Copyright, Clinedinst. Washington, D. C. 
 
 ment under direction of Major Eugene T. Wilson, U. S. A., as a separate depart- 
 ment. Mr. Jo. C. S. Blackburn resigned, effective December 4, 1909, and was 
 succeeded on May 13, 1910, by Mr. Maurice H. Thatcher, Mr. Rousseau acting 
 as Head of the Department during the interval. Mr. Thatcher resigned, effective 
 on June 14, 1913, and was succeeded by Mr. Richard L. Metcalfe, the present 
 head of the department. 
 
 The Departments of Excavation and Dredging and Lock and Dam 
 Construction were abolished and, on July 1, 1908, became the Atlantic Division, 
 under Colonel Sibert, having charge of the dredging operations in the Atlantic 
 entrance, and the lock, dam and spillway work at Gatun, and the General 
 Division, under Colonel D. D. Gaillard, which has charge of the excavation in 
 the Culebra Cut section. On July 15, 1908, the Pacific Division was organized 
 and charged with the lock, dam and spillway work at Pedro Miguel and Mira- 
 flores, and the dredging work in the Pacific entrance under Mr. S. B. William- 
 son, Division Engineer. Upon the resignation of Mr. Williamson on December 
 
 [ 78] 
 
CTHE J v\NP , DIVIDED ^~cm& WORJbD^ 
 
 12, 1912, the Pacific Division was abolished and its work was placed under the 
 immediate charge of the Chief Engineer, as the Fifth Division of the Department 
 of Construction and Engineering. On May 1, 1913, the dredging work of the 
 Atlantic and Pacific Divisions was consolidated under Mr. W. G. Comber, 
 Resident Engineer, forming the sixth Division of the Chief Engineer's office. 
 The Department of Municipal Engineering, Motive Power and Machinery, and 
 Building Construction, was abolished on August 1, 1908, and became a part of 
 the Department of Construction and Engineering with Mr. Rousseau, Assistant 
 to the Chief Engineer in charge. The present commission consists of the 
 following members: 
 
 Colonel Geo. W. Goethals, U. S. A., Chairman and Chief Engineer; 
 Colonel H. F. Hodges, U. S. A., Assistant Chief Engineer (Appointed July 14, 
 1908, vice Jackson Smith); Civil Engineer H. H. Rousseau, U. S. N., Assistant 
 to the Chief Engineer; Colonel D. D. Gaillard, U. S. A., Division Engineer, 
 Central Division; Lieutenant-Col. Wm. L. Sibert, U. S. A., Division Engineer, 
 Atlantic Division; Colonel W. C. Gorgas, U. S. A., Chief Sanitary Officer; 
 Richard L. Metcalfe, Head of Department of Civil Administration; Joseph 
 Bucklin Bishop, Secretary. 
 
 Of these eight men, Colonel Gorgas is the only one who has been in the 
 service since the inauguration of the work. Colonel Gaillard left the Isthmus 
 on August 9, 1913, on special leave of absence, suffering from a nervous break- 
 down, due to his long service on the Isthmus, and it is probable that he will not 
 return. 
 
 THE PURCHASING END 
 
 The Commission maintains an office in Washington in charge of Major 
 F. C. Boggs, U. S. A., who fills the positions of Chief of Office, and General 
 Purchasing Officer. The work is apportioned among the following divisions: 
 General Office, Disbursing Office, Office of Assistant Examiner of Accounts, 
 Appointment Division, Correspondence and Record Division, and Purchasing 
 Department. The Appointment Division has to do with filling requisitions 
 for American employes, and during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 2,065 
 persons were tendered employment on the Isthmus in grades above that of 
 laborer. Of this number, 1,183 accepted and were appointed, covering 59 
 different positions. The purchasing branch was organized on August 15, 1907, 
 and placed under the supervision of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., with an 
 officer of the Corps of Engineers in charge. Additional offices for the purchase 
 of materials are maintained at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco. 
 Medical and hospital supplies are purchased through the Medical Supply 
 Depot of the Army in New York. Nearly all supplies are purchased under 
 contract by means of advertising for bids and making awards thereon, and all 
 material is carefully inspected before shipment, although the right is reserved 
 of making final inspection on the Isthmus. As an illustration of the work of 
 this department, a total of 7,087 orders were placed during the last fiscal vear 
 to the value of $12,335,973.12. 
 
 [ 79 ] 
 
l^lAMGraElSfflMlyiEALTHFUL, 
 
 HE high mortality among employes encountered by the builders of the 
 Panama railroad and by the French during their operations indicated 
 that, to keep a suitable working force on the Isthmus, the Canal 
 Zone, and the cities of Panama and Colon would have to be made 
 healthy. Realizing this, one of the first divisions of the canal work to be 
 established was that of sanitation under Col. W. C. Gorgas, who, prior to his 
 arrival on the Isthmus, had successfully stamped out yellow fever and sub- 
 stantially reduced the high malaria rate in Havana, Cuba. This division was 
 at first a part of the Department of Government of the Canal Zone, but, on 
 account of the importance of the sanitary work it was later made a distinct and 
 separate department. That its work under the direction of Colonel Gorgas 
 has been entirely successful, may at this day, be readily seen. Instead of a 
 pest hole with an unsavory reputation as "a white man's graveyard," the 
 Isthmus has become a winter resort for an increasing number of tourists each 
 year. Not only was it necessary to free the Isthmus from pestilence in order 
 that the canal work might be accomplished, but it was just as necessary that it 
 be kept in that condition for all time. 
 
 Dr. Ronald Ross of the British Army in India is credited with the discovery, 
 through successive experiments in 1898, that the Anopheles mosquito is the 
 germ-carrier for malaria. This mosquito bites an infected person and carries 
 the germ to other persons. In the same way another species of mosquito, the 
 Stegomyia, was found to be responsible for yellow fever. The theory of yellow 
 fever transmission by mosquitoes was exploited as early as 1883, by Dr. Carlos 
 Finlay of Havana. The definite and indisputable test was made in July, 1900, 
 at Quemados, Cuba, by four members of the United States Army Medical 
 Corps, who had been appointed as a commission for the study of the disease. 
 These four men were Doctors Walter Reed, Jesse W. Lazear, James Carroll, 
 and Aristides Agramonte. One of these men, Dr. Lazear who allowed himself 
 to be bitten by an infected mosquito, died from the resulting attack of yellow 
 fever. Dr. Carroll also contracted yellow fever during the experiments, but 
 recovered. A reward of $200 was offered to encourage volunteers, and of the 
 many enlisted men who took part in the experiments, the first to present them- 
 selves were John R. Kissinger and John J. Moran, both of whom stated that 
 
 [ 80 1 
 
IJ / ( ■WpPiti ( ^^^^. 
 
 METHOD OF OILING' 
 
 Every square foot of swamp was a breeding place for mosquitoes. Draining swamps, sub- 
 soiling and burning grass, are some of the methods used in the prevention of mosquito breed- 
 ing. The man in the upper picture is shown burning grass which grows along the open ditches 
 and drains. In the lower picture he is shown spraying larvacide on the grass. 
 
 [ 81 ] 
 
_T)AI*BU DIVIDED GT1\& A¥Q^kB)_TIKITED 
 
 they would undergo the experiment only 
 on condition that they should receive no 
 reward for such service. They both 
 contracted the fever and recovered; 
 Moran is now in the employ of the 
 Commission on the Isthmus. After ex- 
 tensive experiments, the mosquito trans- 
 mission theory came to be fully accepted 
 by experts on tropic diseases. 
 
 By this knowledge the work on the 
 Isthmus was greatly simplified. The 
 prophylactic method of fighting yellow 
 fever and reducing malaria was found to 
 be in the extermination of the mosquito 
 as far as possible, and screening dwel- 
 lings against them. As soon as wire 
 netting could be brought to the Isthmus 
 all buildings in the Canal Zone were 
 properly screened. The destructive 
 methods consist in the draining of low 
 places, removal of vegetation, in the 
 damp shade of which mosquitoes breed, 
 and the killing of larvae by oiling pools 
 and streams that could not be drained. 
 
 At the outset, Colonel Gorgas was hampered by the failure of the Com- 
 mission in Washington to realize the immediate necessity for large expenditures 
 
 A mosquito disguise, which took first prize in the 
 masquerade contest in Panama Carnival of 1904. 
 
 The genus Stegomyia mosquito, male and female. The female on the left, the male in the 
 center and the larva on the right. The species has distinctive markings, and the harp-shaped 
 design near the head is found on no other mosquito. The male does not bite, and is, therefore, 
 harmless; it is the female that causes all the trouble. 
 
 [82] 
 

 V 
 
 -A 
 
 GURATING WATER SYSTEM, JULY^4, 19 
 
 It took months of labor, and sortie after sortie, before the mosquito horde began to thin. A 
 gang of about 900 natives was at one time engaged with ladders and paste, sealing all the crevices 
 in the houses in Panama, prior to fumigation. Streets were paved, a water system installed, and 
 a general clean-up was made. 
 
 83 j 
 
CpHB Tv\N-D . DIVIDED -^gTHB WOBJ^B-I JNJTED 
 
 The quarantine station on Culebra Island in Panama Bay. Owing to the fact that the Isthmus 
 is hemmed in on both sides, by plague-infected ports, the most rigid precautions are observed, and 
 steamers from these ports are held in quarantine, unless they have been seven days at sea. 
 
 for the purpose of exterminating the mosquito. This was later remedied, and 
 the purse strings were loosened. An outbreak of yellow fever among the 
 recently unaeclimated Americans began in December, 1904, and lasted until 
 December, 1905. During the epidemic there were in all 246 cases and 34 deaths. 
 Of this number, 134 of the cases and all of the deaths were among canal 
 employes. The constantly increasing headway made by the disease in the 
 early months of 1905 caused a panic among the employes. A great many of 
 them left the Isthmus as soon as they could obtain accommodations on the 
 overcrowded steamships. This was an object lesson, and resulted in a partial 
 suspension of actual canal construction work until the eradication of yellow 
 fever was effected. In addition to a rigid quarantine, a relentless fight was 
 waged against the mosquito, with the result that the last case of yellow fever 
 occurred in May, 1906, two years after the work started. 
 
 THE FIGHT ON THE MOSQUITO 
 
 When a case of yellow fever was reported or found by one of the corps of 
 
 Colon Hospital, on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus. It stands on the sea beach, and some 
 
 of the wards are built over the water. 
 
 [ S4 1 
 
The above comparison of — before and after paving — is not exaggerated. When the Ameri- 
 cans took charge of the work many of the streets in Colon and Panama City were veritable bogs 
 in the rainy season. Now, both cities compare favorably in clean, well paved streets, with others 
 of their size. 
 
 [ 85 j 
 
cms jvA£gP . divided — -c-hfie: wosijd, ttkited 
 
 inspectors in the course of a house-to-house search for cases, the patient was 
 immediately taken to the hospital and placed in a room protected by screening. 
 The next step was the thorough fumigation of the house from which the patient 
 had been removed, in order to kill any infected mosquitoes that might remain. 
 Finally an endeavor was made to locate and fumigate the source of infection. 
 When the epidemic of 1905 was at its height, the plan of fumigating every house 
 in the cities of Panama and Colon, whether or not there had been cases of yellow 
 fever in them, was carried out. The native residents at first submitted to the 
 fumigation with poor grace, as they are immune and could not see the necessity 
 
 The Dispensary at Ancon. Dispensaries and Field Hospitals are maintained at all the 
 important Canal Zone settlements for first aid treatment. 
 
 for it. Later, they became more reconciled, but complaints were numerous. 
 There is now pending in Congress a claim for $50,000 to cover damages due 
 to a fire in the Malambo district of Panama in the spring of 1905, which is 
 claimed to have been started by the overturning of a fumigating oven. 
 
 The fight against the Anopheles, the malaria-carrying mosquito, has been 
 continuous, for it is next to impossible to eliminate it entirely. This species, 
 unlike the Stcgomyia, is strong on the wing and is, therefore, able to enter the 
 cities and villages after breeding in the swamps and stagnant pools in the out- 
 skirts. To counteract this as much as possible, miles of drainage ditches have 
 been constructed in the vicinity of the canal towns; small streams are kept 
 cleaned out to facilitate the flow of water; swamps have been filled in and grass 
 and rank vegetation kept cut. Regulations are also enforced against allowing 
 
 [86] 
 
The Government operates two main hospitals. One at Ancon and the other at Colon. The 
 Ancon Hospital is the larger and best equipped, -with a reputation in the Tropics second to none. 
 It was begun by the French in 1883, but many improvements have been made by the Americans. 
 
 [87] 
 
IijAjsp piVlDED -^q^n^jsyom^^Qj^rr^n 
 
 There are 47 wards in the Ancon Hospital, and this is the interior of one of them. The white 
 American employes, European laborers and the negroes, are cared for in separate wards. There 
 are private wards also, and one for charity cases. The Canal Commission furnishes free medical 
 treatment to all of its employes. 
 
 any water receptacles, like tin cans, etc., being thrown into the bush where they 
 might fill during a rainstorm and make ideal breeding places for the mosquito 
 larvae. Such possible breeding places as cannot be eliminated by draining 
 and filling are sprayed with a form of oil, called larvaecide, which destroys 
 the mosquito larvae as they come to the surface of the water to breathe. In 
 spite of all these efforts there are many cases of malaria, but the number has 
 been rapidly reduced, and the type of disease has been reduced from a virulent 
 to a comparatively mild type. While the mortality from malaria was never so 
 high as other forms of tropic disease, Colonel Gorgas always considered it one 
 of the most important on account of the heavy sick rate. Medicinally, the 
 disease is treated by quinine, many thousands of pounds of which have been 
 used in the hospitals and issued from the dispensaries maintained in each canal 
 zone village. 
 
 & CLEANING HOUSE 
 
 While a war of extermination was being waged against the mosquito, it 
 was also absolutely necessary to clean house, especially in the cities of Panama 
 and Colon. The latter place, the site of which was partly a tidal swamp, had 
 to be filled in. Proper sewer systems were installed in both cities, where none 
 existed before, unless the open drains in the streets, filled with refuse and other 
 filth, could be called sewers. Suitable water systems also had to be introduced, 
 for up to July 4,. 1905, the supply of water was drawn from the cisterns which 
 were allowed to fill during the rainy seasons, or from wells, and afterward 
 peddled from door to door by the aguadorcs or water cartmen. When the 
 water was turned on, all cisterns were closed. Likewise the streets which 
 became virtually mud holes in the rainy season were properly paved with brick 
 or graded. A method of garbage disposal was also provided, for up to this time 
 
 [88 j 
 
CTHB TyAN-D DIVIDED -— crrnB wobub, ttkited 
 
 buzzards were the only scavengers. Now, the streets are kept swept and the 
 garbage is collected every night from especially designed containers which every 
 householder is supposed to have. It is then transported to low swampy places 
 in the outskirts of the cities where it is burned, the ashes being used as a fill. 
 In the Canal Zone, garbage is usually destroyed at incinerating plants. In 
 Panama and Colon the collection is made by the health department of the Canal 
 Commission. All the street, sewer and water improvements in these cities 
 done by the engineering department of the Canal Commission will be paid for 
 by the Republic of Panama from its water rates, on the amortization plan. 
 The money advanced by the United States, about $3,500,000, is to be repaid in 
 50 years from July 1, 1907, but at the present rate of payment, settlement will 
 have been made much sooner. 
 
 The villages in the Canal Zone along the line of the Canal were not so 
 filthy as Panama and Colon, but were without sewer and water systems. Since 
 then several reservoirs have been constructed, and all houses are connected with 
 sewer systems. Macadam roads have gradually replaced trails; garbage is 
 collected daily and properly disposed of; grass and other tropic vegetation is 
 kept cut down in the vicinity of dwellings, and well-kept gardens and hedges 
 make the construction villages appear like model towns. Strict sanitary 
 regulations are enforced in all the Canal Zone towns, as well as in the cities of 
 Panama and Colon, and each place has its sanitary inspectors, or inspector. 
 
 RESULTS HAVE JUSTIFIED THE COST 
 
 With cleanliness alone, however, the high sick and death rate could not be 
 materially reduced. The successful war on the mosquito, which was started 
 
 Along the coast a few miles from Panama City, is a Leper colony of 24 persons, called Palo 
 Seco. This is the colony house and surroundings. The lepers are well treated, and have all the 
 creature comforts furnished free by the Government, and spend a part of their time growing veg- 
 etables for their own consumption. 
 
 [89 ] 
 
JyAND DIVIDED — CTTiEy WQI3LLJD, TTKITED 
 
 by Colonel Gorgas when the engineers were busy constructing water works and 
 sewers, has freed the Isthmus of its reputation as a pest hole, and has made its 
 sick and mortality rate compare favorably with cities in the United States, or 
 any other parts of the civilized world. The following tables indicate the effec- 
 tiveness of the preventive work of sanitation on the Isthmus: 
 
 Comparative Statement of Death Rates Among Canal Employes on 
 
 the Isthmus of Panama Under the OriCxInal French Company 
 
 for 1884, the Year the Maximum Number of Employes 
 
 were Working, and the American Commission, 
 
 1904 to 1912, Inclusive. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average No. of 
 Employes. 
 
 No. of Deaths, 
 Disease Only. 
 
 Death Rate per 
 
 1,000 
 Disease Only. 
 
 Lives Saved. 
 
 1884 
 
 17,436 
 
 1,198 
 
 68.69 
 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 6,213 
 16,512 
 26,547 
 39,238 
 43,891 
 47,167 
 50,802 
 48,876 
 50,893 
 
 55 
 412 
 1,046 
 964 
 381 
 356 
 381 
 374 
 325 
 
 8.84 
 
 24.96 
 
 39.40 
 
 24.57 
 
 8.68 
 
 7.55 
 
 7.50 
 
 7.65 
 
 6.37 
 
 422 
 
 722 
 778 
 1,731 
 2,634 
 2,884 
 3,109 
 2,983 
 3,172 
 
 Total for nine years. 
 
 18,435 
 
 Total Population of Panama, Colon and Canal Zone and Death 
 
 Rates in Same. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Annual Average 
 Death Rate per 1000 
 
 Lives Saved. 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 (June 30) 
 
 35,000 
 56,624 
 73,264 
 102,133 
 120,097 
 135,180 
 151,591 
 156,936 
 146,510 
 130,456 
 
 52.45 
 49.94 
 49.10 
 33.63 
 24.83 
 18.19 
 21.18 
 21.46 
 20.49 
 21.10* 
 
 142 
 
 299 
 1,922 
 3,317 
 4,631 
 4,740 
 4,863 
 4,682 
 4,090 
 
 Total for nine and a half years 
 
 28,686 
 
 *Computed on six months' figures, but averaged for a year. 
 
 Only two cases of bubonic plague have developed on the Isthmus since 
 American occupation. These occurred in Balboa, the first in June, 1905. 
 
 r do ] 
 
CAMACHO RESERVOIR 
 
 LAS SABANAS ROAD 
 
 Panama, Colon, and the towns in the Canal Zone were without water mains or sewers in 1904. 
 Eight reservoirs have been built, and now water is plentiful; sewers ramify the cities, and the gar- 
 bage is collected daily and burned. Many good roads have also been built, and the Las Sabanas 
 road is much used by automobile and horseback riders. The United States advanced the money 
 for this work, but Panama is to pay it back inside of 50 years. 
 
 [ 91 ] 
 
CTT1B TvAN-D DIVIDED ^CfHB WQB1>D,_T1 KITED 
 
 On the Mount Hope Road between Cristobal and Gatun, is Mount Hope Cemetery, once 
 known as Monkey Hill, where thousands of French Canal employes, victims of yellow fever, lie 
 buried. Under American supervision the cemetery has been greatly beautified. Each of its aven- 
 ues is lined with a different kind of fruit tree. 
 
 The village was immediately cleaned and disinfected, and a crusade against 
 rats, the fleas of which are the carriers of buhoinc, was started. A "rat" 
 brigade was set at work in Panama; rat traps were issued free to all persons who 
 wished them, and a bounty was placed on each rat delivered to the health 
 department. 
 
 In addition to the preventive work done by the Department of Sanitation, 
 it maintains two large hospitals, one at Colon and the other at Ancon, and each 
 settlement has a dispensary with a physician in charge. There is also main- 
 tained a large asylum for the insane at Ancon, while at Palo Seco, a few miles 
 east of Panama, there is an asylum for lepers. There is also a sanitarium on 
 Taboga Island, about 12 miles out in the Bay of Panama, where convalescent 
 white patients are given a week or more to renew fever and work-worn tissues. 
 
 One of the most important things shown by the success of sanitary work on 
 the Isthmus has been expressed by Colonel Gorgas many times, as follows: 
 "Natives in the tropics, with the same sanitary precautions that are taken in the 
 temperate zones, can be just as healthy and have just as small a death rate as 
 inhabitants in the temperate zones. To bring this about no elaborate ma- 
 chinery is necessary. The result can be attained by any community, no matter 
 how poor, if it is willing to spend sufficient labor in cleaning, and to observe 
 well-known rules with regard to disease. The Anglo-Saxon can lead just as 
 healthy a life, and live just as long in the tropics as he can in his native climate." 
 
 The total cost of the work of the Department of Sanitation up to the first 
 of July, 1913, was $16,250,164.93. This seems to be an excessive cost until it is 
 considered that this amount includes the maintenance of modern hospitals, 
 
 [92 ] 
 
CTMB hAN-P DIVIDED <^mB WORUD, JTXITED 
 
 dispensaries, and quarantine stations at Colon and Panama, costing more than 
 half of the total amount. To this is added the cost of street cleaning and 
 garbage collecting, draining and reclaiming swamp land, the salaries of some 
 15 chaplains, the care of cemeteries and the carrying on of a general under- 
 taking and embalming business. Colonel Gorgas when he said that it is within 
 the power of the people of tropic countries to be just as healthy as those in the 
 temperate zones, figures the actual cost of sanitary work on the Isthmus to the 
 American Government will be a little more than a cent a day per capita, based 
 on a population of 140,000. 
 
 RIGID QUARANTINE MAINTAINED 
 
 Since May, 1904, the quarantine on the Isthmus has been under American 
 control with stations at Colon, and on Culebra Island near the Pacific entrance 
 to the canal. In spite of the fact that ports on both sides of the Isthmus, north 
 and south of Colon and Panama, have been infected with bubonic plague, 
 cholera, smallpox and yellow fever, the quarantine has been successfully main- 
 tained. All employes of the Commission arriving on the Isthmus have to 
 submit to vaccination unless they can show a good scar. Ships arriving at the 
 Isthmus from infected ports are required to fulfill seven days of quarantine from 
 the time of their departure. Guayaquil, Ecuador, where yellow fever has been 
 endemic since the first white man landed on the west coast of South America, 
 and where bubonic plague has recently gained a foothold, is about four days 
 steaming for fast ships. As ships stopping at Guayaquil load and unload cargo 
 where they are in danger of infection, it is necessary for them to be fumigated 
 before they sail for Panama, and it is also necessary that the 7-day period of 
 quarantine be fulfilled from the time of such fumigation. Ships making the 
 trip in four days would, therefore, have to lay in quarantine at Culebra Island 
 hree days before they could unload their cargo and discharge passengers at 
 
 Ancon Cemetery. 
 
 [ 93 ] 
 
I)A£y2-vI)iVlPEP ^<THB YigPBbSdTII^JTED 
 
 Taboga Island, 12 miles out from the main land, in Panama Bay. It is noted for its sea bathing, 
 and its pineapples. The native section is primitive and picturesque and contains one of the old- 
 est churches in this section. 
 
 Balboa. In case a ship arrives which cannot show a certificate that all regu- 
 lations have been properly complied with before leaving Guayaquil, then it is 
 necessary that the vessel be fumigated on its arrival at Panama, and pass through 
 the 7-day detention period at that port. On the Atlantic side, at the present 
 time, ships sailing from La Guaira, Venezuela, are compelled to consume seven 
 days, and from Santa Marta, Barranquilla, and Cartagena, they are compelled 
 to consume six days from the time of sailing. With a rigid quarantine at the 
 two ports of the Canal, and with the effective work of the sanitary inspectors 
 kept up as it has been in the past, it seems improbable that a serious epidemic 
 of yellow fever will ever break out on the Isthmus again. 
 
 The Canal Commission's Sanitarium on Taboga Island, where all sick white employes are 
 sent to convalesce. The employes are given 30 days vacation each year, with full pay, and 30 
 days sick leave each year, when necessary. 
 
 r 94 1 
 
N the month of September, 1904, the Canal force was at its lowest 
 point, numbering about 500. In November, 1905, the force had been 
 increased to approximately 17,000, and in November, 1906, it was 
 practically the same. The following tables show the highest monthly 
 
 record for each vear since 1906: 
 
 1911— December 37,826 
 
 1912— November 40,159 
 
 1913— March 44,733 
 
 1907— October 31,967 
 
 1908— April 33,170 
 
 1909— October 35,405 
 
 1910— March 38,676 
 
 The Canal force reached its highest point in March, 1913, with 44,733 men, 
 divided as follows: Panama railroad, 5,248; Panama railroad commissary, 
 1,274; Isthmian Canal Commission, 32,567; contractors, 5,644; total, 44,733. 
 
 Of the above, the "gold" force, composed almost entirely of Americans, 
 numbered 4,487; West Indian laborers employed by the Commission, 10,406; 
 West Indian artisans employed by the Commission, 13,065; European laborers 
 employed by the Commission, 4,609. The balance was in the employ of the 
 Panama railroad and of the contractors. Most of the West Indian laborers 
 received 10 and 13 cents an hour, while a few received as high as 20 cents 
 an hour. The European laborers received 16 and 20 cents an hour. The 
 West Indian artisans were for the greater part paid on a monthly basis, the 
 balance receiving from 16 to 44 cents an hour. 
 
 GETTING THE FORCE TOGETHER 
 
 As the work of making the Isthmus a healthful place in which to live 
 progressed and better living conditions were inaugurated, the work of recruiting 
 and maintaining a labor force became easier. However, it was never possible 
 to keep a stable force and, under the best conditions, the American force changed 
 
 [95] 
 
The old French Administration Building in Panama City, used by the American engineers as their 
 office headquarters during the first two years of Canal construction. 
 
 The Administration Building at Culebra, the present engineering headquarters, containing the 
 office of Colonel Goethals. The headquarters will be changed to Balboa as soon as the new ad- 
 ministration building, which is now being erected there, is completed. 
 
 96 J 
 
CTHB T^AN-P DIVIDED crrHB WORLjD, JTKITED 
 
 considerably, the skilled mechanics about 80 per cent, during the year 1910, 
 and that of the administrative employes about 45 per cent. During the early 
 years, recruiting offices were opened in Europe, the West Indies and in the 
 United States, and men representing nearly every nationality were brought to 
 the Isthmus under contract with the Commission. Nearly all the supervisory 
 positions, and the positions requiring skilled labor, are rilled by Americans. 
 These include the mechanics, carpenters, plumbers, steam shovel engineers 
 and cranemen, locomotive engineers, railroad conductors, firemen, policemen, 
 civil engineers, clerks, doctors, nurses, school teachers, etc. The clerical force, 
 draftsmen, doctors and nurses are included in the classified civil service, but all 
 other positions are excepted from civil service requirements. The common 
 and unskilled laborers represent nearly every nationality. The greater part, 
 
 Colonel Goethal's motor car, commonly known as the "Yellow Peril" from its color; also as 
 the "Brain Wagon." Several of these cars have been shipped to the Isthmus, and are used by the 
 officials in inspecting the different parts of the work. 
 
 however, are negroes from the West Indies; the Spaniards, Italians and Greeks 
 form the greater part of the European labor force. 
 
 During the years 1906-7-8, there were recruited in Europe 11,300 laborers, 
 8,200 of which were Spaniards, 2,000 Italians and 1,100 Greeks. These men 
 were obtained under contract, and were promised free quarters and employ- 
 ment at 20 cents an hour for as long as the canal work should last. Their 
 passage money was advanced to them, and was deducted from their monthly 
 pay, so that out of a total cost of $.508,770.83 for recruiting Europeans, all but 
 $100,000 was returned from the laborers' wages. Recruiting ceased in Europe 
 in 1908, as the supply of labor became constant through the arrival of those on 
 the Isthmus who, having learned of the favorable working conditions, came 
 seeking employment of their own volition. Those who did not come under 
 
The Administration Building at Ancon, containing various offices, including those of the Sec- 
 retary of the Commission, and the heads of the Departments of Civil Administration, Sanitation 
 and Law. 
 
 The Division Engineer's office at Gatun. Gatun is the engineering headquarters for the At- 
 lantic Division, which embraces the construction from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to in- 
 clude the Gatun Locks and Dam. 
 
 [ 98 J 
 
Tv\N-D DIVIDED — <?n\& WOI5LkD> TTKITED 
 
 contract were paid 16 cents an hour for three months, and were then raised to 
 20 cents an hour if their work had been satisfactory. Laborers obtained under 
 contract will be repatriated at the expense of the Commission, but their number 
 will not be large as, undoubtedly, many of them will find work elsewhere. 
 
 The recruiting of laborers in the West Indies was carried on several years 
 after it had ceased in Europe, the last importation of negroes from Barbados 
 having taken place in January and February of 1913. The total number of 
 West Indians recruited reached 30,619 at the end of 1912. Of this total, 19,444 
 were brought from Barbados, 5,542 from Martinique, 2,053 from Guadeloupe, 
 1,427 from Trinidad, and the balance distributed among the other islands of 
 the West Indies. Recruiting of laborers was not allowed in Jamaica after 
 1905, in which year 47 had been brought to the Isthmus under contract. Al- 
 
 Colonel Goethal's residence at Culebra. 
 
 though this class of laborer was not recruited, he is well represented on the 
 Isthmus in the labor force, for the Jamaican came of his own volition although 
 he was required to deposit the amount of his return fare before he could leave 
 that island. In October, 1913, about 10,000 West Indians were laid off as 
 the dry excavation in Culebra Cut came to an end. About 5,000 of these men 
 will go into the employ of the United Fruit Company and the balance, which 
 are unable to find work elsewhere, will probably go back to their island homes. 
 
 KEEPING THE AMERICAN EMPLOYES CONTENTED 
 
 In addition to much higher wages than those prevailing in the United 
 States, many inducements were offered to persuade Americans to go to the 
 Isthmus to fill the supervisory positions. Free quarters, free medical, surgical, 
 and hospital attendance, and six weeks' annual leave of absence with pay are 
 
 [99] 
 
The Y. M. C. A. Clubhouse at Gatun. The Government early discovered that to keep the 
 employes contented, they must be given amusement; accordingly seven clubhouses were erected 
 which are now self-sustaining. They are conducted under the auspices of the Y. M. C. A., but 
 along broader lines than elsewhere. They furnish attractive places for the men to congregate, 
 and the social work consists of entertainments brought from the States, as well as local dramatic, 
 musical, minstrel and vaudeville productions. 
 
 [ 100 ] 
 
CTTIB IiANP_. divided — ctthe: WOBJ^JINJTED 
 
 provided. Free transportation is also furnished new employes from the United 
 States and also on their return after having completed two years of satisfactory 
 service on the Isthmus. On their vacation leave, the employes are granted a 
 reduced rate on the various steamship lines running between the Isthmus and 
 the United States. On the Panama railroad steamships the employes' rate is 
 $20 one way for those appointed prior to January 1, 1909; for employes ap- 
 pointed after that date, the rate is $30; the regular rate is from $75 to $90 from 
 Colon to New York. 
 
 The problem of maintaining a constant force of Americans was not solved, 
 however, until means were found to keep it as nearly contented as possible. 
 To do this, it was thought necessary to encourage employes to bring their 
 
 Owing to the necessity of building on the side of the hill at Ancon, many steps are required 
 at some of the quarters, as shown in the above picture. Usually more level sites were utilized for 
 quarters. The houses, with the surrounding shrubbery, make a beautiful scene. 
 
 families to the Isthmus, and to this end, furnished family quarters were pro- 
 vided, with free fuel, water, and light. It is generally agreed that the com- 
 fortable married quarters supplied by the Canal Commission has led a good 
 many to forsake the state of single blessedness, but nearly all are wise enough 
 to wait for an assignment before "popping the question." The demand for 
 family quarters has always been greater than the supply, and one has to take 
 his turn on the waiting list. If he is an old-timer and has not been out of the 
 service since 1908, he is on what is known as the No. 1 list, and stands a fair 
 show of getting quarters quickly. One who has been employed since 1908 goes 
 on the No. 2 list, and there is generally several months' weary wait before his 
 turn comes, as the total number of applicants up to the latter part of 1913 had 
 been rarely less than 600. Some insist on bringing their families anyway, in 
 
 r ioi l 
 
CTTLB Tv\NP DIVIDED— CTTIB WOI^D^UJ^ITgT) 
 
 Canal medal awarded -white employes on the "Gold Roll" for long service. The medal is for 
 two years continuous service, and for each additional two years a bar is earned. The idea -was 
 suggested by ex-President Roosevelt during his visit to the Isthmus in 1906. 
 
 which case, they are compelled to rent outside rooms, which are expensive and 
 in no way compare with the comfortable Commission quarters. 
 
 Family quarters are graded according to the size of an employe's salary, 
 so much floor space to each $100 he earns, or fraction thereof. Employes 
 receiving $200, or over, are assigned, where possible, to one-family houses; 
 those receiving less are quartered in two and four-family houses. The quarters, 
 both family and bachelor, include a number of different types designated as Type 
 17, or Type 18, as the case may be, and were built from special designs to make 
 them suitable for residence in the tropics. The rooms are uniformly well 
 ventilated, and there is plenty of veranda space. Chairs, tables, beds, cook 
 stove, refrigerator, bureau, chiffonier, sideboard, mattresses, mats, etc., are 
 supplied free; bed linen and kitchen utensils must be obtained by the occupant. 
 
 The bachelor employe has always contended, and possibly with some 
 grounds, that he has been shown less consideration than the married employe. 
 
 The Nurses have this building to themselves, called the Nurses' Home, at Ancon Hospital. 
 
 I 102 ] 
 
Each Zone settlement has buildings for bachelors commensurate with the force quartered 
 there, furnished free by the Government. This type of quarters contains 24 rooms, with two 
 men assigned to each. 
 
 Frankly, the bachelor employe does not have the privileges his married friend has, still he 
 manages to get along pretty well, as evidenced by the interior of his quarters. 
 
 [ 103 ] 
 
cm& TvAN-D DIVIDED ^crnF\B WQ^^JHNJTED 
 
 In most cases, he must share his room with another, and there has been times, 
 when three were placed in one small room. On the other hand, although he 
 probably will not admit it, the bachelor employe has been greatly benefited by 
 the presence of women and children in the various construction camps. 
 
 It has been figured that bachelor labor costs less than that of married labor, 
 taking into consideration the quarters assigned, allowance for fuel, light, water, 
 care of grounds, and janitor service. A comparison follows: 
 
 PLANT 
 
 Married 
 
 Quarters $1,800.00 
 
 Furniture 140.00 
 
 Total $1,940.00 
 
 MONTHLY COST OF ALLOWANCES 
 
 Fuel (coal and kindling) $4 . 30 
 
 Light ........>.'.;, 4.20 
 
 1.80 
 
 .50 
 
 1.20 
 
 Water 
 
 Distilled Water 
 
 Care of grounds, removal of garbage 
 Janitor service 
 
 Total $12.00 
 
 Single 
 $500.00 
 25.00 
 
 1*525.00 
 
 .30 
 .45 
 .10 
 .15 
 1.25 
 
 S2.25 
 
 Assuming a six years' service, a married man may be said to represent an 
 expenditure of $3,000, and a single employe $750. In addition to the above, 
 
 the married man also receives the 
 benefit for his children of an excellent 
 school system. This increased cost, 
 however, is supposed to be offset by the 
 stability of the married force. 
 
 The visitor to the Isthmus is quick to 
 note that he is in a new atmosphere. 
 The bringing together of people from 
 every part of the United States, and the 
 consequent interchange of ideas has 
 given birth to a spirit of tolerance, of 
 a broadening of the mind, and has led 
 to the abandonment in a large measure 
 of narrow-minded prejudices embodied 
 in the selfish thought that "My way is 
 right, yours is bound to be wrong," a 
 rut that people in small communities 
 in the States are so prone to fall into. 
 
 To further the feeling of contentment 
 and to make of the Canal Zone a 
 transplanted American community, 
 churches and schools were organized. 
 Church work was authorized by the 
 Commission on October 4, 1905. There 
 are about 40 church buildings in the 
 
 Members of the Ancon Study Club. 
 
 [ 104 ] 
 
A Cozy Home in the Canal Zone. Married quarters are furnished free by the Government, 
 and fuel, light and water supplied without charge. Assignments for quarters are made by the dis- 
 trict quartermaster, based on date of application, rate of salary, and date of entry in the service. 
 
 105 
 
CTFLE: Jv\N-D . DIVIDED — '^T ^jEL^A rOBkBJCINJTED 
 
 Zone, representing nearly every Christian denomination. The greater part 
 of these churches are owned by the Isthmian Canal Commission, which has 
 in its employ ten chaplains, representing six different denominations. It has 
 been the policy of the Commission to encourage church work, and it granted 
 land and sold building material at cost for church buildings. Religious ser- 
 vices are also held in the Commission club-houses and lodge halls. 
 
 There are six Commission clubhouses, one each at Corozal, Culebra, 
 Empire, Cristobal, Gatun, and Porto Bello. The one which was at Gorgona 
 will be re-erected at Pedro Miguel, and a clubhouse of a permanent type is 
 proposed for the new town of Balboa. These clubhouses were constructed 
 equipped by the Commission and are conducted by trained secretaries 
 inted by the International Committee of the Y. M. C. A. The work was 
 
 and 
 appoin 
 
 tb- I* ..-■•-, *T' ... 
 
 k/~---V *I^ ■ 
 
 Mealtime at a Government kitchen for negro laborers. The negroes are served three 
 rations a day at a total cost of 27 cents. 
 
 planned to meet the needs of the men morally, educationally, and physically, 
 and to this end reading rooms, bowling, pool and billiard rooms, gymnasium 
 classes, educational classes, chess, checker, dramatic clubs, etc., are main- 
 tained by them. All white employes are eligible to membership upon the 
 payment of the regular membership dues of $10 per annum. 
 
 The desire for music was also recognized by the Commission and until 
 March 1, 1913, it maintained a first-class band of 35 pieces. The members 
 were all employes, and they received additional pay for their services. The 
 band was first organized in September, 1905, as a private organization, and the 
 Commission took over its maintenance on March 27, 1907. Concerts were 
 given weekly in the different towns in the Canal Zone. 
 
 Nearly every construction village in the Zone has a Commission building 
 which is devoted to the use of fraternal organizations, and a dozen secret 
 organizations, as well as labor organizations, are represented on the Isthmus. 
 
 [ 106 ] 
 
Typical camp for European laborers. There are separate camps for each class of employes, 
 and the American section of a Canal Zone town is entirely by itself. 
 
 Interior of a bunk house for negro laborers. The men sleep on Standee berths, 
 arranged in parallel rows, in three tiers. 
 
 f 107 1 
 
CTHB TyAN-D , DIVIDED -^crrHB A^OIZ^g^J^TTRn 
 
 The lodge halls are assigned free of charge for weekly meetings, and are also 
 used for entertainments, club meetings, and dances. The Commission has 
 encouraged baseball, tennis, rifle, and pistol clubs. A dancing club holds 
 fortnightly balls in the Hotel Tivoli at which Isthmian society is seen at its 
 best. This social organization recently passed through a crisis over the 
 question of "turkey-trotting" and kindred dances. In addition to the many 
 clubs in the Canal Zone which are more or less under the sway of the Com- 
 mission, the employes wishing a little more freedom founded the Strangers' Club 
 in Colon, and the University Club in Panama. These two clubs do not confine 
 their membership to Commission employes. The "smokers" and "hops" 
 
 Mess hall for European laborers. Three rations are served European silver 
 employes for 40 cents a day. 
 
 given by these two clubs are popular both in the Canal Zone and in the cities 
 in which they are located. 
 
 Following up its policy of encouraging employes to bring their families to 
 the Isthmus, Ex-president Taft authorized the employment by the Commission 
 of Miss Helen Varick Boswell to undertake the task of starting a social move- 
 ment among the women in the Canal Zone. Miss Boswell arrived early in 
 September, 1907, and when she left in October, she had organized nine women's 
 clubs in the larger villages. The purpose of these clubs was to provide recrea- 
 tion and social intercourse for the wives and daughters of the American em- 
 ployes, just as the clubhouses were established as centers of recreation for the 
 men. These nine clubs were finally affiliated with the General Federation of 
 Women's Clubs in the United States. On April 19, 1913, the Canal Zone 
 Federation completed six years of activity, and on that date it disbanded on 
 account of the approaching completion of the Canal work. 
 
 Several societies, designed to perpetuate the canal work, have been organ- 
 ized. The first one of these, the Society of the Incas, limits its membership to 
 
 [ 108 ] 
 
Lodge hall at Las Cascadas. All the leading secret societies are represented in the Canal Zone, 
 and lodge halls have been erected for their use by the Government. No rental is exacted. The 
 Zone has also a federation of women's clubs. 
 
 Reading room in the University Club, Panama City. The University Club and the Strangers' 
 Club in Colon, do not confine their membership to Government employes. 
 
 [ 109 ] 
 
CTTUEL TvANP , DIVIDED -^crrBE: WORkD> TTKI TED 
 
 employes who entered the service in the year 1904. Another is called the 
 Society of the Chagres, and is composed of men who have seen six years of 
 service. A third society has recently been organized, known as the Association 
 of Panama Canal Builders, to which any gold employe may belong. 
 
 A lunch hour scene at Gorgona shops, before they were destroyed to avoid 
 inundation by the rise of Gatun lake. 
 
 All gold employes who have served two years under the Canal Commission 
 are entitled to a medal. This souvenir is the outcome of the though tfulness 
 of ex-President Roosevelt, who, just before he sailed from the Isthmus on 
 November 17, 1906, said: "I shall see if it is not possible to provide for some 
 little memorial, some mark, some badge, which will always distinguish the 
 man who, for a certain space of time, has done his work well on the Isthmus, 
 just as the button of the Grand Army distinguishes the man who did his work 
 well in the Civil War." The medal is of bronze, one and one-half inches in 
 diameter, and is made from brass, copper, and tin taken from old French 
 scrap. On the reverse side is a bust portrait of ex-president Roosevelt, with 
 
 Labor train arriving at dry dock, Cristobal. A great many employes live at a distance 
 from their work, and are transported to and from their homes in labor trains. 
 
 [ no] 
 
CTTiB Tv\N-D DIVIDED CTHE WOCLkD, JTXITED 
 
 space underneath for the service record, and around the rim the words "For 
 two years' continuous service on the Panama Canal." On the obverse is a 
 picture of Culebra Cut with ships passing through, the Seal of the Canal Zone, 
 a name plate, and the words "presented by the President of the United States," 
 
 Interior of Mount Hope printing plant. The majority of the Canal Commission's printing, 
 including The Canal Record, is done here. 
 
 cut into the rim. A bar is awarded for each two years' additional service, arid 
 there are employes who have earned not only the medal, but three bars as well. 
 The medals are made at the Philadelphia mint, and are distributed yearly. 
 No duplicates are issued. 
 
 The Canal Record, published weekly under the supervision of the Canal 
 Commission, contains a resume of the progress of canal work, official circulars, 
 social and church notes, etc. It is distributed free to all gold employes of the 
 Commission and the Panama railroad; in fact, so widely has it become known 
 that its circulation, between 16,000 and 17,000 weekly, extends to people inter- 
 
 General storehouse at Mount Hope, near Colon, from which supplies are drawn by smaller 
 store houses established in all the principal Canal Zone settlements. A large amount of material 
 is required to be kept constantly on hand. 
 
 f HI I 
 
The Hotel Tivoli at Ancon, a picture familiar to anyone who has been on the Isthmus. It is 
 the principal stopping place for tourists, and is owned and managed by the United States 
 Government. 
 
 Lobby of the Hotel Tivoli. One of the hotel's first guests was ex-President Roosevelt, and 
 the suite he occupied is known as the President's suite. 
 
 [ 112 ] 
 
CTTLE: TvAN-D . DIVIDED —CTKE: WOBI^JUNJTED 
 
 ested in the construction of the canal in all parts of the globe. It is printed at 
 the Canal Commission's printing plant at Mount Hope, and is under the 
 direction of the Secretary of the Commission, Mr. Joseph Bucklin Bishop. 
 
 FEEDING AND CLOTHING THE CANAL ARMY 
 
 It is estimated that with employes and their dependents there were about 
 65,000 persons depending upon the Canal and Panama railroad work for their 
 source of income during the height of activity, and these people had to be supplied 
 daily with food, clothing and other necessaries. It was early realized that the 
 demand for food and clothing could not be satisfactorily filled from local sources, 
 for prices advanced steadily as the demand increased, so the Subsistence Depart- 
 ment was created. This department is divided into two branches, commissary 
 
 Commissary at Cristobal, oldest and largest on the Isthmus. This was operated by the Pan- 
 ama railroad for the benefit of its employes before the United States acquired the road. A com- 
 missary train makes an early morning daily run across the Isthmus distributing supplies to the 
 branch commissaries. 
 
 and hotel. The first commissary store was at Colon and was maintained by 
 the Panama Railroad Company for the benefit of its employes. The com- 
 missary division does a genera] merchandising business, while the subsistence 
 end has in charge the hotels or mess halls for the American employes and messes 
 for the laborers. It also maintains the Hotel Tivoli at Ancon, patronized 
 chiefly by transients. About 8.5 per cent, of the supplies for the commissary 
 and subsistence departments are purchased in the United States, 10 per cent, 
 in Europe, and five per cent, in Panama. 
 
 In addition to the store at Cristobal each canal village has a branch com- 
 missary. Everything that an employe or his family usually requires, such as 
 household goods, men's and women's clothing, groceries, meats, vegetables and 
 fruits are supplied. In addition to the retail stores, cold storage, ice making, coffee 
 
 f 113 1 
 

 
 Public market at Culebra. These markets are located in many of the Zone towns, where 
 the tropical fruits and vegetables may be obtained. 
 
 Ice and cold storage plant, Cristobal. Ice is sold at 40 cents per 100 pounds, and cold storage 
 articles are cheaper, in many instances, than they are in this country from which they are im- 
 ported. This is largely due to the system of buying in bulk and, in the case of meats, to the 
 placing of contracts. 
 
 [ H4] 
 
CTHE, TvAN-P , DIVIDED -^ctthe: WQI5LL>D> TTKITED 
 
 roasting, ice cream and laundry plants, and a bakery are operated at Cristobal. 
 From this point a supply train, partly composed of refrigerator cars, crosses 
 the Isthmus each morning, stopping at the different stations along the line 
 where ice, meats, and other perishable articles are delivered. These goods are 
 then distributed to the houses of employes and to the mess halls and branch 
 commissaries by the Quartermaster's Department. No cash sales are made, 
 all payments being made by the employes in the form of coupons ranging in 
 value from one cent to 25 cents from books issued ranging in value from $2.50 
 to $15. The same method of payment is used in the hotels. These books are 
 obtained by the employes for cash at stated places, or are supplied by the time- 
 keepers, and the amount deducted from the employes' salary at the end of the 
 month. They are not transferable, and in order that the privilege will not be 
 
 The Government hotel at Corozal, the first one erected by the Americans. These Govern- 
 ment hotels are established in all of the Zone settlements. In them a white employe is served a bet- 
 ter meal for 30 cents than he can usually procure for that price in this country. In one part of the 
 dining room, employes are permitted to eat without their coats; in the other they must keep 
 them on. 
 
 abused, infractions of this rule is punishable by confiscation of the book and 
 ten days' suspension for the first offense, and discharge for a second offense. 
 
 Due to the fact that the commissaries are not run for a profit, except to 
 cover in the cost of the various plants, improvements, etc., and to the fact that 
 the Government buys in large quantities under favorable contracts, the con- 
 sumers on the Isthmus have not felt the high cost of living to the extent of people 
 elsewhere. This is especially true of beef, the price of which during 1912 
 reached a point never before equalled in the United States. With but a few 
 exceptions, the price of beef at the commissaries during this period was kept 
 down to the previous price. During a single year, 6,453,138 pounds of fresh 
 
 [ US ] 
 
The Commission laundry at Cristobal. It is equipped with up-to-date machinery and 
 presents a busy appearance at all times. 
 
 t 
 
 The Commission bakery at Cristobal. During a single year the bakery used 20,233 barrels of 
 flour, producing 6,014,667 loaves of bread, 651,844 rolls and 114,134 pounds of cake. Each loaf of 
 bread weighs 16 ounces and costs the consumer three cents. 
 
 16 
 
CTFLB Jv\NP , DIVIDED -^crKB WOBlJB, UNITED 
 
 meat and 970,445 pounds of cured and pickled meats were brought to the 
 Isthmus. 
 
 By printing 333,658 pounds of a total of 427,683 pounds of butter bought, 
 the commissary was able to save in the price and also present it for sale in a 
 much better condition than when purchased in the United States already 
 printed. The price of coffee was also saved by the commissary operating its 
 own roasting plant. In this plant 341,780 pounds of green coffee, producing 
 280,909 pounds of roasted coffee have been turned out in a year. The ice plant, 
 with a capacity of 100 tons a day, delivers ice for 40 cents a hundredweight, or 
 20 pounds of ice delivered at the employes' door for eight cents. Another 
 instance of effective manufacture and distribution was the operation of the 
 bakery which during a single year used 20,233 barrels of flour producing 6,014,- 
 
 The principal street in Gorgona. This was one of the largest towns in the Canal Zone, but the 
 buildings have all been removed as the waters of Gatun Lake will cover the original site. 
 
 667 loaves of bread, 6.51,844 rolls, and 114,134 pounds of cake. Each loaf 
 of bread weighs 16 ounces and costs the consumer three cents. In addition, 
 the bakery enables the employe to purchase strictly fresh bread, cakes and rolls 
 which he would otherwise not be able to obtain. The Americans on the Zone 
 are great ice cream eaters, for a total of 138,551 gallons valued at $110,993.68 
 were consumed in a single year. The ice cream which is sold for 25 cents a 
 quart is as good as can be obtained, fresh milk and cream being imported from 
 the United States, in refrigeration, for its manufacture. 
 
 In the industrial and experimental laboratory maintained by the com- 
 missary, extracts, talcum powder, soap, witch hazel, hydrogen peroxide, bay 
 rum, tooth powder, and toilet preparations of various kinds are manufactured 
 and sold to the employes at a considerable saving in cost. The experimental 
 
 [117] 
 
Tennis court, Ancon. Tennis is a favorite pastime and tournaments are held frequently. 
 
 Opening game Athletic Park, Empire. The national game has held sway each dry season with 
 at least one league made up of four or more clubs. Field meets are also held occasionally. 
 
 There are several excellent bathing places on each side of the Isthmus. A large pavilion has 
 recently been erected fronting the beach Pena Prieta, Panama Bay, to which the street cars run. 
 Sea bathing is enjoyed at 'Xmas time the same as on the Fourth of July. 
 
 I 118 1 
 
CTHE, Jv\N-D DIVIDED — ^T liEL^ yO^yD, TTNJTED 
 
 department is maintained to insure the quality of all the goods sold in the 
 stores. 
 
 There are three classes of hotels and messes maintained where the labor 
 force is fed, one for the white American employes where meals are served at 
 30 cents each, one in which Spanish laborers are served three meals for 40 cents, 
 and one where negro laborers are served three meals for 27 cents. The food 
 in all three cases is good and wholesome. The meals served in the American 
 hotels, or mess halls, are substantial rather than dainty, but could hardly be 
 duplicated in the United States for double the price charged. Although the 
 laborers' messes serve wholesome food very cheaply, the greater part of the 
 Spaniards prefer to eat at the little restaurants maintained near the construction 
 camps by their fellow countrymen. The same has been true of the negroes 
 
 The residence section at Gatun. The three great twin locks near the Atlantic 
 entrance of the Canal are located here. 
 
 who had much rather live in the "bush" or in the cities of Panama and Colon 
 where they are less restricted. 
 
 During a single year the total number of meals served in the hotels was 
 2,075,335; the total number of rations served in European laborers' messes 
 was 1,108,175 and the total number of rations served in the negro messes was 
 584,457. 
 
 THE CANAL ZOXE 
 
 The Canal Zone does not come under the Constitution of the United 
 States, but is governed by orders made by the President or the Secretary of 
 War, and laws especially enacted by Congress. Its official seal bears the motto, 
 "The Land Divided — The World United," and consists of a shield, showing in 
 base a Spanish galleon of the fifteenth century under full sail coming head on 
 between two high banks, all purpure, the sky yellow with the glow of sunset; 
 
 [ H9 ] 
 
A view of the town of Culebra from Mount Zion as it appeared several years ago. The 
 buildings to the right along the edge of the Canal, have all been removed on account of the 
 slides at this point. 
 
 A group of four-family houses for American married employes, Empire. Large verandas are 
 built on each side of the houses and all are screened. 
 
 [ 120 ] 
 
CTHB Jv\N-D DIVIDED —crpKB WORkD^Tj^ITED 
 
 in the chief are the colors of the arms of the United States. Under the shield 
 is the motto. It was adopted in 1906 after a design of Tiffany & Co. 
 
 Up to September 1, 1904, the six municipal districts in which the Canal Zone 
 was divided were governed under the laws of Panama. On the latter date, 
 the Canal Commission by law created five municipal districts, each with a 
 mayor, municipal council, secretary, and treasurer. These five municipal 
 districts were abolished April 15, 1907, and four administrative districts were 
 created. On November 17, 1906, the Department of Sanitation was separated 
 from the Government of the Canal Zone, and the latter then became the De- 
 partment of Law and Government of the Canal Zone under Mr. Richard 
 
 The Isthmian Canal Commission Chapel, Ancon. Nearly all the principal religious denomina- 
 tions are represented in the Canal Zone, and there are upwards of 40 places of worship. The 
 Commission employs several Chaplains. 
 
 Reid Rodgers, General Counsel. This department was abolished on April 2, 
 1907, and the authority of the chief executive of the Canal Zone was vested in 
 the Chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission. The Chairman, on May 9, 
 1907, delegated that authority to a member of the Commission, and the Presi- 
 dent, by an Executive Order dated January 6, 1906, created the Department of 
 Civil Administration. 
 
 The work of the Department of Civil Administration, in addition to the 
 diplomatic correspondence between the Commission and the Republic of 
 Panama and the representatives of foreign governments in Panama, is par- 
 titioned, as follows: Posts, customs and revenues; police and prisons; fire 
 protection, schools and the office of the treasurer of the Canal Zone. The 
 
 [ 121 ] 
 
School for white children at Empire. Twelve white and fifteen colored schools are main- 
 tained. The white schools are in charge of women teachers from the United States; the colored 
 schools are taught by male West Indians. 
 
 Ancon high school class, term of 1912-13. There are two high schools for advanced scholars. 
 
 [ 122 ] 
 
CTHB TvAN-P piVIDED q^E W-QB^g.-! JNJTED 
 
 judicial branch includes a Supreme Court, three Circuit Courts, and four 
 District Courts. Up to July 16, 1913, the Division of Public Works, which had 
 in charge the maintenance of streets, roads, trails, water works and sewers in 
 the Canal Zone and in the cities of Panama and Colon, and also the public 
 markets in the Zone, was made a part of this department. On the latter date, 
 it became merged with the newly created Division of Municipal Engineering, 
 under the office of the Chief Engineer. 
 
 THE POSTAL SERVICE 
 
 The Division of Posts, Customs and Revenues, as its name implies, has 
 charge of all post-offices in the Canal Zone, the customs service at the ports of 
 
 Post Office at Ancon. Seventeen Post Offices handle the Canal Zone mail. 
 Banks are established in all but one of them. 
 
 Postal Savings 
 
 Ancon and Cristobal, and the collection of taxes and license fees. It also looks 
 after the administration of the estates of deceased and insane employes of the 
 Commission and Panama Railroad Company. 
 
 The postal service was inaugurated on June 24, 1904, under the super- 
 vision of the Treasurer of the Zone, with Panama railroad station agents acting 
 as postmasters in nine offices. There are now 20 offices in charge of regular 
 postmasters appointed by the Director of Posts. 
 
 From June 24, until July 17, 1904, Panama postage stamps (which were 
 Colombian stamps surcharged "Panama"), having the words "Canal Zone" 
 overprinted with a rubber stamp were used. The use of this rubber stamp 
 kept stamp collectors on the lookout for mistakes in the surcharging which 
 would tend to make the stamps valuable. On July 17, a supply of United 
 States stamps, surcharged "Canal Zone," was put into use and, on December 3, 
 
 [ 123 ] 
 
CTIW Tv\N-D DIVIDED— crrHB WORkD> TTKITED 
 
 1904, these were replaced by the Panamanian stamp surcharged "Canal 
 Zone," in use at the present time. Domestic rates of postage have always 
 applied between the Canal Zone and the United States, and for this reason the 
 postage stamps are purchased from Panama at 40 per cent of their face value 
 
 Zone penitentiary. This was formerly located at Culebra, but was removed, along with many 
 other buildings, on account of the slides. The offenders in the Canal Zone are kept busy build- 
 ing roads. 
 
 to make up the difference in the rates of the two countries, those in Panama 
 being slightly higher. 
 
 POSTAL SAVINGS BANK A POPULAR INSTITUTION 
 
 A postal savings bank was authorized by Executive Order on September 8, 
 1911, and became effective on November 8, 1911. At the beginning of the 
 fiscal year there were 2,402 open accounts with deposits aggregating $356,947. 
 The depositors include citizens or subjects of 45 different nations and depen- 
 dencies. The total amount of the deposits during this period was $1,601,616, 
 and the total amount of withdrawals $1,312,873, an increase during the year 
 of $288,743, which, together with the amount of deposits on July 1, 1912, of 
 $356,947, shows a total savings deposit at the close of the fiscal year of $645,690, 
 an approximate average of $203.11 for each of the 3,179 depositors. These 
 accounts are practically held by employes of the Commission, the Panama 
 Railroad Company, and the various contractors. In addition to the postal 
 savings accounts, the money orders issued and drawn on Canal Zone post- 
 offices payable to the remitter aggregated on June 30, 1913, $156,916.20, so 
 that the total savings deposit during the fiscal year was really $802,606.20. 
 
 In August, 1905, a registry system was established and, in June, 1906, a 
 money order system was inaugurated. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 
 1913, 238,316 money orders were issued for a total of $4,883,624.13. The 
 average amount of each order was $20.49. Of the total amount of orders sold, 
 
 [ 124] 
 
^mB JvAN-D . DIVIDED ^CTHE WQ^it_in^TJgP 
 
 $3,917,899-30 was payable in the United States and foreign countries, and 
 orders amounting to $965,72-4.83 were payable in the Canal Zone. 
 
 Parcels post has not yet been introduced, and there are no letter carriers and, 
 in these respects only, is the Canal Zone system behind the service in the 
 United States. A count of the mail matter received and dispatched or handled 
 in transit on the Canal Zone during the month of August, 1912, showed that 
 30 per cent of the total was official matter. 
 
 ZONE CUSTOMS SERVICE 
 
 The customs service of the Zone includes the entry and clearance of ships 
 at the two ports, Ancon and Cristobal, the signing on and discharge of seamen, 
 the enforcement of the Panama Chinese, Syrian and Turkish exclusion law. 
 No customs duties are collected, as no goods are allowed to be imported at 
 Ancon and Cristobal, except those necessary and convenient for the construction 
 of the Canal and for the use of employes of the Commission, fuel for sale to 
 vessels, and goods in transit. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 281 
 vessels entered the port of Ancon, representing a total tonnage of 5,53,767, 
 and 283 vessels cleared with a total tonnage of 556,306. At Cristobal, 280 
 vessels entered representing a tonnage of 849,702, and 283 vessels cleared with 
 a total tonnage of 858,703. << 
 
 & THE ZONE DRY 
 
 Up to July 1, 1913, saloon licenses formed a large part of the internal 
 revenues of the Zone. On that date the Canal Zone went "dry" in accordance 
 with an order of the Commission, and 35 saloons went out of business. The 
 
 A squad of Zone policemen. The officers and first class policemen are Americans, most of 
 whom have seen service in the Spanish-American war. The ordinary policemen are West 
 Indians. 
 
 \ 12") 1 
 
Central fire station at Cristobal. Fire stations are maintained at all important points, their size 
 and equipment depending on the amount of property to be protected. 
 
 Canal Zone automobile fire engine. The department is equipped with two, one stationed 
 
 at Cristobal, and the other at Ancon. 
 
 [ 126 ] 
 
CTttE, Jv\N-P , DIVIDED —c^rMB WQ^E^JUNJTED 
 
 license fee was $1,200. On January 1, 1913, the distillation of liquor and the 
 manufacture of rum upon which taxes had been levied was prohibited in the 
 Canal Zone by Executive Order. The taxes now include a real estate rental 
 tax, and miscellaneous license fees. Fines and costs also constitute a source of 
 revenue. 
 
 During the year, all leases for agricultural land and building lots not 
 covered by revocable licenses were cancelled. As the depopulation of the 
 Canal Zone has been carried on during the past year, the amount derived from 
 license fees has naturally decreased. The total revenues for the year ending- 
 June 30, 1913, amounted to $283,846.31. All funds thus collected are expended 
 for local purposes. The revenues received from the postal service are applied 
 to the maintenance of that service, and other funds are used for the support of 
 
 A typical pay day scene. Pay days occur once a month and the dates range from the first to 
 the twelfth. White American employes are known as Gold Employes, and all others as Silver 
 Employes. AH are identified by the numbers on their metal checks. 
 
 the public school system, and for the construction and maintenance of public 
 works. 
 
 KEEPING ORDER 
 
 The Division of Police and Prisons was organized on June 2, 1904. Its 
 work has been entirely successful and the Canal Zone in which representatives 
 of nearly every nation live and are employed is remarkably free from crime. 
 One thing which has helped to make it a moral community is the strict enforce- 
 ment of the liquor laws and regulations, the prohibition of gambling, and public 
 prostitution. All of these vices, however, exist in the neighboring cities of 
 Colon and Panama, with one exception of gambling. In addition to the 
 district jails, there is also maintained a penitentiary. Police stations are located 
 in most of the Canal Zone villages and the force is made up of white ex-army 
 and navy men and colored police officers who have seen service in the Jamaican 
 constabulary. All convicts as well as district prisoners work on the public 
 roads. The work performed by the convicts in the penitentiary nearly paid 
 the cost of guarding, subsisting and clothing them. 
 
 GUARDING AGAINST FIRES 
 
 The Division of Fire Protection was organized in October, 1905, and on 
 December 1, a fire chief was appointed. His work consisted in organizing 
 
 [ 127 j 
 
Jv\N-D piVIDED — ^THB WO£JLjD> TTKITED 
 
 volunteer companies composed of Commission and Panama railroad employes. 
 In November, 1906, the first paid company, composed of experienced firemen 
 from the States, was established at Cristobal. The organization consists of 
 37 firemen in addition to a chief, assistant chief, six captains, six lieutenants, 
 
 First United States Court held on the Canal Zone at Ancon. 
 
 and 15 volunteer companies with a total membership of 252. The equipment 
 includes two modern automobile fire engines, one stationed at Cristobal, and 
 the other at Ancon. The department answers alarms in Panama and Colon 
 when property belonging to the Panama railroad or to the United States 
 Government is in danger, or upon the request of the Panama authorities. The 
 Canal Zone has been remarkably free from fires, but a well organized fire system 
 is necessary, as the Government and the Panama Railroad Company do not 
 carry insurance on their property. The largest and most expensive fire in the 
 Canal Zone was that when the storehouse at Mount Hope burned in 1907, with 
 a total loss of $417,548.09. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES 
 
 The Zone public school system was organized in 1904, but no action was 
 taken until December, 1905, when a census of children of school age, six years 
 and over, was taken. The first school was opened at Corozal on June 2, 1906. 
 There were 29 schools on June 30, 1913, fourteen for white children and 15 for 
 colored children. The school year covers the period October 1 to June 30. 
 A total of 1,369 white children and 1,580 colored children were enrolled in the 
 schools at the close of the 1913 term. In the high school maintained for white 
 pupils there were 93 students, seven of whom graduated. Children living in 
 towns where there are no schools are provided with free railroad or wagon 
 transportation to the nearest school town. At the close of the school year there 
 
 [ 128 ] 
 
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CpHB JvANP . DIVIDED ^q"HB WOBLkD, TIKITED 
 
 were 47 teachers employed in the schools for white children and 32 in the schools 
 for colored children. These teachers received monthly salaries of either 
 $90 or $110, according to their length of service. 
 
 THE LAW DEPARTMENT 
 
 The Department of Law of the Canal Commission has charge of all of its 
 civil cases, as well as the government of the Canal Zone. It attends to the 
 prosecution of all crimes and misdemeanors in the Supreme and Circuit Courts 
 of the Zone, and its head and his assistants furnish opinions when called upon 
 to the Chairman and Chief Engineer and the various departmental chiefs. 
 Land matters of the Commission and the Panama railroad are under the juris- 
 diction of the department, managed by a land agent, and in addition, the 
 department head looks after the legal affairs of the railroad. Since the organi- 
 zation of the Joint Land Commission, the department has represented the 
 interests of the United States in the adjustment of claims. Judge Frank Feuille, 
 who has held a number of important posts in the legal departments of Porto 
 Rico, and who was connected with the Department of State and Justice in 
 Cuba during: the administration of the affairs of that island bv Judge C. E. 
 Magoon, is Counsel and Chief Attorney for the Commission and Panama 
 railroad. His assistants are W. K. Jackson, Prosecuting Attorney, and C. R. 
 Williams, Assistant Prosecuting Attorney. 
 
 PAYING THE CANAL FORCE 
 
 The Department of Disbursements has charge of the disbursements of all 
 funds in connection with the Canal work on the Isthmus. 
 
 Present Court House at Empire. The United States possesses all authority over the Canal 
 Zone, policing the territory and holding complete judicial power. 
 
 [ 129 1 
 
CTHE, Tv\N-D . DIVIDED cTTHB WOBJ^D) TTKITED 
 
 In 1904, when only the fluctuating Colombian silver currency was available 
 for the payment of silver employes, it was customary to advertise for this money 
 in such sums as were required. The bid which gave the best return was 
 accepted. The premium paid varied from 117 on May 23, 1904, the date of 
 the first sale, to 110 in August, 1904, and rose from then to 115 in January, 
 1905, the time the last sale was made under this plan. This made the old 
 Colombian peso vary from $.4606 (expressed in United States values), to $.4755, 
 it being worth $.464 at the time of the last sale. The requirements of the Dis- 
 bursing Office at that time were much more limited than now, a total of $523,000 
 sufficing for expenditure from May 23, 1904, up to the time Panama money was 
 introduced in March, 1905, an amount less than one-third of the total of one 
 month's pay roll in 1913. During this period American employes exchanged a 
 part of their gold for Colombian currency and paid their local obligations in that 
 money, in that way netting a profit of about $7.50 gold on each $100 in gold 
 exchanged. In other words he would get $215 silver for $100 in gold, and as 
 local prices, board, etc., were based on silver, he was the gainer in the transac- 
 tion. The situation was much simplified when the United States minted the 
 money for the national currency of Panama, by fixing the value of the Panama 
 jh'.so at the ratio of two for one, but the profits on exchange were at once lost, for 
 local prices immediately reverted to the gold basis, and employes who were 
 formerly paying $50 silver for board, less the profit on exchange, then paid $25 
 gold flat. 
 
 The gold payments were first made in United States paper, but this was 
 found to be both expensive and inconvenient, for the reason that the local 
 merchants and others shipped these bills out of the country as fast as they were 
 brought in, as they made a cheap means of exchange. On May 1, 1905, an 
 agreement, which had previously been made by the Secretary of War with 
 bankers in Panama City, commonly spoken of as the "Bankers' Agreement," 
 became effective. Under this arrangement, the Commission secured from four 
 banking firms in Panama all the United States money necessary for the work on 
 the Isthmus upon the payment of a premium of f of one per cent. This agree- 
 ment expired by limitation on April 30, 1906, and was not renewed. Shipment 
 of gold coin from the United States was then begun. On account of the export 
 
 ■■■■ni 
 
 Offices of the Disbursing Officer, and of the Examiner of Accounts, Empire. 
 
 [ 130 1 
 
tax imposed by the Republic of Panama on coin, either gold or silver, this 
 money could not be shipped out to advantage as was done in the case of bills. 
 The bankers finally announced their willingness to receive disbursing officer's 
 checks on the New York sub-treasury at par, in exchange for gold and silver, so 
 
 
 ITS 
 
 in 
 
 
 KSsk^S 
 
 nL'-** 
 
 A Commission brake, used in carrying children to and from school. The Canal Commission 
 lends every aid to the cause of education in the Canal Zone. When necessary to use the railroad, 
 passes are given the pupils. 
 
 that shipments of gold from the United States to the Isthmus grew less and less, 
 and for a time ceased altogether. For a long time American employes were paid 
 their salaries solely in gold, but with the increase in circulation of paper on the 
 Isthmus due in part to the increase in tourist trade, and in part to the resump- 
 tion of paper shipments from the United States, they are now frequently paid 
 in bills. 
 
 Silver employes were paid semi-monthly up to and including September, 
 1907, as they were unable to get credit from the Chinese merchants, from whom 
 they made their purchases, for more than two weeks at a time. With the open- 
 ing of the commissaries and laborers' kitchens, and the privilege accorded labor- 
 ers of procuring commissary books and meal tickets to be charged against their 
 time, the necessity for a double pay day each month ceased to exist, and since 
 then there has been but one pay day monthly. Two pay offices are maintained, 
 one at Ancon, and the other at Cristobal, and, in addition, a pay car visits all 
 parts of the work each month. The pay day period ranges from the 1st to the 
 12th. 
 
 At the outset some criticism developed over the lapse of time between the 
 close of the month and the pay day for employes. This led to an investigation 
 of practices in vogue in making payments by large employers of labor. The 
 pay envelope method was found impracticable, likewise the signature pay roll 
 method, although this system was tried for a month in 1905. The system 
 
 [ 131 ] 
 
CTHB TvAND . DIVIDED ^CTHE WOE^gJ JNITED 
 
 finally adopted and still in use, consists of certificates made out for each indi- 
 vidual payment, duly checked and authenticated. This certificate when 
 properly signed by the payee and witnessed by an employe who is bonded for 
 that purpose, and presented by the payee on the pay car, or at one of the pay 
 offices, is immediately paid the amount called for thereon. , 
 
 During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, a total of $20,524,705.75 was 
 disbursed on the Isthmus for salaries and wages, $9,228,633.99 to gold employes 
 of the Commission, and $11,296,071.76 to the silver employes, an average of 
 $1,710,392.14 a month. Public bills and reimbursement vouchers paid on the 
 Isthmus aggregated $9,035,630.18, making a grand total of $29,560,335.93 
 disbursed. During the same period, miscellaneous collections were deposited 
 with the Treasurer of the United States at Washington to the amount of $3,940,- 
 102.82. The value of the hotel books issued by this department during the 
 fiscal year 1912-13, was $1,305,405 in $4.80 and $15 denominations. 
 
 The first disbursing officer was Lieut. Mark Brooke, who temporarily 
 disbursed funds from an amount borrowed from the director general of the 
 French Canal Company, as when the Americans took charge on May 4, 1904, 
 there was not a cent with which to pay bills. He was succeeded by Paymaster 
 Eugene C. Tobey of the United States Navy, who was later relieved by Pay- 
 master George C. Schafer, also of the Navy. On November 23, 1905, Mr. 
 Edward J. Williams was appointed to the position, and under him the present 
 organization was largely perfected. Mr. Williams resigned on August 30, 1913, 
 and was succeeded by Mr. James H. McLean. 
 
 ACCOUNTS 
 
 The Department of Examination of Accounts is charged with the handling 
 of the general accounting, pay rolls, vouchers, coupon books and meal tickets, 
 files and bonds, injury claims, contract laborers, time inspection, timekeeping, 
 Canal Zone accounts, and inspection of accountable officers. The major 
 portion of the funds of the Canal Zone are on deposit in Washington, with the 
 exception of $100,000 deposited with a local bank, and on June 30, 1913, 
 amounted to $2,168,339.62. Consideration of injury claims is one of the most 
 important items of the department's work. A total of 7,270 claims for compen- 
 sation for death or injury were handled from August 1, 1908 to June 30, 1913. 
 Of the 1,850 cases disposed of during the last fiscal year (1912-13), 1,452 claims 
 for injury, and 21 death claims, were granted. The total value of these claims, 
 inclusive of grants made on account of meritorious sick leave, aggregated 
 $224,071.72. The average duration of disability of cases for which injury 
 compensation claims have been filed is 58 days, and the average estimated 
 duration of cases in which meritorious sick leave has been granted is five days. 
 During the period from August 1, 1908 to June 30, 1913, a total of $915,824.79 
 has been paid on account of injuries received by employes in course of employ- 
 ment. 
 
 NO GRAFT 
 
 One of the first questions a visitor to the Isthmus asks is, "How much graft 
 has there been ?" A good many are inclined to be skeptical when told that 
 there have been no cases of graft on this job, and that the would-be grafter has 
 had but little opportunity to exercise his gift during the greater part of the canal 
 period. It is to be supposed that the word is referred to in its larger sense 
 
 [ 132 1 
 
Balboa Hill is three hours' journey from Gorgona over a well-marked trail. From its top, a 
 height of about 1,000 feet, both oceans may be seen on a clear day. The author is standing on 
 The Trail which leads up the hill. 
 
 133 1 
 
CTHE, TvAND DIVIDED— ^THE WOBkg>_T J NJTED 
 
 when it is said there has been no graft. There have been instances where 
 silver foremen were charged with using their power of place by discharging 
 some laborer who refused to give him money. In many of these cases, the 
 charges proved to be unfounded, and, as it developed, were actuated by spite. 
 There is no authenticated case, however, in the nearly ten years of canal work, 
 where a case of graft with the hope of great gain in view, has been disclosed. 
 The work is too open and above board. 
 
 It would not be accurate to say that in the early days of the work, when 
 there were no time inspectors on the job, or other safeguards imposed, there 
 were no opportunities. But as far as the Commission employes then were 
 concerned, they,- for the greater part, regarded themselves as being placed on 
 their honor, and the idea held. As the force was enlarged, it became more 
 diversified in character and temperament, and elements were introduced that 
 required watching, not for any big forms of graft, but for the milder forms, such 
 as malingering, or more plainly speaking, loafing on the Government's time. 
 Thus was ushered in the era of the "gumshoes," as the Commission time 
 inspectors are generally known. 
 
 The American visitor, however, when he alludes to graft refers to the 
 pulling off of some big deal in which the Government has been "worked" to a 
 frazzle. The Government, represented on the Isthmus by the Canal Com- 
 mission, has never been successfully "worked," or have there been any big 
 "rake-offs." Of course, there have been plenty of cases of plain thievery, and 
 other forms of petty crime aimed at cheating or robbing the Government, but 
 these have been dealt with by the law, and usually the offenders have been 
 punished severely, for to steal from Uncle Sam is almost equivalent to murder 
 in the second degree. 
 
 Stories have been told, although the writer does not vouch for their 
 authenticity, how some collectors on the Panama railroad during the beginning 
 of canal construction made immense sums and were able to retire to a life of 
 independence and ease, a state that their length of service and previous salary 
 would scarcely warrant. The strings have been drawn much closer since then, 
 and the opportunities for mulcting the railroad have grown beautifully less. 
 As concerns the canal work, however, the amount of grafting has always been 
 a negligible quantity, and this fact will forever be one of the biggest things 
 about this big undertaking. 
 
 [ 134 ] 
 
HE idea of a lock and lake level canal was not a new one, for it was 
 first suggested in the engineering congress convened in Paris in 1879, 
 at which the French adopted the sea level plan. At this congress, 
 Godin de Lepinay outlined the essential features of the canal as it 
 is today, a lake level with a dam across the Chagres at Gatun. Again, when 
 it became evident in 1887 that the sea level canal could not he completed by 
 the old French Canal Company, a temporary lock plan was adopted. When 
 the United States took over the work in 1904 no plan had been determined 
 upon. To decide this question, ex-President Roosevelt, under date of June 
 24, 1905, created an International Board of Consulting Engineers, consisting 
 of 13 members as follows: Gen. George W. Davis, Chairman, Alfred Noble, 
 one of the constructing engineers of the Soo canal; William Barclay Parsons, 
 engineer of the New York underground system; William II. Burr, professor of 
 engineering in Columbia college; Gen. Henry L. Abbott, army engineer, whose 
 observations on the topography and characteristics of the canal territory were 
 valuable; Frederic P. Stearns, hydraulic engineer of Boston; Joseph Ripley, at 
 one time chief engineer of the Soo canal, and afterwards employed by the 
 Isthmian Canal Commission as lock expert; Herman Schussler, Isham Ran- 
 dolph of Chicago Drainage Canal fame; W. Henry Hunter, chief engineer of 
 the Manchester ship canal, representing the British Government; Eugen 
 Tincauzer, chief engineer of the canal at Kiel, representing the German Gov- 
 ernment; Adolphe Guerard, civil engineer, representing the French Govern- 
 ment; Edouard Quellennec, consulting engineer of the Suez Canal, and J. W. 
 Welcker, engineer and constructor of the North Sea canal, representing the 
 Holland Government. This board, on January 10, 1906, submitted two 
 reports, a majority report, signed by eight members of whom five were the 
 representatives of foreign governments, favoring a sea level canal, and a mi- 
 nority report, signed by five members, all of whom were Americans, and in 
 
 [ 135 ] 
 
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 [136] 
 
Jv\M-D piVIDED CT-TUZ WQrLkgLI I JSJTEP 
 
 favor of a lock canal. These reports were submitted to the Isthmian Canal 
 Commission for consideration and the latter made a report to the Secretary of 
 War on February o, 1906, in which all of its members with the exception of 
 Civil Engineer Endicott, U. S. N., favored the lock plan. Mr. Stevens, at 
 that time chief engineer, submitted a statement in favor of the lock plan, and 
 the Secretary of War in his letter of transmittal of the reports to the President 
 also favored it. On February 19, 1906, President Roosevelt submitted these 
 various reports to Congress, together with a letter of recommendation in 
 which he said: 
 
 The hydraulic core, or water-tight portion of the Dam, together with the two outer walls, or 
 toes. The toes are 1,200 feet apart at the base, and the space between is filled with an impervious 
 mixture of sand and clay sucked up and pumped in by dredges from the old bed of the Chagres 
 River. The toes were brought together at the top where they cap the fill. The entire Dam con- 
 tains about 21,000,000 cubic yards of material, equally divided between dry and wet fill. The up- 
 stream side is riprapped above the water level to minimize wave action. 
 
 *A careful study of the reports seems to establish a strong probability that 
 the following are the facts: The sea level canal would be slightly less exposed 
 to damage in the event of war, the running expenses, apart from the heavy 
 cost of interest on the amount employed to build it, would be less, and for small 
 ships the time of transit would probably be less. On the other hand, the lock 
 canal at a level of 80 feet, or thereabouts, would not cost much more than half 
 as much to build and could be built in about half the time, while there would be 
 very much less risk connected with building it, and for large ships the transit 
 would be quicker; while, taking into account the interest on the amount saved 
 in building, the actual cost of maintenance would be less. After being built 
 it would be easier to enlarge the lock canal than the sea level canal. Moreover, 
 
 [ 137 ] 
 
CTHB Tv\N-D DIVIDED CTHB WORkD, TTKITED 
 
 what has been actually demonstrated in making and operating the great lock 
 canal, the Soo, a more important artery of traffic than the great sea level canal, 
 the Suez, goes to support the opinion of the minority of the Consulting Board of 
 Engineers and of the majority of the Isthmian Canal Commission as to the 
 superior safety, feasibility, and desirability of building a lock canal at Panama." 
 Congress on June 29, 1906, decided upon a lock canal at an elevation of 85 
 feet. That this was the best plan to pursue has been proved by experience with 
 slides which added greatly to the estimated amount of excavation necessary 
 under either plan. 
 
 THE CANAL A WATER BRIDGE 
 
 The completed canal is virtually a water bridge over which ships will pass 
 from ocean to ocean. There was no mating of the Atlantic with the Pacific 
 when the dike at Gamboa was destroyed on Friday, October 10, 1913, and the 
 waters of Gatun Lake were allowed to flow into Culebra Cut, for lake and Cut 
 are, at the surface of the water, 85 feet above the level of the sea. From deep 
 
 Early subsidence in Gatun Dam. This occurrence caused the sensational stories in the news- 
 papers in the United States in 1908, to the effect that the Dam had sunk and that the foundation 
 was unsuitable for such a massive structure. The completed Dam demonstrates that the state- 
 ments were entirely unfounded, and that it is as effective a water barrier as the age-old hills upon 
 which it abuts. 
 
 water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific the Canal is about 50 miles 
 long; from shore line to shore line it is about 40 miles long. It does not, as is 
 quite generally thought, cross the Isthmus from east to west. Its general 
 direction is from northwest to southwest, and the city of Panama at the Pacific 
 entrance is about 22^ miles southeast of Cristobal at the Atlantic entrance. 
 
 Starting in the Atlantic, a vessel enters a sea level channel 500 feet wide to 
 Gatun, a distance of seven miles, where it will be lifted by a flight of three locks, 
 or immovable water elevators, having a combined lift of 85 feet, to the level of 
 Gatun Lake. The lake proper to Bas Obispo, the beginning of Culebra Cut, 
 the man-made pass through the continental divide, is about 24 miles long, and 
 the channel through it varies from 1,000 to 500 feet in width, with a water depth 
 
 [ 133 ] 
 
Experimental spillway at Gatun Dam. Like all other important features of the Canal work, 
 experiments were made to ascertain the proper method of constructing the work. 
 
 Gatun spillway, looking from the lake. The spillway is a concrete lined opening, 1,200 feet 
 long, 285 feet wide and is situated about midway of Gatun Dam. 
 
 r 139 1 
 
gpHB TvAND , DIVIDED ^CTHE WORLj^ IT KITED 
 
 from 85 to 45 feet. While in the lake a vessel may steam at full speed. „ The 
 channel through Culebra Cut as far as Pedro Miguel, nine miles, marrows to, 
 :;<)() feet, the minimum bottom width of the Canal. At Pedro Miguel, the 
 vessel is ready to begin the descent to the Pacific. There is a single lock here, • 
 which lowers the vessel 30^ feet to a small artificial body of water called Mira- 
 flores Lake, which is about 1| miles long and 54§ feet above sea level. The, 
 final descent to sea level is made at Miraflores by a flight of two locks. The 
 vessel 'has now passed over the bridge, and is ready to proceed through a sea, 
 level channel 8| miles to deep water in the Pacific. This channel, like theone| 
 on the Atlantic side, has a bottom width of 500 feet, but its depth is 45 feeti 
 at mean tide, instead of 41 feet. This difference in the depth of the two seal 
 level approaches is due to the fact that it is necessary to partly counteract a 
 maximum tidal oscillation in the Pacific of 21 feet; that in the Atlantic is but 
 2^ feet; the mean sea level is the same in both oceans. 
 
 THE DAM AT GATUN 
 
 When plans for a sea level canal were under consideration, one of the 
 hardest problems to solve was the diversion of the Chagres River. Now, 
 
 
 Water from the lake flowing over the spillway, during the rainy season, before it was completed. 
 The spillway will control the rise and fall of Gatun Lake. 
 
 however, with a lock canal, the Chagres is the key to the situation. By placing 
 a dam across the lower end of its valley, its water and that of its tributaries have 
 been impounded to form Gatun Lake. The dam is, in reality, a low ridge 
 of earth connecting the hills on either side of the valley, and looks as though it 
 had been placed there by nature rather than by the efforts of man. It is 1| 
 miles long, 105 feet above mean sea level, or 20 feet above the normal level of 
 the lake, and tapers from nearly \ a mile wide at its base, to about 100 feet wide 
 
 [ HO ] 
 
1141] 
 
CTH.B TiAN-P , DIVIDED -^CTTHE^ WQRUD) TTKITED 
 
 at the top. It was constructed of material taken from the Canal amounting 
 to about 21,000,000 cubic yards. The method of construction consisted in 
 building up two parallel ridges or toes of earth riprapped with rock. Between 
 these two ridges, suction dredges pumped sand and clay mixed with water 
 from the bed of the Chagres river. As the water drained out of this interior 
 fill, the clay mixture dried and hardened and formed an impervious core. 
 
 In November, 1908, a portion of one of the rock toes sank into the silt and 
 soft mud deposited in the bottom of the old French Canal Channel which 
 passed through the site of the dam. This had been anticipated by the engin- 
 eers on the Isthmus, but at the time it led to sensational stories in the news- 
 papers in the United States, to the effect that the dam had sunk and that the 
 
 The overflow from the spillway passing out through the old bed of the Chagres River into the 
 Atlantic Ocean. With the lake at its maximum elevation of 87 feet, the regulating gates in the 
 spillway will permit of the discharge of a greater volume of water than the known maximum 
 discharge of the Chagres River during a flood. 
 
 foundation was unsuitable. for such a massive structure. To allay the fears 
 aroused, President Roosevelt sent a special board of consulting engineers to 
 the Isthmus to make an examination of the work in progress, and particularly 
 of Gatun Dam. This engineering board, consisting of Frederic P. Stearns, 
 Arthur P. Davis, Henry A. Allen, James D. Schuyler, Isham Randolph, John 
 R. Freeman, and Allen Hazen, reported on February 16, 1909, that: 'The 
 design upon which work on the dam is now being prosecuted abundantly fulfills 
 the required degree of stability and goes far beyond the limits of what would be 
 regarded as sufficient and safe in any less important structure." It also recom- 
 mended that the height of the dam as originally proposed be reduced 20 feet. 
 
 [ H2 ] 
 
Miraflores spillway, completed September 1, 1913. 
 to the east, and forms Miraflores Lake. 
 
 Lies between Miraflores Locks and rising ground 
 It also regulates the level of the lake. 
 
 Hydroelectric station, Gatun spillway, under construction, showing location of penstocks. 
 
 [ 143 ] 
 
CTTIB TvAND DIVIDED- crpHB WORIjD> TTKITED 
 
 The completed dam has demonstrated the fact that it is as effective a water 
 barrier as the age-old hills upon which it abuts. 
 
 GATUN SPILLWAY 
 
 In order that the lake will not rise above 87 feet and reach the point where 
 it would flow over the crest and endanger the dam, a spillway has been con- 
 structed through a rock hill nearly in its center. This is a concrete-lined 
 channel 1,200 feet long and 285 feet wide, 10 feet above sea level at the lake 
 end and sloping to sea level at the foot. At the lake end a concrete dam has 
 been built in the form of a crescent 808 feet long, closing the 285-foot channel. 
 This dam is 69 feet above sea level, or 16 feet below the normal level of the lake, 
 and at its top there are 13 concrete piers between which there are mounted 14 
 electrically operated gates to control the flow of water. The piers and the 
 gates bring the height of the spillway dam to 115.5 feet above sea level, or 30.5 
 feet above the lake level. With these gates open the spillway will be able to 
 discharge as high as 140,000 cubic feet of water per second, a larger amount 
 than the maximum known discharge of the Chagres during a flood. 
 
 GATUN LAKE 
 
 The lake which covers an area of 163.38 square miles and contains about 
 183 billion cubic feet of water, saved excavating a 24-mile channel to the 
 beginning of the cut through the continental divide at Bas Obispo. It also 
 
 The penstocks at the new hydroelectric station at Gatun spillway, which, by furnishing the water 
 to the turbines from Gatun Lake, will drive the machinery at all the locks. 
 
 makes the Chagres River a most important factor in the success of the project, 
 rather than a torrential stream that would otherwise be a menace to the Canal. 
 The lake has a coast line of about 1,016 miles, and only about 90 square miles 
 
 [ 144 1 
 
View of Gatun Lake. The lake is formed by Gatun Dam, and receives the flow of the Chagres 
 River, and several smaller streams. At its maximum height of 87 feet, it will inundate 167.4 square 
 miles of territory, part of which lies in the Canal Zone, and part in the Republic of Panama. It 
 ■will have a coast line of 1,016 miles, and will be the largest artificial body of water in the world. 
 It covers a broad expanse from Gatun to Bas Obispo, thence is confined to the 300-foot channel 
 in the Culebra Cut section to Pedro Miguel. During the dry season — December to May — the lake 
 will remain about stationary, while in the rainy season, there will be a surplus. Thousands of 
 acres of trees and jungle growth are being inundated by the rising waters of the lake. 
 
 Floating islands in Gatun Lake. These are really masses of vegetation detached from the 
 swamps by the rising waters and carried out by winds into the open water. Some of them cover 
 half an acre in extent, and have given considerable trouble by obstructing the lock entrance. 
 
 [ 145 ] 
 
CTftE, TvAN-D DIVIDED cttbe: WQ^B_IJNJTEP 
 
 of its total area is within the Canal Zone. In the rainy seasons the lake will 
 be allowed to rise to 87 feet above sea level, and thus provide a surplus for the 
 three or four months of the dry season when the run-off of water in the Chagres 
 basin is low. Allowance has also been made for evaporation, seepage, leakage 
 at the lock gates, and power consumption. With the lake at 87 feet there will 
 be stored a little over five feet of water. That is, the lake could be lowered 
 five feet without reducing the depth through Culebra Cut below that in the 
 approach channel on the Atlantic side. Extensive studies over a period of 
 many years of the rainfall and the amount of water that will flow into the 
 lake from the Chagres River and its tributaries during the rainy seasons 
 indicate that there will always be a sufficient supply for navigation of the 
 Canal. 
 
 The Chagres River rises in the mountains east of the Canal, is about 160 
 miles long, and drains a watershed 1,320 square miles in extent. Above Bas 
 Obispo its rise is very rapid and, as it ascends, it flows through deep and narrow 
 gorges causing a very rapid run-off of the rains, and the river has been known 
 to rise a little over 25 feet in 24 hours. As it winds in and out of the hills in its 
 upper reaches rapids become more numerous and difficult for the passage of 
 the native cayucos or canoes, the only means of navigation. Going up the 
 
 The spillway Gatun with the sluice gates closed. Locks and village of Gatun in the distance. 
 
 river only the native boatmen, adept from long practice in poling their boats, 
 can successfully negotiate the rapids. Above Alhajuela, the river is bordered 
 by limestone cliffs into which the water has for ages been eating its way, forming 
 caves and underground water courses. The towering cliffs are covered with a 
 mass of vines and creepers wound about the trees, which have in some way 
 found room for their roots, all covered with bright and vari-colored blossoms. 
 
 [ U6 1 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 -atA.^.. ^..CX 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W^ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 m^m!Q^~~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w^^~~~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^iJil^^M 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w*~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 One of the bends in the upper Chagres River. The Chagres is the principal feeder of Gatun 
 Lake. It rises in the mountains of interior Panama and drains 1,300 square miles of territory. 
 During the dry season it is a quietly flowing stream, but in the rainy months it is subject to sud- 
 den freshets, bringing down a great volume of water, which, during the year 1910, equaled one 
 and one-half the volume of water that will be contained in Gatun Lake. 
 
 To the right of this picture is shown a gauging station, one of three maintained on the river. 
 Accurate records are kept of the river stages as well as of the rain fall. The Isthmus has two 
 seasons; wet and dry. The greatest recorded rain fall on the Isthmus for 24 hours is 10.86 inches; 
 for one hour 5.86 inches and for 3 minutes 2.46 inches. The small picture above shows the river 
 during one of the floods. 
 
 [ H7 ] 
 
Excavating for lock site, Gatun. 
 
 Excavating for lock site, Pedro Miguel. 
 
 Excavating for lock site, Miraflores. Millions of cubic yards of material had to be excavated 
 
 before the locks were built. 
 
 [ 148 1 
 
Jv\N-D piVIDED -^CTTHE: WORL^ UNITED 
 
 The swift moving river, the brilliant tropic foliage, and the towering cliffs, all 
 tend to belie the Isthmian poet Gilbert's lines that: 
 
 "Beyond the Chagres River 
 'Tis said (the story's old), 
 
 Are paths that lead to mountains 
 
 Of purest virgin gold; 
 
 But 'tis my firm conviction, 
 Whate'er the tales they tell, 
 That beyond the Chagres River, 
 All paths lead straight to hell." 
 
 The Chagres has two principal branches, one (the larger), known as the 
 Pequeni, rising in the San Bias mountains, very close to the Atlantic coast, and 
 
 It was necessary to go 17 miles along the Atlantic coast to get the proper grade of rock for the 
 concrete used in Gatun locks. Large rock for the Colon breakwater was also obtained here. This 
 shows the rock quarry, crushing plant, and the American settlement established there on account 
 of quarry operations. The crushed rock was loaded in barges and towed to Gatun. Sand for the 
 concrete used at Gatun locks was obtained at Nombre de Dios, about 35 miles along the coast from 
 Colon, and was also towed to Gatun in barges. Porto Bello, signifying "Beautiful Port," is the 
 best haven on the Atlantic Coast of Panama. 
 
 the other the Indio River. Between Bus Obispo and Gatun, it has 26 branches, 
 the largest of which are the Gatun and Trinidad rivers. In the dry season 
 these tributaries may be regarded as negligible, but during the rainy months 
 they, like the main river, become tropic torrents, with a volume not to be ignored. 
 However, such floods or freshets, which are of frequent occurrence in the rainy 
 season, would have but slight apparent effect on the lake, for it would take the 
 greatest known flood of the Chagres nine hours to raise the level of the lake one 
 foot. The smallest run-off of water in the basin during the past 22 years, as 
 
 r ho l 
 
CTTiE, JvMSL-P . DIVIDED — q^E WORDD JTJ 
 
 measured at Gatun, was that of the fiscal year 1912, which was about 132 billion 
 cubic feet. In 1010, the run-off was 360 billion cubic feet, or a sufficient 
 quantity to fill the lake one and a half times. 
 
 The rainy season is from May to December, and during that time showers 
 are of frequent occurrence. The average yearly rainfall on the Atlantic coast 
 at Cristobal during 40 years of record, has been about 118 inches and at Porto 
 Bello during four years' record, about 140 inches; at Culebra, during 20 years 
 of record, about 83 inches, and at Ancon on the Pacific coast during a period of 
 13 years, about 66 inches. The maximum rainfall for 24 hours was 10.86 
 inches; for one hour 5.86 inches, and for three minutes, 2.46 inches. 
 
 DAMS ON THE PACIFIC SIDE 
 
 Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks occupy the ancient valley of the Rio 
 Grande. Here it was necessary to construct two small earth dams, one on the 
 
 The concrete operations at Gatun locks required modern handling machinery. These are the 
 unloading cableways at Gatun docks. Rock and sand are picked up from the barges by clamshell 
 buckets and conveyed to storage piles. 
 
 west side of Pedro Miguel lock, about 1,700 feet long and 105 feet high at its 
 crest; and the other, west of Miraflores locks, about 2,700 feet long, and 70 
 feet high at its crest. The Miraflores barrier consists of earth and rock toes, 
 with an impervious core fill, and dams the Cocoli River, forming Cocoli Lake, 
 now a part of Panama's water supply system. To the east, both Pedro Miguel 
 and Miraflores locks approach close to the hills, so it was only necessary to join 
 locks and hills by concrete walls. 
 
 THE LOCKS 
 
 Under the original plans, the flight of two locks at Miraflores was to have 
 been located at Sosa Hill near the Pacific entrance. The change was made 
 upon the recommendation of the Isthmian Canal Commission, approved on 
 December 20, 1907, by the President, because suitable lock and dam founda- 
 tions could not be found. In addition, the site at Miraflores is six miles 
 
 [ 150 ] 
 
Sand bins and unloading cranes at Balboa. Sand for the concrete used in the Pedro Miguel 
 and Miraflores locks was obtained from Punta Chame, about 25 miles along the Pacific coast from 
 Balboa. It was towed to Balboa in barges, lifted into the bins by the unloading cranes and when 
 needed was dumped from the bins into cars and hauled to the lock storage piles. 
 
 Ancon rock crusher plant and quarry, between Panama City and Balboa, where the crushed 
 rock was obtained for the concrete used in the Pacific locks. The side of the hill has been 
 literally eaten away to secure the large amount of rock required. 
 
 [ 151 j 
 
A general view of the main concrete mixing plant at Gatun Locks, -which houses a battery 
 of eight 2-cubic yard mixers. Rock and sand were carried to the mixers by an electric railroad 
 running underground to a point beneath the storage piles. The finished product was carried to the 
 lock site by a surface electric railroad. 
 
 ^xvr^r : 
 
 A closer view of the same plant, which has produced as high as 3,434 cubic yards of 
 concrete in a day of 12 hours, working 6-hour shifts. 
 
 152 
 
cms Jv\ND DIVIDED ^TSJgLJAr^B^P^TIKITED 
 
 inland behind hills which will effectively protect them from the fire of a hostile 
 fleet. 
 
 The locks under the original plans were to have a usable length of 900 feet, 
 width of 95 feet, and a depth over the gate sills of 41^ feet. These dimensions 
 were increased on January 15, 1908, in compliance with the wishes of the Navy 
 Department, to a usable length of 1,000 feet and a width of 110 feet in order to 
 allow the passage of larger battleships at that time contemplated. The height 
 of the lock walls is about the same as that of a six-story building. The largest 
 of the present-day ships, the Impcrator, 919 feet long, can be locked through the 
 canal. However, most of the ships that will use the Isthmian trade route, or 
 
 Eight of these cableways, four on each bank, were used to place the concrete in the lock 
 walls. They consisted of steel towers, 85 feet high, operating on their own tracks, and supported 
 cables, which carried the concrete buckets back and forth. 
 
 that are likely to use it for many years to come, are less than 600 feet long. 
 In fact, 95 per cent, of the vessels navigating the high seas are less than 600 feet 
 long. For this reason, each lock is divided by intermediate gates into two 
 chambers 400 and 600 feet long, respectively. This does not mean that the 
 full length of 1,000 feet cannot be used if necessary, but with this division a 
 saving in both water and time can be made in the locking of small ships. 
 
 There are six double locks in the Canal, three flights of twin locks on each 
 side of the Isthmus to lift ships from sea level to the lake level, and vice versa. 
 They are made in pairs, in order that ships can be locked both up and down at 
 the same time, and, in case of accident to one set, there will be no delay to traffic 
 as the duplicate flight can be used. The usable dimensions of all are the same. 
 Each lock is a concrete chamber with steel mitering gates at each end, and with 
 the gates closed, ships are raised and lowered by simply admitting or withdraw- 
 ing water. The side walls are 45 to 50 feet wide at the surface of the floor, 
 
 [ 153 ] 
 
This view shows the dumping of concrete at Gatun Locks. Every move of the bucket is at 
 the will of the man stationed in the cableway tower, who, in dumping, follows the signals of the 
 man supervising the operation. As fast as the concrete is deposited, men, standing knee deep in 
 the mixture, spread it out evenly. 
 
 154 
 
J>AM-D piVIDED <-—<ZTT\& WORbD, JTNITEP 
 
 perpendicular to the face, and narrow from a point 24^ feet above the floor 
 until they are eight feet wide at the top. The center walls are 60 feet wide, 
 approximately 81 feet high, and each face is vertical. In the six pairs of locks 
 there have been placed approximately 4,500,000 cubic yards of concrete, re- 
 quiring about the same number of barrels of cement. 
 
 In the center wall of each set of locks, 42^ feet above the floor, there is a 
 space 19 feet wide at the bottom and 44 feet wide at the top in which there is a 
 tunnel divided into three galleries. The lowest gallery is for drainage; the 
 middle, for the wires for the electric current to operate the lock machinery 
 
 Sunday scene on south approach wall at Gatun Locks. In order to finish a piece of work 
 within a given time, it was frequently necessary to work the men the full seven days. 
 
 installed in the center wall, and the upper is a passageway for the operators. 
 To fill and empty the locks there are culverts extending the entire length of the 
 center and side walls. These culverts are 18 feet in diameter and are large 
 enough to permit the passage of a railroad train. From these large culverts 
 there are several smaller culverts, 33 to 44 square feet in area, which extend 
 laterally under the floor of the locks and open into them through wells. These 
 smaller culverts would permit of the passage of a two-horse cart. The water 
 is conveyed from the lake level through the large culverts, and thence through 
 the small lateral culverts to the lock chamber, thus insuring an even distribution 
 of the water over the entire area of the chamber. This reduces the disturbance 
 when the lock is being filled or emptied, so that ships are lifted or lowered 
 without undergoing any strain or violent pitching. The flow of water through 
 the culverts is controlled by valves. The large culvert in the center wall com- 
 municates with the chamber of each of the twin locks, so that water may be 
 passed from one lock to the other of the pair, thereby effecting a saving. The 
 average time required to fill and empty a lock is about 15 minutes, and the time 
 
 [ 155 1 
 
The beginning of concrete work at Gatun Locks. Laying the floor and installing the lateral 
 culverts. The circular holes in the floor are to admit the water to the locks, and to empty them. 
 The floor varies in thickness from 13 to 20 feet of solid concrete, according to the character of 
 material underlying it, and is anchored by steel rail to a depth of 10 feet. 
 
 Installing the cylindrical valves for the control of the flow of water in and out of the locks. 
 The water control system of the locks consists of rising stem or Stony gate valves, and cylindrical 
 valves. The rising stem valves govern the flow of water in the side 'wall culverts, and the. 
 cylindrical valves govern the flow of water in the center wall culverts. 
 
 [ 156 ] 
 
jvV^P piviDED — ^rn& worljd, ttkited 
 
 of passage of a vessel through the entire canal ranges from 10 to 12 hours, 
 according to the size of the ship, and the rate of speed at which it can travel. 
 
 The lock gates are of the miter type, built of steel frame covered with steel 
 plate, 65 feet long and from 47 to 82 feet high, according to their position in the 
 locks. In all there are 41 gates of two leaves each. These gates weigh from 
 390 to 730 tons each, and, in order to reduce this weight as much as possible 
 from the bearings and hinges upon which they swing, they are divided hori- 
 zontally into two separate compartments. The lower compartment is water- 
 tight, sufficiently buoyant to practically float in the water. The upper half, 
 however, has an opening and, as the water rises in the chamber it flows into the 
 upper half and adds sufficiently to the weight of the gate to offset the increased 
 pressure of the water in the lock chamber. 
 
 The machinery for opening and closing the gates, operated by electricity, 
 was invented by Mr. Edward Schildhauer, Electrical and Mechanical Engineer 
 of the canal commission. It consists of a large "bull" wheel, mounted in a 
 horizontal position on the lock wall, to the rim of which is fastened a steel strut 
 or arm; this arm is also attached to the top of each gate leaf. The wheel rotates 
 through an arc of 197 degrees, and closes or opens the gate leaf, according to the 
 direction in which it is turned. This operation can be performed in two minutes, 
 and it is similar to the action of a person who reaches out an arm to open or 
 close a door. quards AGAmsT ACCIDENTS 
 
 To guard against accident, the gates at the entrances to all the locks and at 
 the lower end of the upper lock in each flight are placed in pairs, thus eliminating 
 the chances of a ship ramming the gate which is holding back the water of the 
 level above. These guard gates miter outward to give them added power to 
 resist any blow which might be given to them. They are also available for use 
 in case the gates proper become damaged, or for any reason cannot be operated. 
 
 Steel forms in position for side and center 'wall construction. They are made of sheet steel, 
 carried on movable towers and operated on tracks. Each tower and form weighs almost four 
 and one-half million pounds. 
 
 [ 157 1 
 
CpHB TvANP .DIVIDED- cTpRE: WQB&jB, IINJTEP 
 
 Ships will not be allowed to enter the locks under their own steam, but will 
 be towed through by electric locomotives operating on the lock walls. A ship 
 about to enter the locks will first come to a standstill alongside the approach walls 
 where the towing locomotives, two on each wall, two forward and two aft, can 
 attach their lines. Before the ship can enter a lock chamber it encounters a 
 
 Method of constructing the 18-foot side wall culverts. Collapsible steel forms were used and 
 after the concrete had set, were taken down in sections. 
 
 fender chain which has been placed on the upstream side of all the gates of the 
 upper locks, and in front of the guard gates at the lower end of each flight of 
 locks, to prevent the gates from being rammed by a ship separated from the 
 towing locomotives, or approaching the gates under its own steam. In opera- 
 tion the chain is stretched across the lock chamber from the top of the opposing 
 walls; when it is desired to allow a ship to pass, the chain is lowered into a 
 groove in the lock floor, and is raised again after the ship passes. It is worked 
 by a hydraulicallv operated system of cylinders, and is capable of bringing to a 
 stop a 10, 000-ton ship, running at four knots an hour, within 73 feet, which is 
 less than the distance between the chain and the gate. 
 
 In case these precautions to prevent accident to the gates fail, or in case it 
 should be necessary to make repairs which would necessitate the shutting off of 
 all water from the lake levels, an emergency dam of the movable type has been 
 placed above each flight of locks. This dam is a steel truss bridge of the canti- 
 lever type, pivoted on the side wall of the lock approach. When not in use it 
 rests upon the side wall parallel to the channel. When required for use it is 
 
 [ 158 j 
 
The handling equipment used at Pedro Miguel and Miraf lores locks was entirely different from 
 that at Gatun. At Pedro Miguel, Berm cranes, containing the mixing machinery, were stationed 
 at the head of the lock, with arms extending on either side, from which grab buckets were 
 lowered to pick up sand and rock, as the case might be. 
 
 The finished product was carried by these trains into the lock chambers. Many of the old 
 French locomotives were repaired and used for this work. 
 
 [ 150 ] 
 
The Chamber cranes, shown here, lifted the buckets of cement from the train and transported 
 them to the point desired. The method of dumping by the Chamber cranes is very similar to 
 that of the Gatun cableways, the operation being controlled by a man stationed in the cage on 
 the trolley arm. These cranes operated on tracks, were self-propelling, and were used to 
 advantage also in handling heavy pieces of lock machinery. 
 
 Berm cranes at Miraflores Locks. With the completion of the heavy masonry work at Pedro 
 Miguel, the cranes were moved to Miraflores Locks. The mixing cranes were slightly modified, 
 and were stationed on the banks of the locks, instead of at the head, dumping directly into the 
 side walls, while the chamber cranes were used solely for center wall construction. This method 
 eliminated the necessity of concrete carrying trains to a large extent. 
 
 160 
 
CTTLB TvAN-D ) DIVIDED — CTTKE^ WO^kP^TJNJTED 
 
 swung across the channel, with its end resting on the center wall of the lock. A 
 series of wicket girders hinged to it are then lowered with their ends resting in 
 pockets embedded in the lock floor. The action of these girders might be 
 compared to the dropping of the tines on a sulky rake, with the exception that 
 the girders are hung on individual pivots. After these girders have been 
 lowered into place, they afford runways for gates which are let down one at a 
 time, closing the space between them. 
 The first row of plates lowered close the 
 channel to a height of 10 feet; another 
 series of panels lowered brings this height 
 to 20 feet, and so on until the channel is 
 completely closed. With the main flow of 
 water checked, the remainder, due to the 
 clearance between the plates, is checked 
 by driving steel pipes between the sides 
 of the adjacent panels. 
 
 When it is desired to gain access in the 
 dry to the sills of these emergency dams, 
 or to repair the lower guard gates of the 
 locks, and the gates of the spillway dam, 
 floating caisson gates of the molded ship 
 type are available. When their use is 
 required they are towed into position in 
 the forebay of the upper lock, above the 
 emergency dam, or between the piers of 
 the spillway, and sunk. They are equip- 
 ped with electric motor driven pumps for the purpose of pumping out the 
 caissons and for unwatering the locks. 
 
 The gates, fender chains, emergency dams, towing locomotives, and cul- 
 vert valves are operated by electricity, and all but the towing locomotives will 
 be controlled by operators stationed in a control house on the center wall from 
 which all parts of the locks can be seen. These houses are equipped with a 
 double control board duplicated to conform to the duplication in locks. It 
 contains a representation, part model and part diagrammatic of the flight of 
 locks controlled by the respective series of switches. As the operator throws 
 the switches he can see before him, in model or diagram, the progress of the 
 fender chains, the movement of the gates, the opening and closing of the gate 
 
 This gives an idea of the height of a 
 side wall of the locks, as compared with 
 a six-story building. The main operating 
 culverts will permit of the passage of a 
 standard size locomotive and train of cars, 
 while a team and wagon could travel 
 through the lateral culverts. 
 
 CROSS SECTION OF LOCK CHAMBERS AND WALLS OF LOCKS 
 
 A — Passageway for operators. 
 B — Gallery for electric wires. 
 C— Drainage gallery. 
 D— Culvert in center walls. 
 
 E— These culverts run under the F— Walls opening from lateral 
 lock floor and alternate with culverts into lock chamber, 
 
 those from side walls. G — Culverts in sidewalls. 
 
 H— Lateral culverts. 
 
 [ 101 ] 
 
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 The upper picture shows the intakes in the walls where water is let in and out of the culverts. 
 The center picture gives a view of Gatun locks under construction. In the lower picture the 
 square concrete building in the distance is the control house from which all of the lock oper- 
 ating machinery will be manipulated. 
 
 i 162 ] 
 
CTHE TvAN-D DIVIDED GTT\& WORUP)_IINJTED 
 
 valves, and the rise and fall of the water in the lock chambers. The system 
 is interlocking so that certain motors can not be started in a certain direction 
 until other motors are operated in a proper manner. 
 
 HOW THE LOCKS WERE BUILT 
 
 One of the most interesting sights to the canal visitor during the time 
 construction work was in progress on the locks was the working of the concrete 
 mixers and the cableways and cranes, now dismantled, which carried the ma- 
 terial to the point where it was to be poured. 
 
 At Gatun locks, where 2,043,763 cubic yards of concrete were placed, the 
 assembling and the distribution of the material was done by means of industrial 
 
 The first monolith completed at Gatun Locks early in 1910. These monoliths are huge 
 blocks of concrete, which joined together, make a continuous wall almost a mile long. This is 
 one of the outside walls, and the space has been filled in with earth and rock level with the top, 
 where you now see the steps. 
 
 [ 163 ] 
 
The upper picture shows a view looking north from Miraflores Locks. Pedro Miguel Lock 
 in the distance, site of Miraflores Lake in between. Spillway to the right, temporary bridge 
 for the gate contractors to the left of picture. The center picture shows a view looking south 
 from the same lock, Ancon Hill in the distance. The lower picture presents a busy scene at the 
 locks when the gates were under construction. 
 
 [ 164 ] 
 
CTHE, Tv\N-D DIVIDED crn& WOgUD, TTXITED 
 
 electric railways and overhead cableways. From the docks in Cristobal, the 
 cement was carried in barges up the old French canal, which had been deepened 
 for the purpose, to a cement storage dock at Gatun. Rock quarried and crushed 
 at Porto Bello, about 17 miles east of Colon, and sand dredged at Nombre de 
 Dios, about 35 miles east of Colon, was towed in barges to Gatun docks. This 
 material was unloaded by overhead cableways, upon which grab buckets were 
 hung, and carried to storage piles. The material was then assembled in the 
 mixers by cars operated under the cement shed and under the sand and rock 
 storage piles. Another electric railway carried the buckets of concrete to the 
 bank above the lock sites. At this point the full buckets were lifted from the 
 cars by cableways stretched across the lock site and lowered into the lock 
 chamber where desired. There were eight of the cableways arranged in pairs, 
 
 The lock walls as a whole give the visitor an idea of massive construction only. The arched 
 sections, shown in the picture, connecting the main walls with the wing and guide walls, effect 
 a saving in concrete and also give a symmetrical touch to the structures. 
 
 each pair stretching from a steel tower 8.5 feet high to a similar tower on the 
 opposite side of the locks, a distance of 800 feet. These towers were placed on 
 trucks on which they could be moved along tracks parallel to the locks to the 
 point desired. Besides the concrete, the cableways also handled heavy con- 
 struction material, such as steel forms and lumber. Their capacity was six 
 tons each, and the greatest lift 170 feet for a distance of 670 feet. 
 
 For the locks at the Pacific end a distinctly different system was employed. 
 Placement at Pedro Miguel was made by means of four cantilever cranes, two 
 resting on tracks on the floor of each lock chamber, and two berm cranes equip- 
 ped with two 2-cubic yard mixers in the upper forebay. Each of the chamber 
 cranes was 95 feet high with cantilever arms, which extended to both sides from 
 the center. Placement in the approach and wing walls was made by means of 
 
 [ 165 ] 
 
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 [167] 
 
CTHE, TvAND , DIVIDED -^crnrAB WORDD, T1KITEP 
 
 derricks, which lifted the buckets from concrete trains which ran between the 
 mixer and chamber cranes. 
 
 When the heavy masonry work at Pedro Miguel was finished the chamber 
 cranes were transferred to Miraflores, and operated in the same manner. 
 The berm cranes were modified in order that they might be operated on the 
 sides of the locks, instead of at the head. 
 
 The crushed stone for the concrete of both Pedro Miguel and Miraflores 
 locks was supplied by rail from a large quarry and crusher plant on the west 
 side of Ancon hill near Panama. Sand was dredged at Punta Chame, on Pana- 
 ma Bay, 23 miles west of Panama. It was hauled in barges to Balboa and there 
 unloaded by special machinery and hauled by rail to the storage piles at the 
 locks. 
 
 MAKING THE DIRT FLY 
 
 The work of excavation in the canal prism was divided into two classes, 
 "wet" and "dry," that taken out by means of dredges, and that by steam 
 shovels, respectively. The wet excavation, up to October 5, 1913, when water 
 was admitted into Culebra Cut, was practically confined to the sea level 
 
 Section of the north guide wall at Gatun Locks under construction. This was one of the most 
 difficult pieces of masonry work in the whole job. The greater part of its length of 1,000 feet 
 rests upon piles driven to solid rock. To the right is seen the east wing wall of the locks. 
 
 approaches to the Canal, that at the Atlantic entrance seven miles to the locks 
 at Gatun, and that at the Pacific entrance 8| miles to the locks at Miraflores. 
 The largest part of the excavation, however, was accomplished by steam 
 shovels in Culebra Cut prior to the letting in of the water of Gatun Lake and in 
 the Chagres section. There remained on September 1, about 9,153,000 cubic 
 yards of spoil in Culebra Cut, out of a total of 95,869,000 cubic yards. The 
 total excavation, "wet" and "dry" for the entire canal, as originally estimated 
 by the minority members of the Board of Consulting Engineers, was 103,795,000 
 cubic yards, in addition to the amount excavated by the French companies, 
 
 [ 168 ] 
 
Entrance to Gatun Locks from the lake. Gatun Dam on the left and approach -wall in the 
 foreground. Approach walls 1,000 feet long, have been built at each end of all the locks, and as 
 the name indicates, they serve as a guide to ships coming up the approach channel. Ships must come 
 to a stop at these walls, until the locomotives which tow them through the locks make fast 
 their lines. 
 
 View of the upper gates at Miraflores Locks under construction. The first of these is com- 
 pleted and partly swung open to full view giving an idea of their thickness. The gates are 
 operated by electricity and may be opened or closed in one minute and 47 seconds. 
 
 [ 169 ] 
 
Jy\M-D piVIDED — -q^HE WOBIjD, TTKITED 
 
 who accomplished 29,708,000 cubic yards useful under the present plans. This 
 estimate has been increased several times on account of changes in the canal 
 plans, to silting in the canal entrances and in the Clxagres section, to slides in 
 Culebra Cut, for the terminals at both entrances, and for the dry docks at 
 Balboa. The last estimate made on July 1, 1913, places the grand total at 
 232, 3.53, 000 cubic yards, considerably more than double the amount originally 
 estimated. When the canal is entirely completed, the excavated material 
 would make a line of 63 pyramids, each equal in size to the Great Pyramid 
 of Egypt. 
 
 DREDGING 
 
 Most of the work in the Atlantic entrance, about 53,167,000 cubic yards, 
 was accomplished by two elevator dredges left by the French, and overhauled 
 by the Americans, a dipper dredge of American make, and a sea-going 20-inch 
 
 Completed sills from the lock gates. These sills, built of steel and concrete, form 
 foundations on which the gates rest. 
 
 suction dredge, also made in the United States. Where the channel ran inside 
 the shore line two small hills were dug out by steam shovels to a depth of 41 
 feet, and the remainder then accomplished by the dredges. 
 
 In the Pacific entrance about 61,489,000 cubic yards was accomplished by 
 two elevator dredges of the Belgian type and two Scotch elevator dredges left 
 by the French and overhauled by the Americans, a modern elevator dredge 
 built in Scotland in 1911, and a sea-going 20-inch suction dredge. This latter 
 dredge was floated into Culebra Cut in October, 1913, and is now at work 
 taking out the remaining spoil in that section. In the Pacific entrance a large 
 quantity of rock was encountered which was too hard for the dredges to handle. 
 
 [ 170 ] 
 
The gates under construction at Pedro Miguel. The lock gates, 46 in number, two leaves to 
 each gate, constitute one of the spectacular features of Canal construction. 1 hey are 7 feet thick, 
 from 47 to 82 feet high, and each leaf or half gate weighs from 300 to 700 tons. They are built up 
 of great horizontal girders weighing from 12 to 18 tons each, with vertical frame work in between, 
 sheathed with steel plates on each side. 
 
 Near view of the massive lock gates showing riveting gang on scaffold. The lower part of 
 each gate is an air chamber, so that in using it, the gate is buoyed up by the surrounding water, 
 reducing the weight on its hinges, and making it easier to move. To overcome the lifting effect 
 when the lock chamber is full of water, the upper half has openings on the up-stream side which 
 allows it to automatically fill or empty, thus equalizing the weight. 
 
 [ 171 ] 
 
cmB TvAND DIVIDED —GT1\1Z WOELL)D> TTKITED 
 
 To break up this material, in addition to subaqueous blasting, a Lobnitz sub- 
 aqueous rock breaker was used. 
 
 CUTTING THROUGH THE DIVIDE 
 
 The part of the canal on which the most work has been done, and which 
 was the last to be completed, is Culebra Cut, the 9-mile section through the 
 continental divide. Work has been nearly continuous in this section since the 
 French started operations in 1882. It is also one of the most important and in- 
 teresting portions of the Canal project on account of the deep cutting necessary, 
 and the difficulties encountered on account of slides and the disposal of spoil. 
 When the Americans took over the work in May, 1904, they found the French 
 engaged in taking out just sufficient material to hold their concession. This 
 
 Close view of completed gates at Gatun Locks. There are 46 gates in the locks which 
 aggregate 58,000 tons in weight, and if placed end on end would make a tower about one and 
 one-fifth miles high. The author was standing on the lock floor between the partly closed gates 
 when this photograph was taken. 
 
 they were doing with a few obsolete side excavators, served by small Decauville 
 dump cars and Belgian engines. 
 
 Work was continued with the equipment left by the French until it could 
 be gradually replaced with modern steam shovels, cars and engines. The first 
 steam shovel was placed in operation on November 11, 1904, and the last of the 
 French excavators was discontinued on June 16, 1905. On August 1, 1905, 
 there were 1 1 steam shovels at work, but they were greatly handicapped in their 
 output as they were served by old French cars operated on lines which, as Chief 
 Engineer Stevens said: "By the utmost stretch of the imagination could not 
 be called railroad tracks." Work was practically stopped until proper prepa- 
 rations could be made for handling the spoil and effecting an organization which 
 would obtain the greatest possible results from the use of modern methods of 
 
 [ 172 1 
 
This illustrates the size to which even the smaller features of gate construction attain, as well 
 as the care taken in their manufacture. This steel yoke, made of vanadium, is used to connect 
 the tops of the gates with the anchors in the walls. It weighs 14,000 pounds, and was subjected 
 to a stress of 3,300,000 pounds before it broke. 
 
 The operating mechanism of a lock gate. The wheel is a bull wheel, which, in operating, 
 turns through an arc, giving the connecting rod the movement of an arm in opening and shutting 
 a door. It is 19 feet in diameter, and weighs over 35,000 pounds. 
 
 [ 173 ] 
 
cmE Tv\ND . DIVIDED ^CTHE WOI^D^Jj^rngD 
 
 excavation. Tracks were properly laid, a proper transportation system in- 
 augurated, and proper dumping places located before the work was resumed 
 on a large scale in 1907. In that year 9,177,130 cubic yards were taken out, 
 and from that time to when the maximum of 16,596,891 cubic yards was reached 
 in 1911, there was a steady increase in the amount of material excavated as new 
 
 Side view of emergency dam on east wall at Gatun Locks. In case an accident occurred to 
 the gates, allowing a free passage of water from the 85-foot lake level, to the sea level, the dam 
 would be swung across the lock chamber and a series of wicket girders hinged to it would be 
 lowered with their ends resting in pockets in the lock floor. Steel gates would then be let down, 
 one at a time, which would close the lock chamber and check the flow of water. 
 
 equipment was installed. Trains of flat and dump cars, 20 to a train, drawn 
 by 100-ton locomotives carried the spoil to be used in the dam at Gatun, the 
 breakwater at the Pacific entrance, fills, or to dumps where it was merely 
 wasted. As the Cut neared completion, the work became concentrated in a 
 short section at Culebra where the deepest cutting, 272 feet, was necessary, and 
 the number of steam shovels had to be gradually reduced. 
 
 To prevent the flooding of the Cut, the canal channel was paralleled on each 
 side from Gold Hill north to Bas Obispo, a distance of five miles, by small 
 canals or diversions, which carried into the Chagres River the water from 
 streams that otherwise would have flowed into the Cut and interrupted the work. 
 To prevent the water in Gatun Lake from backing up into the cut the earthen 
 dike which was blown up on October 10, 1913, was built. To the south of 
 Gold Hill the water which would have flooded the Cut was carried off by the 
 Rio Grande and an old French diversion channel. Rain water that collected 
 in the Cut flowed north and south. At Gamboa, on the north, it was pumped 
 through the dike, and at Pedro Miguel, to the south, it drained off through the 
 lock wall culverts. 
 
 All steam shovel work in the Cut was discontinued on September 15, and 
 between that date, and October 5, 1913, when water was admitted, all equip- 
 ment and other material, including over 36 miles of construction track, was 
 removed. At that time there were about 30 steam shovels at work. The 
 following table of material excavated in the Cut and for the whole canal, indi- 
 cates the period of preparatory work, the time when the highest point of effi- 
 
 [ 174 1 
 
Section of lock wall showing the rack rail over which the towing locomotives travel. 
 
 Towing locomotive in operation at Gatun Locks. These machines are designed to tow 
 vessels through the locks. There will be two locomotives ahead towing, and two astern to 
 retard the vessel's progress if required. In towing, they will not move faster than two miles an 
 hour, but a second or return track, permits them to go back at greater speed. 
 
 [ 175 ] 
 
c\~HE, Tv\NP : DIVIDED c TgyiL^yQDJyD J TTNJTESD 
 
 eiency was reached, and when the work became concentrated in the short 
 section of Culebra Cut as the other sections neared completion: 
 
 CULEBRA CUT. 
 
 Year Cubic Yards 
 
 1904 243,472 
 
 1905 1,167,628 
 
 1906 2,702,991 
 
 1907 9,177,130 
 
 1908 13,912,453 
 
 1909 14,557,034 
 
 1910 15,398,599 
 
 1911 16,596,891 
 
 1912 15,028,413 
 
 1913 (to Sept. 10) 8,348,190 
 
 Totals .97,132,801 
 
 ENTIRE CANAL. 
 
 Year Cubic Yards 
 
 1904 243,472 
 
 1905 1,799,227 
 
 1906 4,948,497 
 
 1907 15,765,290 
 
 1908 37,116,735 
 
 1909 35,096,166 
 
 1910 31,437,677 
 
 1911 31,603,899 
 
 1912 30,269,349 
 
 1913 (to Sept. 1) 20,937,718 
 
 209,218,030 
 
 Two makes of steam shovels were used in the excavation work, the Bucyrus 
 and Marion, of 45, 66, 70, 90 and 105 tons, equipped with dippers ranging in 
 capacity from If cubic yards to 5 cubic yards. In Culebra Cut, shovels with 
 
 These models of Pedro Miguel Lock give a good idea of how ships 
 will enter and pass through the locks. 
 
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 5-yard dippers were used almost entirely, and a shovel thus equipped averaged 
 about 1,800 cubic yards per 8-hour day. A cubic yard of earth and rock weighs 
 about 3,600 pounds, and represents about a two-horse cart load. The work 
 done by the steam shovels would dig a canal 55 feet wide and 10 feet deep 
 from Maine to Oregon. 
 
 In transporting material to the dumping grounds three classes of cars were 
 used — Lidgerwood flat cars with one high side with a capacity of 19 cubic 
 yards, and Oliver and Western side dump cars, large and small, having a 
 capacity of 17 and 10 cubic yards, respectively. To haul trains composed of 
 20 flat cars, 27 large dump cars, or 35 small dump cars, American locomotives 
 were used. These trains would make an average of If trips daily to the dumps, 
 an average distance one way of 11 miles. The average time consumed in 
 unloading a train of flat cars at the dumps was from seven to 15 minutes. This 
 
 Boat landing at Gatun. The structure on concrete piles to the right is a wharf where small 
 boats that ply the lake may land their cargoes, when the lake is to its full height. 
 
 was accomplished by the use of what was known as an unloading plow. The 
 large dump cars were operated by compressed air from the locomotive, while 
 the small dump cars were operated by hand, and the time consumed in unload- 
 ing was from 6 to 55 minutes. 
 
 The constant arrival of spoil trains on the dumping grounds made necessary 
 a quick method of changing the construction tracks. This necessity led to the 
 invention by W. G. Bierd, formerly superintendent of the Panama Railroad, of 
 a track shifting machine. This machine consists of a boom, extending from 
 a flat car out over the track in advance of the car, to which a block and tackle 
 is attached by which the track is lifted from its bed. Another boom extending 
 from the car at an angle with the main boom pulls the track to one side or the 
 other. In this way track may be thrown nine feet from its original position in 
 one operation. 
 
 In addition to the unloading plow and the track shifter for the rapid hand- 
 ling of spoil, there was also used a machine to spread the material on the dump 
 
 [ 178 ] 
 
cmB Tv\N-D DIVIDED— crpKE: VJOUJ^JJlHJLTEID 
 
 and keep them in a uniformly level condition. This spreader consists of a car 
 on which has been placed a machine with steel wings, and it works exactly, like 
 an electric snow plow on the city streets in the United States, with the exception 
 that the wings are operated with compressed air obtained from the locomotive 
 which hauls the car over the dump. With a perfect organization, modern 
 equipment, a well planned system of transportation, and the rapid disposal of 
 the spoils on the dumps, the maximum possible output of the steam shovels was 
 obtained and maintained, and many world records were made on the Isthmus 
 in excavation work. 
 
 ACROSS THE ISTHMUS IN A HYDROBIPLANE 
 
 Several attempts have been made during the past few years to cross the 
 Isthmus in a heavier than air flying machine, but none were successful until 
 April 27, 1913, when Robert G. Fowler, the aviator, accompanied by R. A. 
 Duhem, photographer left the Pacific entrance to the Canal at 10 a. m., and 
 arrived at Cristobal Point on the Atlantic side at 10:57 a. m. The route of the 
 canal was followed closely, the aviator making a circle at Culebra, in order to 
 obtain views of all parts of Culebra Cut. The highest altitude attained during 
 the flight was 1,800 feet; the lowest height at which the machine flew was 400 
 feet. The President has since signed an Executive Order prohibiting further 
 flights over the Canal, or to take photographs from a flying machine, without 
 written authority of the Chief Executive of the Canal Zone. 
 
 Robert G. Fowler's hydrobiplane passing 
 over Culebra Cut. Empire suspension bridge 
 in foreground. A rare picture. 
 
 Crossing the Locks at Gatun on a bucket 
 operated by the cableways. 
 
 179 
 
TvAN-D , DIVIDED ~~C| ~he: W PRIjD, TTNJTED 
 
 "On they struggled, ever onward, 
 
 Blasting stone, and earth and men; 
 Filling rivers with razed mountains; 
 
 Filling graves with parts of men. 
 Blood and bone are mixed with concrete, 
 
 Sweat of brow and grime of toil 
 Mark the rough-neck as he swelters, 
 
 Weary 'mid the grease and oil. 
 Weary flesh, nor fever's terrors 
 
 Halt them as they onward go. 
 Forward! Forward! Ever Forward! 
 
 Is the only cry they know." 
 
 — John Hall. 
 
 SEVENTY MILLION POUNDS OF DYNAMITE 
 
 The greater part of the material excavated by the Americans in Culebra 
 Cut before the dredges were introduced consisted of hard rock, and it was 
 necessary to drill and blast it before it could be handled by the steam shovels. 
 About 50,000,000 pounds, out of a total of about 70,000\000 pounds for the 
 entire Canal was used. When it is considered that nearly three cubic yards of 
 
 
 The scene of a premature explosion of nearly 22,000 pounds of dynamite at Bas Obispo, 
 December 12, 1908. About 50 men were injured and 26 were killed, among them being three 
 Americans. Blasting operations are conducted with great care, and the heavy shots are usually 
 fired off after the men have quit work for the day, although several of these premature ex- 
 plosions have occurred. 
 
 [ 180 ] 
 
Laborers loading well-drill holes with dynamite near Contractor's Hill. A small charge is 
 first exploded, enlarging the hole at the bottom. Then the main charge, usually consisting of 
 from 75 to 200 pounds is placed, and exploded by means of an electric light wire. 
 
 A group of tripod drills at work. Churn drills are used also. All drills are operated by compressed 
 air supplied through mains, and an average of 75 miles of drill holes is sunk each month. 
 
 [ 181 ] 
 
C THE T^AN-D . DIVIDED cm& WQM>E>> TTKITED 
 
 Twelve of these magazines for storing dynamite are 
 located at convenient points along the Canal. 
 
 material are blasted for each pound of explosive used, the important part dyna- 
 mite has played in canal construction can be readily seen. Blasting powder 
 was not used to a great extent due to excessive moisture and water in the holes. 
 In order to keep the steam shovels going at capacity, it was necessary to 
 blast large areas at a time and as much as 26 tons of dynamite was used at one 
 time. In the use of such large quantities of high explosive there have naturally 
 
 been many serious accidents 
 although extreme care was 
 taken in the handling. The 
 most serious accident oc- 
 curred in the Cut at Bas 
 Obispo on December 12, 
 1908, when there was a pre- 
 mature explosion of nearly 
 22,000 pounds placed in 52 
 of the 53 holes it was in- 
 tended to explode. The 
 powder gang was working 
 on the last hole when the 
 entire charge for some un- 
 known reason went off. 
 The result was appalling. 
 Twenty-six men were killed, 
 among them being three Americans, and some 50 injured, many of them 
 seriously. There had been a premature explosion of 26 tons a few months 
 previous, May 22, 1908, in the Chagres section of the Canal, which is supposed 
 to have been caused by lightning. There were few casualties, however, 
 although there were many narrow escapes as several hundred men were in the 
 immediate vicinity. The thing most dreaded by the steam shovel men, with 
 the possible exception of a sudden slide of rock, was the chance of the shovel 
 digging into a charge of dynamite which had failed to explode. An accident 
 of this nature occurred in the Cut on October 8, 1908, with the result that five 
 of the shovel crew were killed and several injured. A few days later another 
 premature explosion of over 24,000 pounds in 154 holes caused the death of 
 eight men. This latter accident was also attributed to the action of lightning 
 upon the wires which, although con- 
 nected with the holes, were not carry- 
 ing any electric current at the time. 
 To prevent such accidents as much 
 as possible, many lectures and dis- 
 cussions were held from time to time 
 among the employes engaged in the 
 handling, storage, etc., of explosives. 
 Representatives of the Nemours-Du- 
 Pont Powder Company, which sup- 
 plied a large part of the blasting 
 material, explained the making of 
 dynamite, the right method of hand- 
 ling, and its action under certain 
 known conditions. As a result of these 
 
 A giant blast in Culebra Cut. 
 
 [ 182 
 
CTMB TvAN-D DIVIDED ^TllE WORkD, TTKITED 
 
 discussions, it was decided to use a high amperage current from an electric light 
 plant in exploding charges of more than a dozen holes, instead of by the use of 
 storage batteries. Under the latter method, with the holes wired in series, in- 
 stead of in parallel, there was no certainty that all the holes had exploded after 
 the current was turned on. In addition to the use of a strong current, the holes 
 were placed closer together, in order that the detonation from a nearby hole 
 would explode those which would otherwise have failed to go off. Stringent 
 rules and regulations for the handling, storage and use of dynamite were also 
 introduced and enforced to minimize the danger. But no rules or regulations 
 could prevent all accidents without cooperation of the men engaged on the 
 work. This impossibility was forcibly demonstrated in the case of a Spanish 
 laborer who, becoming impatient at the slowness of a negro helper, started to 
 knock the cover off of a box of blasting caps with a machete. It is hardly 
 necessary to say that he did not complete the work assigned to him. 
 
 In dredging operations, subaqueous or under water blasting is employed. Drill boats, 
 like the one in the picture, sink the holes in connection with this work. 
 
 In making the necessary holes for the charges, tripod and well drills, ob- 
 taining their power from a compressed air main, were used. At one time there 
 were as many as 377 of these drills at work in the Cut, and they were operated in 
 batteries of from four to 12 drills. The usual depth of the hole drilled was about 
 27 feet, placed about 14 feet apart, and if all the drill holes necessary for the 
 work were placed end to end, they would equal the length of the earth's diam- 
 eter from pole to pole with 1,500 miles added. After the holes had been drilled 
 they were widened at the bottom, or "sprung," by a small charge being exploded 
 in them. After sufficient time had elapsed to allow the holes to cool, they were 
 charged and wired. All blasting took place after the men had left the work for 
 lunch or in the evening and at those times a naval engagement could be easily 
 imagined by those living anywhere in the vicinity. At Porto Bello, where much 
 powder was used in the quarrying of rock a series of blasts took place at one 
 time when a British war vessel was passing close to the entrance of the harbor. 
 Hearing what was thought to be the discharge of an Admiral's salute, the cruiser 
 returned the supposed courtesy by dipping its flag. 
 
 [ 183 ] 
 
CTfLB Tv\NP DIVIDED <^7\^j WPR^fi TJNJTED 
 
 In the Pacific entrance dynamite was employed in subaqueous blasting, 
 two drill barges being used to make the necessary holes. In addition to break- 
 ing up hard material for the dredges in this section, the use of dynamite under 
 water kept many of those employed in the vicinity supplied with fresh fish for 
 some time. Those whose employment necessitated their going out in boats 
 considered themselves particularly fortunate. On one occasion, a private mess 
 of Canal employes was kept supplied with fish as long as such a diet could be 
 endured by its members. 
 
 SLIDES ELOQUENT ARGUMENT AGAINST SEA LEVEL PROJECT 
 
 The greatest difficulty in the excavation of Culebra Cut has been caused by 
 slides which have from time to time precipitated great masses of earth and rock 
 into the Canal prism burying steam shovels and dirt trains, tearing up dirt 
 train tracks, and closing up the drainage ditch. There have been 22 slides and 
 breaks at different times covering from one to 75 acres. These have added 
 
 Towing dynamite to the drill boat Teredo. 
 
 about 25,000,000 cubic yards, or about one-quarter of the estimated total of 
 excavation necessary in the Cut. The largest and most troublesome of these is 
 the Cucaracha slide on the east bank of the Cut at Culebra, which started in 
 1887 when the French were at work. When the Americans started operations 
 in 1905, this slide again became active and, as the Cut deepened at this point, 
 it continued to develop. Gold Hill presents a solid rock face 482 feet above 
 the Canal bottom between Cucaracha slide and a slide immediately north. 
 These two slides have broken so far back that the slope on their outer edges 
 is away from the Canal. This has led to the introduction of hydraulic monitors 
 which are engaged in sluicing the material from the top of the slides into the 
 valley in the rear of Gold Hill, in order to reduce the pressure from above. 
 Another serious slide occurred on the west bank of the Canal at Culebra covering 
 an area of 75 acres, and necessitating the removal of about 10,000,000 cubic 
 yards of material. This slide made necessary the removal of many buildings 
 of the village of Culebra which were situated near the edge of the Cut. 
 
 There are two classes of slides. One, similar to Cucaracha, is caused by 
 the slipping of clay and earth on a smooth sloping surface of a harder material. 
 The other, commonly called a "break," similar to the one which involved the 
 
 [ 184 1 
 
J^AH-D piVIDED -— cttke: WOBLLjD, TTKITED 
 
 village at Culebra, is caused by the steepness of the slope and the great pressure 
 of the superincumbent material upon the underlying layers of softer material. 
 
 Besides sluicing, steam shovels excavated a great amount of material from 
 the tops to relieve the pressure, and the Cut was terraced to prevent a part of the 
 material in the slides from going over into the Canal prism. Many schemes were 
 proposed to prevent slides, one, the use of a cement gun to spray the sides of the 
 Cut where the mass of stone became brittle and crumbled on exposure to the 
 air, but, as Colonel Gaillard said in November, 1913: "The only successful 
 method of treating the slides or breaks, once the material is in motion, is to dig 
 
 
 
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 A subaqueous blast in progress in the Pacific entrance to the Canal. As high as 10,000 
 pounds of dynamite are shot off in a single blast of this kind. 
 
 it out and haul it away until the slide comes to rest upon reaching the angle 
 of repose for the particular material then in motion." No difficulty is antici- 
 pated with slides now that water has been let into the Cut as the backpressure 
 of the water is expected to result in greater stability. What material remains in 
 the slides in the prism will be handled by the dredges, which will continue their 
 work until the "angle of repose" has been reached. 
 
 The slides have caused an immense amount of extra excavation and many 
 delays in the work, but they have demonstrated the fact that a sea level Canal 
 requiring a Cut 85 feet deeper than it now is would be nearly impossible to 
 accomplish. It is believed that the slides would have prevented the carrying 
 out of a sea level project, except at an enormous expense. 
 
 [ 1S5 ] 
 
PI 
 
 nL 
 
 LD FRENCH LADDER DREDGE 
 
 The sea going suction dredge Culebra, shown above, with its sister vessel, the Caribbean, 
 constitute the most expensive units in the Commission's dredging fleet. These vessels move up 
 and down the channel, sucking up the mud and loose material, conveying it into their own hoppers. 
 When the hoppers are filled, the vessels go out to sea and empty. The suction dredges were used 
 to advantage in the fill at Gatun Dam. Several of the old French dredges were repaired and 
 used by the Americans. 
 
 [ 186 
 
Suction dredge No. 82, removing silt from the channel north of Gamboa dike. This 
 was the first dredge put to work in the Gatun Lake section. 
 
 A dipper dredge at work in the Canal. The material is dumped into the barge along side the 
 dredge, and when full the barge is towed out to sea and emptied. 
 
 The Corozal, the newest and most modern ladder dredge in the Canal service. It is 
 equipped with five yard buckets and can dig to 45 feet below mean sea level. 
 
 [ 187 ] 
 
Part of Miraflores lock site and the Canal channel to the south of it were excavated 
 hydraulically. This view shows one of the hydraulic pumps forcing the water through pipes, 
 fitted with monitors, with a pressure of 130 pounds per square inch at the nozzle, which washes 
 the material into pits or sumps. 
 
 
 
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 After the material has been loosened and washed into the sumps, centrifugal dredging pumps, 
 shown here, force the material to the desired destination. Many acres have been reclaimed near 
 Corozal by utilizing this excavated material. 
 
 [ 188 ] 
 
D 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 The upper picture shows a view of the Canal looking north from Paraiso bridge toward Gold Hill, 
 showing work progressing in the Canal, August, 1908. The center picture is a view looking souih 
 from the same point, 1908, Ancon Hill in the distance. In the lower picture taken the same year, 
 the Canal is shown near Empire. The suspension bridge near Empire may be seen in the distance. 
 
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 Paraiso in the French days. This was the site of one of the locks in the 10-lock Canal scheme 
 when the French were at work. On April 23, 1904, the United States made the memorable 
 purchase at $40,000,000, and on May 4, 1904, the property was turned over to the Americans. 
 
 Paraiso in the days of American occupancy, showing Ancon Hill in the distance. The cranes 
 which are also visible, show the beginning of the work at Pedro Miguel Lock. The French had 
 none of the big tools, up-to-date machinery, steam shovels, cranes, etc., but with the equipment 
 which they had they took out 78,000,000 cubic yards of spoil, of which 30,000,000 cubic yards was 
 useful to the Americans. 
 
 [ 190 ] 
 
 
The Cut at Bas Obispo looking south June 30, 1910. The greater part of the excavating in 
 this section had to be done through solid rock, and thousands of pounds of dynamite were used. 
 It was in this section that the premature explosion occurred in 1908. 
 
 Steam shovel 218 buried under fall of rock, west side of Canal, near Las Cascadas. This shovel 
 was working on the bottom of the canal when destroyed. May 31, 1912. Several steam shovels 
 have been destroyed in this manner and a number of men injured and killed. 
 
 [ 191 1 
 
A close view of the suspension bridge across the Canal near Empire. This bridge is used for 
 vehicles and foot passengers, but will be taken down when the Canal is completed. There will 
 be no bridge aross the Canal, except the pontoon bridge near Paraiso, which will be swung over 
 against the east side of the Canal when not in use. 
 
 Ninety-five ton steam shovel at work in Culebra Cut. One hundred steam shovels have been 
 used in the Canal work. Culebra Cut is a term officially applied to that part of the Canal between 
 Bas Obispo on the north and Pedro Miguel on the south, a distance of about nine miles. The 
 width of the Cut is 300 feet at the bottom. 
 
 [ 102 ] 
 
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 -*5TEAM SHOVEL 
 
 A great many difficulties have been encountered and overcome in building the Canal. The 
 greatest difficulty in the excavating, was due to slides and breaks, which closed the drainage 
 ditches, upset the steam shovels, and covered the tracks. The water that was not carried off by 
 the diversion channels, entered the Cut, necessitating pumping. 
 
 [ 193 ] 
 
The side of the Cut at Gold Hill, where the deepest cutting was done. When this photograph was 
 taken the steam shovels had 30 feet further to go at this point. 
 
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 [195] 
 
In the rainy season, two streams of considerable size originally crossed the route of the Canal 
 in the Culebra Cut section, one of which was the Camacho River, now called the Camacho 
 diversion. To prevent these streams from flooding the Cut, new channels were dug, paralleling 
 the banks of the Canal, through which their flows were diverted. In this case it was necessary to 
 dig a tunnel, which is shown above, to conduct the water through the hill. 
 
 Culebra Cut looking south from Gold and Contractor's HMls taken at a time when the Cut was 
 practically free of material brought in by Cucaracha slide. 
 
 [ 196] 
 
Loaded work train crossing the high trestle over the Canal at Paraiso. This bridge, known as 
 No. 57 Y 2 , is to be taken down as soon as the pontoon bridge a little above this point is constructed, 
 as it obstructs navigation of the Canal. 
 
 Section of Culebra Cut in the vicinity of Las Cascadas after completion. Various small 
 slides have occurred all along the banks in this part of the Canal. 
 
 [ 1^7] 
 
Completed section of Culebra Cut looking north from Cunette. Steam shovels are 
 excavating in slide material. Bottom is to grade. 
 
 Culebra Cut between Gold and Contractor's Hills after the removal of construction tracks. 
 
 [ 198 ] 
 
Culebra Cut, south of Cucaracha slide, after the channel began to fill. 
 Railroad crossing at Paraiso in the distance. 
 
 
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 Close view of high rock bank of Culebra Cut after the water was let in. The thin white line 
 about midway up the bank to the right marks the ultimate water level. 
 
 [ 199 ] 
 
General view of engine house and yard at Paraiso in 1906. This yard was dismantled several 
 years ago, and yards were established at Pedro Miguel and Las Cascadas. 
 
 Engine house and yard at Las Cascadas. A very busy scene was presented in the morning 
 when a hundred or more of the engines were leaving the yard to begin their daily work of 
 pulling dirt trains out of the Cut to the dumping grounds. 
 
 [ 200 1 
 

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 [201] 
 
Men shifting track. The old way before the 
 track shifting machine was invented, and put 
 into use. 
 
 Revolving steam shovel. A few of these 
 machines were used to advantage, but larger 
 ones were used for the heavy work. 
 
 Rock channeler at work. These machines were used in Pedro Miguel Lock, where the 
 natural foundation was hard trap rock. They cut grooves into this rock to the required depth for 
 the installation of the floor culverts, after which the material was blasted loose, the aim being not 
 to disturb the rock between the culvert trenches. They were also used in the Canal near Bas 
 Obispo where the excavation was through solid rock. 
 
 [ 202 ] 
 
Locomotive cranes were a useful adjunct to the Canal work. This one is operating a 
 clamshell bucket, so named from its resemblance to the bivalve. 
 
 The American machine which moves mountains. One of the 100 steam shovels engaged in 
 the Canal work, holding in its dipper a rock of many tons' weight. With the advent of these 
 machines King Yardage became a household word in the Canal Zone. The American operators 
 take a personal pride in their work, and the world's record for steam shovel excavation is said to 
 be held on the Isthmus. 
 
 [ 203 ] 
 
Excavated material is transported in several kinds of cars, one of which is the Western Dump 
 Car, shown in the picture. In some of the cars, the body is held upright by a chain grip, which, 
 when released, allows the body to tip, emptying the contents. Others are dumped by air. 
 
 An unloading machine at work on a train of Lidgerwood flat cars. The unloader, actuated 
 by steam from the locomotive, pulls the plow by a steel cable which coils around a drum. A man 
 rides the plow, and signals the movements with a flag. 
 
 [ 204 ] 
 
An earth spreader at work. After the cars have been unloaded, an earth spreader 
 comes along and levels off the ground. 
 
 In order to dispose of the material from the Cut, large dumps had to be established. The site 
 of this one, known as Miraflores dump, was formerly a swamp, but it has now been built up to a 
 height of more than 40 feet. A large amount of the excavated material was used in building the 
 Dam at Gatun and the Naos Island breakwater on the Pacific side. The spoil from Culebra Cut 
 has been carried all the way from five to twenty-four miles. 
 
 [ 205 ] 
 
A loaded train of Lidgerwood flat cars coming out of the Cut at Pedro Miguel. During the 
 latter part of the excavation, the Cut was at such a depth below the surrounding levels that long 
 inclines had to be built, up which the dirt trains were pulled by two and three locomotives. 
 
 Two wrecking cranes picking up a steam shovel. These machines range in capacity from 15 to 
 100 tons, and are kept under steam day and night, ready for any emergency in the transportation 
 service. 
 
 206 ] 
 
Power stations are situated at various points along the Canal to furnish power to the 
 electrically-operated machinery, as well as to light the Canal Zone settlements. The building 
 shown in the picture is the Miraflores station -which supplied power to the construction 
 machinery at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks. It is an oil-burning plant but can be converted 
 to a steam plant at any time. Many of the industrial plants and all passenger locomotives are 
 equipped with oil burners. 
 
 The corral at Ancon. Corrals are located at all of the Zone settlements, and there are about 
 650 animals in the Canal service, including 377 mules. The majority of them were brought from 
 the United States, and all hay and feed comes from the States. 
 
 [ 207 ] 
 
The immense amount of machinery used on the Canal work required exceptionally complete 
 repair facilities. This is the Gorgona shops, the largest on the Canal, where repairs were made to 
 every kind of equipment, except steam shovels, from clocks to locomotives. These shops have 
 been dismantled and moved as the waters of the Gatun Lake will cover this site. The permanent 
 repair shops 'will be located at Balboa. 
 
 Repair shops at Empire, showing the native village in the background. All major repairs to 
 steam shovels were made at these shops. Steam shovels were inspected daily and the minor repairs 
 were done in the field. 
 
 20S 
 
■-■■ '?■?$& "■:.%. i 
 
 Many slides have developed during the latter part of the Canal work which have caused a great 
 deal of damage and the excavation of much more material than was formerly estimated. This 
 view shows a break on the west bank at Culebra which encroached on the village of Culebra to 
 such an extent that it was necessary to move a large number of buildings, including the hotel 
 and Y. M. C. A. Clubhouse. 
 
 A break in the east bank of the Canal near Bas Obispo. This was caused by high water in 
 the diversion channel, which broke through the separation wall, carrying into the Canal over 
 100,000 cubic yards of material, and flooding it for some distance. The disastrous effect on the 
 railroad is clearly shown. 
 
 f 209 ] 
 
This shows where the slides on either bank have encroached upon the prism of the Canal 
 to such an extent as to almost effect a closure. 
 
 Telling effects of the slide in the west bank at Culebra. Most of this has now been cleared 
 away, and the danger of similar trouble at this point has largely passed, because of the method 
 adopted of terracing the upper levels to relieve the weight on the banks. 
 
 [ 210 ] 
 

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 [211] 
 
Steam shovels working in the slide at Cucaracha. This slide showed evidence of activity as 
 far back as 1887, when the French were at work on the Canal, and has been a source of trouble 
 ever since. 
 
 
 mm 
 
 
 This graphically portrays the result of a slide which has nearly buried a steam shovel. Colonel 
 Gaillard, the Division Engineer, in charge of operations in Culebra Cut said: "I know of no single 
 thing that has done so much to complicate the engineering problems of our work or to hinder 
 and curtail the yardage output as the slides." Colonel George W. Goethals, Chairman and Chief 
 Engineer, said: "The only way to overcome the slides is by unremitting excavation." 
 
 [ 212 J 
 
^UXILIARYPIANS^PRDJECTS 
 
 HE Panama Canal Act, which was signed by ex-President Taft on 
 August 24, 1912, provides for the opening, maintenance, protection, 
 and operation of the Canal, and the sanitation and government of 
 the Canal Zone. Authority is invested in the President to carry out 
 its provisions at such time as conditions warrant. While the law provides for 
 the future of the Canal insofar as its needs are now apparent, it is probable that 
 situations will eventually arise requiring its modification in some respects, but 
 the main object, that of transferring the great enterprise from the construction 
 to the operating stage will be attained. 
 
 ACQUISITION OF PRIVATE LANDS 
 
 Ex-President Taft, by Executive Order dated December 5, 1912, declared 
 that all land and land under water within the limits of the Canal Zone were 
 necessary for the construction, maintenance, operation, protection, and sanita- 
 tion of the Panama Canal, and authorized Colonel Goethals to take possession 
 of such land on behalf of the United States. In the hearings before the Senate 
 Committee on Interoceanic Canals, prior to the passage, by the Senate, of the 
 Act of August 24, 1912, Colonel Goethals went on record in favor of the de- 
 population of the Canal Zone, and the acquisition of all private lands therein, 
 as follows: 
 
 Senator Bristow: "What would you do with the people you have got there 
 (meaning Canal Zone), now?" Colonel Goethals: "I would drive them all out 
 of there." 
 
 Senator Bristow: "Drive them off ?" Colonel Goethals: "Yes, sir: the 
 bulk of the people that are there now are incident to the ("anal, and as the Canal 
 work is completed I would return them to their native islands, or to Europe, 
 wherever they came from originally." 
 
 Senator Bristow: "Now, would you let this 10-mile strip grow up into 
 jungle?" Colonel Goethals: "Yes, sir, it is the greatest safeguard the Canal 
 can have." 
 
 Senator Bristow: "You think that it would not be practicable for an 
 enemy to secrete himself in the jungle and approach the vital parts of the Canal 
 
 [ 213 ] 
 
CTHB TvAN-D . DIVIDED —c^THB WOEkg>J I KITED 
 
 through the jungle more easily than through an inhabited country." Colonel 
 Goethals: "I am assuming that the Canal is properly defended by the American 
 troops, and that the necessary safeguards have been provided to prevent any 
 such attack; under those conditions it would be impossible." 
 
 Senator Bristow: "Well, if that is impossible, then why should the in- 
 habitants on the Zone be a menace ?" Colonel Goethals: "In that they can 
 give information. They will clear the land and leave open spaces and enable 
 larger forces to concentrate against us than is possible with the jungle." 
 
 Article 6 of the Canal Treaty of February 26, 1904, provides that all 
 damages caused to the owners of private lands or property of any kind shall 
 be appraised and settled by a joint commission appointed by the Governments 
 
 Joint Land Commission as organized on March 1, 1913. Left to right— Hon. Samuel Lewis, 
 Dr. Roland P. Falkner, Mr. J. C. Luitwieler, Secretary (standing), Dr. Federico Boyd, Dr. Leo 
 
 S. Rowe. 
 
 of the United States and Panama, whose decisions as to such damages shall be 
 final, and whose awards shall be paid solely by the United States. Under this 
 provision there have been four different commissions, but the most important 
 is the last to which was delegated the delicate task of adjudicating the remainder 
 of the private lands in the Canal Zone in accordance with the Executive Order 
 of December 5, 1912. 
 
 The American members of this commission, Dr. Roland P. Falkner of 
 Washington, D. C, and Dr. L. S. Rowe of the University of Pennsylvania, were 
 appointed by ex-President Taft on January 24, 1913. The Panamanian 
 members, appointed by President Porras of Panama, were Mr. Samuel Lewis, 
 and Dr. Federico Boyd, both prominent in local affairs. The commission 
 met on March 1, 1913, adopted rules of procedure, and began its hearings, 
 which will probably not be concluded until some time in 1914. 
 
 [214 ] 
 
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 ^51 
 
 Visitors inspecting the work on the locks at Pedro Miguel. Thousands of tourists have visited 
 the Canal during the last few years, including people in every walk of life from the States, as well 
 as committees from almost every nation on the globe. 
 
 'Big Tree," a well-known landmark formerly on the banks of the Chagres River at Gorgona. 
 Was dynamited in August, 1913, so as not to become an obstruction to navigation. 
 
 [ 215 ] 
 
CTHE, Tv\N-P DIVIDED CTTTW WO^g, UNJTED 
 
 At the outset, the commission was confronted with the precedent estab- 
 lished by former commissions, which did not recognize the rights of occupiers 
 on lands, but dealt only with the owners. This position was abandoned by the 
 present commission, which has made awards to the occupiers as well as to the 
 owners. The awards appear to be uniformly satisfactory to claimants, although 
 there has been some complaint of the delay in making settlement. Opinions 
 have been handed down from time to time, and in the main have been favorable 
 to the claimants. The rise of Gatun Lake made it necessary to take up the 
 claims of private residents in that section first. This part of the work was 
 practically completed in August, 1913, although payments of some of the awards 
 have been held up, due to protests from the Counsel of the United States, who 
 
 A group of East Indian laborers in the Canal service. Those sitting, are directly in front 
 of an elbow in one of the great lock wall culverts. 
 
 claimed that in these particular cases the commission acted without jurisdiction. 
 The point at issue has been referred to the Attorney General of the United 
 States for decision. 
 
 It is impossible to arrive at a close estimate of the total amount to be award- 
 ed in damages, but it may be as much as several million dollars in case all 
 private land is purchased. The work of the commission also covers the adjudi- 
 cation of land inundated by Gatun Lake outside the boundaries of the Canal 
 Zone within the 100-foot contour line. Dr. Rowe resigned in September, 1913, 
 to resume his work at the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 TOLLS 
 
 In accordance with the power conferred upon him by the Canal Act of 
 August 24, 1912, President Taft, on November 14, 191 2, anticipating the 
 
 [ 216 ] 
 
A sightseeing, or "rubber neck" train, which is taken over the Canal work three times each 
 week. Every facility has been given tourists to view the operations. About 75,000 people have 
 visited the Canal since January 1, 1910. 
 
 Isthmian Elks taking a trip through the Canal April 20, 1913. Note the striking background. 
 
 [ 217 ] 
 
CTHE, Jv\N-D piVIDED G\-j\& WQUL>D> TTKITED 
 
 early opening of the Canal, proclaimed the following rates of tolls to be paid 
 by vessels using it: 
 
 1. On merchant vessels carrying passengers or cargo, $1.20 per net 
 vessel ton — each 100 cubic feet — of actual earning capacity. 
 
 2. On vessels in ballast, without passengers or cargo, 40 per cent, less 
 than the rate of tolls for vessels with passengers or cargo. 
 
 3. Upon naval vessels, other than transports, colliers, hospital ships and 
 supply ships, 50 cents per displacement ton. 
 
 4. Upon Army and Navy transports, colliers, hospital ships and supply 
 ships, $1.20 per net ton, the vessels to be measured by the same rules as are 
 employed in determining the net tonnage of merchant vessels. 
 
 The provision exempting American vessels in the coastwise trade from 
 the payment of tolls brought forth a protest from the British Government on the 
 ground that it was a violation of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, which provides 
 ' 'That the Canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war 
 of all nations on terms of entire equality, so that there shall be no discrimination 
 against any nation in respect to the condition or charges of traffic. " To many, 
 the granting of free tolls to American ships in the coastwise trade would not 
 seem to be discriminating against ships of foreign nations, which are not allowed 
 by law to engage in that trade. Great Britian, however, points out that cargo 
 intended for United States ports beyond the Canal, either from east or west, 
 shipped on a foreign vessel, could be sent to its destination more cheaply, 
 through the operation of this exemption, by landing it at a United States port 
 before reaching the Canal, and then sending it on as coastwise traffic. Then, 
 too, goods might be shipped from a port in the United States, either from east 
 
 Showing group of Hindoos in khaki, puttees, and turbans, waiting to greet the visiting 
 
 Shriners from the United States. 
 
 [ 218 ] 
 
CTKB TyANP DIVIDED GTTUZ WQ^g)_IINJTEP 
 
 or west, through the Canal, and then re-shipped to a foreign port. The British 
 view, therefore, is that if it were possible to regulate the coastwise traffic so that 
 cases similar to the above might be avoided; in other words, that only bona fide 
 coastwise trade be benefited by the exemption, the objection would be removed. 
 
 Procession of Nobles of Mystic Shrine after disembarking at Colon. A delegation of about 
 150 Shriners from the United States visited the Isthmus and on Sept. 1, 1913, initiated a class of 170 
 candidates in the locks at Miraflores. 
 
 In the letter of the Treaty discrimination appears impossible. One plan 
 suggested by those who wish to make the Canal an instrument for the Upbuilding 
 of the American merchant marine is to charge all vessels alike, and then 
 reimburse American vessels by the amount of tolls they may have paid. This 
 would be a form of ship subsidy, but only in favor of the ships making use 
 of the Canal. The British Government does not question the right of the 
 United States to grant a subsidy to its shipping, but does believe that granting 
 a subsidy to ships for using the Canal would be discrimination in respect 
 to the conditions of the charges of traffic. 
 
 The Canal tolls are based on the probable cost of operation and maintenance 
 of the Canal. If American ships are granted free tolls, the cost of Canal main- 
 tenance will be thrown upon foreign shipping. However, under the present 
 Act, and under the President's proclamation, it is contended that no discrim- 
 ination has been shown against foreign shipping. The probable tonnage using 
 the Canal was figured when the tolls were fixed, and this tonnage included coast 
 to coast shipping, and American shipping carrying foreign commerce of the 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain also objects to the fact that under the Convention of Panama 
 of 1903, vessels belonging to the Panama Government are exempted from the 
 
 [ 219 ] 
 
CTFLB TAN-D . DIVIDED GTft& AVORDg^^TNITED 
 
 SH^Ti 1 ^*' - 
 
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 The Author at Slifer Park, Colon. 
 
 payment of tolls, and to the further 
 fact that tolls in the case of ships be- 
 longing to the United States and its 
 citizens may be fixed at a lower rate 
 than in the case of foreign ships. The 
 exemption of ships belonging to Pana- 
 ma agreed upon in the Hay-Buneau- 
 Varilla Convention was also a part 
 of the proposed Hay-Herran Treaty 
 of 1903. Some argue that Great 
 Britain should have no more objec- 
 tion to such an exemption now than 
 10 years ago, when it had none. 
 
 The tolls for ships using the Canal 
 have been fixed, and it remains to be 
 seen whether or not foreign shipping 
 will have to bear more than their pro- 
 portion of the cost of maintenance 
 and operation. 
 
 PROTECTING THE CANAL 
 
 One of the principal objections to Canal fortifications when Congress first 
 took action was that the United States might be violating its treaties with Great 
 Britain. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 gave the United States the right 
 to construct the Canal, but provided that the completed waterway should be 
 
 Cristobal Point looking out over the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. The building to the left 
 is one of the old DeLesseps houses, now used for offices by the Canal Commission. 
 
 [ 220 ] 
 
J>AMD piVIDED <^TT\E^ WOBIjD,*TTKITED 
 
 unfortified and forever remain neutral, free and open to vessels of commerce 
 and of war of all nations on terms of equality. This treaty was abrogated in 
 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, now in force. This treaty also provides 
 for the neutralization of the Canal, but no word is said as to fortifying it. The 
 objection, if there was any, is no longer sustainable, inasmuch as Great Britain, 
 the only nation that had any right to object, has acquiesced in the erection of 
 forts. The other great powers have constantly recognized the right and 
 necessity of the United States to fortify. 
 
 Under the existing treaty it is necessary that the Canal be kept neutral and 
 open on terms of equality to vessels of all nations. It has been contended that 
 this could be accomplished much more effectively by means of an international 
 treaty between the nations interested who would guarantee its safety in time of 
 war as in time of peace. Such a treaty, backed by England's enormous naval 
 power and her control of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, is the protection of 
 the Suez Canal. A similar treaty might avail for the United States under 
 conditions of universal peace, but universal peace has not yet been attained. 
 Nations continue to go to war in spite of treaties, and, in the heat of conflict, 
 frequently ignore all laws both of usage and humanity. Treaties are effective 
 when there is power to enforce them. To maintain neutrality then, it is argued 
 that the United States must have the power to do so, and in no better place can 
 that power be exercised than in forts on the Canal. 
 
 One of the greatest benefits the United States expects to get from the Canal 
 is increased naval effectiveness. The Canal would naturally be the first place 
 an enemy would endeavor to control, treaty or no treaty; and the other powers 
 to a treaty, if there were any, would either stand aloof, or take sides in the 
 international struggle which might result. The Canal is being built by Ameri- 
 cans with American money and skill. If it is to remain to America, it must be 
 protected; strength to resist is the best form of protection. 
 
 To maintain neutrality is the first object of the fortifications; the second is 
 to retain to the United States what has been accomplished by its citizens. 
 Keeping the Canal neutral does not mean that the United States will be com- 
 
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 Wall scaling contest between men of the U. S. Marine Corps and the Tenth Infantry, 
 U. S. A. A Fourth of July event. 
 
 [ 221 ] 
 
CTTiE, TvAN-P DIVIDED— qHB WOM>D> TTKITED 
 
 pel led to keep it open to a foe in pursuit of her own ships, or allow hostile ships 
 to pass through on their way to blockade or bombard an American city. 
 
 These questions have been settled to the extent that Congress has appropri- 
 ated, up to June 23, 1913, a total of $10,676,950 for the protection of the Canal. 
 A report of the Fortification Board of January 4, 1911, estimates the amount 
 to be appropriated at $12,475,328. The amount expended on fortifications 
 up to June 30, 1913, was $3,114,357.52. The work of preparing placements 
 for 14-inch and 6-inch guns, and pits for 12-inch mortars, to protect the Canal 
 entrances is well under way. There will also be one 16-inch gun, the largest 
 made, placed to protect the Pacific entrance to the Canal. On the Pacific side 
 the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco are being fortified and form 
 one reservation, while, on the mainland at Balboa, a second reservation will be 
 
 A military force has been maintained in the Canal Zone ever since American occupancy. 
 This is Camp Elliott, which occupies a commanding site near Bas Obispo, the headquarters for 
 the local detachment of the United States Marine Corps. 
 
 established. On the Atlantic side there will be a fort on Margarita Point, 
 about a mile north of Manzanillo Island, on which Colon is situated; another 
 on Toro Point across the bay from Colon, and one on the mainland at Colon. 
 In the neighborhood of the locks, those at Gatun, seven miles inland, and those 
 at Miraflores and Pedro Miguel, inland nine and eleven miles, respectively, there 
 will be located field defenses to provide against attack by landing forces. This 
 work is being done under the direction of Lieut. George R. Goethals, the elder 
 son of Col. George W. Goethals, the builder of the Canal. It is planned to keep 
 on the Isthmus 12 companies of coast artillery, one battery of field artillery, four 
 regiments of infantry, one squadron of cavalry, and one batallion of marines. 
 The forts, and batteries comprising them, have been named, as follows: 
 At the Pacific terminus — Fort Grant and Fort Amador, the first located on 
 
 [ 222 ] 
 
CTMB TvANP DIVIDED— <?Tn& WORLjD, JJi^.TgD 
 
 the group of islands in the bay, in honor of Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, U. S. A., 
 who died on July 23, 1885, and the second, located on the mainland at Balboa, 
 in honor of Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, first president of the Republic of 
 Panama, who died on May 2, 1909. 
 
 At the Atlantic terminus — Fort Sherman, Fort Randolph, and Fort De 
 Lesseps, the first, in honor of Gen. William T. Sherman, U. S. A., who died on 
 February 14, 1881, the second, in honor of Maj. Gen. Geo. Wallace F.Randolph, 
 U. S. A., who died September 9, 1910, and the third, in honor of Count Ferdi- 
 nand de Lesseps, promoter of the Panama Canal, who died December 7, 1894. 
 
 A street in the marine camp showing the barracks. Much work has been done by the men in 
 beautifying the grounds, and this picture shows the result of their efforts. 
 
 Fort Sherman will be located on Toro Point, Fort Randolph on Margarita 
 Point, and Fort De Lesseps on the mainland at Colon. 
 
 FORT GRANT MILITARY RESERVATION 
 
 Battery Newton, in honor of Maj. Gen. John Newton, U. S. Volunteers 
 (Brigadier General, Chief of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died May 1, 1895. 
 
 Battery Merritt, in honor of Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt, U. S. A., who 
 died December 3, 1910. 
 
 Battery Carr, in honor of Brevt. Maj. Gen. Jos. Bradford Carr, (Brig. 
 Gen. U. S. Vols.), who died Feb. 24, 1895. ' 
 
 Batten) Prince, in honor of Brig. Gen. Harry Prince, U. S. Vols. (Lieut. 
 Col. U. S. A.), who died August 19, 1892. 
 
 Battery Warren, in honor of Maj. Gen. Gouvemeur K. Warren, U. S. 
 Vols. (Lieutenant Colonel, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died August 8, 
 1882. 
 
 f 223 1 
 
In 1911 the War Department decided to send a regiment of infantry to the Isthmus. 
 This is their camp, known as Camp Otis, near Las Cascadas. 
 
 Camp life at Camp Otis. 
 
 [ 224 ] 
 
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CTfiB Tv\NP DIVIDED— CTHE WOJJfcgLT INCITED 
 
 Battery Buell, in honor of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, U. S. Vols. (Colonel 
 Assistant Adjutant General, U. S. A.), who died November 19, 1898. 
 
 Battery Burnside, in honor of Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside, U. S. Vols. 
 (First Lieutenant, Third U. S. Artillery), who died September 13, 1881. 
 
 Battery Parke, in honor of Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, U. S. Vols. (Colonel, 
 Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died December 16, 1900. 
 
 FORT AMADOR MILITARY RESERVATION 
 
 Battery Smith, in honor of Maj. Gen. Charles F. Smith, U. S. Vols. 
 (Colonel, Third U. S. Infantry), who died April 25, 1862. 
 
 FORT SHERMAN MILITARY RESERVATION 
 
 Battery Howard, in honor of Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, U. S. A., who 
 died October 26, 1909. 
 
 1 
 
 fit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 jBL^ 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Naos Island, one of the islands in Panama Bay belonging to the United States, which is 
 being fortified. The island is connected to the mainland by a breakwater. 
 
 Battery Baird, in honor of Brig. Gen. Absalom Baird, who died June 14, 
 1905. 
 
 Battery Stanley, in honor of Maj. Gen. David S. Stanley, U. S. Vols. 
 (Brigadier General, U. S. A.), who died March 13, 1902. 
 
 Battery Mower, in honor of Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Mower, U. S. Vols. 
 (Colonel, Twenty-fifth Infantry), who died January 6, 1870. 
 
 Battery KilpatricJc, in honor of Maj. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick, U. S. Vols. 
 (Captain, First Artillery), who died December 2, 1881. 
 
 FORT RANDOLPH MILITARY RESERVATION 
 
 Battery Tidball, in honor of Brig. Gen. John C. Tidball, U. S. A., who 
 died May 15, 1906. 
 
 Battery Zal'ui.ski, in honor of Maj. Gen. Edward Lewis Zalinski, (5th U. S. 
 Artillery), who died March 10, 1909. 
 
 Battery Webb, in honor of Brevet Maj. Gen. Alexander S. Webb, U. S. A. 
 (Lieutenant Colonel, 44th U. S. Infantry), who died February 12, 1911. 
 
 [ 225 ] 
 
CTHB Tv\N-D DIVIDED cfHE W_OR^P>_TINJTED 
 
 Battery Weed, in honor of Brig. Gen. Stephen H. Weed, U. S. Volunteers 
 (Captain, 5th U. S. Artillery), who was killed in action, July 2, 1863, at Gettys- 
 burg, Pa. 
 
 FORT DE LESSEPS MILITARY RESERVATION 
 
 Battery Morgan, in honor of Brig. Gen. Charles H. Morgan, U. S. Volun- 
 teers (Major, 4th Artillery), who died December 20, 1875. 
 
 BREAKWATERS 
 
 To protect Colon harbor from the violent northers which occasionally 
 occur during the winter months, and which often made it unsafe for vessels 
 to lie at anchor while they were in progress, and also to reduce to a minimum 
 the amount of silt that may be washed into the Canal channel, a breakwater 
 extending in a northeasterly direction from Toro Point has been built out 
 into the bay. Including its shore connections it is 11,700 feet, or a little over 
 two miles long. It is a trestle fill, and contains about 2,840,000 cubic yards 
 
 Toro Point, at the Atlantic entrance to the Canal, which is being fortified. 
 
 of rock. An embankment was first built up to within 15 feet of the surface of 
 the water and the piles for the trestle were driven through this fill. From the 
 trestle, which was double tracked for nearly its entire length, rock quarried at 
 Toro Point and excavated from the Canal prism was dumped to form a core. 
 This core was then armored with hard rock brought from the quarries at Porto 
 Bello. The breakwater is 15 feet wide on the top, and is about 10 feet above 
 mean sea level. It is proposed to build an east breakwater, about 7,000 
 feet long, on the opposite side of Limon Bay extending out from Coco 
 Solo Point. 
 
 On the Pacific side, a breakwater extends from Balboa to Naos Island, 
 nearly parallel to the Canal channel, for a distance of about 17,000 feet, or a little 
 more than three miles. Like the Toro Point breakwater, it is a trestle fill. It 
 is practically a continuation of the Balboa dumps, and contains about 18,000,000 
 cubic yards of earth and rock taken from Culebra Cut. It varies from 20 to 40 
 
 [ 22G ] 
 
[227] 
 
Cf?iB JvM^P PIVIDBD qTIB WQI3lJD> TTKITED 
 
 feet in height above mean sea level, and is from 50 to 3,000 feet wide at the top. 
 A breakwater is not necessary at this point as a protection against storms to the 
 harbor at Balboa, but it serves to divert a swift cross-current that would carry 
 soft material from the shallow harbor of Panama into the Canal channel. It 
 
 Toro Point breakwater. In order to protect the Cristobal docks and the Atlantic entrance 
 to the Canal from heavy seas, a breakwater has been built out from Toro Point, on the opposite 
 side of Limon Bay. It is over two miles long, and is armored with large rock brought from 
 Porto Bello. 
 
 also forms a rail connection between the mainland and the islands where work 
 on the fortifications required the transfer of much construction material. 
 Under the concession from Colombia under which the Panama Railroad oper- 
 ated, and which was transferred to the Republic of Panama, it was stipulated 
 that the group of islands, of which Naos is one, should be connected by rail with 
 the mainland, and the completion of the breakwater has served to fulfill this 
 condition. 
 
 LIGHTING THE CANAL 
 
 Due to the complete system of aids to navigation, which is being installed 
 throughout its entire length, ships will be able to pass through the Canal as well 
 by night as by day. In the whole Canal there are 22 angles, eight of which are 
 iii Culebra Cut, and in order that ships can make the proper turns at these 
 tangents, range lights, beacons, and lighted buoys are being placed. The 
 range light towers are located on the longer tangents, and consist of two lights 
 placed one behind the other, in order to prolong the sailing line until the proper 
 moment for making the turn. They are situated on land, and it is necessary to 
 keep trochas cleared of jungle growth, which, if left alone, would soon obscure 
 the lights. 
 
 The towers are of reinforced concrete and of several different designs; the 
 more elaborate structures will be used on the Gatun locks, and in the Atlantic 
 and Pacific sections, where they are closer to the sailing lines of the vessels. 
 In Culebra Cut, where range lights cannot be used to advantage on account of 
 the height of the banks, beacons have been placed, three at each angle; between 
 
 [ 228 ] 
 
One of the lighting towers under con- 
 struction. These towers will be equipped 
 with powerful lights. 
 
 Lighthouse at Toro Point which is main- 
 tained by the Panamanian Government. 
 
 [ 229 ] 
 
An avenue of lamp posts on Gatun Locks. 
 Lighting tower in the distance. 
 
 Close view of lighthouse on Gatun Locks. 
 The Locks will be brilliantly lighted at night. 
 
 The signal tower at Colon, by moonlight. 
 
 r 230 l 
 
CTHE, Tv\NP . DIVIDED -^q^lE WO^fi TTNJTED 
 
 these there are intermediate beacons in pairs, one on each side of the Canal. 
 The beacons are also built of concrete. Throughout the Canal entrances, and 
 Gatun and Miraflores Lakes, lighted buoys are placed about one mile apart to 
 mark each side of the channel. At the Atlantic entrance there is a light and fog 
 signal station at the end of the west breakwater, and there will be another 
 lighthouse on the east breakwater when that is completed. 
 
 Acetylene gas and electricity are used in all lights, the latter where the 
 lights are conveniently accessible. The candlepower of the range lights will 
 vary, according to the length of the range, from about 12,000 to 300,000 candle- 
 power. The most powerful lights will be those marking the Atlantic and 
 Pacific entrances, visible from 12 to 18 statute miles. Mr. W. F. Bever, assis- 
 
 The site of the proposed harbor and terminal works at Balboa. Here, immense shops, and 
 a dry dock capable of accommodating any ship that can use the Canal locks will be built. The 
 work on shops and harbor has been begun. 
 
 tant engineer in the office of the Assistant Chief Engineer, is in charge of the 
 work of the Lighthouse Subdivision. 
 
 PORT FACILITIES 
 
 The amount of traffic that will require terminal facilities after the opening 
 of the Canal is problematical. The Canal Commission, however, has based its 
 plans on a liberal estimate, and work is in progress on new docks at Cristobal 
 and Balboa. The facilities at Cristobal consist of three new piers, Xos. 15, 
 16 and 17, with a total water frontage of 3,890 feet, in addition to 378 feet 
 frontage at the head of the slip for small boats, and are of sufficient size to pro- 
 vide berthage for five vessels of 10,000 tons each at one time. Dock lo, 420 
 feet long, is the smallest of the three, and is virtually an extension of Dock 11, 
 built several years ago. Dock 16, 1,073 feet in length, parallels the water front 
 
 [ 231 ] 
 
^THB hAN-P . DIVIDED CTTUZ VtOUUB* TTKITED 
 
 at Cristobal, and is now used when the old wharves at Colon are crowded. 
 Dock 17, 1,042 feet long, is the only one to have water frontage on both sides. 
 Room has been left for two additional piers, but their construction will be 
 deferred until the necessity therefor develops. All the docks are protected by a 
 
 Dredges excavating in the Pacific Channel from Miraflores to the sea. 
 
 mole or breakwater extending out from shore on the seaward side, marking the 
 boundary line between Canal Zone and Panamanian waters. In Colon, the 
 Panama railroad owns several old wharves, while the Royal Mail Steam Packet 
 Company has its own wharf which it plans to enlarge. In addition, there are 
 Docks 13 and 14 on the French Canal, midway between Cristobal and Mount 
 Hope, now used principally in unloading Canal supplies, and which will probably 
 be continued in service. 
 
 At Balboa, the piers for commercial use will be placed at right angles to the 
 axis of the Canal, with their ends about 2,650 feet from the center of the 500-foot 
 channel. They will be about 1,000 feet long and 200 feet wide, with 300-foot 
 
 Excavation in the immediate foreground is for the new Balboa dry dock. Buildings under 
 construction are the permanent shops. Beyond where the dredge is working will be the Balboa 
 ship basin. 
 
 [ 232 ] 
 
Jv\M-D piVIDED — CTHB WORLjD, TTKITED 
 
 slips between. The construction of one pier only will be undertaken at first, 
 but room has been provided for four more. The old French steel wharf, 1,000 
 feet in length, and from 2,000 to 3,000 feet of berthing space in front of the 
 permanent shops will be available when required. 
 
 The superstructure of the piers at Cristobal and Balboa will consist of one- 
 story steel sheds, having a clear height of 25 feet. They will cover the entire 
 space, with the exception of about 18 feet along each side and the outer ends. 
 The wharves adjacent to the repair shops at Balboa will not be provided with 
 any sheds. The total enclosed floor space at the new Cristobal docks is about 
 218,700 square feet. The track arrangement consists of a track along each 
 
 Handling cargo at Balboa. Balboa is a busy place and promises to be busier, as the permanent 
 administration headquarters, dry docks, repair shops, coaling station, etc., will be located here. 
 
 edge of the piers, and two depressed tracks through the center of the sheds, 
 bringing the car floors level with the floors of the sheds. 
 
 In view of the uncertainty as to the amount of freight that may be handled, 
 it was decided to forego the installation of expensive cargo-handling machinery 
 at the docks. At Cristobal, with a range of tide of scarcely a foot, freight 
 requiring transfer can be handled by ships' booms, supplemented by blocks 
 attached to elevated girders along the sides of the pier sheds. At Balboa, where 
 the average range of tides is close to 13 feet, electric cranes will be used, in 
 addition to a floating crane for heavy cargo. 
 
 DRY DOCKS 
 
 The main dry dock will be at Balboa, in accordance with the wish of the 
 Navy Department. It will be able to accommodate any vessel that is able to 
 
 [ 233 ] 
 
CTHB Tv\NP DIVIDED CTKB WP&yD, TTNJTED 
 
 pass through the Canal locks, with a usable length of 1,000 feet, an entrance 
 width of 1 10 feet, and a depth over the keel blocks of 35 feet. The entrance will 
 be closed by miter gates similar to those used on the locks. The dock will be 
 served by a 40-ton traveling crane with a travel along both sides. For smaller 
 vessels, an auxiliary dry dock will be provided, with a usable length of 350 feet, 
 an entrance width of 71 feet, and a depth over the keel blocks of 13 J feet. On 
 the Atlantic side, the old French dry dock, which has a usable length of 300 feet, 
 width of 50 feet, and a depth over the sill of 13 feet, will be continued in use. 
 
 PERMANENT REPAIR SHOPS 
 
 The permanent repair shops will be at Balboa, situated in the area between 
 the dry dock and repair berth, and are designed to maintain the following- 
 
 Heavy repairs to the Canal marine equipment have been handled in this dry dock on the 
 Atlantic side, and by shipways on the Pacific side at Balboa. A large dry dock is being built 
 which will accommodate any vessel that may use the Canal. 
 
 equipment: Lock, spillway, and power plant machinery; water and land 
 equipment retained for the maintenance and operation of the Canal; rolling- 
 stock and equipment of the Panama railroad; mechanical apparatus connected 
 with the coaling plants; fortifications; cold storage plant; wireless stations, etc.; 
 making of repairs required by individuals and companies on the Isthmus; 
 making of repairs required by commercial vessels, and making of such repairs 
 as may be required by vessels of the United States Navy and vessels belonging 
 to other governments. Work on the new shops was begun early in 1913, and 
 will be completed about January 1, 1914. The transfer of the Gorgona shop 
 
 [ 234 ] 
 
Jv\N-D piVIPED C \~1\E, W QBJjBjJj UNITED 
 
 work and equipment to Balboa and other points, made necessary on account of 
 the abandonment of the town of Gorgona consequent upon the rise in Gatun 
 Lake, was effected and the old shops demolished during July and August, 1913. 
 The new shop buildings are constructed of steel frames with roofs of heavy tile, 
 made on the Isthmus. The sides and ends were left open for ventilation and 
 light, protection from sun and rain being afforded by wide, overhanging eaves. 
 All shop machinery will be electrically driven. Until future requirements are 
 known, the marine shops at Mount Hope will be continued in service, and as 
 Paraiso has been made dredging headquarters for the next few years, the old 
 
 Floor of the new concrete lumber dock at Balboa. 
 
 shop buildings at that point will be fitted up and used in making repairs to 
 dredging equipment only. 
 
 GOVERNMENT COAL AND FUEL OIL BUSINESS 
 
 The main government coaling plant will be situated on the north end of an 
 island, opposite Dock 11, at Cristobal, near the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. 
 It will be from 1,700 to 2,000 feet in length, 300 feet wide, and will be capable 
 of handling and storing 300,000 tons of coal. Subaqueous storage will be 
 provided, as it has been determined that coal disintegrates less rapidly when 
 under water than when lying exposed to the air. This plant will have railroad 
 connection with the mainland by means of a bridge of the vertical iift type 
 crossing the French Canal at a point between Cristobal and Mount Hope. The 
 coaling plant on the Pacific side will be at Balboa, and will have a length of oOO 
 feet, width of 340 feet, and water frontage of 1,300 feet. It will be capable of 
 handling and storing 210,000 tons of coal, including 100,000 tons subaqueously. 
 The coal-handling equipment for both plants was purchased in August, 1913, 
 and at Cristobal consists of a system of unloading; towers, stocking; and re- 
 claiming bridges, reloaders, and 10-ton automatic electric cars for conveying. 
 
 [ 235 ] 
 
CTHB TWMSL-P . DIVIDED q pFlE: W Pl^PJ I JETTED 
 
 At Balboa, the equipment is much the same, with the exception that four of the 
 double cantilever cranes used in building Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks 
 were substituted for the stocking and reclaiming bridges. The cost of this 
 equipment is $1,833,127, and deliveries are to be made in periods ranging from 
 six to 30 months. 
 
 Facilities will also be provided at Cristobal and Balboa for supplying 
 shipping and the Canal with fuel oil. To this end two steel tanks have been 
 erected at each terminal with a combined storage capacity of 160,000 barrels. 
 
 PRIVATE COAL AND FUEL OIL STORAGE 
 
 There has been a lively interest shown on the part of dealers in coal and 
 fuel oil in the United States and Europe in the selling possibilities of these two 
 
 Oil storage tanks in the foreground. Ancon Hill in the distance. 
 
 commodities on the Isthmus after the completion of the Canal. This display 
 of interest induced the Government to make known its policy toward these 
 enterprises in the early part of 1913. The plan announced is to keep complete 
 control of the terminals, water frontage, and transportation by land and water 
 across the Isthmus, and to that end, no land nor land under water that may be 
 needed later by the United States will be leased. It will not be the policy 
 of the Government, however, to monopolize the fuel business, and every means 
 will be taken to encourage the establishment of private coal and fuel oil depots 
 on the Isthmus under proper conditions. It is believed that the duplication 
 of coal-handling machinery would be undesirable, and the Government, there- 
 fore, will install modern machinery ample for private, as well as for its own 
 purposes. Acting under this theory, the Canal Commission in July, 1913, 
 announced its readiness to assign space for fuel oil depots at either end of the 
 
 I 236 1 
 
iE J)AN-D piVIDED — C7THE WOR^D, T1KITED 
 
 Canal under revocable leases or licenses. Coal storage space will be similarly 
 assigned. Private dealers, both in the United States and abroad, made some 
 objection against the revocable lease plan, and in one or two instances expressed 
 a preference to attend to their own coal-handling, but as evidence that the 
 Government's plan is not discouraging these enterprises, applications had been 
 received up to September 1, 1913, for 169,000 tons of private coal storage space 
 at Cristobal, and 6,500 tons at Balboa. A number of applications had also been 
 received for space for fuel oil tanks. 
 
 BONDED WAREHOUSES 
 
 The Canal Commission has not yet taken up the matter of bonded ware- 
 houses, and is probably reluctant to do so from the fact that the control of 
 
 Telpher plant, which has handled practically all of the coal used in the Canal work. 
 
 customs at the Canal Zone ports of Ancon and Cristobal is vested in the Panama 
 Government. With the approaching completion of the Canal, the question has 
 been agitated to some extent, and in the 1913 session of the Panama National 
 Assembly, a law was passed that would permit bonded warehouses on Pana- 
 manian territory. Opposition to allowing private persons to erect warehouses 
 developed, and Panama is now considering the advisability of building its own 
 warehouses, with a view of leasing space therein. 
 
 NEW FLOATING EQUIPMENT 
 
 In order to insure the expeditious handling of the massive lock gate 
 leaves, when repairs become necessary, as well as for commercial and other 
 
 f 237 J 
 
Tv\N-D piVIDED — ^THE WOBPD, T1KITED 
 
 Canal needs and general wrecking purposes, the contract for the erection of two 
 floating cranes of the revolving type has been made to the Deutsche Maschinen- 
 fabrik A. G. of Duisburg, Germany, satisfactory proposals not having been 
 received from American firms. Each crane is of 250 tons capacity, and consists 
 of a steel pontoon 150 feet long, 88 feet wide, and of a depth of 15 feet nine 
 inches at the sides, and 16 feet eight inches at the center, supporting a super- 
 structure in three parts; first, a fixed mast; second, a revolving "bell," and third, 
 an arm or jib, the latter provided with a main and an auxiliary hoist. The 
 cranes will not be self-propelling, but will contain a power generating installa- 
 tion for the operation of the crane mechanism. 
 
 For handling vessels of the largest size at Cristobal and Balboa two 
 powerful harbor tugs will be purchased. Two colliers, to cost not to exceed 
 $1,000,000 each, and to have a cargo capacity of 12,000 tons each, have been 
 authorized by Congress for use at the Canal termini. 
 
 PERMANENT VILLAGES AND BUILDINGS 
 
 Much study has been given the type of construction of the permanent 
 buildings of the Canal. In view of the depopulation of the Canal Zone, the 
 number of permanent towns will be limited. Balboa will be the seat of govern- 
 ment, and the headquarters for most of the employes in the administrative 
 branch of the permanent organization. The operating force at Gatun Locks 
 will live in the present villages of Gatun and New Gatun, and the force at Pedro 
 Miguel and Miraflores Locks will reside in the new town which will be laid out 
 
 O 
 
 on the fill at Pedro Miguel. The settlements at Ancon and Cristobal will be 
 continued indefinitely. Bas Obispo, Las Cascadas, Empire, Culebra, and 
 Corozal, together with a few smaller villages still existent, will eventually be 
 
 .^•feW '*£ 
 
 lilliunnjll^,,, 
 
 """"II Itllimi'- 
 
 ^iiliiilli 
 
 •iiif-Tir 
 
 Permanent administration building on west side of Ancon Hill under construction. 
 Overlooks the site on which the permanent town at Balboa will be laid out. 
 
 [ 238 ] 
 
B ^AN-I) . DIVIDED — -crn\E WPP^D, TJNJTED 
 
 abandoned, leaving Pedro Miguel, Paraiso (temporary dredging headquarters), 
 and Gatun as the only inland towns of the Zone. The villages in the lake area, 
 Bohio, old Frijoles, Buenavista, Ahorca Lagarto, Tabernilla, San Pablo, and 
 Mamei disappeared in 1911, when the lake first began to rise. With them 
 
 Dredges at work removing the last barrier in Atlantic entrance. 
 
 vanished a number of old and familiar landmarks, such as Stephens' Tree, 
 which encroached on the old Panama Railroad right-of-way near Ahorca 
 Lagarto, and, although not a fact, was popularly supposed to mark the grave of 
 John L. Stephens, one of the founders of the railroad. The villages of Gorgona 
 and Matachin shared the same fate in July and August, 1913, and Miraflores 
 was razed in September, 1913. Gorgona was one of the oldest and most 
 populous settlements in the Zone, and as F. X. Otis narrates in his History of 
 the Panama Railroad, published in 1867, was "noted in the earlier days of 
 Chagres River travel as a place where the wet and jaded traveler was ac- 
 customed to worry out the night on a raw hide, exposed to the insects and the 
 rain, and in the morning, if he was fortunate, regale himself on jerked beef and 
 plantains." Gen. U. S. Grant, then Captain Grant, spent the night there 
 while crossing the Isthmus prior to the advent of the railroad. 
 
 For the purpose of procuring a modem and permanent type of architecture, 
 special architects have been employed, and to them has been committed the 
 work of preparing designs for all permanent structures, including machinery 
 control houses at the locks, water works, hydroelectric station, public buildings, 
 and quarters for employes. A new administration building to cost about $47.5,- 
 000 is under erection on the west side of Ancon Hill, overlooking from a knoll 
 the new Balboa townsite. It will be constructed of structural steel and hollow 
 concrete blocks. The remainder of the permanent buildings will probably 
 
 [ 239 ] 
 
Jy\K-D piVIDED -^qT\E WQ^JLJJfrLITED 
 
 be of concrete construction. The Balboa townsite will be laid off in accordance 
 with the most approved ideas, and with the view of making it a model town, 
 including the beautification of its surroundings, as well as the grounds about 
 the locks, the services of a landscape architect were engaged in July, 1913. The 
 
 Docks at Cristobal under construction. With the Canal practically completed, the attention 
 of the Canal Commission is being concentrated on the permanent terminal facilities. The present 
 plans include extensive plants at Balboa on the Pacific, and at Cristobal near the Atlantic entrance. 
 
 Commission of Fine Arts was delegated by Congress to supervise the permanent 
 building work, and it has made suggestions from time to time. 
 
 PERMANENT ORGANIZATION 
 
 The Act of Congress of August 24, 1912, provides for the appointment of a 
 governor of the Panama Canal, when in the judgment of the President, the 
 work of construction shall be sufficiently advanced toward completion as to 
 render the further services of the Isthmian Canal Commission unnecessary. 
 The appointment is to be made by the President, by and with the advice and 
 consent of the Senate, and is effective for a period of four years. The salary is 
 $10,000 per annum. President Taft, previous to the expiration of his term 
 of office, allowed the fact to become public that he intended to dissolve the 
 Commission and appoint a governor. Some Members of Congress opposed the 
 plan, one declaring that it was not the purpose of the Act to abolish the Com- 
 mission until it had completed its work. President Taft's term expired 
 without any further move in this direction. 
 
 With the advent of the Democratic administration, it was the general 
 opinion that President Wilson would give the matter thorough study before 
 taking any steps toward abolishing the Commission. This has proved to be 
 the case, and it seems to be the common understanding that the President has 
 formed the opinion that the status of the Commission should remain unchanged 
 until the great work is entirely finished and the Canal ready to be officially 
 
 [ 240 ] 
 
CTHE Tv\N-D . TIIVIDED —GTTUZ WORUD, TTKITED 
 
 opened. The health of one of the members of the Commission, Lieut.-Col. 
 D. D. Gaillard became undermined in July, 1913, and he was obliged to return 
 to the United States, at least temporarily. While no definite plans for the 
 permanent organization have yet been announced, Colonel Goethals has stated 
 in hearings before the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals that the esti- 
 mated number of employes required for the operation of the Canal, exclusive of 
 civil administration and sanitation, and of the military establishment, would 
 be 2,500. The ensuing year will witness many changes, all tending toward the 
 placing in effect of the permanent organization. 
 
 The new director, when appointed, will, in connection with the operation 
 of the Canal, have control and jurisdiction over the Canal Zone, and will perform 
 all duties in connection with the civil government of the Zone, which is to be held, 
 treated, and governed as an adjunct of the Canal. The law provides for one 
 district court with two divisions, one including Balboa, and the other including 
 Cristobal, each court to have jurisdiction in felony cases, and in all causes at 
 equity, admiralty, and all cases at law involving sums exceeding $300. In 
 addition to a district judge, there will be a marshal and district attorney, each 
 holding office for four years. The Circuit Court of Appeals of the Fifth 
 Circuit of the United States at New Orleans, will have jurisdiction in all appeal 
 cases. The provision of the law requiring trial by jury has already been made 
 operative by the President's Executive Order of July 4, 1913. 
 
 'wireless communication 
 
 The Darien naval radio station to be built at Caimito, a point in the Canal 
 Zone about midway between Colon and Panama, will be one of the most power- 
 
 New dock No. 16 at Colon under construction. Part of the Cristobal terminal system. 
 
 [ 241 ] 
 
CTTIB TvANP . DIVIDED crrFLB WOm^^rNrngD 
 
 ful in the world, and will establish direct communication between the Isthmus 
 and Washington. In power it will be the same as the Government's station at 
 Arlington, but in the size of its towers, it will exceed the latter. The sending 
 and receiving radius will be nominally 3,000 miles, so that communication may 
 be held direct with the Arlington station, instead of via Key West, as formerly. 
 It will be able to send messages as far as Valdivia, Chile, 421 miles south of 
 Valparaiso; to reach a vessel anywhere along the eastern coast of the United 
 States, or midway between New York and Gibraltar; and to communicate with 
 the island of St. Vincent, 500 miles west of Africa. There are three other 
 wireless stations on the Isthmus, not including one at Bocas del Toro, main- 
 tained by the United Fruit Company. These are at Porto Bello, Colon, and 
 Balboa, and all are in charge of the Navy Department. One, or more, of these 
 plants will probably be dismantled when the new high power station becomes 
 available. In 1912, President Taft signed an Executive Order prohibiting 
 the establishment of wireless stations on the Isthmus by other parties within 
 the radius of 15 miles of anv Government station. 
 
 BEAUTIFYING THE CANAL 
 
 The Panama Canal Act of August 24, 1912 contained the following pro- 
 vision : 
 
 "Before the completion of the Canal, the Commission of Fine Arts may 
 make report to the President of their recommendation regarding the artistic 
 character of the structures of the Canal, such report to be transmitted to 
 Congress." 
 
 In accordance with the above, the chairman of the commission, Mr. 
 
 Along a country road. This picture vividly portrays the pretty scenery that greets the 
 eye in traveling over some of the Canal Zone roads. 
 
 [ 242 ] 
 
Tv\N-D DIVIDED ^CT HB WORUD, jnglTEgD 
 
 Daniel C. French, sculptor, and the vice-chairman, Mr. Frederick Law 
 Olmsted, landscape architect, spent a part of the month of February, 1913, on 
 the Isthmus. Their report submitted to Congress on July 26, 1913, states in 
 part : 
 
 "The Canal itself, and all the structures connected with it impress one with 
 
 A pretty scene in the outskirts of Culebra Village. 
 
 a sense of their having been built with a view strictly to their utility. There is 
 an entire absence of ornament and no evidence that the aesthetic has been 
 considered, except in a few cases as a secondary consideration. Because of 
 this very fact there is little to find fault with from the artist's point of view. 
 The Canal, like the pyramids, or some imposing object in natural scenery, is 
 impressive from its scale and simplicity and directness. One feels that any- 
 thing done merely for the purpose of beautifying it would not only fail to ac- 
 complish the purpose, but would be an impertinence. In such a work the most 
 that the artist could hope to do would be to aid in selecting, as between alter- 
 native forms of substantially equal value from the engineering point of view, 
 those which are likely to prove most agreeable and appropriate in appearance.'* 
 The report, however, made a number of suggestions calculated to improve 
 the appearance at the Canal entrances, at the locks, in the permanent towns, and 
 the marine and army reservations. It also strongly recommended that a 
 memorial record of the building of the Canal be made in the form of an im- 
 pressive inscription upon a great monumental surface on the east bank of 
 Culebra Cut, at the point of deepest cutting, 492 feet. It favored a space 100 
 feet in height and somewhat more in width, severely simple in design, with 
 lettering in Roman V-shaped letters large enough to be easily read by normal 
 
 [ 243 ] 
 
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 [2441 
 
CTHE, TyANP DIVIDED cr^TiEs WQ^^_IINJTEP 
 
 eyes across the Canal, and that the material should be concrete applied as a 
 massive facing to the irregularly fractured trap rock of the cliff. It also 
 suggested marking the highest point of Canal excavation on Gold Hill, immedi- 
 ately over the proposed inscription with some form of monument. 
 
 The Southern Commercial Congress made formal application of the 
 Secretary of War, in October, 1913, for permission to place at some prominent 
 
 Model showing the Atlantic entrance to the Canal and the docks at Cristobal, as they 
 
 will appear when completed. 
 
 point along the Canal a bronze tablet, four by six feet in size, carrying a medal- 
 lion life size bust of the late Senator John T. Morgan of Alabama, and legend 
 reciting his relations to the Canal idea. Permission was accorded, and the 
 tablet was placed near the north end of Culebra Cut in November, 1913. 
 
 PERMANENT ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, BALBOA 
 
 The permanent Administration Building of the Canal Zone now undei 
 construction in accordance with the design made by Austin W. Lord of 
 New York City, formerly architect to the Commission, and Mario J. Schia- 
 voni, former assistant architect, Culbera, under whose direction the entire plans, 
 elevations, details, and specifications have been developed, is the result of many 
 efforts to obtain a building suitable to the requirements as stipulated by the 
 Chairman, and the very important requirements in providing protection against 
 sun and rain. 
 
 The architecture of Italian renaissance design, with a square column 
 colonnade, and a second-story balcony treatment around the three exterior 
 elevations of the building and surmounted by a somber red tile roof, will present 
 a character very much to be desired in this climate; viz.: wide projecting eaves 
 and deep recessed colonnades, affording excellent protection against sun and 
 rain. 
 
 [ 245 ] 
 
CTHE, TvAN-D DIVIDED CTHB WP^fi TI>LITED 
 
 The court side, facing northeast, enclosed by the two side wings, will have 
 plain wall surfaces, treated with pilasters and window openings of same pro- 
 portions as on the exterior elevations, and a central wing housing the main 
 stair motive and porte cochere entrance, the entire plan having the form of the 
 letter E with the first floor situated 100 feet above sea level. 
 
 The office areas are to be treated in a very simple manner with the walls 
 and ceilings treated in white plaster, the floors in yellow pine, and mahogany 
 for all woodwork. 
 
 The rotunda motive, the focal point of interest, entered from both front 
 and rear elevations, and situated between the front entrance and the main 
 stair hall, facing the court, will be treated in a very dignified but somber 
 renaissance style with a coffered dome, surmounting decorative paintings 
 illustrating the various periods of canal construction in a continuous frieze and 
 in four large panels. The rotunda will be illuminated by a dome light under 
 a skylight, thereby producing on a minor scale the Pantheon at Rome. The 
 walls, floor, and staircases, will be treated in a simple marble and Caen stone 
 treatment in harmony with the balance of the work. 
 
 The building will have an area of 60,000 square feet of clear office space 
 for the three floors, plus the required areas for the rotunda motive, halls, stair- 
 cases, toilets, exterior colonnades, and balconies. The basement, with an area 
 of 32,000 square feet, will be used as a vault for the filing of records, maps, 
 archives, etc. 
 
 The total floor area in the building taken at grade will amount to 37,772 
 square feet, and the total (mean) cubic content of the entire building, 2,153,000 
 cubic feet. 
 
 A very flexible system of electric lighting, telephone, and buzzer system 
 has been provided for, including the permanent telephone exchange, which will 
 be located on the third floor in one of the rear wings. 
 
 Every convenience of reasonable necessity has been provided for in this 
 building, such as fire protection, vacuum system, etc., thereby setting an example 
 for future buildings by making this the most extensive and up-to-date steel 
 frame and hollow concrete tile block structure that is being built on the Isthmus 
 as a keynote for future work. 
 
 COST OF THE CANAL 
 
 The estimate of October, 1908, placed the cost of the Canal at $375,201,000 
 divided, as follows: Construction and engineering, $297,766,000; sanitation, 
 $20,053,000; civil administration, $7,382,000; paid to the New French Canal 
 Company, $40,000,000; paid to the Republic of Panama, $10,000,000. The 
 appropriations made by Congress to date aggregate $338,828,273.14 for the 
 Canal work, and $10,767,950 for fortifications. The actual expenditures to 
 June 30, 1913 were as follows: Construction and engineering, $185,316,- 
 095.75; sanitation, $16,250,164.93; civil administration, $6,393,308.73; law, 
 $44,982.27; general items, $87,866,903.70; fortifications, $3,114,357.52. Total 
 $298,985,812.90. Since 1908, the force has increased so much in efficiency, 
 with a corresponding decrease in unit costs, that it seems probable that $360,- 
 000,000 will cover not only the cost of the Canal work, but of the fortifications 
 as well. 
 
 [ 246 ] 
 
HE volume of traffic that will pass through the Panama Canal after it 
 has been thrown open to commerce of the world is largely a matter of 
 speculation. The importance of the new waterway from a military 
 standpoint is easily recognizable, and in the minds of American Army 
 and Navy experts, the probable fact that the efficiency of Uncle Sam's Navy 
 will be about doubled, alone warrants the enormous cost which the project has 
 entailed. In commercial circles, however, the question of the hour is "Can the 
 Canal be made to pay?" 
 
 To ascertain the probable amount of tonnage that will use the Canal 
 during the next few years, the United States Government, on September 1, 1911, 
 engaged the services of the highest American authority in this line, Dr. Emory 
 R. Johnson, professor of transportation and commerce in the University of 
 Pennsylvania. As special commissioner on traffic and tolls, Dr. Johnson has 
 made an exhaustive investigation of the subject from all points of view, the 
 results of which have been incorporated in a printed volume of 500 pages. His 
 conclusions may be briefly summed up, as follows: 
 
 "The shipping using the Panama Canal annually during the first year or 
 two of its operation, that is, in 191o and 1916, will amount to about 10, .500, 000 
 tons. At the end of 10 years, the tonnage will doubtless have reached 17,- 
 000,000 tons. The prospect is, therefore, that the Panama Canal will start with 
 less than half the tonnage which will then be making use of the Suez Canal. 
 Moreover, it will be a long time before the Panama Canal catches up with the 
 Suez waterway in volume of traffic. Should the Suez tonnage continue to 
 increase at the present rate, the volume of shipping served by the Suez route in 
 WHo will be double that passing through the Panama Canal. It is hardly 
 probable that the Suez tonnage will increase at its present high rate, while it 
 may well happen that the stimulating effect of the Panama Canal upon industry 
 and trade has been underestimated. Eventually, at the end of two or three 
 decades, let us say, the traffic at Panama may equal or exceed that at Suez." 
 
 I 247 1 
 
<*5fe 
 
 [248] 
 
CTTIB TvANP . DIVIDED -— ^^H^JWO^jyp, JTXITED 
 
 Dr. Johnson gave publicity to the above forecast in lOl^, and his frank 
 admission that his figures may be underestimated indicates that it is not in the 
 power of man to closely foretell the volume of traffic the Canal will attract. 
 It is only within the past twelvemonth that steamship companies, and firms 
 engaged in the wholesale coal and fuel oil trade, have awakened to the possi- 
 bilities evoked by the Canal. If reports that are constantly noted in the daily 
 press are true, nearly every company engaged in ocean transportation in this 
 part of the world is perfecting plans for building additional ships in anticipation 
 of the increased business the Canal will create. Since fuel oil and coal-handling 
 facilities at the Canal termini were planned, and the policy of the Government 
 in respect to the sale of these two commodities by individuals and companies, 
 
 The tourist steamer Evangeline, the first vessel to dock at Pier 16, Cristobal, January, 1913. 
 
 on the Isthmus, was outlined, there has been an unexpected amount of interest 
 shown in this feature by firms in the United States and Europe. Applications 
 for coal storage space had, prior to the awarding of the coal-handling ma- 
 chinery, been so much greater than anticipated, that enlargements of the pro- 
 posed layout in some of its essentials became imperative. Close observers of 
 the trend of the times say that Dr. Johnson's figures are sufficiently conserva- 
 tive. 
 
 Latin-America, particularly the west coast of South America, is con- 
 fidentlv counted on to contribute largelv to the tonnage of the Canal. Chile, 
 Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, all originate a large freight traffic. The nitrate 
 fields of Northern Chile yield an annual product of more than 2,500,000 tons, 
 four-fifths of which goes to Europe, and the remainder to the United States; 
 copper shipments from Peru and Bolivia are increasing annually in importance 
 with the opening of additional mines and the construction of railroads. Rail- 
 
 [ 249 ] 
 
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 [250] 
 
T>AM-D piVIDED GT1\& WPD^B; TINJTED 
 
 road building in those countries, south of the Equator, has enjoyed a tre- 
 mendous expansion in the last few years. Argentina has been brought in touch 
 with Valparaiso by the Andean tunnel, and the products of the western part 
 of that republic will, in all probability, be shipped through the Canal. The port 
 of Valparaiso, which was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1906, has fully 
 recovered from its effects, and has contracted for port works costing millions 
 of dollars in anticipation of the opening of the Canal. 
 
 At present, American commerce plays but a minor role in the west coast 
 trade, although, owing to the increasing number of American investments, the 
 trade is improving. Germany and Great Britain have long had the lion's 
 
 The Polar Ship Fram, lying at anchor in Cristobal Harbor. This boat left Buenos Aires on 
 August 14, 1913, and reached Colon on October 3, for the purpose of passing through the Canal 
 on its way to San Francisco. It will be one of the first vessels to make the passage. 
 
 share, and it will be many years before their hold can be broken. The fault is 
 our own. European emigrants, and representatives of European firms, went 
 to those countries in an early day; they intermarried with the native residents, 
 and many became citizens who afterward rose to prominence in public life. 
 On the other hand, prior to the Spanish-American War, these countries knew 
 few Americans, with the exception of tourists. We kept to our own borders, and 
 established neither social nor business relations, and as for going there to live, 
 it was not to be thought of. Moreover, the American manufacturer has in the 
 past shown scant desire to cultivate business relations with his Latin-American 
 neighbor; they have elected to ignore his requirements, and scoffed at his busi- 
 ness customs. The European never commits \hisfaux pas. 
 
 [ 251 ] 
 
Moonlight on Limon Bay. When the rose and mauve and green have faded, the tropical 
 moon appears, which is nowhere more effulgent than on the Isthmus. 
 
 Roosevelt Avenue, the prettiest street in Cristobal, overlooking Limon Bay and the Atlantic 
 entrance to the Canal. The beauty of this street and the outlook has been marred by the building 
 of the docks at this point. 
 
 [ 252 ] 
 
CTMB TvANP .DIVIDED-— CTTHB WJ3RkD,_TINJTED 
 
 The Spanish-American War was the entering wedge; the Panama Canal 
 and other large projects in Central and South America requiring American 
 brain and brawn has widened the opening, until today one will find plenty of 
 Americans scattered all over Latin-America. A large percentage of those who 
 
 Native town at Culebra. Negro village of Golden Green in middle distance, 
 villages will be abandoned in course of time. 
 
 These 
 
 enlisted in the Philippine, Cuban, or Porto Rican campaigns, those who have 
 seen service on the Panama Canal, or those who have engaged in railroad and 
 mining work in Brazil, Peru, or Chile, never go back to the United States to 
 reside permanently. Some of them leave the tropics with the avowed intention 
 of never returning, but sooner or later, one will find them at a steamship office 
 engaging passage southward bound. The lure of the tropics is not easily 
 overcome. 
 
 The Americanizing of Latin-America has only just begun; it would not 
 have been begun yet but for those prime factors, the War and the Canal. As 
 Americans locate in Central and South America, the call grows more and more 
 insistent for conveniences to which they have been accustomed — American 
 banks, clubs, newspapers, stores, and merchandise. The influence of the 
 Latinized American is seen in the gradual improvement of conditions, all of 
 which, while minute in detail in connection with the trade of the Canal, has a 
 direct bearing on its future so far as it concerns traffic with South America. 
 
 The Panama Canal will place the United States and Europe about on a 
 par so far as it concerns the commerce of Australia and New Zealand. The 
 same is true of Japan, China, and the Philippines. The short route from 
 
 [ 253 ] 
 
Jv\N-D piVIDED— CTHE*WOgfeD, TJNJTED 
 
 Europe to the Orient is by way of Suez; the short course from the Atlantic coast 
 of the United States to Japan and most of China will be by way of Panama. A 
 10-knot freight steamer will be able to make the voyage from New York to 
 Yokohama by way of Panama in 15 days' less time than it now takes by way of 
 Suez. Hong Kong and Manila will be equally distant from New York by way 
 of Panama or Suez. 
 
 The tonnage through the Suez Canal has shown a steady growth. In 1910, 
 it was 16,500,000 tons; in 1912, it had increased to 20,275,000 tons, representing 
 the passage of 5,373 vessels. The Suez Company in commenting on the 
 approaching opening of the Panama Canal said, "It does not seem likely that 
 any considerable amount of freight between Europe and ports beyond Suez will 
 be diverted by the Panama Canal. It is to be feared, though, that one of the 
 results of the opening of the new route will be the attendant competition, and 
 possibly a newborn trade between the eastern states of America, and the Far 
 East and Oceanica." The increase in Canal traffic is not confined to the Suez, 
 for, in July, 1913, 3,670 vessels carrying 12,278,000 tons of freight passed 
 through the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, a larger volume than Dr. Johnson predicts 
 for the Panama Canal during the first year or two of operation. 
 
 While much has been printed to show how the freight business will be 
 advantaged by the Panama Canal, there has been but little mention of the pas- 
 senger traffic. It is quite certain that travelers to South America, or to the 
 Orient, will prefer the Panama route to the long and usually tempestuous voyage 
 around South America, or to the terrific heat of the Red Sea. The passage 
 
 A street in the American settlement at Empire, showing family quarters, 
 and about Empire is justly considered the most effective in the Canal Zone, 
 grow here in great profusion. 
 
 [ 254 ] 
 
 The landscape in 
 The short palms 
 
CTHE, TvANP . DIVIDED — cm^ WQRkjDjT 
 
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 sort of clearing house for 
 senger traffic. 
 
 Ma 
 
 in entrance to the new Hotel 
 Washington, Colon. 
 
 through the Panama Canal will 
 afford an opportunity for the tired 
 traveler to land, and if he so de- 
 sires, to cross the Isthmus by rail. 
 The Isthmus, therefore, will be a 
 
 pas- 
 People coming 
 from Europe and eastern or 
 southern United States will 
 change there for the Orient, 
 western United States, and 
 western South America. 
 
 The closing years of the con- 
 struction period of the Canal has 
 attracted a growing number of 
 tourists, until at the present time, 
 it is just as much a booking point 
 for the tourist agencies as any 
 other place of interest the world 
 has to offer. Statistics compiled 
 to July 1, 1913, show that about 
 75,000 people have visited the 
 Canal since January 1, 1910, over 
 one-half of that number within 
 the past 18 months. 
 
 The following table of com- 
 parative distances will show 
 some of the shortening of routes 
 the Panama Canal will effect: 
 
 A typical street in Cristobal. There are cocoanut palms on every street in this pretty Canal 
 Zone settlement, while banana trees and other tropic growth adorn the grass plots in front 
 of the houses. 
 
 [255 ] 
 
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 [257] 
 
HE Panama of today affords a striking contrast to the Panama of 
 yesterday. Although only a decade has elapsed since it became a 
 republic and self-governing, the country has made a wonderful stride 
 forward in progress and well-being. It cannot be supposed that this 
 change would have been wrought so rapidly without the beneficent influence of 
 its Northern mentor, for years of tyranny, of bickerings, of petty jealousies, and 
 of political dictation generally leave an impress not easily eradicated. The 
 Panama of revolutionary times when lust for power ruled, and when brother 
 rose up against brother for no reason on earth save to depose an administration 
 unpopular with some particular faction, is no more. Yet some of the older 
 citizens sigh for the good old days, when, as the saying is "A revolution was 
 born every minute." A newer generation is springing up, a generation that knows 
 naught of war, and whose mission it will be to enter heartily into the arts of 
 peace and husbandry, for the art of war is one from which Panama is forever 
 divorced, and "Pro Mundo Beneficio" (For the benefit of the World), is its 
 adopted motto for the future. 
 
 The history of Panama after the raids of the buccaneers is a history of 
 countless revolutions, of plot and counterplot, of intolerable exactions on the 
 part of the mother country, and of repeated attempts at independence. Like 
 nearly all Latin-American countries, there were two main parties, Liberal and 
 Conservative. When not welded together for the moment in indignant protest 
 against some special act of injustice on the part of parent Colombia, these 
 parties in Panama were continually fighting for control of such offices as 
 Colombia permitted it to fill. A constitutional election was unknown up to a 
 year ago, and victory at the polls was usually dependent on fraud, and by right 
 of might. The Conservatives, who, in the past, represented the more prosper- 
 ous element, generally held the reins of power, and instead of using this power 
 
 [ 258 ] 
 
TvAND . DIVIDED ^qT\E WO^^P>_TJNJTgg 
 
 for the good of all the people, treated 
 their political opponents as personal 
 enemies entitled to no consideration. 
 The revolution of 1900-1902, one of 
 the most sanguinary struggles in which 
 the Isthmian partisans ever became 
 engaged, was started in Colombia, 
 where the Jesuits, who constituted a 
 dominant factor in affairs of church 
 and state, had started a campaign 
 against the Liberals. The fight invol- 
 ved every settled part of the Isthmus, 
 and the failure of the local Liberal 
 army to win victory at that time was 
 due to the generosity of Gen. Emiliano 
 Herrera, who laid siege to Panama 
 City, and who, willing to give the 
 women and children a chance to es- 
 cape the bombardment, postponed 
 his attack, thereby giving the enemy 
 opportunity to strengthen its defenses. 
 Dr. Belisario Porras, the present 
 Chief Executive of Panama, was one 
 of the principal Liberal leaders in 
 this campaign. 
 
 DR. BELISARIO PORRAS, 
 President of the Republic of Panama. 
 
 National Palace and Theatre, Panama City. It cost $1,000,000 and is the finest edifice 
 
 in the Republic of Panama. 
 
 [ 259 ] 
 
CTHE, Tv\N-P . DIVIDED CTTUZ WORUD, in^ITED 
 
 The last revolution, that of November 3, 1903, when Panama seceded from 
 Colombia, was a bloodless affair, devoid of spectacular incident, but it gave 
 birth to a new republic and made the Panama Canal an assured fact. The part 
 that the United States took in the event has been discussed pro and con. It 
 suffices to say that while the American Government did not actively interest 
 itself in the cause, it smiled broadly at the plot, and prevented any chance that 
 the Colombian troops might have had to avert the disaster, by prohibiting their 
 transport over the Panama Railroad on the pretext of keeping the transit clear, 
 which was all the Panameiios wanted. 
 
 The "handwriting on the wall" was seen when the Colombian Congress 
 deliberately turned down President Roosevelt's generous proposal for the 
 purchase of the Canal strip at $10,000,000. On their own admission they 
 wanted more, for the reason they thought they could get it by asking for it. 
 Roosevelt's hidden note of warning should have been enough, but Deputy 
 
 Electioneering in the interior of Panama is done on horseback. The man in front, under 
 the flags, was one of the candidates for President in the last election. 
 
 Velez and his followers thought they would call what they regarded as a bluff — 
 and they did, but with an unexpected result. The Isthmians knew the temper 
 of their compatriots, so the action of the Colombian Congress was no surprise 
 to them. The treaty was defeated by Colombia on August 12, 1903; the flag 
 of the new republic was raised on November 3, three months later; Panama was 
 
 [ 260 ] 
 
IlA^D-v-DIVIDED q^E WOM>D> TIKITED 
 
 recognized by the United States on November 6, 1903; the Canal treaty with 
 Panama was signed at Washington on November 18, 1903; it was ratified by 
 Panama on December 2, 1903, and by the United States Senate on February 24, 
 1904. Quick work all around. 
 
 THE PANAMA FLAG 
 
 Miss Maria Emilia de la Ossa, a 
 niece of the first president of Panama, 
 Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, is the de- 
 signer of the flag of the republic, which 
 was hung from the balcony of Dr. Ama- 
 dor's house on November 4, 1903, when 
 the Declaration of Independence was 
 signed in Cathedral Park. The flag- 
 was presented to President Roosevelt 
 when the United States recognized the 
 independence of Panama. The two 
 stars that adorn the banner represent 
 the two national parties, Liberal and 
 Conservative. 
 
 The two stars in the flag are red and blue on 
 white background; the opposite corners are 
 red and blue, making the combination red, 
 white and blue. 
 
 NATIONAL HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 
 
 Chorus 
 
 Panama! Land of all our Devotion! 
 
 Hail to thee, Union true, Union grand ! 
 
 Speed thy glory from ocean to ocean! 
 
 To our Nation we pledge heart and hand! 
 
 Speed thy glory from ocean to ocean! 
 
 To our Nation we pledge heart and hand. 
 
 Like the surge on our shore ever sounding, 
 
 In each heart rings the song of the Free; 
 
 Peace and Love with their wings all surrounding, 
 
 Loyal sons give their lives unto thee. 
 
 Onward still be the course of our Nation, 
 
 As the waves of the deep swiftly glide, 
 
 Thro' the Age shall our land take its station 
 
 With the grand of the earth side by side. 
 
 'Tis to thee, Land of Love, we are plighted, 
 And the din of the strife now is o'er, 
 Once again, brothers all, we're united, 
 While the Flag of the Free guards our shore! 
 Brightly gleams now the star of our Union 
 Still for Peace and for Fame may it shine, 
 All our hearts and our lives, in communion, 
 Till the last stroke of Time shall be thine. 
 
 THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD 
 
 The period 1904-1912 may be termed one" of reconstruction. The blighting 
 influence exercised by Colombia over Panama made the latter, in many respects, 
 
 [ 261 ] 
 
The high lands offer a pleasant and cool climate where all vegetation peculiar to the tropical 
 zone flourishes. The scenery along the streams is fine; ferns and orchids of many kinds abound 
 and splendid hardwood trees tower over the evergreen underbrush. 
 
 [ 262 ] 
 
100 years behind the times. The new government made a good start by dis- 
 banding its small army late in 1904. The army in nearly every Latin-American 
 country is a bone of contention for the opposing political factions, for success is 
 practically assured in case the aspirant for the presidency wins over the troops. 
 In the case of Panama, Gen. Esteban Huertas, the commander-in-chief of the 
 army, who, by casting in his lot with the Panamenos, made the secession move- 
 ment doubly assured, became discontented a year later, and framed a plan for 
 unseating President Amador. The plot was uncovered, Amador appealed to 
 the American Legation, and Huertas was plainly advised that if he made one 
 move the American marines would take the situation in hand. No move was 
 made and this act marked the end of Panama's standing army. Panama needs 
 
 Christening of the Panama Flag, November 3, 1903, the date of the last revolution in Panama. 
 
 no internal system of defense, as peace is forever guaranteed by the United 
 States. 
 
 The American Government exercises over Panama a mild form of guardian- 
 ship. It will prevent any intrusion by outsiders; it will safeguard its health, and, 
 in case of necessity, supervise its elections. It will not, as many think, annex 
 Panama. Former President Taft, when Secretary of War, gave advance notice 
 of what the policy of the United States toward Panama would be in December, 
 1904, when, speaking to an out-of-door assemblage from the balcony of the 
 Hotel Central, in Panama, he said: 
 
 "My government does not covet one cent of Panama's money, or one acre 
 of her land, but in the face of a probable outlay of $300,000,000, it is absolutely 
 essential that a thorough and close understanding be maintained between the 
 two governments." 
 
 This attitude has been religiously observed, and, barring the possibility of 
 
 [ 263 ] 
 
CTHJZ Tv\ND DIVIDED CfHE WORUB, UNITED 
 
 some rash act on the part of Panama, remote at best, will continue to be ob- 
 served. 
 
 "the land of the cocoanut tree" 
 
 Crook your finger slightly, and you will have a fair idea of the American 
 Isthmus, practically the whole of which is included within the limits of the 
 Republic of Panama. The area of the country can only be estimated, as no 
 actual survey has ever been made; and is approximately 32,000 square miles, 
 based upon the east and west boundaries, as claimed, for, to date, neither the 
 frontier on the Costa Rica side, nor that bordering on Colombia, has been deter- 
 mined. The Panama-Costa Rican boundary question was submitted for 
 arbitration to former President Loubet of France, but the Costa Rican govern- 
 
 MEMBERS OF PRESIDENT PORRAS' CABINET. 
 
 DON GUILLERMO ANDREVE, 
 Secretary of Public Instruction. 
 
 DON RAMON F. ACEVEDO, 
 Secretary of Public Works. 
 
 DON ERNESTO T. LEFEVRE, 
 Secretary of Foreign Relations. 
 
 [ 264 ] 
 
^THB UA^D-^DiyiDED — <?m& WORkD> TTKITED 
 
 ment refused to abide by his decision, which, for the most part, sustained 
 Panama's contentions, and the matter is now before another tribunal. A 
 tripartite treaty was arranged by the United States in 1912, to be signed by it, 
 Panama, and Colombia. The proposed convention defined the boundaries and 
 gave Colombia a sum of money — conscience money, it has been called by some. 
 Colombia rejected the terms, and negotiations have since been begun all over 
 again with some prospects of success. 
 
 The republic, while less than one-eighth the size of the state of Texas, 
 has room for ten Montenegros. The total land frontier will not exceed 350 
 
 The President's Residence, Panama City. 
 
 miles, while the coast line on both oceans aggregates 1,245 miles. Its greatest 
 length east and west is about 430 miles. The country is bisected with hills and 
 vallevs ramifving from a cordillera, or backbone, running irregularlv throughout 
 its length, ascending in some places to peaks of considerable height, and 
 descending in others to comparatively low elevations like the pass at Culebra. 
 Toward the sea on either side, the slopes end in wide, alluvial plains created by 
 successive deposits of silt brought down by the rivers. Chiriqui volcano is the 
 highest peak in the republic, 11,500 feet, which, according to Mr. D. F. 
 MaeDonald, geologist of the Canal Commission, has been extinct for 175,000 
 years. Both coasts are girt with islands and indented by numerous bays. The 
 islands number over 1,700, Coiba, off the south coast, being the largest. The Bay 
 of Panama constitutes the largest embayment, extending from Cape Garachine 
 on the east to Cape Malo on the west, a distance of 100 miles in a direct line. 
 Over 150 streams empty into the Caribbean Sea, and 300 into the Pacific 
 Ocean. The largest is the Tuyra in the Darien region ; the Santa Maria, empty- 
 
 [ 265 ] 
 

 I fltf ' 
 
 Bull fights are now prohibited, but cock fights are still a popular sport. Much money has 
 been and is being spent in the building of fine macadamized roads. The street traffic in Panama 
 City is largely carried on by means of two-wheeled carts drawn by one of the small native horses 
 or mules. In this particular scene Panamanian silver money is being carted to the car to pay 
 off laborers. 
 
 266 ] 
 
Jv\ND piVIDED — cmB AVOEqjP^XTKITED 
 
 ing into Parita Bay, is believed to be second in size, with the Chagres River, 
 feeder of Gatun Lake, third. 
 
 The republic is divided into seven provinces, namely, Bocas del Toro, 
 Chiriqui, Code, Colon, Los Santos, Panama, and Veraguas. Panama province 
 is much the largest embracing that region as yet unreclaimed from the Indian 
 tribes, known as the Darien. Panama City is the federal as well as provincial 
 capital. After the sack of Old Panama by Morgan, the survivors moved to the 
 site of the present city, five miles to the west, its founding dating from January 
 21, 1673. In 1904, when the Americans came, the city had a little over 20, 000 
 inhabitants; the government census of 1911 gave it 37,505, and in 1913, it was 
 estimated to have 50,000. Colon, the second city in size, situated on Manzanillo 
 
 Plaza de la Independencia, or Central Park, Panama City. The public parks are the favorite 
 meeting places of the masses. Band concerts are held every Sunday and Thursday evenings. 
 The natives assemble in their gala clothes, together with a cosmopolitan mixture of races. 
 
 Island, was a miserable village of 4,000 souls in 1904, built over a bog, but has 
 since grown to an enterprising well-ordered town of 25,000 or more, a gain of 
 over 600 per cent in the past ten years. Panama City today enjoys most of the 
 conveniences of any city of its size, including taxicabs and an electric street 
 railway, which were placed in service in August, 1913. Colon, also, has a 
 tramway under construction. The future appears bright for these two cities, 
 owing to their proximity to the Canal termini. David, the capital of Chiriqui 
 province, is the third largest city, while Bocas del Toro, built up by the banana 
 interests of the United Fruit Company, ranks fourth. 
 
 GOVERNMENT IS PROGRESSIVE 
 
 The present administration is headed by Dr. Belisario Porras, a leader of 
 the Liberals, who took a prominent part in the revolution of 1900, and who is a 
 
 [ 267 ] 
 
CTKE< TvAN-D /DIVIDED ^^THB WOI£kD> TTKITED 
 
 thorough progressive. He was inaugurated on October 1, 1912, after an ex- 
 ceedingly hard fought campaign, and is called Panama's first constitutional 
 president. In view of possible attempts at fraud, the United States was called 
 upon to supervise the election, and did so. In his pre-election speeches, Dr. 
 Porras promised the people of the country certain reforms, and many of these 
 reforms are being brought about. When he took office, the national treasury 
 was empty, and a considerable amount was owing to the local banks on loans. 
 In less than six months all debts were paid, and, in August, 1913, there was a 
 balance in the treasury of over $350,000, not including the first of the annual 
 payments of $250,000 made by the United States in 1913, under the Treaty. 
 
 The national constitution, providing for a centralized republican form of 
 government, went into effect on February 24, 1904. The president is elected by 
 
 
 arc' \^3^ —■"- 
 
 Panama City as it appears from Ancon Hill. This is the capital of the Republic of Panama 
 and is situated close to the Pacific entrance to the Canal. It has about 40,000 inhabitants, including 
 almost every nationality on the globe. 
 
 popular vote, for a term of four years, and cannot succeed himself. The 
 elections are held in July, and the successful candidate takes the oath of office 
 on the first of October, following. He receives a salary of $9,000 per annum, with 
 an allowance for household expenses and extra official purposes. He appoints all 
 the higher officials, including members of his cabinet, judges of the Supreme 
 Court, diplomatic and consular representatives, and the governors of provinces. 
 He is assisted in his duties by a cabinet of five members, consisting of a secretary 
 of finance, secretary of foreign relations, secretary of government and justice, 
 secretary of public instruction, and secretary of public works. In case of death, 
 the duties of the president devolve on the Primer Designado. There are three 
 of these designados, which correspond to the titles of first, second, and third 
 vice-president, respectively. The lawmaking branch of the government is a 
 
 [ 268 ] 
 
While Panama City as a whole, has quite an antiquated appearance, there are a number of 
 up-to-date stores which import the latest creations, direct from Paris. The Palm Garden in the 
 Hotel Central is a popular meeting place, especially on Sunday evenings after the band concert 
 in the park. 
 
 [ 269 ] 
 
CTHE, Jv\N-D . DIVIDED crn& WOB^B_TJNJTED 
 
 single body known as the national assembly, consisting of deputies elected for 
 a term of two years in much the same manner as United States Congressmen. 
 The administration of justice is vested in a superior court, circuit courts, district 
 courts, and such inferior tribunals as may be established by law. The superior 
 holds court in Panama City, and consists of five judges. In a general way, 
 foreigners enjoy the same rights and privileges before the tribunals of the 
 country as citizens do. 
 
 REVENUES 
 
 The national finances are in an excellent condition. The sum of $6,000,- 
 000, the balance of the $10,000,000 paid Panama by the United States for the 
 canal strip, is loaned on first-class New York mortgages, drawing 4§ per cent 
 interest annually. This interest, about $272,000, together with the following 
 approximate amounts, form the fixed annual revenues of the republic: Canal 
 Zone rental, $250,000; interest on the sum to guarantee the parity of money, 
 $9,000; interest from funds in the National Bank of the Republic, $33,750; 
 rents of public market and dock, $40,000; rents from lots in Colon, $26,000; 
 interest on bonds of the National Navigation Company, $2,450. Total, 
 $633,200. Added to this are the customs duties and consular fees, estimated 
 at $4,189,986 for 1913; and internal revenue collections estimated at $500,000. 
 The budget of expenses for 1913 is estimated at $3,841,214. The country has 
 no national debt, and there is no probability of its ever having one. All imports 
 into the republic, with the exception of certain articles on which a higher tax is 
 imposed, are subject to a duty of 15 per cent. Liquors of all kinds, matches, salt, 
 cigars, cigarettes, and tobacco, coffee, etc., are subject to a special tax. The 
 
 Panama Bay at high tide. A part of Panama City and Ancon Hill in the background. 
 
 [ 270 ] 
 
CTHB I>ANP_._DIVIDEP CTHB WORkD> TTKITED 
 
 importation of opium is now prohibited by law. Foreign patents and trade 
 marks may be registered upon application to the Secretary of Public Works 
 (Fomento), and the payment of the required fee. 
 
 NATIONAL CURRENCY 
 
 The monetary unit is the Balboa, having a fixed value of one dollar in gold. 
 Under the Treaty Panama agreed to maintain its coinage at a parity of 2 to 1, 
 
 Cayucos or small boats, shown in the picture, are hollowed out of a single log, and are used 
 on the interior rivers to bring down bananas and other fruits; they are either poled or paddled 
 from the stern. 
 
 and accordingly there have been minted silver coins in 50-cent, 2o-eent, 10-cent, 
 and 5-cent denominations, and nickel coins in 2^-cent and J-cent denomina- 
 tions, known as peso, medio peso, dos rcales, real, medio, and cuartillo, respective- 
 ly. In 1904, Colombian silver currency was the only medium of exchange, with 
 the exception of a small amount of American currency then in circulation. The 
 Colombian money was retired when the new coinage was issued. The local 
 currency would long ago have proved inadequate for the growing commercial 
 transactions of the country had it not been for the enormous amount of American 
 money in circulation. American gold figures exclusively in all large business 
 deals, and American subsidiary coins down to the copper cent pass current every- 
 where side by side with the Panamanian coins. The National Assembly of 
 1913 authorized the establishment of a national bank, with power to issue paper 
 money, but constitutional objection has been made to the plan. 
 
 PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS 
 
 Early in 1904, the sum of $1,625,000 was set aside for public improve- 
 ments, and since that time several millions more have been spent. When 
 
 [ 271 ] 
 
Some of the streets in Colon have queer 
 names. This is a scene in Bottle Alley, one 
 of the principal business thoroughfares. 
 
 One of the newer type of concrete buildings. 
 This structure is the property of the Panama 
 Railroad, which owns most of the land in 
 Colon. 
 
 Front Street, Colon, as it appears to-day. Before the Americans started work on the Canal, many 
 of the streets were in an unsightly and consequently unhealthy condition. In the past few years 
 a large amount of street improvements have been made and much land has been filled in and 
 reclaimed east of the city. All of the streets, both residential and business, are now macadamized. 
 
 | 272 } 
 
cmB TiANP . DIVIDED GTTUZ WOUL?D/ TTNITED 
 
 Panama became a republic there was not a road in the country that could be 
 dignified by that name. Subsequently, a number of roads and bridges were 
 built, connecting the principal towns in western Panama, but the work, in 
 many cases, was let to irresponsible contractors, and proved defective. It is 
 officially admitted that the main trouble has been the failure to adopt a definite 
 plan. This mistake has been corrected, and works of a public nature are now 
 carried out along uniform lines. The largest wagon bridge in the republic is 
 that over the Santa Maria River on the border of Code and Los Santos prov- 
 inces. It was built in 1907, under the supervision of Mr. J. G. Holcombe, 
 at that time chief engineer of the republic, but who was formerly in charge of all 
 municipal engineering of the Canal Commission. Since 1904, municipal 
 buildings, including schoolhouses, have been erected in all of the important 
 
 
 
 
 
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 A busy scene at the playa, or market beach, Panama City, where small coasting vessels 
 laden 'with vegetables and fruit unload their cargoes. 
 
 towns. In Panama, a national palace and theatre was completed in 1908 at a 
 cost of about $1,000,000; a city hall was erected in 1910; a national institute 
 for boys, covering half an acre, was finished in 1911 at a cost of about $800,000; 
 a spacious city market is now under construction, and plans have been prepared 
 for an abattoir and cold storage plant to cost $100,000. In Colon, a govern- 
 ment building was erected in 1906. 
 
 Development of the country has been greatly handicapped by the lack of 
 suitable transportation facilities from the interior districts to the ports. Produce 
 is brought to the ports by pack-pony, or by two-wheeled ox carts, over roads 
 which, in the rainy season, oftentimes become impassable. It is then shipped 
 to market by steamer or sailing vessel. On the Pacific coast, the National 
 Navigation Company operates steamers west as far as Pedregal, the port of 
 Chiriqui province, touching at all intermediate ports, and on the east to San 
 
 [ 273 ] 
 
OX TEAM 
 
 ,— 
 
 Ancient methods of agriculture are still in vogue, such as planting corn by punching holes in 
 the ground with a sharp pointed stick, although a few farmers have made homes and laid out 
 plantations in the interior provinces and the methods of farming are being gradually improved. 
 Produce is brought to market by a pack-pony or by two-wheeled ox carts over roads, which, in 
 the rainy season, often become impassable. 
 
 [ 274 1 
 
jyXND piVIDED Gyrm WOBkg>_IINJXgg 
 
 Miguel Bay. The Panama Steamship 
 Company competes in this trade be- 
 tween Panama and Chiriqui, as do 
 hundreds of small sailing vessels. On 
 the Atlantic coast the traffic has to de- 
 pend entirely on sailing vessels and 
 launches. 
 
 There is less than 100 miles of rail- 
 road in the country, and is confined to 
 the Panama railroad main line, and its 
 branches, and to a line about 40 miles 
 in length operated by the United Fruit 
 Company in connection with its banana 
 plantations in the province of Bocas 
 del Toro. In 1910, at the request of the 
 Panama Government, a survey was 
 made by the Panama Railroad Com- 
 pany, for a line from Panama to David 
 in Chiriqui province, a distance of 
 about 274 miles. Several attempts to 
 
 enact railroad legislation in the National Assembly, in order to proceed 
 with the construction of this line, failed; it passed the Assembly at one 
 time, but was vetoed by a former president on constitutional grounds. 
 The present administration has abandoned this project, and is making a 
 study of a series of short electric roads, with a view of connecting up 
 
 Greetings from Panama 
 
 Celebration of the opening of the Panama tramways. Picture taken at the company's car barn. 
 
 [ 275 ] 
 
crn& TvNNP . DIVIDED — ^crrFLE: WQ15LkD> TTKITED 
 
 the principal ports on the Pacific coast, west of Panama, with the interior 
 districts, using the abundant waterpower for operating them. A number 
 of other railroad schemes have been launched during the past few years, notably, 
 one in the Darien by a German syndicate, and another in Colon province, 
 having its port terminus at the mouth of the Chagres River; the former project 
 was abandoned, and the latter has been held up by the United States Govern- 
 ment. The Panamanian telegraph system is government-owned. A line 
 
 A corner on Central Avenue, Panama, showing a car of the tramway service. 
 
 extends from Panama to David, with branch lines ramifying through the 
 provinces. 
 
 FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 The national constitution established a free public school system, some- 
 thing unique in Latin-America, and the government has pursued the policy of 
 always providing liberally for the cause of education. Attendance at the public 
 schools is compulsory, and absence without permission is punishable by small 
 fines. Separate graded schools for each sex are maintained. The curriculum 
 embraces studies that will prepare the pupil for the local normal schools, and 
 the institute. It includes drawing, and in the case of the girls, instruction in 
 needlework. Lessons in English are given in all the city schools, and some 
 of the country schools, twice a week. The government also maintains a manual 
 training school for boys, and a natural conservatory of music to which children 
 of poor families are given free instruction, and where boys are trained to qualify 
 for employment in the national band. There are a number of private colleges 
 for both sexes in the republic; the colleges for boys are generally conducted by 
 the Christian Brothers. The institute is open to Panamanian boys free of 
 charge, but only two in a family are entitled to be admitted at the same time on 
 this basis. The director is an American, but the talent of various countries is 
 
 [ 276 j 
 
■nn 
 
 mm mji 1111 
 
 jnrrii 
 
 1 1 1 1 r b n a H 
 
 // 
 
 "ft 
 
 NATIONA 
 
 INSTITUTE . PANAMA 
 
 • Hi *. 
 
 The splendid public buildings, worthy of any towns of their size, which have been erected in 
 Panama City and Colon, are real monuments to Panamanian progress. The Panama government 
 provides liberally for the education of its youth. The National Institute, Panama City, cost about 
 $700,000 and has class room for 1,000 boys. Colon also has a school building for boys of much 
 the same architectural type as the one shown in the picture for girls. 
 
 [ 277 ] 
 
IjAJsi-D piVIDED crrr\E WOg^E>; UNITED 
 
 drawn on freely in the selection of the remainder of the faculty. The scholars 
 are classed as interims, those who board and room at the school, and externos, 
 those who live at home. Every pupil who lives at the school must be provided 
 prior to admittance with clothes and bed linen to the value of $100. 
 
 On May 1, 1913, the number of public schools in each province, number 
 of teachers employed, and scholars enrolled, were, as follows: 
 
 
 No. of Schools 
 
 Mixed 
 
 and 
 Alter- 
 nates* 
 
 No. of 1 
 
 "'eachers 
 
 No. 
 
 Pupils en- 
 rolled 
 
 No. 
 
 Receiving 
 
 Instruc- 
 
 PK()\ INC h 
 
 Hoys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 tion, 
 
 one-half 
 
 day 
 
 Bocas del Xoro 
 
 2 
 11 
 10 
 22 
 20 
 29 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 35 
 12 
 44 
 
 42 
 11 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 22 
 36 
 12 
 76 
 20 
 
 12 
 53 
 45 
 76 
 34 
 174 
 25 
 
 291 
 2,352 
 2,224 
 4,111 
 2,942 
 6,407 
 1,214 
 
 217 
 
 Code 
 
 1,682 
 
 Colon 
 
 1,358 
 
 Chiriqui 
 
 2,307 
 
 Los Santos 
 
 2,016 
 
 Panama 
 
 5,177 
 
 Yeraguas 
 
 861 
 
 Totals 
 
 10? 
 
 104 
 
 165 
 
 189 
 
 419 
 
 19,541 
 
 13,618 
 
 
 
 * Mixed schools are those where pupils of both sexes attend classes at the same time. Alternate schools are 
 those where the boys attend school in the morning, and girls in the afternoon, vice versa. 
 
 In addition to the above, there is a normal institute for girls, with 161 pupils, 
 and 19 professors; national conservatory of music and declamation, with 176 
 pupils and eight professors; school of arts and sciences with 136 scholars and 
 nine professors, and the National Institute for boys with 157 pupils, and 26 
 professors, all located in Panama City. Since May 1, several other primary 
 schools have been opened, and one professional school for girls. The national 
 
 Masonic Temple, Port l.imon. 
 
 [ 278 ] 
 
Views of a Sugar Cane Plantation, located about seven miles east of Colon. The raising of 
 sugar cane is destined to become one of the future permanent sources of wealth of the country. 
 The Isthmian cane contains a high per cent of saccharine and grows readily. 
 
 f 279 ] 
 
CTTIE, Tv\NP . DIVIDED -^CTTUZ WQB&-ELIT KITED 
 
 conservatory of music and declamation is one of the best of its kind, and many 
 American children receive musical instruction there. Its head is Prof. Narciso 
 Garay. 
 
 PANAMA RICHLY ENDOWED BY NATURE 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that Panama has been wonderfully favored in the 
 extent and variety of its natural resources, the value of its imports greatly 
 exceed the value of its exports. The people of interior Panama are in the main 
 agriculturists only so far as to supply their own simple wants. They lack 
 initiative and ambition, looking only to the present, with no great desire to 
 acquire wealth from cultivation of the soil. Hence, the future of Isthmian 
 agriculture must depend upon immigrants, men of a hardier mold, and ex- 
 perienced in tilling the field. 
 
 The Canal Commission ran up against this condition in 1904 and 1905. 
 It was perfectly willing to buy produce in the local market, but the moment it 
 attempted to do so, prices advanced to a prohibitive point. This brought the 
 commissary question into prominence. In 1904, but one commissary was in 
 operation, that at Cristobal. The merchants of Panama protested against the 
 establishment of government commissaries on a large scale, and appealed to 
 Washington. In 1905, Hon. Charles E. Magoon, then governor of the Canal 
 Zone, was directed to propose to the committee of merchants having the matter 
 in charge, that if a company was formed among them to establish commissaries 
 at points along the Canal, where indicated, and if this company would agree to 
 sell goods at a reasonable price, the Canal Commission would desist from their 
 plan. After a week of deliberation, the chairman of the committee announced 
 
 Central Market, Panama City, where the larger number of Panamanian housewives 
 
 do their marketing. 
 
 [ 280 ] 
 
The Mango is the most common of the fruit bearing trees in Panama. Gourds, from the gourd 
 or calabash trees, are much used for household utensils. An excellent grade of coffee is grown on 
 the uplands. Tamarinds are a small pod-shaped fruit -with an acid flavor, having medicinal proper- 
 ties. Cocoanut plants take root and sprout on the surface of sandy soil, and the growing of 
 cocoanuts is becoming a profitable industry. 
 
 [ 281 J 
 
ctkb TyANP , divided -—ct^E' wor^d, ttnjted 
 
 at a public meeting that it was too big an undertaking for the merchants to 
 entertain. Thus Panama lost one of its greatest opportunities, and as a result 
 of this shortsightedness the commissaries have been a thorn in the flesh of the 
 local commercial body ever since. 
 
 Until immigration is intelligently fostered by the Panama Government 
 there can be no great development of the country's vast resources. Some 
 
 Street venders are numerous and display their wares in the manner shown in the picture. 
 
 attempts at settlement and colonization have been made on the part of foreign- 
 ers, and most have failed, partly on account of obstacles set up by the govern- 
 ment itself, such as inability to procure clear titles, and partly on account of 
 ignorance of local conditions. The present administration has taken steps to 
 remedy the situation by reforming the land laws. The public land of Panama 
 consists of what are known as "Tierras baldias," or unappropriated or wild 
 lands, and "Indultadas," which were acquired by the early settlers under grants 
 from the Spanish crown as commons. A general land survey, and the prepara- 
 tion of maps and plats of all government lands, has been ordered, under which 
 all rights acquired by persons under former laws will be respected, while present 
 occupants of government land, who have put up improvements, may acquire 
 title upon the payment of 50 cents a hectare (about 2^ acres). Sales of public 
 land, not exceeding 1,000 hectares to any one person, may be made at a price of 
 not less than $1.50, nor more than $6 per hectare. If the purchaser of a 1,000- 
 hectare tract places same under full cultivation he may acquire another tract 
 of equal size under similar conditions. Not more than 10 hectares of public 
 land may be homesteaded by either foreigner or native born. 
 
 Agriculturally speaking, the surface of the republic has not yet been scratch- 
 ed. There are probably 75,000 head of cattle in Chiriqui, but the extensive 
 
 [282 ] 
 
Panamanian fire brigade. Both Panama and Colon in times past have been visited by terrible 
 conflagrations, and up to a few years ago were compelled to fight fires with antiquated equipment. 
 J. G. Duque is the good angel of the Panama department, and for years paid for its upkeep out of 
 his personal funds. 
 
 Automobile fire engine of the Panamanian fire department at Colon. The city of Panama 
 is also provided with one of these modern machines. 
 
 [ 283 ] 
 
CTllE, Tv\NP DIVIDED— CT~HB WQ^D, ITNJTED 
 
 llanos of that province, and in Yeraguas, are capable of supporting ten times 
 that many. Cattle on the hoof in Chiriqui bring about $35 a head. There is 
 an abundance of feed, and the chief enemy of the animals is the tick, which, 
 under scientific handling, has been brought under control. It is estimated 
 that over 8,000,000 acres in the republic are covered by virgin forests, containing 
 valuable hardwoods, such as mahogany, cocobolo, guayacum (lignum vitae), 
 roble, dyewoods, and other varieties. 
 
 Traces of gold are found in various parts of the country. A few quartz 
 mines have been worked, but on account of the low grade ore they have not 
 proved profitable. Manganese mines were formerly worked on the Atlantic 
 
 fjk 
 
 mm 
 
 ■** <SS*\ it, *i 
 
 1 ">'■" , .■''•-' -' 
 
 -i*sa 
 
 
 
 
 yw v* ^ jy 
 
 r« fry. 1 
 
 The Espiritu Santo or Holy Ghost Orchid, 
 one of the most prized members of the 
 Isthmanian orchid family. The petals of the 
 flowers enclose a faithful reproduction of 
 doves, even to the eyes and bill. 
 
 Row of young Royal palms, Slifer Park, 
 Colon. These were shoots less than a foot 
 high in 1909, when transplanted from the 
 Botanical Gardens at Kingston, Jamaica. 
 
 coast, near Nombre de Dios. Indications of oil have been discovered in Chiri- 
 qui and Los Santos provinces. No coal deposits of value have yet been found. 
 A lignitic formation was encountered in the excavation of the Canal. 
 
 Both the flora and the fauna cover a wide range, and remain to be made 
 the subject of expert study. The orchid thrives, and there are hundreds of 
 varieties, the Espiritu Santo, the Semana Santa, and La Doncclla de la Noche 
 being the most prized. Among wild animals are the jaguar, wild cat, puma, 
 deer, armadillo, anteater, tapir, raccoon, sajino, a species of wild boar, rabbit, 
 squirrel, monkey, marmoset, and sloth. Alligators are plentiful in the tidal 
 rivers, and the snake family is represented from the boa constrictor to the spite- 
 
 [ 284 ] 
 
Em- 
 
 ykj fcsfei 
 
 
 
 c lO . 
 
 L" m; 
 
 
 * 
 
 ■p Wr Br 
 
 \vsKf • 
 
 
 4 11 
 
 
 
 W^Wrt W* *' 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 
 
 An iguana, or huge lizard. Its flesh, as well 
 as its eggs, are highly prized as articles of diet 
 by the natives of Panama. 
 
 Among the wild animals on the Isthmus, 
 none are more unprepossessing than the sloth, 
 shown in the picture. They are harmless and 
 stick close to the trees. 
 
 Two products of the Isthmus. The picture above shows "Buster" Brown seated on a 15 ft. 
 8 in. alligator, which was shot three miles from Porto Bello, in August, 1909. The rivers of 
 Panama are the habitat of thousands of alligators. The Bayano river is especially adapted to their 
 haunts, and parties of Canal employes often make trips up this river and enjoy the sport of 
 hunting them. 
 
 [ 285 1 
 
q-riB TyAN-P , DIVIDED -^cmB WOM)D> TTKITED 
 
 A bread seller. 
 
 ful coral. Bird life is particularly 
 varied, the best known species being 
 the parrot family, including the par- 
 roquet. The game birds consist of 
 quail, currasows, wild ducks, pigeons, 
 doves, guans, (a kind of wild turkey) 
 and various migratory shore birds. 
 The quetzal bird is found in Chiriqui 
 province. In the Canal Zone upward 
 of 800 species of birds have been noted, 
 300 of which have been classified. 
 Among them are more than 150 kinds 
 of humming birds, including a new 
 species which have been given the 
 name of Goethalae, in honor of Colonel 
 Goethals. The Isthmus is a veritable 
 paradise for the sportsman. The kill- 
 ing of birds in the Canal Zone is re- 
 stricted. Deer, formerly common in 
 the Zone, have been largely hunted 
 off, but are plentiful a short distance away from the Canal. 
 
 The largest single item of export from the Isthmus is bananas, the annual 
 shipments of the United Fruit Company from its plantations in Bocas del 
 Toro province alone amounting to upward of 6,000,000 bunches. It is the 
 second largest banana producing district in the world, and is continually being 
 extended. Bananas are found in all parts of the republic, and, with the above 
 exception, no pains are taken to cultivate them. The Chagres River valley is 
 quite a producer, and furnishes the Canal Commission hotels and messes. The 
 Frijoles banana is especially noted for its fine flavor. There are several varieties 
 of bananas, most of them unknown to the outsider as they are not shipped. 
 One is the manzana, so named, because of a similarity in flavor to the apple, and 
 the higo, so-called, because it approxi- 
 mates a fig in flavor. This last seldom 
 grows larger than a man's middle 
 finger. Other fruits are the pine- 
 apple, which grow to prodigious size on 
 Taboga Island, the pineapple para- 
 dise; mangoes of varying size and 
 quality, including a toothsome fruit 
 known as the mango de calidad; nis- 
 pero, a small, sweetish fruit; oranges, 
 limes and lemons, guavas, maranon, 
 a fruit that will pucker like a choke- 
 cherry, having its seed at one end; 
 grapefruit, papayas, breadfruit, ma- 
 meys of several kinds, custard apples, 
 cirijuelas, a native cherry, etc. Cocoa- 
 nuts grow everywhere, but attain their 
 greatest production on the San Bias 
 coast. There are many varieties of 
 
 Making cocoanut oil. 
 
 [ 286 ] 
 
cf 
 
 LOADING ON B' 
 
 The largest single item of export from the Isthmus is bananas. The annual shipment of the 
 United Fruit Company from its plantation in Bocas del Toro Province alone amounting to up- 
 wards of 6,000,000 bunches. It is the second largest banana producing district in the world. 
 
 [ 2S7 ] 
 
CTilB Tv\N-E> piVIDED CTHB WQELkD, TTKITED 
 
 the palm tree, including the royal palm (transplanted), wine palm, ivory nut 
 palm, and fan palm. 
 
 Pearl fishing has been carried on for years in the Pearl Island archipelago, 
 situated in Panama Bay, about 45 miles from Panama City. It is conducted 
 under concession from the Panama Government. Balboa makes mention of 
 finding many pearls of size there, and some have been disclosed in recent times 
 to the value of $1,200. Native divers are usually employed, although the diving- 
 bell has been used. Most of the fishing is carried on in the rainy season, as the 
 
 Outer view of one of the old forts at Porto 
 Bello. It is so grown over with vegetation 
 that the walls are hardly visible.. The turret 
 marks one of the corners. 
 
 A tropical tramp. A local character known 
 as "Old Aspinwall" who lived in Colon for 
 many years. 
 
 divers do not like to descend in the dry season, when an ocean current cools 
 the temperature of the water. Some pearls are also found along the coast of 
 Los Santos province. 
 
 Other native products are rubber, cocoa, plantains, corn, indigo, sarsapa- 
 rilla, ipecac, sugar cane, and tobacco. The raising of sugar cane is destined 
 to become one of the future permanent sources of wealth of the country. The 
 Isthmian cane contains a high percentage of saccharine and grows readily. At 
 the present time only one refinery is in operation, the sap being mainly used in 
 the production of molasses and native rum. 
 
 It is to be feared that Nature has been too lavish to the simple husbandman 
 of the Isthmus. It furnishes the cane to build the walls of his little hut; the 
 palm leaves are easily gathered to thatch it; the neighboring trees supply the 
 material out of which he fashions his mortar and pestle for pulverizing his corn 
 or hulling his rice; the calabash tree found growing in every yard furnishes the 
 
 [ 288 ] 
 
r 
 
 SA 
 
 Primitive methods are still used in making molasses in the interior of Panama and the produce 
 is principally used in the manufacture of native rum. Pineapple growing is quite an industry and 
 some of the most luscious pineapples in the world are grown on Taboga Island. A sample of the 
 straw used in the manufacture of Panama hats is shown in one of the above pictures. A family 
 group is also shown preparing the evening meal by hulling rice with mortar and pestle, after the 
 native method. The household utensils of the people of the interior of Panama are crude affairs. 
 
 [ 289 ] 
 
CTHB Tv\N-D DIVIDED CTT\& WQ5JkP> TTKITED 
 
 minor household utensils; his orange and papaya trees and banana stalks gives 
 him all the fruit he wants; he goes a short distance away and collects the wild 
 plantain, which makes an excellent substitute for potatoes; he pokes a stick in 
 the ground near the house and inserts the seed of a yucca or yam, giving it no 
 
 The usual type of house of the average interior Panamanian. They are constructed of 
 bamboo, tied by means of withes and have a thatch roof. 
 
 further attention ; his wife collects the firewood that the wind has shook from the 
 trees, and he lacks what ? Nothing, but a little coffee, sugar, salt, and candles. 
 
 THE PEOPLE 
 
 The native population of the Isthmus is composed of descendants of the 
 early Spanish conquistador es, and of various later mixtures. Prior to the intro- 
 duction of the negro slaves, the people could be divided into three general classes, 
 the pure-blooded Spaniards, the native Indians, and the mestizos, a cross be- 
 tween the Spaniard and the Indian. With the advent of the negroes, mulattos 
 became numerous, and these mixing with the Indian produced another type 
 called zambos. During the French canal days, many of the French employes 
 intermarried with the Panamcnas, resulting in a Creole type. Since then, other 
 mixtures have come into existence, such as the Chinese with the negro, and the 
 Chinese with native women of the lower class. Thus may be seen many 
 children, moreno, or brown in color, with Mongolian features. 
 
 The mestizo, according to the national census of 1911, is largely in the 
 majority, outnumbering the whites three to one, and the negroes two to one. 
 Comparatively few negroes are seen in the back country; they generally live 
 near the coast, or in the cities of Panama, Colon, and Bocas del Toro. The 
 Canal work has been responsible for the introduction of the greater part of the 
 present day negroes, with the exception of the province of Bocas del Toro, where 
 
 [ 290 ] 
 
The children of the tropical zone love to play as ardently as do those in the cooler climes; 
 they have the same childish joys and sorrows and look forward with some desire to the time 
 when they are "Grown Up." One of their games peculiar to the Isthmus resembles shooting 
 craps," and is played with the seeds of the maranon, a native fruit. 
 
 [ 291 ] 
 
A wash day scene. Wash-boards are not in 
 favor with the native laundry women. A flat 
 stone and a wooden beater are effective in 
 removing the dirt, but as a "button buster" 
 they are hard to beat. 
 
 Laundry is delivered and produce carried 
 to market on the heads of the natives. A 
 farmer living near Panama City makes a busi- 
 ness of renting space to the washerwomen, on 
 which to erect lines for drying their clothes. 
 
 the United Fruit Company has imported them in large numbers to work its 
 banana plantations. Practically all of the negroes came from the islands of the 
 Antilles; many of them become naturalized, acquire property, and, in time, 
 adopt the language and customs of the country and intermix with the native 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The full-blooded negro immigrant has no social standing whatever with 
 the Panamanians as long as he remains a West Indian in character and associa- 
 tions. He is termed a "chumbo" by them, equivalent of the shortening of the 
 word "negro" as practiced in the United States. The color line, however, is 
 
 Street scene in the village of Arraijan. 
 
 [ 292 ] 
 
Rosario de la Rosa in her native holiday 
 costume. 
 
 One of the belles of Panama, or a Panamanian 
 "Queen of Hearts." 
 
 The Martiniquan women are the most 
 picturesque of the varied types attracted to 
 Panama by the Canal 'work. Their dress tends 
 wholly to gay colors. 
 
 A Panamanian family. Girls of the higher 
 class Panamanian families are not allowed on 
 the street after nightfall, without being accom- 
 panied by some member of their family. 
 
 [ 293 
 
CHFIE T vAN-P . DIVIDED ^CfHR WOR&PlI UNITED 
 
 not drawn so strictly as it is in the South, nor with the laxity of the North. 
 He is not admitted to the best hotels, cafes, or barber shops, but he is permitted 
 to mingle freely in places of public amusement. He can sit in the first-class 
 coaches of a Panama railroad passenger train, provided he pays first-class fare 
 for the privilege, which only a few avail themselves of, and there are no "Jim 
 Crow" street cars. He is not, however, admitted to the homes of the better 
 class of Panamanians, except in the capacity of menials. On the other hand if 
 a person is of mixed Panamanian and negro stock, was born in the country, 
 and is a citizen, the bars are lowered, and there are many of this type who have 
 risen to public eminence through superior intelligence. 
 
 The Panamanian is either fairly well-to-do or very poor. The middle class 
 seen in Mexico, and some other Latin-American countries, is a negligible factor 
 
 Church of the Immaculate Conception at Colon, (Roman Catholic). The building to the right 
 is the schoolhouse and hall, erected by the parish priest, Father Volk, after years of labor, with 
 his own hands and with his own money. 
 
 in Panama. In the provinces, outside of the towns, the poorer class pre- 
 dominates. The people are either squatters settling on a piece of government 
 land, or are employes of some landed proprietor, or cattle owner. The mestizo 
 makes an excellent vaquero and cowboy, because of his liking for the work. 
 The average interior farmhand, however, is utterly undependable as a laborer, 
 and, as a rule, can be counted on to work only when he must have money. He 
 has an almost total lack of ambition, and, therefore, is measurably free from 
 worry. So long as he has a roof over his head, even if only of thatch, a ham- 
 mock to sleep in, and an amount of rice, meat, and rum sufficient to stay the 
 immediate cravings of his appetite, he cares not a jot for the morrow. He 
 revels in fiestas or religious holidays, and it is then that the interior native is 
 seen at his best. The head of the family will don a boiled shirt and black 
 trousers; some times he will put on a pair of alpargatas, or rope-soled slippers, 
 but generally he will go barefoot. The wife and daughter will assume all the 
 
 [ 294 ] 
 
JV\N-D piVIDED q p^B W Q^kg>-T UNITED 
 
 Interior of the church at Arraijan. The 
 parishioners are poor as evidenced by the 
 crude attempt at adornment. 
 
 The village church at San Miguel, Pearl 
 Islands. These islands are located in Panama 
 Bay and are noted for their pearl beds. 
 
 finery their simple abode possesses. This, on feast days, usually consists of 
 the pollera, popularly called the national costume, which is worn with a grace 
 and freedom of movement, which no woman not native born has been able to 
 imitate. The hair is bedecked with varicolored butterfly and flower ornaments, 
 and native made bright colored slippers adorn the feet. No hose are worn. A 
 gold chain and a filmy scarf generally completes the attire. The pollera is not 
 confined to the poorer classes, but is much affected on religious festivals by the 
 wives and daughters of the rich. The costume is very carefully made frequently 
 costing from $-40 to $50. 
 
 Panama is essentially a Catholic country, and while all of its civilized 
 inhabitants observe the forms of religion, there is surprisingly small interest in 
 church attendance. The rites of baptism and christening, however, are never 
 
 » £a 
 
 Methodist Church and College, built by the 
 Sea in Panama City. Both English and Spanish 
 are taught in the college. The Sunday morning 
 services are conducted in English and the 
 evening services in Spanish. 
 
 Christ Church, Colon. The oldest Pro- 
 testant church on the Isthmus, built in 1865 by 
 the Panama Railroad. It was consecrated by 
 Bishop Potter and is now owned by the 
 Episcopal Church. 
 
 [295] 
 
CTHE T v\N-D DIVIDED —G\-n E, WQD^^ TTNJTED 
 
 overlooked. Many of the old'houses contain niches for the burning of candles, 
 a practice indulged in by every good Catholic family on the near approach of ill 
 fortune or sickness. Wayside shrines are found along the roads on which some 
 small offering may be seen. On all important religious anniversaries and saint 
 days, processions are formed and march through the streets. The carnival 
 or "Mardi Gras" has come to be the one great event in Panama, and is carried 
 out on a larger scale with each succeeding year. It is preceded by the election 
 of a king and queen, the proceeds from the sale of votes being used to defray 
 the expense of the affair. The carnival continues for three or four days, and 
 
 Chorrera Falls. One of a number of pretty waterfalls in Panama, 20 miles from Panama City. 
 
 during this period the "lid is off." It is estimated that in the 1913 celebration 
 about 50 tons of confetti were used. 
 
 The Panamanian of the better class represents the material progress of the 
 country along all lines. His sons and daughters are educated abroad, and dress 
 in as correct style as in New York or Paris. With the broadening of ideas, there 
 has been an abandonment of some of the ancient customs which have hemmed 
 in the life of the boy and girl. It is not as popular now as it was once for a 
 gallant to stand for hours on the sidewalk gazing steadily up at the fair form of 
 his inamorada, without indulging in a word of conversation, but the heads of 
 some families still persist in inquiring the intentions of admirers of their 
 daughters when they call more than once, and show them the door if the answer 
 is not satisfactory. In Panama, these customs have given way to a large 
 extent the past ten years, and, in time, will probably be a thing of the past. 
 
 THE INDIANS OF PANAMA 
 
 Indians, and persons of Indian descent, are found in every part of the 
 Isthmus, but those who have preserved their tribal state mav be grouped under 
 
 \ 296 ] 
 
Carnival scenes, Panama City. The Annual "Carnival" or Mardi Gras, is the biggest event of 
 the year in Panama. The upper picture shows the Queen of the Carnival riding in her royal 
 chariot during the height of the festivities. Tons of confetti are thrown and everybody takes a 
 week's holiday. 
 
 [ 297 
 
cmB Tv\NP DIVIDED CTHE WOI5LkE>> LIMITED 
 
 the four following classes: The Guaymies, who dwell in the mountains of 
 Chiriqui and Veraguas provinces; the San Bias, or Cuna-Cunas, who people 
 the islands and some parts of the mainland along the Caribbean coast, east of 
 Colon; the Chucunaques, or Darien tribe, who live in the mountains of eastern 
 
 Panama, and the Cho- 
 coes, who are found in 
 the Sambu River valley 
 in southeastern Darien, 
 and whose territory laps 
 over into Colombia. 
 The national census of 
 1911 did not include a 
 count of the Indians 
 living in tribal state, but 
 estimated their number 
 at 36,178, since shown 
 to be entirely too low. 
 Seventy - five thousand 
 will approximate their 
 number more nearly. 
 Mr. Henry Pittier, who has given these tribes, with the exception of the 
 Chucunaques, some personal study, contributed an excellent article on the 
 Indians of Panama in the July, 1912, number of the National Geographic 
 Magazine. He, however, classes the Chucunaques and the upper Bayano 
 River Indians as a part of the Cuna-Cuna stock, which is open to question, as 
 the two present distinct physical types. The San Bias are semi-dwarfs, with 
 abnormally developed heads, man-size bodies, and puny legs; the most of the 
 men are bow-legged. Albinos are common among them. The Chucunaque 
 Indian is of normal proportions, fleet of foot, and will compare to advantage 
 in some respects with the North American Indian. The Cuna-Cuna is a fisher- 
 
 MEMBERS OF PRESIDENT PORRAS' CABINET. 
 
 DON ARISTIDES ARJONA, 
 Secretary of Finance. 
 
 DON FRANCISCO FILOS, 
 Secretary of Government and Justice. 
 
 
 : " mm 
 
 
 r k 
 
 Vaults in the Cemetery, Panama City. 
 
 [ 298 ] 
 
cthe: TvAnp divided — criw worljp^tt>uted 
 
 man; the Chucunaque, a hunter, and between the two there is usually deadly 
 enmity. The Chueunaques are typical savages, while the San Bias, although 
 fearful of the coming of the white man, does not detest him, and has adopted 
 many of the white man's comforts. 
 
 The territories of the Cuna-Cuna and the Chucunaque have long been 
 nearly a sealed book to the outsider, and until recently it has been a tribal 
 law with the San Bias that no stranger should be permitted to remain after 
 nightfall, due, it is said, out of fear for their women. The San Bias inhabit the 
 hundreds of islands and islets that fringe the Caribbean coast, and subsist on 
 vegetables and fish; fresh meat is rarely seen in their villages. Before Panama 
 separated from Colombia, the San Bias were ruled by one chieftain named 
 Inanaquina. The latter died of fever while on a mission to Bogota, the capital 
 of Colombia, and was succeeded by his nephew, Inapaquina. Owing to the 
 new chief's slowness in recognizing the change in governments, Panama 
 transferred authority over the San Bias to another Indian, whose English 
 name is Charley Robinson. Some of the San Bias refused to accept Robinson, 
 and a split followed, so today the tribe is divided. Robinson, who spent several 
 years in the United States, is a progressive, while Inapaquina has no desire to 
 cultivate the white man's acquaintance. The capital of the former is at San 
 Jose de Nargana, near the mouth of the Rio Diablo, and there, early in 1913, 
 Miss Annie Coope, a woman missionary succeeded in establishing a mission 
 school. Miss Coope made an attempt to enter the country several years 
 before, but at that time was not permitted to land. She persisted in her efforts, 
 and through the influence of Chief Robinson, she was successful; now the 
 Indians are glad she came. Few of the San Bias are able to count above 10, 
 
 Peculiar rock formation seen at San Juan 
 on the Pequeni River. 
 
 Scene on the upper Chagres River. The 
 river between Alhajuela and El Vigia flows 
 between high rock banks. 
 
 [ 299 ] 
 
cmB Tv\ND . DIVIDED ^crrKE: WORbg^TNITTgD 
 
 and when one of the San Bias boys of Miss Coopers school counted to 100 he 
 was the wonder of the village. It has been the custom of this division of the 
 tribe to permit the boys to come to Panama and Colon, and to even send them 
 abroad, to procure a rudimentary education, with the expectation that they 
 
 Fo#f i ^ m 
 
 San Bias Indian Chief. 
 
 San Bias Indian Girls. 
 
 would return to their homes later; some have gone back, but most of them 
 become enamored of the life of the cities and sever tribal relations. The girls, 
 however, are rarely allowed to leave the Indian villages. 
 
 With the development of Panama, there has been an increasingly insistent 
 demand that the valuable territory occupied by the Indian tribes be opened for 
 settlement. The Indians have opposed this, but at the session of the Panama 
 National Assembly in 1913, a bill was passed, which permits peaceful exploita- 
 tion of the region, and already a number of trading companies have entered, or 
 are preparing to enter the field. The San Bias coast yields some of the finest 
 cocoanuts in the world, and as yet the production is only in its infancy. Trad- 
 ing is also done in tortoise shell, out of which combs and other hair ornaments 
 are made, balata, the gum of the nispero tree, a kind of rubber that commands a 
 better price than the Para article, and ivory nuts, from which the vegetable 
 ivory of commerce is produced. The mountain streams show evidences of 
 gold, and both the coast and mountain Indians are well provided with gold 
 ornaments, broad cuffs for the wrists, worn by the men, and earrings and nose 
 rings much affected by the women. 
 
 The San Bias are not at all warlike, and there are no proved instances of 
 ill-treatment of visitors within recent years. The stranger is politely, but 
 firmly warned away, and no one has been rash enough to incur their animosity. 
 
 [ 300 ] 
 
CTfLB JvAN-D DIVIDED cm\E WQgJk>D> TTMITED 
 
 Even officials of the Canal Commission received a rebuff at their hands a few 
 vears ago. It was when a hunt was being made for a good quality of sand to be 
 used in the concrete for Gatun Locks. A tug was sent along the San Bias 
 coast, and when an attempt was made to investigate the sand on the shores of 
 Caledonia Bay, the officials were requested to desist, which they did. The 
 San Bias hold their mountain neighbors in dread, because in times past the 
 latter were accustomed to levy tribute on them, and in case of non-payment to 
 make raids on their villages, destroying the houses and carrying away property. 
 The mountain Indians have also occasionally resorted to poisoning the streams 
 from which the San Bias procured their drinking water. The author has known 
 
 Panamanian policemen lined up in front of the National Palace in Panama City, to 
 form an escort at the funeral of a president. 
 
 of the exodus of a whole village in anticipation of one of these raids. The 
 Panama Government has only one post in the San Bias country at the present 
 time, that at Puerto Obaldia. 
 
 THE GFAYMIES 
 
 The Guaymi Indians are partly civilized. The women copy the simple 
 dress of the interior native women, and the men wear shirts and trousers. They 
 are not prepossessing, and face painting is a common practice among both men 
 and women. Pittier says: 'The children, especially the little girls, frequently 
 have lovely faces, with a warm, brown velvety skin, and beautiful eyes. When 
 they reach the age of puberty, their hair is cropped short, and is not allowed to 
 grow again until the first baby is born. Maidenhood, however, is a short stage 
 of life for the Guaymi women, who, not infrequently become mothers before 
 
 1 301 ] 
 
CTHE, TvAN-D . DIVIDED —crrHE: WOSIjD) TTMITED 
 
 having reached their twelfth year. Polygamy is practiced, while the other 
 Indian tribes of the Isthmus are, for the most part, monogamists!" With the 
 Guaymi wives are regarded as a tangible asset. 
 
 THE CHOCOES 
 
 Of the Chocoes, Pittier writes: "While the history of the Cuna-Cunas 
 could be written, at least for the post-Colombian period, we know almost noth- 
 ing of the Chocoes. They are seldom referred to in the ancient records. Never 
 in our 25 years of tropical experience have we met with such a sun-loving, 
 bright, and trusting people, living nearest to Nature, and ignoring the most 
 elementary wiles of so-called civilization. Physically, the Chocoes are a fine 
 and healthy race. The men have wiry limbs and faces that are at once kind and 
 energetic, while, as a rule, the girls are plump, and full of mischief. The 
 women preserve their good looks and attractiveness much longer than is general- 
 ly the case in primitive peoples, in which their sex bears the heaviest share of 
 the day's work. Both males and females have unusually fine, white teeth, 
 which they sometimes dye black by chewing the shoots of wild pepper. The 
 skin is of a rich, olive-brown color, and, as usual, a little lighter in the women 
 and children. Though all go almost naked, they look fairer than the Cuna- 
 Cunas, and some of the women would compare advantageously with certain 
 Mediterranean types of the white race." The Chocoes have an inordinate 
 fondness for ornaments and body painting. On feast days, these paintings are 
 very elaborate and artistic, consisting of elegantly drawn lines and patterns — red 
 
 Patio or Court of the National Prison of Panama, commonly called Chiriqui Prison. 
 It is situated near the sea wall in Panama City. 
 
 [ 302 ] 
 
CTHB TvAN-P DIVIDED crnEj WPji&g»_I UNITED 
 
 and black, or simply black. The people are cleanly and very industrious. 
 During the dry season, their life is wholly out-of-doors, planting their crops, 
 hunting, fishing, and canoeing. When the heavy rains come they remain at 
 
 Some of the gold ornaments found in the graves of an extinct race of Indians in the Province of 
 Chiriqui. They are made of solid gold and each is supposed to represent some animal. 
 
 home weaving baskets of all kinds, a work in which the women are remarkably 
 proficient, making rope and hammocks, carving dishes out of tree trunks, etc. 
 
 ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF CHIRIQUI 
 
 In ancient times, a powerful and aggressive tribe sometimes spoken of as 
 the Dorasques, probably an offshoot of the Mayas, inhabited the greater part 
 of the province of Chiriqui. As a people they are now totally extinct, but they 
 have left behind evidences of a civilization that compares favorably with that 
 of the Aztecs of Mexico, the Mayas of Central America, the Chibchas of the 
 Colombian plateau, and the Incas of Peru. In the latter part of 1858, natives 
 of Bugaba, a small village in Chiriqui province, about 15 miles from David, 
 accidentally unearthed a gold image. Further search led to the discovery, 
 within an area of 12 acres, of gold ornaments and curious pottery valued at 
 $50,000. The place was evidently a huacal, or burial ground for the ancient 
 race. Since that time other discoveries have been made, and thousands of 
 huacas, or graves, have been explored. In many, pottery only has been found, 
 the gold ornaments having been placed solely in the graves of some chieftain, 
 or prominent man of the tribe. The graves are invariably enclosed in rough 
 stone slabs, forming a kind of a vault. Visitors to Chiriqui rarely return with- 
 out some of this pottery, which can be obtained very cheaply, or if one cares to, 
 
 [ 303 ] 
 
-~ - .. t 
 
 
 On 
 
 TL 
 
 CENTRAL AVE. LOOKING SOUTH 
 
 The upper picture shows the Panama Cathedral, Panama City, begun in 1673, and completed 
 in 1760. A portion of the Plaza de la Independencia taken from the roof of the City Hall building, 
 is also shown. The small building on the corner directly in front of the La Mercedes Church, is 
 the chapel. This church is attended by many of the wealthier Panamanians. Many of the streets 
 are so narrow that vehicles can hardly pass. 
 
 [304 ] 
 
CTfLB Jv\N-D , DIVIDED —^THB W_PB^P)_IJNJTED 
 
 he can dig them up himself. The gold ornaments are of splendid workmanship, 
 and show that the Indians were skilled metal workers. They appear to have 
 been cast in clay moulds, and the most favored forms are the frog, tortoise, 
 tiger, armadillo, dog, eagle, and snake. The pottery is vari-colored, either 
 plain, or glazed, and the decoration ranges from crude outlines of animal shapes 
 to complex and regular geometrical designs. Some implements and household 
 utensils have also been found. In 1913, graves containing some of these gold 
 ornaments were reported to have been found in the province of Los Santos, 
 about 150 miles east of the graves of Chiriqui. 
 
 Part of the Sea Wall, Panama City. The wall is said to have cost $8,000,000 and is the one which 
 led King Philip to remark that the work ought to be visible from his palace in Spain. 
 
 Another ornament that comes from Chiriqui province, and is also quite 
 common in Costa Rica, is the cadena chata, a long gold chain, made of thin 
 plates, closely linked together. They are highly prized by the Panamenas, who 
 wear them on feast days, while the Americans have sought them so eagerly that 
 they have risen greatly in price and caused numerous imitations. A genuine 
 cadena chata, worth now about $40, could have been bought in 1904 for half 
 that sum. 
 
 The piedras pintadas (painted stones) found in Chiriqui province are 
 attributed by some to the ancient Indian inhabitants. The largest specimen of 
 these stands upon an open plain a few miles out of David, and consists of a huge 
 boulder on which a variety of hieroglyphics have been cut and painted. Smaller 
 stones have been found in the valley of the Caldera River. Mr. D. F. Mac- 
 Donald, an authority on the geology of western Panama, says of them: "From 
 
 [ 305 ] 
 
IiANP . DIVIDED cm\& \^Og^D^jjviTT^n 
 
 the weathering of these piedras pintados, and from the pottery and other objects 
 remnants of an ancient Indian culture, it is known that they are at least 1,000 
 years old, and probably considerably more." 
 
 SIGHTSEEING 
 
 The modernizing of Panama has necessarily robbed it of some of its historic 
 charm, but there still remain many evidences of its earlier characteristics. The 
 once fortified sea wall still stands, and the story of its cost, said to be $8,000,000, 
 an enormous sum in those days, will bear repeating. "A sovereign of Spain was 
 seen standing at a window of his palace one day, looking toward the west with 
 a disturbed expression on his features. A courtier made bold to inquire what 
 he was looking at. T am looking,' replied the King, his face relaxing into a 
 
 A part of the Sea Wall, Panama City, at low 
 tide. The Chiriqui prison is located within 
 these walls. There is a promenade on top of 
 the Avail which overlooks the Pacific entrance 
 to the Canal. 
 
 On the Sea Wall there has recently been 
 placed a bronze bust of Lucien Bonaparte Wyse, 
 the Frenchman who was interested in the Canal 
 work for many years. It was the gift of his 
 son to the Republic of Panama. 
 
 grim smile, 'for those costly walls at Panama.' They ought to be visible even 
 from here." The cathedral, begun in 1673 and completed in 1760, the church 
 of San Francisco, and the ruins of the convent adjacent thereto, the church of 
 San Felipe Neri, founded in 1688, now the oldest in the city, the ruins of Santo 
 Domingo church, with its flat arch, the ruins of the Jesuit college and convent on 
 Avenue A, the remnant of the old city walls, are among the places that bring a 
 sparkle to the eyes of visitors. Outside the city, the places well worth a visit 
 include Old Panama, with its sole surviving tower, ruined church, catacombs, 
 walls, bridges, and callcs; Taboga Island, with its quaint village and excellent sea 
 bathing; Pearl Islands, with its pearl fisheries; Chorrera, a large native village, 
 
 [ 306 J 
 
"Wtvulio ehbma** 
 
 Las Sabanas contains the summer homes of many of the wealthier people of Panama. Many 
 beautiful houses have been erected in this suburb. It is tropical, because here is the sign-manual 
 of the tropics, the palm, dainty ferns and other luxuriant growths. It is located about seven miles 
 from Panama City and is reached by a good macadamized road. 
 
 [ 307 ] 
 
lB TvANP divided-— c\-i\e worljb, ttkited 
 
 20 miles from Panama, near which are pretty falls; the lower reaches of the 
 Bayano River, haunt of the alligators; a bit of the old Cruces paved trail, which 
 enters the Corozal road; the ruins of the Fort San Lorenzo, at the mouth of the 
 Chagres River, and the ruins of the forts at Porto Bello. The oldest church in 
 the republic is at Nata in the province of Code, but it is not easily visited unless 
 one has the time. Nearly all the points of interest in the Canal Zone, or in the 
 vicinity of Panama or Colon, can be reached either by railroad train, carriages, 
 automobiles, or launches. The highway from Panama through Las Sabanas 
 to the Rio Juan Diaz furnishes a pleasant trip by carriage or automobile. The 
 road winds through a rolling prairie, where many of the wealthier Panamanians 
 have summer homes. 
 
 BATHING 
 
 There are a number of excellent bathing places on both sides of the Isthmus. 
 The bay at Porto Bello is a "swimmin' hole" for the residents of that village, 
 and moonlight swimming parties are held frequently. There is a sand beach 
 near Toro Point, while at Cristobal, the slips between the new docks, and at 
 Colon, the swimming pool adjacent to the new Hotel Washington, are well 
 patronized. On the Pacific side, the cove on Taboga Island, and the sand 
 beach at Pena Prieta are the two most desirable places. A large pavilion has 
 recently been erected fronting the beach at Pena Prieta to which the street cars 
 run. At Gatun, the lake is used, and at Corozal, swimming in the canal is a 
 great pastime. 
 
 PANAMA HATS 
 
 No one knows exactly how the word "Panama" came to be applied to the 
 hat of that name. An old hat dealer once told the writer that he thought it 
 was because in the early day of the hat's popularity, most of the shipments came 
 through Panama. Only a few Panamas have ever been made on the Isthmus, 
 and these were of the crude variety. A few years ago the Panama Government 
 opened a hat school at a little village called Arraijan, but it was not a success. 
 Ecuador is the home of the true Panama, although in recent years, Colombia 
 and other nearby countries have come to be great producers of the cheaper 
 
 Making Panama hats at Arraijan. A few Panama hats are made here, but the true 
 
 Panama comes from Ecuador. 
 
 [ 308 ] 
 
CTHE, TvAND DIVIDED cm\& WQBIjD, TTKITED 
 
 grades. The most valuable make of a Panama hat is the Montecristi, so named 
 from a small town in Ecuador where they are made. This hat sells in the local 
 market at from $35 to $50, and would be worth from $75 to $100 in the United 
 States. Visitors to the Isthmus accustomed to the cheap imitations handled 
 by American or European importers are at a loss to account for the prices asked 
 for a Montecristi hat. All Panama hats look more or less alike to them, and 
 they are ignorant of the fact that in fabricating a Montecristi hat of the best 
 grade the time of several persons for a period of several months is required. 
 They are woven by hand labor on the piece-work plan. There are plenty of 
 the cheaper grades handled on the Isthmus, and, since the coming of the tourists, 
 a brisk business in them has sprung up. The so-called "made under water" 
 hat is a myth. 
 
 CAXAL ZONE SOUVENIR STONES 
 
 In excavating the Canal, a number of varieties of stones, agates, moon- 
 stones, jaspers, etc., were found, that, when properly cut and polished, made 
 attractive mountings. Some of the best of these specimens were uncovered 
 when the hydraulic monitors were engaged in sluicing material from the Canal 
 channel near Miraflores Locks, formerly the ancient bed of the Rio Grande. 
 
 THE PANAMA LOTTERY 
 
 The Panama lottery has been in operation for many years, but until 1904 it 
 had a formidable rival in roulette. The latter went out of existence by law on 
 December 31, 1904, when the lottery at once came to the fore. The right to 
 sell tickets in the Canal Zone came before the Supreme Court of the United 
 States in the form of a test case in 1904, and was decided adversely to the 
 lottery company. The Canal employe population has, however, been its best 
 customer. The drawings are held each Sunday morning, and the grand prizes 
 are $7,500 and $15,000, the larger drawing occurring once a month on the 
 Sunday following the canal pay days. The lottery is operated under a conces- 
 sion from the Panama Government, and the drawings are supervised by the 
 
 Crater of Chiriqui Volcano. This is the highest peak in Panama, 11,500 feet. 
 
 has been extinct for many years. 
 
 [ 309 ] 
 
 The volcano 
 
LOTERIA DE PANAMA 
 
 Autorluda por la L«r »• «e 188a. 
 
 ■g 5 Ql!lNTOdcbillPt« par»«) ioruo nOmero mi! cnatco-; 
 
 'dentin »eintioebo me «e ha 1<- i-iebrar en K AN AM A ' V 
 gin 11a vii.M-Kd, Ci IL'llRl. :lr NI2 ?F 
 
 One piece of a Panama lottery ticket. The 
 complete ticket contains five of these pieces 
 which sell for fifty cents each for the regular 
 drawings and a dollar each for the special 
 drawings. 
 
 A view of one of the drawings which take 
 place at ten o'clock every Sunday morning. 
 10,000 tickets are issued weekly and grand 
 prizes run from $7,500 for the ordinary draw- 
 ings to $15,000 for the special drawings. 
 
 The lottery office is located in the Bishop's Palace, opposite the Central Park, Panama City. 
 Tickets cannot be sold in the Canal Zone but the Canal employes are the best patrons. They 
 must purchase their tickets, however, in Panama City or Colon. The drawings are supervised by 
 the Panama government and a certain per cent of the profits must be devoted to educational 
 and charitable purposes. 
 
 [ 310 ] 
 
^TME Tv\NP , DIVIDED -^cj-he^ WO^P;_IINJTED 
 
 authorities. The proceeds derived by the government must by law be devoted 
 to educational and charitable purposes. 
 
 PANAMA TO HOLD NATIONAL EXPOSITION 
 
 The four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of the Pacific Ocean by 
 Vasco Nunez de Balboa occurred on September 25, 1913 (October 5, new style). 
 In commemoration of this event, Panama will hold a national exposition, open- 
 ing on November 1, 1914, and continuing six months, to which the United States, 
 Spain, and the countries of Latin-America, including Cuba and the West 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Laying the corner stone of the Panama National Exposition, Sept. 26, 1913. The ceremony was 
 performed by President Porras, assisted by the Bishop of Panama, Dr. William Rojas. 
 
 Indies, have been invited. A preliminary credit of $150,000 was voted by the 
 National Assembly for the undertaking in 191.3. The site is on a natural pla- 
 teau, just east of Panama City, on land purchased by the government for the 
 purpose. Half of this tract of 700 acres will be laid for the exposition grounds, 
 with avenues 88 feet wide running east and west, and streets 60 feet wide, run- 
 ning north and south. The grounds front on Las Sabanas road, and will have 
 one main and two smaller entrances, opening into a small park set out with 
 tropic trees and plants. In another part of the grounds will be an artificial 
 lagoon. A gift of a plot of ground has been made each to the United States and 
 Spain for the erection of buildings, while two other plots have been reserved by 
 Panama for its exhibits. These building sites are situated one on each of the 
 four corners of the grounds, and from them a pretty view of the bay, Ancon Hill, 
 Ancon, Panama and environs may be obtained. 
 
 [ 311 ] 
 
^D_J)IVIPED ~~CT-HE: WORk^J UNITED 
 
 September 25, 1913 was declared a 
 national holiday in Panama, and the 
 day was made the occasion of the for- 
 mal inauguration of work at the exposi- 
 tion grounds. The exercises were 
 attended by government and Canal 
 officials, and members of the diplo- 
 matic corps. They consisted princi- 
 pally of laying the corner stone of the 
 Administration Building by President 
 Porras, and an address by Mr. Ramon 
 F. Acevedo, who outlined the govern- 
 ment's plans. The managing director 
 is Mr. Alejandro Bermudez, who was 
 the Nicaraguan commissioner to the 
 Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, 
 and the St. Louis Fair. Visitors pass- 
 ing through the Canal en route for the 
 San Francisco fair will be afforded 
 an opportunity of seeing the Canal 
 and the exposition at the same time. 
 A movement was started by President Porras in 1913 for the erection of a 
 monument in honor of Balboa near the Pacific entrance to the Canal. King 
 Alfonso of Spain has personally donated the sum of $10,000 for the purpose, and 
 Panama a like amount. It is expected to raise a fund of $75,000 or $100,000. 
 
 Tracy Robinson, of Colon, who has resided 
 on the Isthmus longer than any other living 
 American, celebrated the fiftieth anniversary 
 of his residence there in 1912. 
 
 Sunset on Panama Bay. In the evening with the advent of the splendid sunset, a panorama 
 of radiant glory round the whole dome of the sky is spread out. 
 
 f 312 1 
 
Copvriehi 191 J bv ihr 
 wianw-Pacitic International Exposition Cl 
 
 Panama- 
 
 Pacific 1 
 
 NTERNATIONAL 
 
 in 
 
 N January 31, 1911, the Congress of the United States selected San 
 Francisco as the most desirable site for the Nation's celebration of the 
 formal opening of the Panama Canal, which has been set for January 
 1, 1915. On October 14, 1911, in the presence of over 100,000 people, 
 the President of the United States, Hon. William Howard Taft, inaugurated the 
 preparation of this great universal celebration by turning the first spadeful of 
 earth at San Francisco for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in 1915. 
 On February 2, 1912, the President of the United States issued a Proclamation, 
 announcing the holding of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, and 
 inviting the nations of the world to take part on a scale befitting their dignity 
 and importance. 
 
 This Exposition will open on Saturday, February c 20, 1915, and close on 
 Saturday, December 4, 1915, running from Winter to Winter, a period of nine 
 and one-half months. 
 
 The capital stock originally issued was $5,000,000. divided into 500,000 
 shares of $10 each, but owing to the prompt and liberal manner in which 
 subscriptions were made the stock was increased to $10,000,000. 
 
 To demonstrate appreciation of the honor conferred, and their ability to 
 inaugurate, perfect, and operate an international exposition of this magnitude, 
 nearly three-fourths of this capital stock was subscribed by the citizens of San 
 Francisco. 
 
 The State of California by legislative enactment appropriated $5,000,000; 
 and the City of San Francisco issued bonds in the sum of $5,000,000. These 
 appropriations and subscriptions, aggregating $17,500,000 in United States 
 currency, form the general fund of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition 
 Company for preparation and construction of the Exposition. 
 
 The Counties of California were authorized by the Legislature to levy a 
 special tax upon themselves of a sum of not to exceed six cents on the hundred 
 dollars each year for five years, commencing with the year 1911. The proceeds 
 are designed for individual participation by the other fifty-seven Counties of 
 
 [ 313 ] 
 
CTFIE T^AND DIVIDED CT7\& W_Q^P>_II1JITEP 
 
 the State outside of San Francisco. It is expected that this fund will approxi- 
 mate $3,000,000. 
 
 In addition large sums will be expended by Foreign Countries and the 
 
 States, as well as by private exhibitors from the 
 United States and abroad. The grand total 
 will constitute an expenditure approximating 
 $50,000,000. 
 
 The choice of San Francisco was the logical 
 one. The Pacific Coast metropolis is a cosmo- 
 politan center with a representation of many 
 races that well qualifies it as the situation of an 
 international celebration. It is, moreover, the 
 chief city upon the western shores of America; 
 it is the most important port for vessels bound 
 from the Atlantic Coast of America to the 
 Pacific. While recovering from its disaster San 
 Francisco, and California, has assured more 
 than twenty million of dollars, the largest initial 
 fund ever raised towards a world's exposition. 
 The courage of the city, founded by the pioneers 
 of the West, was, and is, unfailing. Its atmo- 
 sphere is distinctive. "Where could you find a 
 city in which the opening of the Panama Canal 
 could be so exaltingly celebrated ?" said Secretary 
 of State Bryan. And former Secretary of State 
 Knox, characterized the Panama Canal as the 
 world's Golden Gate to the Pacific. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF EXPOSITION SITE 
 
 The palaces of the Panama-Pacific Interna- 
 tional Exposition have been planned in huge 
 block effects to conform with their surroundings 
 on the shores of San Francisco harbor. The site 
 of the exposition at Harbor View lies within the 
 city limits, as a crescent upon the shores of San 
 Francisco bay, just inside the Golden Gate. No 
 more picturesque location, nor one more appro- 
 priate to the celebration of a great maritime 
 event, could be imagined. On the south, east 
 and west the grounds are encircled by towering 
 hills of varying contours rising successively from 
 250 to 900 feet above sea level, like the enfolding 
 walls of a vast amphitheatre. Upon the north 
 the site opens out upon the harbor of San Fran- 
 cisco. The panorama at Harbor View recalls 
 the famous Riviera upon the shores of the 
 Mediterranean. In the harbor before the site lies 
 Alcatraz Island, the location of a naval prison, 
 whose white walls are reflected in the waters of the 
 
 Hovering figure of a star, four- 
 teen feet in height, that will sur- 
 mount the colonnade encircling the 
 Court of Sun and Stars. These 
 figures, of which there will be 110, 
 will each support a star-shaped head 
 dress four feet in diameter and set 
 with prisms that at night will re- 
 flect in the colors of the rainbow 
 the shafts of masked batteries of 
 searchlights placed on the roofs of 
 the exposition palaces. 
 
 [ 314 ] 
 
C[giFv TAN-P piVIDED— ^THE WORL>D> TIKITED 
 
 bav. Beyond are the hills of Marin County rising up into the hundreds and 
 
 some instances into the thousands of feet, with Mount Tamalpais, loftiest of all, 
 
 its summit often shrouded with a turban of fog upon which the sun shines as 
 
 upon a vast bank of snow, as a 
 
 background for the setting. 
 
 On a clear day when the wind 
 
 sweeps in through the Golden 
 
 Gate, it seems as if one may 
 
 almost reach out and touch the 
 
 hills across the harbor. From 
 
 the west of the site one may 
 
 look out to the rim of the 
 
 Pacific Ocean through the mile 
 
 and one-quarter wide straits 
 
 of the Golden Gate, guarded 
 
 on each side by rugged cliffs 
 
 and protected by forts. 
 
 The central portion of the 
 site lies slightly above the sea 
 and is encircled on three sides 
 by gently sloping ground ; with- 
 in a short distance from the 
 boundaries of the site these 
 slopes change to steep hillsides 
 and thus the site becomes the 
 floor of a huge amphitheatre 
 from whose sides the exposi- 
 tion will be seen -stretched out 
 below. To the east and south 
 the residence section encircles 
 the exposition grounds, and to 
 the west and southwest the site 
 is embraced by the wooded 
 slopes of the Presidio military 
 reservation, dark with cypress 
 and eucalyptus and inter- 
 spersed with occasional vistas 
 of green valleys. 
 
 The exposition buildings, 
 built upon an axis east and 
 west, will face the bay upon the 
 north; they will parallel the 
 stream of the great incoming 
 traffic of the world through the 
 western gate of the United 
 States. Ships entering the 
 
 harbor will pass before the exposition grounds. The harbor itself will be a part 
 of the great theatre upon which will be staged the world's jubilee and the Golden 
 Gate will be the entrance of the theatre. 
 
 International Expos! 
 
 One of the superb Italian towers that will mark the 
 approach to the Court of Palms. There will be two of 
 these courts, identical in size, one south of the Court 
 of Four Seasons and one south of the Festive Court, 
 ■which will be known as the Court of Flowers. 
 
 [315] 
 
CTFIB Tv\NP .DIVIDED^crHE WORkg^Jj>nTgn 
 
 A marvelous panorama will be afforded visitors on ships coming through 
 the Golden Gate. As one looks from the harbor he will see three main groups 
 of exposition buildings. There will be the great central group comprising the 
 fourteen exposition palaces to be devoted to general exhibits; there will be the 
 
 Daylight perspective. The relative height of the buildings may be judged by the fact that 
 the Tower of Jewels in the center of the picture is four hundred and thirty feet in height, 
 dominating the architecture of the exposition. 
 
 group upon the left hand or east end devoted to amusement concessions and 
 covering sixty-five acres; this will be the "midway." The right hand group 
 upon the Presidio military reservation and nearest the Golden Gate, will be 
 devoted to the pavilions of the States and foreign nations. 
 
 From afar the central group, the main exhibit palaces, facing for more than 
 a mile upon San Francisco harbor, will present the effect of almost a solid 
 massing of palatial structures, but nearer at hand it will be seen that the expo- 
 sition palaces are interspersed with great open courts. Three main courts will 
 run north and south through this central group. In general the buildings of the 
 central group are to be brought into contact with those next adjoining by arcades, 
 courts and archways. Through this method of treatment four of the general 
 exhibit palaces of the main group, fronting north upon San Francisco bay but 
 set back a distance from the water's edge, will present a single architectural 
 design. Their walls and the adjoining arches will form the main northern 
 facade of the exposition along the shores of the harbor, the marvelous frontage 
 that will be first seen by visitors who reach the exposition city by water and enter 
 San Francisco bay through the Golden Gate. By day the glittering pillars and 
 minarets of this mile long facade will be seen as a dream city, while by night 
 they will reflect the sheen of a million lights into the waters of the bay. 
 
 Before the facade and along the harbor's edge for more than a mile there 
 will be built a great esplanade, a vast stretch of ground and terraces in which 
 fountains will play and groups of statuary be set at intervals. Brilliant flowers 
 
 [ 316 ] 
 
CTJ\E, Jv\NP . DIVIDED GTTUZ WQI3IjD> TTKITED 
 
 and hardy flowering trees and shrubs will lend warmth and color to the esplanade. 
 Indeed throughout the exposition flowers and foliage will contrast with the 
 shining colonnades and peristyles and walls of the buildings, and will enhance 
 the beauty of innumerable lagoons, fountains and water effects. The esplanade 
 is to be known as the "Marina" (villa gardens). 
 
 The main group of buildings will lie between a tropical garden or boulevard 
 running east and west along the fringe of the hills nearest the city upon the 
 south, and the esplanade along the shores of San Francisco bay upon the north. 
 The tropical boulevard to be known as the "Alameda," will be eighteen hundred 
 feet in length and three hundred feet wide; it will be glowing with fountains, 
 lagoons, statuary, peristyles and arcades, and, secluded from the winds of the 
 bay, it will be transplanted with a profusion of semi-tropical trees, plants and 
 flowers, including the orange, banana, olive, myrtle, and every variety of palm. 
 The east end of the Alameda will open out with a plaza upon Van Ness Avenue, 
 one of the principal boulevards of San Francisco. The west end upon the 
 Presidio will be surmounted by a commemorative arch of triumph. 
 
 The theme of the exposition, its sculpture and mural paintings, will exalt 
 the spirit of achievement through which America has completed the Panama 
 Canal. In the courts there will be observed the most monumental expressions 
 in Greek and Roman, Occidental and Oriental architecture of the most refined 
 quality that the world has ever beheld. The ground will become a vast tropical 
 and semi-tropical garden through the transplanting of palms, evergreens and 
 flowers. A brilliant, yet harmonious color scheme has been designed by Jules 
 Guerin, probably the greatest authority on decorative coloring in the world. 
 
 The prevailing color tone of the exposition will be an ochre, a tawny buff, 
 several shades removed from white, but in the distance giving the effect of white, 
 but will not be glaring under the brilliant sunlight of California. In the courts 
 there will be a marvelous blending of colors; Pompeiian red, strong Italian blues, 
 vermilion and orange will predominate. The court system is unique in that 
 it will permit each architect, artist or sculptor to present some distinct concep- 
 tion without clashing with the exposition architecture and coloring in its en- 
 tirety. 
 
 The main group of exhibit palaces, facing upon the harbor for 4,500 feet, 
 
 Night perspective showing the searchlights anchored in the bay. 
 
 f 317 ] 
 
TvAN-P .DIVIDED ^THE WO^D, TTKITED 
 
 will present an effect of almost a single palace. Eight of the buildings will be 
 joined in a rectangle to form almost a huge Oriental bazaar — a veritable walled 
 city with its domes, towers, minarets and great interior courts. Four of the 
 eight buildings, as shown by the ground or block plan, will face out on San 
 Francisco bay and four of them will face the hills of the city on the south. 
 
 The walls of the eight exhibit palaces will be broken only by a number of 
 stupendous entrance ways which will give access to the great interior courts and 
 their approaches. The group will be divided from north to south; in the center 
 by the court of the Sun ancl Stars, designed by Messrs. McKim, Mead and 
 White; on the east by the Festive court and on the west by the Court of Four 
 Seasons. Two South Courts will be cut like niches in the walled city, 
 one south of the Court of Four Seasons and one south of the Festive Court. 
 
 
 «s * aw . .*] 
 
 
 UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION GROIN ISCO 
 
 Description of the above ground or block plan. Starting at the left of the illustration at Van 
 Ness avenue, is the concessions district which lies partly behind Fort Mason, a military post. 
 The towering domes and spires of the district will be in part visible from San Francisco bay. The 
 concessions district is seen to be divided east and west by the street of concessions, which will 
 connect with the main boulevards and avenues of the exposition. On the waterfront opposite 
 Machinery Hall will be noted the exposition ferry slips, shipping yards and railway docks. Next 
 comes Machinery Hall, the largest single structure in the exposition, 122 feet high, 367.8 ft. -wide 
 and 967.8 ft. long. The next group of eight buildings, forming a rectangle, is, as will be noted, 
 divided from north' to south by three huge interior courts, the central court being the grand 
 court of honor, the Court of the Sun and Stars; before the group of eight buildings is an esplanade, 
 300 feet wide, indented by a great yacht harbor directly in front of the Palace of Agriculture. 
 Nearest the hills of San Francisco and paralleling the esplanade is a tropical garden in which is set 
 Festival Hall, the Palace of Horticulture, and lesser structures. To the west of the group of eight 
 buildings will be noted a circular shaped structure, the Palace of Fine Arts, which will face upon 
 a lagoon and great Italian court. The Palace of Fine Arts will be 1100 feet long in its outside arc. 
 The States of the Union will occupy locations upon the Avenue of Commonwealths along the 
 bay, while the foreign nations will erect their pavilions furthest from the harbor. The greatest 
 length of the grounds is fifteen thousand feet and the greatest width more than one mile. The 
 area of the site is 625 acres. The main group of exhibit palaces will face upon the harbor for 
 forty-five hundred feet. 
 
 A huge court in Italian Renaissance will lie between the rectangle and the Palace 
 of Fine Arts. 
 
 Of all the courts the grand Court of Honor, the Court of the Sun and Stars, 
 750 feet in width from east to west and 900 feet along its main axis will be the 
 largest and most imposing. At the south end of the court will be the huge 
 Tower of Jewels, rising 400 feet in height and dominating the architecture of 
 the exposition. The upper part of the tower will take the form of terraces 
 leading up to the group of figures surrounding a globe, typifying the world; 
 
 [ 318 ] 
 
CTFLB Tv\NP , DIVIDED <^TH^ WO^D,_IINJTED 
 
 the tower will be lined with jewels which will glitter like diamonds when search- 
 lights are turned upon them. At the base of the tower, which will occupy an 
 acre in extent, will be a huge arcade 125 feet high, beneath which the visitor 
 may enter into the court of the Sun and Stars from the south garden. 
 
 In the vaulted archways of the tower itself will be grouped a series of 
 mural paintings designed by Jules Guerin and expressing the keynote of the 
 exposition color scheme. But perhaps the most impressive feature of the Court 
 of Sun and Stars will be found in a superb classic colonnade extending entirely 
 around the court and surmounted upon the one side by figures to represent the 
 spirit of the East and on the other the spirit of the West. These figures, of 
 which there will be 110, will be fourteen feet in height and each will stand out in 
 radiance through a crown of dazzling jewels of light. 
 
 In the center of the court will be a great sunken garden with benches to 
 seat about 7,000 people, surrounding the garden. In the garden will be group- 
 
 Section of the Grand Court of Honor, looking toward the Triumphal Arch that will lead into 
 the great east or Festive Court. The dimensions of the court, exclusive of its opening on San 
 Francisco harbor, will be 750x900 feet. One of the most impressive features of the court will be 
 comprised in a huge colonnade with columns sixty feet in height screening the walls of the sur- 
 rounding buildings. In the center of the court will be a sunken garden five feet lower than the 
 rest of the court. Flowers and palms in the court, and behind the colonnade great mural paintings 
 designed by Jules Guerin, will lend color and imagery to the scene. 
 
 ings of classic statuary, dancing figures, fauns, satyrs and nymphs; flowers, 
 trees and vines will contrast with the statuary and with the superb colonnades 
 and towering golden domes. 
 
 To the east as one passes from the Court of Sun and Stars to the great east 
 or Festive Court will be a huge triumphal arch 160 feet in height and surmounted 
 by a colossal grouping of statuary; camels, elephants and Oriental warriors will 
 crown the summit of the great arch. To the west on the approach of the Court 
 of Four Seasons will be a triumphal arch of similar size, surmounted by a 
 group representing western civilization. A huge prairie schooner will comprise 
 the central motif of the group. 
 
 As one passes beneath either of the huge triumphal arches to the east or 
 Festive Court or to the west or Court of Four Seasons, he will traverse great 
 avenues between the exhibit palaces whose sides will be adorned with mural 
 decorations and screened by classic colonnades. Huge pools of water will 
 reflect the outlines of the lofty buildings. The walkways will be in pavements 
 
 [ 319 ] 
 
<TTIE, Tv\ND DIVIDED ——^THE* WQB^_TJNJTED 
 
 of gold. Giant banks of flowers and potted palms will lend color and imagery 
 to the vista. 
 
 If the visitor passes to the east or Festive Court he will behold a vision 
 surpassing the richest dream of the Orient. The Festive Court is dedicated to 
 music, dancing and acting; it is designed for pageantry surpassing the luxurious 
 Durbar and will constitute the proper setting for Oriental or modern drama 
 upon a colossal scale. The architecture of this great court will partake of the 
 Oriental phase of the Spanish- Moorish architecture. Ornamentation upon an 
 elaborate scale will be helped by brilliant lighting effects. Electric scintillators 
 will play upon fountains at night; reflected colored lights will cast a spell 
 throughout the court. The walls of the cloister will be decorated with mural 
 
 The imposing facade of Machinery Hall, the largest building at the Exposition. The structure 
 will be 367.8x967.8 ft. and will be decorated with more than a mile and a half of ornamental 
 cornices. The architectural design of the building is based upon the Roman arch motif, prototypes 
 of which may be found in the big Roman baths at Hadrian and Caracalla. The interior arrange- 
 ment consists of three naves 75 feet in width, 122 feet in height and more than 900 feet long. 
 
 paintings; exotic flowers, trees and vines, orange trees in fruit and in blossom, 
 will contrast with the statuary and the huge colonnades and staircases. 
 
 From the Court of Sun and Stars the visitor in passing to the west will come 
 to the superb Court of Four Seasons, of which Henry Bacon, creator of the 
 Lincoln Memorial, (in memory of Abraham Lincoln, to be built at Potomac 
 Park, Washington, D. C), is the architect. In its theme this court will typify 
 the conquest of nature by mankind. In each of the four comers of the court will 
 be cut great niches into the encircling exhibit palaces and in each of the niches 
 will be four great mural paintings suggesting the seasons, spring, summer, 
 autumn and winter; lofty colonnades will screen the niches. In the center of 
 
 [ 320 ] 
 
CTRB Tv\N-D DIVIDED ^THE WORkE>> TTKITED 
 
 the Court will be a great grouping of statuary in which Ceres, Goddess of Agri- 
 culture, will be shown dispensing the bounties of nature. 
 
 The ornamentation upon the waterfront will be upon a colossal scale. The 
 Court of Four Seasons, opening upon the harbor, will be entered through a 
 stupendous gateway, the Gate of Columbus. The visitor will pass through the 
 gateway beneath a great tower to the esplanade upon San Francisco bay. 
 Directly before the tower will be seen a colossal figure of Columbus, facing the 
 water. Ornamenting the tower in recesses will be figures representing the great 
 vovaaers of the world. 
 
 Before the entrance to the great Court of Sun and Stars upon the bay will 
 be a colossal column whose spiral will depict man's climb toward success and at 
 the summit of the column will be a figure representing achievement. On the 
 
 Copyright, Panama-Pacific International Exposition Co. 
 Festival Hall where the conventions of the world will meet. The building will be 380 x 200 
 feet, with greatest breadth of 280 feet, the latter being taken up by the wings. A vast auditorium 
 with a huge stage will be a feature of the structure. 
 
 left and before the Festive Court, will be the gates of Balboa, before which will 
 be a colossal statue of the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Each of the three main north and south courts will open out upon the es- 
 planade on the shores of San Francisco bay upon the north and upon the great 
 tropical garden upon the south. Vast beds of flowers in bloom will be set in 
 the south garden, the plants will be replaced by others when their flowering 
 seasons are past. 
 
 The fourteen great buildings to be constructed by the exposition company, 
 and to be devoted to general exhibits exemplifying the advance of the world in 
 the arts, sciences and industries, will be the loftiest exposition structures ever 
 erected. From afar the buildings will seem to be assembled as one colossal 
 structure with walls as high as the average six-story block and with golden domes 
 and towers rising to heights of 150, 270 and 400 feet. On the east of the rec- 
 
 321 
 
qpilB Tv\N-D DIVIDED qpH^ W_PRkg>_II^LITED 
 
 tangle of eight buildings will be Machinery Hall, the largest single structure of 
 the exposition. Just south of Machinery Hall is Automobile Hall. In the 
 south garden at the east end and near the concessions center will be located 
 Festival Hall, and near the west end the Palace of Horticulture, a huge structure 
 
 Copyright, Panama-Pacific International Exposition Co. 
 The west south court, or Court of Palms, looking north. From this court the visitor will pass 
 through the arched portal seen in the center of the picture to the great west court or Court of 
 Four Seasons, whose theme will symbolize the march of the Saxon to the West. 
 
 of wood and glass. Flanking the great rectangle on the west will be the Palace 
 of Fine Arts, a classic and beautiful structure embodying the spirit of Italian 
 renaissance and facing upon a great pool from which its outlines will be re- 
 flected. 
 
 Of the three main groups the one on the east will be comprised in the 
 concessions or amusement center, which will occupy sixty-five acres, and will be 
 the first of all parts of the exposition to be reached by those who come from the 
 downtown portion of £an Francisco. Its entrance will be by way of a great 
 plaza at which the concessions district will open out upon Van Ness avenue. 
 Through the concessions area will run a broad boulevard, the street of conces- 
 sions, more than 3,000 feet long. The domes of the buildings will be illuminated 
 at night and startling electrical effects will contribute to the night life of the expo- 
 sition at the amusement center. 
 
 The western group will include the area occupied by the pavilions of the 
 foreign nations, by the buildings of the states upon the Avenue of Common- 
 wealths, and by the display of the United States Government. The pavilions 
 of the foreign nations, furthest from the bay, will rise in terraces as they advance 
 up the gradual slope of the Presidion reservation. Nearer at hand and closer 
 to the water will be the buildings of the various States. Each structure in this 
 part of the exposition grounds will be surrounded by vast lawns and in its 
 entirety the western wing will present upon a magnified scale the effect of a 
 superb residence district. 
 
 [ 322 ] 
 
CTfLB TvAN-P DIVIDED CfHE WQW&^J JNJTED 
 
 Still further to the west of the area of the States and foreign district will be 
 great drill grounds, capable of accommodating at one time ten thousand troops 
 in drill. Foreign nations will send their crack cavalry and infantry to partici- 
 pate in the maneuvers and trials of skill. Encircling the drill grounds, will be 
 a race track where international speed and harness races will be held. Many 
 large prizes will be put up; one racing association alone has guaranteed a purse 
 of $25,000 for a two-year-old trotting race. 
 
 Marking the extreme western limit of the exposition structure will be the 
 stock pavilions and the buildings devoted to live stock, poultry, domestic pets, 
 and other displays. The Government Life Saving Service display will also be 
 located here. 
 
 Throughout the entire exposition the illumination will be such as to bring 
 out the colors of the courts in their proper tones, to sharpen and intensify the 
 color effects. The illumination of the colonnades will be accomplished through 
 purple lights; the windows of the exposition palaces will diffuse a golden ray. 
 Giant batteries of colored searchlights will be anchored in the harbor before the 
 site and will play against huge jets of steam and smoke that will be liberated 
 high in the heavens. Searchlights 500 or 600 yards out in the water and before 
 the main axis of the exposition will direct batteries of light over the exposition 
 palaces, going through more than three hundred evolutions in colors. 
 
 Old French excavator, which has been set aside for exhibition at the Panama-Pacific 
 
 International Exposition. 
 
 I 323 ] 
 
west BJMNet°f &n diko KrosmoN 
 
 ROBABLY not one in a dozen people realizes the scope and extent of 
 the preparations San Diego is making for her Panama-California Ex- 
 position — huge frame and great concrete structures under construc- 
 tion, men laving foundations for more, buildings going up in every 
 portion of the great park. 
 
 At the Administration Building on the Exposition grounds, where are 
 housed the officers of the Exposition, is found a complete organization, depart- 
 mented and correlated in such a manner that every part of the work of prepara- 
 tion, — a work that has proceeded steadily for over three years, goes along like 
 clock work. 
 
 San Diego is creating one of the most beautiful parks in the world, and 
 building simultaneously its Exposition, using the latter as a means to beautify 
 the park. 
 
 Ground was first broken for work July 19, 1911, and the grading has been 
 finished nearly a year. A great plant propagating yard was established in 1911, 
 and now contains millions of trees, ferns and vines for decorating the grounds, 
 park ways and buildings. Visitors see great trees being hoisted over the sides 
 of the huge viaduct to the slopes below for planting in holes already prepared; 
 trees that will never be cut or moved again. Surrounding the Administration 
 Building is the steel and lumber yard where is stored the great quantity of steel 
 rods for use in the concrete bridge across Cabrillo Canyon, and the lumber for 
 the buildings. The bridge is 900 feet long, 130 feet high, and now about 30 per 
 cent complete. 
 
 Of buildings, three are finished and there are four others now under con- 
 struction, — that known as the Home Science Building being most advanced. 
 The Arts and Crafts Building is being rushed, as are the Science Building and 
 the Building of the Counties of Southern California. These four are in various 
 stages, from foundation to roof covering. 
 
 The great concrete bridge is probably the most spectacular piece of con- 
 struction going forward in California today. When the California State Build- 
 ing is finished it will be connected with the bridge, and the two will form one 
 architectural composition nearly 1,200 feet long and over 375 feet high, the top 
 of the tower on the State Building lifting its dome over 500 feet above the sea. 
 
 [ 324 ] 
 
CTHE, TvAK-P DIVIDED (: T2iEL3y_Q^kg;_TINJTEI> 
 
 The site of the exposition could not have been more happily chosen. 
 Balboa Park, a magnificent fourteen hundred and fifty acre tract, lies on a high 
 table land in the heart of the city. To the western gate of the site is about 
 fifteen minutes' walk from the business center. From any portion of the Expo- 
 sition grounds, the visitor enjoys a splendid view of the city and harbor. 
 
 The eastern boundary of the Exposition site is marked by another deep 
 canyon, and the grounds are bisected here and there by small ravines, all of 
 which lend themselves admirably to the work of the landscape gardener and the 
 exposition engineer, both of whom are taking full advantage of the fact to en- 
 hance and beautify the plans for the Exposition. From the end of Cabrillo 
 bridge to the eastern gateway, stretches the main thoroughfare of the Exposition, 
 named the "Prado." Twice in the distance it is enlarged by plazas. The first 
 
 
 Uy 
 
 
 %r 
 
 
 
 if KW*(M«V 
 
 Southern California Counties' Building. 
 
 of these is known as the Plaza de California, and the second almost midway 
 between the gates, as the Plaza de Panama. 
 
 At the eastern gateway the visitor turns to the north, to what is named 
 the "Isthmus," along which are situated the sites of the amusement concessions, 
 many of which have already been allotted. The offering has been so great, that 
 the Department of Concessions, under the directorship of H. O. Davis, assistant 
 to President D. C. Collier, has been compelled in self defense, long since, to 
 resort to a policy of elimination. The "Isthmus" will enclose, on its course to 
 the northern gateway, the concessions, the villages of the North American 
 Indian tribes, the Little Landers farms, the U. S. Reclamation Service, and 
 its large acreage of demonstrating farm lands, and the outdoor exhibits of the 
 seven Southern California Counties. 
 
 President D. C. Collier believes that the world has tired of the antiquated 
 and obsolete method of exhibiting "products" as such. He believes that these 
 teach the beholder practically nothing beyond the fact that man's transportation 
 
 [ 325 ] 
 
CpHJES Tv\NP , DIVIDED -^crrRE: WORkD, TTKITED 
 
 facilities are adequate to the task of collecting them, and his means ample to 
 defray the expense; otherwise there is nothing to be learned from such exhibits. 
 In searching for a theme for the San Diego Exposition which would teach 
 the visitor something worth knowing, and therefore leave a lasting and useful 
 impression, President Collier hit upon the plan of presenting a synopsis of 
 man's evolution through a demonstration of the myriad processes marking the 
 present acme of civilization, and embodying the history of man. It was a 
 brilliant conception, and its great merits have been recognized by the countries 
 of the world, in that a great many more than were expected to do so, have 
 arranged to become participants in the San Diego celebration of the opening of 
 the Panama Canal. Under the plan of President Collier, products will be seen 
 as adjuncts to the exhibition of processes which call them into being. 
 
 Birdseye view of the Exposition grounds and the City of San Diego. 
 
 f 326 1 
 
T>AND piVIDED ^g fHB 'W QWl&j^LL 
 
 After San Diego had sent her invitations to the various states of the 
 Union, and to foreign countries, and these had responded in so much greater 
 number than was at first deemed possible, it was found necessary to greatly 
 enlarge the scope of the Exposition. To this end the city has voted an ad- 
 ditional $850,000 bond issue, making the third million dollars raised for Expo- 
 sition purposes, by the city of San Diego alone. 
 
 As a matter of strict recognition and governmental approval, the San 
 Diego Exposition is in exactly the same position as that at San Francisco; both 
 
 Home Economy Building. 
 
 expositions have been "recognized" by the Federal Congress, the invitations 
 to each have been transmitted to foreign chancellories by the Department of 
 State, and the customs and immigration laws are suspended by act of Congress, 
 with the usual restrictions and bonding privileges granted in such cases. 
 
 The Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum are co-operating 
 with the Division of Exhibits to secure exhibits of ethnology and archaeology 
 from all over the world, and Congressman Kettner will soon introduce a bill 
 authorizing the departments of the government to- place their exhibits here as 
 well as at San Francisco. Enough exhibits have already been secured to make 
 good on all the promises of the Exposition, but there will be no rest until every 
 conceivable exhibit that will go to make a complete exposition of the history and 
 achievement of the human race in America are secured, including the great 
 government department exhibits, 
 
 I 327 
 
Wie JAND DlVlDED- 
 
 Ue world United 
 
 HE last two steam shovels at work in bottom excavation in Culebra Cut 
 were withdrawn on September 10, 1913. These were shovel No. 204, 
 manned by H. S. Hayes, engineer, and A. E. Alexander, craneman; 
 and shovel No. 226, manned by Al. Geddes, engineer, and W. I. 
 Hudson, craneman. The last trainload of material was drawn out of the Cut 
 by engine No. 260, with E. C. Bean, as engineer, and E. A. Donnelly, as con- 
 ductor. It was 10:30 a. m. when the last dippersful were loaded. In the hurry 
 to get one more dipperful on the cars as the train got under way the craneman of 
 shovel No. 226 dumped its load on the coal tender of the locomotive, completely 
 filling it. The train proceeded a short distance, but was forced to stop until 
 the dirt could be shoveled off the coal before continuing the trip. The very 
 last shovel out of the Cut was on the following day, September 11, when shovel 
 No. 210, manned by Frank Loulan, engineer, and S. H. Bryan, craneman, 
 which had been working to keep the track around Cucaracha slide clear, was 
 withdrawn. Thus the reign of King Yardage on the Canal, which had con- 
 tinued with but one interruption for a period of over 31 years, came to an end 
 so far as excavation in the dry was concerned. 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF THE DIKES 
 
 On May 1, 1913, there existed four dikes in the Canal prism, all used at one 
 time or another in keeping water out of dry sections. Two of these dikes were 
 situated south of Miraflores Locks, one north of Gatun Locks, and the last and 
 most important was known as Gamboa dike, which prevented the waters of 
 Gatun Lake from entering Culebra Cut. The first dike to be dynamited was 
 that which kept the waters of the Pacific from entering a section of the channel 
 which had been partly excavated by hydraulic monitors. The event took place 
 at 10:38 a. m., on Sunday, May 18, and was witnessed by a large crowd of 
 people. The charge consisted of 32,750 pounds of 60 per cent, dynamite, and 
 was distributed among 120 holes, some as deep as 70 feet. The blast flattened 
 
 [ 328 ] 
 
Jv\NP . DIVIDED — q^E WOgJbD> TTKITED 
 
 out one end of the dike but did not admit the water at once. The ladder 
 dredge Corozal, the largest in the Canal service, was put to work on the remain- 
 der of the dike and soon had a passage through. 
 
 The blowing up of the sole remaining barrier between Miraflores Locks 
 and the sea, which occurred at 9:30 o'clock on Sunday morning, August 31, 
 was a much more interesting spectacle. In this dike there had been placed 
 37,500 pounds of 45 and 60 per cent, dynamite, distributed among 541 holes at 
 an average depth of 30 feet, concentrated in about the center. The blast tore 
 a gap in the barrier, but as the water in the channel outside was at low tide, it 
 did not flow over. Gradually, however, the tide crept up until at 1 :35 p. m. 
 it was nearly even with the top. At this moment, a man seized a shovel and 
 made a trench across the top of the gap through which a rill began to flow. 
 This soon increased to a good-sized stream, then to a river, and lastly to a raging 
 torrent, carrying away sections of the dike each succeeding moment, until at 
 3 o'clock, when, with the pit 5,000 feet long, 500 feet wide, and 46 feet deep 
 completely filled, the gap had widened to 400 feet. The end of this barrier 
 signalized the practical completion of a sea level channel deep enough for ocean- 
 going steamships all the way from Miraflores Locks to the sea, a distance of 
 8£ miles. 
 
 Gatun dike was a barrier that at one time kept the water in the Atlantic 
 channel cutoff theforebay of Gatun Locks. It was also used as a crossing from 
 the east to the west bank. Two pipe line suction dredges began the removal of 
 this dike, which was eight feet above sea level, and 75 feet wide across the top, 
 on September 2, 1913, no dynamite being necessary. On October 1, ocean- 
 going steamships were able to navigate the Atlantic channel to Gatun Locks. 
 
 The last and most momentous event of the kind was the destruction of 
 Gamboa Dike on Friday, October 10, and while the waters of the two oceans 
 did not join on that day, it presaged the near approach of that long looked for 
 occasion. Gamboa Dike was built in 1908 to protect Culebra Cut from inun- 
 dation by freshets in the Chagres River. During the flood of December, 1906, 
 the river rose to 81.6 feet at Gamboa, but this was before the dike was built and 
 before the Bas Obispo section of Culebra Cut had been completed. During 
 the flood of November, 1909, the water rose to a height of 72.6 feet, and came 
 so close to the top of the dike, which was then at 71 feet above sea level, that 
 sluice gates were opened to fill the Cut with water to the level of the river to 
 avoid heavy washing in case a break occurred. Since that year the safety of 
 the dike has never been menaced. When Gatun Lake rose to over 50 feet in 
 the latter part of 1912, the dike was widened to an average of 50 feet by dumping 
 clay on the side toward the Cut, and raised to an elevation of 78.2 feet above sea 
 level. It contained about 90,000 cubic yards of material, and in mining for 
 its complete destruction, a total of 1,277 drill holes were sunk, which if placed 
 end to end would equal 41,166 lineal feet. Two hundred of the holes were 
 made by tripod drills, the balance by well or churn drills. 
 
 LETTING WATER INTO CULEBRA CUT 
 
 Culebra Cut, between Cncaracha slide and Gamboa dike, contained 22.7 
 feet of water when the dike was destroyed on October 10. It was early decided 
 that it would be unwise to allow the Cut to fill from the full head of the flow from 
 
 [ 329 ] 
 
<^THB T^AN-P . DIVIDED -^CTHB WQI3^E>> TTKITED 
 
 Gatun Lake, and October 1, therefore, the valves in five 24-inch pipes extending 
 into the lake beneath Gamboa dike were opened. Subsequently a sixth pipe 
 was brought into service, and all were continued in use up to the day of the 
 explosion, filling the Cut to the depth above stated. 
 
 "gamboa is busted" 
 
 "Gamboa is busted!" are the words President Woodrow Wilson is credited 
 with having used, when he pressed the button at the White House in Washington 
 at 2 p. m., on Friday, October 10, setting off the blast which destroyed the last 
 artificial barrier in the Canal. According to the local official timing it was 
 exactly 2:02, when the thousands who were watching an insignificant embank- 
 ment on which the eyes of the world has been fastened for weeks, with bated 
 breath, saw a giant puff of smoke, the hurtling of rocks, mud, and other debris 
 high in air, and heard the muffled roar of the explosion, always a few seconds 
 behind. 
 
 Colonel Goethals had planned to blow up the dike at 9 a. m., on October 
 10, and had already announced the hour, but a message was received from 
 Washington shortly afterward, asking if it would be agreeable for the President 
 to fire the charge, and if so, if the change in time to 2 p. m. would be convenient. 
 The Colonel replied that he would be pleased to have the President fire the blast. 
 The spark that made the water bridge of the Canal practically continuous was 
 sent over 4,000 miles of telegraph and cable lines, from Washington to Galveston, 
 Texas, by the Western Union Wire, and from that point to Gamboa dike by 
 way of the Central & South American Cable Company's cable. At the dike, 
 it was connected to a local circuit, which, in turn, operated the switch that 
 fired the blast. 
 
 While not a holiday on the Isthmus, yet everyone that could get excused 
 from his work was present, and a crowd of people, probably 3,000 in number, 
 lined the banks of the Canal, or sought a more commanding position on the 
 nearby hills. Only a portion of the dike was dynamited, but the shot was a 
 perfect one, making a comparatively clean opening 125 feet in width, through 
 which water from the lake flowed in sufficient volume as to bring the water 
 already in the Cut to lake level within two hours' time. When the dike was 
 destroyed the stage of water in the lake was 67.7, and that in the Cut 61.7, a 
 difference of only six feet. The explosion was not a large one, as compared 
 with some of the others shot off in connection with the Canal work. Only eight 
 tons of explosive were used, the charges being planted in 400 holes from 20 to 35 
 feet in depth. The remainder of the dike, which included a hard rock section, 
 was blown up on October 17. Dredge No. 5, which was passed through Gatun 
 Locks on October 9, began work soon after the blast of October 10, removing 
 the remainder of the obstruction. 
 
 Gamboa Dike was mainly important from its position as it kept the water 
 in Gatun Lake from entering the 9-mile section of Culebra Cut, and was the 
 only remaining artificial bar to a continuous waterway from Gatun Locks to 
 Pedro Miguel Locks. This fact was heralded around the globe, and the interest 
 of the world on October 10 centered on the small embankment of rock and earth. 
 Its destruction was attended with much rejoicing in all parts of the United 
 States; celebrations were held in a number of cities, and the press of Europe 
 
 [ 330 ] 
 
CTHB TyAN-D . DIVIDED ^~GTft& WOI^JUD, TTMITED 
 
 reflected the following sentiment expressed in the London Times, "The final 
 stage today is an event in the history of mankind of which the whole human 
 race has reason to be proud." 
 
 GATUN LOCKS, THE FIRST IN ACTUAL OPERATION 
 
 The first passage of a vessel through a set of the Canal locks occurred on 
 September 26, 1913, when the tug Gatun was lifted from the sea channel to the 
 Gatun Lake level, using the west flight. This date was chosen, because of the 
 departure from the Isthmus of Maj. James P. Jervey, who had charge of the 
 masonry construction of Gatun Locks, and of Maj. George M. Hoffman, who 
 had charge of the building of Gatun Dam, as assistants to their chief, Lieut. - 
 Col. William L. Sibert. 
 
 The filling of the lower lock was completed at 4:45 p. m., when the sea 
 gate was opened, and the Gatun with flags flying and whistle blowing steamed 
 up the approach channel and past the entrance to the lower lock, amid the 
 cheers of the assembled spectators. The lower operating gates were then closed, 
 and the tug came to a stop alongside the center wall. The process was repeated 
 in the middle lock, and at 6:15, just as the short tropic dusk was falling, the 
 vessel entered the upper lock for the last lift. This was accomplished at 6:45 
 p. m., when the two last gates were swung open, and the tug passed out on the 
 gently heaving bosom of Gatun Lake, the entire passage occupying one hour and 
 51 minutes. In order to save time on the ascent the short length of lock was 
 used, bringing the intermediate gates into play. The total lift was approxi- 
 mately 64.70 feet, divided between the three locks, as follows: Lower Lock, 11.2 
 feet; Middle Lock, 23.7 feet; Upper Lock, 29.8 feet. 
 
 The Gatun, which possesses the honor of having been the first boat to pass 
 any of the locks of the Canal, is a seagoing tug, with a length of 101 feet, beam 
 22 feet, and a draft of 12J feet. It was built by the firm of Xeafie & Levy of 
 Philadelphia, and was first named the H. B. Chamberlain. It was purchased 
 by the Canal Commission and brought to the Isthmus in 1906. In its passage 
 through the locks, it was commanded by Capt. F. F. Stewart, while Mr. W. G. 
 Comber acted as chief navigator. It carried as passengers on this memorable 
 trip, Col. H. F. Hodges, Lieut. -Col. W. L. Sibert and family, Maj. James P. 
 Jervey, and Mrs. Jervey, Maj. George M. Hoffman, Lieut. Geo. R. Goethals, 
 and Mrs. Geothals, Mr. Henry Goldmark, Mrs. Edward Schildhauer, Mrs. E. 
 E. Lee, Capt. B. Corning of the steamship Panama of the Panama Railroad 
 Steamship Line, and Mr. Frank Thompson of the Panama Railroad. 
 
 On the following day, September 27, the Gatun was returned to the At- 
 lantic channel, the lockage occupying one hour and 37 minutes. 
 
 THE FIRST PRACTICAL LOCKAGE 
 
 On October 9, 1913, three groups of dredging vessels and a floating 
 piledriver, in tow of tugs, a total of 13 vessels, were lifted at one time from the 
 Atlantic entrance channel to the surface of Gatun Lake, using the entire 1,000- 
 foot length of each chamber. This performance more nearly demonstrated 
 the utility of the locks in commercial and naval use than the passage of the lone 
 tug on September 26. The first group entered the lower lock at 9:50 a. m., and 
 the rear group passed into Gatun Lake at 12:40 p. m. The first group con- 
 sisted of the tug Bohio, with a tow of one 600-ton barge loaded with piles and 
 
 [ 331 ] 
 
|v\N-P . DIVIDED -^ct-he: WORkD, UNITED 
 
 500 tons of coal, and two old cement barges loaded with 250 tons of coal each. 
 The second group comprised the tug Gatun, with suction dredge No. 86, several 
 pontoons, and a fuel oil barge in tow. The third group consisted of the tug 
 Empire, with French ladder dredge No. 5, two dump scows, and a floating 
 piledriver. A motor launch and several native canoes followed in the rear. 
 After entering upon the lake the dredges and auxiliary equipment were towed 
 south to Gamboa dike, to begin dredging operations in the Culebra Cut 
 section. Probably the most practical illustration afforded by this lockage was 
 the cheapness at which 1,000 tons of coal were conveyed to destination, as 
 compared with the cost of getting it to the same point by rail. 
 
 On October 22, fifteen more vessels of the Atlantic dredging fleet were 
 passed through Gatun Locks, to be in readiness to begin operations in Culebra 
 Cut. 
 
 FIRST LOCKAGE AT PACIFIC END 
 
 On October 14, the tug Miraflores, with three barges, old French clapet 
 No. 6, and the steam launch Birdena, made the first lockage at the Pacific end, 
 and were raised together through the west flight at Miraflores Locks to the 
 surface of Miraflores Lake, an elevation of 38.62 feet. As in the case of Gatun 
 Locks, the gates and operating machinery worked perfectly, the operation last- 
 ing one hour and 30 minutes. The locks at Pedro Miguel were in readiness to 
 pass the vessels into the Cut, but owing to an insufficient depth of water south of 
 Cucaracha slide, this step was postponed to a later date. The tug, clapet, and 
 launch returned to the Pacific entrance, and were passed through the locks on 
 the downward trip in 45 minutes. While the blowing up of Gamboa dike was 
 a feature that appealed to the popular mind, the fact that the locks and their 
 huge, but delicate mechanism, passed the tests with flying colors, was the source 
 of greatest pleasure to the men on the job. 
 
 FROM THE SEA TO CULEBRA CUT 
 
 The passage of both of the Pacific Locks was successfully accomplished on 
 October 24, when dredge No. 85, towed by the tug Miraflores, and accom- 
 panied by the steam launches Birdena and Louise, towing a fuel oil lighter, a 
 Hghter for repair parts, and clapet No. 9, and steam launch No. 26 towing 
 discharge pipe for the dredge on pontoons, was lifted through Miraflores Locks 
 to Miraflores Lake, and through the east chamber of the single lock at Pedro 
 Miguel for the lift to the surface level of the water in Culebra. The tows 
 entered the lower lock chamber at Miraflores at 9:04 a. m., the upper level at 
 9:45, and Miraflores Lake at 10:20. Passing across Miraflores Lake, the fore- 
 most vessels entered Pedro Miguel Lock at 11 :10 a. in., and passed into Culebra 
 Cut at 11 :52. The dredge was then towed to the foot of Cucaracha slide, and 
 began its work of excavation on October 26. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES 
 
 It was an extraordinary coincidence that the day water was admitted to 
 Culebra Cut there should occur the hardest earthquake shock that has been 
 experienced on the Isthmus since September 7, 1882. That it was more than a 
 coincidence none but the superstitious will allow, although there are some that 
 
 [ 332 ] 
 
qf-fLB TvANP , DIVIDED —^<?Tt\& WORl)D> TIKITED 
 
 have tried to establish a connection between it and the Canal enterprise, possibly 
 having in mind the admonition of the Spanish friar delivered when the project 
 was first given serious consideration, which was "What God hath joined to- 
 gether, let no man put asunder." To the more practical, however, it afforded 
 an excellent test of the stability of the Canal locks and their equipment, and 
 demonstrated that it will take a much greater shock than any hitherto expe- 
 rienced on the Isthmus to make an impression on the lock structures. 
 
 The first tremor in the series occurred at 1:48 p. m., on October 1, 1913, 
 and passed unnoticed, although registered on the instrument at the Ancon 
 seismograph station. The heavy shock came at 11:25 that night, and con- 
 tinued for the space of about 25 seconds. It brought nearly everyone out of 
 their beds and into the streets, especially in the cities of Panama and Colon and 
 the interior towns. The movement registered Force IV on the Rossi-Forel 
 scale, I to X, and was the strongest shake experienced in the history of the 
 Ancon seismograph station. Despite alarming reports first sent out, no damage 
 was done to any part of the Canal work, or to buildings in Panama, with the 
 exception of a few slight cracks which developed in the concrete walls of 
 houses. The seismograph indicated the epicenter of the disturbance as being 
 115 miles to the southwest, which established it at a point off the coast of Los 
 Santos province. Reports from towns in this province on the day following 
 the first severe shock indicated that the maximum force of the movement was 
 felt there; several houses were damaged in the villages of Los Santos, Las 
 Tablas, Macaracas, and Tonosi, and in two or three towns church towers were 
 overturned. At Tonosi, near the seat of the trouble, landslides occurred in the 
 nearby mountains, and cracks opened in the ground. The Central and South 
 American Cable Company's cable broke at a point about 15 miles off the coast of 
 Los Santos province, and in repairing the break it was ascertained that the bed of 
 the ocean, formerly about 1,000 feet below the surface in that vicinity, is now 
 4,800 feet, indicating that the ocean bottom had sunk. The cable was found 
 buried beneath a huge submarine landslide. History of the earthquakes local 
 to this part of the Isthmus shows that in nearly every case the maximum in- 
 tensity has been felt in Los Santos province. As proof of this, it is stated that 
 the tower of the church in the village of Los Santos has been overthrown three 
 different times, and that this is the third time the cable has broken since it was 
 first laid. It was broken on the night of October 1 at the splice made after the 
 break of September 7, 1882. It would also appear that the earthquake zone of 
 the Isthmus is separate and distinct from that of Costa Rica, for the great 
 Cartago quake of 1910 was not felt in Panama, nor was the recent disturbance 
 here felt in Costa Rica, although there is less than 400 miles of distance between. 
 A commission, consisting of Mr. D. F. McDonald, the Canal geologist, and Mr. 
 W. C. Johnston, the assistant chief engineer of the Republic of Panama, was 
 sent to the province of Los Santos at the instance of the Panama Government 
 to make a complete investigation of the disturbances. After the hard shock of 
 October 1, the tremors continued at irregular intervals, and during the month 
 of October upward of 40 were recorded, only four of which were pronounced. 
 
 The report of the special board of engineers, consisting of Messrs. Frederic 
 P. Stearns, Arthur P. Davis, Henry A. Allen, James D. Schuyler, Isham Ran- 
 dolph, John R. Freeman, and Allen Hazen, appointed by ex-President Roose- 
 velt to investigate certain features of Canal construction, which was submitted 
 
 L 333 1 
 
CTKB T vAN-D . DIVIDED <n ^jB_^ yOBJyP) TTNJTED 
 
 to Congress on February 16, 1909, has the following to say on the possibility of 
 damage to the Canal by earthquakes: 
 
 "It has been suggested that the Canal region is liable to earthquake 
 shocks, and that a sea level canal would be less subject to injury by earth- 
 quakes than a lock Canal. 
 
 "We have seen in the city of Panama the ruins of an old church, said to 
 have been destroyed by fire, containing a long and extremely flat arch of great 
 age, which convinces us that there has been no earthquake shock on the Isthmus 
 during the one-hundred and fifty years, more or less, that this structure has been 
 in existence, that would have injured the work proposed. 
 
 "Dams and locks are structures of great stability and little subject to 
 damage by earthquake shocks. The successful resistance of the dams and 
 reservoirs supplying San Francisco with water, even when those structures were 
 located near the line of fault of the earthquake, gives confidence in the ability 
 of well-designed masonry structures and earth embankments to resist earth- 
 quake shocks. 
 
 "We do not regard such shocks as a source of serious damage to any type 
 of Canal at the Isthmus, but if they were so, their effort on the dams, locks, and 
 regulating works proposed for the sea level Canal would be much the same as 
 upon similar structures of the lock Canal." 
 
 The hardest shock which the Isthmus has experienced since its discovery 
 is believed to have been that of September 7, 1882, but the famous flat arch 
 passed through unscathed, although the facade of the Cathedral fell in, and 
 the old Cabildo, or town hall, was badly cracked. Fissures also opened in the 
 
 Interior of the meteorological station at Ancon which houses a set of seismograph instruments. 
 
 [ 334 ] 
 
CTttE, Tv\N-D DIVIDED crrRB WOBLkD) IV 
 
 ground at that time at Colon, and along the bank of the Chagres River, and the 
 stone church at Cruces was destroyed. The flat arch above alluded to has 
 stood in the ruins of Santo Domingo church for 206 years. This arch has a 
 span of over 40 feet, and a rise of two; and it would not require a terrific shock 
 to bring it down. The church in which this arch is found was built by the 
 brethren of St. Dominic. History relates that when the arch was first built it fell. 
 It was rebuilt and fell again, and also a third time. The fourth time it was 
 built its designer, one of the friars, stood beneath while the supports were 
 being removed, saying that if it was well made he would not be crushed. It 
 did not fall. 
 
 MAKING A PASSAGE THROUGH CUCARACHA SLIDE 
 
 But for Cucaracha slide, Culebra Cut would have been navigable for boats 
 drawing 25 feet of water all the way from Gamboa Dike to Pedro Miguel Locks, 
 immediately after the blast of October 10. This slide, which has proved the 
 most troublesome of any on the Canal, entirely blocked the Cut on October 10 
 up to the 73-foot level, so that when the Cut between the dike and the slide was 
 at lake level, the water was still about six feet below the top of the barrier at 
 Cucaracha. An effort was at once made to pass the water through to the section 
 of the Cut between the slide and Pedro Miguel Locks by digging a trench with 
 pick and shovel. The attempt proved futile as the material slid in and filled 
 the ditch almost as fast as it was removed. Sluicing then resorted to, aided 
 by blasting, did not give much better results, so that on October 20, dredge Xo. 
 86 was taken through the Cut from Gamboa and set at work pumping water 
 over the slide. 
 
 SECRETARY GARRISOX's VISIT 
 
 Secretary of War, Lindley M. Garrison, paid his first visit to the Canal 
 work on October 28, 1913, remaining on the Isthmus one week. On October 
 30 he was lifted through Gatun Locks from sea level to Gatun Lake level in 
 French clapet Xo. 4, continuing the trip through the lake section and Culebra 
 Cut as far as Cucaracha slide in a tug. Before leaving the Isthmus, he gave out 
 an official statement, which, in part, was as follows: 
 
 "I think the canal is a work of magnificent import, magnificently done. I 
 have seen everything susceptible to inspection, and, literally, it is an instance 
 of one marvel succeeding to another. The people of our country are justified 
 in feeling the utmost pride in the successful accomplishment of this most 
 remarkable work." 
 
 THE OFFICIAL OPENIXG 
 
 The Panama Canal will be officially opened to the commerce of the seven 
 seas on January 1, 1915, although both commercial and naval vessels will 
 probably have used it many times before then. A great naval display in cele- 
 bration of the event in which the fleets of foreign countries will be invited to 
 participate. The fleets will probably assemble at Hampton Roads, Va., and 
 after paying their respects to the President at Washington, will sail for the 
 Isthmus to arrive in time for the opening day. It is improbable that all the 
 
 [ 335 ] 
 
CTHE, Tv\N-P DIVIDED cm& WORbR TT: 
 
 vessels taking part in the pageant can be locked through on the official day, 
 but the representatives of different countries present may be taken through on 
 specially selected vessels, and the remainder of the ships can follow later, pro- 
 ceeding to San Francisco, where they will take part in the festivities attending 
 the opening of the Panama-Pacific Exposition on February 20, 1915. 
 
 FIRST BOAT THROUGH THE CANAL 
 
 Th.2 sending of the first boat through the Canal depended, at the time 
 this book was published, on excavating a channel through Cucaracha slide, 
 which might take weeks or months, according to the slide's future activities. 
 The Polar ship Fram left Buenos Aires on August 14, 1913, and arrived at 
 Colon on October 3, 1913, on its way to San Francisco, by way of the Panama 
 Canal, where it expects to outfit for its projected trip to the Arctic region. It 
 will probably be one of the first vessels to make the trip from ocean to ocean, 
 although it is reasonably certain that one of the Commission's vessels will make 
 the initial voyage. A battleship will likely be passed through soon after 
 January 1, 1914. 
 
 The following thirty-five pages of views show the last steam shovel work 
 in Culebra Cut, the successful operation of all the locks and the present 
 dredging work at Cucaracha Slide, the last barrier to a passage through the 
 entire Canal. 
 
 3% ] 
 

 
 
 
 
 ' *JK* i ^B IkK \ 
 
 j^g> M|l, '# JL- ' • 
 
 
 *#'2% / ■.■■■• t-.n •«■ - 
 
 
 
 > ^^ _^M^W» 
 
 r^fc^_ jm^-*^ 
 
 ^^rf^^P Vr > *w 
 
 ^* - t^^^-- ;::5= ^ - ^ 
 
 #*£? 
 
 
 ^^^^ i ■ 
 
 ^^^^_^ — • -'****•" ■* - jj^fc* pJ^^^-^M— 
 
 
 - JLJ <**^_ 
 
 ; ^^~-** ^ ^flS^^L^g**^ w?§* 
 
 Last dipperful of dirt taken out of Culebra Cut by Steam Shovel No. 226. 
 
 This and the following three pages show the last steam shovel work in Culebra Cut before the water was turned in. 
 
 [ 337 ] 
 
Next to the last large rock delivered by Tower G, from which Operator Kimball 
 
 Steam Shovel No. 226, Engineer Geddes; issued orders moving last train out of bottom 
 Craneman Hudson. of the Cut. 
 
 Last large rock delivered on Car No. 2005 by Steam Shovel No. 226. 
 
 [ 338 1 
 
Steam Shovel No. 226, which loaded last dipperf ul of dirt on last train out of the Cut. 
 
 Last train of material out of bottom of the Cut. 
 
 r 339 1 
 
■■ ■ m i I ■ 
 
 j mjij . \m^^,._ r , J :^mmmm^B/ma/g^it 
 
 mm ^ iiji ii j L r £ 5jjw ^« ^ Mg j ag 
 
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 fmmmaf^ Mwvmmm mmmmmmy^^fmmmma^ 
 
 innmnw— WW 
 
 Engine No. 260 which pulled the last loaded train out of the Cut. 
 
 f> 
 
 %.> *• 
 
 
 v «^ 
 
 ■r- rt '3^3E 
 
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 r' 
 
 ^ M ' 
 
 **-P^ ' * ;■** 'Jjjffijr** 
 
 
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 IS i i»*8^t • ^•'•*'^f*K^''** •*'';*?^ 
 
 • • 
 
 
 , ">$ 7 ' ^ 
 
 ■* 
 
 /,>■ J- »-"**" : 55S»J l <*^6 
 
 * "/"'- 1% •"••^■^^■■■■a "_""«&■• 
 
 ^ >fc*i^- -" "•■*«. ^*: ■■■-.• ' " - 
 
 Engine No. 229, which pushed last train up incline track. Engineer and conductor on tender. 
 
 f 340 1 
 
Blowing up the first dike at Miraflores on May 18, 1913. This let water into a completed 
 section of the Canal about 1,000 feet long. 
 
 Miraflores dike before the blast of August 31, 1913. 
 
 The dynamite blast at Miraflores dike on August 31, 1913. 
 
 This and the following four paces show the blowing up of Miraflores dike and the filling of the last part of the sea level 
 channel from the Pacific to Miraflores Locks, the entire distance being about eight and one-half miles. 
 
 f 341 ] 
 
9 1 
 
 Views showing the water rushing into the channel after the dike was blown up. 1. Man 
 making a trench to let the first water in. 2. The opening as it appeared 30 minutes later. 3. The 
 dike crumbled away under the mighty rush of water. 4. The opening momentarily widens. 
 
 342 ] 
 
While the water was surging into the pit, the phenomenon of the tide being held stationary 
 for three-quarters of an hour was observed at Balboa eight miles away. 1. The rush of water 
 continues. 2. The opening about one hour after the water first went through. 3. A steel cable 
 hung across the fall, which the rush of water thrashed back and forth. 4. The pit is gradually filling. 
 
 [ 343 ] 
 
View looking into the pit toward Miraflores Locks. 
 
 When the pit was nearly full, the suction caused a barge to break loose and to pass through 
 the opening, snapping the steel cable in its progress like a piece of thread. 
 
 [ 344 ] 
 
Excavating in the Canal from Miraflores Locks to the sea. This is the section of the Canal that 
 was filled by the blowing up of the last dike at Miraflores, shown on the previous pages. 
 
 View looking seaward taken from the same place as the one at the top of the page, showing 
 the channel completely filled. Ancon and Sosa Hills in the distance. Approach wall of Mira- 
 flores Locks in the foreground. 
 
 [ 345 ] 
 
Letting water through Gamboa Dike into Culebra Cut. Two of the 24-inch pipes are shown 
 in this picture. Six of tnese pipes were opened ten days before the Dike was blown up, allowing 
 the Cut to become partly filled, so there would not be such a rush of water when the Dike 
 was destroyed. 
 
 ^to« 2»s 
 
 
 
 
 M^l ._ 
 
 jt*~ ' i 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ~~ mmm ' % - ~— ' 
 
 ,._dfcL_^ ... 
 
 v ■-*■ 
 
 1 , V ^^0*0*^ 
 
 f&**w 
 
 *•" 
 
 HrP" 
 
 
 liftiifMn 
 
 ■■W^r 1 " ; 
 
 JHj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gamboa Dike before it was dynamited. 
 
 f 346 1 
 
Blast that destroyed Gamboa Dike on October 10, 1913. The Cut had been filled to within a few 
 feet of the level of the lake before the Dike was blown up. 
 
 Water from Gatun Lake flowing into the Cut through the opening in the dike after the explosion. 
 The first boat to pass into the Cut from the lake was a canoe containing two men. 
 
 [ 347 ] 
 
I:u*l 
 
Lake entrance to Gatun Locks on morning of lockage, looking south. 
 
 This and the following seven pases show the first lockage on the Canal, the tug Gatun, passing through 
 (iatun Locks from the sea level channel to Gatun Lake. Septemoer 26. 1913. 
 
 Lake entrance to Gatun Locks on morning of lockage, looking north. Footwalks with 
 handrails on each side have been placed on top of all the lock gates. 
 
 [ 349 ] 
 
Filling of lower lock was aided by opening sea gate valves. Tug Gatun moored 
 
 in sea level channel. 
 
 Watching the filling of the lower lock. 
 
 [ 350 ] 
 
Turning water into the lock chamber through culvert openings in the floor — partial flow. 
 
 Turning water into the lock chamber through culvert openings in the floor— maximum flow. 
 
 [ 351 ] 
 
Water in the lower lock and sea level channel equalized. Opening the lower guard gate. 
 
 Tug Gatun moving up the approach channel toward the lower lock. 
 
 [ 352 ] 
 
m^Si^tSBSmt 
 
 Tug entering the lower lock chamber. 
 
 Tug steaming up the lower lock chamber. 
 [ 353 ] 
 
Tug comes to a stop alongside the center wall in the lower lock chamber. 
 
 Gate is closed preparatory to filling the lock for the lift to the middle chamber. 
 
 [ 354 j 
 
Colonel Goethals an interested spectator. 
 
 Colonel Goethals is amused. Group includes 
 Mrs. H. H. Rousseau, sitting; Mr. Joseph 
 Bucklin Bishop, with umbrella; Mr. Rousseau, 
 back turned. 
 
 Col. Harry F. Hodges (left facing), and Lieut. -Col. W. L. Sibert (right facing) talking it over. 
 
 [ 355 ] 
 
Gates in open position have appearance of being part of lock wall. 
 
 Water rising in the middle lock for the second lift. 
 [ 356 ] 
 
Tug Empire, and its tow, French ladder dredge No. 5, two dump scows and floating 
 piledriver entering the lower approach to Gatun Locks. 
 
 This and the following four pages show the first practical lockage at Gatun Locks, tugboats, dredges and barges 
 passing from the sea level channel to Gatun Lake, October 9, 1913, combined lift of 85 feet. 
 
 Tug Bohio and consorts, consisting of three loaded barges in the lower approach 
 channel, waiting for the gates to swing. 
 
 [ 357 ] 
 

 Tugs, dredges and barges entering the lower lock from the sea channel. 
 
 Closing the lower lock operating gate. 
 
 f 358 ] 
 
The lift from the lower to the middle lock. 
 
 Opening the middle gate. The fleet, 13 vessels in all, nearly fill the lower lock chamber. 
 
 [ 359 ] 
 
The vessels pass into the middle lock chamber. 
 
 Inside the middle chamber. Ready for the lift to the upper lock. 
 
 [ 360 ] 
 
Assembling the various craft inside the middle lock. Colonel Goethals on the lock wall 
 
 to the right with his back turned. 
 
 Tug Empire, with tow, passing out into Gatun Lake. Dark spots on the surface of the lake 
 are floating islands, masses of swamp vegetation lossened by the lake rise, and blown across the 
 lake by the wind. 
 
 [ 361 1 
 
Tug Miraflores, its tow of three Panama Railroad lighters, and steam launch Birdena after 
 they had passed into the lower lock at Miraflores. 
 
 This and the following two pases show the first practical lockage, at Miraflores Locks. Tugs and barges passing 
 from sea level channel to Miraflores Lake, October 24, 1913, a lift of 54^ feet. 
 
 Near view of the tug Miraflores, and its tow. Abreast, the vessels occupied the entire 
 width of the chamber. Steam launch Birdena appears in the rear. 
 
 [ 362 ] 
 
u 
 o 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 3 
 4> 
 
 J3 
 
 ti 
 
 •a 
 
 [363] 
 

 Vessels waiting for the lift to the upper lock. A French clapet, which also made the lockage, 
 
 appears in the foreground. 
 
 Tug and its tow passing through Miraflores Lake toward Pedro Miguel Locks. This lake is 
 one and one-half miles long, separating Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks. 
 
 [ 364 ] 
 
Opening the lower guard gate to admit the floating equipment. 
 
 This ana the following page show the first lockage at Pedro Miguel Locks, October 24, 1913, the dredging fleet being lifted 
 
 from Miraflores Lake to Culebra Cut, a lift of 30$ feet. The combined lift of Mirafiores and Pedro 
 
 Miguel Locks is S5 feet, the same as at Gatun Locks on the Atlantic side. 
 
 Tug Miraflores and dredge No. 85 entering the east lock chamber. 
 
 [ 365 ] 
 
Waiting for the Lock to fill. 
 
 The pipe on the barges was part of the outfit of dredge No. 85, 
 for use at Cucaracha slide. 
 
 The Lock filled. Ready to pass out into the Culebra Cut channel. 
 
 [ 366 ] 
 
French clapet No. 4 in the lower west chamber at Gatun, carrying Secretary of War Garrison 
 and party through the Locks on October 30, 1913. 
 
 Culebra Cut at Gold Hill in 1887, during the French canal times. The space between the shed in the 
 foreground and the first French locomotive is the zone of activity of the Cucaracha slide. 
 
 [ 367 ] 
 
Close view of a slide in Culebra Cut. 
 
 Shooting off a blast in connection with the 
 work of cutting a ditch through Cucaracha 
 slide for the passage of water. 
 
 Culebra Cut opposite Culebra village after removal of steam shovels and construction tracks, 
 
 Action of slides graphically pictured here. 
 
 [ 368 ] 
 
Close view of Cucaracha slide. The lagoon in the foreground was formed by another part of 
 the slide blocking the Canal about where the picture ends. In the distance may be seen two points 
 projecting into the Canal. These were the toes of the slides on the east and west banks at Culebra, 
 which moved some distance after water was admitted to the Cut. 
 
 This and the following two pages show the work on Cucaracha slide, after the water was allowed to enter Culebra Cut. 
 
 Closer view of trenching operations at the slide. Workmen engaged in trying to keep a trench 
 open in the spongy mass to let the water from filled section through. This proved to be a most 
 discouraging task, for the material moved about as fast as dug out. Two workmen were drowned 
 while these operations were in progress. 
 
 [ 369 ] 
 

 Dredge No. 85 working at the south toe of Cucaracha slide. 
 
 Looking north at a point about opposite the middle of Cucaracha slide, showing dredge No. 86 at 
 
 work on the north toe of the slide. 
 
 [ 370 ] 
 
Looking north through Cucaracha slide. 
 
 View of the Cut about 800 yards south of Cucaracha slide. Dredges No. 85 and 86 may be seen 
 in the distance working on the south and north sides of the slide, the last barrier to a passage 
 through the entire Canal. 
 
 L 371 j 
 
THE MONUMENTAL TASK COMPLETED 
 
 NE hundred million citizens of the United States of America are 
 justified in their display of pride over the consummation of the 
 greatest engineering task ever assigned to man — the construction of 
 the Panama Canal. Not alone have the people of our country 
 
 manifold reasons for rejoicing at the achievement so conspicuously won, but 
 the inhabitants of the world likewise have a living interest in the accomplish- 
 ment of an undertaking which has united into a commercial pathway the Atlantic 
 and Pacific Oceans. 
 
 Mankind's dream of the ages has now become a reality, and the grateful 
 homage of appreciation resounds with praises in recognition of the wonderful 
 results which our skilled artisans achieved and which our generous resources 
 made possible. No one can be indifferent to this universal cause for satis- 
 faction, since the success obtained on the Isthmus is something which will benefit 
 the entire human race. 
 
 Such wars as have engaged the activities of American citizens, from 
 colonial days to the present, have been waged for principle, but the warfare of 
 our yeomanry on the Isthmus was primarily waged against disease, in order 
 that the test of endurance might be more even-handed; secondarily the forces 
 and impediments of nature were combated, and a victory was won in both 
 particulars that has astonished the thoughtful everywhere. In these features 
 there can be no controversy concerning the fact that in the completion of the 
 undertaking there is glory enough for all. 
 
 In an effort of such transcendent and far-reaching consequence to the 
 commerce of the world as is the construction of the Panama Canal, it is ap- 
 propriate that we should in every way recognize the essential elements and 
 .factors that have contributed to the success leading to the final chapter. In a 
 sentence these have been embraced in the resourcefulness of our citizenship — 
 one hundred million people of a Republic, who willingly taxed themselves that 
 the oceans which bounded their nation might be made one. This has now been 
 done, and the willing co-operation and intelligent display of statesmanship 
 by both houses of Congress, as well as the efforts of our high-minded Executives, 
 who have been enthusiastic supporters of the gigantic work, these should not 
 for a moment be allowed to fade from view, but should become signposts in 
 that harmony of rejoicing which will animate our countrymen and stimulate 
 effort to overcome obstacles while time endures. Briefly this is one of the 
 inviting texts associated with the proposition which cannot be too highly 
 extolled, nor a feature in which the superlative of language is not needed to 
 fittingly outline the great deed now finished. 
 
 The American people owe to the courageous craftsmen engaged on the 
 Isthmus, those who rendered such splendid service to our country, a debt that 
 is inextinguishable, and to the peerless genius, Colonel George W. Goethals, 
 there will always be reserved a niche in the Hall of Fame in which will be 
 treasured lofty appreciation of his masterfulness as an engineer and his at- 
 tractive personality as a man altogether too modest to boast of his accomplish- 
 ments, he allowing the herculean effort to acclaim the tribute of that greatness 
 
 [ 372 ] 
 
CTHB Tv\ND piVIDED — c^TBB WQ^^_iINJTEP 
 
 which is his just due. His splendid capability, always in evidence, as time pro- 
 ceeds will grow brighter, while the cordial commendation of his countrymen 
 will be his rich reward during life. 
 
 It seems beyond the realm of doubt that a nation which displayed the 
 marvelous resources and manifested the almost illimitable power which for 
 years were in evidence in the construction of the Panama Canal will be short- 
 sighted either in enterprise or lacking in initiative or invention in utilizing the 
 pathway between the oceans, which now has been so adequately provided. 
 Thus we may be permitted at the closing stage of our volume to hazard the 
 prediction that American enterprise and American ambition will fulfill every 
 responsibility and meet every expectation in utilizing the opportunity which 
 the future may present in availing ourselves of the advantages at hand. 
 
 In order to be able to grasp the possibilities of the trade which in the near 
 future will be carried through the Panama Canal, there should be no subject 
 more entertaining nor one more profitable that can engage the attention of the 
 business associations of the country than to obtain a knowledge of the topic 
 that is actively stirring the energies of other nations. Monuments of ruins of 
 old systems and ancient methods may be observed on every hand on the 
 Isthmus, but when the magic wand of American courage was waved over the 
 scene the artisans of our country were equal to every call; obstacles disappeared 
 and victory came into view to permanently reside as a sentinel proclaiming 
 their glory. Our people will surely not be slow to seize the fruits of the victory 
 now so completely won. 
 
 In connection with the many gratifying words inseparably associated with 
 the construction of the Panama Canal it is especially fitting to note the complete 
 absence of suspicion and freedom from both scandal and graft from which 
 those prosecuting the work from the beginning to the completion of the 
 absorbing task were relieved. In addition there has been but little to discourage 
 or dishearten, from the standpoint of adverse criticism, the workmen who 
 finally achieved the unexampled success, since the frankest manner was 
 observed in everything pertaining to the enterprise, and this policy has been kept 
 prominently before the public. Daylight has been a factor in the accomplish- 
 ment of the greatest deeds in all history and candor and honest motives have 
 always been within the gaze and was revealed to any who sought information 
 concerning the construction work in hand. In this particular the Panama 
 Canal will long be a worthy example of sincerity and open-mindedness. 
 
 The monumental task is over, and the enterprise of the American people 
 will doubtless be searching for new fields to conquer, new obstacles to overcome, 
 but the eloquent theme of the construction of the Panama Canal will forever 
 stand out in the chronicles of the world as a marvelous undertaking, executed in 
 a manner to excite emulation and compel the admiration of those capable of ap- 
 preciating the great things of this world. 
 
 No work of consequence is ever brought to completion without effort, nor 
 is anything of value secured without labor and sacrifice. The tremendous 
 undertaking on the Isthmus was colossal in many ways, involving danger, 
 disease, anxiety and uncertainty, as well as millions upon millions in expendi- 
 ture. These problems have been encountered and have all been mastered by 
 superb skill, indomitable persistence and heroic courage. In a word, nothing 
 more can be said, and, in this connection, as a final leave-taking to the reader, 
 nothing more is necessary to say. 
 
 [ 373 ] 
 
CTHB Tv\ND DIVIDED crn& WORIjD> TTMITED 
 
 In the preparation of the matter for this volume the Author and Publisher 
 have spared neither effort nor expense in supplying the reader an authentic, 
 accurate and attractive account in words and pictures of the Twentieth 
 Century's masterpiece of things done. With the feeling that this aim and 
 purpose have been realized and that every expectation has likewise been ful- 
 filled, the pages making up this book are now submitted for a discriminating 
 verdict as worthy of the attractive subject of which it treats. 
 
 View it as we may, the uniting of the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific 
 mark an epoch in the world of progress. Perhaps time will again demonstrate 
 that once again America is but carrying out a destiny beyond the realization 
 of those who have builded better than they knew, a work which for years to 
 come posteritv will point with pride, and finallv one that stands in the fullest 
 sense as explained in the Canal motto: "THE LAND DIVIDED— THE 
 WORLD UNITED." 
 
 [ 374 ] 
 
INTERESTING FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 Tht general route of the ' au.il i- Imm N.irilmest h.SoutU- 
 '-■'•i 01 not venn the UEantic entrance being I !j miles W«rf 
 
 ol tin- Pai In piilriiiiii 
 
 l-'ir-t Ground broken by French Jj,». I. 1880 
 
 Vctive work started by French Jan. 80, 1882 
 
 FM.Hiili.Mt I.n In. i. I y,in|,) T M |, ,.,1,1, 
 
 Excavation bj French, useful to presenl Canal 
 
 (cubicyards) Efl 006.000 
 
 ■\ i -I-'"' u i rmrii jsao.ooo.ooo 
 
 I mil ,1 -lute, iKii.l t]i<- French < \<;,u\ f ■ >i llieir 
 
 rights and propcrtj MO.000,000 
 
 1 "ll" 'I M:ite. i.i|llli.'.| ll,,' I .Hi, J /'. ■ l,,,li, ||„. 
 
 lUpubfi. of I' , bj treat] Feb 89, 1804 
 
 I inl.l N,.le, |.:.i.| IV.iinin;, fi.r I mini Zone tUIUHIII.IHKI 
 
 ' ■'"■'I Z ■ .in .i . [uat lea), about I Ifl 
 
 1 i>it. '.I •-!.,!.■. rmvs r.ulj.1 I., ||i< |{ej,ul,li, ,.f IVimnwi 
 
 f..rtlje< mini Zone, U& "- t!H I |-i inn ■ s;.-,(mkmi 
 
 Work begun by United Suites May i, 1904 
 
 1'ir.l l„>,,l llin.uirli ll,.- I,,- I., S-|.t it,, I'll;! 
 
 '..imI-.i Dik.-. k 1 ,tarli(i.i. 1 llMm.T.l.lnvvn l ||i ()<\ 10 .I'M I 
 
 Dittc -f OH.-i.il < )|Miiiii- ,1 ,,, |. mr, 
 
 I..'ii-th.,i» l ii,„lfr..m.|,-|.«, 1 t..rt...).-T.«.il.. 
 
 I I InuiMl lhr,.,i-h ,.„,,| 1 |..|.-.l I I ,|, in I,, | : 
 
 I 'I |u-,.i;.- Ilin.iii.'li I-- k, i Until-!.) I 
 
 """ ""HI' "f 'l..im»-l. muxriimim ifeell [,000 
 
 lt,.|l..m,,i,|lU ,.f,l,m,nel. .„..,. ni.i,,,,< nl, -l,i. i< ill f.vil :HXl 
 
 Lock*, in pain 12 
 
 Locks, usable length [feet) 1,000 
 
 Locks, u^le width (feet) im 
 
 Gotun Dam, .mr, .ml lull ,,,,1.- I,,,,,-. l, ; ,!f 
 
 Bale wide ol bate Material used 
 
 •traction taken from the Canal cubit parti 11,000,000 
 
 <■;''"" l-'ki'. .li;. I ilij.ili l.-eh V. to I, 
 
 f..iUu- I ..A.-, imnnal ojrf.i.-e lev, I jil,,ve -■ | level (ft 
 
 Excavation by Americana to Noi I. 10] I 
 
 (cubic rards) :i l ,o ! i !1C 
 
 Ew .ivilmti fnr entire ( mm], In l • 
 
 JtiK i. 1813 . ubii ■ irdi ! ■ ! 159 000 
 erele, total f-,r t anal (cubit yards nl I 5.000,000 
 
 ( art ol Mine per barrel) -i 10 
 
 ' -I ..'' ■- i"l ii.i.il 1875, 
 
 1.(^1 I I'M I SI -I...- . -! i-. nn I ui.itiM-. ( .iii.il 
 
 l'ir-1 I',,,:,,,,:, li.iilr.M.I |.!,-l, .1 J:.n .'7, 1 S.V. 
 
 Tile I'mimim Hiiilni;,,! i, tin |.,i„. -I ,l,.,r1 Inn :,.,,! 
 
 till- -.l.orl.-st trail,, online., Inl line in ill, «..rl-l. 
 
 IMiei.Iinn e,.ln|.lele.! Muv A"., I'M.', lehetl, 
 
 IT ll milesi cost ' 18,084,928 18 
 
 Ci.l.Jthlll. IP:, I, :.!,!., It,,, In,., .11, .re, ,,t „.,rk, M,,..l,, l!M .11,:. 
 1 .in il in I I'. iii .im. i H.i,l,.....| f.m .- .il M.irk, Mir. I,, 
 
 1(11:1, Ammiaii. I IM 
 
 I ,i.| ,,( the wt.rk .if tUe 1 >,:■[„. rl.nenl i.f Smiilmion 
 
 to Jub/ 1,1019 si,,. -.il, ii, I'M 
 
 A venire i lentil rite ,1111,111- enijilove, |. ir umi "I l!l 1 -'. 
 
 disease only [per i.ihm>. B.M 
 
 PoimlaliiHlirf ('.itniuiaritv.! ..I U mi.il/ ■, 
 
 1919, about ' 130,600 
 
 Population ,,( Panama I'itv. i.l t 45,000 
 
 Population of 1 olon, aboul U.000 
 
 !{■■,, nl. lie ,,l V: ,,,, area ■ .iin.re.n.l.M, ,,l».tit 92,000 
 
 Tjih-'.'.V, \ll',',h' l \'i,|e"le',H A* 
 
 Urn,.., r ..of ,11 .1 < ,.!•... ....I.e.. 180 
 
 Uera". ■ il ■ I at I'ii ■■ . 1 Ult lie,! 70 
 
 Max mm rainfi.llnf reoor.lfor 1 li-.iir 1 
 
 Maximum rainfaU of record for 84! rs 
 
 Maximum teiii|HTjlitre ..f retort! (<le<,T<i 
 
PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 
 
 MOST FREQUENTLY HEARD IN THE CANAL ZONE AND 
 
 PANAMA, TOGETHER WITH THEIR APPLICATION, 
 
 AND ALSO ETYMOLOGY, WHERE KNOWN 
 
 Agua Clara (a-gwii klii'ra), meaning clear 
 water. Name applied to several streams on the 
 Isthmus on account of the clearness of their 
 waters. Name of tributary of Gatun River, and 
 also of the Zone waterworks at Gatun village. 
 
 Aguadulce (a-gwa-dool'sy), meaning sweet 
 water. Name applied to several streams and 
 localities on the Isthmus, on account of the 
 potability of the water. Name of creek that 
 supplies Toro Point settlement with water. Also 
 name of thriving port on west coast in Code 
 province. 
 
 Agua Fria (ii-gwii free'ii), meaning cool run- 
 ning water. Several streams bear this name. 
 
 Agua Salud (ii-gwii sii-lood'). Refers to a 
 number of small streams whose waters are 
 classed as health-giving, or at least drinkable. 
 Name of stream in the Gatun Lake area. 
 
 Ahorca Lagarto (ii-or'-ka la-gar'to), meaning 
 literally "hanging lizard," probably inspired 
 from the number of large lizards found on the 
 limbs of trees in this locality. Former station 
 on the old line of the Panama railroad 12.64 
 miles from Colon. Now inundated by Gatun 
 Lake. 
 
 Alhajuela (a-la-wa'la), meaning "little 
 jewel. - ' Place on the Chagres River 11 miles 
 from Gamboa, where a gaging station is main- 
 tained by the I. C. C. 
 
 Almirante (al-mee-rari'tee), meaning "ad- 
 miral.'' Name of town founded by the United 
 Fruit Company in Bo<-as del Toro province, as 
 its permanent headquarters. Name also of bay 
 in the same locality, from the title given Colum- 
 bus, who discovered it. 
 
 Alto Obispo (al-to 6-bees'po), meaning "up- 
 per bishop. ' ' Called by the French ' ' Haut 
 Obispo." Name of native village near Bas 
 Obispo on the old line of the P. R. R. Aban- 
 doned on account of Gatun Lake. 
 
 Ancon (an-kone'), meaning "open bay, or 
 roadstead." Name applied to Ancon Hill, over- 
 looking Panama and Panama Bay, sometimes 
 also called "Cerro de los Bucaneros" (Hill of 
 the Buccaneers), from the tradition that Mor- 
 gan and his man first saw Panama from that 
 height. Name also of the American settlement 
 at the foot of the hill. 
 
 Arraijan (arr-li-ee han"), supposed to be from 
 Spanish "arraigado," place to settle down. 
 Name of Panamanian village just outside the 
 Zone boundary line west of Empire. Noted for 
 its orange grove. 
 
 Barhacoas (bar-ba-ko'as), supposed to be 
 from Spanish "barbacoa, " barbecue. Name of 
 locality on old line of the P. R. R., about 24 miles 
 from Colon. Also applied to the iron girder 
 bridge which formerly spanned the Chagres 
 River at that point. 
 
 Bas Obispo (Ms 6-bees'po), meaning "lower 
 bishop," in contradistinction to Alto Obispo. 
 
 American settlement on old line of the P. R. R., 
 16 miles from Panama. Site of the United 
 States Marine Camp (Camp Elliott) for many 
 years. Town will be abandoned. 
 
 Bayano (ba-ya'no). Origin of name unde- 
 termined. Name of one of the large rivers of 
 the Isthmus, emptying into Panama Bay, some- 
 times called Rio Chepo, famed for its alligator 
 haunts. Also name of tribe of Indians that 
 dwell along the upper course of the stream. 
 
 Bocas del Toro (bo'kas del to'ro), meaning 
 "mouth of the bull." Name of city and prov- 
 ince developed by the banana industry, which is 
 wholly in the hands of the United Fruit Com- 
 pany. Annual shipments from this locality now 
 amount to about 7,000,000 bunches. 
 
 Bohio Soldado (boo-ee'5 sole-dad'o), meaning 
 "soldier's home." Name of a once thriving 
 village in the Canal Zone, 15 miles from Colon. 
 Site now covered by Gatun Lake. Was the larg- 
 est village in the Zone when the Americans 
 acquired the strip in 1904. 
 
 Boqueron (bo-kay-rone'), meaning "wide 
 opening." A tributary of the Rio Pequeni, ris- 
 ing in the mountains near Porto Bello. Also 
 a village in Chiriqui province. 
 
 Boquete (bo-kay'tay), meaning "A gap, or 
 narrow entrance."' A rich valley in the moun- 
 tains of Chiriqui province, inhabited by a for- 
 eign colony engaged in the growing of coffee. 
 Many American employes have been accustomed 
 to spend their vacations there. 
 
 Buenavista (bwa-nii-vees'tii), meaning "good 
 view. ' ' The name of several localities on the 
 Isthmus. Formerly, a hamlet on the P. R. R., in 
 the Gatun Lake area. 
 
 Caimito (ka-e-mee'to). Name of an Isthmian 
 vegetable. Also of a small stream in the Canal 
 Zone, and of a station on the new line of the 
 I'. R. R., 26 miles from Colon. 
 
 Caldera (kfil-day'rii), meaning "Caldron." 
 Name of a river, village and hot springs in the 
 province of Chiriqui. 
 
 Calohre (ka-lo'bray). From the Spanish word 
 "Calor, " heat. Name of village in Veraguas 
 province, near which are three hot springs. 
 
 Camacho (ka-ma'cho). Origin of word unde- 
 termined. Name of stream in the Canal Zone. 
 Also applied to Zone waterworks at Empire. 
 
 Cana (kii'na), or Santa Cruz de Cana (siin'ta 
 kroos day kii'na). Name of a settlement in the 
 Darien region, headquarters of the Darien Gold 
 Mining Company, Ltd. 
 
 Cascajal (kas-ka-hal'), meaning place full of 
 grave] or pebbles. River, emptying into the bay 
 at Porto Bello. 
 
 Cerro Grande (cher-ro gran'de), meaning big 
 hill. Spanish name of Balboa Hill, the highest 
 point in the Canal Zone, over 1,000 feet, situ- 
 ated a few miles from the old site of Gorgona. 
 
 [ 375 ] 
 
CTTLB TiAN-D DIVIDED q^HB WORkD, TTKITED 
 
 Chagres (ehag'ress). Origin of word undeter- 
 mined. Principal feeder of Gatun Lake. See 
 description in text of the book under "Gatun 
 Lake." 
 
 Charae (cnam'a), meaning place of barter or 
 trade. Town on the west coast in Panama prov- 
 ince. Also name of a peninsula in the same 
 locality, at the end of which, called Punta 
 Chame, was obtained all of the sand used in the 
 construction of the Pacific Locks of the Canal. 
 
 Chitre (ehee-trfiv'). Most rapidly growing 
 small town on the west coast, in Los Santos 
 province. Center of the fruit-shipping inter- 
 ests for the Panama market. 
 
 Chorrera (cho-ray'ra), meaning waterfall. Na- 
 tive village in Panama province a little west 
 of the Zone boundary. Chorrera Falls, four 
 miles from the village, are quite picturesque. 
 
 Chiriqui (chee-ree-kee')- Indian word. Prov- 
 ince in western Panama, the richest, from an 
 agricultural standpoint, in the republic. Horses 
 and cattle are raised, and coffee, tobacco and 
 rice are grown. Also name of an extinct vol- 
 cano in the same province, the highest peak in 
 the country, 11,500 feet. Also name of the na- 
 tional prison in Panama City. 
 
 Cocle (ko-klay'). Indian word. Name of Pan- 
 ama's smallest province; also of a tribe of In- 
 dians that inhabit the mountains of this prov- 
 ince. Several rivers, one of size, bear this 
 name. 
 
 Cocoli (ko-ko-lee')- Formerly a lake in the 
 Canal Zone, used as one of the reservoirs for 
 the Panama water supply, now a part of Mira- 
 flores Lake. Also the name of the stream that 
 fed the lake. 
 
 Coiba, or Quibdo (ko-ee'bii, or keeb'do). 
 Largest island in Panamanian waters, situated 
 off the coast of the Province of Veraguas. The 
 Panama Government plans to establish the na- 
 tional prison on this island. 
 
 Colon (ko-lone', pronounced like the word 
 Cologne). City at the Atlantic entrance of the 
 Canal, second in size in the republic, and capital 
 of Colon Province. Formerly called Aspinwall, 
 but the Colombian Government refused to recog- 
 nize the name, and it was changed to Colon, the 
 Spanish for Columbus. 
 
 Corozal (ko-ro-saT). Said to be the name of 
 a plant growth. American settlement three 
 miles from Panama, one of the first to be estab- 
 lished. In moving Gorgona, most of the Amer- 
 ican type quarters were transferred to this place. 
 
 Cristobal (krees-to'bal). Spanish for the first 
 name of Columbus. American settlement oppo- 
 site Colon. Contains docks and the varied in- 
 dustries of the commissary department of the 
 P. E. R. 
 
 Cruces (kroo'sase), meaning a crossing. An- 
 cient town on the Chagres River, a few miles 
 above Gamboa. Important stopping point on 
 the overland trail in the early days. Now aban- 
 doned on account of the rise of Gatun Lake. 
 
 Cucaracha (koo-ka-ra'eha), meaning cock- 
 roach. Name of former labor settlement on the 
 banks of the canal, near Paraiso. Also name of 
 the worst slide in Culebra Cut. 
 
 Culebra (koo-liiy'brii), meaning a serpent. 
 Name of American settlement on the banks of 
 the canal, 11 miles from Panama, the engineer- 
 ing headquarters of the T. C. C. and residence 
 of Colonel Goethals. Will ultimately be aban- 
 doned. Also the name of the famous rock cut- 
 
 ting through the Isthmian cordillera, nine miles 
 long. 
 
 David (da-veed'). Corresponding to the 
 proper name David. Capital of the province of 
 Chiriqui. Also the name of a river near the 
 city. 
 
 Darien (da-ree-ane'). Name of a large and 
 only partially explored territory in eastern Pan- 
 ama, heavily wooded and rich in minerals. Name 
 of a tribe of Indians that inhabit the mountains 
 of this region, better known as the Chucunaques. 
 Name of one of the early proposed ship canals 
 across the Isthmus. Name of the high-power 
 radio station located near Caimito in the Canal 
 Zone. 
 
 El Diablo (el dee-a'blo), meaning "The 
 Devil." Name of a small hill outside of Corozal 
 on the P. R. R. A few American type quarters 
 have been maintained here. 
 
 El Vigia (el vee-hee'a), meaning watch tower. 
 A point on the upper Chagres River about 17 
 miles from Gamboa, where a river gaging sta- 
 tion is maintained by the I. C. C. 
 
 Emperador (em-pay-ray-dore'). The Spanish 
 name of Empire, the largest town in the Canal 
 Zone, 12 miles from Panama. It contains large 
 repair shops, and the Disbursing and Examining 
 of Accounts' offices. Will eventually be aban- 
 doned. 
 
 Flamenco ( flaw-ma ne'ko), meaning flamingo. 
 One of the group of fortified islands in the Bay 
 of Panama, owned by the United States. 
 
 Frijoles (free-ho'les), meaning beans. The old 
 town of Frijoles, 18.o'4 miles from Colon, was 
 abandoned on the rise of Gatun Lake. The new 
 town, located on the new main line, is a collec- 
 tion of a few native houses, 20 miles from Colon. 
 Near here the Subsistence Department of the 
 T. C. C. is growing fruit to supply the com- 
 missaries. 
 
 Gamboa (gam-b5'a), meaning a kind of quince. 
 Point on the new line of the P. R. R., where the 
 Chagres River is crossed by an iron bridge. 
 Also water gaging station at this point. Name 
 of the dike which was blown up October 10, 
 1913, to fill Culebra Cut. 
 
 Garachine (ga-ra-chee-nay'). Meaning of word 
 unknown. Cape on San Miguel Bay, marking 
 the eastern limit of the Bay of Panama. 
 
 Gatun (gii-toon'). Name possibly derived 
 from Spanish word gatuna, meaning cat-like, or 
 feline, or gatunero, a seller of smuggled meat, 
 more probably the latter. Name very common 
 in the Canal Zone, applied to river, American 
 settlement at Gatun Locks, the locks, spillway, 
 and dam, to one or two native villages, and to 
 the settlement at New Gatun, near the Amer- 
 ican town; also to Gatun Lake. 
 
 Gorgona (gor-go'nii), meaning, according to 
 the best definition, a whirlpool, or place of 
 swirling water. A town that formerly existed 
 on the banks of the Chagres River, 28 miles 
 from Colon. Abandoned in August, 1913, on ac- 
 count of Gatun Lake. Was an important place 
 in both French and American canal times. Loca- 
 tion of the largest shops in the canal service 
 prior to their removal. 
 
 Indio (een'dee-o), meaning Indian. One of the 
 chief tributaries of the Chagres River, and the 
 name of several other streams in the republic. 
 
 [ 376 ] 
 
J)A^D_v-PrV r IDED -^crrKE: WPRyD, TINJTED 
 
 Juan Mina (hoo-iin mee'na), meaning John 
 Mine. Small settlement near the mouth of the 
 Chilibre River on the Chagres. 
 
 Las Cascadas (las kas-ka'das), meaning "The 
 Cascades." American settlement on the old 
 line of the P. R. R., 15 miles from Panama, the 
 transportation headquarters of the Central Di- 
 vision for several years. Will be abandoned. 
 
 Los Santos (los san'toee), meaning "The 
 Saints." Name of province in southwestern 
 Panama, and also of its capital, La Villa de Los 
 Santos, "The Village of the Saints." Town 
 was formerly important, but has been distanced 
 by Chitre, its port. This province was the cen- 
 ter of the earthquake shocks in October, 1913. 
 
 Majagual (ma-ha-gwal'). From Spanish ma- 
 jagua, a tree of the linden variety. Small na- 
 tive town in the Canal Zone, across Folks River 
 from Cristobal. 
 
 Mamei (mii-may'ee). Name of a native fruit; 
 also of a former settlement in the Canal Zone on 
 the old line of the P. R. R., in the Gatun Lake 
 area. 
 
 Mandingo (man-din'go). A small stream of 
 the Canal Zone, which passes the village of Bas 
 Obispo and enters into Gatun Lake. 
 
 Mandinga (man-din'ga). A bay on the San 
 Bias coast of the Isthmus. 
 
 Manzanillo (man-sa-neel'yo). So-called from 
 the number of manchineel, or poison trees, for- 
 merly found in the vicinity. These trees exude 
 a juice, which, falling on a person, cause irri- 
 tating sores. Name of island on which the city 
 of Colon stands, now connected with the main 
 land by a broad fill, so that it is an island no 
 more. Also name of a bay near Colon. 
 
 Matachin (ma-tli-cheen'). Probably from the 
 Spanish word matar, to execute. Popularly sup- 
 posed to be a word coined from matar, kill, and 
 chino, Chinaman, on account of the alleged exces- 
 sive number of suicides said to have occurred 
 among the Chinamen at this point, at a time when 
 Chinese labor was employed in the construction of 
 the Panama railroad. This word has caused greater 
 dispute than any other local term. Opponents 
 to the above definition say the word refers to 
 "butcher." Name of a former tow T n on the old 
 line of th'e P. R. R., called during the days of 
 the French, Bas Matachin, but shortened by the 
 Americans to Matachin. Place abandoned with 
 the rise of Gatun Lake. 
 
 Mindi (min'dee). Origin of word unknown. 
 Name of a river near Colon, and also of a low 
 range of hills cut through by the Atlantic en- 
 trance to the canal. 
 
 Miraflores (mee-rii-flo'res), meaning "Look at 
 the flowers." Name given to Miraflores Locks, 
 lake, and a station on the P. R. R., about 5 miles 
 from Panama. The town itself has been moved 
 on account of the lake. At this point is located 
 the new Panama waterworks. The only tunnel 
 on the line of the railroad passes under a hill 
 here. 
 
 Monte Lirio (mon-tay lee-ree-o). In English, 
 Mount Lily. Station on the new line of the 
 P. R. R., 14 miles from Colon. There is a lift 
 bridge over the Gatun River at this point. 
 
 Naos (nii'ose). From the Spanish word nave, 
 ship. One of the group of islands in Panama 
 Bay, owned and fortified by the United States. 
 
 Connected with the mainland by a breakwater 
 and causeway. 
 
 Nargana (nar-ga'na). Indian village on the 
 San Bias coast of Panama, headquarters of Chief 
 Charley Robinson, head of a branch of the San 
 Bias tribe. 
 
 Nata (na-tii'). One of the oldest towns on the 
 Isthmus, situated in Code Province. Contains 
 the oldest church that is still in use. 
 
 Nombre de Dios (nome'bray day dee'ose), 
 meaning "Name of God." One of the early 
 towns of the Isthmus, situated on the north 
 coast, about 35 miles east of Colon. From this 
 point was obtained the greater part of the sand 
 for building Gatun Locks. 
 
 Palo Seco (pa-16 say'ko), meaning "Dry 
 stick." A point on the south coast, a short dis- 
 tance from Balboa, where the leper settlement 
 is located. 
 
 Panama (pa-nii-ma'), meaning, according to 
 tradition in the early Indian tongue, an abun- 
 dance of fish. Capital and chief city of the re- 
 public, situated on Panama Bay, on the south 
 side of the Isthmus. 
 
 Paraiso (pa-ra-ee'so), meaning "Paradise." 
 American settlement in the Canal Zone, about 
 eight miles from Panama, closely hugging the 
 banks of the Canal. Permanent dredging head- 
 quarters will be here. 
 
 Pearl Islands (Tslas de las Perlas). A group 
 of about 115 islands and islets situated in Pan- 
 ama Bay, about 50 miles from the port of Pan- 
 ama. Largest is Rev, 8 miles wide and 15 long. 
 Mostly noted for their pearl fisheries. ' 
 
 Penonome (pay-nay-no-may'). Probably from 
 the Spanish word penoso, so-called on account of 
 the Feast of the Penitents formerly held there 
 by the mountain Indians, who, on the principal 
 day of the feast, would flagellate themselves un- 
 til the blood streamed down. This ceremony has 
 recently been prohibited by the Government of 
 Panama. It is an interesting little town, the 
 capital of Code Province, and the home of some 
 of Panama's most prominent men. 
 
 Pequeni (pay-kay-nee'). One of the principal 
 tributaries of the Chagres River, flowing through 
 a rich alluvial country. 
 
 Ferico (pay-ree'ko), meaning paroquet. One 
 of the group of islands, four miles out in Pan- 
 ama Bay, which the United States has purchased 
 and fortified. 
 
 Porto Bello, or Puerto Bello (por-to bel-lo, or 
 pwer-to bal'yo), meaning "Beautiful port," 
 name bestowed on the place by Columbus on ac- 
 count of its magnificent haven. It is one of the 
 oldest towns on the Isthmus, at one time the At- 
 lantic terminus of the great trans-Isthmian 
 trade route. Small native town and ruins still 
 exist. Across the bay is the American settle- 
 ment established on account of the neighboring 
 rock quarry, from which the rock was obtained 
 for the concrete in Gatun Locks, as well as for 
 the armor of the west breakwater in Colon Har- 
 bor. 
 
 Punta Mala (poon'ta ma'la), meaning, lit- 
 erally, bad point. The name of a cape and 
 headland on the south coast of Panama, marking 
 the westerly limit of the Bay of Panama. Small 
 ships give it a wide berth. 
 
 Rio de Jesus (ree-o day hay'soos), meaning, 
 literally, "River of Jesus." A picturesquely 
 
 [3; 
 
ctke, TyAN-p . divided — ^crrm woi^d, tt: 
 
 situated town in the Province of Veraguas, 
 where cheap native straw hats are made. 
 
 Rio Grande (ree-o gran'day), meaning "Great 
 river," a name misapplied to a small stream in 
 the Canal Zone now a tributary of Miraflores 
 Lake. Also the name of a reservoir, and a 
 labor settlement in the Zone. 
 
 Sahanas, or Las Sabanas (sii-bii'nas, or las 
 sa-bii'nas). A part of the Canal Zone lying 
 east of Panama City, so-called from the rolling 
 character of the ground, resembling rolling 
 prairie. Occupied by the wealthier citizens of 
 Panama, who have their summer homes here. 
 
 Sambu (sum boo')- Name of a valley in south- 
 eastern Panama, inhabited by a tribe of Indians 
 of the same name. 
 
 San Bias (san bias'). A name given to all of 
 the north coast of Panama, east of Santa Isabel 
 in Colon Province, inhabited by a tribe of In- 
 dians of the same name. 
 
 San Lorenzo (san lo-rane'zo). St. Lawrence. 
 A ruined fort at the mouth of the Chagres. A 
 town in Chiriqui Province. 
 
 San Miguel (san mee-ghel'). St. Michael. Bay 
 on south coast of Panama, where Balboa first 
 discovered the Pacific Ocean. Name of largest 
 village in the Pearl Island Archipelago. 
 
 San Pablo (san pab'16). St. Paul. Name of a 
 former settlement on the old line of the P. R. R. 
 in the Gatun Lake area. Also of a large river 
 of western Panama emptying into Montijo Bay. 
 
 Santiago, or Santiago de Veraguas (san-tee- 
 a'go, or sah-tee-a'go day ver-a'gwas). James. 
 Capital of the province of Veraguas, connected 
 with its port of Aguadulce by a modern road. 
 
 Tabernilla (ta-ver-neel'ya), meaning "Little 
 tavern." Former town on the old line of the 
 P. R. R. which disappeared with the rise of 
 Gatun Lake. Near here was one of the largest 
 dumping grounds for canal spoil. 
 
 Taboga (tii-bo'ga). Island belonging to Pan- 
 ama, 12 miles out in Panama Bay. Contains 
 quaint native village, old church, I. C. C. sani- 
 tarium, and an excellent bathing beach. Noted 
 for its fruit, especially pineapples. 
 
 Taboguilla (ta-bo-ghel'ya), meaning "Little 
 Taboga." Island lying near Taboga, sparsely 
 peopled. 
 
 Tiburon (tee-boo-rone'). In English, shark. 
 A cape at the entrance of the Gulf of Darien or 
 Uraba, on the northeast coast of Panama. 
 
 Tonosi (to-no-sec'). A port on the coast of 
 Los Santos Province, near the center of the 
 earthquake disturbances in October, 1913. 
 
 Trinidad (tree-nee-dad'). The second largest 
 feeder of Catun Lake. 
 
 Tuyra (too-ee'rii). The largest river in the 
 republic, draining the mountain watersheds of 
 Darien, and emptying into the Gulf of San 
 Miguel. 
 
 Uraba (u-ra-ba'). Name given to the gulf 
 separating Colombia from Panama on the north 
 coast of the Isthmus, into which the Atrato 
 River empties. 
 
 Veraguas (ver-a'gwas). Ancient Veragua, a 
 transplanted Spanish name. Once embracing a 
 large part of the territory of the Isthmus, it 
 now refers to the province, which, in productive- 
 ness, is second only to Chiriqui. 
 
 [ 378 ] 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FOREWORD 7 
 
 CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 9 
 
 Early Discoverers — The First Settlement — Discovery of the South Sea — Balboa's Unfortunate End — Settlement 
 of Old Panama — Spain's Power Spreads — Period of the Great Trade — The Scotch Bubble. 
 
 CHAPTER II. RAIDS OF THE BUCCANEERS 21 
 
 Drake's Expedition — Fall of Old Panama — Other Attempts. 
 
 CHAPTER III. PROPOSED CANAL ROUTES 28 
 
 Tehuantepec — Atrato River and Tributaries — Calidonia — San Bias — Nicaragua — Panama. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. THE PANAMA RAILROAD 32 
 
 First Work on the Panama Railroad — Completion of the Enterprise — Early Hates Nearly Prohibitive — 
 Establishment of Steam Ship Service — Concessionary Rights and Privileges — Changes in Ownership — The 
 New Main Line — Busiest Short Line in the World. 
 
 CHAPTER V. THE FRENCH FAILURE 45 
 
 DeLesseps, Promoter — Procuring the Concession — DeLesseps' Plan — Inaugurating the Work — French Labor 
 Force — LaFolie Dingier — The Sick Poorly Cared for — The Crash — The Second or New Company — French 
 Aid to American Project. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. THE AMERICAN TRIUMPH 69 
 
 Organization of the Canal Commission — Taking Possession, Change in Chief Engineer — The New Com- 
 mission — Commission Again Reorganized — The Purchasing End. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. MAKING THE ISTHMUS HEALTHFUL 80 
 
 The Fight on the Mosquito — Cleaning House — Results Have Justified the Cost — Rigid Quarantine Maintained. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. AN ARMY OF WORKERS 95 
 
 Getting the Force Together — Keeping the American Employes Contented — Plant — Monthly Cost of Allow- 
 ances — Feeding and Clothing the Canal Army — The Canal Zone — The Postal Service — Postal Savings Bank, 
 a Popular Institution — Zone Customs Service — The Zone "Dry" — Keeping Order — Guarding Against Fires — 
 Educational Facilities — The Law Department — Paying the Canal Force — Accounts — No Graft. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. CONSTRUCTING THE LOCK TYPE CANAL. 135 
 
 The ( 'anal a Water Bridge — The Dam at Gatun — Gatun Spillway — Gatun Lake — Dams on the Pacific Side. — 
 The Locks — Guards Against Accidents — How the Locks Were Built — Making the Dirt Fly — Dredging — Cutting 
 Through the Divide — Across the Isthmus in a Hydrobiplane — 70,000,000 Pounds of Dynamite — Slides, 
 Eloquent Argument Against Sea I^evel Project. 
 
 CHAPTER X. AUXILIARY PLANS AND PROJECTS 213 
 
 Acquisiton of Private Lands — Tolls — Protecting the Canal — Fort Grant Military Reservation — Fort Amador 
 Military Reservation — Fort Sherman Military Reservation — Fort Randolph Military Reservation — Fort De 
 Lesseps Military Reservation — Breakwaters — Lighting the Canal — Port Facilities — Dry Docks — Permanent 
 Repair Shops — Government Coal and Fuel Oil Business — Private Coal and Fuel Oil Storage — Bonded 
 Warehouses — New Floating Equipment — Permanent Villages and Buildings — Permanent Organization — Wire- 
 less Communication — Beautifying the Canal — Permanent Administration Building, Balboa — Cost of the Canal. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. FUTURE CANAL TRAFFIC 247 
 
 [ 379 ] 
 
CONTENTS— {Continued) 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XII. REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 258 
 
 The Panama Flag — National Hymn of the Republic of Panama — The Reconstruction Period — "The Land of 
 the Cocoanut Tree" — Government is Progressive — Revenues — National Currency — Public Improvements — Free 
 Public School System — Panama Richly Endowed by Nature — The People — The Indians of Panama — The 
 Guaymies — The Chocoes — Ancient Civilization of Chiriqui — Sightseeing — Bathing — Panama Hats — Canal 
 Zone Souvenir Stones — The Panama Lottery — Panama to Hold National Exposition. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPO- 
 SITION 313 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION 324 
 
 CHAPTER XV. THE LAND DIVIDED— THE WORLD UNITED . 328 
 
 Destruction of the Dikes — Letting Water Into Culebra Cut — "Gamboa is Busted" — Gatun Locks, the First in 
 Actual Operation — The First Practical Lockage — First Lockage at Pacific End — From the Sea to Culebra 
 Cut — Earthquakes — Making a Passage Through Cucaracha Slide — Secretary Garrison's Visit — The Official 
 Opening — First Boat Through the Canal. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. THE MONUMENTAL TASK COMPLETED . 372 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN FOUR COLORS 
 
 Colonel George Washington Goethals Facing Title Page 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 The Famous Flat Arch in the Ruins of Santo Domingo Church, Panama 
 
 City 48 
 
 One of the Driveways in Ancon Hospital Grounds 80 
 
 Culebra Cut, Looking North From Gold and Contractor's Hills 128 
 
 One of the Great Locks of the Canal Under Construction 176 
 
 A Typical Street in the Native Village at Chorrera, Panama 224 
 
 A Group of Cuna Cuna Indians, Panama 288 
 
 Tug Gatun, First Boat Passing Through Gatun Locks, Sept. 26, 1913. . . . 352 
 Map of the Canal and the Canal Zone and Interesting Facts and Figures . . . 374 
 
 [ 380 ] 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS IX BLACK AND WHITE 
 
 Cocoanut Palms 
 
 Four Scenes on Panama Bay 
 
 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 9 
 
 Statue of Columbus and Indian Girl 10 
 
 Columbus Island 11 
 
 Porto Bello 12 
 
 A Family of Indians, Darien 13 
 
 Xombre de Dios 14 
 
 Shrine in Hollow Tree 14 
 
 A Wayside Cross or Shrine 1.5 
 
 Village of San Miguel on Rey Island 15 
 
 Stocks for Prisoners 16 
 
 Old Fort at Porto Bello 17 
 
 The Three Ancient Bells of Crv.ces 18 
 
 Mouth of the Chagres River 19 
 
 Old Turret at Fort San Lorenzo 19 
 
 RAIDS OF THE BUCCANEERS 21 
 
 Sir Henry Morgan 22 
 
 Section of Wall and Spanish Cannon. Porto Bello 23 
 
 Section of Wall and Watch Tower. Porto Bello. . . 24 
 
 Village of Chagres 25 
 
 Interior of Tower, Old Panama 26 
 
 Section of Wall, Old Panama. . 26 
 
 Ruins of Tower. Old Panama.. 26 
 
 Old Fort , Old Panama 26 
 
 Bridge Overgrown by Jungle, Old Panama 26 
 
 Cannonballs at Fort San Lorenzo . 27 
 
 PROPOSED CANAL ROUTES. 
 
 Swinging Bridge, Chame 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 THE PANAMA RAILROAD . .... 32 
 
 High Trestle for Embankment Fill ... 33 
 
 Loading Dirt Train 31 
 
 Panama Railroad near ElDiablo . 35 
 
 Gamboa Bridge 36 
 
 Miraflores Tunnel 37 
 
 Old Depot , Panama City 37 
 
 Panama Railroad Train 37 
 
 Panama Railroad Steamship, Panama 38 
 
 Residence of Gen. Supt.. Panama Railroad. Colon . .. 40 
 
 New Railroad Station. Colon 40 
 
 Freight House, Panama Railroad, Colon. ... 40 
 
 General Offices, Panama Railroad. Colon 40 
 
 Panama Railroad Station at Gatun . 41 
 
 Old Washington Hotel, Colon 42 
 
 New Hotel Washington, Colon 43 
 
 New Panama Railroad Station, Panama City 44 
 
 THE FRENCH FAILURE 1", 
 
 Count Ferdinand de Lesseps 46 
 
 Former Headquarters of De Lesseps 46 
 
 Old Port of Colon, 1884 17 
 
 Street in Cristobal, French Day- IS 
 
 Pay Car, French Days ' 49 
 
 Front Street, Colon. French Day- 49 
 
 French Yards and Shops 50 
 
 The First Wharf 50 
 
 French Dredge- at Pacific Entrance 50 
 
 Site of P. R. R. Wharf 50 
 
 Balboa in the French Days . 50 
 
 Limon Bay in the Busy French Day-. . .51 
 
 The Pick and Shovel Brigade . . .,' 52 
 
 La Folie Dingier 53 
 
 Village of Empire 1882. .51 
 
 The Canal at Cucaracha, iss.5 . .-,1 
 
 The Canal Between Empire a id Cucaracha, ls-vs . .v. 
 
 Culebra Cut, 1889 55 
 
 Culebra Cut. 1894 56 
 
 Looking South From Culebra, 1895 . 56 
 
 Cut in 1904 when the Americans Began the Work. 57 
 
 Valley of th" Rio Grande in the French Day- .".7 
 
 French Cableway Plan of Excavation . . .' 58 
 
 A French Excavator 59 
 
 Dredges at Mindi, First French ComDanv's Days 60 
 
 Two French Ladder Dredge- (tppo-iie Gorgona 60 
 
 French Suction Dred;ss tit) 
 
 Old French Dump Car- 61 
 
 Old French Locomotives 
 
 Bas Obispo in First French Company's Days. . 63 
 
 French Cranes at Work ' '. 63 
 
 Freneh Using Laborers to Fill Cars 63 
 
 Old French Dredges 64 
 
 Old French Dump Cars 65 
 
 Old French Machinery 66 
 
 After a Flood 67 
 
 Tree Grown Through Old French Dump Car 68 
 
 THE AMERICAN TRIUMPH 
 
 Col. Geo \V. Goethals 
 
 Col. William C. Gorgas 
 
 Col. Harry F. Hodges 
 
 H. H. Rousseau 
 
 69 
 70 
 70 
 70 
 70 
 
 Col. Willam L. Sibert S fl 
 
 Col. D. D. Gaillard . . . 71 
 
 Hon. Richard Lee Metcalfe ... ... 71 
 
 Joseph Bucklin Bishop 71 
 
 Col. Theodore Roosevelt 73 
 
 Hon. William H. Taft 73 
 
 President Woodrow Wilson 73 
 
 Hezekiah A. Gudger ... 75 
 
 Frank Feuille 7.5 
 
 H. A. A. Smith 75 
 
 A. S. Zinn 75 
 
 Henry Goldmark 75 
 
 T. B. Monniche 75 
 
 John H. Mclean . . 75 
 
 Capt. Robert E. Wood . 75 
 
 W. G. Comber 75 
 
 Capt. Charles W. Barber 7 5 
 
 C. E. Weidman . 7.3 
 
 Tom. M. Cook 75 
 
 Lieut. Col. Eugene T. Wilson . . ' 75 
 
 George M. Wells 75 
 
 Harry O. Cole 75 
 
 Fourth of July Celebration, Cristobal, 1911 77 
 
 John F. Wallace 78 
 
 John F. Stevens 78 
 
 MAKING THE ISTHMUS HEALTHFUL 80 
 
 Met hod of Subsoiling 81 
 
 Cleaning Drainage Ditch 81 
 
 Mosquito Breeding Place 81 
 
 Method of Oiling 81 
 
 A Mo-quito Disguise 82 
 
 The Genus Stegomyia Mosquito, Male and Female ... 82 
 
 Fumigation Brigade 83 
 
 Street Paving 83 
 
 Inaugurating Water System 83 
 
 The Quarantine Stat ion 84 
 
 Colon Hospital. Colon 84 
 
 Street Before Paving, Colon 85 
 
 Street After Paving, Colon 85 
 
 The Dispensary at Ancon ...... 86 
 
 Ancon Hospital From Tivoli Hotel . 87 
 
 Wards 11 and 12, Ancon Hospital 87 
 
 Among the Wards, Ancon Hospital 87 
 
 Interior of Ward, Ancon Hospital 88 
 
 Palo Seco Leper Colony 89 
 
 Camacho Reservoir 91 
 
 Las Sabanas Road 91 
 
 Mount Hope Road 92 
 
 Entrance to Mount Hope Cemetery 92 
 
 Ancon Cemetery " 93 
 
 Taboga Island 94 
 
 Canal Commission's Sanitarium 94 
 
 AN ARMY OF WORKERS 95 
 
 Old French Administration Building 96 
 
 Administration Building. Culebra 96 
 
 Colonel Goethals' Motor Car 97 
 
 Administration Building, Ancon 98 
 
 Division Engineer's Office, Gatun 98 
 
 Colonel Goethals' Residence, Culebra 99 
 
 Y. M. C. A. Clubhouse, Gatun .100 
 
 Bowling Alley in Clubhouse 100 
 
 Reading Room in Clubhouse 100 
 
 Billiard Room in Clubhouse 100 
 
 Employes' Quarters, Ancon 101 
 
 Bronze Medal. Reverse Side . 102 
 
 Bronze Medal, Obverse Side ... 102 
 
 Nurses' Some, Ancon ■ 102 
 
 Bachelors' Quarters 103 
 
 Interior Bachelor's Room 103 
 
 Members of the Ancon Study Club lot 
 
 Bedroom, Married Quarter- 105 
 
 Kitchen, Married Quarters , 105 
 
 Parlor, Married Quarters " 10.5 
 
 Dining Room, Married Quarters 105 
 
 Government Kitchen for Negro Laborers 106 
 
 Typical Camp for European Laborers. . 107 
 
 Interior of a Bunk House for Negro Laborers. 107 
 
 Me— Hall for European Laborers ! 108 
 
 Lodge Hall at Las Cascadas 109 
 
 Reading Room. University Club, Panama City 109 
 
 Lunch Hour Scene, Gorgona Shops 110 
 
 Labor Train Arriving at Dry Dock, Cristobal 110 
 
 Interior of Mount Hope Printing Plant Ill 
 
 General Storehouse at Mount Hope Ill 
 
 Hotel Tivoli at Ancon 112 
 
 Lobby of the Hotel Tivoli 112 
 
 Commissarv at Cristobal 113 
 
 Public Market at Culebra 114 
 
 Ice and Cold Storage Plant, Cristobal 114 
 
 Commission Hotel at Corozal 115 
 
 Commission Laundry at Cristobal 116 
 
 Commission Bakery at Cristobal 116 
 
 [ 381 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS IN BLACK AND WHITE— {Continued) 
 
 Page 
 
 Principal Street in Gorgona 117 
 
 Tennis Court, Ancon 118 
 
 Opening Ball Game, Athletic Park, Empire 118 
 
 Bathing Beach, Panama Bay 118 
 
 Residence Section at Gatun 119 
 
 Culebra From Mount Zion 120 
 
 Four-Family House for American Married Employes, 
 
 Empire 120 
 
 Canal Commission Chapel, Ancon 121 
 
 School for White Children, Empire 122 
 
 Ancon High School Class 122 
 
 Post Office at Ancon 123 
 
 Zone Penitentiary, Culebra 124 
 
 A Squad of Zone Policemen, Ancon 125 
 
 Central Fire Station at Cristobal 128 
 
 Canal Zone Automobile Fire Engine 126 
 
 A Typical Pav Day Scene 127 
 
 First United States Court, Held at Ancon 128 
 
 Present Court House at Empire 129 
 
 Offices of the Disbursing Officer and Examiner of 
 
 Accounts, Empire 130 
 
 A Commission Brake 131 
 
 Looking Toward the Atlantic 133 
 
 The Trail 133 
 
 Looking Toward the Pacific 133 
 
 CONSTRUCTING THE LOCK TYPE CANAL .... 135 
 
 Gatun Dam 136 
 
 Rip Rap Work, Gatun Dam 137 
 
 Hydraulic Fill, Gatun Dam 137 
 
 Early Subsidence in Gatun Dam 138 
 
 Experimental Spillway, Gatun Dam 139 
 
 Gatun Spillway From Lake 139 
 
 Water From the Lake Flowing Over the Spillway ... 140 
 
 Spillway From the Downstream Side 141 
 
 Overflow From Spillway Passing into Atlantic Ocean 142 
 
 Miraflores Spillway, Completed Sept. 1, 1913 143 
 
 Hydroelectric Station, Gatun Spillway 143 
 
 Penstocks at Hydroelectric Station, Gatun Spillway. . 144 
 
 Trees Inundated, Gatun Lake 145 
 
 View of Gatun Lake 145 
 
 Floating Islands in Gatun Lake 145 
 
 Gatun Spillway with Sluice Gates Closed 146 
 
 Upper Chagres' River 147 
 
 Flood in Chagres River 147 
 
 Gauging Station, Chagres River 147 
 
 Excavating for Lock Site, Gatun 148 
 
 Excavating for Lock Site, Pedro Miguel 148 
 
 Excavating for Lock Site, Miraflores 148 
 
 Rock Crusher Plant and Quarry, Porto Bello 149 
 
 Unloading Cableways, Gatun Docks 150 
 
 Sand Bins and Unloading Cranes, Balboa 151 
 
 Ancon Rock Crusher Plant and Quarry, Ancon Hill... 151 
 
 Main Concrete Mixing Plant, Gatun Locks 152 
 
 Close View of Mixing Plant, Gatun Locks 152 
 
 Cableways for Placing Concrete, Gatun Locks 153 
 
 Dumping Concrete, Gatun Locks 154 
 
 Sunday Scene, Gatun Locks 155 
 
 Beginning of Concrete Work, Gatun Locks 156 
 
 Installing Cylindrical Valves in the Locks 156 
 
 Steel Forms' in Position for Lock Wall Construction. . 157 
 Collapsible Steel Forms for Culvert Construction .... 158 
 
 Berm Cranes, Pedro Miguel Locks 159 
 
 Trains for Carrying Concrete 159 
 
 Chamber Cranes, Pedro Miguel Locks 160 
 
 Berm Cranes, Miraflores Locks 160 
 
 Comparison of Side Wall of Locks with Six Story Build- 
 ing 161 
 
 Cross Section of Lock Chambers and Walls of Locks. . 161 
 
 Intakes in the Lock Walls 162 
 
 Gatun Locks Under Construction 162 
 
 Lock Chamber, Gates and Control House 162 
 
 First Monolith, Gatun Locks, 1910 163 
 
 Looking North From Miraflores Locks 164 
 
 Looking South From Miraflores Locks 164 
 
 Busy Times, Miraflores Locks 164 
 
 Arched Sections of Lock Walls 165 
 
 General View of Gatun Locks, Oct, 1, 1912 166 
 
 Lock Chamber, Miraflores Locks 167 
 
 North Guide Wall, Gatun Locks, Under Construction. 168 
 
 Entrance to Gatun Locks From The Lake 169 
 
 Upper Gates, Miraflores Locks, Under Construction .. 169 
 
 Completed Sills for Lock Gates 170 
 
 Gates Under Construction, Pedro Miguel Locks 171 
 
 Riveting Gang on Scaffold, Gatun Locks 171 
 
 Close View of Completed Gates, Gatun Locks 172 
 
 Steel Yoke Made of Vanadium 173 
 
 Operating Mechanism of a Lock Gate 173 
 
 Emergency Dam on East Wall, Gatun Locks 174 
 
 Rack Rail Over Which Towing Locomotives Travel. . 175 
 
 Towing Locomotives in Operation, Gatun Locks 175 
 
 End View Model, Pedro Miguel Lock 176 
 
 Side View Model, Pedro Miguel Lock 176 
 
 Birdseye View of Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks. . 177 
 
 Boat Landing at Gatun 178 
 
 Robert G. Fowler's Hydrobiplane Passing Over Culebra 
 
 Cut 179 
 
 Crossing Gatun Locks on Bucket Operated by Cable- 
 ways 179 
 
 Scene of Premature Explosion of Dynamite 180 
 
 [ 382 
 
 Page 
 
 Laborers Loading Well Drill Holes with Dynamite. . . . 181 
 
 Tripod Drills at Work 181 
 
 Dynamite Magazine 182 
 
 Giant Blast in Culebra Cut 182 
 
 Drill Boat Teredo 183 
 
 Towing Dynamite 184 
 
 Subaqueous Blast, Pacific Entrance 185 
 
 Sea Going Dredge, Culebra 186 
 
 Suction Dredge 186 
 
 Old French Ladder Dredge 186 
 
 Suction Dredge No. 82 187 
 
 Dipper Dredge 187 
 
 Ladder Dredge, Corozal 187 
 
 Hydraulic Excavation 188 
 
 Centrifugal Dredging Pumps 188 
 
 Looking North from Paraiso 189 
 
 Looking South from Paraiso 189 
 
 Canal Near Empire 189 
 
 Paraiso in the French Days 190 
 
 Paraiso in the American Days 190 
 
 Culebra Cut at Bas Obispo, June 30, 1910 191 
 
 Steam Shovel Buried Under Fall of Rock 191 
 
 Suspension Bridge Across the Canal Near Empire . . . 192 
 
 Steam Shovel at Work in Culebra Cut 192 
 
 Buried Steam Shovel 193 
 
 Canal Flooded at Bas Obispo 193 
 
 Overturned French Dredge 193 
 
 Wreck at Balboa "Y" 1907 193 
 
 Side of the Cut at Gold Hill 194 
 
 Culebra Cut Near Culebra Village 195 
 
 Camacho Diversion Channel 196 
 
 Culebra Cut Looking South from Gold and Contractor's 
 
 Hills 196 
 
 Loaded Work Train Crossing Trestle at Paraiso 197 
 
 Culebra Cut Near Las Cascadas 197 
 
 Completed Section of Culebra Cut Near Cunette 198 
 
 Culebra Cut After Removal of Construction Tracks .. 198 
 
 Culebra Cut After Channel Began to Fill 199 
 
 Close View of High Rock Bank, Culebra Cut 199 
 
 Engine House and Yards, Paraiso, 1906 200 
 
 Engine House and Yards, Las Cascadas 200 
 
 Track Shifter 201 
 
 Men Shifting Track 202 
 
 Revolving Steam Shovel 202 
 
 Rock Channeler at Work 202 
 
 Locomotive Crane 203 
 
 The American Machine Which Moves Mountains 203 
 
 Western Dump Cars 204 
 
 Unloading Machine on Train of Lidgerwood Flat Cars 204 
 
 Earth Spreader at Work 205 
 
 Miraflores Dumps 205 
 
 Loaded Train Coming out of the Cut, Pedro Miguel . . . 206 
 
 Wrecking Cranes Picking up a Steam Shovel 206 
 
 Miraflores Power Station 207 
 
 Corral at Ancon '. 207 
 
 Gorgona Repair Shops 208 
 
 Empire Repair Shops 208 
 
 Break in the West Bank at Culebra 209 
 
 Break in the East Bank Near Bas Obispo 209 
 
 Slides Almost Close the Canal 210 
 
 Telling Effects of the Slide at Culebra 210 
 
 Cucaracha Slide Before the Destruction of Gamboa 
 
 Dike 211 
 
 Steam Shovels Working in Cucaracha Slide 212 
 
 Steam Shovel Buried by Slide 212 
 
 AUXILIARY PLANS AND PROJECTS 213 
 
 Joint Land Commission 214 
 
 Visitors Inspecting the Locks, Pedro Miguel 215 
 
 "Big Tree," Gorgona 215 
 
 Group of East Indian Laborers 216 
 
 Sightseeing Train 217 
 
 Isthmian Elks in the Canal, April 20, 1913 217 
 
 Hindoos to Greet Visiting Shriners from United States . 218 
 
 Procession of Nobles of Mystic Shrine 219 
 
 The Author at Slifer Park, Colon 220 
 
 Cristobal Point 220 
 
 Wall Scaling Contest, U. S. Marine Corps and Tenth 
 
 Infantry 221 
 
 Camp Elliott Near Bas Obispo 222 
 
 Street in Marine Camp 223 
 
 Camp Otis Near Las Cascadas 224 
 
 Camp Life at Camp Otis 224 
 
 Naos Island, Panama Bay 225 
 
 Toro Point 226 
 
 Naos Island Breakwater 227 
 
 Toro Point Breakwater 228 
 
 Lighting Tower Under Construction 229 
 
 Lighthouse at Toro Point 229 
 
 Avenue of Lamp Posts, Gatun Locks 230 
 
 Lighthouse on Gatun Locks 230 
 
 Signal Tower at Colon, by Moonlight 230 
 
 Site of Proposed Harbor, Balboa 231 
 
 Dredges Excavating in Pacific Entrance 232 
 
 Excavating for New Dry Dock, Balboa 232 
 
 Landing Cargo at Balboa 233 
 
 Dry Dock at Mount Hope 234 
 
 New Concrete Lumber Dock, Balboa 235 
 
 Oil Storage Tanks and Ancon Hill 236 
 
 Telpher Plant for Handling Coal 237 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS IN BLACK AND WHITE— (Continued) 
 
 Page 
 
 Permanent Administration Building, Balboa 238 
 
 Dredges at Work in Atlantic Entrance 239 
 
 Docks at Cristobal Under Construction 240 
 
 New Dock No. 16 Under Construction 241 
 
 Along a Country Road 242 
 
 Scene in Outskirts of Culebra Village 243 
 
 Mode! of Pacific Entrance to Canal 24 4 
 
 Model of Atlantic Entrance to Canal 245 
 
 FUTURE CANAL TRAFFIC 247 
 
 United States Battleship Oregon 248 
 
 Tourist Evangeline, First to Dock at Pier 16 249 
 
 Atlantic Entrance to the Canal 250 
 
 Polar Ship Fram, Cristobal Harbor 251 
 
 Moonlight on Limon Bay 252 
 
 Roosevelt Avenue 20 Years Ago 252 
 
 Roosevelt Avenue Today 252 
 
 Xat ive Town at Culebra 253 
 
 Street in American Settlement, Empire 254 
 
 Main Entrance to New Hotel Washington, Colon .... 255 
 
 Tvpical Street in Cristobal 255 
 
 Map, Trade Routes of the World 256 
 
 Dying Jungle in the Lake Region 257 
 
 New Hotel Washington and Grounds. Colon 257 
 
 Birdseye View of Colon from the Bay 257 
 
 Birdseye View of Pacific Entrance 257 
 
 REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 258 
 
 Dr. Belisario Porras 259 
 
 National Palace and Theatre, Panama City 259 
 
 Electioneering on Horseback 260 
 
 The Panama Flag 261 
 
 Group of Seven Views Showing Tropical Vegetation . . 262 
 
 Christening of the Panama Flag, Nov. 3, 1903 263 
 
 Map of the Republic of Panama 264 
 
 Don Guillermo Andreve 264 
 
 Don Ramon F. Acevedo 264 
 
 Don Ernesto T. Lefevre 264 
 
 President's Residence, Panama City 265 
 
 Bull Fight 266 
 
 Road Building 266 
 
 Native Carts 266 
 
 Central Park, Panama City 267 
 
 Panama City from Ancon Hill 268 
 
 Central Pharmacy 269 
 
 International Hotel 269 
 
 Palm Garden, Hotel Central 269 
 
 French Bazaar 269 
 
 Panama Bay at High Tide 270 
 
 Cavucos or Small Boats 271 
 
 Bottle Alley, Colon 272 
 
 New Tvpe of Concrete Building, Colon 272 
 
 Front Street, Colon 272 
 
 Market Beach, Panama Oit v 273 
 
 Taking Hogs to Market . . .' 274 
 
 Tobacco Plantation 2.1 
 
 Farming in Panama 274 
 
 Ox Team 274 
 
 Greetings From Panama 275 
 
 Panama Tramway's Barn, Panama City 275 
 
 Central Avenue Showing Street Car 276 
 
 City Hall, Panama City 277 
 
 School for Girls, Colon 277 
 
 Government Ruilding, Colon 277 
 
 National Institute, Panama City 277 
 
 Masonic Temple, Port Limon 278 
 
 Clearing Land for Sugar Cane 279 
 
 A Good Growth. 279 
 
 Hauling Cane to Mill 279 
 
 Sugar Cane Mill 279 
 
 Central Market, Panama City 280 
 
 Mango Tree 281 
 
 Calabash Tree 281 
 
 Coffee Tree 281 
 
 Tamarind Grove 281 
 
 Cocoanut Plants 281 
 
 St reet Vendors 282 
 
 Panamanian Fire Brigade 283 
 
 Automobile Fire Engine, Colon 283 
 
 Espiritu Santo or Holy Ghost orchid 284 
 
 Young Royal Palms, Slifer Park, Colon 284 
 
 Iguana or Hugh Lizard 285 
 
 Sloth 285 
 
 Two Products of the Isthmus 285 
 
 Bread Seller 286 
 
 Making Cocoanut Oil 286 
 
 Banana Plantat ion 287 
 
 Loading Bananas on Cars 287 
 
 Hauling Bananas to Dock 287 
 
 leading Bananas on Boat 287 
 
 Old Fort at Porto Bello 288 
 
 Tropical Tramp 288 
 
 Making Molasses 289 
 
 Pineapple Grove 289 
 
 Straw for Panama Hats 289 
 
 Pounding Rice 289 
 
 House of Interior Panamanians 290 
 
 His Midday Meal 291 
 
 At Play 291 
 
 Posing 291 
 
 Two Friends 291 
 
 Wash Day 291 
 
 Wash Dav Scene 292 
 
 Native Women Delivering Washing 292 
 
 Street Scene in the Village of Arraijan 292 
 
 Rosario de la Rosa .... 293 
 
 Belle of Panama 293 
 
 Martiniquan Women . 293 
 
 Panamanian Family 293 
 
 Church of the Immaculate Conception, Colon . . . 294 
 
 Interior of Church at Arraijan 295 
 
 Village Church at San Miguel . 295 
 
 Methodist Church and College, Panama City . . 295 
 
 Christ Church, Colon 295 
 
 Chorrera Falls . 296 
 
 Group of Five Carnival Scenes, Panama City .... 297 
 
 Don Aristides Arjona . 298 
 
 Don Francisco Filos .... 298 
 
 Vaults in Cemetery, Panama City . 298 
 
 Peculiar Rock Formation on Pequeni River . . 299 
 
 Scene on Upper Chagres River . 299 
 
 San Bias Indian Chief 300 
 
 San Bias Indian Girls .300 
 
 Panamanian Policemen, Panama City 301 
 
 National Prison, Panama City ' 302 
 
 Gold Ornaments from Indian Graves 303 
 
 Cathedral and Plaza, Panama City 304 
 
 La Mercedes Church, Panama City 304 
 
 A Narrow Street, Panama City 304 
 
 Central Avenue, Panama City 304 
 
 Part of the Sea Wall, Panama City 305 
 
 Sea Wall at Low Tide, Panama City 306 
 
 Bust of Lucien Bonaparte Wyse 306 
 
 Residence of Manuel Espinosa B 307 
 
 Residence of Ramon Arias F 307 
 
 Santa Isabel 307 
 
 Residence of Manuel Amador Guerrero 307 
 
 Residence of Natalio Fhrman 307 
 
 Making Panama Hats at Arraijan 308 
 
 Crater of Chiriqui Volcano 309 
 
 Piece of Panama Lottery Ticket 310 
 
 Panama Lottery Drawing 310 
 
 Lottery Office, Panama City 310 
 
 Laying Corner Stone of Panama National Exposition. 311 
 
 Tracy Robinson, Colon 312 
 
 Sunset on Panama Bay 312 
 
 PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPO- 
 SITION 313 
 
 Hovering Figure of a Star 314 
 
 One of the Superb Italian Towers 315 
 
 Daylight Perspective 316 
 
 Night Perspective 317 
 
 Universal Exposition Ground Plan 318 
 
 Section of the Grand Court of Honor 319 
 
 The Imposing Facade of Machinery Hall 320 
 
 Festival Hall 321 
 
 The West Court or Court of Palms 322 
 
 Old French Excavator to be shown at Exposition. . . . 323 
 
 PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION 324 
 
 Southern California Counties' Building 325 
 
 Birdseve View of the Exposition Grounds and the City 
 
 of San Diego 326 
 
 Home Economy Building 327 
 
 THE LAND DIVIDED-THE WORLD UNITED .. . . 328 
 
 Interior of Meteorological Station, Ancon 334 
 
 Last Dipperful of Dirt From Culebra Cut 337 
 
 Next to Last Large Rock From Culebra Cut 338 
 
 Tower G, Culebra Cut 338 
 
 Last Large Rock From Culebra Cut 338 
 
 Steam Shovel No. 226, Last in Culebra Cut 339 
 
 Last Train of Material out of Bottom of the Cut 339 
 
 Engine No. 260, Pulled Last Train out of the Cut 340 
 
 Engine No. 221), Pushed Last Train out of the Cut ... 340 
 
 Blowing up First Dike at Miraflores. May 18, 1913 . . 341 
 
 Miraflores Dike Before the Blast, Aug. 31, 1913 341 
 
 Dynamite Blast at Miraflores Dike, Aug. 31, 1913. . . . 341 
 
 Making Trench to Let First Water in 342 
 
 Opening as it Appeared Thirty Minutes Later 342 
 
 Dike Crumpled Away Under Rush of Water 342 
 
 Opening Momentarily Widens 342 
 
 Rush of Water Continues 343 
 
 Opening About One Hour After Water First Went 
 
 Through 343 
 
 Steel Cable Thrashed Back and Forth 343 
 
 Pit Is Gradually Filling 343 
 
 Looking Into Pit Toward Miraflores Locks 344 
 
 Barge Broke Loose and Passed Through the Opening. . 344 
 
 Excavating From Miraflores Locks to the Sea 345 
 
 Channel Completely Filled 345 
 
 Letting Water Through Gamboa Dike into Culebra Cut 346 
 
 Gamboa Dike Before it was Dvnamited 346 
 
 Blast That Destroyed Gamboa Dike, Oct. 10, 1913. . . 347 
 
 Water From Gatun Lake Flowing Into Culebra Cut . . 347 
 
 Birdseve View of Gatun Locks 348 
 
 Lake Entrance to Gatun Locks on Morning of First 
 
 Lockage, Sept. 26, 1913, Looking South 349 
 
 Lake Entrance to Gatun Locks on Morning of First 
 
 Lockage, Looking North 349 
 
 [ 383 ] 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS IN BLACK AND WHITE— (Continued) 
 
 Page 
 
 Filling Lower Lock Aided by Sea Gate Valves 350 
 
 Watching the Filling of the Lower Lock 350 
 
 Turning Water into Lock Chamber, Partial Flow. . . 351 
 Turning Water into Lock Chamber, Maximum Flow. . 351 
 
 Water Equalized, Opening Lower Guard Gates 352 
 
 Tug Gatun Moving up the Approach Channel 352 
 
 Tug Gatun Entering the Lower Lock Chamber 353 
 
 Tug Gatun Steaming up the Lower Lock Chamber. . 353 
 
 Tug Stops Alongside the Center Wall 354 
 
 Gate is Closed Preparatory to Filling Lower Chamber. . 354 
 
 Colonel Goethals an Interested Spectator 355 
 
 Colonel Goethals is Amused 355 
 
 Colonel Hodges and Colonel Sibert Talking it Over . 355 
 
 Gates in Open Position 356 
 
 Water Rising in the Middle Lock 356 
 
 Tug Empire and its Tow Entering Gatun Locks 357 
 
 Tug Bohio and Consorts Waiting for Gates to Swing . . 357 
 Tugs, Dredges and Barges Entering Lower Lock. . . . 358 
 
 Closing the Lower Lock Operating Gates 358 
 
 The Lift From the Lower to the Middle Lock 359 
 
 Opening the Middle Gates 359 
 
 The Vessels Pass into the Middle Lock Chamber 360 
 
 Inside the Middle Chamber 360 
 
 Page 
 
 Assembling the Craft Inside the Middle Lock 361 
 
 Tug Empire, with Tow, passing out into Gatun Lake. . 361 
 Tug Miraflores, with Tow, in Lower Lock, Miraflores. . 362 
 
 Near View of the Tug Miraflores and its Tow 362 
 
 Inside the Upper Lock 363 
 
 Vessels Waiting for the Lift to the Upper Lock 364 
 
 Tug and its Tow Passing Through Miraflores Lake. . . . 364 
 
 Opening the Lower Guard Gates, Pedro Miguel 365 
 
 Tug Miraflores and Dredge No. 85 Entering Lock. . . . 365 
 
 Waiting for the Lock to Fill 366 
 
 The Lock Filled 366 
 
 Secretary of War, Garrison, and Party Passing Through 
 
 The Locks 367 
 
 Culebra Cut at Gold Hill in 1887 367 
 
 Close View of a Slide in Culebra Cut 368 
 
 Shooting off a Blast in Cucaracha Slide 368 
 
 Culebra Cut Opposite Culebra Village 368 
 
 Close View of Cucaracha Slide 369 
 
 Closer View of Trenching Operations at the Slide 369 
 
 Dredge No. 85 Working at. the South Toe of the Slide . . 370 
 Dredge No. 86 Working at the North Toe of the Slide. . 370 
 
 Looking North Through Cucaracha Slide 371 
 
 The Cut about 800 Yards South of Cucaracha Slide. . 371 
 
 [ 384 ] 
 
If is 
 
 LAW