-
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^OT^ TIO
HUME LIBRARY
INSTITUTE OF FOOD AND
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
Gainesville
K-
Er^i
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate I.
Fig. 1.— Dwelling House on Bryan Farm.
Fig. 2.— View of the Potomac from Bryan Homestead, Showing Feeding
Places of Gulls, Ducks, and other Waterfowl.
Mount Vernon in tin- distance.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY— BULLETIN Ro. 17
C. HART MERRIAM, Chief
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM
A LOCAL STUDY OF ECONOMIC oRMTHol.or.Y
BY
SYLVESTER D. JUDD, Ph. D.
ASSISTANT, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
Dr. C. H^RT MI E R R I J± Ml
Chief of Biological Survey
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
19o-
J
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, I). t>
Summary _ 41
F' m "1 of nestlings 48
< reneral remarks 48
III. Vertebrate food 50
Poultry and game 50
Fish .'
( larrion 53
Mammals 54
IV. Fruit
Cultivated varieties 55
Wild fruit 58
V. ( train 65
VI. Weed seed 70
Weed destruction 1 >y native sparrows 72
Weed destruction by other birds 7">
VII. Species 79
Water birds 79
< • relies 79
I US B0
M urres 80
< mils and terns SO
Ducks, geese, and other waterfowl 80
Herons 81
Kail 81
Coots si
shore birds 82
( rallinaceous hirds 83
Pi-icons and doves 85
Vultures 85
6 CONTENTS.
VII. Species — Continued. ]>,,-,..
Hawks 85
owls 86
Cuckoos 87
Kingfishers 87
Woodpeckers 88
Whip-pooi-wills, night-hawks, swifts, and hummingbirds 91
Flycatchers 91
Horned larks 93
Blue jays and crows 93
Mcadowlarks, bobolinks, and cowbirds 94
Blackbirds and orioles 95
Finches and sparrows 97
Tanagers 98
Swallows 98
Cedar birds 99
Shrikes 100
Vireos 102
Warblers 103
Mockingbirds, catbirds, thrashers, and wrens 104
Creepers and nuthatches 107
Titmice 107
Kinglets 108
Gnatcatchers 108
Thrushes 108
VIII. Summary........... 110
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES.
Page.
Plate I. Fig. 1, Dwelling house on Bryan farm; Fig. 2, View of Potomac from
Bryan homestead, .showing feeding places of gulls, ducks, and other
waterfi >wl Frontispiece.
II. Map of Bryan farm, where the investigations wore carried on 12
III. Fig. 1, Bay and hill adjacent to calamus swamp; Fig. 2, Bryan farm
from the river, showing shore, bluff, alluvial plain, and forested
hills 16
IV. Fig. 1, River bluff in winter, which shelters several native sparrow r s;
Fig. 2, Hog-lot gully, which furnishes shelter, shade, and food for
many birds 16'
V. Fig. 1, Weedy old cornfield, lot 3; Fig. 2, Pasture, lot 1 24
VI. Fig. 1, Trumpet creeper and other vines of river bluff; Fig. 2, Broom-
sedge and briers in hog lot 24
VII. Fig. 1, Calamus swamp, the haunt of several marsh-loving birds;
Fig. 2, Calamus swamp in winter, showing hill tenanted by blue
jays, great horned owls, red-shouldered hawks, and ruffed grouse. . 32
VIII. Fig. 1, Tobacco field of lot 2, where the effect of birds upon an
uprising of tobacco worms was studied; Fig. 2, Sweet potatoes
and pear orchard, where various investigations were made 32
IX. Food of nestlings and adults of three common birds: Fig. 1, House
wren; Fig. 2, Bank swallow; Fig. 3, Catbird 48
X. Fig. 1, Red-tailed hawk; Fig. 2, Short-eared owl 48
XI. Fig. 1, Sassafras as a weed in lot 5; Fig. 2, Corn injured by crows. . . 64
XII. Fig. 1, Cornfield, lot 5; Fig. 2, Wheat stubble, lot 3. (The line of trees
in the middle ground marks the course of Persimmon Branch) 64
XIII. Four common seed-destroying sparrows: 1, junco; 2, white-throated
sparrow; :;, f ox sparrow; 4, tree sparrow 72
XIV. Fig. 1, Giant ragweed in garden; Fig. 2, Broom-sedge appropriating
land 72
XV. Fig. 1, Bobwhite; Fig. 2, Woodcock 80
XVI. Fig. 1, Broom-sedge of lot 2, frequented at night by bobwhites; Fig.
2, Partridge pea overspreading pasture of l"t i, eaten extensively
by bobwhites. (The pines in the background were defoliated by
the pine saw-fly in the spring of L900) 80
XVI! Fig. I, Bluebird at edge of nest; Fig. 2, Former nesting site of blue-
birds on lawn at Bryan farm „ 96
7
ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIGURES.
Page.
Fig. 1. Meadowlark 1 12
2. Mourning dove 13
3. Song sparrow .16
4. Catbird 18
5. May-fly 22
6. Tobacco worm 27
7. Pale-striped flea-1 >eetle 30
8. Rose-chafer 31
9. Kingbird 31
10. Grasshopper 32
11 . Weevil 34
12. ( rround-beetle 37
13. Ichneumon-fly : 40
1 4. Cutworm and moth 42
15. Dung-beetle 42
16. Barn swallow 47
17. Diagram showing proportions of food of common crow 48
18. Diagram showing proportions of food of crow blackbird 49
19. Cooper hawk 51
20. Great horned owl 52
21. Melons damaged by crows 58
22. Pellet ejected by crow 63
2.'). Some common seeds found in crow pellets 64
24. Common crow , 65
25. Crow blackbird 67
26. English sparrow 68
27. Weed seeds commonly eaten 1 >y 1 >irds 71
28. Field spam >\v „ 74
29. Goldfinch 75
30. Yellow-billed cuckoo 87
31. Yellow-bellied sapsucker 89
32. Flicker 90
33. Phoebe - 93
34. Blue jay 94
35. Bobolink 95
36. Red-winged blackbird 96
37. Cedar bird 99
38. Mockingbird 105
3,9. Brown thrasher , 106
40. House wren ■ 107
41. Robin 109
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM,
I.— INTRODUCTION.
The principal method used by the Biological Survey in investigat-
ing tin 1 food habits of birds is examination of the contents of stomachs,
the material for which is obtained from all part- of the [Jnited
States. In the case of each species the separate data accumulated by
examining as many stomachs as possible are tabulated and show the
food of the bird in question to consist of various proportions of cer-
tain (dements. This method, combining as it does data from many
parts of the country, gives results necessarily somewhat composite,
but certainly trustworthy, and shows to what extent a bird eats
fruit, grain, or insects, thus furnishing a comprehensive 1 and detailed
knowledge of food habits that probably could not be obtained by any
other available means.
In a study of local conditions, however, general conclusions regard-
ing the utility of a bird based on data from perhaps a score or more
of States may sometimes require modification. For instance, from a
study of the smaller herons from material collected from North, South,
East, and West the conclusion would be drawn that they live on food
of no economic value and are therefore unimportant species. But
a study of these birds in the State of Louisiana alone shows them to
be highly useful, for here they pre}^ on crayfish, which, by tunneling
through the levees, cause great damage to crops by iiood. In similar
ways the relations of birds to a certain locality or particular farm
can not always be exactly tested by conclusions drawn from a large
range of territory. The exact damage to crops is not revealed by
stomach examination. A bird may have punctured several grapes
in each of a hundred clusters and yet betray to the microscope no
sign of its vicious habit. On the other hand, a bird may be con-
demned as injurious because it is found to have eaten berries or grain,
although, as a matter of fact, it has taken the berries from wild plants
and gleaned the grain after harvest. Then, too, the material exam-
ined at the Department is not usually accompanied by notes of the
available supply of fruits, seeds, and insects present at the places
where the birds were collected. Such information would be a sig-
nificant supplement to the results of stomach examination. The faults
of a fruit-eating bird might be condoned if it were found to rob the
garden and orchard only when tin 1 thicket and pasture were barren.
And the value of birds as insect destroyers in any particular locality
9
10 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
can be understood only when one knows just what crops of the region
are infested, and the identity and importance of the pest by which
each is chiefly attacked; for only then can one learn which birds .select
the worst pests and destroy them in the largest proportion.
With a view to ascertaining how far local conditions might modify
the details of general conclusions based on data from widely separated
regions, a study of the food habits of the birds on a particular farm
was undertaken. From July 30, 1895, to July 24:, 1902, visits were
made at frequent intervals and including every month of the year
except January. To obtain an idea of the available food supply, the
insects, berries, and seeds found on the place were collected; the con-
dition of the crops and the insects infesting them were noted; detailed
observations of the birds' food habits were made in the held, and the
stomachs of 698 birds were collected and examined, 53 being those of
English sparrows and the remainder (045) those of native species.
One of the most serious disadvantages attending the work is that
from such a limited area one can not examine stomachs enough to get
a thorough knowledge of the food of each species, and is often com-
pelled to rely, for the general idea of the food, on conclusions drawn
from material collected elsewhere. Still, such information, supple-
mented by the knowledge gained from local stomach collections and
field notes, has made it possible in most cases to determine whether a
given species is, on the whole, helpful or harmful to the farm in
question.
TOPOGRAPHY OF BRYAN FARM.
The farm chosen for this investigation is the Bryan farm, at Mar-
shall Hall, Md., on the south bank of the Potomac, 15 miles from
Washington, directly opposite Mount Vernon. Va. (see PI. I, frontis-
piece, fig. 2). The former owner of the farm. Mr. O. N. Bryan,
was an enthusiastic collector of birds, plants, and Indian imple-
ments, and was known to many Washington scientists. On his death.
in 1892, his collections were given to the National Museum. The
farm passed to his nephew, Mr. George R. Bryan, to whom the author
is indebted for permission to conduct these investigations on the place,
and for cordial cooperation and uniform courtesy throughout their
course. The farm contains about 230 acres, of which 150 is cultivated
and most of the remaining 80 covered with timber, principally hard-
wood interspersed with pine. The arable land, forming as it does
nearly two-thirds of the farm, is all in one tract (see map, PI. II).
[ts western limit is a straight line of fence separating it from the next
farm; its northern boundary, almost twice as long, is the nearly
straight shore of the Potomac River, which here flows from east to
wot. A small hay, formed by an indentation of the river shore (PI.
Ill, fig. 1). a calamus swamp. 200 ynvds long (PI. VII, rig. 1). which
drains into the bay, and a tract of woodland (PI. XVI, rig. 2) form
TOPOGRAPHY OF BRYAN FARM. 11
the eastern and southern boundaries. The uncultivated pari of the
farm consists of timber tracts, Level except about the swamp, where
the land rises on two sides, the eastern rise forming a little wooded
hill more than LOO feet above the river (PL VII, fig. 2).
The cultivated area is a level, alluvial bench extending Sack from
the river a half mile to. foothills (PL III. fig. i y >. It La divided into
live approximately equal lots, two along the southern or woodland
boundary and three along the northern 01 river boundary. A si raighi
line of fence parallel to the river separates the three river lot- from
the two inland lots. The river tract is rectangular, about three times
as long as broad, and extends east — that is. up river several hundred
yards farther than the inland tract. A bushy draining 1 ditch, which
will he designated throughout this paper by the local name Persimmon
Branch, stretches lengthwise through the middle of this area from the
calamus swamp to the lower or southwest corner of the farm, where
it empties into the river by a swampy, timbered outlet. Persimmon
Branch is joined not far from its river mouth l>v a tributary — locally
known as Partridge Branch — that drains the western inland lot. The
other inland lot has no ditch, and part of it is often wet; the side
toward the swamp washes badly during heavy rains. It has been
found convenient to designate these lots by number-, the three along
the river being numbered 1, 2, and 3 and the others -t and 5 (see map.
PL II).
The farm meets the river in a precipitous, tree-fringed bluff from
20 to30feet high, which at low tide has a strip of sandy shore (PI. IV.
tig. 1). All the buildings but one stand at intervals on a road running
along the brink of the bluff. In the middle of the river front of lot 1
are the house, surrounded by a yard with a paling fence and shaded by
great locusts, and a horse barn with its corn house (see PI. I. frontis-
piece, tig. 1). In lot 2, touching the line dividing it from lot 1. is a
cow barn, and at the middle of lot '2 is a negro cabin. A storage barn
stands several hundred yards south of the cabin, at the northwest cor-
ner of lot 4 (see map, PI. II).
The staple products of the farm are corn, wheat, and tobacco in
irregular rotation with timothy, which furnishes the winter supply for
some half dozen cows and about as many horses. In recent years
market gardening has been attempted on a small scale, in the light.
sandy part of lot 3, between Persimmon Branch and the river. It i-
seldom that even two-thirdsof the five lots is under cultivation at once.
Of the remaining third or more. 5 to L0 acres is usually devoted to
timothy, and the rest IS worn-out mowing Lands and weedy old corn-
fields (PI. V. tig. 1). Broom-sedge, which in spring makes good pas-
turage but later is refused by stock, comes into these cornfields after
the first year. and. in time, into the timothy fields (11. XIV, fig. 3).
Of the cultivated area, as much as 30 acres is sometimes devoted to
corn. A smaller acreage is given to wheat, and still less to tobacco
12
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
(PI. VIII, fig. 1). which, however, ie the most steady in price, and
during good years the most profitable crop. Vegetables, strawber-
ries, pears, grapes, and quinces arc grown in an inclosed kitchen
garden adjoining the dooryard on its upper side. Beyond is a hog lot
of several acres, with a small wooded gully leading down to the river
and affording shade to the dozen or more hogs that range there (PI.
IV, fig. 2).
DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.
After this preliminary account of the topography and the products
of the farm we may consider the birds and their relation to the crops.
The whole farm with its arable land, river shore, steep bluff, and low
calamus swamp bordered on one side by the high hill and on another
by the extent of level forest, presents conditions so varied as to attract
many different kinds of birds: The actual distribution of the various
species is of great importance. Other things being equal, those that
live on the arable land, and thus have the best opportunity to check
the work of injurious plants and insects, may be expected to do the
greatest good, while such as frequent only the swamp or the remote
woodland have little effect on crops.
BIRDS THAT FEED IN OPEN FIEI/DS.
Meadowlark. — The meadowlark (fig. 1) is a good example of species
*
.—Meadowlark.
of the former class. It was found breeding in all the lots, usually in a
timothy field or an old weedy cornfield (PI. A', fig. 1). and was present
in numbers sufficient to do much good. In late summer flocks of 20
were often seen, and in November usually more than twice that num-
ber. These birds in their feeding completely covered the open parts
of the lots, and came fearlessly up to the barns and foraged within a
stone's throw of the house.
Bull. 1 7, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate II.
Marshall Hall
Wharf
AT
MARSHALL HALL JD.
♦3
TENCCS
U ♦♦♦♦ pine. #$$$$$$ WILLOW.
fek« l\c\.i\ LAUREL
#- W** SWAMP OR MARSH.
-"—^=— ROAD
I'mlk
i 41?
Map of Bryan Farm, where the Investigations were Carried On.
I>I-TKIIUTIo\ OF BIRDS.
]:;
Grasshopper Sparrow.— The gra^hopper sparrow is even more exclu-
sively a > > i i< I of the open land than the meadowlark for it seldoii
flies up from the fields to perch in tree-. During t be period of < >bse r-
vation it happened t<> breed for tin- most part in lot- 1. 2, and 8,
choosing timothy fields or pastures (PI. V. fig. _). or weedy, briery
cornfields. It was often seen feeding in lot ;,. hut was seldom
observed in lot 4. probably because the rotation of crops in that lot did
not happen to provide favorable grass land.
Bobwhite. — The bobwhite— the quail of the North and the partridge
of the South— is also a bird of theopen, though it ha- the hain't of flying
to cover when alarmed. Bobwhite- were frequently found in COVeya
of a dozen or more in lots -1- and .">. On being flushed they sought
shelter in the neighboring oak woods, where they spent much time,
especially in fall and winter. In summer they lived chiefly in the open
lot- of the farm, where they nested. From the time that corn was
3 feethigh until it was cut, they used it for cover. They were not
as closely confined to grass land as the grasshopper sparrows, hut
foraged in every lot. and appeared to come in closer contact with crops
than did any other species on the farm.
Mourning Dove. — Among the birds of the first class may also be
included mourning doves (tig-. 2) and crows, which, though not ne-t-
Fig. 2.— Mourning dove. (The background <>f this picture is typical of the Bryan farm.)
ing on the arable land, were always to be seen feeding there. The
doves nested in small pines in the more open parts of the adjacent
woods. A> their food Is weed seed and waste errain cleaned on stubble-
14 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
fields, they avoided fields <>t* timothy and broom-sedge and areas under
actual cultivation and foraged in waste corn land and on wheat stub-
ble, where, for a time after harvest, they obtained wheat and. later,
abundant seeds <>t* ragweed. They were often observed in lots 2 and
3 feeding on the seeds of oxalis, spurge, and other weeds that grew
among old cornstalks, and in fall worked among- the rank weedy
growths that overran the truck land between Persimmon Branch and
the river: hut they were more often seen in lot 4, which was near the
woods where they nested, and which furnished them wheat stubble or
new corn stubble with their favorite pigeon-grass. At harvest time
and later the flock of doves numbered a score or more. Their feed-
ing grounds changed from time to time according to the rotation of
crops. They did not approach the buildings with as much confidence
as did the meadowlarks and the bobwhites, and thus lost some effec-
tiveness as weed-seed destroyers.
Crows. — Both the fish crow and the common crow occurred on the farm.
but the latter species was much the more abundant. Crows nested in
the scrub pines (JPmua vvrginiana) which grow among the white oaks
and red oaks bounding lot 4. and bred also in the wood> across the
calamus swamp, where, in addition to the trees just mentioned, there
is a sprinkling of cedar, sycamore, and holly. Their favorite feeding
grounds in spring were newly plowed fields where May-beetles and
cutworms were to be found. Even when such fields were close to
buildings the crows, though usually shyer than the doves, watched for
opportunities to visit them, and many times were noticed in the early
morning stalking along the furrows, sometimes within a few rods of
the cabin, cow barn, and storage barn. As they did not often enter
the timothy fields, which were tenanted by meadowlarks and grass-
hopper sparrows, and as these, on the other hand, were seldom seen
on plow T ed land and among the hoed crops where the crows constantly
foraged, the work of the latter was, in a measure, complementary to
that of the former.
Blackbirds. — The crow blackbird, although it did not nest on the
farm, was a frequent visitor. During the breeding season its favorite
haunt was the cherry trees along the river bluff, but in spring and fall
it foraged in flocks over all the lots of the farm. Sometimes with this
bird, but more often in separate Hocks, the rusty grackle visited the
farm during migration. At this time also, the cowbird, often in large
flocks, appeared in the open fields and helped to reduce the weed-seed
harvest; but during the breeding season the species was limited to sex-
end pairs, which were generally to be seen walking about the pastures
at the heels of the stock.
Other birds.— The robin, though not breeding at Marshall Hall, was
abundant in spring and fall, and might be found foraging out in the
center- of the largest fields. The goldfinch showed the same fondness
DISTRIBUTION OF BIBD6. 1 '
for the open and was often observed feeding far afield in flock
from LOO to 300. < H the birds of the open, that fed far out in all the
five lots and did not depend on adjacent cover, there remain but two
to be mentioned, th<- vesper sparrow and the savanna sparrow, which
visited the farm only during migration, but helped, nevertheless, in
the valuable work of destroying weed seeds.
BIRDS THAT DEFEND « >\ COVER.
Cover furnished by farm. — Other species, mainly sparrows, though
occurring on the arable area, fed iess generally out in the centers
of the fields, and depended on protecting cover. This was afforded in
part by an osage orange hedge which bounds three sides of lot 'i. and
l>v blackberry bushes and cedar and sassafras trees along fence rows.
Excellent cover was furnished, also, by a narrow belt of locusts, cedars,
and cultivated cherry tree- along the edge of the river bluff, and by
a tangle of blackberry, honeysuckle, smilax, wild grape, bittersweet,
and trumpet creeper that grow- under the trees and in many places
covers the face of the bluff (PL VI. tig. 1 1. Other good cover, nesting
sites, and feeding ground- are afforded by the tree- and bushes around
the house, by the forested gully of the hog lot (PI. IV. tig. 2), and by
the timbered outlet- and bushy upper courses of Persimmon Branch
and Partridge Branch. (The course of Persimmon Branch near the
outlet can he -ecu in PI. XII. tig. '1. I To the thickets Of the h>
r<>w- and streams i- due the presence on the arable land of many
specie- that would not live on unwatered and wholly cleared farm-.
Field Sparrow. — The field sparrow, which appears so often in the
open that it may almost he grouped with the preceding da— . i- found.
on observation, to he dependent on cover. But it i- a bird of the
broom-sedge and briers, and it- presence i- not conditional on the
neighborhood of large tree-, water, or building-, a- i- that of some
other sparrow-. It- nesting sites included each side of Persimmon
Branch, the broom-sedge and dewberry tangle of the high part of the
hog lot (PI. VI. tig. 2), and the crest of the bluff overlooking the swamp.
After the young were fledged small flocks of two or more families
followed the branches, hedgerow-, brush piles, and fence row- all
about the arable part of the farm, even finding their way along a rail
fence to tobacco seed bed- in the w 1-. The field -parrow- avoided
timothy, hut foraged far out in weedy old cornfields where the -talk-
remained standing, and when new corn had tasseled they fed undei it-
shelter. They were found with most certainty, however, in waste
ground- bearing little but broom-sedge and briers.
Chipping Sparrow.- The chipping -parrow. the field sparrow's con-
gener, in conformity t<> it- semidomestic habit-, nested in the door
yard, the kitchen garden, the adjacent orchard, and cedar trees near
the storage barn, h wa- characteristic of roadside and rail fence and
16
HIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
foraged in cropped pastures and among hoed crops. Unlike the field
sparrow, it sought cover, not in bushes, but in trees isolated a^ in
orchards. On account of these habit- its work is more or less com-
plementary to that of the field sparrow. Neither species was noticed
feeding to any important extent in standing timothy, the habitat of
the grasshopper sparrow, but they both destroyed weed seeds and
insects over a large part of the farm, even out in the center of lot 4
far from cover. In August and September they fed together in loose
flocks along fence rows. At this time there were nearly a hundred of
the two species, the chipping sparrow being the more numerous.
Song Sparrow. — The song sparrow (tig. 3) is a bush bird, which,
though feeding on the ground, is generally too cautious to venture far
afield. It is essentially a bird of the waterways, and bred in the
undergrowth along Persimmon Branch and the river, in the hog-lot
gully, and about the calamus swamp; yet, like the chipping sparrow,
it came with confi-
dence up to all the
buildings. It for-
aged over the gar-
den and dooryard
and along a strip
several rods wide
extending from the
house to the mouth
of Persim m o n
Branch. In feed-
ing here it usually
avoided the open
parts of newly
plowed fields, but
ran amid corn,
wheat, tobacco,
truck, and timothy, and, as will appear later, did considerable good in
this way. It spent much time along the river shore, however, and
thus wasted opportunities for protecting crops. In summer it was
less abundant than the chipping sparrow or the Held sparrow, but after
the breeding season it came down from the North in great flocks and
did good work among weeds.
Other native sparrows. — Fox sparrows, and many tree sparrows,
] uncos, and white-throated sparrows also come down from the North
in the fall. The fox sparrows are cover-loving birds, and frequented
the tangle of the river front and Persimmon Branch, seldom venturing
more than a rod into the iields. The whitethroats usually associate
with song sparrows, and were found all along hedgerows and water-
ways. The tree sparrows associate with field sparrows, and like them
preferred broom-sedg-e fields, though they, too, often followed the
Fig. 3. — Song sparrow.
Bull. 1 7, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agn.
Plate III.
Fig. 1 .— Bay and Hill Adjacent to Calamus Swamp.
Fig. 2. -Bryan Farm from the River, Showing Shore, Bluff, Alluvial Plain, and
Forested Hills.
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate IV.
Fig. 1.— River Bluff in Winter, which Shelters Several
Species of Native Sparrows.
Fig. 2.— Hog Lot Gully, which Furnishes Shelter, Shade,
and Food for Many Birds.
DI8TMBUTI0B OF WUDS. 1 7
hedges and water courses. The j uncos are an independent species,
taking refuge in Large t pees as well as in bushes, and foraged Ear afield,
even in bare and exposed situations.
English Sparrow. In addition to the native sparrows, the English
sparrow occurred on the farm. Its distribution depended solely on
suitable nesting holes and available grain. A dozen pairs bred in the
crannies of the house, in an old dovecote <>n the granary, and in the
dooryard locusts. At harvest time the flock numbered LOO or more.
No part of the farm was too remote for their forays if it yielded them
grain, 80 their feeding grounds varied with the rotation of crop-.
They were often to be seen, also, gleaning amid poultry and stock at
feeding time, and stealing into the corn crib. The presence of this
bird had affected the distribution of other species, particularly such
as nest in cavities. The bluebird had been driven from the farm, and
many of the house wrens that formerly bred about the buildings had
had to seek more secluded places. A few pairs of wrens continued,
however, to nest near the house in cavities too small to admit the
sparrow. Others lived at both mouths of Persimmon Branch and the
lower end of the hog-lot gully (PI. IV, fig. 2).
BIRDS OF LESS LIMITED DISTRIBUTION.
Kingbird and Oriole. — About a dozen pairs of kingbirds and orchard
orioles were also on the place. Neighbors at nesting time and often
associates in their feeding range, they lived together in fruit tree- by
the house, and were also noted at the negro cabin and on the -bote by
the calamus swamp.
Wherever a kingbird's nest was discovered, a nest of the oriole was
sure to be found in the same or an adjoining tree. It seemed odd that
such a tyrant as the kingbird should tolerate such close proximity.
The kingbirds skimmed over all the five lots after insects, occasionally
poising on weedstalks and often perching on the highest trees along
the river bluff and the hedgerows. The orioles, though not infre-
quently seen along fence rows, were generally confined to the tree- of
the river front, whence, however, they flew out into the adjacent
mowing land to pick up insects from the ground.
Cedar Bird. —From a dozen to a score of cedar birds also frequented
the trees along the river, though they did not nest on the farm, and
they were often noticed at the ends of Persimmon Branch and in the
hog-lot gully. Their distribution appeared to depend on the presence
of ripe fruit, such as mulberries, cherries, blackberries, or cedar
berries.
Catbird. — The most abundant summer bird was without question the
catbird (rig. 4). Its usual habitat was practically the same as the song
sparrow's — that is to say, the undergrowth of moist places. But while the
7222— No. 17— ol> a
18
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
song sparrow preferred thickets of blackberry, elder, and alder.
somewhat open t<» the sun, the catbird chose tangles of catbrier deeply
shaded by overspreading trees. It was therefore numerous in the
swampy, forested dells at the extremities of Persimmon Branch (see
map, PL II). and still more so in the hog-lot gully (PL IV, fig. 2),
where it found attractive food, consisting of cherries, mulberries,
blackberries, and elderberries, besides May-flies, which were abun-
dant before the fruit ripened. Here, in one morning, fifteen cat-
birds were seen. Like the song sparrow, this species came up to nest
about the house. One pair built in a holly by the gate, another near
the horse tub, and two pairs in the garden. All these families fed
among the vegetables and moved about under the apple trees and in
the dooryard. The catbird is arboreal to the extent of securing prob-
ably three-fourths of its food in trees or bushes. Because of this fact,
and also because its feeding range does not extend out into fields, it
does not appear to have a close relation with crops.
Other birds. — One or two pairs of cardinal grosbeaks bred on the
river bluff, but more were noticed in the edge of the swamp bordering
the arable land. They built chiefly among catbriers, in stunted young
scrub pines, and in the tops of fallen oaks. Cardinals were also seen
along the wooded parts of Persimmon Branch, and may have bred
there. Two pairs of yellow-breasted chats nested (dose to crops, one
in the. thick undergrowth of Persimmon Branch and the other in a
similar shaded thicket at the northeast corner of lot 4. Indigo birds
and brown thrashers nested near the storage barn, phoebes in the cow
barn, and swifts in the chimneys of the house.
DI8TBIBUTION OF BIRDS. 19
I'.Ii;i>- I >F VARIED DMH RIB1 I [ON.
The distribution of the birds remaining to be mentioned can not
so definitely Limited. Various gulls and duck- were present in the
river during the colder months. The least bittern, great blue heron,
little bine heron, little green heron, and sora rail occurred in the cala-
mus swamp (PI. VII, fig. L), and the little green heron was also noted
feeding all along the river (PL III. fig. 2). Woodcock were found
on Persimmon Branch near the river, and were observed at dusk
flying into adjacent cornfields. Sandpipers, usually the spotted, but
now and then the solitary, were to be seeq, particularly at the mouth >
of the hog-lot gully, teetering along the beach in twos and three-.
Various species of hawk-, including the broad-winged, rod-tailed.
red-shouldered, marsh, Cooper, sharpshinned, and sparrow hawks.
curred on the farm. One pair of Cooper hawk- bred in the scrub
pine- on the edge of lot 4. Broad-winged and red-shouldered hawks
built on the slope of the wooded hill that rises from the calamus
swamp (PL VII, fig. 2). Eagles .frequently came over from Virginia,
and one established a post in a large tree on the bluff just below the
negro cabin. Ospreys sometimes passed tin- farm on fishing trips up
and down the river. Several pairs of great horned owls and -ere. -eh
owls built in the woods above the calamus -warn}) (PL VII, fig. 2).
Turkey buzzards .-oared over the fields and often fed along the shore:
some nested beyond the farm in the chestnut -tump- of a deep.
narrow gully.
Kingfishers, which bred in the sandy face of the bluff beyond the
farm, fished in the calamus swamp and along the river front. The
downy woodpecker foraged in all the fruit tree- and nested in the
hog-lot gully, at the river mouth of Persimmon Branch (see map,
PI. II). and al-o in some of the most remote woodland. Flickers,
though breeding at Mar-hall Hall, were most numerous in spring
and fall, when they frequently fed in open Held- with robins. Sap-
suckers were Been in various places during the colder half of the
year, very often in the apple orchard by the kitchen garden. The
red-headed woodpecker al-o occurred, but it- distribution was very
erratic. Night-hawks sometimes appeared in the late afternoon,
circling after insects, and whip-poor-wills were frequently heard,
though seldom seen. Hummingbirds were -ecu in Various pia
about the farm dipping into the dowers of the trumpet creeper,
persimmon, and tobacco. One nest was discovered <>n a horizontal
bough on a red oak beside Persimmon Branch. Another was found
fastened to the limb of a box elder in front of the farmhouse.
Two pairs of wood pewees nested in the kitchen garden and the
dooryard, and more than a dozen pair- bred in the rec< ssefl ^\ the
woods. The great crested flycatcher habitually stayed in solitary
20 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
retreats and journeyed over to the bog-lot gully, the river front, and
even the dooryard. Several pairs of blue jays and scarlet tanagers fre-
quented the oaks bordering lot 4. Two or three pairs of red-winged
blackbirds, that sometimes fed on the cultivated land, nested in the
calamus swamp (PI. VII, fig. 1). Purple finches were found during
the colder half of the year along the brink o\' the bluff. Barn swallows
nested in the cow harn one summer, but the individuals usually seen
were visitors from other farms, as were also the purple martin-, white-
bellied swallows, and rough-winged swallows, that mingled with the
ham swallows, often in a Hock of a hundred, and skimmed over the
field in pursuit of Insects. •
The red-eyed vireo, in summer one of the most abundant species on
the farm, built in trees everywhere, hut was most numerous in decid-
uous woodland. Having strictly arboreal habits, it did not feed among
tield crops, hut protected the foliage of orchard, shade trees, and wood-.
The white-eyed vireo was found in moist places outside of the culti-
vated land and also in the woodland about the calamus swamp. The
last-named locality sheltered large numbers of migrating warblers in
spring and fall. Here at these seasons could be noted the black-
throated blue warbler, myrtle warbler, magnolia warbler, black-poll
warbler, black-throated green warbler, pine warbler, prairie warbler,
oven-bird, the two specie- of water-thrushes, Wilson's blackcap, and the
Canadian warbler. The yellow warbler built near the house and also
in willow swam}) land back from the arable area. The redstart nested
on the west side of the swamp. The Maryland yellow-throat, rivaling
the song sparrow r in numbers, frequented all the moist, bushy regions,
but often came out into the live lots to feed along the fence rows, and
was sometime- seen -currying among the leaves of tobacco. Haifa
dozen or more pair- of long-billed marsh wren- had nest- ",n the swamp
(PI. VII, tig. 1). Carolina chickadees nested near the swamp and in
the piu oaks of the woods near lots 4 and 5, and several were seen in
the orchard and the hog-lot gully. Tufted titmice were occasionally
observed in the neighborhood of the swamp and the same wood-.
Kinglet- of both species occurred in the apple orchard-. The hermit
thrush, olive-backed thrush, gray-cheeked thrush, and Wilson's thrush
occurred during migration in the oak- bordering lot -1. The wood
thiu-h was fount] breeding in the foresl east of the calamus swamp
(PI. VII. tig. 2), hut never came out into the garden or house yard, as
it often doe- in more northern States.
TOPOGRAPHY OF HUNGERFORD FARM.
In order to study the effect of birds on a greater variety of crops
than were grown on the Bryan farm alone, the next two farms, namely,
the Marshall farm and the Hunfferford farm, which were conveniently
situated for the purpose and were kindly placed at my service by the
IN8E< T FOOD. 2 1
owners, were visited from time to time. A brief description of the
latter, on which most of these subsidiary observations were made, is
necessary for a dearer understanding of the results here se( forth. It
is primarily devoted to truck and fruit, though it produces also \\ heat.
corn, and tobacco. A hedgerow of lame cedars cut- it int<> two pint-,
each part with its house and barn. The upper -ret ion has a swamp
fed by a bushy brook and emptying into the river, while the lower
section is drained by two ditches merging into one at their river out-
let. There i- also a timbered dell, shallow and swampy, which extends
from the river hack into the cultivated fields, and which harbored a
colony of breeding crow blackbirds, more than a dozen catbirds, several
woodcock, and at least two pair- of cardinals. Along the Rungerford
farm the blurt* is seldom half so high as on the Bryan farm, and in
many places is entirely wanting.
II.— INSECT FOOD.
In studying data derived from the examination of stomachs collected
over areas wideh diverse in latitude and longitude the investigator
seldom knows exactly what kinds of insects were available for selec-
tion at the time the food in the stomachs was obtained, how abundant
relatively the various species of insects were, and to what extent, if
any. they were injuring crops. He is therefore in some danger of
misinterpreting results, especially when he attempts to show how the
birds' insectivorous habits relate to agriculture in specific cases. He
may. for instance, commend birds for having fed on a certain pest,
when, as a matter of fact, they had found no other food available, or he
may condemn them for not having eaten injurious insects when the
district from which they came happened to be free from such plagues.
For this reason, therefore, a careful study was made of the relative
and absolute abundance of the different kinds of insects on the farm
at each visit. It may be mentioned here that in recording observa-
tions of this kind the calendar date should be supplemented by the
biological date, which shows the advancement of the season and is best
determined by the condition of the vegetation; but this rule has not
always been followed in the present report.
CRANE-FLIES.
The most interesting visits were, naturally, those made when insect-
were most numerous. Crane-flies appeared every year, but during
L900 were unusually abundant. The farm was visited on April 22 of
that year when the forests were bare and the fields brown. Peach.
plum, and pear were in bloom, but the apple was not yet out. Crane-
flies were seen everywhere, but were thickest in the grass land of lot
1, where they fairly swarmed on the ground and tlew into one's eye-.
22 BIBDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
nose and mouth. No birds were collected, for it was evident that all
wcr<- feeding on crane-flies, which formed the only abundant supply of
insect food. Several species of sparrows, including song sparrows,
white-throated sparrows, and chipping sparrows, were observed greed-
ily eating them. A pair of kingbirds left their perch on an apple-tree
spray every now and then to snap up the insects, and a Maryland yel-
low-throat, several meadowlarks, .and a pair of bobwhites feasted on
the swarming prey. These insects fly feebly and are easily caught;
and since there is hardly an insectivorous bird that is not known to
take them, it seems safe to conclude that when they are abundant they
are eaten in great numbers. Coming as they do in the spring, when
other food is scarce, they are a boon to birds. They supply both the
newly arrived species and those that are about to journey to their
northern nesting- grounds. The destruction of crane-flies by birds is a
benefit to the farmer, as they are injurious to grain and grass. Their
larv®, repulsive, leathery-looking object-. \'wd underground, largely
on roots. Crane-flies are said to do great damage in Europe, but are
much less important in this country.
MAY-FLIES.
Of all the insects on the farm, the May-fly (tig. 5), during the period
of its aerial life, is undoubtedly the most abundant and the most con-
spicuous. The respective numbers of other spe-
cies fluctuate greatly from year to year, but the
myriads of this plague are nearly always constant.
Fortunately the life of the adult lasts only from a
few hours to two days. As a water nymph, how-
ever, the insect lives from one to three years.
When the locust trees are dropping their 1>1<»-
soms, usually about the middle of May, the
nymphs rise to the surface of the Potomac, trans-
/";• Mil >'- nv lln,m form into adults, and flutter to the shore. The
suddenness with which they appeal- and their vex-
atious numbers may be understood from a description of the 4 conditions
that prevailed at Marshall Hall from the 13th to the loth of May. L900.
On the morning of the L3th not a May-fly was to be seen. In the late
afternoon several were noticed along the shore. On the 14th many
came up from the river and flew around the house, and on the morn-
ing of the L5th thousands were found clinging to the porch. They
soon spread all over the farm. or. more strictly speaking, were blown
over it. The an- was full of them. After a walk of a hundred yard-
along the bluff in lot .">. I found 67 clinging to me. They covered the
cedar trees beside the river, turning the dark green (^! the foliage to
a distinct gray. They frightened the horses SO badly by alighting on'
them that plowing was suspended for several days. They swarmed
into the house and made meal -times almost unendurable. This condition
[N8E< 1 Food.
seldom lasts more than :i week or two. Soon the dead bodies of the
short-lived creatures are cast up all along the shore in windrows sei eral
inches high, and then there Is a marked decrease in their abundance
about the farm. They occur, however, though in constantly dimin-
ishing DUmbers, throughout dune and even into duly.
At their flood tide they furnish most of the food of practically all
the birds of the farm, even including barnyard fowls. They air 90ft,
entirely edible, and highly nutritious, owing to the fact that the
females are heavy with eggs. Any bird, no matter how clumsy, can
capture them as they make their aimless, blundering flights, or fall
helplessly from contact with object- in their way. It was interesting
the methods by which different birds procured them. A green
heron, three -potted sandpipers, several song sparrows, and a dozen
crow blackbirds frequented the beach, picking up insecl after insect.
Woodpeckers and at times Carolina chickadee- snapped them up from
tree trunks in the apple orchard or the hog-lot gully. The parula
warbler, the yellow warbler, and one or two other warblers, with the
white-eyed vireo and the red-eyed vireo. gathered them from among
leafy boughs. The redstart darted out and caught it- -hare of the
quarry on the wkig. Some species fed in a lazy, sated manner. Thus
in the top of a cedar that was gray with the insects, five crow- -at for
half an hour slowly choking them down. A pair of red- winged black-
birds and several blackpoll warblers later visited the same tree to feed.
Such flycatchers as the phcebe, the wood pewee, the kingbird, and the
great crested flycatcher stood nervously at their -entry posts, every
now and then rising to hover and snap up a victim. The kingbird
had another, more interesting method of feeding. Perched in the dead
top of a tree, it would make a dash into one of the lateral bough- of
an adjacent locust that was so heavily laden with May-flies that the tips
of the branchlets drooped under the weight, dislodge hundreds of
the insects, snap up several as they fluttered out. and then return to
it- perch. Over and over it played this game, apparently with keen
zest. 1 watched a similar, though less adroit, performance by a
female catbird that -pent a long time gathering food for her young
from a maple in the dooryard. Every few minute- -he would take a
short flight and drop on the end of a -lender bough: then from tin'
score.- of May-flies shaken out she would, by clumsy efforts, generally
manage to catch one. A hen with her brood of eleven chick- derived
the chief profit from the bird*- industry, and remained for two hour-
gobbling up the manna that rained from the maple tree. English
sparrows also -hook the insects from the branches and captured them
on the wing. A. flock of a dozen cedar birds pursued them through
the air. appearing to swim rather than fly, and reminding one of a
lazy suntish dawdling after a baited hook. At other time-, possibly
when they were more hungry, they caught their prey with an alert-
24
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
ness thai would have beeD creditable in a flycatcher. Swifts and a
variety of -wallow-, including the ti« e -wallow, the bank swallow, the
rough-winged -wallow, the barn -wallow, and the purple martin,
appeared to feed on May -flies exclusively. Whenever a kingbird
dashed into a tree these birds would fly by the dozen to the spot and
seize the fluttering, helpless insects that had been dislodged. When,
however, a gusl of wind drove the May-flies before it. the swallows
were -ecu to best advantage a> they circled gracefully after them.
Field observations and the examination of stomachs proved that 40
species had eaten May-flies, but this number probably represents only
about half the truth. Not many birds were collected at the height of
the insects' abundance, because even casual observation showed that
practically all the birds of the farm, not only the highly insectivorous
species, but also the species chiefly frugivorous or granivorous, turned
to them for food. The following is the list obtained:
List of birds known to have fed on May-flies.
Green heron.
Woodcock.
Spotted sandpiper.
Yellow-billed cuckoo.
Black-billed cuckoo.
Downy woodpecker.
Chimney swift.
Kingbird.
Great crested flycatcher.
Phcebe.
Wood pewee.
Blue jay.
Common crow.
Bobolink.
Bed-winged blackbird.
Orchard oriole.
Crow blackird.
English sparrow.
Field sparrow.
Cardinal.
Purple martin.
Barn swallow.
White-1 lellied swallow.
Bank swallow.
Rough-winged swallow
Cedar bird.
Red-eyed vireo.
Panda warbler.
Yellow warbler.
Black-poll warbler.
Water-thrush.
Maryland yellow-thr. »at.
Yellow-breasted chat.
Wilson warbler.
Redstart
Catbird.
House wren.
Carolina chickadee.
Blue-gray gnatcatcher.
Gray-cheeked thrush.
Though May-flies furnish valuable food for fish and do no harm to
crops, they are of course a plague when the} T become so numerous.
Broadly considered, however, their consumption by birds is a misfor-
tune, for it suspends or prevents the destruction of really injurious
insects. At no other time do all birds eat so large a proportion of
insect food, for at no other time do they find such a scarcity of other
suitable food, and if their attention were not diverted by this easy and
palatable prey they might be expected to do the best of their Avork
against insect pests. This unfavorable condition is, however, strictly
local, Lasts only a few days, and would not occur on areas remote from
large bodies of fresh water when 1 the 'May-fly breeds.
INFESTED CROPS.
At each vi>it the crops were inspected for posts, and whenever any
crop had suffered appreciably it was regularly watched to see whether
birds came to its relief. Stomachs were collected also around the
infested fields.
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate V.
Fig. 1.— Weedy Old Cornfield, Lot 3.
Fig. 2.— Pasture, Lot
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S
Plate VI.
Fig. 1.— Trumpet Creeper and Other Vines of River Bluff.
Fig. 2.— Broom-Sedge and Briers in Hog Lot.
[N8ECT FOOD. 25
White potatoes. The potato beetle (Doryphora 10-lineata) caused
every year considerable injury to white potatoes. During May,
it had destroyed at least half of the foliage of several acres of potatoes
about 6 inches high in lot :;. The field was watched for an hour or
two each day for several days, but only three birds were seen in the
patch— a pair of bo.bwhites, which are noted potato-beetle eaters,
sometimes consuming from 50 to l"" at a single meal, and a cardinal,
which is a near relative of the rose-breasted grosbeak, probably the
the most valuable destroyer of the pest. Unfortunately neither spe-
cies could be either observed feeding in the patch or subsequently col-
1. Other birds were very abundant along Persimmon Branch
and the river front, but appeared to manifest n<> interest in potato
beetles. From .May 28 to May :'»<». 1mm;. the potatoes in the kitchen
garden, though in fair foliage, had from several to a do/en hectic- on
each plant. Birds were about the garden all the time. Forty of
them, principally catbirds, vireos, house wren-, chipping sparrows,
summer warblers, orchard orioles, and flycatcher- were collected, hut
none had eaten the beetles. On the L6th of June, 1901, a large patch
of potatoes by the negro cabin in lot 2 was infested. Above it circled
a -core of swifts and swallow-, mainly barn and bank -wallow.-, with a
few purple martins. They did not touch the beetles, but caught caddis-
flies, which were numerous over the patch.
The caddis-fly, very abundant and regarded by birds as a choice mor-
sel, may. like the May-fly, distract their attention from other insects.
It usually appears about the last of May or the first of .June, and it i-
greedily eaten by many specie-, especially by arboreal and aerial
feeders It is a harmless insect, whose larvae Lead an aquatic exist-
ence. It, too. like the May-fly. would be excessively abundant only
near large rivers or lake-.
String beans. — At a time when potatoes were suffering in the
kitchen garden (May 28-30, L896),a dozen row- of string beans beside
i them were ravaged by thousands of bean flea-beetles ( Cerotoma tri-
f>ir< birds, principally kingbirds, wrens, and chipping sparrows
were collected. None of them had molested it. On the Bryan farm.
in lot 3, it was so abundant that it killed every plant in a patch of sev-
eral acres. The lot was watched for an hour or two for three days, but
no birds were seen coming to the relief of the dying plants. On the
Hungerford farm. '2± birds, largely wrens, barn swallows, and cat-
birds, were collected near infested plots, and one bird, a catbird, was
found to have eaten a tortoise beetle. This fact appears to show that
the insect is not unpalatable to catbirds, which might therefore have
given some help to the potatoes if cherries had not been so plentiful.
Cabbages. — Three pests attacked cabbages — the wavy-striped flea-
beetle, the common cabbage worm, and the harlequin cabbage bug.
During the middle of June. 1899, the beetle was found in numbers
varying from a dozen to a score on each plant of a cabbage patch on
the Hungerford place, near the dell where the crow blackbirds breed.
No birds were observed among the cabbages. Ten catbirds were col-
lected in the dell, but they had fed mostly on May-flies. If these
tempting insects had not been present, and if birds had come into
the patch, doubtless they would have eaten the beetle, for it is closely
allied to other forms on the farm that are eaten with avidity. The
cabbage worm (Pieris rapas) did considerable damage during .June
and July of 1896 and 1899 in the Bryan kitchen garden. From six
to a dozen worms could be found on every cabbage. A few stomachs
of catbirds, chipping sparrows, and other species numerous around
the garden were collected, but none contained the worms. The patch
was carefully watched for five days. Song sparrows, catbirds, and
chipping sparrows frequently hopped among the cabbages, but were
not seen to eat the worms. This was surprising in the case of the
chipping sparrow, for it is known to hop up into cabbage plants and
extract the larva'. In one instance the kingbird fed on the butterfly
of the cabbage worm.. The harlequin cabbage bug occurred only once
in injurious numbers, and then on the Marshall farm. From 20 to 50
bugs could be counted on each plant. Several field sparrows and grass-
hopper sparrows, the only species near the patch, were collected, but
had not taken the bugs. Other observations have shown that birds do
not like these insect^ and consequently can not be depended on to
destroy them.
Lima beans. During the last week of June, L899, the L2-spotted
cucumber beetle (Diabrotica W.-jpuvnctata) was very abundant on lima
beans, though not injuring them seriously. Twenty birds were col-
lected close by, half of them chipping sparrows and the others king-
birds, house wrens, and goldfinches. None had eaten the beetles.
The bobwhite and the white-eyed vireo, which feed on them, were not
at hand.
rirsEOT food. Vi
i'eas. — Next to the beans was a patch of peas bo ravaged by tin- pea
plant-louse that the crop was a total loss. Only one of the 20 birds
had eaten it a chipping sparrow. It was somewhat surprising to find
even one, for the various species of plant-lice arc seldom utilized by
birds for food, but later it was learned that the chipping sparrow had
elsewhere been found preying on the pea plant-louse. This insect has
only recently become known to science. It suddenly made it- appear-
ance alone- the Atlantic coast and occasioned a loss of $3,000,000 in
the first season. a
Melons. —Melons at times suffered badly from insects. In lot 4, not
far from the woods, a patch of watermelons in the critical stage of
growth, when the first leaf had appeared between the thick, nutritious
cotyledons, was ravaged by three species ^f leaf-beetles Diabrotica
J 2-punctata, J), vittata, and Systena dongata* There were from sis
to a dozen he. -tic- on each plant, and they ate so many of tin' cotyle-
don- that practically the whole piece had to he replanted. When they
were most abundant the patch was watched for several hours on June
15, L899, and again on June 16, but no birds came to its aid. Birds
are known to eat these three insects at time-, but the remoteness of
the melon field from water courses, hedgerows, and other cover
attractive to the most abundant species may explain their failure to do
so in this case. At the same date (June 15, L899) Diabrotica vittata
was found on canteloupes in blossom on the Hungerford farm, but
although there were from L2to20 insect- on each plant, they appeared
to be doing little harm. The patch was observed for an hour in the
late afternoon, and three field sparrow-, the only birds near it. were
: collected, but none of these insects were found in their stomachs.
Tobacco. — During the last of August and first of September. I
tobacco was grown on the Bryan farm in lot 2 near the negro cabin
i (PI. VIII. fig. 1). and also on the other two farm-. The entire crop was
■'■nn after Howard; loaned by Division of EntomoL
damaged by worm- (fig. •;> to the extent of 50 percent o\' it- value,
in spite of the fact that men. women, and children turned out to pick
worms every day for two week-. When the pests were most abund-
ant (August 28 31) an effort was made to Learn whether birds were
joining in the war against them. Field sparrows and chipping spar-
rows spent considerable time hopping among the plants, a song sparrow
" Circular 4.". 2d. series), Div. Entomology, Dept Agr., p. 3, L901,
28 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
and several wrens went into the field often, and two Maryland yellow-
throats scurried among the leaves. Forty birds were killed in the
vicinity of tobacco fields. They comprised, for the most part, the
several species of native sparrows that breed on the farm, including
also a few wrens, meadowlarks, flycatchers, and others. Not one of
the4<> had fed on tobacco worms, although observations on the farm
at other time- had shown that birds eat them as well as other sphinx
caterpillars. Bobwhites and vireos take them, hut were not repre-
sented in the collection. The chipping sparrow had eaten them at
other times, the English sparrow had been seen picking them from
the plants, and the crow is known to be an habitual 'wormer.' In
dune. L900, an old crow and rive young stayed near tobacco in lot 1
for ten days. In the early morning and late afternoon the youngsters
would sit clamoring on the fence, while the mother bird brought them
worms from the field.
By way of summary it may be stated that while the observations
made to determine whether or not the birds of the farm were protect-
ing field crops from insects yielded in the main negative results, they
do not lead to the conclusion that birds are of no service. They do
indicate, however, that birds are not to be depended on to check
uprisings of insect pests, and that insecticides should be used freely
and repeatedly. In case of this farm it is probable that the super-
abundance of May-Hies and caddis-flies diverted the birds' attention
from pests to the hordes of harmless insects. The pea plant-louse
is a new species, unfamiliar to birds, which, however, seldom eat
plant-lice. The potato beetle, though unpalatable and avoided by
many birds, is eaten with relish by the bobwhite. Had an especial
effort been made to collect this bird in infested fields, it would probably
have been found to be doing much to reduce the numbers of the pest.
Tobacco worms have also been attacked by the bobwhite as well as by
the crow, English sparrow, and chipping sparrow; and it is likely that
when these worms are small many species of birds feed on them.
INFESTED TREES AND SHRUBS.
Fall webworm. — The next group of observations concerns insects
that attack trees and shrubs. The fall webworm occurred regularly
at Marshall Hall. It was most often found on willow, black walnut,
mulberry, apple, and pear trees. At a time when it was not especially
abundant ♦'»-! birds, largely catbirds, sparrows, orioles, w r arblers, and
flycatchers, were collected. One of the orioles, a male Baltimore, had
eaten webworms. During the middle of June, 1899, webworms defoli-
ated parts of apple and pear trees. A number of stomachs were col-
lected and the trees were closely watched, but nothing gave evidence
that the pesl was being destroyed. During the last of August,
L896, it was 80 abundant that it defoliated all the willows of the hog-
lot gully and fairly festooned the branches with webs. The trees were
[N8ECT FOOD. 2v
watched for three hours, August 23. Catbirds and rireos, though
numerous, did not molest the larvae, but a pair of yellow-billed cuckoos
continually extracted them from the webs. The destruction of this
insect is an habitual practice with the cuckoo. In a single stomach of
the species examined by Professor Beal there were 325 of the larvae.
Saw-flies. In August, l s '.*»'». also, the willow saw-fly (Pteronus)
was defoliating the willow- farther up the gully. No birds were
observed preying on it. though the cuckoo Is known to relish saw-fly
lar\;e. sixty of which were found in a cuckoo's stomach examined by
Professor Heal. The cornel bushes of the same gully were almost
every year stripped by the larvae of another saw-fly (Hd/rpiphorus
varianus). On July 30, L895, they eovered every large bush, and
later they devoured all the foliage. A dozen catbirds and several
birds of other species were constantly near the bushes, hut evidently
did not touch the insects. A repetition of these circumstances was
noted August '2. 1896. An interesting outbreak of the pine saw-fly
(Lophyrus) occurred May 17. 1900, in which hardly a dozen pine
trees in the woods adjoining lot 1 escaped attack. In the area- of
woodland where the insects had finished their work the trees cast ao
shade and appeared to be dead. In places where the larva' were
feeding their dropping excreta made a continuous patter like that of
falling rain. From the infested district 34 birds were collected, com-
prising the following species: Great crested flycatcher, wood pewee.
blue jay, crow, scarlet tanager, red-eyed vireo. white-eyed vireo,
magnolia warbler, black-poll warbler, oven-bird. chat. Canadian war
bier, redstart, gray-cheeked thrush, and olive-backed thrush. Seven
birds, including the black-poll warbler, the red-eyed vireo. and the
gray-cheeked thrush, had eaten the insect. Since it has not yet been
found practicable to protect forest trees by means of insecticides, such
services as birds render among these pests ought to be appreciated.
Plant-lice. — The fact that plant-lice are not selected by birds has
been mentioned in the notes on the pea plant-louse. It was illus-
trated in the case of a Large plant-louse (Lachnus) that was noticed
on an old willow in the hog-lot gully August 23, 1896. The tree
was infested by so many of the insects that it- limbs were more
or less covered with the honeydew that exuded from their honey
tube-, but none of the numerous birds <>f the neighborhood manifested
the slightest interest in the matter.
Locust Leaf-mining Beetle. -In the summer of L 895 a destructive out-
break of the Locust leaf-mining beetles (Odontota dorsal is) turned all
the locusts of the farm as brown as if they had been scorched by tire,
ruining the verdure of the river bluff. ()n July .' , »". L895, when adult
beetles were swarming on the Locusts of the hog-lot gully, catbirds
were observed to be spending a good deal of time amid the browned
foliage. Thirteen were collected and nine were found to have eaten
80
BIRIK OF A MARYLAND FARM.
the destructive beetles. One bird contained no fewer than is. From
1896 to L902, inclusive, the be< itles did not again ruin the foliage, though
they wore present every year, and at times in early summer were so
numerous that a scourge was feared. In 1896 the trees farther up the
river, however, were turned brown, showing that the escape of those
at Marshall Hall was not due to climatic conditions unfavorable to the
insects; therefore it i- possible that the birds were, at least to some
extent, responsible for it. Forty-six birds from the following 21
species, taken during different years, had eaten the Locust leaf-mining
beetle:
I/ist ofhitds whose stomachs contained locust leaf-mininQ beetles.
Catbird.
Chipping sparrow,
Field Bparrow.
Bong Bparrow.
Towhee.
( Sardinal.
English sparrow.
Red-eyed vireo.
Warbling vireo.
Yellow warbler.
( hrchard oriole.
Baltimore oriole.
Scarlet tanager.
Kingbird.
Great crested flycatcher.
Wood pewee.
Phoebe.
Yellow-billed cuckoo.
Cedar bird.
Carolina wren.
Junco.
Moreover, when most of these birds were collected, the beetles were
not numerous. All the common species, especially the arboreal feed-
ers, ate them eagerly whenever they were to be had.
CERTAIN DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.
Flea-beetles. — Reference has already been made to the injury done
to melons by the flea-beetle (Sysh na doing ata). Its congener, the pale-
striped flea-beetle (Systena hlandar fig. 7) is also
abundant on the farm and one or the other has been
found harmful to corn, melons, and beans. Else-
where they have attacked fruit trees and tomatoes.
Fortunately, however, they appeared to form the
natural beetle food of several ground-feeding spe-
cies of birds and were sought for even when they
were very scarce. They were seen in the stomachs
of 28 birds, including the savanna, the grasshop-
per, the chipping, the song, the field, and the white-
throated sparrows, the crow, the crow blackbird,
the bobolink, the meadowlark, the house wren, and
the Maryland yellow-throat. Systena blanda was
found on ragweed in a held of ripe standing
wheat, dune 1»',. L898. Eleven chipping sparrows that had been flying
into the field wei'e shot. None had taken wheat and eight had fed on
the beetles, destroying in all 73. The smallest number found in a
single stomach was 5, the largest 11.
Fit.. 7.— Pale-striped flea-
beetle {Systena Wanda)
all «■ r »'h i 1 t c n d .■ li ;
loaned by Division of
Bntomolog
[NSECT Fool).
81
Rose-chafer. During the last week of May, L896, the rose-chafei
(tiu". 8) was present in such numbers that LOO Individuals were counted
on one rosebush and three times thai number on an adjacent blossom-
Fi<.. 8.— Rose-chafer i after Riley; loaned by the Division <>f EntomoL
ing elder. ( )f 62 birds collected during this outbreak, only 3 2 king-
birds and a cardinal-had destroyed rose-chafers. This result was not
expected, because May-flies and other tempting insects were not com-
5
f
s
/ J JO
Fig. 9.— Kingbird.
nion then, and because rose-chafers have no disagreeable secretions
like those of potato-beetles and the two diabroticas, but are relatives
of the May-beetle and the dung-beetles, which are highly relished by
32 BIRDS OF \ MARYLAND FARM.
many birds. The kingbirds (fig. 9) had, however, shown a great liking
for rose-chafers, as these two, the only ones collected, had eaten L5
and 20 of the insects respectively.
May-beetle.- —May-beetles attract only the larger species; their hard
shells offer too much resistance to small birds. During their season —
May and June— 292 bird stomachs were examined, but May-beetles
were found in only 16. These stomachs were from birds of the fol-
lowing ten species: Brown thrasher, orchard oriole, phcebe. catbird,
gray-cheeked thrush, blue jay. crow, crow blackbird, screech owl. and
broad-winged hawk. This record is far below a fair average, for at
the time it was made the beetles wore rare; moreover, the two famous
beetle-eaters, the crow and the crow blackbird, were represented only
by a single individual of each kind.
Cutworms. — Similarly unfavorable conditions attended the destruc-
tion of cutworms (fig. 1.1.). though these insects are obtainable for a
longer period and are edible for small as well as large birds. No seri-
ous outbreak of this pest occurred. Had there been one. birds would
have been found combating it, for all species that are in the slightest
degree insectivorous and feed at all on the ground show a marked
liking for cutworm-.
Grasshoppers. — Grasshoppers (tig. 10) when abundant are to the bird
what bread is to man. They were, however, comparatively rare at
Fig. 10.— Grasshopper (after Riley;
Loaned by Division of Entomology ,
Marshall Hall; therefore only 71 of the 645 native birds collected had
eaten them, though most of these had made them the major part of
their food. r l'he list of species eating them is as follows:
hist of birds examined whose slomacJis contained grasshopp* /■•-■.
Bobwhite. Orchard oriole. Cardinal
Kingbird. Crow blackbird. Maryland yellow-throat.
Great crested flycatcher. Savanna sparrow. Catbird.
Blue jay. Grasshopper sparrow. Carolina wren.
Common crow. Henslow sparrow. House wren.
Cowbird. Chipping sparrow. Brown creeper
Red-winged blackbird. Field sparrow. Robin.
Meadowlark. Song sparrow. Bluebird.
Ibid grasshoppers been abundant the birds would undoubtedly have
destroyed them in Large numbers. Their scarcity may possibly be
due to the abundance of birds at Marshall Hall.
Ants.- Whenever temperature allowed any insects to occur in appre-
ciable numbers, ant- were abundant, and at times they were the most
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.
Plate VII
Fig. 1.— Calamus Swamp, the Haunt of Several Marsh-
loving Birds.
Fig. 2.— Calamus Swamp in Winter, Showing Hill Tenanted
by Blue Jays, Great Horned Owls. Red-shouldered
Hawks, and Ruffed Grouse.
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S Dept of Agnculture.
Platc VIII.
Fig. 1 .—Tobacco Field of Lot 2, where the Effect
of Birds upon an Uprising of Tobacco Worms was
Studied.
B^
Fig. 2. -Sweet Potatoes and Pear Orchard, where
Various Investigations were Made.
[N8ECT POOD.
conspicuous of all forms of insect life. Of the 645 native birds collected,
147 had fed on them. Woodpecker-, flycatchers, night-hawks, swal-
lows, catbirds, and white-throated sparrows seemed to have the most
liking for them.
A Large anl very frequently eaten is a black species, Camponotus
permsyl/vanicus, which during the wanner half of the year La very
abundant on tree trunks. Ets habits expose it to attack by several
kind- of birds. The downy woodpecker was constantly making spirals
around the trunks of tree- at Mar-hall Hall in vigilant search for these
insects. The catbird was seen feeding on them as they journeyed on
the ground from tree to tree. These two birds probably destroy
more than any other species, though the sapsucker also appears to
relish them. The small species of ant- are eaten much oftener than
the larger one-, especially at their swarming time. For several days
during the middle of April, L899, great swarms of corn-louse ants
{Lasius) were taking their marriage flight, and of the 55 birds collected
then, mostly native sparrows, 23 had joined in the work of destroying
them. This was a valuable service, for destruction of the corn-louse
ant is the only effective mean- of combating the corn Louse, which
this ant protects and disseminates. Swallow-, also, often attack the
corn-louse ant. On Julv 8, 1898, six out of seven rough-winged
.-wallow- collected on the farm had ted on it and on little else, one bird
c( ntaining 40 ants and another ."><>. At the same time kingbirds, house
wrens, marsh wrens, yellow warblers, song sparrows, and chipping
Sparrows were making inroads on it. though it was much less numer-
ous than during April. 1899. In the late afternoon of July 1^. L898,
■lying ants of the species Myrmica scabrinodes, which, as Prof. S. A.
Forbes has shown, injure corn both when it is sprouting and when it
i- in milk and also foster the corn louse, were SO abundant over lots
1 and '2 that their gauzy wings in the level sun rays tilled the air with
shimmering rainbow colors. Bank swallows were circling among
&h em, close to the ground, making a hearty supper. By crouching
low one could see them catch the Insects, somet imc- within a few feet
of one's head. \Y hile the flock were feeding, four bird- were collected.
[they had consumed practically nothing but ant- and contained, all
together, just l'oo. At this rate, 250 swallows— a fair estimate of the
number present would consume in a -ingle afternoon L2,500 ant-.
Many other birds were feeding on them, including night-hawks, a
single one of which ha- been known to eat L000 at a meal. A house
wren, a yellow warbler, a chipping sparrow, and a phoebe, which were
collected earlier, had all taken them, but three swifts collected after
sunset had not.
On August 5, L898, Solenqpsts molesta, an ant injurious to corn and
al-o a household pest, was -warming, and a number of bird- were prey-
ing on it. In a newly mown timothy field near the cow barn a dozen
T'22l>— No. 17—02 3
84
BIBDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
chipping sparrows hopped about, springing a foot or two into the air
every few minutes to obtain a mouthful. Two strayed <>ti' by them-
selves and made good subjects for observation. In twenty minutes
they had eaten 21 ants. Song sparrows and English sparrows were
feeding in a similar manner. A kingbird now and then left his station
Oil an apple tree to snap up the prey, and bank swallows and barn swal-
lows skimmed over the fields, gathering in large numbers. Undoubt-
edly other specie- were also doing good service.
The total number of native species engaged in the destruction of
ants was 39 and included the following list:
List of birds examined n-hosc stomachs contained ants.
Spotted sandpiper.
I >owny woodpecker.
Flicker.
Kingbird.
Great crested flycatcher.
Phoebe.
Wood pewee.
Orchard oriole.
White-throated sparrow.
Chipping sparrow.
Field sparrow.
Junco.
Song sparrow.
T< >whee.
Chat.
Canadian warbler.
Mockingbird.
Catbird.
House wren.
Long-billed marsh wren.
Cardinal.
Barn swallow.
Bank swallow.
Rough-winged swall< >w.
Red-eyed vireo.
White-eyed vireo.
W< irm-eating warbler.
Yellow warbler.
Magnolia warbler.
Black-poll warbler.
Prairie warbler.
( ►ven-bird.
Water-thrush.
Maryland yellow-throat,
lb-own creeper.
Carolina chickadee.
Blue-gray gnatcatcher.
( rray-cheeked thrush.
Olive-backed thrush.
On August 3 there was a large flight of termites (Termes jlavipes)^
commonly known as white ants, pests that tunnel into woodwork.
At the lower end of lot 3 fully 200 swallows, mainly bank swallows.
with a few barn swallows and white-bellied swallows, were very busy
among them. Two birds of each of the first two species and three of
the third were found to have eaten together 320.
Weevils. — Sparrows, blackbirds, orioles, and meadowlarks appeared
to be the worst enemies of weevils. The orchard oriole had a useful
habit of feeding in plum orchards of the Hun-
gerford farm on the plum curculio, which usu-
ally ruins seven-eighths of the crop at Marshall
Hall. A score of bobolinks feeding (May 17 and
18, 1899) in a wheat field that was just coming
into milk were suspected of injuring the grain,
and six were shot. None of them had eaten
wheat, but all had fed chiefly on a very injurious
Weevil the imbricated suout-beetle (Epicd&TUS
imbricatvs), A dozen bobolinks were observed
(May ir>. L900) in plants of red clover securing
the clover-leaf weevil (Phyt;> n<< 1 b> i»i\ is-
lon of Entomology).
INSECT FOOD.
phorus parvult'js) also are often taken. bu< the small clover weevil
nes hispidulus) is destroyed mosl frequently of all. The spar-
rows and other terrestrial-feeding species and all the aerial feeders
consume this little pesl in great numbers. The rice weevil (Calandra
oryza) was found in the stomachs of two marsh wrens collected in
the wild rice of the swamp September 7. L896, and the injurious cab-
bage curculio (Ceutorhyrwhus rapx) had been eaten by three rough
winged swallows taken July 9, l s '.^. Among other weevils destr<
by .Mar-hall Hall birds may be mentioned Apion, Baris^ <
Macrop8, Tanymecus, and Tylodemia.
The weevil-eating birds numbered L66 of the 645 collected, and were
divided among the subjoined 44 species:
Ltd of bird* examined who* stomach* coi I
Downy woodpecker.
Chimney swift.
Great crested tlwatcher.
W«>od pewee.
Blue jay.
Common crow.
ink.
Co u bird.
Red-winged blackbird.
Meadowlark.
Orchard oriole.
sty blackbird.
Crow blackbird.
Savanna sparrow,
chopper sparrow.
I [enslow sparrow.
White-throated sparrow
Chipping sparrow.
Field sparrow.
Junco.
Song sparrow.
Towhee.
Cardinal.
Barn swallow.
White-bellied swallow.
Bank swallow.
Rough-winged swallow.
Red-eyed vireo.
Warbling vireo.
White-eyed vireo.
Yellow warbler.
Magnolia warbler.
Black-poll warbler.
Oven-bird.
Water-thrush.
Maryland yellow-throat.
Chat.
Catbird.
House wren.
Long-billed marsh wren.
Brown creeper.
Carolina chickadee.
O ray-cheeked thrush.
Robin.
It seems strange that so many birds should have oaten weevils, for
the insects were never sufficiently abundant to be conspicuous, seldom,
indeed, affording tin 1 collector a dozen specimens without diligent use
of the sweep net. Moreover, they harmonize so admirably with their
surroundings that birds do well to find them *t all. Many aerial
feeders, it is true, capture them on the wing, l>ut a large number of
pound-feeding species take them from the ground despite their pro-
tective coloration. The inference i- that birds find them dainty mor-
tals, which pay for close seeking. Such a relish i- not easily explained,
for weevil- appear scarcely more edible than little -tone-: but it is a
fortunate circumstance, for they arc dangerous pests, not easily con-
trolled by insecticides.
Oak scale. — An unexpected and somewhat suggestive habit dis-
covered at Mar-hall Hall was the feeding of certain species on scale
Insects. Of the 22 vireo- and arboreal warblers collected during the
bine saw-fly invasion previously referred to. 10 had preyed on an oak
scale (Kermes). This insect does not occur on fruit tree-, but it-
destruction suggested desirable possibilities in cases where seal
36 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
the orchard were present, notably in the case of the San Jose* scale,
which in many places has threatened to ruin certain horticultural
interests.
Unobtainable insects. There are several insects that would probably
l>e palatable to birds if their habits did not render them unobtainable.
During the summer of L898 a grain moth caused a loss of 50 percent
of the corn in the crib. The only birds that entered the building were
English sparrows, which prefer grain to insects, and therefore prob-
ably did not destroy the larvae. In 1900 tobacco was affected by a
stalk-borer, the larva of a crambid moth, and in 1898 corn suffered
severely from the corn stalk-borer (Diatrdea saccharalis), but the
seclusive habits of these two larvae prevented the possibility of their
destruction by birds. Certain kinds of flies, though palatable, are too
alert to be caught. This proved to be the case with house-flies, stable-
flies, bluebottle blow-flies, and horse-flies, particularly the banded-
winged form (Chrysqps). The last-mentioned flies were so numerous
that they greatly annoyed both man and beast! The kingbird, the
barn swallow, and the bank swallow frequently caught them, and in
single instances Acadian flycatchers, catbirds, song sparrows, and
chipping sparrows had eaten them.
USEFUL INSECTS.
In addition to injurious and neutral insects, certain species that art'
useful to man contribute to the food of birds. They consist for the
most part of various kinds of bees, and numerous species of wasps and
beetles that prey on insect pests.
Honey bee. — Birds are often accused of eating honey bees. The
kingbird is most frequently mentioned in this complaint, and his nick-
name of ' bee bird' or 'bee martin' attests the common belief about
him. It is true that he is often guilty of the charge, but as he selects
the worthless drones and does not molest the workers, his habit is
not injurious to bee keepers. During 1 Si»r> and 1896 two hives of
bees within 30 feet of two kingbirds' nests were not meddled with
at all.
A good deal has been written about the destruction by birds of use
fill predaceous and parasitic insects that serve to keep insect pests in
check, and the assertion has been made that even though birds U'Vil on
pests, they destroy so many of these useful species that they over-
balance by this injury the good which they accomplish. Special
attention was given to this subject. Whenever any useful insect
was abundant at Marshall Hall the relation of the birds to it was
particularly noted.
Soldier-beetles. — With the exception of rose-chafers the useful soldier-
beetle {ChavMogna/thua pennsylvanicvs) was the most conspicuous
-
[NSECT Fool). 87
species present May 28 30, L896, after May-Hie- had become compara-
tively scarce. The soldier-beetles were in the grass, <>n blossoms, on
the foliage of bushes and tree-, and in the air. yet of the 62 birds
collected, representing L9 species, only 3, namely. 2 wood pewees and
B phcebe, had eaten (hem. At other times (June, L898 and L899), when
the beetles were abundant, more than a hundred birds, including nearly
all the common species On the farm, were collected, and only a chat. 2
catbirds, and 2 kingbirds (June. L898) had eaten them. Experiments
with several kinds of caged birds have shown that the species is dis-
tasteful, probably on account of its pungent and disagreeable flavor.
Fireflies. — Another useful predaceous beetle of the same family.
having a similarly repulsive taste, is a firefly, Pkotinus. In .June it
sometimes, even during daylight, outnumbered the soldier-beetle, but
it was never found in stomachs of Marshall Hall birds.
Tiger-beetles. — The useful tiger-beetle, a ferocious predatory insect,
represented at Marshall Hall by several species, was never so numer-
ous as the soldier-beetle or the firefly, but was often seen by the dozen,
especially about the middle of April, in the sandy road alone- the bluff.
It has no unpleasant flavor and must rely on its alertness to save it
from enemies. When danger threatens, it springs into the air and
flies swiftly away. Only the quickest birds have any chance of catch-
ing it. A few birds, mainly swallows and flycatchers, secure it occa-
sionally. Of the 645 birds examined only a phcebe, a kingbird, a
great crested tlycatcher, and a crow blackbird had eaten it.
Ground-beetles. — With ground-beetles (Carabidae, tig. 12), which as a
class are regarded as predatory, the case was differ-
ent. Most birds eat them, some species largely.
Ground-beetles are numerous in spring, then be-
come less conspicuous, but appear later in large
numbers. Their period of greatest abundance in
the five years was April in 1 L L899, when, with
the exception of ants, they were the most noticeable
insects on the farm. The smaller kinds (Anisodac-
tylus agricola,) A. rnst',<-ns^ Camonia, Amara^ and a *
small Hdrpalvs) predominated. Most of the birds Sfter~aner loaned
collected then were sparrows, which had eaten very by Division oi Ento-
few of the beetle-. At the same time the larva' of
a large ground-beetle (Harpalus caliginosus) were fairly abundant,
and 4 of the 8 robins collected had destroyed them. During mid-
summer (especially L898 and L899) the large Carabidae (Harpalw
valigin08US and //. permsylvanicus) fairly swarmed after dark and were
attracted to lights "m hosts. They were seldom seen during the day.
but crows, blackbirds, catbirds, meadowlarks, and others frequently
extracted them from their hiding places. Three meadowlarks (August
38
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
29, 1898) had made the bulk of their food of them. The genus is
not exclusively carnivorous, for it lias boon known to feed on seeds
of grasses and weeds, and recently (1900) has been discovered eating
strawberry seeds to a harmful extent. One grower at Leechburg,
Pa., lost on a quarter-acre patch $350 in three nights through their
depredations. The nature 1 of the injury has so far made remedial
methods impracticable; consequently the predatory habit of birds is
valuable in this case.
There is an increasing tendency to doubt the utility of ground-
beetles as a class. A European species (Zdbrus gibbus) is a notorious
grain pest, and an American species (Agonoderus paUipes) has recently
been ascertained to feed sometimes on newly planted corn. Professor
Forbes lias shown that the food habits of ground-beetles vary with
the structure of their jaws, species with sharp-curved jaws being
carnivorous, while those with blunt jaws are decidedly vegetarian.
Only a few — probably less than half a dozen— of the Marshall Hall
birds examined had destroyed the more carnivorous species. It is
probable, therefore, that birds do no appreciable harm in their rela-
tion to ground-beetles, but may even do some good by reducing the
numbers of such species as have vegetarian habits and occasionally
become pests. The following is a list of the different ground-beetles
found in the stomachs collected: Amara, Anisodactylus agricola, A.
rusticus, Bembidium, Cratacanthus dubius, Chldenius aestivus, IIdl \u8. These had been eaten by 8'2 birds of the following 35 different
species :
List of birds examined whose stomachs contained ground-beetles.
Woodcock.
Spotted sandpiper.
Bobwhite.
Downy woodpecker.
nicker.
Kin- bird.
( rreat crested flycatcher.
Phoebe.
Blue jay.
Crow.
Red-winged blackbird.
Meadowlark.
Rusty blackbird.
('row blackbird.
Savanna sparrow.
Grasshopper sparrow.
Henslow sparrow.
White-throated sparrow
( 'hipping sparrow.
Junco.
Son<; sparrow.
Towhee.
( lardinal.
Water-thrush.
Louisiana water-thrush.
Maryland yellow-throat.
Chat.
Mockingbird.
Catbird.
Brown thrasher.
House wren.
Gray-cheeked thrush.
Olive-backed thrush.
Robin.
Bluebird.
Ladybirds. 'Hie most useful of all beetles are the members of the
family Coccinellidae, commonly known as ladybirds, which with their
larvae are voracious feeders on Insect pests. Only three of the Mar-
shall Hall birds a long-billed marsh wren, a song sparrow, and an
English sparrow were found to have destroyed these valuable insects.
"iiull. Cornell Univ. Agric. Kxpt. Sta., p. 150, 1901.
INSECT Fool). 89
The particular species eaten was in each case Hippodamia maculata.
It was not noticeably abundant at the lime it was taken, but during
August, L896, it was the most conspicuous insect on the farm. Then,
however, it was not molested. Ladybirds of another species (Cocci-
nella 9-notata) were very numerous when the pea plant-louse was mak-
ing havoc, ami appeared on every pea vine greedily devouring the
plant-lice. It was, fortunately, quite free from attack by birds.
Indeed, ladybirds appear to be distasteful to birds. I have offered
them to a dozen different caged birds, and they have always been
refused.
Flies.— Beneficial diptera, such as the predatory robber-flies and tin-
parasitic tachinid and syrphid flies, are too alert to be caught by any
birds except flycatchers and swallows, and even these secure them
rarely. During dune and duly, when robber-flies were plentiful,
birds wen 1 not found disturbing them. Syrphid flies were so numer-
ous during the last of August, L899, that several would alight on my
camera whenever it was set down, but a score of birds collected then
had not made use of them as food.
Bees" and wasps. — The most abundant and conspicuous of the useful
insects are bees and the flower-fertilizing species of wasps. Of the
645 native birds collected only 31, representing 20 species, had eaten
bees. It is interesting to note that the offenders were largely either
warblers or aerial feeders. The list is appended:
List of birds examined whose stomachs contained bees and wasps.
(Chimney swift. Song sparrow. Yellow warbler.
I Ruby-throated humming- Scarlet tanager. Black-] >< >1 1 warbler.
bird. Purple martin. Water-thrush.
'Kingbird. White-bellied swallow. Maryland yellow-throat.
Rusty blackbird. Bank swallow. Canadian warbler.
Henslow sparrow. Rough-winged swallow. Catbird.
[Chipping sparrow. Red-eyed vireo. Carolina chickadee.
Practically all the bees eaten were small species of the family
Andrenidae, mainly Andfrena and Halictus; the larger species are
Seldom taken. During May. L900, bumblebees and carpenter bees con-
gregated in such numbers around locust trees white with grape-like
clusters that from sunrise to sunset a deep, continued hum arose as
from a hive: and when fruit trees were in blossom bees swarmed about
them also: but in both cases observation failed to discover any con-
sumption of the insects by birds. Blossoming persimmon trees alive
'with bees were watched for several hours, but only one bird, a hum-
mingbird, visited them.
No arculate wasps, except certain species of the family Scoliidee,
become food for birds: Indeed, less than half a do/en of all the birds
o Exclusive of the honey bee, which is considered separately (seep. ot>).
40
BIRDS OF \ MAKYLAM) FARM.
collected had taken these apecies. Others, such as Vespa, Poltstes,
Pompiliis, PelqpcBU8) Mondbia z and AmniophUa^ were collectively
abundant on frequent occasions, but so far as observation went no
birds preyed on them.
That birds feed extensively on parasitic wasps is indisputable: but
the harm thus done is less than might be supposed, for the usefulness
of such wasps is in inverse ratio to their size, and birds seldom select
the smallest forms, such as Braconidse and Chalcididse. Ninety-seven
of the Mar-hall Hall birds, represent inn' the following 36 species, had
eaten parasitic I Iymenoptera.
List of birds examined whose stomachs contained parasitic wasps.
Bobwhite
I k)wny woodpecker
Chimney swift.
Kingbird.
( rreat created flycatcher
Phoebe,
Wood pewee.
Blue jay.
Bobolink.
Red-winged blackbird.
Meadowlark.
( Orchard oriole.
Baltimore oriole.
( rrasshopper Bparrow.
( 'hipping Bparrow.
Field sparrow.
Song sparrow.
Scarlet tanager.
Summer tanager.
Purple martin.
Barn swallow.
White-bellied swallow,
Bank swallow.
Red-eved vireo.
Warbling vireo.
White-eyed vireo.
Yellow warbler.
Magnolia warbler.
black-poll warbler.
Louisiana water-thrush.
Maryland yellow-throat
Chat.
Redstart.
Catbird.
Long-billed marsh wren.
< Hive-backed thrush.
In this mischief the flycatchers are oy all means the greatest
offenders, the .swallows next. and. less generally but still noticeably,
the warblers next. Of all the flycatchers the wood pewee appeared
to be the most active and per-
sistent in tins destruction.
Parasitic wasps are not usu-
ally so alert and swift as
many other insects: there-
fore they are easy victims.
Most of the class are ichneu-
mon flies (Ichneumonidae
fig*. 13). Somewhat more
than a tit'tb of tbe birds that
had taken parasitic wasps.
however, bad fed on a cer-
tain black wasp. Tvphia inor-
nata, which . is a vigorous
enemy of the larva of the
May-beetle. These wasps
that it is not unnatural that a
■Ichneumon By (after Bo ward; loaned by
Division "f Bntomolog
are so common in May and June
good many should fall prey to birds. The only other noticeably
abundant parasitic Hymenoptera were some very large bracomds
[X8ECT FOOD. 41
(Mi lanobrctcori), of which at any time during the first pari of September,
. a dozen could have been collected within a few minutes. Field
Bparrows and probably other birds consumed them freely, though as
a rule parasitic Hymenoptera arc eaten only in small numbers.
Many of these useful species appear too late in the season to be of
much effect. An attempt was made to measure the evil effects of their
destruction by observing how far they were parasitizing abundant
insect pests, but conditions were unfavorable and adequate results
were not obtained. The white grub of the May-beetle was not present
in numbers sufficient to furnish evidence. Hie tobacco worm was par-
asitized by braconids t<> some extent, hut even at the time of greatest
activity (August, L898) only one-tenth of L percent of the worm- were
attacked. The question, then, of the degree to which bird- offend by
preying on these Hymenoptera remains, so far as Marshall Hall is
concerned, a doubtful one. especially since most of the species
destroyed are not known to be effective parasites.
SUMMARY.
Considering the insect food of the 645 native birds collectively, we
find that the birds were most insectivorous in May. when somewhat
more than 90 percent of their food was insects, and that naturally they
took the fewest insects in the coldest weather. During the blizzard of
February. L900, however, insects constituted 12 percent of the diet
of the 37 birds collected. Throughout the entire time of observation
insects and their allies, including a small percentage of spiders and
other invertebrate-, amounted to 60.41 percent of the total volume of
food. They are distributed as follow-:
Proportion of insects F A MARYLAND FARM.
Fig. 14. — Cutworm and moth (after Howard:
loaned by Division of Entomology).
included leaf-hoppers, scale insects, and an occasional plant-louse and
giant water-bug. Of the Hymenoptera the insignificant proportion of
L.89 percent consisted of parasitic wasps, while the remainder was
almost entirely ants. The Lepidoptera were very nearly all caterpil-
lars, though moths were occasionally eaten. The caterpillars com-
prised the smooth forms, oftenest cutworms (fig. 14) and others
of the family Noctuidse, together with some Greometridse and occa-
sionally an arctiid or a sphingid.
The grasshoppers were 1 long-
horned grasshoppers (Locustidse)
and short-horned grasshoppers
(Acrididse), the latter consisting of
such forms a^ Hippiscm, Mdano-
j>!,is atlanis, Melanoplus femur-
rubrum, and Dissostetra Carolina,
the former largely of such meadow
grasshoppers as Xiphidium and
Scudderia, with an occasional
katydid. Beetles formed twice a^
large an element of food as any
other order of insects. Ground-
beetles (Carabidae), generally considered useful, formed 2.10 percent of
the food; injurious species, largely weevils (Rhynchophora) and leaf-
beetles (Chrysomelidse), and, to a smaller extent, lamellicorn and longi-
corn beetles, leaf-chafers, click-beetles, and metallic wood-borers
(Buprestidse), amounted to 13.25 percent; while miscellaneous beetles,
largely dung-beetles of the genera Aphodius (tig. 15), Atmnius, and
Onthophagus, and beetles of a number
of other families, such as the Anthicida\
Bruchidee, Byrrhid«, Sisteridee, Staphy-
linidie. and Tenebrionidse, completed the
remaining 3.27 percent of the beetle food.
The spiders were largely the ground-
spiders of the family Lycosid®. Spiders
are said to do about as much good as
harm, and are usually regarded as of no
economic importance.
Beneficial insects (predaceous beetles
and' parasitic wasps) formed 3.97 per-
cent of the food, while injurious insects, principally caterpillars,
grasshoppers, and harmful beetles, amounted to 26.80 percent. It
will be remembered, however, that what has already been said about
the dot ruction of useful species shows that but a small fraction of the
percentage of these insects should really be counted against the birds.
Fio. L5.— Dung-beetle (Aphodius) (after
Prof. s. a. Forbes).
FOOD OF NE8TLINGS, }:;
FOOD OF NESTLINGS.
The largest consumption of insects is to be credited, not to adult
birds, but to young ones in the nest. All land birds at Marshall Hall
except birds of prey and doves, whatever be their own diet, feed
their young chiefly on insects from the time they are hatched until
they Leave the nest. Many species rear every season two or three
broods of from 3 to 5 each, and so voracious are these wide-mouthed
youngsters that the parents can supply their wants only by unremit-
ting efforts. Meals often begin before sunrise and continue till after
sunset, frequently occurring every two minutes. At first nestlings
take considerably more than their own weight of food in a day. and
they increase in weight daily from 20 to 50 percent. The number of
insects required to supply a season's host of nestlings must he almost
incalculable.
Work of other investigators. — One can best study the food of young
birds by field observations. Such studies have been pursued by Mr-.
Wheelock.'' Dr. Francis II. Herrick, 6 and Prof. Clarence M. Weed.'
Professor Weed's bulletin on the feeding habits of nestling chipping
sparrows has already been cited at length in Bulletin L5 of the
Biological Survev. Dr. Herrick found vouni»- cedar birds tVd bv
their parents on grasshoppers, cicadas, chokecherries, raspberries,
and blueberries. A brood of red-eyed vireos were given blackberries,
red raspberries, bugs, beetles. Iar\;e. katydid-, and grasshoppers.
Nestling catbirds were nourished with red cherries, strawberries,
larva 1 , moth millers, beetles, and dragon-flies (j&schna heros&nd L'r. I [errick's by
cutting the nests down and placing them in a favorable situation for
observation. Both of these method- have been employed at Marshal]
Hall. The choice of glasses is important. Mrs. Wheelockused binoc-
ulars in studying her subject-. These were used at Marshall Hall
with the best success in the case of very active shy birds or those in
shadow. A Zeis- monocular L2-power was tried, but was found to
be useless unless there was an abundance o\' strong sunlight, and
a Nestlings of Forest and Marsh, I
&Home Life of Wild Birds, L901.
< T.ull. 55, N. II. A.gr. Expt Sta.,
44 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
under any circumstances not so desirable as had been anticipated. A
2-inch telescope with a single draw tube proved much more service-
able. Working with it. however, is very slow and arduous on account
of its limited Held and the difficulty of changing the focus quickly.
Grasshopper Sparrow. — The difficulties encountered in the use of the
telescope in held work may he well shown by a somewhat detailed
account of its use in the following instance: On duly ( .>. 1898, a
grasshopper sparrow's nest containing four naked young birds was
found in a bunch of rabbit-foot clover in a timothy field of lot 1,
several rods from the cow barn. The male parent was poised on a
weed stalk at no great distance, rattling out his dry ditty, never once
stopping to help the mother bird, which was making frequent jour-
neys for food. The latter, on seeing me, perched on a dead mullein
stalk 20 to 30 feet away, instead of carrying to her little ones the
mouthful she held. The telescope was immediately focused. It
enlarged the mother bird so much that she appeared to be peering in
at the end of the instrument. The object in her bill was seen to be of
a delicate green color, but before further observation could be made
she flew to the top of a blackberry bush'. Here, by fragmentary
glimpses, during which it was necessaiy to change the focus several
times, a narrow wing cover and a long, slim leg were discerned, which
showed that the insect belonged to the order Orthoptera (grasshop-
pers, crickets, etc.). The bird next returned to her perch on the mul-
lein stalk, where she remained long enough to enable the telescope to
reveal, projecting from the beak on tin 4 side opposite the leg and wing,
two filiform antennas which exceeded the body in length and furnished
the necessary clew to the insect's identity as a meadow grasshopper.
Further observations were made, with the same interruptions and
demands upon the patience. In the next two trips sin 1 brought the
same insects. She next came with a cutworm, then with a chrysalis,
and later with two short-horned grasshoppers {Melanoplus and I)iss<>-
teira). The meager riess of these results, considering the time required
for obtaining the information, was due to the restless uneasiness of
the grasshopper sparrow and the location of the nest in an open Geld
where no cover for the observer was available to reduce the bird's
apprehension. Observation of a house wren (see p. 45) was conducted
under more 1 , favorable conditions and was much more satisfactory. No
nestling grasshopper sparrows were collected at Marshall Hall, but 14
from other localities have been examined, and diagrams that were made
of their food and of that of 10 adults taken at the same time show the
great importance of insects in the food of nestlings."
Orchard Oriole. —A few observations were made of a brood of w r ell-
feathered orchard orioles in a black-walnut tree near the negro cabin.
a These diagrams were published in an article entitled The Food of Nestling Birds,
which appeared in the Yearbook <>f the Dept. <»i Agriculture for 1900.
Food OF NESTLINGS.
L5
July L8, L898. The male parent, a bird in greenish plumage, did not
help to provide for the young, but appeared to think that his sole duty
consisted in coming t<> the tree occasionally and singing. The mother
worked incessantly. It was difficult to identify whal she brought,
because she was so shy and remained at the oesl so brief a timi I
had to stand close to the tree and focus the glass <>n her when Bhe was
nervously hopping from branch t<> branch. Working under these
difficulties I was able to identify but 2 caterpillars, 3 May-flies, -i short-
horned grasshoppers, and 3 meadow grasshoppers.
House Wren. —The mosl satisfactory and continued observations were
made June 17. L899, of some young house wrens that were about
three-fourths grown. In this case it was found desirable to remove
the not. which was in a cavity in a Locust tree, transfer it to a baking-
powder can. and nail the can to the trunk of the tree about 4 feet
from the ground. The following i- a detailed account of the feeding:
Feeding of t a i>r<«>* taraf).
Cutworm (?).
Cutworm.
Caterpillar Acronycta oblinita).
Browu soldier bug.
Green caterpillar i noctuid ).
White grub.
( 'lay-colored grasshopper.
< rrasshopper.
Undetermined insect.
(Tw<> cabbage worms placed on
6 ige ol tin can. 1 )
Acronycta oblinita.
II, liothis dipsaci ■ - , Refuse I
bage worm. )
May-fly.
46
HIKI
►8 OF
A MARYLAND FARM.
/•'. , ding
of a brood of housi wrens — Continued.
A. M.
9.46.
( rrasshopper.
A.M.
11.02.
May-fly.
9.46.
Cutworm,
11.023
May-fly.
9.50.
< rrasshopper | Melanoplus).
11.15.
Green caterpillar.
9.52.
Saw-fly larva (?).
11.20.
Miller (noctuid).
9.54.
Miller (noctuid).
11.2L
I .lack chrysalis.
9.55.
II, liothis dipsaa us.
L1.22.
Saw-fly larva (?).
9.57.
Heliothis dipsaa us.
11.25.
Spider.
10.00.
Spider.
11.26.
( rrasshopper ( Mi lanoplus).
10.01.
Heliothis dipsaa us.
11.30.
Heliothis dipsaa us.
10.05.
Black chrysalis.
11.30*.
May-fly.
10.08.
Cutworm.
11.32.
Spider.
10.15..
Spider.
11.34.
( hrasshopper (Melanoplus).
10.16.
Caterpillar.
11.34.].
Saw-fly larva (?).
10.20.
May-fly.
11.36.
. [cronycta oblinita.
10.23.
Spider.
11.39*.
May-fly.
10.26.
Clay-colored grasshopper.
11.47.
Cutworm.
10.29.
Clay-colored grasshopper nymph.
11.48.
May-fly.
10.30.
Acronycta oblinita.
11.50.
Cutworm.
10.35.
Green caterpillar.
11.51.
Heliothis dipsaa us (2).
10.38.
J Tel "i 'otitis dipsaceus.
11.59.
Heliothis dipsaceus.
10.41.
IT Hot his dipsaa us.
P. M.
10.46.
Clay-colored grass] i
opper.
12.02.
Heliothis dipsaceus.
10.48.
Spider.
12.06.
Spider.
L0.50.
Miller (noctuid).
12.07.
IT Hot his dipsaa us.
L0.52.
Clay-colored grassh<
)p])crnyni])h.
12.09.
( 'utworui.
10.54.
Miller (noctuid).
12.11.
Spider.
The mother wren thus made 110 visits to her tittle ones in four
hours and thirty-seven minutes, and fed them 11 1 insects and spiders.
Among these were identified 1 white grub, 1 soldier bug, 3 millers
(Noctuidae), U spiders. 9 grasshoppers, 15 May-flies, and 34 caterpil-
lars. On the following day similar observations were made from 9.35
a. m. till 12.40 p. m., and in the three hours and five minutes the young
were fed 67 times. Spiders were identified in 1 instances, grasshop-
pers in 5, May-flies in 17, and caterpillars in 20.
Previous to the observation of this brood of wrens a collection of
adult and nestling wrens was made. Their food is shown in diagrams
(PI. IX, %. 1).
Barn Swallow. — The food of seven nestling barn swallows (tig. L6)
collected June 17, 1891), consisted of beetles (Onthophagus pennsyl-
vcmlcus, Aphodvus inquinatvs, Agrilus sp., and Rhynchophora), para-
sitic wasps (Chalets sp., Ichneumonidee and Tiphia inomata) and Hies
(Leptidse, C/u\//.snj,.s sp., Lucilia <■;<*(//■ and other Muscidse), bugs
(Capsidee), May-flies, and snails. The vertebrae of some small fish,
which may have been taken to aid the gizzard in digesting the food.
were also found in the stomachs.
Bank Swallow. — An examination was made of the stomachs of 83
young bank swallows collected a few miles above Marshall Hall from
FOOD OF NESTLINGS.
17
a colony in the face of the river bluff. They were probably the prog-
eny of the -wallow- that frequently circled over the farm. The food
of* the nestlings and that of adults collected during the nesting season
i- shown in diagrams (PI. IX. fig. 2).
Purple martin-, which came from a colony of somewhat more than
a dozen pairs nesting in boxes on pole- at Bryan's Point, a mile above
the house, were often seen circling about the farm. On June 28, L902,
1 visited the colony and found the parent birds feeding the young -<>I-
dier bugs, ant-, fig-eaters (AllorJwna nitida), and dragon-flies (Zibellicla
and Agrionidse).
- — i
4»f
Pig. 16.— Barn swallow.
Three young downy woodpecker- which were collected May 28,
1896, had fed principally on ants, but had also eaten spider-, ground
beetles, and caterpillars.
Catbird. The difference between the food of adults and young
belonging to a highly frugivorous species is well illustrated in the
case of the catbird, and is shown in diagrams (PI. IX. fig. 3), which
were made principally from results obtained at Marshall Hall.
Crow and Crow Blackbird. Such granivorous birds as crow- and
crow blackbirds feed their young mainly insect-. Sufficient material
18
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
to illustrate this habit was not available at Marshall Hall, but the
diagrams here given (figs. 17 and L8), based on results obtained
elsewhere, will serve to show it. By the time the young are ready
to leave the nest, however, they are fed to a large extent on either
grain or fruit, according to locality. In tin 4 Middle West they take
grain and in the East generally fruit. Both crows and crow black-
7 DAYS OR LESS
1 TO 2 WEEKS OLD
17
3WEEKS AND OLDER ADULT
Pig. 17.— Diagram showing proportions of food of American crow ( Corvwamericamts), young and adult
birds do greal service by feeding to their young not only cutworms
and grasshoppers, bu< also large numbers of weevils and May-beetles.
GENERAL REMARKS.
Consumption of caterpillars and grasshoppers is the Largest benefit
derived from the presence of nestlings on the farm. The parent birds
a Most of the stomachs of young and adult crows used ixi the investigation on
which the results shown in the diagram arc based wen- obtained al Sandy Spring,
Mil.: and most of those of young and adul1 crow blackbirds came from Onaga, Kans.
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate IX.
NESTLING. Fig. 1.— House Wren. ADULT.
[1, Cutworm ; 2, spider • 3, stink-bug ; I. May-fly ; •">, weevil ; 6, grasshopper.]
NESTLING. Fig. 2.— Bank Swallow. ADULT.
[1, Weevil ; 2, ichneumon fly ; 3, winged ant ; 1, fly ; 5, dragon-fly : 6, stink-bug.
NESTLING. Fig. 3.— Catbird. ADULT.
[1, Qround-beetle ; 2, cutworm ; :;, ant ; i, grasshopper ; 5, spidi
Food of Nestlings and Adults of Three Common Birds.
[The diagrams -how the proportions ol the various orders of insect- in tlie food, eaeh order
bein^ represented by the insecl belonging to it that is most commonly eaten by the bird \\ hose
food is shown, in the case of the Hymenoptera a division i- sometimes made between the
parasitic members of the order, which are very useful, and those that are neutral or injurious.
The figures of insects are reduced from cuts kindly loaned by I»r. I., o. Howard, ij
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agiiculture.
Plate X.
""
F13. 1 .—Red-tailed Hawk.
-Short-eared Owl.
l-uui) OF NESTLINGS.
•!'.'
hunt out these insects when they are not abundant ana even when t In • \
uiv rare. At the time of the foregoing observations of orchard orioles,
house wrens, and grasshopper sparrows, caterpillars and grasshoppers
were comparatively scarce; yet the parent birds, though they chose
bisects for their own eating from more abundant species, hunted far
and wide for these ran 1 ones to feed their young. At Marshall Hall
NEWLY HATCHED
HALF GROWN
NEARLY FLEDGED
Pig. 18.— I>iiiuTaiti showing proportions i
ADULT
>f food of crow blackbird (QuUcalus quiscula smeus), jroun
and adult.
the protection and encouragement of birds at nesting time is of prime
importance. Adults of the most numerous species on the farm are
either highly frugivorous or highly granivorous, hence the insectiv-
orous habits of nestlings help considerably to establish the beneficent
relation of birds to the farm economy.
7222 - No. L7— 02 4
50 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
III.— VERTEBRATE FOOD.
POULTRY AND GAME.
Crows. — Certain species of the larger birds were found to take ver-
tebrate food. ( 'rows and sonic of the hawks and owls destroyed useful
small birds and also game and poultry. On the Hungerford farm
crows were observed killing newly-hatched turkeys, and on the Bryan
farm they were not uncommonly seen carrying off little chickens.
The most serious offense against the poultry interest, however, was
the habitual stealing of eggs. During April, 1900, a crow came every
day and robbed a hen's nest in the side of a hayrick at a little distance
from buildings. Often he would be seen waiting on a fence near bv
until the hen announced that the egg had been laid, when lie would
dash down and make off with his boot)-. Such depredations could be
avoided by furnishing the hens with such facilities that they would up
longer lay in exposed situations. As it is, incessant war upon the
crow is necessary to prevent heav} T loss to poultry on this farm. ( fame
birds also suffer. On May 15. 1900, a crow was caught on the forested
slope beyond tin 1 swamp (PL VII, tig. *2) in the act of pillaging the
nest of a ruffed grouse. Crows also despoiled the nest of a bobwhite,
a species which probably suffers oftener than the ruffed grouse.
Eagle. — The bald eagles that are frequently seen at Marshall Hall
do not disdain to pick up a little game now and then. Early in March.
1897, a crippled scaup duck was seen in the river a hundred yards
from the house chased by an eagle and diving every time its pursuer
swooped down on it. When the quarry was almost tired out the eagle
was -hot. and fell into the river with a broken wing, but it had suffi-
cient strength left to lacerate a pointer that attempted to retrieve it.
On November 15,1900, an eagle was seen flying over the house gripping
in its talons a live coot, which turned its head rapidly from side to side
in its struggles to escape. During the hunting season eagles get a
good part of their food by picking up wounded ducks. They also
prey on domesticated ducks. In the first week of August. L896, they
carried off several ducklings that went down to the swamp. The
royal brigands relish chicken, and in the nest of one pair thai came to
the farm was the carcass of a recently killed Plymouth Rock hen.
Cooper Hawk. — With the exception of the English sparrow, the
Cooper hawk dig. L9) probably does the least good and the most harm
of all the birds of the farm, for it subsists almost entirely on wild
birds and poultry. It very frequently steals little chickens, and con-
stantly preys on the bobwhite and useful insectivorous or seed-eating
small birds. During November, L900, the bobwhites were so perse-
cuted that they were seldom found far from cover. In one instance a
hawk was seen to swoop to the ground and rise with a victim, the
YKR'l EBRATE !■'<>< >i>.
51
identity of which was afterwards made sure by the discover} of the
feathers of a cock bobwhite <>n the spot where the hawk had struck.
Sharpshinned Hawk. -The sharpshinned hawk, congener of the
Cooper hawk, is also a harmful species. It was frequently observed
pursuing native sparrows, and on November L5, L900, was seen tearing
a mockingbird to pieces. The smaller birds suffer most in autumn.
On the L5th of November, L899, I was observing a score of cardinals,
juncos, white-throated sparrows, fox sparrows, and song sparrows
Fie 19.— Cooper hawk.
that were eating ragweed >^rd in wheat stubble by the negro cabin.
Suddenly the whole flock' sprang into the air and Hew straight toward
me and into the Imshes behind me, twittering with fright. Their
swiftness just saved them from a sharpshinned hawk, which swooped
and struck the ground where they had been feeding. It was two
hours before they dared to leave their shelter and \\hh\ again on weed
seeds of the stubble-field. These two species of hawks patrol the farm
52
IUKD- OF A MARYLAND FARM.
so vigilantly in autumn and winter that birds which cat weed seed are
kept in constant terror, and are unable to do all the good they might
accomplish were it not for their tireless enemies. Owing to the
depredations of these two hawks, all hawks without distinction have
been relentlessly persecuted by man. although very few are actually
detrimental to agriculture.
Great Horned Owl. —Only one of the several species of owls occur-
ring at Marshal] Hall is harmful, namely, the great horned owl (tig. 20).
Fig. 20.— Great horned owl.
It occasionally makes inroads on poultry that is not housed. In
December, l s '.»7. a great horned owl carried oil a full-grown hen from
her roost in ;i tree beside the oegro cabin, and on five of the first ten
nights of May one came and took hens from the cedar trees behind the
house. On the night of the sixth visit a steel trap baited with a hen
secured the robber. A year seldom passes without losses from this
tierce and powerful bird <>f prey.
VERTEBRATE Food. 58
FISH.
Several species of birds on the farm are known to feed on fish, but
(hey are so few in number and take food fishes so seldom thai as far
as has been learned they cause no material injury to fishing interests,
which at this point on the river are of considerable importance. A
pair of kingfishers were often seen fishing along the shore in front oi
the Bryan house (PI. III. fig. 2), and live nestlings taken from the hi nil'
on the Hungerford place had been fed wholly on fish. Herons, includ-
ing the nighl heron, the green heron, and the great blue heron, were
frequently seen wading in shallow water, spearing fish with their long,
pointed beaks. Two green herons that were collected had eaten sil-
versides (Menidia rwtatd) and mummichogs (JFundidits heteroclitvs).
Ducks, particularly the mergansers, U\^\ to some extent on fish. Two
hooded mergansers, collected November 1."). 1900, had eaten respect-
ively L2 and *j!<» tiny fish. Gulls are decidedly more piscivorous than
ducks. During November the herring gull and the ring-billed gull
fished by the dozen out in the river between the farmhouse and Mount
Vernon (see PL 1. frontispiece tig. 2). In the same place the osprey
waspnee in a while seen plunging after his prey. The bald eagle was
observed catching fish, hut more often it feeds on those that it fin da
dead.
CARRION.
Some birds, notably eagles, crows, and buzzards, feed at times
largely on dead fish. Eagles may be seen along the river -canning the
shore for those cast up by the tide. May 19, 1S99, an eagle living
over the farm dropped an eel 26 inches long that had evidently been
taken as carrion. Gulls, also, undoubtedly pick up a good deal of
.such food. Crows and buzzards are valuable scavengers of dead fish
cast up at low tide during the last of April and the first of .May. when
the fishing season is at its height. These fish are small, principally
sun-fish, white perch, and shad, that were fatally injured by nets
Observations on May 5, L901, showed the whole river front of the
farm strewn with decaying fish, which gave out such a stench that one
could not sit comfortably within several hundred yards of the beach.
Some 4(1 buzzards were feeding on the carrion ail day. On (dose
inspection they were seen to be selecting that which was most badly
decomposed. Crows in almost as large number- and several crow
blackbirds were also feeding, but they commonly took that which was
Less decayed. Several crows came repeatedly to the shoreof lot 1.
picked up fish, and carried them to their nests in the woods. By
abating this nuisance crows and buzzards do a service that is appre-
ciated by the. occupants of the farmhouse.
Buzzards are also useful in removing other carrion. Stock that
dies on the farm is never buried, but is left for them. November 16,
54 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
L899, some notes were made on the manner in which a carcass was
disposed of. On the edge of lot 1. near the mouth of Persimmon
Branch, lav a horse that had died two weeks before. Fully 30 buz-
zards closely attended it. and some were to he found at work on it at
any hour of the day. while the other.-, tired of gorging, sat around
on a rail fence, stretching their wings and preening. At night they
all roosted together in oak trees within a hundred yards of the horse,
as if they wished to keep near the food. A year later another horse was
given over to the buzzards. The buzzards did not in either ease tear
open the skin to expose the large muscles, but if the weather had been
hot they might have eaten these as well as viscera. Crowsare seldom
known to feed on dead stock, hut during the March blizzard of 1898
they were almost starved, and resorted with buzzards to a dead cow.
Buzzards dispose of the entrails and other refuse of pigs, fish, and
chickens, which are thrown to them in a certain place where they
have learned to expect it.
MAMMALS.
Mice. — The crow and several other birds of the farm do some good
by destroying injurious mammals. In the vicinity of the storage barn
a loggerhead shrike was often to be seen. Here it impaled its prey on
thorns of the Osage orange hedge and on the barbs of a wire fence. In
one instance a house mouse was found spitted on the fence. If extended
observations could have been made it is probable that mice would often
have been found in the larder of this useful little shrike. The crow
takes mice at every opportunity. On February 21, L900, signs of its
work appeared near the runways of meadow mice in a wheat-stubble
patch of lot 5. in the form of crow tracks in the light snow, holes
pecked in the earth, and at one place spatters of blood and tufts of
mouse hail'. Hawks feed habitually on these mice. In January.
L898, when there were several inches of snow on the ground, a red-
tailed hawk (PL X, fig. 1) shot in the road by the negro cabin held in
its talons the warm body of a meadow mouse. November L5, L900, a
marsh hawk skimming over lot 2 suddenly dived into the brownbroom-
sedge. AlS it rose it was killed and a meadow mouse dropped from its
clutch. In its stomach the head and hindquarters of another were
found. This species of hawk Is undoubtedly the most useful mouser
on th<> farm and should have due credit, for mice cause much injury
there to fruit trees, sweet potatoes, and grain. The short-eared owl
(PL X. tig. 2) has several times been observed preying upon meadow
mice. Chis bird, the marsh hawk, and the red-shouldered hawk, which
are all excellent mousers and rarely attack poultry or birds, are con-
tinually made to pay with their lives for the depredations of the real
poultry thieves of the hawk and owl tribe the Cooper and sharp-
shinned hawks and the great horned owl. The illustration of a short-
CULTIVATED FRUIT.
oared owl heregiven is of a bird that had just made vicarious atonement
lor depredations on the poultry by the great horned owl.
Rabbits. The marsh hawk and other large species prey on rabbits.
In the last week of December, L89T, a marsh hawk was shot which had
lust killed one of unusual >i/.<-. The crow regularly tV1 bird- were collected, but not one appeared
CULTIVATED ikiit. 57
to have molested them. Many had taken fruit, but had drawn on
nature's supply instead of man's. All the tree- in the orchard were
watched, but birds apparently did not rob them, a fact In striking
contrast with the notorious pillaging by birds in the fruit-growing
regions of California. In California birds also do much damage in
spring by eating the laid- and blossoms of fruit trees, but at Marshall
Hall do appreciable loss is caused in this way. White-throated -par-
row- occasionally feed on laid- and blossoms, and on one occasion
(April 25, L901) three of these birds were -ecu mutilating pear blos-
soms in the kitchen garden, hut beyond this no example of such
depredations was observed.
Grapes. Grapes are not raised for market at Marshall Hall. In the
Bryan kitchen garden there is a trellis for family use, hut birds did no
appreciable injury to the grapes that grew on it.
Tomatoes.- Catbirds were reported to he ruining the tomato crop
on the Hungerford farm during the third week of June, 1899. The
place was visited and every tomato that had reddened at all was found
to have been pecked. The injury was causing heavy loss to the farm.
for the fruit at that time Droughts high price. The patch was watched
for several hours, hut not a catbird entered it. Nine chicken-, how-
ever, stole up from a small house on the -hoi.' and went from plant
to plant, eating greedily. To make doubly sure that catbirds had
no share in the mischief, L5 individuals were collected from the neigh-
boring dell and the bushes about the patch, and examination was made
of the stomach contents. No trace 1 of tomatoes was found.
Melons. — The only fruit grown for market that suffered from tin 1
depredations of native birds was the melon, and it was attacked by
only one species— the crow. In numbers from three or four to a
dozen at a time crow- began to injure melonsabout August 1 and con-
tinued for three week-, attacking both watermelons and cantaloupe-.
but preferring the former. Each crow would peck at a melon a dozen
times or so and then pass on to another. If no protective measures
had been taken, the crop would often have been a total loss, and in
spite of all efforts from 5 to 20 percent of the melons grown at all
distant from buildings were punctured (fig. 21). Carcasses of crew-.
strings with long white streamers attached, an improvised miniature
windmill that revolved and struck noisily against a piece o\' metal, and
a bit of bright tin suspended from a string so that it turned with
every breath of air and reflected the sun about the field Were Some of
the devices u-i>d to frighten the wary and suspicious marauders. In
1873, 1^74. and L875, when the melon crop was so important that 1 or
5 acre.-, containing from 3,000 to 4,000 hills, were given up to it. the
method of protection used in the rice fields of the South was adopted:
from sunrise to sunset a negro with an old musket and plenty of pow-
58
BIRDS (>F A MARYLAND FARM.
der watched from a brush shelter in the middle of the field and. when-
ever a crow appeared, frightened it away with a thundering report.
If the field was left unguarded for any length of time, the crows were
-ure to make havoc among the melons. Since they would never come
within gun-hot if they knew anybody was watching, attempts were
made to destroy them by a stratagem: two men would enter the brush
house and one of them would soon leave, hoping to delude the crows
into thinking that the house was empty, so that they would venture
within range of the second man's gun. The plan worked only in the
first tew trials, however. The farmers at Marshall Hall maintain that
crows can count up to three, for they could not he hoodwinked unless
three men left the house and a fourth remained to -hoot.
Flo. 21.— Melons damaged by crows.
WILD FRUIT.
Wild fruit formed L0.12 percent of the food of the <'>4."> birds col-
lected, and had been eaten by 1_?<». Both examination of stomachs and
nut.- of field work showed how important an (dement it is in the food
supply of many species.
Smilax. The catbird, which, with the possible exception of the cedar
bird, i- the mosl conspicuous frugivorous -pecie- on the farm, ate in
May. when it arrived from the South, the winter-cured berries of
smilax. Out of L3 individuals collected May 17 i ; <». L899, 5 had made
from L5 to 4<> percent of their diet on these husks in preference, as
has already been -aid. to the feast spread in the strawberry patch.
WILD FRUIT. 59
During May cedar birds and crow blackbirds also relished them,
the robin, when hard pressed on its arrival, during the last of I
ruary, was -ecu t<» rat them eagerly.
Mulberries. The first mid fruit that offers a freshly ripened supply
at Marshall Hall is the mulberry, and it lasts from tin* end of May
until the * * 1 1 < 1 of June. On Ma\ 29, 1896, observations were made of
birds feeding in a large mulberry tree in the wooded erullv of tin- hoc
lot. A. pair of downy woodpeckers thai bred in a willow stub
by were twice noted eatingthe berries. A Baltimore oriole probably
a late migrant, tVr the feeding ^\' their
young, Mulberries formed at this season the greater part of their
food.
A li-t follow- of the birds that were observed feeding on this fruit
or that wore found by examination to have eaten it.
60 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
List of birds feeding on mulberries.
Blue jay. Cardinal. Downy woodpecker.
Crow. Carolina chickadee. Ce4arbird.
Crow blackbird. Song sparrow. Catbird.
Orchard oriole. Red-eyed vireo. Kingbird.
Baltimore oriole. White-eyed vireo. Bobwhite.
Raspberries and blackberries. — The black raspberry, the dewberry,
and the blackberry, which are the wild fruits that, in the order given,
ripen next, are too plentiful and too widely distributed for much
remunerative tield observation. The following list of birds that ate
them was prepared chiefly from stomach examination:
IAsi of birds feeding on raspberries and blackberries.
Bobwhite. Brown thrasher. Kingbird.
Summer redbird. Catbird. Red-headed woodpecker.
Cardinal. Orchard oriole. Cedar bird.
Song sparrow. Bluebird.
Field .sparrow. Crow.
A few field notes on the destruction of these fruits were made, how-
ever. Catbirds were seen, May 30, 1896, in black raspberry bushes
near the house, eating half a dozen berries apiece. During* June, 1899,
lot 2 was overrun with a network of dewberry vines. Here, on the
17th, bobwhites were observed walking from vine to vine, picking the
berries in a systematic fashion. During 1896 blackberries fruited
heavily, and birds were not slow to take advantage of the generous
food supply. July 12 a red-headed woodpecker was observed to come
and feed on the berries with catbirds and orchard orioles, and a king-
bird was seen to fly down to a bush, hover beside it, and pluck a
berry. In early August, 1898, two held sparrows were seen in several
instances selecting fruit which had dried on the bushes in preference
to that which was fresh and juicy. They may have done this to obtain
the seeds of the berry and extract their meat. A number of song
sparrows picked up blackberries from the ground as they had mul-
berries. Since this species is often very abundant in cultivated patches
of blackberries and takes 10 percent of its food from this fruit in its
season, the habit of feeding on fallen berries may be fortunate for the
horticulturist, Kubus fruits are not raised for market at Marshall
Hall, hence it Is unimportant whether the birds eat them or not: if
they were, and if there were no other fruit available 4 , the abundant
frugivorous birds would probably decrease the profits considerably.
Elderberries. — Elderberries ripen next, usually during the latter half
of July. There are so few of them on the farm that the record is
scanty, but held notes made August 5, 1898, show how much they are
WILD FRUIT. «'.l
relished. A large elder bush was watched from L.40 to 2.50 p. m.
The observations may !>«• thus summarized:
Detailed account of birds feeding on elderbem
1.45: A song sparrow hopped along tinder the hush and picked up a fallen berry.
1.51: A downy woodpecker alighted on jthe main .-talk and, ascending within reach
of a cluster, ate 2 berries.
\ female orchard oriole came ami fed.
2.00: A catbird ate several berries.
2.03: A red-eyed vireo took I berry.
2.09: A catbird ate3 berries.
2 11: A pair of red-eyed vireos Mew into the hush; one took a berry and scurried
away, hut the other remained Long enough to rat I berrii
2.12: A male redbird dashed in, took a berry, and dashed out.
2.1.".: A crow dropped clumsily into the bush, hut after one peek at the fruit espied
me ami (lew away with loud clamor.
2. 15: \ catbird took I berry.
2. h>: A white-eyed vireo took :; berries.
2.20: A catbird took a berry.
2.23: A female summer redbird came shyly and hurriedly ate several berries.
2.24: A catbird took a berry.
8.25: Another catbird picked at a cluster rapidly tor one minute. Bwallowing in that
time 20 berries.
2.27: A red-eyed vireo, poised in the air like a humming bird, ate several berries
from the same cluster.
2.28: A female cardinal ate a berry.
2.30: A catbird ate LO berries in a minute, rested, and
2.."):;: Took several more.
2.35: A female summer redbird, bending a berry stalk under her weight, leisurely
plucked 5 berries from the drooping cluster.
2.37: A catbird ate 4 berries, sat and preened its feathers, and
2.50: Ate 1 7 more.
Wild cherries. — The wild blackcherry (Prunvs serotind) is plentiful
at Marshall Hall. but as a rule birds did not congregate about it as they
do in more northern States. The following species were found
feeding on it :
List of birds feeding mi wild cherries.
Catbird. Song sparrow. Orchard oriole.
Kingbird. English Bparrow. Red-headed woodpecker.
Phoebe. ('row.
Blueberries. — Blueberries, though a staple article of birds 1 diet, are so
Scarce at Marshall I Iall as t<> ho unimportant. Tufted titmice and cat-
birds have been noted feeding OD them at the southern cornet of lot 4.
Other wild fruits. — With the waning of summer there comes Buch an
abundance and variety of wild fruit that birds scatter over \\ ide areas
of the farm, and observation of (heir feeding habits yields only desul-
tory results. There are, altogether, more than a score of wild fruit-
ing plants at Marshal] Hall, which furnish food to at Least 30 kind- of
62 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
birds. Sonic of them, such as sassafras, blackberry, elder, and wild
cherry, drop their berries shortly after ripening them, while others,
such as hackberry, catbrier, and sumac, keep theirs well into win-
ter and even until spring. The bountiful supply of late fruit is most
noticeable just after the falling of the Leaves. Then one may seelarge
trees festooned with the burdened vines of bittersweet, woodbine, cat-
brier, and wild grape. Besides the climbing plants, many shrubs and
trees are laden with fruit. The low horse-nettle is bright with yellow
berries; the rank pokeweed bends under Long grape-like bunches of
dark purple fruit; and the persimmon is hung with yellow globes.
The sour gum has dropped its deep-blue berries and light-red leaves
together, but the holly is set thick with scarlet clusters that will glow
all winter amid its shining green.
Some of the tastes exhibited by birds in their selection of fruit are
interesting and singular. Catbirds and vireos have been known to
pass by ripe blackberries and elderberries and choose green wild cher-
ries and sassafras berries. Many birds eat sumac berries, which are
practically all seeds and would seem to be about as satisfactory food
as So much gravel. Fully a dozen species select the berries of black
alder, which are as bitter as quinine. Cedar berries, a favorite food
with birds, have an effect on the human system like cantharides, while
the berries of pokeweed, night-hade, and poison ivy contain danger-
ous poisons. If birds are not immune from the toxic effects of these
berries, one may question whether they do not take them for stimu-
lation, as man takes tobacco and alcoholic beverages.
Poison ivy is eaten by practically all the frugivorous birds of the
farm. A crow that was shot November IT). L900, had 14-4 poison-
ivy seeds in its stomach. The pokeberry is also a favorite fruit.
Mockingbirds and catbirds that were collected had \'vd on it so freely
that their intestines were discolored by its juice. During February,
1900, the snow was stained in several places by bright red spots with
a hole in the center an inch or more deep, at the bottom of which was
a mass of fruit pulp and pokeberry seeds. These deposits proved to
be excreta of cardinal grosbeaks that had eaten the berries, tin 4 heat
from the droppings having Sufficed to melt the hole in the snow.
Nightshade berries (Solanum nigrum) were eaten by several birds of
the farm, especially by the bobwhite. During February and Novem-
ber, L900, a few sapsuckers, downy woodpeckers, bluebirds, and
myrtle warblers, together with dozens of flickers and robins, and
scores of cedar birds and purple finches, U^l on the spicy, stimulating
berries of the red cedar.
Distribution of seeds by birds. The large consumption of wild fruit
results in a wide distribution of seeds, which are voided by birds and
germinate where they are dropped. Some observations on crows will
WILD FRUIT.
63
illustrate this dispersion. On November 17. 1899, a large flock on the
wing was noticed in the distance, at a point opposite Fort Washing-
ton, several miles above Marshall Hall. They came on down the river
in a line that at times stretched almost Prom one bank to the other.
When they neared Marshall Hall they circled several times and finally
alighted on the shore of the Bryan farm, at the mouth of Persimmon
Branch. The flock numbered at Least a thousand, and hoarse caws
and croaks gave evidence thai it was made up to some extent of fish
crows. After the birds had remained on the shore fifteen minutes
they were put to flight by a farmer's boy, and flew <>n down the river,
lessening to specks,- and finally disappearing on the horizon. Going
to the place where they had alighted, I found the sandy beach cut up
for more than a hundred yards with their tracks. Many led out to
the water, and floating black feather- here and there showed where
baths had been taken. The most interesting trace of their sojourn,
however, was several hundred pellets of fruit material, which they
had ejected through t heir mouths and dropped on the
ground. These pellets (fig. 22) were about an inch in
length and half an inch in diameter. They were of
a deep purplish color, due to the fruit of woodbine,
wild grape, and pokeberry, of which they were
mainly composed. In •'><> pellets collected there were
only 1 1 seed- of other plants namely, holly, bitter-
sweet, and poison ivy. Pokeberry seeds were by far
the most numerous. Mr. A. ,). Pieters, of the
Botanical Division of the Department of Agriculture,
germinated some of them, thus demonstrating the
fact that they were distributed uninjured.
Examination of the pellets showed the interesting fact that they
were made up not only of seeds (fig. 23) and skin, but largely of fruit
pulp in an undigested state; indeed, many pellets appeared to be com-
pacted masses of mashed or squeezed berries. It seems strange that
the birds should have rid themselves of a substance that still contained
a good deal of nutriment.
Little is known of the distribution of fruit seeds by crows during
migration, but it is certain that they do this work effectively while
they fly to and from the roosts where they congregate in winter, for
their feeding grounds of ten cover an area stretching out on all side-
or? o
from the roost for .'><> miles or more. It appears highly probable that
the crows which are found in winter at Marshall I lull roost at Wood-
ridge, I>. C, some L5 miles distant. There, in the midst of several
acres of woodland, a crow dormitory is established, in which prob-
ably LOO, 000 crows sleep every winter night. It was visited in Febru-
ary. L901, and the ground was found to be strewn with disgorged
Fig. 22.— Pellet cji'ct.,1
by crow.
64
HfKDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
pellets containing the seeds of poison ivy. poison sumac and other
sumacs, smilax, cedar, sour gum, and flowering dogwood. Some pel-
lets, also, were made up of the hulls of corn and oats.
The distribution of fruiting plants illustrated by tin* crow is effected,
though usually in a slighter degree, by all other frugivorous birds.
Areas from which such plants and shrubs have been removed are in a
short time replanted by birds. At .Marshall Hall such plants thus
assisted are constantly striving to secure a foothold on the arable
land. This scattering of fruit seeds is illustrated by some observations
made March l'7. L901. Under a large black walnut tree, remote from
other woody vegetation and near the negro cabin, a two hours' search
brought to view 172 fruit seeds, including mulberry, cultivated cherry,
**«•'•
RovtgK- leocvect CorrteC
(Cor
Coctbrter
rtbes asperifoLiocj lyOUOrter
(SmUcxx rotundtUoli
Flowering DogwoocL
(Cornus j lorioLcu)
^
Smooth Su/m-Oic
( Rhus glabroc)
Poison. Sumac-
[RHus verte-ao-totl
Poison Ivy
KKvls toxicooLe.njoLrort.)
Sour GLurrt
( JSfyssa. OL<^VLCxticcx- j
Red Cedar
(juniperus vtrgtrvtomus)
Fig. 23. — Some common seeds found iii en>\\ pellets.
wild black cherry, wild grape, woodbine, pokeberry, cedar, sassafras,
blackberry, and sumac. Under a large cedar in the middle of lot 2
seeds of the following additional fruiting plants were collected: Elder,
hackberry, bittersweet, sour gum, smilax. blueberry, flowering dog-
wood, and poison ivy.
The most striking examples of trees planted by birds at Marshall
Hall are the ox -heart cherry trees that extend along the riverfront
for half a mile. Almost as notable, perhaps, are the tall cedar trees
which stand in long rows between adjacent fields (see PL XII. fig. 1).
Scattered over the old pastures, also, little cedar trees, like fox brushes,
attest the work of the winged planters, but in the arable land the
rotation of crops kills all except such as may start along fence rows.
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate XI.
Fig. 1.— Sassafras as a Weed, in Lot 5.
Fig. 2.— Corn Injured by Crows.
.
Plate XII.
Fig. 1.— Cornfield. Lot 5.
Fig. 2. -Wheat Stubble, Lot 3.
The line <>f trees in the middle-ground m.-irks the course of Persimmon Branch
CHAIN.
65
Sassafras planted by birds <>n arable laud is not -<» easily exterminated.
On the Hungerford farm it almost choked a peach orchard of several
acres. On the Bryan farm it attained Buch a growth in a cornfield
previously used for grass that it had t<> be cut down with brush hooks
(PI. XI. fig. 1). In another part of the -ami' lot high-bush blackber-
ries -own by birds had to be similarly eradicated.
V. - GRAIN.
( S-rain had entered into the food of :)s out of the 645 birds examined.
Of these _1 had picked up waste kernel- and IV had secured valuable
grain, which, however, amounted to hut L.25 percent of the food of
all the birds.
Crow. — The crow (fig. 24) is by
all odds the worst pilferer of the
cornfield. Every yearal Marshall
Hall, as elsewhere, a part of the
field must he replanted because of
his * pickings and stealings.' In
the replanting was more ex-
tensive than usual, requiring on
the 39-acre field 1 bushel %\ peek-.
4<'» pereent of the 'M, bushels origi-
nally planted. This unusual ratio
^va> probably caused hv the fail-
irre of the cherry crop, which left
the crow short of food. The pro-
tective deviceof tarring sn'd corn
is employed to some extent on the
'Hungerford farm. In, June. L899,
I planted two rows of corn, one
tarred, on the edge of lot 4, near
a nest of young crows. When the
seed sprouted ."> kernels were pulled from the untarred row. and 7
plants were uprooted from the tarred row. -the kernels of which were
left intact. On May .')<>. L901, a field of sprouting tarred corn on the
Hungerford place was visited. In spite of the fact that a field of
' unprotected corn adjoined it. crows came to this field, perhaps because
it was nearer wood-. After three of them had walked about among
the hills for fifteen minutes the place was inspected. Only three
plants had been pulled up, hut in each case the grain had been
'removed. It may be mentioned here that at W'ayland. Mass., during
June. L 901, crows pulled a large quantity of tarred corn, hut did not eat
it. The corn there had been coated with wood ashes after the tarring 1
Fig. 24. — Common crow.
7222— No. 1'
02
66 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
and dropped by a corn planter. Some farmers object to tarring for
fear of clogging the planter. At Marshall Hall lime is used instead
of ashes, but most farmers who tar their corn discard the machine and
plant in hills.
The injury to corn by crows at other seasons than sprouting time is,
as a general thing, comparatively insignificant, but in some years it
has been important when the ears were in the milk. Unfortunately
at the worst times no observations were made, though crows were
seen each summer feeding on corn in this stage of development, tear-
ing open the ears and picking out the kernels in rapid succession
(PL XI, fig. 2). In the National Zoological Park at Washington dur-
ing the summer of 1896, their depredations on an acre of corn in the
milk were watched and 50 percent of the crop was found to have been
ruined. The only scarecrows that proved effective at Marshall Hall
were dead crows and strings stretched on poles around the held and hung
with long white streamers. Although in fall the number of marauders
is greatly increased by reenforcements from the North, ripe corn sus-
tains less injury than roasting ears. One reason is the fact that the
extracting of a few kernels from a ripe ear does not cause the rest
to rot. as is the case with roasting ears. Another reason is the abun-
dance of fall fruit. Wheat also suffers comparatively little. When
it is ripening, cherries and sprouting corn divert the crows' attention.
After it is cut and gathered into the shock, however, they often join the
English sparrows in removing the kernels from the cap sheaves. In
November, 1899, they attacked newly sown wheat also, cleaning every
kernel off" a patch of wet ground where the drill had failed to cover
the seed. They were also observed in several instances pulling up
sprouting wheat. Oats are injured even less than wheat, though
crows have been noticed feeding on them at harvest time.
Crow Blackbird. — The crow blackbird (tig. 25) takes grain to the
extent of 45 percent of its food, as Professor Beal lias shown, and is
a bird that needs watching. The farmers at Marshall Hall complained
that it injured sprouting corn, but observations did not show the
damage to be serious. The only birds concerned in this work were those
in the breeding colony in the dell on the Hungerford farm. Except in
rare instances, they were not seen visiting the Bryan farm at sprouting
time; consequently they could not be held responsible for serious
injury there. On May is. L899, they were watched in their dell. The
parent birds kept going to and from their nests, which held eggs or
newly hatched young, and many foraged in an adjacent field of sprout-
ing corn. Nine old birds and four nestlings were collected, but only
one, an adnlt, had taken corn, and that one in trifling proportion. On
May 30, L901, the colony was again visited. The young were then
feathered and old enough to eat vegetable food. The most available
supply was a held of sprouting corn unprotected by tar, that lay within
GRAIN.
67
a hundred yards of the dell, [t was watched from 1 p.m. till 6 p. m.,
but although the birds often Mew over it and in two cases alighted in
it. they apparently did it qo injury, and a careful search for pulled
com showed not a plant disturbed. Blackbirds probably did some
mischief to corn in the milk, however, and were often seen stealing
from the -hock, hut these offenses were trivial in comparison with
their attack- on sprouting winter wheat. During November, 1900, a
flock of from 2,000 to 3,000 pulled wheal on the Bryan farm, and only
continual nse of the shotgun saved the crop. At each report they would
fly to the oak woods bordering lot 5, where they U'd on acorns. Nine
birds collected had eaten acorns and wheat in about equal proportions.
The flock must have taken daily at least half an ounce of food apie< « .
wm
Fig. 25.— Crow blackbird.
~_ „
and therefore, if the specimens examined were representative, must in
a week have made away with 217 pounds of sprouting wheal, a loss
that would entail at harvest time a shortage of at Least ten time- as
much. When wheat and <>at- were harvested no appreciable loss was
possible, a- only a few blackbirds remained on the farm. and. in fact.
these few appeared to he feeding on fruit or insects, or, when they did
eat grain, to be taking chiefly waste kernels. During June of L898,
L899, 1900, and L901, when wheat was ripening or being harvested,
blackbirds came from their nesting dell to the Bryan farm, hut onlyin
few instances were they seen in the wheat fields. On June L5 and 1*>.
when oats and wheat were ready to cut on the Hungerford farm, the
polony was closely watched. The young wore on the wing and the
68
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
whole flock was expected to resort to the grain fields, but none were
seen to enter them. On June L8, however, when oats were being cut,
several birds were noted feeding on thorn in two instances.
English Sparrow. The English sparrow (fig. 26) is the most highly
granivorous bird on the farm. The stomachs of 53 birds — IT nest-
linos and 36 adults were collected. Grain had been eaten by 8 of the
young— a Large proportion, for nearly all nestlings are almost exclu-
sively Insectivorous. It formed 86 percent of the food of the adults.
all but two having taken it. Six had selected oats. 14 wheat, and 15
corn. The number of English sparrows on the two farms varied from
200 to L,000. They fed on grain whenever and wherever it was attain-
able. They did not appear to hurt sprouting fields, but did con-
siderable harm to standing crops. Jn 1898 lot 4 was in wheat, and
Fig.
Ki.Kli>
about the middle of June, when it was nearly ready for cutting, a strip
l>(M) yards long beside the fence near the storage barn was found
broken down by sparrows. The loss by this mischief was even greater
than that by their continual thefts from the rest of the field. A year
later they mined in the same way a strip of wheat several yards wide,
extending from the negro cabin to Persimmon Branch, and also sec-
tions of oal fields on the upper part of the Hungerford farm. They
attacked both wheat and oats in the shock, and stole much of the
grain in the cap sheaves. They were seen feeding on corn in the
milk, but probably selected ears that had already been torn open by
crows; Dr. A. K. Fisher, however, has observed English sparrows at
Chevy Chase. Md.. opening and eating tin 1 tip ends of ears of corn
GBAIN. 69
without any aid from crows. Whenever stock was fed with grain
they were always on hand to gel their portion. They ate corn with
the pigs in the hog lot, and often outnumbered the little chickens in
the hack yard around their rations of cracked corn or Indian mush.
Not satisfied with regular feeding times, they drew on the source of
supply, the corn house, and could he seen any day in the year, hut
most commonly in winter, flying out of it. sometimes by the score.
Other birds. So far as is known, no other birds of the farm com-
mitted serious depredations on grain, though several occasionally did
trifling harm. The red-winged blackbird did not disturb sprouting
grain, but was seen in the first week of A.ugust, L898, to visit corn-
fields in flocks of from 12 to 20 and eat from roasting ears. Gold-
finches were troublesome in ripening oats on the Hungerford farm
duringthe last week of dune. L899. A Hock of a hundred -pent nn>->t
of the day swayingon bending oat stems. Four were collected, hut
singularly enough no grain was in their stomachs. On an acre of the
tield where the birds usually assembled, 5 percent of the crop was
lost from the breaking down of stalks.
I f the mourning dove and the bobwhite do harm to grain it is so slight
as to escape notice. The dove, however, has been taken with a few
kernel- of sprouting wheat in its crop." Both birds eat a good deal of
waste grain in stubble-fields. On August 31, L898, in lot 4. there was
a Hock of at least 30 doves in the wheat stubble of the Bryan farm, and
at the same time there were two smaller flocks on the Hungerford
place. In November. L899, the Hock on the upper part of the farm fed
with the bobwhites on wheat stubble, and, like them, did not appear to
relish corn dropped from the ear in fields where they were searching
for weed swd. There was considerable diversity of feeding habits
J among different Hocks of bobwhites on the two farms. One Hock on the
Bryan farm during November and December. L900, was seldom seen
on a patch of wheat stubble adjacent to their cover, the oak woods of
lot 5. 1 law ks were numerous there, however, and may have frightened
the birds away from what would ordinarily have been a tempting
I i feeding ground. A large covey on the lower part (A' the Hungerford
farm, where no wheat had been raised. \'<^[ entirely on weed seed,
but one at the upper end spent about all the feeding time in wheat
stubble. This covey had a habit of sleeping in a peach orchard, as
was attested by little rings of dung showing where the birds had
squatted in a circle with heads out and tails in. From -i\ of these
rings, representing as many days' feeding. 300 droppings were col
lected. Remains of wheat, or more strictly speaking, fragment- <>t'
bran from one-fifth of a millimeter to .'> millimeters in length, formed
85 pel-cent of them. A bird of this COVey had in it- crop L60 whole
a In Esses County, N. .1., the dove much damage in newly sown fields of
buckwheat.
70 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
grains, and in it> stomach other wheat half digested, all amounting to
91 percent of it- food. The next year bobwhites were noted feeding
in wheat stubble in lot 3 (PL XII, fig. 2). [nNovember, L900, observa-
tions were made in a cornfield in which the tops of the stalks had been
removed for fodder, leaving the ears attached to low stalks. In many
places kernels had dropped to the ground, but the bobwhites that
frequented the field to procure weed seed apparently did not touch
them. These desultory data would seem to indicate that the bob-
white takes only waste wheat and does not relish corn, but observa-
tions made in November. 1901, on lot 5 of the Bryan farm, when the
corn was in the stack (PI. XII, fig. 1), does not confirm this supposi-
tion; for in this case the birds fed to a certain extent on the waste
kernels of corn scattered on the ground.
The meadowlark is much less granivorous than these two specie-.
but it often picked up wheat in stubble-fields just after harvest
and late in the fall. One specimen obtained November 29, 1900, con-
tained TO percent of wheat. The cardinal was occasionally seen feed-
ing on waste wheat and corn along the edge of stubble-fields. The
English sparrow, the crow, the crow blackbird, the red-wing, and the
cowbird are also stubble feeders. On the 5th of August. is ( .»s. fully
a thousand crow blackbirds with a few redwings were noted picking
up waste grain in the wheat and oat stubble of the Hungerford farm.
If such a horde of these birds were present at harvest time, complaints
would be made against them as serious as those now heard from the
Mississippi Valley.
During the blizzard of February, 1900, several birds obtained food
from the droppings of farm animals. English sparrows and crows
were seen picking corn from dung in the hog pen on the Hungerford
farm, and meadowlarks, horned larks, doves, and cardinals were
noticed taking it from cow droppings in an open pasture.
The native sparrows, unlike the English sparrows, have little or no
liking for grain. In a field of wheat on tin 4 Bryan farm 5 English
sparrows and 1!> native sparrows, including song, field, chipping, and
grasshopper sparrows, were collected, just before and just after the
crop was (ait. All the English sparrows were gorged with wheat, but
only 2 native sparrows a chipping sparrow and a grasshopper spar-
row- had eaten it. and they had taken only a single kernel apiece.
Moreover, when winter wheat sprouted, the hosts of native sparrows
from the North (hat were running over the fields could not be detected
doing it any injury.
VI, WEED SEED.
Weed seed is a staple article of diet for practically all seed-eating
birds. It formed L8 percentof the food of the whole number of birds
Collected, and had been eaten by W>2. Lists of these birds and of the
41 kinds of seeds that they selected are appended.
WEED SEED.
71
List of " < < d-& i • d -> • 'I eaU n.
HIKDS WHOSE STOMACHS CONTAINED WEED HEED.
Bobwhite.
Mourning dove.
I [orned lark.
Bobolink.
( lowbird.
Red-winged blackbird.
Meadowlark.
Rusty blackbird.
( You blackbird.
( roldfinch.
Savanna sparrow .
< rrasshopper sparrow .
White-throated sparrow
Tree Bparrow.
( Shipping sparrow ,
Field sparrow .
Junco.
niiil' Bparrow .
( Sardinal.
( iarolina chickadee.
SPECIES OF \\ EED SEED EATEN.
Bull thistle (Carduus lanceolatus) .
Beggar-ticks ( Bidens frondosa) .
Sneezeweed I Helenium autumnale).
Ragweed I Ambrosia artemisiaefolia, tig. -7 j.
Giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida).
Sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) .
Dandelion I Taraxacum taraxacum, fig. 27 1.
Wild lettuce ( Lactuca spicata I.
Black bindweed I Polygonum convolvulus,
fig. 27).
Pennsylvania persicaria i Polygonum penn-
sylvanicum ).
Knotweed I Polygonum aviculare).
Climbing false buckwheat (Polygonum
scandens I.
Bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius).
Curled dock (Rumex crispus).
Sheep sorrel | Rumex 'urtosella).
Crab-grass (Panicum aanguinale).
Pigeon-grass (ChaetocMoa glauca, fig 27).
Green foxtail grass (ChaetocMoa riridis).
Broom-sedge (Andropogon virginicus) .
Sheathed rush-grass (Sporobolus vaginae-
floras I.
Poverty grass (Aristida sp. ).
Yard grass ( Eleusine indica).
Bermuda grass (Capriola dactylon |.
Faspalum I Paspalum sp. |.
Sedge (Oyperus).
Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras).
Blackberry I Rubus vittosus).
Pokeberry | Phytolacca decandra).
Partridge pea (Cassia chamaecrista).
Sweet clover (Melilotus alba).
Tick-trefoil (Meibomia nudiflora).
Snowdrops ( KneiffUl friiflrosa) .
Chickweed I Alsme media ).
Amaranth (Amaranthua retroflexus, fig.
27).
Trumpet creeper ( Tecoma radicans).
Yellow sorrel | Oxalis s(ricta).
Rib-grass « Plantago lanceolata I.
Spurge | l-jii>h<>ri>iii, r r<>n-!, r r;i^»: //.
dandelion.
Lamb's-quarters i ( 'henopodium n n >. fig.
27).
Purslane (Portulaca oleracea, fig. '-'. .
Jewel- weed i Trnpatiena),
i "J BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
WEED DESTRUCTION BY NATIVE SPARROWS.
Spring. The farmer's strongest allies in his campaign against weed-
arc the various species of native sparrows (V\. XIII). which are a
potent aid every month in the year, though chiefly in the colder
months. The value of their work, obvious in fall and winter, i^ less
easily appraised in spring and early summer, but may he suggested
by a few note-.
The sparrows that breed on the farm have to content themselves
early in the spring with seeds left from the preceding year, but by
the middle of May they find in fields that have lain tallow all winter,
or that were in corn tin 4 previous season, a plentiful supply of the
ripening seeds of chickweed and. a little later, of yellow sorrel. Song
sparrows were seen (May L8, L899) on the edges of such fields helping
themselves liberally from opening chickweed pods. Chipping spar-
rows were noted (May 30, L896) far out in a patch of corn stubble
feeding on yellow sorrel that was going to seed, and a chipping spar-
row and a field sparrow collected June bland IT. L898, had eaten seeds
of the same weed.
Summer. — During the second week in July. 1898, a song sparrow-
was often seen following lines of knotweed in the road along the bluff,
and a telescope showed that it was plucking off the newly ripened seeds.
At the same time another song sparrow, killed on theedgeof a timothy
field, and two grasshopper sparrows from the center of the same field,
had eaten seeds of rib-grass, which at the time was a had weed in the
timothy. During August the seed-eating of sparrows is sufficiently
Qoticeable to attract the attention of even a casual observer, for
by this time great stores of weed seed lane ripened and the young
sparrows, which have been exclusively insectivorous, are ready to
take vegetable food. The following notes merely give a few specific
cases that might have been multiplied many times every day. A song
sparrow was observed (August 28, L898) picking out soft immature
seeds from a spike of green fox-tail grass, a plant that, with its con-
gener pigeon-grass, furnishes seed-eating birds with favorite food.
On the .same date a score of chipping sparrows were noted amid crab-
grass, which was spreading so rapidly through a market garden in
a pear orchard on the Bryan place that it was likely to impair the
product. They hopped up to the fruiting stalks, which wore then in
the milk, and beginning at the tip of one of the several spikes that
radiated from a common center like the spokes of a wheel and. grad-
ually moving their beaks along to the base, they chewed oil' the seeds
<>f spike after spike in regular succession. Usually they did not
remove their beaks until they reached the base, though some individ-
uals especially birds of the year, would munch a few seeds in the
middle of a spike and then take a fresh one. Fourteen birds were col-
B, . ' 7 B , ogical Survey. U. S Dept. of Aen.
Plate XIII.
Four Common Seed-destroying Sparrows.
l. Junco; 2, white-throated sparrow; .".. fox sparrow; i. tree sparrow
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agf
Plate XIV.
Fig. 1.— Giant Ragweed in Garden.
Fig. 2.— Broom-Sedge Appropriating Land.
WEED SEED. i •"»
lected from this orchard and LO from other part- of tin- farm. < Jrab-
grass seeds were found to have formed ;>\ percent of their food, one
stomach containing L50 seeds. Most of the remaining t6 percent
consisted of such weeds as green fox-tail grass, yellow sorrel, spotted
spurge, and purslane, with a very small quantity of ragweed. Other
sparrow- were found feeding on crab-grass and the foregoing weeds
I DC
during the Last week of August and the first part of September, L898.
It is important to remember at this point that each of the sparrows
that live on the farm in summer, namely, the song, chipping, field, and
grasshopper sparrows, has it- own peculiar habitat, and to note that
tlie consequent diversity of feeding ranges make- their work more or
jomplementary, hence more valuable.
Autumn to late spring.- From autumn to late spring evidence of the
seed-eating habits of sparrows is so plain that he who run- may read.
The influx of northern migrants has by this time increased the sparrow
population several-fold, and as the leaves have fallen and the crop- have
been cut, the lively flocks diving here and there among the brown weeds
to feed are familiar adjuncts of every roadside, fence row. and Held.
Sparrow- were collected only during November, L899, February, 1900,
and April, L899. In all. 76 were taken, which comprised 25 -one- spar-
rows, 23 white-throats, L2 field sparrows, 1 L juncos, 3chipping sparrows,
a grasshopper sparrow, and a savanna sparrow. Seventy percent of
their food was weed seed, and the proportion would have been much
larger if the birds collected in April could have been taken in March,
for they had eaten of the abundant April insects almost to the exclu-
sion of seeds.
Field observations. — The mere examination of stomach- doe- not give
an adequate notion of tin 1 extent and the methods of weed-seed eating.
It was not feasible to collect stomachs enough to show the character-
istics of all the birds of the farm. A few minute-' field observation,
however, would often tell what a large flock was doing in cases where
it would have been impossible to collect more than a few individuals.
Several notes are cited below to illustrate the sparrow's work, which
begins, as has already been -aid. before the seeds are ripe, and con-
tinues throughout fall and winter and even far into spring.
In a rank weedy growth of crab-grass and green fox-tail era-- in
the truck plot of lot 3 a fiock of 20 juncos was watched for half an
hour. November L5, 1899, as they breakfasted on seed-. At this time
most of the seeds had fallen and the birds picked them up under the
plants instead of taking them from the -talk- a- the chipping -parrow-
haddone in August. On the following day the same Hock, with about
an equal number of white-throated sparrows and song sparrows, flew
to the wheat stubble of lot 3, beside the negro cabin, and bu-ily
gathered fallen seeds of ragweed which had made a rank growth there.
74
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
This wood is troublesome at Marshall Hall: it chokes the crops on
truck lands, gains a foothold in pastures, making milk hitter and
unsalable, and is so pestiferous in hayfields that it has to he removed
by a gleaner. Fortunately, however, it is palatable to seed-eating
birds, and it probably furnishes them a larger proportion of their food
than any other plant on the farm, a fact w hich doubtless prevents
much greater trouble and loss. Another harmful weed is broom-
sedge. It is ruinous to mowing and pasture, and spreads so readily
that if undisturbed it would in time take possession of all the fields
(PI. XIV, lie;. -)• Juncos, field sparrows, tree sparrows, and probably
Pig. 28— Field Bparrow,
Other species check it to some extent. As has been said before. Held
sparrows and tree sparrows are usually to be found associated with it.
In the higher part of the hoe- lot a Hock of field sparrows (fig. 28) dur-
ing the middle of November, L899 and L900, spent most of their time
swaying <>n broom-sedge stalks, from which they were busily extract-
ing seeds. Sometimes a bird alighting on a plant would bend it to
the ground and hold it down with its feet while picking out the seeds;
seldom would one feed from the ground in any other manner. At the
same time a Hock of about :'»<) field and tree sparrows along Persimmon
Branch behind the truck plot of lot 3 were also feeding on broom-sedge.
WEED SEED. »
Am interesting illustration of tree sparrows' habits was noticed on
the Hungerford farm during a heavy snowstorm in tin* third week of
February, P.»<»<>. Here and there where the whitenessof the field was
pierced by phalanxes of dry broom-sedge, a flock of a do/en or more
tree sparrows found good cheer in spite of the driving flakes. Prom
one In-own patch to another they Hew. clinging to the plants while they
plucked out the seeds, seldom leavinga stalk unexplored. Frequently
two would W^'d from a single stalk, while a third, made thrifty by the
wintry dearth, hopped in the snow below searching for scattered seeds.
The snow whirled in clouds across the field, hut these little creature-,
inured to northern tempests, worked on with cheerful, hardy indus-
try. Several days later a flock of more than :i»><> sparrows, chiefly
juncos and tree sparrows,
with some song sparrows
and white-throats, were ob-
served feeding on a piece
of truck land between two
bushy brooks where weeds
grew rank, in places over-
topping a man's head. The
snow beneath was every-
where delicately marked
with interlacing tracks,
which showed how thorough
had been the search for
food. ( )ne -pace 50 yards
square had hardly a square
yard that was free from the
prints of tiny feet. The
main harvest of ragweed
seeds lay buried under the
snow, but remnants still
chine; to the stalks, and lamb's-quarters and amaranth were well laden.
Under all these plants thickly scattered chaff and seed coat- bore wit-
ness to the birds' work.
Fig. 29.— Goldfinch.
WEED DESTRUCTION BY OTHER BIRDS.
Goldfinch. — Goldfinches (tie;. 29) would be as valuable as sparrows it'
they were as numerous. Like sparrows, they destroy weeds throughout
the year. In spring their first fresh supply comes from the dandelion.
On May Is. L899, three males and two females hopped about among
the dandelion globes in the Bryan front yard, every now and then
perching crosswise on the stalks and devouring the seeds. In June
goldfinches often visited the field daisy (Erigeron ramosus), and in
July the purple aster ( Vemonia) and the wild carrot (Daucus carota).
In these cases they appeared to be picking out immature seeds, and
7<> BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
one bird that was shot contained a soft mass of such food. The habit
of feeding on thistles, which has given the species its common name
of 'thistle bird,' was well exemplified one day in A.ugust, L898. A
thistle on which a goldfinch had been feeding was examined and ^u its
Leaves and the ground beneath 67 seeds were counted. They appeared
perfect, but close inspection showed a slit through which the meaty
kernel had been deftly removed. On the 30th and Mist of August,
1 898, the goldfinch was seen eating seeds of the sow thistle and of wild
lettuce. September 7. L896, six birds were banqueting on seeds of
beggar-ticks which had appropriated several square vod> in an outfield
and threatened to give trouble in subsequent seasons. Four young-
sters, so recently fledged that they allowed me to approach within 1»»
feet of them, gave an excellent opportunity (September 21, L896) to
observe how goldfinches U'vd on ragweed. Often they would all
alight on the same plant at once, then they would wrench oil' the seeds,
crack them, extract the meat, and drop the shell, their actions resem-
bling those of a canary at it> seed cup. In one instance three alighted
on a very small plant, which under their weight bent to the ground.
Nothing daunted, they clung to the sprays, heads downward, until
they touched the earth, then, shifting their position so as to hold the
stems under their feet, went on with their meal.
About the middle of November, 1900, a flock of 300 goldfinches were
noted perching in luxuriant ragweed on truck land of the Hungerford
farm, industriously stripping off seeds. The work of such an army
must have caused decided limitation of the next year's growth. During
the third week of February. 1900,aflock of about 50wereseen in a tangle
of trumpet creeper on the edge of the bluff (PI. VI, fig. 1). They were
clinging to the long, partly opened pods, extracting seeds, and the refuse
of their meal made a continual flurry of floating empty seed wings. Dur-
ing four minutes six birds that were somewhat isolated dropped 57 of
these seed wings. Feeding on the trumpet creeper proved to be
habitual with the goldfinch and must have prevented many seeds from
spreading Inland over lot 3 before the prevailing river winds. The
plant is a mischievous weed at Marshall Hall. In L898 it choked out
the oats in one part of a patch and twined around nearly half the corn-
stalks in a held near the liver. It was bad in truck plots during L899
and L900, and always makes tin 4 breaking up of old pastures a serious
undertaking for man and horse. It may be mentioned in passing that
the downy woodpecker has also been seen picking out these winged
seeds, as well as taking mullein and ragweed seeds from the stalk.
Purple Finch. The purple finch, though it habitually i'vvds in trees,
often destroys Seeds of noxious plants. On the L5th and L6th of
November, L900, a thicket of giant ragweed that had made a l<>-foot
growth in the Bryan kitchen garden (PI. XIV, fig. 1) was gay with a
flock <>f 30 finches that hung on the sprays while they stripped off the
WEED SEED. 77
seeds as the goldfinches had. One bird thai was watched with a glass
ate L5 seeds in three minutes.
Chickadee. The Carolina chickadee, though largely insectivorous,
was atso frequently seen hanging head downwards in ragweed plants
wrenching off seeds.
Cardinal. -The cardinal, when observed on arable land, was a deni-
zen of hedgerows. It was not abundant like finches and sparrows,
but was not uncommon in loose fto< ks of ten or a dozen. In company
with sparrows it often foraged a little way out from cover for the
larger weed seeds, and was seen picking up seeds of both small and
giant ragweed. It has a peculiar habit, shared by the fox sparrow,
and seen sometime- in the song sparrow and the white -throat, of
cracking and eating the seeds of berries and other fleshy fruits; a
habit probably useful, especially when seeds of the blackberry and
other fruiting plants that invade cultivated land are selected.
Blackbirds. — The large Hocks of crow blackbirds on the farm, often
numbering from 2,000 to 3,000, have been previously referred to. If
they were not notorious grain thieves they would be famous weed
destroyers. Even as it is they were sometimes seen eating weed seeds,
and in spring, when grain is lacking, they probably do considerable
good. During fall and spring of the years L899, r.'<><>. and 1901,
flocks of from ~>i) to 1<»<) cowbirds, and often several hundred red-
winged blackbirds, and occasionally as many as a thousand rusty
blackbirds, assembled on the farm. They fed on ragweed of wheat
stubble and among weeds of truck area-, and doubtless destroyed an
incalculable number of seeds. Thecowbird and the red-winged black-
bird, according to Professor Beal, feed on weed seed to the extent of
more than half their annual food and during most of the colder half
of the year at least four-fifths.
Meadowlark. The meadowlark. though it gets two-thirds of it-
living from insects, has in the colder months a voracious appetite for
seeds. On the Hungerford farm in November. L899 and L900, were
two flocks of meadowlarks, and on the Bryan farm a single flock some-
what scattered, numbering altogether about 50 individuals. They
usually divided their time among the weeds of cornfields both old and
new. the ragweed of wheat stubble, and the miscellaneous weeds of
truck land. On one occasion birds were seen eating seeds of pigeon-
grass in the la>t situation, and on another picking up seeds of ragweed.
Mourning Dove. After the breeding season there were three Mocks
of doves and three of bob whites distributed like the meadowlarks. Each
flock of doves contained between 20 and ."»<» individuals. One, on the
Bryan place, fed in weedy old cornfields, and, after the wheat had been
harvested, amid the ragweed of wheat stubble, which by August was
18 inches high. A bird killed from this flock had eaten, in addition
78 1URDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
to other food, seeds of yellow sorrel, spotted spurge, crab-grass, and
pigeon-grass. Another, on the upper part of the Hungerford place.
foraged in the ragweed of wheat and oat stubble, and in a heavy crop
of crab-grass and pigeon-grass in a cornfield that was being harvested.
The stomach of one of these birds, taken November 17. L899, contained
L50 ragweed seeds, ami another 300 crab-grass seeds. The third, on
the lower part of this farm, were not seen in stubble-fields, hut fre-
quented forests of weeds in certain orchards and truck plots, and
apparently made their whole fare on the seeds. During the heavy
snow of February. L900, doves fed in a wind-swept pasture, some-
times appearing to pick up weed seeds, and sometimes assembling in
two pits 10 feet in diameter and (3 feet deep, where abundantly fruited
plants of pokeberry were growing. At live different times the flock,
numbering more than 20, was flushed from the pits. Footprints and
red stains on the snow showed that they were eating berries and prob-
ably their seeds, some of which were found on the ground after the
snow had melted. Fruit-eating birds, which take the berries of this
plant, void the seeds uninjured and thus disseminate them, but doves
grind them to atoms by the powerful action of their gizzards.
Bobwhite. — One covey of the bobwhites, which has already been
described as feeding largely on wheat in its season, lived on the upper
part of the Hungerford place; another, still larger, which to judge
from its droppings took practically no grain, lived on the lower part;
and a third lived on the Bryan farm. One bird from the first covey,
7 from the second, and 5 from the third were shot and examined.
These 13 had taken weed seed to the extent of 63 percent of their food.
Thirty-eight percent was ragweed. 2 percent tick-trefoil, partridge pea.
and locust seeds, and 23 percent seeds of miscellaneous weeds, such
as pigweed, sheep sorrel, Pennsylvania persicaria, climbing false
buckwheat, trumpet creeper, paspalum, jewel-weed, and pigeon-grass.
Though the stomachs and crops were not well tilled, the birds had eaten
5,582 weed seeds. One crop contained 4:00 pigweed seeds, another
500 seeds of ragweed. The latter seeds, which are cracked open by
most birds, are swallowed whole by bobwhites and doves, in spite of
the spiny processes which besel them. One bobwhite, in addition to
Other food, had consumed 550 seeds of sheep sorrel; another 640 seeds
of pigeon-grass; and several .'»<> to loo seeds of jewel-weed.
Extent of weed-seed destruction.— Inspection of an acre of truck land
between two converging bushy brooks on tin 4 Hungerford farm
(November l»i. L899), gave a very satisfactory idea of the autumn
work of weed-destroying birds. Crab-grass and pigeon-grass formed
a low undergrowth, while lamb's-quarters, pigweed, and giant rag-
weed from 6 to 10 feet high rose in a thick weed forest. A flock of
ir> quail foraged in the center of the area. 25 doves were scattered over
the upper end, and fully 200 native sparrows scurried about at the
SPECIES. 7'.'
lower end, while a band of 300 goldfinches clung t<> the ragweed stalks
plucking off seeds, [f we make the fair assumption thai the birds
remained on this acre of plenty long enough to obtain a full meal, we
can reckon approximately the destruction wrought. At a moderate
estimate 20 seeds apiece may be allowed for the goldfinches, LOO for the
narrows, providing that they were from crab-grass or pigeon-grass,
and 500 for the doves and bobwhites, or a total of 46,000 seeds destroyed
at a single breakfast.
In the last week of April an attempt was made to ascertain what
proportion of the weed seeds ripening on tin 4 farm had been consumed
luring the previous half year. In "the wheat field of lot 4. where at
the beginning of October there had been score- of seeds, on every rag-
weed plant, it was difficult to find in a fifteen-minute search half a
do/en remaining. In the truck plot of lot 3, which had borne a thick
growth of pigeon-grass, examination of an area where there had been
hundreds of seeds the autumn before would sometimes fail to disclose
One. and in a mat of crab-grass in the same field frequently not one
was left <>ut of a thousand present in October.
VII.— SPECIES.
Having discussed under the heads of insects. flesh, fruit, grain, and
weed seed the elements that entered into the food of the bird- at
Marshall Hall, we may now enumerate the birds themselves and indi-
cate as fur as possible the economic status of each with reference to
this particular farm."
WATER BIRDS.
The data concerning water birds are so limited as almost to preclude
anything more than a list of species.
GREBES.
The horned grebe (Colymbus wwritui) has been noted on the river
at Marshall Hall in December on two occasions. A pied-billed grebe
\Podttymhm podia ps) was diviner in the bay where the shore curves
up to the calamus swamp December L2, L900 (PI. Ill, fig. 1). During
■ovemberand December as many as a do/en grebes may often be seen
on the .Mount Vernon flats, on the Virginia side of the river. Grebes
feed much lesson fish than is popularly understood, and probably do
little harm to fisheries. The large proportion of vegetable matter in
their food renders them excellent eating, the flesh resembling that ^\'
the adult pigeon in taste. They are difficult to secure, however, as
their diving habit protects them from all but the mosl persistent
gunner-.
o Whenever h>t> «it species of birds are given the figure placed alter a name
indicates the number oi stomachs of that Bpeciee which were examined.
80 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FA KM.
LOON-.
The common loon (Gavia imber) and the red-throated loon (Gavi<
lumme) have, beer noted at Marshall Hall by Mr. William Palmer.
MURRES.
The Briinnich murre ( Urialomvia) has been noted at Marshall Hal
by Mr. William Palmer.
(JTLLS VXD TKKXS.
!•_
The herring gull (Zarus argentatw) and the ring-billed gull [La/n
delawarensis) occur on the river in the colder half of the year. Dur
ing March and the first half of April it is not uncommon to see from
a dozen to twenty gulls floating between the farm and Mount Vernon
(PL XVII, fig. 2), apparently busy fishing. The common tern (Sterna,
hi/rv/ndc) and the black tern {Hydroehelidon nigra mrinamensis) have
aiso been noted at Marshall Hall.
DUCK-. GEESE, AND OTHEB WATEB FOWL.
The following species of water fowl were noted on the river at
Marshall Hall: "
Red-breasted merganser (Merganser ser- Redhead (Aythya americana).
rotor). Canvasback (Aythya vallisneria), !.
Hooded merganser (Lopkodytes cucul- Scaup duck (Aythya marUa) .
Iotas), 2. Lesser scaup duck l Aythya affinis), L.
Mallard (Anas boschas). Golden-eye (Clangula clangula ameri-
Black duck (Anas obscura). cana).
Baldpate | Ufareca americana) t 1. Buffle-head ( Charitonetta albeo
Green-winged teal (NetHoncarolinensis). Old-squaw (Harelda hy emails). Noted
Blue-winged teal ( Querquedula discors) . by Mr. William Palmer.
Shoveller (Spatula clypeata). Canada goose ( Branta canad* nsis I.
Pintail (DaJUa acuta). Whistling swan (Ofor columManus) , 1.
Wood duck | Mr sponsa).
Ducks were so abundant here before the civil war that they were
regularly counted on for the larder. As late as L864and L865 it was
not uncommon in November to find a Hock of 150 scaup ducks in the
Little bay by the calamus swamp, and in tin' same place ten years ear-
lier as many as 15 canvasbaeks were killed at a shot. It is now rare
for half a dozen ducks ^\' the commonest species to settle in the bay.
Across the river on the Mount Vernon Hats (1*1. XVII, fig. 2), where
there is an abundance of wild celery ( Vallisneria spiralis)^ Hocks of
from 25 to 200 ducks are occasionally seen, but they are SO contin-
uously fusiladed from launches that run down from Washington an J
Alexandria chat they are soon killed or driven away. Much worse
slaughter is wrought by the * bio-* o im at night or in the early dawn.
These 'big' guns are in reality cannon mounted in gunning skills.
Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agricultur
Plate XV.
111
iSiii%
2 l^^JBt 'i^SflB
Eaew-w*
:!*
HKfc-Ni
rf
Fig. 1.— Bobwhite.
Fig. 2. -Woodcock.
B, 17, Biological Survey, U. S Dept. of Agr
Plate XVI.
]
PIMM . ' *9t
■ HI
- • ^
™ "SE
*~ T 52
^Nr
r^'^o
■^ ^i •«*■
*
*
• X
• j
1 1
1
■
■
1
'.—Broom-Sedge of Lot 2. Frequented at Night by Bobwhites.
Fig. 2.— Partridge Pea Overspreading Pasture of Lot 4. Eaten Extensively
by Bobwhites.
The pines in the background were defoliated by the pine Baw-fly in the spring of 1900.
8PB< M 81
They arc Loaded with a pound of shot that kills at 300 yards or more.
The use of the big gun is unlawful, but duck pot hunters have often
eluded the authorities by throwing the gun overboard, having pre-
viously attached a string and a large cork, so as to insure subsequent
recovery. Shooting from launches, which is also frequent and very
destructive in this vicinity, is against the law in many places, and
should be generally prohibited.
The stomach <>t* a baldpate that was taken March '2'l. L902, con-
tained only sprouting wild rice and the stems of some aquatic plants.
Cwo hooded mergansers collected November 15, L900, had fed exclu-
sively on small fish. A lesser scaup duck taken on the same day had
eaten the (daw of a blue crab and 75 snails (mostly Amnicola altUe8,
with a few Goniahosis virginicus and Planorbis aUyus), The stomach
of a canva back killed the day previous contained LOO seeds of bulrush
(Scirpus). A whistling swan killed November 16 had in its stomach
one bulrush seed and a mass of wild celery leaves about as large as
the ball of a man's thumb. The latter plant is abundant in shallow
water about Marshall Mall, and gives the characteristic flavor to
banvasbacks and other water fowl that feed on it.
HERONS.
The following herons were noted:
Least hit' "-'i (Ardetta > vUis). Green heron (Ardea vlrescens), 2.
Great bl leron (Ardea herodias). Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax
Little Line heron (Ardea cxrvlea). nycticorax nsevius), 1.
The last three species eat fish extensively, but also take other food.
One of two green herons that were collected contained, besides fish, a
large spider, a giant water bug (Belostomatidie), and 20 dragon-Hies
• (Agrionidse).
KAIL.
The toothsome little sora rail (JFbrzana Carolina) is found during
I August and September amid the wild rice of the calamus swamp. The
I stomach of one. when examined, contained 200 wild rice seeds.
COOT.
The coot (Fulicii
B2 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
the table of (liu-k- and other waterfowl that are fast becoming exter-
minated. Coots may l»e bought in Washington at the rate of three for
25 cents, while canvas-backs in good condition can not be had for less
than $3 a pair.
Dr. B. W. Kverniann. who has recently made a careful study of the
coot, says:
I have been very much interested in the coot as an article of food. The opinion
of those who have put themselves on record in the books is almost unanimous that
the coot is worthless as food. And inquiry among my ornithological friends here
in Washington resulted in my finding only two or three who had ever tasted coot.
The majority of them seemed to regard eating coot very much as we regard eating
crow — a tiling not to be thought of !
But my friends Dr. Fisher and Mr. William Palmer admit that they have eaten
coot and like it. They even say they regard coot as not at all inferior to the famous
canvas-back duck, and in this I agree with them fully. Coot, particularly young
ones, skinned and fried, or even old ones parboiled, then baked, are quite as deli-
cious as any duck I ever ate.
It is, however, doubtless true that the delicacy of flavor, not only of the coot, but
also of the canvas-back and all other ducks, is largely determined by the kind- of
food they get. The wild celery ( VaMimeria spiralis) is sufficiently abundant in
Lake Maxinkuckee to give to the coot frequenting that lake a delicate flavor which
has received high praise from all who are familiar with it/'
SHORE BIRDS.
Woodcock (PJdlohela minor* PL XV, fig. 2) are not uncommon at
Marshall Hall. On both the Marshall Hall and Hungerford farms
there are wooded dells of less than an acre in extent containing small,
sluggish, marshy streams communicating with the Potomac. In these
places during July woodcock are always to be found. They do not
feed much in the dells, but at dusk forage out in the neighboring
cornfields, and so destroy harmful insects. Thus, one bird, shot June
26, 1899, in this spot, had eaten wireworms and cutworms in addition
to earthworms, fly larva 1 , and May-flies. At the junction of two
bushy brooks on the lower part of the Hungerford place, woodcock
occur in the fall, and one collected November 15, 1900, had in its
stomach two beetle larva 1 , one grape seed, and two seeds of bastard
pennyroyal.
Just below the Hungerford farm is a wooded swamp of a dozen
acres where woodcock are also to be found. It is impossible to pene-
trate into this swamp more than a few rods without sinking to the
knees in a black ooze composed of decayed vegetation. Woodcock
are not found in this soft morass, hut are confined to the edges and
along a liny alder-fringed stream which issues from a spring at the
head of the swamp. A favorite feeding ground, located where this
Stream enters the forested body of the swam}) amid elders, magnolias,
ashes, willows, and maples, was inspected in July. 1 !»<)•_>. and in an area
"Osprey, Vol. I (new series), No. 4, p. 64, April, 1902.
SPE< LE8.
b rod wide by several long the ground was found to be splashed with
the chalk-like droppings of the birds, and in spots a foot or more in
diameter had been probed to such an extent by their long bill- that it
reminded one of a colander. The holes thus made were from 1 to 2
inches in depth. An examination of the earth showed that there wa-
a compacted layer ot* Mack decaying leaves from one-fourth of an inch
to 1 inch in depth. Below the layer of leaves, some of which were
not so rotted but that they retained their Integrity, was found moist,
yellowish-gray sand. Twenty examination- of the ground were made.
each within a few inches of a -pot marked by the borings, in order to
secure specimens of invertebrates on which the woodcock subsists.
The ground was dug up to the depth of several inches, and in the
region where the leaves and sand met. large cumbers of earthworms,
spiders, snail-, hydrophilid beetle-, ground-beetles and their larva.',
and the larva 1 of tipulid flies were unearthed. All of these have been
taken from the stomachs of woodcock collected elsewhere. A search
was made out in the middle of the swamp, where the black humus is
from 6 inches to 3 feet in depth, but no food of any consequence could
be found, which may account for the absence of woodcock in the
middle of tin 1 swamp.
On the creeks below Mar-hall Hall woodcock are abundant, and
during the fall of L901 were slaughtered in enormous numbers. Law-
limiting the bag per day and prohibiting summer shooting are greatly
needed in this county.
A Wil-on snipe ( tr>iJI'>ini. could occasionally be seen feeding on tin 4 luxuriant
growth of partridge pea in lot 4 (PI. XVI. tig. 2). More of these
84 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
birds than usual escaped from gunners, and the following spring (1902)
bred about the farm. One pair was located on the edge of the cal-
amus swamp, <»nc on the river bluff near the cabin, one in the mid-
dle of lot 4. two on the edge of the wood- of lot :>. two along the west-
ern boundary fence of the farm, and several along Persimmon and
Partridge branches. They were still incubating during the last week
of June. The cocks, mounted on fence posts or the lower branches
i)i tree-, were whistling their 'Boh White 5 incessantly. When a
cock approached its mate while it was on its uest, it uttered the -oft
rally note so familiar to the sportsman in the fall. This was followed
by a caterwauling much more unhirdlike than that of the yellow-
breasted chat. One of its noises resembled that made by a cat calling
a kitten. Another suggested the scolding of a caged gray squirrel.
Others sounded like a combination of the alarm note- of a hen grouse
with chicks and the strident cries of a guinea hen. It also uttered a
loud, rasping noise such as might have been emitted by a whip-poor-
will with a cracked voice.
In their feeding these birds picked dewberries, gathered scattered
grain in wheat stubble, and caught grasshoppers, ground-beetles
(Har/xi/ a* jKiinxijI r poultry, name, and fish and th<>-e
which are useful in destroying noxious rodent- have already been di--
o Recorded on authority of Robert 1.. Ferguson, of Washington, 1'. C.
86 BIRD- OF A MARYLAND FARM.
cussed (see pp. 50-55). A stomach of each of the following hawk- was
examined: Marsh hawk, red-shouldered hawk, and broad-winged
hawk. The firsl contained a meadow mouse; the second, part of a
crayfish and 2frogs; and the third, -J. beetles— a May-beetle {Lachnos-
terna) and a tumblebug (' V, ot '/■";>< 8 vplendidm) part of a meadow
mouse, and the remains of 4 short-tailed shrews and a snake (Storetna).
A young broad-winged hawk, old enough to fly, which was kept for
several weeks, exhibited interesting feeding habits. When a live
mouse was placed in the cage, the hawk pounced on it with both feet.
sinking its talons into the mouse's vitals, hut not once using its beak
until after the death struggle. As soon as the mouse had been struck
the hawk uttered continual high-keyed shrieks, spread its wings and
tail, and pressed them against the ground so as to make an inclosure
or tent, the opening of which it guarded with its beak. No such
spreading of the wings and tail took place when the prey consisted of
big moths, grasshoppers, or beetles. When a three-quarters-grown
English sparrow was placed in the cage the hawk struck it a blow with
one foot, clutching and killing it instantly. Still gripping the spar-
row, it pulled the head off with its beak and swallowed it. Next it
ripped open the body cavity and ate the whole digestive tract at one
mouthful. Then, beginning w T ith one leg. it finished the sparrow in
four more mouthfuls.
The sparrow hawk is the most useful destroyer of insect pests
(grasshoppers), while the marsh hawk is the most valuable enemy of
injurious rodents. During the fall the Latter may be seen skimming
over the fields, pouncing upon meadow mice and remaining for some
time in the grass eating its prey. This habit has made it an easy
mark for the fanners at Marshall Hall. who. on seeing it drop into
the grass to feed, have been accustomed to run, often several hundred
yards, and shoot it as it rises. .
OWLS.
Three short-eared owls (Asio aedpitrinus) which were 4 killed during
November, L899, L901, and 1902, contained nothing but meadow mice.
The barred owl (Syrnium varmm)* occurs at Marshall Hall, but is
not common.
On May 30, L892, Mr. E. A. Preble, of the Biological Survey, col-
lected 3 young and 2 adult screech owls (Megascops asip) and a great
horned owl {Huh,, mrginianus) near the mouth of the calamus swamp
on the Bryan farm. Screech owls are of much economic value, owing
to the fact that they feed largely on insects and do not destroy birds
or poultry. The stomachs of those taken by Mr. Preble contained
May-beetle- and lizards. In the stomach of the great horned owl
were the remains of several dung-beetles, insects of neutral effect on
agriculture. A> a rule, this bird takes few insects of any kind and is
very injurious to poultry.
8PEOIE8.
87
CUCKOOS.
One black-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus erythrophthalm/us) and 2 yellow*
hilled cuckoos (Coccyzus america/nvs^ fig. 30) were collected on the
Bryan farm in the latter half of May. They had eaten 1 spider, 1
click-beetle, 1 sap-beetle (Euphoria inda),2 rose-chafers (Macrodactyhis
siibs/>iii<>sus), lo locust Leaf -mining beetles ( Odontota dorsaZds), ^<» beetles
<>t* the firefly family, 1 skipper butterfly (Mtdarmts), 20 caterpillars, of
which is were the repulsive, large, spiny, black larvae of the mourning-
cloak butterfly ( Vanessa a nt'wpa)\ 4 bugs, of which 1 was a green
soldier bug (Nezara hilaris), and another Metapodius femoratus, (.0
May-flies, and 20 black insects related to the dobson and known as
sin/ Is infumata. Rose-chafers, which are very destructive insect-.
are eaten by only a few birds. The skipper and cabbage butterflies
were the onlv butterflies eaten by Marshall Hall birds. The larvae of
Fifi. 30.— Yellow-billed cuckoo.
the mourning-cloak butterfly are often selected bv cuckoos, as are also
other hairy and spiny caterpillars that other birds avoid. Caterpillars,
largely in such forms, make half of the cuckoo's food, grasshoppers
and their allies about a third, and beetles, with small numbers of mis-
cellaneous insects, the remaining sixth. The cuckoo is not abundant
on the farm. It is undoubtedly the most useful of the exclusively
insectivorous birds found at Marshall Hall, because of the protection
it gives to tin' foliage of forest and orchard.
KINGFISHERS.
One pair of kingfishers was seen continually along the shore of
lots L and 2 (PI. Ill, fig. 2), and another pair nested in the sandy
bluff of the Hungerford farm. The .food of the bird has already
88 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
been mentioned in connection with the piscivorous habits of birds (see
p. 53). The stomachs of 5 nestlings were examined.
WOODPECKERS.
The following woodpeckers were noted at Marshall Hall:
Downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens), Red-headed woodpecker I Melanerpes ery~
13. throcephalus), 1.
Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus va- Eted-1 ellied woodpecker I Mekmerpea car-
rius), 2. oli n us |.
Pileated woodpecker i ( 'eophlceus pUeatus). Flicker | Colaptes auratus i, 2.
The stomachs of 13 downy woodpeckers were collected. All con-
tained insects and 2 fruit — the berries of smilax and poison ivy.
Ants appeared to be the favorite food, having been eaten by all the
birds except one. Beetles and their larva? had been eaten by 8 birds.
The kinds selected were click-beetles, ground-beetles (Amara), dark-
ling-beetles (Helqps aerem)) and longicorn-beetles (Elaphidion). Cat-
erpillars, including Cdtocala, were found in 3 stomachs; miscellaneous
insects, principally fly-like insects, in 4; snails in 2, and spiders in 7.
Vegetable food amounted to one-fourth of the whole, a proportion
probably diminished by the fact that 4 of the stomachs were those of
young birds. As the downy woodpecker feeds largely on wood-
boring insects and other species that infest tree trunks, it is useful in
woodland and orchard.
The yellow-bellied sapsucker (fig. 31) is the cause of all the maledic-
tions that have been heaped on the woodpecker tribe. It secures a
large part of its food by drilling holes in tree trunks to serve as wells
for collecting the sap on which it feeds. Tn examining SI stomachs
of this woodpecker, Professor Beal found that sapwood or alburnum
formed 23 percent of their contents, a circumstance that indicates the
importance of sap in the economy of this species. Sap itself can not
be detected unless the stomach is examined immediately, which is
impracticable in the case of stomachs stmt to the Department of
Agriculture.
Several authors have mentioned the fact that this bird kills birches.
The following field notes show the manner in which it works injury to
apple t reos:
In the summer of L895 there was on the Bryan farm a little orchard
of 9 apple trees, about twelve years old, that appeared perfectly
healthy. In the fall sapsuckers tapped them in many places, and
during spring and fall of the next four years they resorted to them
regularly for supplies of sap. Observations were made (October L5,
L896) of two sapsuckers in adjoining trees of the orchard. From a
point 20 feet distant they were watched for three hours with powerful
glasses to see whether they i'vd to any considerable extent on ants and
SPECIES.
other insects that were running over the tree trunks. In that time
one bird seized an ant and the other snapped at -<>me flying insecf.
One drank sap from the drills 30 and the other 11 times. Later in
the day one drilled '2 new holes and the other 5. The holes were
made in more or less regular rings about tin 1 trunk, one* ring close
above another, for a distance of 6 to 8 inches. The drills were about
a quarter of an inch deep, and penetrated the hark and the outer part
of the wood.
SS
\
Fig. 81.— Yellow-bellied sapsucker.
In November, L900, 7 of the 9 tree- were dead and the others wore
flying. A strip of hark- 7 inches long by 2 wide, where the sapsuckers
had worked in L896, was torn oil and found to contain 84 drills, an aver-
age of •') to the square inch. Many of them were so close together that
the tissue between had broken down, leaving rents in the hark an inch
or two long, and in some place- almost girdling the tree. The loss >f
sap must have been an exhausting drain, bul it was not the sole cause
of death. Beetle- of the Hat-headed apple borer, attracted by the
90
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
exuding sap, hud oviposited in the holes, and the next generation,
haying thus grained an entrance, had finished the deadly work begun
by the sapsuckers. Holes made by birds are sometimes closed by
burl-like knobs of wood, but if they remain open the death of the
tree from borers La very likely to result. In the ease of the trees
killed at Marshall Hall, galleries made by borers had honeycombed
the wood beneath the section of hark riddled by the sapsuckers.
Only 2 stomachs of sapsuckers were collected. They were taken
during the middle of November, L899 and L900, and contained several
dung-beetles (Aphodius) and the fruit of woodbine and red cedar.
The red-headed woodpecker is not common at Marshall Hall, though
it was seen in small numbers every fall. One specimen taken NTovem-
~uin
FIG. 32.— Flicker.
her 29, 1900, among the swamp oaks south of lots 4 and 5, had eaten gall
insects (Cynipidee) and many bits of the woody tissue of the gall.
This woodpecker makes about half its food on vegetable matter,
largely masl with some berries, and selects for its insect food chiefly
beetles. ants, and grasshoppers. It is, on the whole, useful.
The dicker (fig. 32), though nesting on the farm, was common only
during migration, when it was seen in flocks of from 6 to 12. A
Stomach collected in the middle of November, L899, contained 10
ground-beetles (including Anisodactylus^ Ifis penrisyVoomicus^ and
Ptero8tic}vuB sayi\ 5 ants, 1 sow bug, 1 black cricket and skin, and
20 seeds of woodbine berries. The flicker is somewhat more insectiv-
SPECIES. 91
otou8 than the redhead. Lts vegetable food usually consists of a little
masl and a good deal of wild fruit. It [fi less of a woodpecker than
any other species of the family, for it is much less arboreal and spends
a large part of the time on the ground securing ants with it- Long
sticky tongue. As many as .'>.<><><> ants have been taken from one
Btomach. So important Is this article of .Met that it form- three-
fourth- <>f the insect food of the species.
WHIP-POOR-WILLS, NIGHT-HAWKS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMING-
BIRDS.
Whip-poor-wills (Antrostonvus vocifervs) and night-hawks (Ohor-
deiles virginianiis), two exclusively insectivorous species, are highly
useful. The former was frequently heard, and the latter was fre-
quently seen in late summer as it soared over the farm after ants.
The chimney swift {Chaetura pdagicd) is, as might he expected,
wholly insectivorous. Three birds collected July is. 1898, had caught
tin 1 following insects on the wing: One small bee (Andrenidse), 3 bugs
(Heteroptera), and 34 weevils (Sitones htspicfadvs).
The ruby-throated hummingbird (TrochiVus coVubrii) feeds on insects
and the nectar of flowers. During the last of May it visited the flowers
of the persimmon, in June the honeysuckle, and later tobacco and
the trumpet creeper. A bird that was shot fresh from a trumpet flower
had eaten 1 little green bee (Andrenidse) and 1 minute spider.
FLYCATCHERS.
The following species of flycatchers have been noted at Marshall
Hall:
Scissor-tailed Flycatcher (Muscivora forfiectfa). Noted by Mr. 0. N. Bryan.
Kingbird i Tyrannua tiiranmis), 16.
Great crested flycatcher | Myiarchus crinitus), 4.
Phu'bc (Sayarnis phcebe) , 3.
Wood pewee I Oontdpus virens), 11.
Acadian flycatcher (JEhnpidonax virescerm), 1.
Sixteen kingbirds were collected from Ma} T 28 to July 30. Insects
formed 71 percent and fruit 29 percent of their food. The fruit con-
sisted of cherries, sassafras, wild and cultivated mulberries, elder, and
blackberries. The proportion of insect food was not SO large as is
typical for the species, a circumstance resulting probably from the
readiness with which fruit could be obtained. Beetles constituted 37
percent of the food, grasshoppers and crickets 23 percent, ants and
bees 4 percent, parasitic wasps 2 percent, miscellaneous insects, includ-
ing caterpillars and bugs, 3 percent, and spiders 2 percent. Among
the miscellaneous insects were a stink bug (Hymenarcys nervosa), an
assassin bug (Sinea diademd), and a whole cabbage butterfly (Pieris
rapse). The bees included small wild species (Andrenidse) and drones
92 BIRDS OF \ MARYLAND FARM.
of honeybees.. The parasitic wasps included forms of the families
Ichneumonidse and Scoliidse. ( )f the beetles, which were by all means
the most interesting element of the insect food, ground-beetles (includi
Lng Anisodactylus and Cratacantfous dubius) furnished 2 percent, tigers
beetles, soldier-beetles {Chauliognathits pennsylvanicus), and dung-
beetles (Atsenius and Aphodius) 3 percent, and injurious beetles of the
following species 30 percent :
hafer \facrodactylus subspinosus). Locust leaf-mining beetle (Odontota dor*
Southern June-beetle (AUorhina nuHda). salts).
Shining Leaf-chafer | Anomala). Blister-beetle | Epicauta cinerea).
Sad flower-beetle I Euphoria melancholica) . Asparagus-beetle I CriocerU asparag
Long-horned beetles i including Leplura t.
Asparagus- beetles and blister-beetles arc scarcely ever eaten by
other birds and rose-chafers seldom; hence the service rendered by the
kingbird in destroying these insects and others of an injurious charac-
ter in large numbers makes it one of the most valuable allies of the
farmer.
Of the remaining flycatchers collected, the wood pewee and the
Acadian flycatcher are purely insectivorous, and the phoebe and the
great crested flycatcher, though subsisting chiefly on insects, quite
often, especially in late summer, vary their fare with fruit.
One Acadian flycatcher was collected. It had eaten a spider, a
parasitic wasp, a long-horned beetle, a leaf-beetle (Crepidodera), and
a banded-winged horsefly (CJirysops).
Of 11 wood pewees all had taken beetles, including click-beetles, long-
horned beetles (Leptwra rubricd), dung-beetles ( Onthophagus pennsyl-
vanieus), soldier-beetles (( %auiiognatlvm pt nnsylvanicus), locust leaf-
mining beetles (Odontota dorsalis) and a related Leaf-beetle (Haemonia
nigricornis), and weevils of the species Pkytonomus punotatus and
Sphenophorm zese. Seven had destroyed parasitic wasps, including
Braconidae, Evaniidee, Lchneumonidas {Mesostewus and others), and
Scoliidse {Ti/>/i< of bastard pennyroyal,
and 12 of rasrweed.
BLUE JAYS AND CROWS.
Six blue jays (Cyarwcitta cristata, fig. 34) were collected in May
and November. All except one bad taken insects. Beetles were the
most important element and comprised ( f hlcmiu8 sestwus, Lachnost rna,
94
HTKI>S OF A MARYLAND FARM.
Euphoria fulgida, Onthqphagus, Elateridse, and Curculionidse. The
less important element was composed of parasitic wasps, May-flies,
and grasshoppers (Locustidse). One bird had eaten a snail and one a
spider. One had taken mulberries and all had eaten acorns. Mast
formed half the total volume of food. None of these six specimens had
eaten grain, which usually enters into the blue jay*- food to some
extent, and in certain localities in New Hampshire that came under
direct observation furnished a significant part of it. The blue jay
takes about three times as much vegetable as animal food. It appears
to do no harm at Marshall Hall and consumes a fair quantity of injuri-
ous beetles, grasshoppers, and caterpillars.
The common crow (( 'orvus americanus) was much more numerous on
the farm than the fish crow ( ( 'orvus ossifragus). Four stomachs of the
former species were collected. In the case of this bird, which, as has
been shown, attacks poultry and grain (see pp. i)<> and*').')), protection
?^0m i
is not desirable at Marshall Hall. Elsewhere the species may do as
much good as harm, perhaps even more, but here local conditions
make encouragement of its presence incompatible with prudent
farming.
ME ADO WL ARKS, BOBOLINKS, AND COWBIRDS.
The meadowlark {SturneUa magna) is one of the class of highly use-
ful birds. It is commonly supposed to be largely vegetarian, but it
really takes about three times as much animal matter as vegetable.
One-third of this major part is usually composed of grasshoppers,
though these insects were not abundant enough at Marshall Hall to
enter largely into the food of the 7 meadowlarks collected. Injurious
beetles and caterpillars, however, were taken in customary quantities.
The meadowlark, which is commonly regarded as a game bird at
8PECIE8,
95
Marshall Hall, is frequently shot, and its valuable work as a destroyer
of weed seed and insects is thus often cut off.
When the bobolink {Dolickonyx oryzwonis^ fig. 35) tarries on the
farm in its southward migration it lives wholly on the wild rice of the
calamus swamp, I >ut on its return journey in May it <-at- injurious
insects and weed s(^h\ of the wheat and clover fields. Six stomachs
were collected in May.
Tin 4 cowbird {Molothrus ater), as has been shown by Prof. I-'. E. L.
Heal." takes three times the volume of seeds that it takes of insects.
Both of the -I stomachs examined contained grasshoppers (Xvphidium
and Mdanoplus) and 1 of them leaf-hoppers, two elements character-
Fig. 36.— Bobolink.
istie of the insect food of the species. The bird does little damage
to grain fields, and renders much service with other birds in reducing
the weed-seed harvest of the farm.
BLACKBIRDS AND ORIOLES.
The red-winged blackbird (Agelavus phcenicem^ fig. 36), however
destructive to grain it may he elsewhere, does no damage in the grain-
fields at Marshall Hall. Its insect food, which is to its vegetable food
as one to three, is composed largely of weevils, caterpillars, and grass-
a Bobolink, Blackbirds, and Grackles. Bull. No. VA, Biological Survey, Pept. of
Agriculture, p. 29, 1900.
96
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
hoppers. Its good work among weeds bus been previously described
(see ]>. 77). Eight stomachs were examined, but with little significance
of result, for the temporary abundance of May-flies had diverted the
birds from insect pests.
One stomach of the rusty blackbird (Scolecophagus carolmus) wad
collected April L4, L899. It contained beetles (JBdrpakts and 8itonei)\
1 caterpillar. 1 small bee, and some waste corn. The character and
extent of weed-seed destruction by rusty blackbirds on the farms at
Marshall Hall has been shown on p. 77.
('row blackbirds (QuiscaZus quiscula) have been proved by examina-
tion of thousands of stomachs to take fully twice as much vegetable as
animal food, the vegetable food being chiefly grain and fruit. And at
Marshall Hall, after the young were established in life and the hosts of
Northern birds, includ-
ing the subspecies Quw-
calus quiscala aeru us, had
arrived, systematic pil-
lage of grain fields took
place (see j). 67), which
could be cheeked only by
the shotgun. Twenty-
five stomachs of thespe-
cies were examined.
Theorchardoriol e
(IcU rus spuriiis) is a sum-
mer resident at Marshall
Hall and may usually be
found nesting during the
breeding season to the
extent of a dozen pairs, though the present summer (1902) formed
an exception to this rule, the usual number being reduced to 2 or 8.
The food of this species, as shown in 11 stomachs collected during
May and June, was composed of ( .»1 percent animal matter and 9 per-
cent vegetable matter. The latter part was nearly all mulberries;
the former was distributed as follows: Fly larvae, 1 percent; parasitic
wasps, 2 percent; ants, 4 percent; bugs, 5 percent; caterpillars, 12
percent; grasshoppers, including a few crickets. L3 percent; beetles,
14 percent; May-Hies, 27 percent; spiders. L3 percent. Thus bene-
ficial insect- parasitic wasps formed only 2 percent of the food, and
injurious species — caterpillars, grasshoppers, and harmful beetles —
amounted to 38 percent.
f ldie Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula) is also a highly insectivorous,
useful species, but occurs at Marshall Hall only during migration.
One bird was collected May 29, L896. It had eaten mulberries, 2
small wasps, 2 fall webworms, 1 click-beetle, and 15 locust leaf-mining
beetles.
Fig. 86.— Red-winged blackbird.
Fig. 1.— Bluebird at Edge of Nest with Grasshopper
in Mouth.
From photograph l>y Rev. !'. B. Peahody.
Fig. 2— Former Nesting Site of Bluebirds on Lawn at Bryan Farm.
The hole used by the birds may be seen aboul halfway to the top of the tree againsl which
the gun i-. leaning. \s in Plate I Mounl Vernon Is to be seen in the distance.
s.
FINCHES AND SPARROWS.
One purple finch (Oarpodacus purpureus) was collected (February
gO, L900) from a flock feeding on cedar berries. Examination revealed,
therefore, only remains of this fruit.
Specimens of the red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra minor) and the
white-winded crossbill {Loxia leitcoptera) were collected at Marshall
Hall by Mr. 0. N. Bryan, who presented them to the [ . S. National
Museum.
Eleven goldfinches {Astragalirms tristis) were collected. [nsects
(caterpillars) had been eaten by only one. practically all the food con-
sisting of seeds, principally weed seeds. The goldfinch is probably
the most useful seed-eater on the farm.
Several pine siskins (Spimcs pinus) were seen December 1, L901,
in company with goldfinches.
The following native sparrows were noted:
Vesper sparrow I Pocecetes gramineus).
Savanna sparrow i Ammodramus sandwichensis savanna), 1.
Grasshopper sparrow | Ammodramus savannarum passerinus), 10.
Henslow sparrow (Ammodramus henslovri), 1.
White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis), 17.
Tree sparrow (SpizeUa monticola), 9.
Chipping sparrow (SpizeUa sociolis), 61.
Field sparrow (SpizeUa pusilla }, 31.
unco (.In iicn hyemalis), 11.
Bong sparrow I Melospiza melodia), 36.
Lincoln sparrow (Melospiza lincolni).
Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca).
From May to September, inclusive, half the food of field, song,
chipping, and grasshopper sparrows consists of insects. The grass-
hopper sparrow is the most insectivorous of the four, but a descrip
tion of the insect food taken by it at Marshall Hall will serve,
because of similarity, to indicate that of the other three. The main
part was composed <>f hectics, caterpillars, and grasshoppers. The
beetles included Sitones Mspidulus, Drasterius, Systena elongata,
Systena I>I!s hrunnea, Anisod-actylus, and Atsenius.
BThe caterpillars belonged chiefly to the family Nbctuidae, including
| many cutworms and army worms. Caterpillars of the family (ieome-
tridse were occasionally eaten. The grasshoppers were of the genera
Xiphidiurn, Scudderia, Melanoplus, Hippiscus, and Dissosteira. The
following bugs also had been eaten: Corizux, Trichopepla semwittata,
Hymenarcya nervosa, and Alydus pilosulus. Spiders were frequently
taken.
The chipping and field sparrows sometimes destroy small numbers
of useful parasitic wasps, and the song sparrow now and then eat- the
(ess beneficial smaller ground-beetle-. The insectivorous habits of all
72l>l>— No. L7—02 7
98 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
these native species arc on the whole, however, extremely valuable to
man. The consumption of weed seeds, the chief service of these
birds as well as of those that visit the farm only in the colder season,
has already been emphasized (see p. 7*2). For a detailed account of
the food habits of sparrows the reader is referred to 'The Relation
of Sparrows to Agriculture. ' a As there shown, and as set forth in
the first part of this bulletin (see p. 17), the English sparrow differs
radically in habits from the native sparrows and is a pest that should
be exterminated.
One towhee (Plpllo erythrophthalmus) was taken September %.
1896. Its stomach was found to contain a locust leaf-mining- beetle, a
weevil, a ground-beetle, a bug, a cricket, ants, and remains of
broken seeds.
Ten cardinals ( Cardinalis cardinalis) were collected from February
to November, inclusive, with the omission of March. Twenty-two
percent of their food consisted of animal matter (insects and spiders)
and 78 percent of vegetable matter (half fruit and half seeds). Of the
minor proportion, bugs formed 1 percent; spiders, May-flies, and
grasshoppers, each 2 percent, and beetles 15 percent. The beetles
were as follows: Agrilus egenus, Dlcerca obscura, Macrodaetylus suth
spinosus, JQonada, Odontota dor sails, IlyperplatyxaxjH'rsux, Anisodac-
t yl 'us agricola. On November 29, 1901, two cardinals were noted
eating seeds of the tulip tree.
One stomach of the indigo bird (Cyanosplza cyaned) was examined.
It held 1 beetle {Agrilus egenus) and a little vegetable debris.
TANAGERS.
At Marshall Hall tanagers were never detected pilfering cultivated
fruit, as they have often been known to do elsewhere.
One summer tanager {Piranga rubra), collected August 5, L898, had
eaten wild blackberries, a bee (Agapostemon), and a scoliid wasp.
Three scarlet tanagers (Piranga erythromdas), taken in Ma} T and
August, had fed exclusively on insects, which comprised a bee (Halic-
tw), parasitic wasps, white ants, a soldier bug (Nezara hilaris\
click-beetles, darkling-beetles (IIj>x micans), and the sad flower-
beetle (Euphoria melanckolica).
SWALLOWS.
The following swallows were noted:
Purple martin ( Progne mbis), 2.
Barn swallow (Hirundo erythrogastra), 10.
White-bellied swallow | Tachycineta bicolor), 5.
Bank swallow (Ripariariparm), 6.
Rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis), 7.
''The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. Bull. No. 15, Biological Survey, Dept.
of Agriculture, Washington, 1 C J01.
SPECIES.
99
Thirty swallows, collected between the middle of May and the middle
of August, had eaten nothing but insects. Parasitic wasps and beea
formed 2 percent of their food (less than usual with aerial feeders),
bugs 3 percent, May -flies 8 percent, beetles L3 percent, white ants 2]
percent, ants :;:; percent, and miscellaneous insects, principally flies
with a few bugs, 20 percent. The form- selected were bees of the
family Andrenida\ and parasitic wasps of the families Scoliidffi, Ich-
neimionida\ and Chalcididse. Tin' beetle food was interesting, for
besides click-beetles, dung-beetles (Apkodivs inguinattts, Hister, Af;>-
nius, and < Inthophagvs pennsylvanicus), weevils of several species,
and metallic woodborers (Agrilus), it included the engraver beetles
(among them Tomicua oocogrophtts), which are destroyed by only
few other birds. Tin 1 food of swallow- is peculiar in its Lack of
caterpillars and grasshoppers, which are so important to the subsist-
ence of other birds. As with flycatchers, the number of flies taken
is generally overestimated. In the stomach- examined were found
Bnipe-flies (Leptidse), golden-green flesh-flies (Lucilia caesar), and other
muscithe. with an occasional banded-winged horse-fly (Chrysops).
CEDAR BIRDS.
The cedar bird (Ampelis cedrorum, fig. 37) is the most frugivorous
of the Marshall Hall birds. More than four-fifths of its food was
Pig. 37.— Cedar Mid.
fruit, the remainder insects. Though often troublesome elsewhere,
it does no harm here, and accomplishes some good through its slightly
insectivorous habit. Five stomachs were collected in May. One con-
tained cherries, one mulberries, and a third smilax berries. Insect-
(locust Leaf-mining beetles and May-flies) were found in three.
LOO BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
SHRIKES.
The impaling of grasshoppers and mice )>y the loggerhead shrike
(Lanius Ivdovicianus) near the storage barn has already been men*
tioned (see p. 54). The only other field observation was on Octo-
ber 23, L901, when a shrike near the same place was seen to kill a gar-
ter snake (Evtai/nia) L3 inches Long. Owing to the small number at
shrikes at Marshall Hall no specimens were taken, hut in order to
investigate the feeding habits some experiments were carried on with
a captive bird given me by Mr. William Palmer. The habit the bird
ha- of impaling prey has been the subject of considerable speculation,
some writers maintaining that it gibbets its victims alive for the
pleasure of watching their death struggles, and others that it slaugh-
ters more game at a time than it can eat and hangs up the surplus to
provide against a time of want. This theory of prudent foresight
may explain why it kills more game than it can eat. but, as the experi-
ments showed, it does not touch the real reason why it impale- its
prey.
On the day after the shrike in question was captured a dead mouse
was offered it. The shrike raised its wings, moved its tail up and down
petulantly after the manner of the phcebe. and then seized the inou>e
and dragged it about for several minutes, trying to wedge it into first
one and then another corner of the cage. Failing in this effort, it tried
to impale the mouse on the blunt broken end of a branch that had been
placed in the cage for a perch, but the body fell to the floor. Then it
tried to hold the mouse with its feet and tear it to pieces, but its feet
were too weak. A nail was now driven into the cage so as to expose
the point. Immediately the shrike impaled its prey, fixing it firmlyi
and then fell to tearing and eating ravenously. Several days later the
nail was removed and a piece of beef was given to the shrike. By dint
of hard work it managed to hold the beef with its feet, so that it could
bite off pieces; but it much preferred to have me do the holding, when
it would perch on my wrist and pull oh" mouthfuls in rapid succession.
These experiments indicate that the shrike is unable to tear to piecei
food that is not securely fixed. Hawks can grip their food with their
powerful talons and then easily tear it into pieces small enough to be
swallowed, but the shrike'- feet have not a sufficiently vigorous clutch
to permit this method.
A -eric- of experiments in feeding insects to this shrike was alsa
carried out. If tin 1 bird was very hungry it did not impale insects.
When offered a grasshopper (Hippiscus) at such times, it would clutch
it with one foot. and. resting the bend of it- leg on the perch, bite ofl
mouthful- and swallow them. When not very hungry it impaled
grasshoppers and caterpillars {Sphinx <-;>). Such prey as the
thousand-legs, centipedes (Lithobius), house-flies, and blow-flies (Oal4
9FE0I] 1"1
Hphora vomltoria), and in a single instance, a mourning-cloak butter-
fly, it ate at ;i single gulp, but very large insects, such as tumblebugs
[Coprts Carolina), it always impaled. It refused larvae of the mourn-
ing-cloak butterfly, the forest tent caterpillar, the fall webworm, and
the tussock moth. It would not eat a skin-beetle ( Tf<><). hut took
with relish May-beetles (Lachnosterna), flower-beetles { Trichius piger\
and Long-horned beetles (Mbnohammus). Insects provided with espe-
cial protective devices were used in some of the experiments. Drone
and worker honey bees were eaten, but with no apparent relish. The
highly flavored cabbage bug (Murgantia histrionica) was rejected, lmt
its near relative ( Euschistus), a stink bug, was greedily devoured. The
investigation of insect food was concluded with tests by means of cer-
tain beetle- possessing ill-tlavored. highly irritating secretions. A
burying-beetle (Silpha inmqualis), a 12-spotted cucumber-beetle (Dia-
hrotica 1%-punctata), and a blister-beetle (Ejrica/uta r!tf.:5<> it picked from twenty to thirty mouthful- of hair
from the hind quarters, made incisions and removed the skin, and then
ate the large muscles. By L1.30 it had devoured the whole body,
102 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
including viscera and skin. Several days later the shrike dispatched a
live English sparrow about as it had the mouse, and impaled the
carcass. Then it plucked the breast and ate the pectoral musclesj
the lungs, and the heart. Live snakes (Storeria dekayi) and lizards 1
(Scelqporus undulatus) were also fed to the shrike. A toad was put
into the cage, and it attacked it. hut soon desisted in evident distress,
caused probably by the toad's irritating secretions. Frogs and sala-
manders (Plethodwi) it relished. Goldfish and bass 2 or 3 inches long
it killed, impaled, and ate.
It disgorged indigestible parts of its food in pellets, after the man-
ner of hawks and owls. Pellets of insects were not compact and fell
to pieces readily, hut those made of remains of mice or birds were
firm and kept their shape. When it was fed on May-beetles it dis-
gorged a pellet in one hour and twenty minutes; when fed on a mouse,
in three hours. The latter pellet was 7 by 18 millimeters in size and
shaped like an olive seed. The largest one ejected contained the
remains of a bird and a snake and measured 33 by 11 millimeters.
When vertebrates had been eaten their bones were found inside the
pellet and the fur, feathers, or scales outside.
VIREOS.
Twenty-five vireos were collected, including 2 warbling vireos
(Vtreo (/Urns), lo white-eyed vireos (Ylreo noveboracensis), and 13
red-eyed vireos ( Vino olivaceus). Ninety-one percent of their food
consisted of insects and 9 percent of fruit (mulberries and sassafras).
Parasitic wasps formed 2 percent, ants and other Hymenoptera 6 per-
cent, May-flies -1 percent, caterpillars L5 percent, bugs IT percent,
beetles 2s percent, miscellaneous insects 8 percent, and spiders 11
percent. The Hymenoptera, other than ants, comprised jointworm
flies, saw-fly larva\ ichneumon flies, and bees of the genus Halictus*
r Fhe beetles included the following kinds:
Typophorw cam llus. ( li* brunnea.
( )<1m>t<>isit. Agrilus.
Ecyrus dasycerus. Helops venvstvs.
Leptura zebra. ll,l<<[»< micans.
Hyperplatys aspersus. Tanymecus confertus and other Rhyncho-
Anomala. phora.
The hugs were stink bugs (Podisus), leaf-hoppers (Jassidde), and
scale insects (Km/us). The yellow-throated virco ( Vireo flavifrons)
has been noted at Marshall Hall by Mi-. William Palmer. All the
vireos are very useful protectors of forest and fruit trees.
speoii 108
warblers.
The list of warblers noted at Marshall Hall i- given below:
Black and white warbler i Mhiotilta varia).
Worm-eating warbler (Helmitherus vermivorus), I.
Northern parula warbler (Compsothlypis americana usnea ), 1.
'S" * • 1 1 » » \x warbler (Dendroica sestiva), 7.
Black-throated blue warbler i Dendroica csrulescens).
.Myrtle warbler ( Dendroica coronata), 2,
Magnolia warbler I Dendroica maculosa), 2.
Chestnut-sided warbler | Dendroica pensylvanica).
Black-poll warbler i Dendroica striata), 11.
Yellow-throated warbler I Dendroica dommica).
Black-throated green warbler | Dendroica virens).
Pine warbler! Dendroica vigorsi).
Yellow palm warbler | Dendroica palrnarum hypochrysea I. Noted by Mr
William Palmer.
Prairie warbler I Dendroica discolor), l.
Oven-bird (Seiurus aurocapUlus), 1.
Water-thrush (Seiurus noveboracensis), 2.
Louisiana water-thrush (Seiurus motacilla), J.
Kentucky warbler (Geothlypis formosa I.
Maryland yellow-throat (Geothlypis trichas), L3.
Yellow-breasted chat | Tcteria virens), 4.
Hooded warbler | WUsonia mitrata). Noted by Mr. William Palmer.
Wilson warbler ( WUsonia pusUla) , 1.
Canadian warbler | WUsonia canadensis), 1.
Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) t b.
Of the food of the 53 specimens collected 96 percent consisted of
insects and 4 percent of fruit. The insect food was distributed as
follows: Beetles, 21 percent; ants, wasps, and bees, is percent; May-
flies, lb' percent; caterpillars, 14 percent; bugs (leaf-hoppers, scale
insects, and true bugs) 6 percent; miscellaneous insects, including
flies, a few grasshoppers, and others. 8 percent: spiders, 11 percent:
and miscellaneous invertebrates, principally snails, '2 percent. Of the
21 percent of beetles 3 percent were useful forms. .~> percent neutral,
and 13 percent injurious. The following beetle- were identified:
Chlsenius (larva I. Li mounts guercinus.
Harpalus (larva). Cerambycidse.
Anisodactylus rusticus. Notoxus bicolor.
( hauliognathus. Bruchidse.
Staphylinidee. Rhynchophora (Otiorhynchidse, Apion,
Ptinid.T. etc. ).
JAgyrus gibbosus. Xanthonia villosula.
Euphoria. Systena elongata.
s rifd vespi rtina. ( repidodi ra h Ixh
Aphodius. Odontota dorsalis.
Atsenius.
The llvmenoptera comprised the following: 11 percent of the total
food. ants, and small bees (Andrena and Halictu£)\ 1 percent useful
104 BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
parasitic wasps ( Tiphia inornata and Ichneumonidre), and 3 percent
jointworm-flies and larvae of saw-flies. The bugs were scale insects,
leaf-hoppers, and true bugs, including Lygdeidse^ Sineadiadema and
Podisus. In several instances warblers had fed on the eggs of bugs.
Some differences naturally appeared between the food of the purely
arboreal species and that of the more terrestrial. Water-thrushes took
ground-beetles. Maryland yellow-throats secured more grasshoppers
than were taken by arboreal warblers. The yellow-breasted chat,
larger than the other species, ate such large beetles as Ligyrus and
Eu I'lmr'ni. It also fed on larva. 4 of ground-beetles, which are outside
the feeding range of strictly arboreal warblers. In a chat's stomach
elderberries were found, and in the stomachs of two myrtle warblers
collected in February was the fruit of red cedar. The arboreal
warblers other than the myrtle warbler are probably almost purely
insectivorous.
Most of the warblers of the genus Dmdroica destroy immense quan-
tities of insects. As an illustration of their value in this regard an
extract is quoted from a letter concerning the palm warbler received
by the Biological Survey from Mr. Robert H. Coleman:
I counted the number of insects he caught in a minute and found it varied from
40 to 60 per minute. He spent at least four hours on our piazza, and in that time
must have gathered in about 9,500 insects.
MOCKINGBIRDS, CATBIRDS, THRASHERS, AND WRENS.
The mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos, tig. 38) was usually seen at
Marshall Hall only in fall and spring, but during 1902 a pair nested
near the cow barn. In the middle of November, 1899, two stomachs
were collected. One contained the skin and 25 seeds of pokeberries
and another 31 of the same seeds, the leg of an ant, and the remains of
a larval ground-beetle. The bird's selection of ants and ground-beetles
shows affinity in food habits with its nearest relative, the catbird.
Both species are highly frugivorous, and where abundant in fruit-
growing districts may do some harm.
The catbird (Galeosooptes carolinensis) is the most numerous bird
during the breeding season on the Bryan farm at Marshall Hall. The
examination of 71 stomachs, collected from May to August, inclusive,
showed that 41 percent of the food consisted of animal matter and 59
percent of vegetable matter. The latter part comprised the following
fruits: Cultivated cherries, wild black cherries, black raspberries,
dewberries, blackberries, strawberries, mulberries, pokeberries, elder
berries, blueberries, and the berries of sassafras, woodbine, and cat-
brier. Of the animal matter, snails and thousand-legs composed
1 percent, spiders 2 percent, parasitic wasps 1 percent, ants 6 percent,
caterpillars 6 percent, beetles lo percent. May-flies u percent, and
miscellaneous insects 1 percent, including grasshoppers, bees (Halictus
8PE< I E8.
105
and Andrena), bugs {Emchistus, Corimeld&na^ etc.), and flies (Tipulidae
and Calliphora vomitoria, the caddis-flies and larva* of saw-flies).
The caterpillars were cut worm- (Agrotis and Nephelodes violctm), an I
in several cases such bristly larvae as Sptlosoma, Tin 1 parasitic wasps
were [chneumonidse and scoliid wasps (Tiphia inornate). Ant- are
FIG. 88.— Mockingbird.
a characteristic element of the food. In the present instance they
included Lasvus, Tetramorium, Formica subsericea, and Oamponotus
pennsylvaniciis. The coleopterous food is interesting because four-
fifths of it consisted of injurious beetles. The list of beetles identified
IS a- follows:
LachruMtema.
Anomala lucicola.
Dichelonycha.
Onthophagus /» nnsylvanicus.
Aphodius.
Odontota dorsalis.
LongUarsus.
Hsemonia nigricornis.
( brymbUes pyrrhos.
Monocrepidius auritus.
Anisodadylus rusticus.
Brachylobus lithoph ilus.
Oychrus 8teno8tomu8.
Harpcdus.
( 'hl;i niiis.
Staphylinw dnnamopterus.
ChaiUiognathus.
Hister.
Tenebrioni'l.t .
I-Jpir;, rus imbticatus.
Tanymecus confi rtus.
Were cherries, blackberries, and raspberries raised for market on
the farm in large quantities, the host of catbirds with their highly
frugivorous habits might do harm, but as this is not the case they not
only cause no loss but are beneficent through their destruction of
insect pests.
The brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum, fig. 39), which is not common
on the Marshall Hall farm, is somewhat more insectivorous than its
relative the catbird. Only one stomach was collected. This contained
black raspberries, cherries, a cricket, a ground-beetle, and a May-
10()
BIRDS OF A MARYLAND FARM.
beetle. May-beetles appear to 1m- relished by the thrasher and are
destroyed wholesale where the bird is abundant.
1 ,A0^S
Ftg 39.— Brown thrushc
The house wren (Troglodytes aedon, fig. 40) takes no vegetable food.
Twenty stomachs were collected from May to August, inclusive. Thev
Pig. 40. — House wren.
showed the food to have been distributed as follows: Grasshoppers and
crickets, l'7 percent; moths, cutworms, measuring worms, and allied
8PE( I! 107
larva-. L9 percent; beetles, 11 percent, including Carabidae, Ce ram by -
cidae, Tenebrionidae, Elateridae (Drasteriuti), Scarabaeidae (Aphod
Rhynchophora, and Chrysomelidae (Systena dongctfa, etc.); bugs (true
bugs including Myodocha serripes and a few leaf -hoppers), 9 per-
lent; ants, N percent; May-flies, 2 percent; miscellaneous Insects, "_'
i i rcent; spiders, iM percent: and snails, 1 percent.
The winter wren (Olbiorchilus hiemalis) was observed hunting for
insects and spiders in brush piles, but n<> stomachs were collected.
The long-billed marsh wren (Cistothorvs palustris), though like the
house wren it eats aothing but insects, can not be expected to help
crops because of the remoteness of it- marshy habitat. Five birds
were collected. Spider- and beetle- ( ( 'alandra '//•//:> m n hud fed <>n the pupa of a dipterous insect and
two had picked up cocoons of a tineid moth. Several had destn
Cutworms and army worms. Two had eaten ♦'» cutworms apiece.
The rohin ia abundant and La most useful. It is the scourge of the
Insects that infest the open cultivated fields <>f the farm. Unfortu-
nately it usually gets little credit for its virtue-, is outlawed for vices
that it doe- not possess, and is -hot in Large numbers for food. •
Bluebirds (Sialia waits, PI. XVII, fig. L) breed hut sparingly at
Mar-hall Hall on account of the persecutions of the English sparrow.
By twenties and thirties they visit the farm in spring, autumn, and
even winter. Two birds were taken Februarv 20, L 900, and five on the
Fig. 41.— Rnhin.
19th of the previous November. Six of these had eaten fruit, which
constituted rather more than half of all the food. It was composed of
the berries of bittersweet, woodbine, cedar, sumac, and poison ivy.
One had eaten 8 poison ivy berries and l!.~> cedar berries apparently
a pretty large dose of stimulating drugs. All had eaten insects.
Their selection had fallen on such highly flavored species as ground-
beetles (Harpaltui), stink bugs (Pentatomidse), and other bugs, includ-
ing Alydus julnsuhis. One had eaten a dung-beetle (Aphodius).
Grasshoppers and crickets had also entered into their fare. Cater-
pillars, including bristly, Arctiidse and cutworms, had been the prey
of all. It is a pleasant duty t<> report that this bird, so popular
throughout the land. i-. through it- excellent work a- a destroyer of
noxious insects, well worthy the protection and encouragement it
110 BEBD8 OF A MARYLAND FARM.
receives. Bluebirds no longer nest on the Bryan farm, though a few
pairs with their broods enter it during the summer to feed. But they
were abundant there until ousted by the English sparrows, and nested
all about the place. A characteristic nesting spot in an old stump on
the front lawn of the house is shown in PI. XVII, tig. 2. One of
the most serious charges that can be brought against the English
sparrow i>< the usurpation of the dooryard homes of these beautiful
gentle, and highly useful birds.
VIII.— SUMMARY.
The following conclusions are drawn solely with reference to the
relationship of birds to the farmers at Marshall Hall: and while to a
certain extent they indicate the general relationship of birds to agri-
cultural interests, yet special conditions, of these particular farms as
well as any others, sometimes have a modifying influence that must be
taken into account.
At Marshall Hall the English sparrow, tin 1 sharpshinned and Cooper
hawks, and the great horned owl are, as everywhere, inimical to the
farmers* interests and should be killed at every opportunity. The sap-
sucker punctures orchard trees extensively and should be shot. The
study of the crow is unfavorable in results so far as these particular
farms are concerned, partly because of special conditions. Its work
in removing carrion and destroying insects is serviceable, but it does
so much damage to game, poultry, fruit, and grain that it more than
counterbalances this good and should be reduced in numbers. The crow
blackbird appears to be purely beneficial to these farms during the
breeding season and feeds extensively on weed seed during migration,
but at the latter time it is very injurious to grain. More detailed
observations are necessary to determine its proper status at Marshal]
Hall.
The remaining species probably do more good than harm, and
except under unusual conditions should receive encouragement by the
owners of the farms. Certain species, such as flycatchers, swallows,
and warblers, prey to some extent upon useful parasitic insects, but on
the whole the habits of these insectivorous birds are productive of
considerable good. Together with the vireos, cuckoos, and wood-
peckers (exclusive of the sapsuckers), they are the most valuable con-
servators of foliage on the farms. The quail, meadowlark. orchard
oriole, mockingbird, house wren, grasshopper sparrow, and chipping
sparrow feed on insects of the cultivated fields, particularly during
the breeding season, when the nestlings of practically all species eat
enormous numbers of caterpillars and grasshoppers.
The most evident service is the wholesale destruction of weed seed.
Even if birds were useful in no other way, their preservation would
9UMMABY. Ill
still be desirable, since in destroying large quantities of weed
ihey array themselves on the side of the Marshall Hall farmer against
invaders that dispute with him, inch by inch, the possession <>f hi- fields.
[The most active weed dot rovers are the quail, dove, cowbird, red-
winged blackbird, meadow lark, and a dozen species <>t" native sparrows.
The utility of these species in destroying weed seed is probably at
least as great wherever the birds may lie found as investigation ha
shown it to be at Marshall Hall.
INDEX
-
s maculari
itis vocifei
us phoenii • •
Aix >.p<>ii-.
Ammodramus henslowi, '.»7.
Bandwichensis savanna, '.'7.
Bavannamm passerinus, IS, .
Ampelis cedrorum, 17
obscui
Antrostomus vociferus, 91.
Ants, .
Aquila chrya letos, 8
herodias, 81.
virescens, 81.
ria morinel]
ccipitrinus
_ ilinus tristiv 75-7
Aythya affin
americana -
mari'.. -
vallfe
Baldpe
Beans, lima
string
I
'-40.
30.
ist leaf-mining, J'.>-30.
potal
tiger, "
tort< -
twelve-spotted cucumber, -
Birds, n cover, 1-vit.
that feed in open fields, i ■'-]">.
Bittern, least, 81.
Blackberries
Blackbird, crow, u. J7
red- winged
rust:
Blackbirds, n. 47, 77.
Blueberries, 61.
Bluebird, 109-110.
Bobolink, 95.
Bobwhite, I
Bonasa umbellus
Braconids, 40—41.
Branta canad< osis, 8
Bubo virginianus,
Buffle-head S
Bute, borealis 8
lineatus, K -
platvptei • •
Butterfly, cal
mourning-cloak
skipper, 87.
Buzzard, turkey.
Cabbag
Cabbag
worn
Caddis-fly, 25.
Canvas-back -
Cardinal, 7:
Cardinalifl cardinalis, 77. 98.
Carpodacus purpureus, 76-77,97.
Carrion. 53
Catbird, 17-18, 17, 104-105.
Caterpillars, •
Catbartes aun
Cedar bird, 17
Ceophlceus pileatu?
Certbia huniliaris americana, i<»7.
Ceryle alr>
Chsetura pelagica, 91.
Charitonetta albeol
Chat, yellow-breasted, I
Cherrii-s, cultivated, 56.
wild, 61.
Chickadee, Carolina, 77. 107-108.
Cbordeiles virginianus, 91.
circus hudsonius
L13
114
IXDKX.
Cistothorus palustris, 107.
Clangula clangula americana -
Coccyzus, americanus, 87.
erythrophthalmus, B7.
Colaptes auratus, 88, 90-91.
Colinus virginianus, 13, 69-71
Colymbua auritus, 79.
Compsothlypis americana usnese, L03.
Contopus virens, 91.
Coot, Bl.
Corn, 36, 38, I
Corvus americanus, 14, 17-48,60,53,57-58,
agus, 1 1. 94.
Cowbird, 95.
Crane-flies, 21-22.
Crayfish, 9.
Creeper, brown, 107.
crops infested by insects. 24-28.
Crossbill, red, 97.
white-winged, '.<7.
Crow, 14, 47-48, 50, 53, 57-58, 65-66, 94.
fish, 14, 94.
crow blackbird, 14, 47-4*
Cuckoo, black-billed, 87.
yellow-billed, 87.
Cutworms, 32.
Cyanocitta cristata, 93-94.
Cyanospiza cyanea, 98
Dafila acuta. 80.
Dendroica, loi.
Dendroica, aestiva, 103.
caerulescens, 103.
corona ta, 103.
discolor, 103.
dominica, 103.
maculosa, 103.
palmarum hypochrysea, 103.
pensylvanica, 103.
striata. 108.
vigorsi, 103.
vircus. 103.
Dolicliouyx ory/.ivorus, 95.
Dbryphora 10-lineatus, 25.
Dove, mourning, 13-14, 77-7*, 85.
Dryobates pubescens, t7, 88.
Duck, black, 80.
lesser scaup, 80.
scaup, 80.
wood, 80.
Eagle, bald. 50, 85.
golden, 85.
Ectopistes migratorius, ^ r >.
Elderberries, 60 61.
F.inpidonax virescens, 91, 92.
FalCO sparvcrius, 85, 86.
Finch, purple, 76 77. 97.
Fireflies, :;7.
Flicker, 88, 90-91.
Flies 86, 39.
Flycatcher, acadian, 91, 92.
greal crested, 91, 98.
oi tailed, 91.
i- ood, Insect, 21.
vertebrate,
Food of nestlings 43.
Fruit.
Fruit, cultivated.
miscellaneous, 56-57, 61-62.
wild
Fulica americana, 81-82.
Galeoscoptes carolinensis, 17-18, 17, 104-105.
Gallinago delicate
Game, 50-52.
Gavia imber, 80.
lumme, B0.
Geothlypis Formosa, 103.
trichas, 103.
Glasses used tor Held work. 43-44.
Gnatcatcher, blue-gray, 108.
Golden-eye, 80.
Goldfinch, 75-76,97.
■ ianada, so.
Grain, 65-70.
i r rapes, 57.
Grasshoppers, :'.'J. 48-49.
Grebe, horned, 7 ( .».
pied-billed, 79.
Ground-beetles, ;>7-:;s.
Grouse, ruffed, 85.
Gull, herring, 80.
ring-billed, 80.
Haliaeetus leucocephalus, 50, 85.
Harelda hyetnalis, 80.
Hawk, broad-winged, 85, 86.
Cooper, 50-51,85.
marsh, 54, -
red-shouldered, 85, 86.
red-tailed. 85.
sharpshinned, 51-52, 85.
sparrov . 85, B6.
Helmitherus vermivorus, 103.
Helodromas solitarius, 83.
Heron, black-crowned night, 81.
great blue, 81.
green, 81.
little blue. 81.
snowy, 81.
Herons. 9.
Hirundo erythrogastra, 16, 98.
Hummingbird, ruby-throated, 91.
Hydrocbelidon nigra surinameiisK 80
Hylocichla alicia . l 8.
fuscescens, 108.
guttata pallasi, pis.
mustelina, los.
ustulata swaitisoui, lii^
ichneumon flies, 40.
leteria virens, m:;.
Icterus galbula, 98.
spurius, 17. 14-45, 96.
[ndigo bird, 98.
[nseel food,21 12.
Insects, destructive, 80*36.
proportion contained in bird stomachs, n
si nut.- infested by, 28-80.
trees Infested by,28 30.
useful, 86-41.
Jay, blue, 98-94.
Junco,97.
Junco hyemalis,97.
Killdeer,88.
Kingbird, 17,91-92.
Kingfisher, 87-88.
l.Mi K X
Kinglet, golden-crow oed 108
ruby-crow ned, n iy .
Lady-birds -
Lanius ludovicianus, 54, 100 li
Lark, horned, 93.
Larus argentatus, 80.
delawarensis, v "
Loon, 80.
red-throated, s ".
Lophodytes cucullatus, 80.
Loxia curvirostra minoi
leucoptera, 97.
Mallard, 80.
Mammals, 5 1
Mareca amerlcana,80.
Martin, purple, 17,98.
May-beetle, 32.
Ma;
Meadowlark, 12,77,9
Megascops asio, B6.
Melanerpes carolinus, v v
erythrocephalus, 88, 90.
Meleagris gallopavo fen
Melons, 27,57
Melospiza lincolni,97.
melodia, 16,97.
Merganser, hooded, 80.
red-breasted, B0.
Merganser serrator, 80.
Merula migratoria, 108-109.
Mice, 54 55.
Mimus polyglottos, 10-4.
Mniotilta varia, LOS.
Mockingbird, 104.
Molothrus ater,95.
Moths, 86.
Mulberries, 59
Murre, Briinnich, 80.
Muscivora forficata, 91.
Myiarchus crinitus,91,93.
Nestlings, food, 13-49.
Nettion carolinensis, V| ».
Night-hawk, 91.
Nuthatch, red-breasted, i < >t .
white-breasted, 107.
Nycticorax nycticorax usevius, 81
Oak sea!.'. :',ii.
Oats, 66, 68, 69.
Odontota dorsalis, 29 30.
Olbiorchilus hiemalis, 107.
Old-squaw. B0.
( Hor columbianus, 80.
oriole. Baltimore
orchard, 17, 14-46, 96.
Osprey, 85.
< itocoris alpestrie
Oven-bird, 108.
owl. barred, 86.
b-horned, 52, 86.
Bcreech, 86.
short-eared, 86.
Pandion ballagtus earolinent
Parua bicolor, 107.
carolinensis, 77. iu7 108.
Passer domesticus, 17,68 69.
Passerella iliaca, '.*7.
Peas, 21.
Pelleti
by ihi
Pewee,
Phllohela mil
l'h.,,1..
Pigeoi
Pintail
Pipilo erythrophthalmui
Piranga erythromeli
rubi
Plant li' ■
Podilymbus podicepi
Poison i i
Polioptila cerulea, 108.
Porzana Carolina, v i
Potato, Bweel
whit
Potato-beetle, 25.
Poultry.
Progne subis, 17. 08.
Querquedula discoi
Qui8calus quiscula, 1 1. ::
Quiscaluti quiscula ■> neus, 77.
Rabbit*
Kail, Bora, Bl.
Raspberries, 60.
Redhead, 80.
Redstart. LOS.
Regulus calendula, 108.
satrapa, 108.
Riparia riparia, W- 17, 98.
Robin, L08-109.
Rest chafer, 81-82, 87.
Sandpiper, solitary. 88.
spotted, 88.
Sapsucker, yellow-bellied, 88-90
Sawflies, 29.
Sayornis phoebe,-91,92 ! 3.
Scolecophagus carolinus, ( .'( ; .
Seeds, distribution by birds, 62-65.
weed, 7(1-71.
Seeds found in crows' pellets I
Seiurus aurocapillus, L03.
motacilla, 103.
noveboracensis, L03.
Setophaga ruticilla, 103.
Shoveller. 80.
shrike, loggerhead, 54, LOG-102.
shrubs infested by insects, 28-30.
Sialia sialis, 109-110.
Siskin, pine. '.i7.
Sitta canadensis, L07.
carolinensis, L07.
Slid la\. 58 .V.i.
Snipe, Wilsoi
Soldier beetles, 87-88.
Sparrow . chipping, 15-16, c .i7
English, 17 i
field, 15, 97.
fox, '.'7.
grasshoppei . 13, I ■
Benslow, '.'7.
Lincoln, >J7.
savanna. ».»7.
BOng, lti. '.17.
11<>
NDKX.
sparrow, vesper, 97.
white-throated,
Sparrows, distribution, 13, 15-17.
weed destruction, 72
Bpatula clypeata, -
Bphyrapicus varius, 88-90.
Spinas pinas, 97.
Bpizella monticola, '.'7.
pusilla, 15, '.'7.
Bocialis, 15-16, '.'7.
Btalk-borei
Btelgidopteryx serripenrj
Sterna hirundo, BO.
Strawberries, 38, 55-56.
Bturnella magna, 12, 77. 94-95.
Swallow, bank, 16-47, 98.
bam, 46, 98.
rough-winged, 98.
white-bellied, 98. '
Swallows, 99.
Swan, w histling,
Swift, chimney, 91.
Syrnium varium, -
Taehycineta bicolor, 98.
Tanagcr, scarlet, 98.
summer, 98.
Teal, blue-winged, no.
green-winged, 80.
Termites, 34.
Tern. 80.
black, 80.
Thrasher, brown, 105-10(5.
Thrush, gray-cheeked, 108.
hermit, 108.
olive-backed, 108.
Wilson. 108.
wood, ins.
Thryotborns ludovicianus, 107.
Tiger-beetles, 37-88.
Titmouse, tufted, i()7.
Tobacco, 27-28, 86.
Tobacco worm, 2£-28, 41.
Tomatoes, f>7.
Topography, Bryan farm. 10-20.
Hungerford farm, 20-21.
Totanue flavipes, 83.
Towhee, 98.
Toxostoma rufum, 105-106.
Trees infested by insects, 28 SO.
Troglodytes aMon, 15-46, 106-107.
Turkey, wild, K">.
Turnstone, 83.
Tyrannus tyrannus, 17, 91-92.
I'ri.-i lomvia, 80.
Vireo gilvus, 102.
Vireo aoveboracensis, 102.
olivaceus, 102,
Vireo. red-eyed. 102.
warbling, 102.
white-eyed, 102.
Warbler, black and whit)
black-poll,
black-throated bine, 103.
black-throated green, 108.
Canadian. 103.
chestnut-sided, 103.
hooded, 103.
Kentucky, 108.
magnolia, 108.
myrtle, in;;.
northern panda, 103.
palm, lot.
pine. 1(18.
prairie. 103.
yellow. 103.
yellow palm. 103.
yellow-throated. 108.
Wilson, 103.
wornveating, 103.
Warblers. 103-104.
Wasps, parasitic, 40-41.
Wasps and bees. 39-40.
Water-thrush, 103.
Louisiana. 103.
Web worm, fall, 28-29.
Weed destruction by native spaiTOWS, 72-76,
other birds, 75,
Weed seed, 70-71.
extent of destruction, 78-79.
Weed seed eaten, 71.
eaters. 71.
Weevils, 34-35.
Wheat, 66,68,69-70.
Whip-poor-will, 91.
Wilsonia canadensis, 108.
mitrata, 103.
pusilla, in:;.
Woodcock, 82-88.
Woodpecker, downy, i:
pileated, 88.
red-bellied. 88.
red-headed. 88,90.
Wren, Carolina. 107.
house, 45-46, 106-107.
long-billed marsh, 107.
winter, 107.
Yellow Legs, 88.
Zenaidura macroura, 18-14, 77— 7S
Zonotrichia albicollis. '.'7.
o
Date Due
Due Returned Due Returned
fo«Y % CtS7
W 1 1974
Mar 1 10
^I9lfi77
MAfi 1 7 in
>idAH n i IQfifl
aTOwi 19
m 1 9 1984
COLTur
UBfUR
M
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BIBB
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
3 1262 08491 6641
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