k^.('''7 
 
 ^ 
 
 u. s. depart:\iext of agriculture, 
 
 BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY- BULLETIN No. 75. 
 
 L: O. HOWARD. Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 I. PEOBIICTION AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 
 
 P,y K. y. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., In Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 METHODS OF HONEY TESTING FOR BEE KEEPERS. 
 
 By C. A. BROWNE, Ph. D., Chief, Su^ar Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry. 
 
 IL ^VAX MOTHS AND AMERICAN FOUL BROOD. 
 
 By K. P. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., In Charge of ApicuUure. 
 
 III. BEE DISEASES IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 By BURTON N. GATES, Expert in Apiculture. 
 
 IV. THE RELATION OF THE ETIOLOGY (CAUSE) OF BEE DISEASES 
 TO THE TREATMENT. 
 
 By C. F. WHITE, PH. D., Expert in Bacteriology. 
 
 V. A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 
 
 By E. P. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., In Charge of ApicuUure. " ^ 
 
 VI. TIJE STATUS OF APICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 By E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., In Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 VII. BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 By BURTON N. GATES, Expertcin Apiculture. 
 
 AYASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 
 
 1911. 
 
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY— BULLETIN No. 75. 
 
 L. O. HOWARD. Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS OX APICULTURE. 
 
 I. PRODUCTION AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 
 
 By E. F. PHILLIPS. Ph. D., In Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 METHODS OF HONEY TESTING FOR BEE KEEPERS. 
 
 By C. A. BPvOWNE. Ph. D., Chief. Sugar Laboratory. Bureau of Chemistry. 
 
 II. WAX MOTHS AND AMERICAN FOUL BROOD. 
 
 Bv E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., /n Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 III. BEE DISEASES IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 By BURTON N. GATES, Expertin Apiculture. 
 
 l\. THE RELATION OF THE ETIOLOGY (CAUSE) OF BEE DISEASES 
 TO THE TREATMENT. 
 
 By G. F. WHITE, Ph. D., Expert in Bacteriology. 
 
 \. A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 
 
 By E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., In Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 YI. THE STATUS OF APICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 By E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., In Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 YII. BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 By BURTON N. GATES, Expert in Apiculture. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERXMEXT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1911. 
 
7? f 'REA ( ' OF ENTOMOLOa Y. 
 
 L. O. Howard, Entomologist and Chief of Bureau. 
 
 C. L, Marlatt, Entomologist and Acting Chief in Absence of Chief. 
 
 R. S. Clifton, Executive Assistant. 
 
 W. F. Tastet, Chief Clerk. 
 
 V. H. Chittenden, in charge of truck crop and stored product insect investigations. 
 
 A. D. Hopkins, in charge of forest insect investigations. 
 
 \V. D. Hunter, in charge of southern field crop insect investigations. 
 
 F. M. Webster, in charge of cereal and forage insect investigations. 
 
 A. L. Quaintance, in charge of deciduous fruit insect investigations. 
 E. F. Phillips, in charge of bee culture. 
 
 D. M. Rogers, in charge of preventing spread of moths, Jield work. 
 RoLLA P. CuRRiE, in charge of editorial work. 
 Mabel Colcord, librarian. 
 
 Bee Culture Investigations. 
 E. F. Phillips, in charge. 
 
 G. F. White, expert in bacteriology. 
 
 B. N. Gates, a A. H. McCray, apicultural assistants. 
 J, A. Nelson, R. E. SnodgrasSj^ agr^'nis and experts. 
 Ellen M, Dashiell, entomological preparator. 
 
 T. B. Symons, College Park, Md., collaborator for Maryland. 
 H. A. Surface, Harrisburg, Pa., collaborator for Pennsylvania. 
 
 « Resigned. 
 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 United States Department of Agriculture, 
 
 BunEAU OF Entomology, 
 WasJiington, D. C, December 3, 1910. 
 Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for pubhcation as 
 Bulletin Xo. 75, seven papers dealing with bee culture. These 
 papers, which were issued separately during the years 1907, 1908, 
 and 1909, are as follows: Production and Care of Extracted Honey, 
 by E. F. Phillips, and Methods of Honey Testing for Bee Keepers, 
 by C. A. Bro\\Tie; Wax Moths and American Foul Brood, by E. F. 
 Phillips; Bee Diseases in Massachusetts, by Burton X. Gates; The 
 Relation of the Etiology (Cause) of Bee Diseases to the Treatment, 
 by G. F. White; A Brief Survey of Hawaiian Bee Keeping, by E. F. 
 Phillips; The Status of Apiculture in the United States, by E. F. 
 Phillips; Bee Keeping in Massachusetts, by Burton X. Gates. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 L. O. Howard, 
 
 Chief of Bureau. 
 Hon. James Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture, 
 
 in 
 
CONTEXTS <• 
 
 Page. 
 
 Production and care of extracted honey E. F. Phillips. . 1 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 The advantages of the production of extracted honey 2 
 
 Method of producing extracted honey 3 
 
 The ripening of honey 7 
 
 The granulation of honey 9 
 
 Heating honey for the destruction of the bacteria of disease 12 
 
 Packing of extracted honey 12 
 
 The production of ' ' candied " honey 13 
 
 Honey types 14 
 
 Methods of honey testing for bee keepers C. A. Browne. . 16 
 
 Wax moths and American foul brood E. F. Phillips. . 19 
 
 Introduction 19 
 
 Work of the large wax moth (Galleria mellonella L.) 20 
 
 Work of the lesser wax moth (Achroia grisella Fab.) 21 
 
 Conclusion 21 
 
 Bee diseases in Massachusetts Burton N. Gates. . 23 
 
 Introduction 23 
 
 The two known bee diseases ' 24 
 
 Damage from bee diseases 25 
 
 Present extent of bee diseases in Massachusetts 2G 
 
 Evidence that bee diseases were not recently introduced into Massa- 
 chusetts , 27 
 
 The spread of bee diseases 29 
 
 Brood diseases can be controlled 30 
 
 A brief account of treatment for brood diseases 31 
 
 The relation of the etiology (cause) of bee diseases to the treatment. 
 
 a. F White. . 33 
 
 Introduction 33 
 
 Etiology (cause) of diseases 34 
 
 Predisposing causes 34 
 
 Exciting causes 35 
 
 Treatment of disease 38 
 
 American foul brood 39 
 
 European foul brood 41 
 
 Bo-called ' " pickled brood " 41 
 
 Paralysis 41 
 
 Summary and conclusions 42 
 
 «The eight papers constituting this bulletin were issued, two on December 19, and 
 one each on December 31, 1907, June 30 and December 26, 1908; January 19, January 
 25, and May 24, 1909, respectively. 
 
 V 
 
VI MISC'KLLANEUUS PAPERS ON APlCLLTUKE. 
 
 Page. 
 
 A brief survey of Ilawaiian bee keepinc; E. F. Phillips. . 43 
 
 Introduction 43 
 
 Publications on Hawaiian bee keeping 43 
 
 Bee keepers' association 44 
 
 Methods of management 44 
 
 "Bee rights" 45 
 
 Extent of the industry 45 
 
 Sources of honey 47 
 
 Introduction of honey plants 54 
 
 Wax production 54 
 
 Disease survey 56 
 
 The status of apiculture in the United States E. F. Phillips. . 59 
 
 Introduction 59 
 
 Scope of the industry 61 
 
 Present sources of loss 71 
 
 The needs and possibilities of apiculture 76 
 
 Summary 79 
 
 Bee keeping in Massachusetts Burton N. Gates. . 81 
 
 Historical sketch 81 
 
 Experience of bee keepers in Massachusetts 84 
 
 Number of colonies per bee keeper 85 
 
 Distribution of bees in Massachusetts 86 
 
 Increase in number of colonies 87 
 
 Production of honey and wax 87 
 
 Sources of honey 89 
 
 Periods of nectar secretion in different localities 93 
 
 Races of bees 96 
 
 Hives 97 
 
 Wintering 98 
 
 Bees in greenhouses 99 
 
 The bee market 102 
 
 Enemies 103 
 
 Bee diseases 105 
 
 Bee keepers' organizations 105 
 
 Summary 106 
 
 A list of the more important articles on bee keeping in Massachusetts 107 
 
 Index Ill 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 Page. 
 Plate I. Work of the large wax moth (Galleria mellonella) in comb infected 
 
 with American foul brood 20 
 
 II. Hive infected with American foul brood, the frames removed to 
 
 show work of the large wax moth {Galleria mellonella) 20 
 
 III. Work of the lesser wax moth (Achroia grisella) in comb infected with 
 
 American foul brood 20 
 
 IV. Map showing distribution of bee diseases in Massachusetts and pos- 
 
 sible sources of infection from neighboring States 23 
 
 V. Map of the Hawaiian Islands 43 
 
 VI. Blends of algarroba honey and honeydew from the Hawaiian Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station 44 
 
 VII. Fig. 1. — A typical Hawaiian apiar>', the hives on stands to prevent 
 
 ant attacks. Fig. 2. — An apiary in a coffee plantation 46 
 
 VIII. Fig. 1. — Part of an algarroba forest. Fig. 2. — A lantana jungle 48 
 
 IX. Fig. 1. — An apiary near a sugar-cane field. Fig. 2. — Molasses 
 
 trough for feeding cattle 50 
 
 X. Fig. 1. — Hau hedge. Fig. 2. — A hive set up in cans to keep out ants. 54 
 
 TEXT FIGURES. 
 
 Fig. 1. Proportionatelossof bees wintered in cellars and on summer stands 99 
 
 2. Approximate location of greenhouses in which bees are used for the pol- 
 lination of cucumbers 100 
 
 VII 
 
U. S. D. A.. P.. E. Bui. 7',. Part I. A.. December 19, 1907. 
 
 MISCELLAXEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 PRODUCTION AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY 
 
 Ry E. F. Phillips. Vh. D., 
 In Charf/r of Apkultiire. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Since the invention of the centrifugal honey extractor, in 1865, and 
 its introduction into America, a constantly increasing proportion of 
 the honey of the United States has been put on the market as ex- 
 tracted. Formerly honey was rendered free from comb by mashing 
 full combs of honey and straining the liquid through a cloth. This is 
 " strained honey.'' but the same name still clings, in some quarters, to 
 the article removed from the comb by centrifugal force. The pro- 
 duction of extracted honey requires much less labor on the part of 
 the bee keeper than does the production of comb honey, and it has 
 several advantages over the latter. The principal reason why ex- 
 tracted honey is more generally produced in the United States than 
 formerly may probably be found in the increasing demand for honey 
 for baking and confectionery purposes ; considerably more than half 
 of the honey put on the markets is used in this way. 
 
 The ease with which extracted honey may be adulterated has, how- 
 ever, made the general public sceptical as to its use for table purposes; 
 glucose, cane sugar, invert sugar, and other adulterants have been 
 very extensively used, and are still used to some extent. However, 
 the passage of the food and drugs act of June 30, 1906. and the recent 
 work of this Department in the inspection of the honey market have 
 resulted in much good, and persons who have openly adulterated ex- 
 tracted honey in the past are now generally obeying the law. AMiile 
 there is still some cause for complaint, the percentage of adulteration 
 must gradually decrease. The effect of pure-food agitation can not 
 but result in great good to the honest honey producer and bottler. 
 
 The chemical detection of honey adulteration has been made more 
 certain by the recent investigations of Dr. C. A. Browne, of the 
 Bureau of Chemistry, and because of the improved methods advo- 
 cated by him the detection of infringements of pure-food laws will 
 
 1 
 
2 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 be easier in the future. For a discussion of this work the reader is 
 referred to Bulletin No. 110 of the Bureau of Chemistry, entitled 
 '' Chemical Analysis and Comix)sition of American Honeys." 
 
 Some of the common practices of bee keepers are, however, open 
 to serious (juestion, and it is primarily to call attention to these that 
 the present paper is presented. It is possible to treat pure high- 
 f>:rade extracted honey so that on chemical examination it would be 
 condemned or called in (piestion. In the past there has been some 
 trouble in cases where chemists have declared honeys, to which noth- 
 in<r has been added, to be adulterated; part of the fault possibly lies 
 with the use of poor methods by chemists, but not all of it. If a bee 
 keeper treats pure honey so that its chemical composition is changed, 
 it is no longer honey, and should not be sold for such. Several of 
 the most widely circulated text-books on ajiiculture advocate very 
 questionable practices. 
 
 There are several text-books giving detailed information as to the 
 production and care of extracted honey. It is not the purpose of 
 this paper to replace these, but to point out the main principles to be 
 observed, and especially to call attention to a few points which do 
 not seem to be understood by the majority of honey producers. Many 
 details which are apparently unnecessary in most cases are omitted, 
 since the writer believes that each bee keeper must find out many 
 minor details in his own experience, and less important phases of 
 the work may better be learned from other sources. 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF THE PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 
 
 It is not the purpose of this paper to advocate the production of 
 extracted honey as preferable to that of comb honey, nor would it be 
 at all desirable to have the production of fancy comb honey dimin- 
 ished. For the benefit of the honey market, however, it could not 
 result in anything but good Avere the poorer grades of comb honey 
 to be sold as extracted. The discolored ("travel-stained") and 
 irregularly or j^artially capped comb honey found on so many mar- 
 kets is a poor advertisement for the the bee keeper who tries to 
 produce a fancy article. 
 
 The production of extracted honey means considerably less labor 
 for the bee keeper and also less work of certain kinds for the bees, 
 for it is not necessary for the latter to secrete so much wax. Since 
 it takes several i)()un(ls of lioney under most conditions to produce 1 
 pound of wax, the surplus per colony is greater with extracted honey 
 than with comb, but this is compensated by the fact that comb honey 
 of ('(jual grade universally sells at a higher j)rice. 
 
 In the i)roduction of extracted honey it is much easier to control 
 swarming, since the brood chamber is not contracted so much and the 
 (jueen has an ()2)])ort unity to work to her maximum capacity. On 
 
PRODUCTION AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 6 
 
 the other hand, the colony is usually stronger, with more field bees; 
 this is probably a large factor in the increased amount of surplus 
 obtained from a colony run for extracted honey. 
 
 When the honey flow begins, the bees can at once commence to store 
 hone}^ in extracting combs, provided the bee keeper is careful to put 
 them on in time, but in comb honey production it is first necessary 
 for the bees to secrete a considerable quantity of wax before there is 
 room for honey in the surplus boxes or sections and honey is con- 
 sequently stored in the brood chamber: if much honey is stored here, 
 the queen is cramped for room to lay. The novice at extracted honey 
 production should be careful not to extract so much of the honey in 
 the hive that the bees will not have enough to live on. This is a 
 very common error until the bee keeper is taught by experience how 
 much to extract. It is better to extract too little than too much. 
 
 METHOD OF PRODUCING EXTRACTED HONEY. 
 
 THE HIVE. 
 
 The hive used for extracted honey production should be at least as 
 large as 10 frames. However strongly the advocates of 8-frame 
 hives or even smaller ones may urge the advantage of a contracted 
 brood chamber m order to crowd the surplus honey into the upper 
 stories, certainly these small hives have little place in the production 
 of extracted honey. The queen should have at least 10 frames for 
 brood rearing, if the bee keeper is to expect the maximum results. 
 The use of large hives is upheld by the practices of the largest and 
 best extracted-honey producers of the United States, and the smaP 
 hives have small sale among extensive producers. 
 
 BROOD MANIPULATION. 
 
 In the production of honey, either comb or extracted, it must be 
 remembered that if the honey flow is short, only those bees which are 
 fully developed at the beginning of the flow are of any value in honey 
 gathering. The amount of brood reared normally increases at the 
 beginning of a honey flow, especially with Italian bees, but this brood 
 is rarely of much use in producing honey gatherers. In many cases 
 it may be desirable to retard brood rearing at the beginning of the flow 
 by caging the queen or even by removing frames of brood. On the 
 other hand, it is advisable to see to it that brood rearing is extensive 
 for several weeks before a honey flow is expected. This may be 
 brought about by stimulative feeding and by the cautious, spreading 
 of brood in the colony. This procedure usually pays well. A care- 
 ful study of locality conditions is necessary before planning opera- 
 tions of this nature. 
 
4 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 TiERlxr;. 
 
 Boforo, or just at tlio time of the hoginniiiir of tho honey flow, a 
 hive body exactly simihir to the brood chamber should be given to 
 the colony. Many bee keepers put only 8 or 9 frames in a 10-frame 
 hive body used as a suri)lus chamber so that the bees will build thick 
 combs. Since in uncaj)ping the honey the comb is cut down to about 
 normal thickness, this gives a place for the immediate storing of sur- 
 l)lus honey and at the same time permits the bees to secrete some wax. 
 The })hysiology of wax secretion is very imperfectly understood, but 
 probably wax is always secreted, to a greater or less extent, during a 
 heavy honey flow, and by spacing wide this wax is saved to the bee 
 keeper. 
 
 As the frames of the second hive body become filled, the honey may 
 either be extracted at once and the frames returned to be refilled or an 
 additional hive body full of frames may be put directly over the 
 brood chamber and below the first surplus body. Bees go unwillingly 
 through combs of sealed honey to empty combs higher up, but the new 
 combs should be between the first two hive bodies. The reasons for 
 tiering up hives rather than immediate extraction will be discussed 
 under the heading of '' Ripening honey." This operation may be con- 
 tinued as long as room is required, and the bees should never be 
 unduly cramped for room. On the other hand, it is usually not desir- 
 able to give too much room at one time for surplus, for the honey 
 may be spread over all the combs and, as a result, the cells capped 
 when not drawn out well. It is sometimes desirable in the early 
 part of the season to give only two or three frames for surplus at 
 first, gradually increasing the number as necessity arises. This 
 is particularly the case in uncertain weather or in a light honey flow. 
 
 AVhen the surplus combs are first put on, one or two frames con- 
 taining brood with the adhering bees are frequently placed in the sec- 
 ond story and empty frames put in their place in the brood chamber. 
 By this means the bees at once get into the second story, and this 
 manipulation is a very desirable thing where brood frames are used 
 for extracting. When only clean combs are used, these brood frames 
 may be returned to the brood chamber in a day or two, for by that 
 time they are usually no longer needed. Of course care must be 
 taken not to lift tlie i]\wvu to the second story above the perfo- 
 rated zinc. 
 
 Some bee keej)ers prefer the use of shallow extracting combs of a 
 depth about half that of the ordinary brood frame. The advantage of 
 such a size of frame is, briefly, the possibility of putting on a smaller 
 amount of storing room at one time, in consequence of which the 
 honey is capped over in a better manner. In other words, the forcing 
 methods of comb honey production are carried over into the i^roduc- 
 
PRODUCTION AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 
 
 tion of extracted honey. It Avoiild certainly be un\vi>:e to recommend 
 or condemn this system in general, for its use should be governed by 
 local conditions of the honey flow. In this case, as in many others, 
 the maximum results may not be expected without a careful study of 
 local conditions. Bee keepers talk a great deal about " locality differ- 
 ences," and, as generally used, the term '' locality " is only an excuse 
 for a lack of information as to the true cause of various observed 
 facts. It is nevertheless most true that there are scores of local 
 differences which are great enough to bring success or failure, accord- 
 ing as they are studied or neglected. 
 
 PERFORATED ZINC. 
 
 The use of a perforated zinc queen-excluding board between the 
 brood chamber and the surplus bodies is gaining in popularity. 
 Without this zinc the queen is likely to go into the second story, or 
 even higher, particularly toward the close of the season. Some bee 
 keepers prefer to use combs for extracting which have never been used 
 for brood, and if this plan is followed the perforated zinc is abso- 
 lutely^ necessary. Honey extracted from dark combs which have been 
 used for brood is darker in color as a rule than that produced in 
 combs which have never contained brood. This is doubtless due to 
 the fact that a certain amount of the larval skins and larval excreta 
 which are packed at the bottom of brood cells becomes dissolved in 
 the hone}^ These deposits in the cells are usually spoken of as 
 " cocoons," but certainly only a small part is really the silk of the 
 cocoon. If this really were merely a cocoon, no possible objection 
 could be made to the use of brood combs for extracting. It would 
 probably do little good to advocate the universal use of only such 
 combs as had not been used for brood rearing in the production of 
 extracted honey, but a strict regard for cleanliness would most 
 assuredly demand it. 
 
 REMOVING HONEY FR0:M THE HIVE. 
 
 Honey should not be taken from the hive until fully "" ripened." 
 AATien the time comes to extract, the frames should be lifted from the 
 hive and the adhering bees shaken or brushed oft'. They may be 
 brushed off with a regular bee brush, many styles of which are manu- 
 factured, or a bunch of grass or weeds will usually answer as well. 
 The only advantage of a regular brush is that it is always ready 
 for use. 
 
 If the honey flow is over or the bees are hard to manipulate on 
 account of their stinging, a bee escape is desirable. The escape is 
 so arranged that the bees can pass down to the storj^ below with 
 comparative ease but can not get back. Within a few hours the 
 
6 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 upper story is cloarod of bees and the frames of honey may be re- 
 moved easily. If the queen is in the upper story, however, as she 
 may be if no perforated zinc is used, or as she occasionally is any- 
 how, the bees will not desert the brood, and there will still be bees 
 on the combs. Escapes may be put on by quickly lifting the upper 
 story and inserting the board in the evening, and by the next morning 
 the upper story will usually be entirely clear of bees. 
 
 After the combs are removed from the hive, they should be kept 
 covered so that the bees in the air will not begin to rob. The manner 
 of carrying them to the extracting room will depend on the number 
 of combs to be carried and the arrangement of the apiary. Tin 
 buckets holding five combs at a time may be used; an extra hive body 
 is often fixed with a handle and cloth cover, or the entire hive body 
 may be carried in on a cart or otherwise if it is free from bees. 
 
 THE EXTRACTING ROOM. 
 
 The place where the honey is extracted should be so arranged that 
 no bees can enter it when attracted by the odor of the honey. The 
 windows should be so built that if some bees do enter the}^ can easily 
 get out through bee escapes or cones so constructed that no other bees 
 will be able to find the opening. Bee escapes may be used, but usu- 
 ally a better plan is to have the windows covered with wire cloth 
 tacked on the outside, the wire cloth extending above the window 
 about G inches and held away from the side of the house by quarter- 
 inch strips. Bees almost always crawl upward and they will crawl 
 up the netting and out through the top openings, but other bees will 
 not try to get in that way. A screen so arranged will allow a very 
 large number of bees to escape very quickly. . That the extracting 
 room be "bee tight" is practically the only absolute requirement. 
 Honey should never be extracted in the open air except during a 
 heavy honey flow, when bees are not inclined to rob. AVliere several 
 apiaries are under the management of one man, it is sometimes de- 
 sirable to make a portable extracting house on wheels so that it may be 
 taken from place to place. 
 
 UNCAl'PINC; HONEY. 
 
 The honey, before it is extracted, must be uncapped, and this should 
 be done with a long knife which is kept sharp, clean, and warm. 
 There are several types of uncapping knives. If a considerable 
 amount of honey is to be extracted, it is desirable to have two or more 
 knives for each operator so that one may be heated in hot water as 
 the other is used. 
 
 As the cuppings of wax are cut oil' some lioney flows out, and con- 
 sequently the uncapping should be done over a regular uncapping box 
 
PRODUCTION AXD CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 7 
 
 or can. This may be easily made at home to suit individual require- 
 ments, or any one of the several types offered for sale may be used. 
 The boxes are either made of metal or lined with tin to prevent the 
 leakage of honey, and about halfway up is a heavy wire netting 
 to catch the wax cappings and allow the honey to drain off into the 
 lower compartment. This honey may later be added to what comes 
 from the extractor. 
 
 THE EXTRACTOR. 
 
 The extractor consists of two or more baskets into which the combs 
 of honey are placed and which are revolved inside or with a can. 
 The rotation drives out the honey by centrifugal force, leaving the 
 cells empty, provided the imcapping has been thoroughly done. 
 "While the extractor is a very simple machine in principle, its con- 
 struction has been the subject of much experimenting, and various 
 types have been made. The best type of extractor has been found to 
 be one in which the surrounding can is stationary and the baskets are 
 arranged to revolve inside it. Some tj^pes are now made so that the 
 baskets may be turned and both sides of a comb emptied without 
 removing the frame from the basket of the extractor. The more 
 elaborate types, holding several frames and driven by power, may be 
 found described in catalogues of the dealers in bee keepers' supplies. 
 
 The extracted honey flies to the side of the can and then runs to 
 the bottom of the machine: it then runs off through an opening at 
 the bottom into a vessel or tank for the purpose. As it leaves the 
 extractor it should be run through a cheese cloth to remove any par- 
 ticles of wax or other foreign substance which may have got into it. 
 The care of the honey will be described later. 
 
 Empty combs wet with honey should not be returned to the bees 
 while extracting is in progress, for fear of inciting robbing. They 
 may be piled up in the extracting room until the work is almost com- 
 pleted and, if any additional honey flow is expected, they may then 
 be returned. If to be kept until the next year, they should be given 
 to the bees for a short time to be cleaned of honey, and then removed 
 and put away so that wax moths will not destroy them. The great- 
 est essential in the production of the maximum amount of extracted 
 honey is an adequate number of surplus combs. 
 
 THE RIPENING OF HONEY. 
 
 AMien nectar is gathered from flowers by the worker bees, the 
 amount of water contained in it is very high. It is generally sup- 
 posed that, by the time bees reach the hive to deposit the nectar in the 
 cells, part of this water has been removed; at any rate, during the 
 process of ripening, the amount of water is very much reduced, until, 
 in thoroughly ripened honey, it will not exceed 25 per cent and is gen- 
 
8 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 eniUy not iiioiv than '20 per cent. Sonu' vcrv ripe honeys will have as 
 little as 12 per cent of water in them. If more than 25 per cent of 
 water remains in the honey at the time of extraction, it will probal)ly 
 ferment. The ripenin<; of honey consists not only of the evaporation 
 of the surplns water of the nectar, but especially of the transforma- 
 tion of the sufjars of the nectar into the levulose and dextrose of 
 honey. Unripe honeys contain a lar<]:er proportion of sucrose or cane 
 sugar, and it is probable that the longer the honey remains in the hive 
 the less of sucrose will l)e found in the honey. While honeys vary all 
 the way from zero to 8 or 10 per cent in their sucrose content, the pur- 
 est honeys are those which contain the least. The official honey 
 standard of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists allows 
 8 per cent of sucrose in honey. 
 
 It is the policy of most bee keepers to allow this ripening to take 
 place in the hive by waiting until the honey is almost all or entirely 
 capped, and this is undoubtedly the preferable method. It is a matter 
 of common observation that honey which remains in the hive for a 
 long time has a better " body '' and has more of the characteristic 
 honey aroma. By ripening in the hive honey gets its characteristic 
 flavor to a greater extent than is possible in evaporation outside the 
 hive. 
 
 Several machines have been devised for the artificial ripening of 
 honey which has been extracted " green." that is, with too great a 
 water content. The principle on which all of these are constructed 
 is the application of heat, not to exceed 160° F., for a sufficient time 
 to reduce the amount of water present to about 20 per cent. Either 
 sun heat or artificial heat may be used. In the western part of the 
 United States honey may be, and usually is, extracted before it is all 
 capped, because it is the general practice of bee keepers to run the 
 honey directly from the extractor to large tanks, sometimes holding 
 several tons, out in the open, covered with porous cloth tightly tied 
 down to exclude bees. ^lany of these tanks are contracted at the top, 
 leaving only a comparatively small opening. On account of the 
 extreme dryness of the atmosphere and total lack of rain during the 
 dry season, this partial evaporation outside of the hive takes place 
 very rapidly. 
 
 The advocates of ri])ening outside of the hive argue that, if honey 
 is extracted before all the water is i-emoved from it. the bees have 
 less to do inside the hive and can dexote almost all their time to 
 gathering nectar in the field. This obviously would result in an 
 increased amount of nectar and, consecjuently. provided the forage 
 will produce it. in an increased amount of honey. They argue that 
 it is impossible to detect any dill'erence between honey ripened inside 
 the hive and that ripened outside, as far as llavor is concerned, but 
 tiiis is a point on which many other bee keepers and experts in honey 
 
PRODUCTION AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. \3 
 
 tasting do not agree with them. It must be admitted that, for gen- 
 eral sale, the delicate aromas of well-ripened honey are not necessary, 
 since the purchasing public is. as a rule, not educated on this point; 
 but it certainly pays to produce the very best article possible for the 
 further education of the trade, and, therefore, a thorough ripening 
 inside the hive is very much preferable. To insure this, it is better 
 to tier up the hives rather than extract as soon as a hive body is full. 
 
 On all honeys, after extracting, if allowed to stand in a vessel, 
 a scum will rise to the top. made up of impurities, such as wax, 
 brood, dead bees, and particles of dirt which may get into it. This 
 is particularh' the case with honeys which are extracted when not 
 thoroughh^ ripened. In all cases honey should be strained as it 
 leaves the extractor and subsequently skimmed until no further 
 impurities come to the top. It is frequently the practice to draw 
 honey from the bottom of the tank in which the honey is stored 
 through a *' honey gate,'' so that the impurities do not get into the 
 smaller receptacles in which the honey is to be packed. 
 
 The thorough ripening of honey can not be too strongly recom- 
 mended. Honey attracts moisture, and there is always a tendency 
 for a very thin layer to form on the top in which the water content 
 is very high. In such a film the amount of sugar is low. the acetic- 
 acid-forming bacteria can grow rapidly, and the honey becomes 
 sour. In thoroughly ripened honey it is very probable that a film 
 of thinner honey is always present, but in such a case the sugar con- 
 tent is so high that the bacteria can not grow. 
 
 It is desirable that honeys from ditferent sources be kept separate 
 as far as possible if the product is to be used for the bottling trade. 
 This can be done only by extracting at the close of each honey flow. 
 While it is probably impossible to get a honey from only one 
 species of plant, except under the most unusual circumstances, at 
 the same time honey may generally be removed at the close of each 
 flow, so that the total quantity will have the characteristic flavor im- 
 parted by a single kind of flower. 
 
 THE GRANULATION OF HONEY. 
 
 Almost all honeys granulate or " candy " after a certain time, and 
 ma}^ become solid. This phenomenon varies greatly with ditferent 
 honeys. For example, alfalfa honey produced in Colorado will often 
 granulate solid within a few weeks from the time it is extracted, 
 while the white-sage honey of southern California will often remain 
 liquid and entirely clear of crystal for two years and sometimes 
 longer, if properly put up. The reason for this difference in the 
 time of granulation will be discussed under the heading of '* Types of 
 Honey." Honey from the same species of plant varies somewhat in 
 this respect in different localities. 
 78013°— Bull. 75—11 J 
 
10 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Formerly tlie general ])iil)lic was suspicious of granulated honey, 
 in the belief that it contained cane sugar, but, fortunately, it is now 
 generally understood that pure honeys will granulate in time, and 
 this crystallization is generally considered as a test of purity. The 
 education of the purchasing public has so far progressed that now 
 some bee keepers prefer to sell their honey in a solid granulated con- 
 dition, it being cut up into bricks and wrapped in oil paper. 
 
 In bottling honey, or in putting honey from any large receptacle 
 into smaller ones, it is neceSvSary to liquefy the entire quantity com- 
 pletely before the operation is begun. This may be done by im- 
 mersing the receptacle in water which has been heated to 160 or 
 170° F., and letting it remain until the honey is all liquid and free 
 from crystals. Honey should never be liquefied by direct applica- 
 tion of heat, and it is extremely important that it should not reach 
 a temperature of more than 160° F. It is well known to almost all 
 bee keei)ers that honey heated to higher temperatures will become 
 darker in color and lose flavor, and, consequently, they are generally 
 very careful on this point. There is, however, a very much more 
 important reason for avoiding high temepratures. When honey is 
 heated to 180° F. and more, the higher alcohols wdiich give honey 
 its aroma are driven off and, more than that, a decomposition of cer- 
 tain of the sugars takes place; this is w-hat gives the darker color 
 to the honey. Of all the various substances used for the adulteration 
 of honey the one most nearly resembling pure honey is invert sugar, 
 of which Herzfelt's artificial honey is one of the best illustrations. 
 In the detection of adulteration, one of the tests for the addition of 
 invert sugar is based on the presence of decomposition products due 
 to heat. These decomposition products in invert sugar are probably 
 identical with the decomposition products in overheated honey; at 
 any rate, honey which has been heated to more than 180° F. for any 
 considerable time gives the test for invert sugar and w^ould, there- 
 fore, be declared to be adulterated if this test were applied by a 
 chemist. A bee keeper might argue that he was not infringing on the 
 pure-food law in overheating his honey, since he had added nothing 
 in the way of an adulterant. If, however, he changes the chemical 
 composition of his honey by injudicious treatment it is no longer 
 pure honey, and he has no right to sell it under that name. 
 
 It is very much safer to liquefy honey at a temperature of about 
 140° F. and thus avoid any danger of decomposition. If this lower 
 temperature is used it is of course necessary to keep the honey at this 
 temperature for a considerable time, but the safety of such a pro- 
 ceeding makes the extra time well worth while. 
 
 Two or three of the most widely circulated American text-books 
 on bee keeping advocate the drawing off of the liquid portion of 
 granulated honey, particularly in the case of honey which was not 
 
PRODUCTIOX AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 11 
 
 thoroughly ripened before it was extracted. The granidated portion 
 is then allowed to liquefy and is recommended as a very fine quality 
 of honey. This practice is in no way permissible, as will be readily 
 seen if the composition of honey is studied. Honey is made up of 
 dextrose and levulose in about equal quantities, sucrose, a certain 
 amount of ash, and water. In gi-anulation, the dextrose crystallizes 
 readily and the levulose probably does not granulate at all. If. then, 
 the liquid portion, consisting largely of levulose, sucrose, and water, 
 is removed by draining or by pressure, the remaining portion is not 
 honey, but dextrose. However fine the flavor of such a compound 
 may be, it is not honey and can not truthfully be sold as such. 
 
 Since honey separates into its component parts in granulation, it 
 is very necessary that all the honey in the receptacle be liquefied and 
 thoroughly mixed before any portion is removed from it for bottling 
 or canning. If, for example, honey is in a 60-pound can and is to be 
 transferred to 1-pound bottles, it is necessary that the entire 60 
 pounds be liquefied and mixed before any is poured out into bottles, 
 in order that all the bottles may contain honey according to the legal 
 standard. Unless this is done, some of the bottles will contain a 
 high percentage of dextrose and will granulate rapidly, while others 
 will contain a preponderance of levulose and will not granulate for a 
 long time. Unless this mixing is done thoroughly, none of the bot- 
 tles will contain absolutely pure honey. In order to protect himself, 
 the bee keeper must be xery careful on this point. Some bee keepers 
 prefer to pour the honey cold into the bottles and heat it afterwards 
 before sealing. As a matter of convenience this has man}^ j^oints in 
 its favor, but in view of the separation into component parts which 
 may take place it is a bad practice. The honey should first be heated 
 and liquefied completely, especially if honeys from several species of 
 flowers are to be blended. 
 
 As previously stated, there has existed and possibly still exists a 
 l^opular idea that granulation indicates adulteration by the addition 
 of cane sugar. This is of course untrue, since pure honeys do granu- 
 late solid. Many bee keepers in combating this idea have stated that 
 this very granulation is a test of the purity of the honey. This 
 statement, so frequently made, is equalty untrue, since invert sugar, 
 one of the adulterants sometimes used, will also crystallize solid as 
 rapidly as do most honeys. 
 
 Age seems to affect honey greatly. Repeated granulation and lique- 
 faction, as the temperature varies year after year, in some way affects 
 the chemical composition of the honey, changing the product so 4hat 
 it may not have the composition that it had at first. Some honey 
 thirty-five years old, submitted to this Department, was found to 
 contain too much sucrose. A sample of the same honey had pre- 
 viously been analvzed bv two official chemists and declared to be 
 
12 MISCKLLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 adulterated; hut tlie history of the sample precluded this possihility. 
 The honey had apparently changed greatly with age in appearance 
 as well as in composition. 
 
 Some bee keej)ers make a practice of adding a very small amount 
 of glycerin to the honey to j)revent granulation. This should not be 
 done, for it is adulterating the honey. Some have argued that, since 
 glycerin costs so nnich more than honey, they are not adulterating 
 in that they are not adding something cheai)er to the honey to increase 
 their profit. According to pure-food laws, however, nothing can be 
 added to honey unless the addition is specifically stated, and the 
 addition of even a small amount of glycerin is, in the eyea of the law, 
 as great an offense as the addition of glucose. 
 
 HEATING HONEY FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF THE BACTERIA OF 
 
 DISEASE. 
 
 The only condition under which honey should be heated to a higher 
 temperature than 100'^ F. is in the case of honey which has been ex- 
 tracted from a colony containing fonl brood. In order to kill the 
 bacteria of either of the brood diseases, it is desirable to dilute the 
 honey by adding an equal amount of water and then raise the temper- 
 ature to the boiling point and keep it there, allowing the mixture 
 to boil vigorously for at least thirty minutes; in order that no risk 
 may be run, it is better to make this one hour. Honey which is so 
 treated is changed chemically and is no longer pure honey, but it 
 makes a good sirup for feeding to bees and is the best way of using 
 honey from an infected source. Too much care can not be exercised 
 in bringing this to the proper temperature, and it must be remem- 
 bered that the resulting product is not honey, but a sirup, the chemical 
 composition of which is quite unlike that of pure honey. 
 
 PACKING OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 
 
 If honey tends to granulate rapidly, it will save much trouble in 
 licjuefying to put it into the receptacle in which it is to be sold as soon 
 after extraction as possible. There will then be no difficulty from 
 the various ingredients becoming separated. To preserve the deli- 
 cate aromas it is desirable that honey be sealed as soon as possible. 
 
 AMien honey is put up in less than 3-pound packages it is generally 
 l>ottled. A bottle makes a much more attractive package than a tin 
 can and shows off the contents. There is no doubt of the fact that 
 honey sells largely on its appearance, and too much care can not be 
 exercised in packing and lalx'lling so as to make the package attract- 
 ive to the purchaser. In cases where a bee keeper sells directl}^ to a 
 local trade he may educate his customers to judge his honeys by their 
 fiavor. in which event it is immaterial what kind of package is used. 
 
rnoDrcTTox and care of extracted honey. IS 
 
 and honey may even be run out from a large can into a vessel fur- 
 nished by the customer when the honey is delivered. It is too often 
 the case, however, that bee keepers put up their honey in such poor, 
 unsightly packages that they can get only a low price for their 
 goods. 
 
 If honey is put up in more than 3-pound packages, tin cans are 
 generally used and the most common receptacle is a square can hold- 
 ing 5 gallons (60 pounds). Two of these are usually boxed together 
 for shipment. Square and round cans of various types are often 
 used for smaller quantities. Barrels are preferred by some for large 
 shipments for the baking and confectionery trade, but their use can 
 not always be advised. Before honey is put into it, a barrel must be 
 thoroughly dry, and tight when dry, because of the fact that honey 
 takes up a certain amount of moisture, and if, when the honey is put 
 into it, the barrel is damp, the honey will absorb the moisture, caus- 
 ing the barrel to leak. Barrels also absorb a certain amount of 
 honey. In dry climates particularly barrels should be used with 
 caution. 
 
 AMien honey is packed in bottles, it is desirable that granulation 
 be retarded, since a bottle of partially granulated honey is not attract- 
 ive. To aid in the retarding of granulation, the honey should be 
 entirely liquefied and thoroughly mixed in a large can and run into 
 the bottle warm. The bottle should be as full as possible and sealed 
 hermetically while still warm. Granulation usually begins on the 
 edges of the top line of the hone}^ and spreads rapidly from these 
 points. This is probably because some honey gets upon the sides 
 and partially dries. It is therefore desirable that the honey fill the 
 bottle clear to the cover to prevent this. It must also be free of 
 bubbles. Bottles may be hermetically sealed b}' using some style of 
 clamp cover or by sealing a cork with a mixture of beeswax and resin. 
 This mixture may be colored by the addition of a dye. Granulation 
 may be considerabh^ retarded by keeping the honey at a nearly uni- 
 form temperature. This should not be less than 65° F. and is much 
 better at 90° to 100° F. AAliile the honey is in the hands of the pro- 
 ducer or bottler, it may be kept liquid for a long time in this way, 
 but of course when sold it is generally subject to changes of tempera- 
 ture. Honey, either in the comb or extracted, should never be kept 
 in a cool or damp place. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF " CANDIED " HONEY. 
 
 Honeys of the average type, relatively free from nonsugars, such as 
 that made from alfalfa, soon granulate solid and are sometimes sold 
 in bricks. Granulation may be hastened by changes of temperature 
 and by stirring. If it is desired to have a can of honey granulate 
 
14 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS OX APICULTURE. 
 
 rapidly, it may bo carried from a warm room out doors in winter and 
 back a^ain at intervals of a day or two for a couple of weeks. If 
 this is accompanied with occasional stirrin^r when granulation first 
 begins, the whole can will soon be a solid cake. Honey may also be 
 poured into smaller receptacles, such as waterproof pasteboard car- 
 riers or oyster pails, and allowed to crystallize in the package in which 
 it is to be sold. If allowed to granulate solid in a large tin can, the 
 tin may be cut away and the honey cut into bricks with fine wire 
 in the way that prints of butter are sometimes prepared. 
 
 A market for " honey bricks " must generally be built up locally, 
 for as yet the general public has not learned to look for honey in such 
 shape. The cost of the package is less than that of bottles, and the 
 granulated honey is by some considered superior for table use to 
 li(piid honey. Several bee keepers have used this method with suc- 
 cess and claim that it gives great satisfaction to their customers. 
 
 HONEY TYPES. 
 
 It is well known that honeys from different plants vary consider- 
 ably in taste, color, granulation, etc. The taste and color are given to 
 honey by the plants from Avhich the nectar is derived. Granulation 
 may be considered as a property of all honeys, or rather of the dextrose 
 contained in all of them, and, from a study of the chemical compo- 
 sition of many samples, it seems probable that all honeys would crys- 
 tallize were it not for the fact that some of them contain an excess 
 of either noncrystallizable levulose or dextrin, gums, and other non- 
 sugars. The following table will make this point clear: 
 
 I. Xormal honey (from nectaries of flowers). 
 
 L High purity (high in sugars, relatively low in dextrin, gums, and 
 other nonsugars). 
 
 A. Levulose type, e. g., mangrove, tiipelo. sage. 
 
 B. Average ty|)e. 
 
 n. High in sucrose, e. g.. alfalfa. 
 I). Low in sucrose, e. g., buckwheat. 
 2. Low purity (relatively high in dextrin, gums, and other nonsugars, 
 e. g., basswood. sumac, iK)plar, oak. hickory, apple, most tree 
 honey). 
 II. .Vltnormal honey (not from nectaries of Mowers; generally high in de.xtrin, 
 gums, and other nonsugars). 
 
 1. Honeydew honey (from aphides and other in.'^ects). 
 
 2. Coniferous honey (plant exudations not from nectaries). 
 
 Honeys containing ai)proximately the same amount ot levidose and 
 dextrose and which are high in sugars (average type) granulate 
 readily. Very few^ honeys have more dextrose than levulose. If, 
 however, the levulose is considerably greater than the dextrose (levu- 
 lose type), or if the nonsugars are relatively high (low purity and 
 
PRODUCTION AND CARE OF EXTRACTED HONEY. 15 
 
 abnormal honeys), granulation is retarded. Some honeydew granu- 
 lates rapidly, but no abnormal honeys of that type were included in 
 the samples examined, consequently they are not included in the table. 
 The use of the terms " high " and " low *' purity in this table must 
 not be taken to indicate the comparative values of the various honeys. 
 Low-purity honeys which have relatively more dextrin, gums, and 
 other nonsugars are just as good honeys as those of the high-purity 
 class. Abnormal honeys, however, are less desirable. The presence 
 of the nonsugars in low-purity honeys may be due largely to a slight 
 admixture of honeydew, since most honeys contain a trace of this. It 
 must be remembered in considering this subject that practically no 
 honey is from a single species of plant, and therefore they will vary 
 considerably, according to the other nectars added to them as well as 
 according to local soil and climatic conditions. 
 
METHODS OF HONEY TESTING FOR BEE KEEPERS/' 
 
 Hy C. A. liKowNK. rii. I).. 
 Chief. Siipar Lahoratoru, liurcaK of (licmlsinj. 
 
 The most common forms of adulteration which are practiced at 
 present in the sophistication of honey are the addition of commercial 
 glucose, cane sugar, and invert sugar. The adulteration of honey 
 by dilution with water is less commonh^ practiced ; such addition 
 is easily recognized b}' the increased fluidity of the honey, and there 
 is, besides, the increased danger that the product will spoil through 
 fermentation. It is often desirable, however, for the bee keeper to 
 know the approximate percentage of moisture in his products in 
 order to avoid the marketing of unripe honey Avhich might exceed 
 the limit for water allowed by the standards (25 j^er cent). The 
 average water content of American honey, according to the average 
 for 99 pure samples analyzed in the Bureau of Chemistry, is 17.59 
 per cent, so that there is above this a margin of more than 7 per cent 
 in which the moisture of honeys may be allowed to fluctuate. 
 
 The accurate determination of moisture in honey in the chemical 
 laboratory is a somewhat complicated process. A carefully weighed 
 amount of the honey is evaporated at a temperature of about 160° F. 
 in a vacuum chamber until no more moisture is given oJ0P, and the loss 
 in weight during the interval is calculated as water. For the bee 
 keeper such a method of determination is too involved and compli- 
 cated; there is. however, a much simpler method by means of which 
 the moisture content of a honey can be determined Avith ease and 
 rapidity and with a fair degree of accuracy. This is b}- means of a 
 specific gravity float or spindle. The liquefied honey is poured into 
 a tall cylinder and immersed in hot water of 170° F. temperature. 
 The honey is stirred with a thermometer and as soon as the tempera- 
 ture has reached 1G0° ¥. the spindle is lowered into the honey and 
 allowed to come to rest. The point at which the surface of the honey 
 
 a This pnper was prepared by Doctor Browne of tlie Bureau of Chemistry after 
 the coni|)Ietioii of his work on lionoy analysis. For greater detail the reader 
 is referred to Bulh'tin 110 of the Bureau of Chenii><try, entitled •'Chemical 
 Analysis and Composition of American Honeys." This luilletin may he obtained 
 from the Superintendent of Documents, (iovernment Printini; Ollico, Washinj?- 
 ton. I). C. It can not l)e obtained from the Bureau of Entomology. — E, F. P. 
 1<) 
 
METHODS OF HONFA' TESTTNO FOR BEE KEEPERS. 17 
 
 cuts the oradiiatijii mark upon the spindle indicates llie jjercMitage of 
 water in the honey. 
 
 For the accurate determination of ghicose, cane sugar, and other 
 adulterants, the bee keeper will usually be obliged to resort to the 
 services of a chemist. This is especially true as regards cane sugar, 
 as there is no simple test for this substance which can be applied by 
 the ordinary layman. As regards glucose and added invert sugar, 
 however, there are certain simple colorimetric tests which can be 
 easily and quickly carried out. 
 
 A good colorimetric test for the presence of commercial glucose or 
 starch sirup in honey is that of Beckmann, by means of a dilute solu- 
 tion of iodine in potassium iodide. One part of the honey to be ex- 
 amined is dissolved in one part by volume of Avater in a test tube 
 and shaken up witli a few drops of the iodine solution. If the honey 
 solution remains a pale yellow, commercial glucose is probably absent ; 
 if the solution is colored a red or purple, however, the presence of glu- 
 cose sirup is clearly indicated. In making this test it is alwa^^s best 
 to carry out a comparative test under similar conditions, using a 
 honey of known purity and adding the same number of drops of 
 iodine solution. In this manner a reliable comparison of colors can 
 be secured. 
 
 The adulteration of honej^ Avith invert sugar sirup is being prac- 
 ticed to some extent in this country, though not as widely at present 
 as in certain European countries. This sirup has in many respects 
 the same composition as pure hone}^; it is deficient, however, in ash, 
 albuminoids, and other constituents which occur in honey in small 
 amounts. Through the action of the high temperature of boiling a 
 small quantity of decomposition products of sugar is produced in this 
 artificial honey which serves to distinguish it from pure honey unless 
 the latter has been boiled for some time, in which case it also will con- 
 tain decomposition products similar to those contained in the invert 
 sugar sirup. An easy test for artificial invert sugar in honey is by 
 means of a concentrated solution of aniline acetate. This reagent 
 should be prepared freshly each time before using. Five cubic centi- 
 meters of chemically pure aniline are shaken up with 5 cubic centi- 
 meters of water and 2 cubic centimeters of glacial acetic acid added. 
 The milky emulsion of aniline and water should clear up perfectly 
 on addition of the acid. About 5 cubic centimeters of the honey to 
 be tested are diluted in a test tube with an equal volume of water and 
 a little of the aniline solution poured down the walls of the tube so as 
 to form a thin layer upon the surface of the liquid. If artificial 
 invert sugar is present, a red ring will form beneath this layer, and 
 on gently agitating the tube the whole quantity of aniline acetate will 
 be tinged this color, the depth of coloration depending upon the 
 
18 MISCELLANKOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 (luaiility of artificial invert siipir pivsent in the mixture. Pure 
 honeys which liave not been spoik'd l)v overheat in<r (h) not <rive this 
 reaction. 
 
 In carryinnf out the tests previously described only a very small 
 outlay in apparatus will be required. The special spindles for de- 
 terminiuir the water content of honey and the other apparatus can 
 be obtained from any manufacturer of chemical goods. Glass or 
 metal cylinders for containing the honey while spindling will be 
 needed, as also a collection of test tubes and racks. A small 50 cubic 
 centimeier graduated cylinder will also be found useful for measur- 
 ing out the volume of honey solutions and of reagents. All appa- 
 ratus should be thoioughly cleaned and rinsed after using, as any 
 contamination with impurities may affect the accuracy of the tests. 
 The drugs specified may be purchased of any druggist. 
 
U. S. D. A., B. E. Bui. 75. Part H. A.. December 31. r»: 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 WAX MOTHS AND AMERICAN FOUL BROOD 
 
 By E. F. Phillips. Ph. D., 
 In Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It has generally been held by bee keepers that, while the wax 
 moths often cause considerable damage by destroying surplus 
 combs and in other ways, they were not an unmixed evil, for by 
 destroying combs infected with brood disease they were supposed to 
 remove the infection. Text-books on apiculture and articles in 
 various bee journals have repeatedly reiterated this statement. 
 Evidently' no person has seen fit to look into the question thoroughly, 
 and it is the object of the present paper to record some observations 
 Avhich have been made. 
 
 Allien a bee larva dies from infection of American foul brood, it 
 decays rapidly, and the mass becomes ropy, so that if a small stick 
 or pin is inserted in the decayed mass and removed, the larval mate- 
 rial adheres to it and will string out for an inch or more. This 
 ropiness of the dead larva is very characteristic of this brood dis- 
 ease. Seemingly this ropiness makes it impossible for the bees to 
 remove the infected material, and when the decayed mass dries down 
 it forms a scale which adheres so tightly to the lower side wall of the 
 cell that it can not be removed without tearing the wax wall. 
 
 As the disease progresses in the colony the various cells of the 
 brood chamber come to contain diseased larvae and, later, scales 
 formed of dried larvae. It is probable that after a cell once comes to 
 contain a diseased larva, it is almost impossible for another larva to 
 reach maturity in a health}' condition, consequently the number of 
 bees which reach the adult condition is constantly reduced and, as the 
 old field bees die and are not fully replaced, the colony becomes weak- 
 ened and finally dies out completely. 
 
 19 
 
20 MISCKLl.ANKOrS PAPERS ON APTf'T^LTURK. 
 
 As loiiiT ;is the colony is slr()n<r the wax moths can do no damage, 
 l)ii( as the hccs (h'crcasc in number the combs offer a foothold to one or 
 other of the moths and within a very short time the whole hive is one 
 mass of wax moth tunnels, larval excreta, and cocoons. The combs 
 are completely destroyed and nothing remains but the web and a mass 
 of debris on the hive bottoms. If the moth larva* actually ate the 
 infected material, they would serve to remove the infection where the 
 bee keeper is too careless to do so — as is too frequently the case. 
 
 The two wax moths differ greatly in their habits in some respects, 
 but it is not the purpose of this paper to discuss these points. The 
 large wax moth {Galleria mellonella L.) is the most widely dis- 
 tributed and is found in j)ractically every part of the United States, 
 and probabl}' wherever the honey bee is now kejDt. The lesser wax 
 moth (Achroia grisella Fab.), on the other hand, is not so widely dis- 
 tributed, but it is known to exist in various localities in this country. 
 
 WORK OF THE LARGE WAX MOTH. 
 
 {Galleria tnelUmeUa L. ) 
 
 Plato T is from a photograph of a comb, infected with American foul 
 brood, on which larva^ of the large wax moth were placed. The comb 
 was placed in a box to exclude light and was laid flat on a piece of 
 l)aper. The larva? at first worked on the under side of the comb, but 
 gradually they got to the upper surface. It will be noticed that in 
 one part of the comb the lower side walls of the cells remain intact; 
 here the dried-down scales of American foul brood were thickest, and 
 evidently this was the center of the brood during the time of infection. 
 The remainder of the area formerly occupied by comb is nothing 
 but debris, with a few scales scattered here and there. Evidently 
 only where scales are thick do they hold together enough to stand 
 upright. To show how the scales stand up, the web was removed 
 from the surface. The background of the photogra]:)h is merely a 
 j)iece of paper. 
 
 Plate II is a photograph of a rough box used for a hive during 
 some exi)eriments in producing American foul brood by the feeding 
 of pure cultures of BdcUlus larrd." The five frames of this small 
 hive contained thousands of the dried-down scales so characteristic 
 of this disease. The box was put away in a closet and the large wax 
 moth got into it, with the result that all the combs were completely 
 destroyed. The webs and empty frames were removed for this photo- 
 LH-aph. The black mass in the bottom of the box is com})Osed of 
 
 aClreular No. 04, Bureau of Entomology, entitled, "The Cause of American 
 Ki.iil P.n.od." I>v T^r. (I. V. Wliit<>. Issued July 'J'.). VMM. 
 
Bui. 75. Pt II, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate 
 
-^ 
 
Bui. 75, Pt. II Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate II. 
 
 Hive Infected with American Foul Brood, the Frames Removed to Show Work 
 OF THE Large Wax Moth <Galleria mellonella'. (Original.) 
 
BuL 75, Pt. II. B'j'eaj of Entomology. U. S. Dept. o' Agriculture. 
 
 Plate III. 
 
WAX MOTHS AND AMERICAN FOUL BROOD. 21 
 
 larval feces and scales in about equal proportion by volume. On ac- 
 count of the reduction of the photograph the scales do not appear 
 plainly: nevertheless, this demonstrates what becomes of the scales 
 of American foul brood in a set of combs destroyed by Gallema mel- 
 lonella. A few scales are seen placed on a card resting on the mass of 
 feces and scales. 
 
 Mr. Burton X. Gates, of this Bureau, took some of these scales and 
 put them in a small box with small larva^ of GaUeria meUoncUa. 
 The scales remained untouched and the larv?e died, evidently of 
 starvation. 
 
 WORK OF THE LESSER WAX MOTH. 
 {Achroia t/riseUa Fab.) 
 
 Plate III is a photograph of a comb taken from a colony which had 
 died of American foul brood. It was obtained by the author in June, 
 1906. near Fillmore, Ventura County. Cal.. and is of interest as com- 
 ing from an apiary which in less than two years had been reduced 
 from about 200 colonies to 15 by the ravages of this disease. ^Alien 
 the apiary was visited there were 151 hives in place, and of these 136 
 contained no bees. This comb was wrapped up and put away for 
 future study, but became infested with Achroia griseUa. '\Miether 
 it contained eggs when taken in the apiary or whether the moths 
 entered after the comb reached Washington is not known. 
 
 It is obvious from this illustration that the larva^ have not eaten 
 the scales formed by dried-down larva^ which died of American foul 
 brood. This comb was not cleaned of webs and illustrates very nicely 
 the characteristic work of this moth. 
 
 After the photograph was taken the scales were picked out of the 
 frame and this material was used in some of the inoculation experi- 
 ments recorded in Circular Xo. 91 : obviously, therefore, the material 
 was still infectious. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 In the control of brood diseases of bees the constant reinfection of 
 apiaries from diseased combs of colonies in a wild state is one of the 
 things which must be combated constantly. It is not difficult for a 
 bee keeper to rid his own apiary of disease, but he must constantly 
 watch for an introduction of the disease from wild bees or an adjoin- 
 ing apiar}'. If then the wax moths actually destroyed the infected 
 combs of wild colonies or of colonies in the apiaries of careless bee 
 keepers, they would be a benefit to the industry to that extent. Nat- 
 urally if the moth larvae eat out everything except the scales and these 
 drop to the bottom as shown in Plate II, they are less available to 
 
22 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 other bees. If siiflicieiitly covered with debris, they are to some extent 
 removed from robbing workers. 
 
 These results prove conchisively that the two wax moths, (ralleria 
 mellonella and Acht^oia (jrlsella^ do not eat the scales formed from 
 larvae which have died of American foul brood. It is clear, therefore, 
 that infectious material in a colony dying of this disease remains even 
 after the comb is destroyed. The one point in favor of these moths, 
 from a bee keeper's standpoint, is therefore disproven. 
 
1 
 
Bui. 75, Pt 111, Bureau o( Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Ag' 
 
 EXPL/)N/IT/ON: 
 
 /IM£R/C/fA/ 
 
 £U/90P£y4/V 
 FOCfl BfiOOO. 
 
 Map Showing Distribution of Bee Diseases in Massachusetts and Possible Sources of Infection from Neighboring States. 
 
V. S. I). A.. B. E. Bui. 7.^, Part III. A., June 30, 1908. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTLRE. 
 
 BEE DISEASES IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 By Burton X. Gates. 
 Ejpcrt in ApicnUure. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In MassachiLsetts bee keeping is not an industry conducted by a 
 few, as in the Hawaiian Islands, where four corporations harvested 
 600 tons of hone}' last year : but there are more than 2.100 men who 
 derive some profit from their bees and who have interests at stake. 
 There is besides, a vast, concentrated, and steadily increasing popu- 
 lation which, fortunately for bee keepers, provides an almost unlim- 
 ited home market. In order to point out the status of the industry, 
 the writer estimated in lOOl.'^ that two tablespoonfuls of honey per 
 person as a year's ration is all that is now consumed, and of this less 
 than one-fourth is produced in Massachusetts. Theoretically it is 
 possible for Massachusetts to support approximateh' 40.000 colonies 
 of bees, which could more than equal in amount Hawaii's honey crop 
 for last year. There is reason to believe, however, that bee keeping, 
 if it is not actually decreasing, is not progressing along with the 
 steadih' increasing population of the State. This is borne out by the 
 general feeling among the country people that to-da}' there are fewer 
 bees kept on the farms than there were fifty 3'ears ago. 
 
 One of the fundamental reasons for this condition may be found in 
 the presence of brood diseases of bees, which exist in practically every 
 quarter of Massachusetts and Connecticut, as well as in the other Xew 
 England States, and which from time to time have doubtless killed 
 out the bees in many localities. There is undeniable proof of this; 
 furthermore, from evidence of former outbreaks it must be concluded 
 
 « Bee Keeping : How to Meet its Dangers and Difficulties. By Burton X. 
 (4ates, with suggestions by Prof. C. F. Hodge. Fifty-second Ann. Rept. Sec. 
 Mass. St. Bd. Agric, pp. 411-42G, Boston, 11H>5. Massachusetts Crop Report, 
 \o\. 17, No. 6, October, 1004, i»p. 30-40. Boston, 1004. 
 
 23 
 
24 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS OX APR'l LTURE. 
 
 that tlicir iiitrtHiuclioii is not recent. This evidence is not merely the 
 result of bee keepers' reports or of more or less semiauthoritative and 
 indefinite rumors, but it is based upon results of bacteriological find- 
 ings in numerous samples of brood comb sent to this Bureau by the 
 bee keepers in the State during the past year and a half. Under 
 these conditions bee keeping can not be brought to the high degree of 
 l)erfection which is possible. Xo factor in bee keeping tends to limit 
 the industry as do epidemics of such diseases; they cause bee keepers 
 to become discouraged by '' bad luck '' and to lose interest in their 
 bees. The '* luck " must change ; the bee keejDers must learn the 
 nature of the diseases, where they exist, and how to combat them; 
 otherwise the industry will decrease even. more. 
 
 THE TWO KNOWN BEE DISEASES. 
 
 Two contagious brood diseases of bees are now known. These 
 attack the developing brood and so reduce it that the colony soon 
 dwindles from lack of young bees to replace the old. They are 
 known, respectively, as American foul brood and European foul 
 brood. 
 
 AMERICAN FOUL BROOD. 
 
 The cause of this disease is definitely known to be an organism, 
 Bacillus larvce White. It is Avhat has been heretofore frequently 
 designated simply as " foul brood.'* The nature of the disease is 
 described by Dr. E. F. Phillips, in charge of apicultural investiga- 
 tions in this Bureau,'^ as follows : 
 
 When the larv?e are first affected they turn to a light chocolate color, and 
 in the advanced stages of decay become darker, resembling roasted coffee in 
 color. Usually the larvje are attacked at about the time of capping, and most 
 of the cells containing infected larv.T are capped. As decay proceeds these 
 cappings become sunken and perforated, and, as the healthy brood emerges, the 
 comb shows the scattered cells containing larv;e which have died of disease, still 
 capped. The most noticeable characteristic of this infection is the fact that 
 when a small stick is inserted in a larva which has died of the disease, and 
 slowly removed, the broken-down tissues adhere to it and will often stretch 
 out for several inches before breaking. When the larva dries it forms a 
 tightly adhering scale [of characteristic and diagnostic shape and] of very 
 dark brown color, which can best be observed when the comb is held so that a 
 bright light strikes the lower side wall [of the celll. Decaying larv.T which 
 have died of this disease have a very characteristic odor which resembles a poor 
 <lUMlity of glue. This disc.-is*' s«'i(loni att.icks drone or queen larva*. 
 
 EUROPEAN FOl L BROOD. 
 
 This is the disease which appears to be most prevalent in Massa- 
 chusetts, probably liaving swept in from New York State, where it 
 
 «The l>rood <liseascs of bees. Hy K. F. Philli|»s. Ph. I>. Circular T'.K liureau 
 uf Kntomology. U. S. I>ei»artment of Agriculture, pi). 1-2, ItKXi. 
 
BEE DISEASES IX MASSACHUSETTS. 25 
 
 was formerly known as *' black brood.** Its presence is less easily 
 diagnosed by superficial examination than is American foul brood. 
 It is described by Doctor Phillips" as follows: 
 
 This disease attacks larvue earlier than does American foul brood, and a 
 comparatively small percentage of the diseased brood is ever capi>ed. The dis- 
 eased larvie which are capped over have sunken and perforated cappings. 
 The larvtp when first attacked show a small yellow spot on the body near the 
 head and move uneasily in the cell. When death occurs they turn yellow, 
 then brown, and finally almost black. Decaying larvae which have died of this 
 disease do not usually stretch out in a long thread when a small stick is 
 inserted and slowly removed. Occasionally there is a very slight " ropiness,-' 
 but this is never very marked. The thoroughly dried larvjie form irregular 
 scales which are not strongly adherent to the lower side wall of the cell. 
 There is very little odor from decaying larvae which have died from this dis- 
 ease, and when an odor is noticeable it is not the '* glue-i>ot " odor of the Ameri- 
 can foul brood, but more nearly resembles that of soured dead brood. This dis- 
 ease attacks drone and queen larvre very soon after the colony is infected. It is 
 as a rule much more infectious than American foul brood and spreads more 
 rapidly. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that the disease will dis- 
 ai^i^ear of its own accord, a thing which the author never knew to occur in 
 a genuine case of American foul brood. European foul brood is most de- 
 structive during the spring and early summer, often almost disappearing in 
 late summer and autumn. 
 
 DAMAGE FROM BEE DISEASES. 
 
 The damage from an epidemic of bee disease is as difficult to esti- 
 mate as is the damage from an epidemic of smallpox, of typhoid 
 fever, or of malaria in a human communit}'. The loss of colonies 
 is but one small item; there is the resulting loss of crop, the result- 
 ing lack of increase in the number of colonies of bees, and that demor- 
 alizing effect on the industry which tends to cause bee keepers to go 
 out of business. Besides this there is a crippling of commercial queen 
 rearing, a check on the trade in bees, and a decisive effect on the 
 manufacture and sale of bee keepers' supplies. All these factors 
 must be considered in an estimate; and, what is more, the damage is 
 accumulative. It can not be calculated by the year and then totaled; 
 the progressive loss must be figured. 
 
 In Xew York State, where European foul brood has been com- 
 bated for nearly a decade, and where it is now well suppressed, it 
 has been estimated that the damage from loss of bees alone, in a 
 very limited area, in 1899 and 1900, was at least $45,000. 
 
 In Ventura County, Cal., where American foul brood flourishes, a 
 thriftless bee keeper had 151 colonies which, from neglect, were re- 
 duced to 14 colonies in a little over twelve months' time. One hun- 
 dred and thirty-seven colonies had died or were nearly dead. But 
 there are many more and even sadder cases, were there space to relate 
 them. 
 
 o The brood diseases of bees. By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. Circular 79, Bureau 
 of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 2. 
 7S013°— Bull. 75—11 a 
 
2(> 
 
 MISCKLLANKOl'S PAPKHS OX APKTT/n^RK. 
 
 PRESENT EXTENT OF BEE DISEASES IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 T\w extent of bee diseases in Massachusetts may be readily seen on 
 the inap. The towns in which they are positively known to occur 
 are listed below in black-faced type. Towns in which they probably 
 exist are listed in liirhter-faced type. 
 
 'ruble sUoiriiKj the towns in irliic/i the hcv di. sea. s<.s nsixctircly occur. 
 
 1 Bluok.-f uced type indUiHes whore disease is positively l^Down to exist. Light-faced 
 type indicates that disease is probably present.] 
 
 American foul brood. 
 
 European foul brood. 
 
 Bristol Ctniutj/: 
 
 Worcester Coiniti/: 
 
 Berkshire County: 
 
 Hampshire County: 
 
 Acushnot. 
 
 Hrooit field. 
 
 tireat llarriii;^- 
 
 Belchertown. 
 
 I-'rtM'towii. 
 
 Chariton. 
 
 t<»ii. 
 
 Greenwich. 
 
 Now li.'dford. 
 
 litMMiiiii.stcr. 
 
 I^e. 
 
 Worcester County: 
 
 Wostport. 
 
 SturbridKO. 
 
 Sandisfield. 
 
 Auburn. 
 
 Esscjr Count)/: 
 
 Soutbbridf^e. 
 
 Sheffield. 
 
 Bar re. 
 
 Aniesl)ury. 
 
 Warren. 
 
 Franklin County: 
 
 Brooltfield. 
 
 Snlislniry. 
 
 Worcester. 
 
 Deerfield. 
 
 Charlton. 
 
 Uumpdcti CoiDitif: 
 
 
 (Jreenfield. 
 
 Hard wick. 
 
 Hrimliold. 
 
 
 Montague. 
 
 New Brain tree. 
 
 lilKlIO^V. 
 
 
 Northfield. 
 
 Southbridge. 
 
 Monson. 
 
 
 Haniytlen Counti): 
 
 Sturbridge. 
 
 Sprin.ij:(iold. 
 
 
 Blandford. 
 
 Warren. 
 
 Wilbrahara. 
 
 
 Brimfield. 
 
 Worcester. 
 
 Hampshire Cnuntu: 
 
 
 lilllllO^V. 
 
 
 liolcliortown. 
 
 
 Monson. 
 
 
 Mi<l<ll(srx Vounty: 
 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 
 Marlboro. 
 
 
 Wilbraham. 
 
 
 The distribution of these diseases is based, as is explained, on bac- 
 teriological findings in numerous samples of suspected brood, sub- 
 mitted by the bee keepers during the past year and a half. The 
 examinations were made by Dr. G. Franklin White, expert in bacte- 
 riology, of this Bureau. In plotting the regions where disease is 
 thus definitely known to exist a .solid red color has been used. Index 
 letters, A for American foul brood and E for European foul brood, 
 show which disease is present in each locality. 
 
 Besides these definite data there are in the Bureau of P^ntomology 
 a great number of reports from bee keepers throughout Massachu- 
 setts, which, without the definite knowledge from the bacteriological 
 examinations, would be of .slight significance and importance, but 
 which, in conjunction Avith these findings, are of the greatest value. 
 They indicate regions of probable infection, which are shown on the 
 map in lighter tone. 
 
 As an illustration, a bee keeper who lives in Acushnet reports, '" I 
 lost all my bees, thirty swarms, at once." This bare statement is of 
 slight import; but taken together with the fact that American foul 
 brood occurs in Freetown, it would indicate that American foul brood 
 is distributed throughout southern Bristol (^ounty. Another illus- 
 tration is found in A^^)rcester (\)unty. Bacteriological examination 
 shows that in Auburn and Worcester both European foul brood and 
 American foul brood exist. A bee keeper from Barre reports that in 
 
BEE DISEASES IX MASSACHUSETTS. 27 
 
 the year 1902 or 1903 he lost forty-five colonies of bees. From East 
 Brookfield and Charlton, from New Braintree, Sturbridge, and War- 
 ren, all located aromid and adjoining Worcester and Auburn, reports 
 of hea\n^ loss of bees, not alone by one bee keeper in a town but by 
 several, are at hand. A bee keeper in Warren says, " Bees all died 
 
 about five years ago; I had nine colonies which I lost; Mr. lost 
 
 about five colonies also, as did others, so that at the present day only 
 three to four colonies remain in town.*' Similar reports come from 
 across the county and Connecticut State lines adjoining this section 
 of Worcester County. It is highly probable, then, considering the 
 positive knowledge of foul brood in Worcester and Auburn and con- 
 sidering collectively the widespread and yet individual reports from 
 the country about these two towns, that these diseases are present 
 throughout this section of Massachusetts and Connecticut. In other 
 parts of the State similar conclusions are obvious. 
 
 Considering the distribution as a Avhole, it is apparent that Euro- 
 pean foul brood has swept in from Xew York State, where the 
 disease has existed for years. Moreover, were the bees in western 
 Massachusetts systematically examined, this portion of the State 
 would doubtless be found thickly infected with European foul brood. 
 American foul brood in Connecticut has apparenth^ invaded Litch- 
 field County in the western half of the State. In ^lassachusetts, 
 on the other hand, and in one small area in Xew Hampshire, where 
 there is less thorough information, American foul brood is largely 
 confined to the eastern half of the State. Ultimately, when more 
 information is at hand, if decisive and immediate steps to suppress 
 these diseases are not taken, Massachusetts, as well as the rest of Xew 
 England, will undoubtedly reveal a mass of infection. 
 
 EVIDENCE THAT BEE DISEASES WERE NOT RECENTLY INTRO- 
 DUCED INTO MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 In 1828 Dr. James Thatcher wrote (p. 4:) :« 
 
 The destructive ravages of the bee-motli have in many places almost auui- 
 hilated our bee establishments and discouraged all attempts to renewed trials. 
 No less than a hundred hives have, the past season, been eutirelj' destroyed 
 by that enemy within the towns of the county of Plymouth, and in places 
 where a single hive has yielded one hundred pounds of honey. 
 
 At first reading this might appear, so far as bee diseases are con- 
 cerned, of slight import. General experience shows, however, that 
 strong, healthy colonies of bees are seldom if ever destroyed by 
 wax moths, the presence of the latter being secondary as a result of 
 a weakened condition of the colony from loss of its queen, disease, 
 or the like. Consequently, wherever there is extensive complaint of 
 damage from moths, there the presence of disease is to be suspected. 
 
 « A Practical Treatise on the Management of Bees. * * * By James 
 Thacher, M. D., Boston, 1820. 
 
28 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 In 1831, again. Dr. Jerome V. C. Smith" says (p. 41) : 
 
 (iront InnuMitations are heard about the bee-moth, ♦ * * whose devasta- 
 tions in the New KiiKhmd States hav«' been described as something frightful. 
 
 More specifically he says (p. 43) : 
 
 In tlie interior of Ma ssju-liu setts. New Hampshire, and Connecticut the 
 farmers liave l>ecome lieartily discoiira^'ed in tlieir attempts at cultivation, and 
 lamentably appear to have abandoned them entirely. 
 
 Such reports strongly suggest that some unknown agent, as dis- 
 ease, depleted the bees and made them subjects for the devastations 
 of bee moths. Even at that early date Doctor Smith intimates 
 (j). 41) that all the damage ''attributed to it [the bee mothl . . . 
 admits of some doubt.*' Without being conclusive, such evidence 
 must be accepted as strongly indicative of the existence of disease, 
 probably of American foul brood, in Massachusetts. 
 
 About 181)(') the writer saw in Worcester a hive in which the bees 
 had died from some affection of the brood. It was diagnosed then 
 as a disease which is now designated as American foul brood. Only 
 one hive out of several was affected. 
 
 European foid brood, on the other hand, is of more recent intro- 
 duction in the State. It was first recognized in New York State in 
 1895, where it is thought to have been introduced in importations of 
 bees from the south. As the map shows, this disease has probably 
 spread into ^lassachusetts from Xew York. 
 
 The late ilr. James F. Wood, of North Dana, noticed in the Con- 
 necticut and Swift River valleys of Massachusetts a brood disease 
 of bees which nuide its appearance in that regicm about 1901. It 
 did much damage, destroying all the bees in the 3'ards where it 
 appeared; but, as it was apparently not American foul brood, Mr. 
 Wood i-egarded it as a new disease. From a description made in an 
 address before the Worcester County Bee Keepers' Association by 
 Dr. James B. Paige,^ of Massachusetts Agricultural College, who 
 was closely associated with ^Ir. Wood and who made a study of 
 the disease, it w^ould appear to have been European foul brood. 
 Being first observed in Massachusetts in 1901, it would have had 
 ample time to have spread from Xew York State. 
 
 With so little recorded data, it is difficult to draw positive con- 
 clusions regarding the distribution of these diseases in j^ears gone 
 by. It is far more important, however, to realize that they have 
 existed in the State for a considerable time, that they have been 
 and are a decided check on the progress of bee keeping, but that 
 they can now be counteracted. 
 
 "An Essiiy on the PracticabllUy of Cultivation of tlu' Honey bee * * ♦. 
 Uy .Jerome V. (\ Smith. M. I)., lioston. ls;n. 
 ^Wood's Bee Disease. American Hee Keei)er, Vol. 1(>, pp. ('»!► 7u, V.)OG, 
 
BEE DISEASES IN MASSACHUSETTS. 29 
 
 THE SPREAD OF BEE DISEASES. 
 
 Both types of foul brood are highly infectious; the way in which 
 they are spread might be compared to the spread of typhoid fever in 
 human communities. Honey is the common carrier of this infection, 
 just as milk and water are the agents which frequently spread typhoid 
 fever. 
 
 In diseased colonies of bees, practically every part of the hive 
 becomes contaminated with the germs of the disease. Consequenth^, 
 when disease is found in the bee yard, every precaution must be 
 taken that bees from healthy colonies do not come in contact with 
 any part of the diseased colonies or hives. Honey, being so irre- 
 sistible to the bees, is of course the main thing to be guarded. Since 
 diseased colonies soon become weakened, from the lack of young bees 
 to replace those dying from old age, they are less likely to maintain 
 guard against robbers, which are a great source of danger in the 
 spread of infection. Immediately on discovery, diseased colonies 
 should be treated. 
 
 FEEDING HONEY. 
 
 In these days of widespread bee disease it is dangerous to feed 
 any honey to bees; it is far preferable and less dangerous to supply 
 them, if they need stores, with a sirup of sugar and water, half and 
 half. It is safe to feed honey to bees only when it has been vigorously 
 boiled for at least a half hour, and, as Doctor Phillips has recently 
 stated,*^ in order to avoid risk, "" it is better to make this an hour " 
 (p. 12). In boiling, the honey should always be diluted with equal 
 parts of water in order to prevent scorching. 
 
 DISINFECTION OF TOOLS AND HANDS. 
 
 All tools used in manipulating diseased bees, as well as the oper- 
 ator's hands, should be thoroughly disinfected before opening a 
 healthy colony. 
 
 DEPLETED HIVES FROM GREENHOUSES A SOURCE OF DANGER. 
 
 In Massachusetts particularly there is another source of infection 
 which is difficult of control. Each year several hundred colonies 
 of bees are placed in greenhouses by those who grow cucumbers under 
 glass. In the adverse conditions of the cucumber house the hive 
 soon becomes depleted and is promptly thrown on the rubbish pile. 
 If the hive originally came from a foul-brood region — which is not 
 
 ^ The production and care of extracted honey. By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 
 Bui. 75, Pt. I, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric, 1907. Price 5c, from Superin- 
 tendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 
 
oO MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURK. 
 
 iniproha'ble, inasmuch as the cfroonhouse men buy tlioir bees wherever 
 Ihev can get them — all the hees within a radius of several miles of 
 the rubbish pile ai'c exposed. More than once the writer has seen 
 fi-om two to a half dozen such hives cast out on the rubbish heap. 
 \Miile there is no intention of en(lan<i^erin<^ nei<2:hb()rs' bees, it is as 
 criminal to throw out of doors any hive in Avhich bees have died as 
 it is to shake the l)ed(lin<j: or throw the waste of the sick room from 
 the window. Discarded hives and their contents, if the cucumber 
 <i:r()wer does not wi^h to render the Avax, should be thrown under the 
 hoiler. 
 
 PURCHASING BEES AND QUEENS. 
 
 In purchasing bees the buyer should be as certain that he is getting 
 stock free from disease as is the farmer, who purchases cows, that 
 these have no tuberculosis. A region where the disease is not found 
 or where it has been successfully suppressed can be reinfected by 
 one careless purchase. For instance, speaking of New York State, 
 Mr. Charles Stewart says : ° 
 
 Just as we [the inspectors] were feeling that we had nearly stamped it [the 
 disease] out and wore masters of the situation we discovered that at least one 
 if not two fresh importations had been made in a section of the State where 
 no trouble of this kind [European foul brood] formerly existed (p. 55). 
 
 To some degree this applies to purchasing queen bees. It is usually 
 safe, however, to introduce a queen if she is removed from the cage 
 in which she is mailed and is introduced unaccompanied by her escort 
 of workers. The candy which is shipped with queens should never be 
 put into a hive. 
 
 STRAY BEES. 
 
 There is one agent over wdiich the bee keeper has no control and 
 which should cause him no anxiety if a considerable territorj^ is 
 freed of the diseases. It is a w ell-known fact that under certain con- 
 ditions, as, for instance, in storms and heavy Avinds, bees enter hives 
 other than their own. Obviously, then, such bees in their interchange 
 of hives may spread the infection. This only emphasizes the urgency 
 of cleaning the disease out of a whole State, or, better, out of a block 
 of States, as New England. Cooperation is the key to the situation. 
 
 BROOD DISEASES CAN BE CONTROLLED. 
 
 Enumeration of the methods by which disease is spread should 
 not convey the idea that these diseases can not be combated, for it 
 has been thoroughly demonstrated that by judicious and persistent 
 manipulation both of them can be successfully controlled and sup- 
 
 " Kep<»rt of the Meetinj: of the Inspectors of Apiaries. San Antonio, Tex., 
 November 12, IJMHJ. liul. H), liur. Ent., V. S. Dept. Af?rie., 1007. 
 
BEE DISEASES IX MASSACHUSETTS. 31 
 
 pressed. The rapidity with which they spread, however, makes co- 
 operation of bee keepers throughout the State or States essential. 
 Sixteen States and Territories" now have legislation and inspectors 
 designed to protect the bee keepers from the spread of these infectious 
 diseases. The State nearest to Massachusetts is Xew York, where 
 the annual loss of bees alone is shown in the following figures : ^ 
 
 Previous to 1S99, in a limited area, the loss of bees aloue is estimated 
 
 at $39,383 
 
 In 1899, when concentrated effort to suppress bee disease was begun, 
 
 it amounted to 25,420 
 
 In 1900 20, 289 
 
 In 1902 10, 853 
 
 In 1903 the loss of the previous year was halved, making it 5, 860 
 
 In 1903 it was 4, 741 
 
 In 1904 it was again divided by two, being 2,220 
 
 In 1905 there was again a reduction of nearly 50 per cent 1, 725 
 
 Total loss of bees, covering about ten years 110,491 
 
 In other States the encouraging results of inspection and per- 
 sistent effort to suppress the inroads of disease are similar. 
 
 IXSPECTIOX. 
 
 Inspectors are not alone police officers. They are educators, up-to- 
 date bee keepers giving instructions in modern methods of bee keep- 
 ing, thoroughly experienced in treating foul brood, and a great stim- 
 ulus to progress. They are necessarily exacting and thorough; but 
 they are not out to seize and condemn: their aim is to help the bee 
 keepers, to assist them in a cooperative etl'ort to eradicate disease, and 
 to promote bee keeping. Of course the individual can do much for 
 himself by keeping his own yard clean and free from infection : but 
 he is in constant danger of reinfection from his neighbors, if they 
 fail to cooperate with him. 
 
 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF TREATMENT FOR BROOD DISEASES. 
 
 Those who are most experienced in the suppression of brood dis- 
 eases are agreed that " shaking,"^ which is practically " shook swarm- 
 ing," and modifications of this process are the only successful methods. 
 
 ° The legislation empowering this inspection in twelve of these States and Ter- 
 ritories is reprinted from Bui. 61, Bur. Ent., issued November 5, 1906, and en- 
 titled " The Laws in Force Against Injurious Insects and Foul Brood in the 
 United States," compiled by L. O. Howard and A. F. Burgess. 
 
 ^ These figures are afforded by a compilation made in 1905 by Mr. Charles 
 Stewart from the records of the commissioner of agriculture of New York 
 State. 
 
 <^ The various treatments are described by Dr. E. F. Phillips in Circular 79, 
 of this Bureau, mentioned above. 
 
32 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS OX APICULTURE. 
 
 SirAKlN(J. 
 
 Shakine: is briefly this: As soon as a colony is discovered dis- 
 eased, and at a time when there would be no robbing, it is shaken on 
 the old stand into a hive containing new frames with narrow^ strips 
 of foundation. Tn this way none of the contaminated honey is de- 
 posited in the new cells. Should the disease reappear, which is some- 
 times the case, the operation must be repeated. In order to prevent 
 the bees from swarming out, the queen may be caged in the hive for 
 a few days or the entrance closed with a piece of queen-excluding 
 zinc. Care should be taken not to scatter parts of the contaminated 
 hive, particularly the honey, where bees can get at them. 
 
 DISINFECTION OF HIVE MATERIALS. 
 
 Honey, unless it has been boiled as above described, should never 
 be fed back to bees. Wax, however, after being rendered and manu- 
 factured into foundation, is commonly used without apparent dan- 
 ger. It is customary in the East to put bees back into hives which 
 have formerly contained diseased colonies, after they have been 
 thoroughly cleaned of all bits of wax and honey. In the West, how-, 
 ever, the hives are either burned out with oil, with a blue-flamed 
 torch, or are disinfected with strong chemical disinfectants. All 
 frames should be burned, since it does not pay to clean them. 
 
U. S. D. A., B. E. Bui. 75, Part IV. A., December 26, 1908. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE ETIOLOGY (CAUSE) OF BEE DISEASES 
 TO THE TREATMENT.'^ 
 
 By G. F. White, Ph. D., 
 Expert in Bacteriology. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Bee keeping is not an industry which brings a fortune to a few, but 
 is one the profits of which add comfort to 700.000 homes in Amer- 
 ica, This industry, which is a pleasure and a profit to so many, is 
 beset with difficulties. One of the greatest obstacles encountered 
 in the successful pursuit of bee keeping is disease. There are a num- 
 ber of diseases which attack the honey bee. Those which cause the 
 greatest loss attack the brood. These diseases are known to the bee 
 keejDer as American foul brood. European foul brood, and pickled 
 brood. Considerable loss is sustained also from paralysis and dys- 
 entery. Other disorders of less importance are sometimes encoun- 
 tered. If the apiarist is to treat these diseases effectively, he should 
 become as familiar as possible with their etiology. Therefore this 
 opportunity has been chosen to discuss the causes of bee diseases, as 
 far as the}^ are known, and to emphasize the importance of such 
 knowledge in the treatment. 
 
 The word '* disease '• is made up of two parts, " dis," referring to 
 a negative condition, and " ease." meaning a state of rest. By com- 
 bining the parts we have the very appropriate word meaning a nega- 
 tiA'e state of rest. We are all familiar with health, which is the 
 state of rest. It is the condition which we experience when all the 
 organs of the body are, so to speak, in a state of equilibrium. Any 
 departure from this state of health is disease. You should remember 
 that disease is alike in nature in all the animal kingdom and differs 
 only in kind. 
 
 To understand best the nature of disease we must study the causes 
 of disease. A number of factors may combine and be responsible 
 for a diseased condition. This group of factors is known as the 
 '• etiology." Etiology, then, means the causation of disease. Let us 
 further consider the etiology of disease and use bee diseases largely 
 as illustrations. 
 
 "Read at the meeting of the National Bee-Keepers' Association, Detroit, 
 Mich., October 14, 1908. 
 
 33 
 
34 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS OX APTCI^LTURE. 
 
 ETIOLOGY (CAUSE) OF DISEASES. 
 
 Every abnormal coiulition in the body of an animal which we 
 know as disease has a cause which has brought about such a condi- 
 tion. In niost of the diseases of man and the higher animals compar- 
 atively little is known of the cause. Likewise, and unfortunately, 
 the same is true of bee diseases. Gradually but slowly new facts 
 about all diseases are added to our knowledge, the unfortunate thing 
 being that so many statements are reported as facts which have never 
 been demonstrated to be true. 
 
 In the study of the etiology of a disease and in the discussion of it, 
 it is convenient to divide the causal factors into predisposing and 
 exciting. Under the predisposing causes which may be considered 
 as factors in bee diseases we have age, sex, race, heredity, climate, 
 and preexisting disease. Under the exciting causes we may consider 
 food and micro-organisms. 
 
 To illustrate, let us consider the different factors just mentioned. 
 
 PREDISPOSING CAUSES. 
 
 Age. 
 
 In our experience with human diseases we have learned to expect 
 scarlet fever, measles, mumps, and whooping cough more often in 
 children than in adults; typhoid fever and appendicitis in young 
 adults; and cancer in those more advanced in life. In bee diseases 
 we expect European foul brood to attack larva? that are j^ounger 
 than those which suffer from American foul brood. "We expect the 
 so-called " pickled brood " to die just before or after capping, while 
 paralysis is, as far as we knoAv, a disease of adult life. 
 
 Sex. 
 
 Of some importance in the etiologj^ of human diseases is the factor 
 sex. Inflammatory rheumatism, gout, and diabetes, for example, 
 occur more frequently in men, while goiter and hysteria are more 
 frequent in women. In bee diseases we expect in American foul 
 brood to find the worker larva? more often attacked than the drone, 
 while in European foul brood this difference, if it exists, does so 
 only to a slight degree. 
 
 Heredity. 
 
 You are all familiar with the fact that heredity is considered as 
 an important predisposing factor in tuberculosis, cancer, gout, in- 
 sanity, etc. It is interesting that in the so-called ''pickled brood" 
 there is some evidence which indicates that heredity plays an im- 
 portant role. 
 
RELATION OF ETIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES TO TREATMENT. 85 
 
 Race. 
 
 Eacial immunity is a rather interesting factor in the study of 
 human and animal diseases. The negro, for example, seems to pos- 
 sess considerable immunity in gout and diabetes compared with the 
 white race. Sheep ordinarily are very susceptible to anthrax, but 
 there is an Algerian race of sheep which is immune to this disease. 
 Some bee keepers believe that race is an important factor in bee 
 diseases, but comparatively little is definitely known on this phase 
 
 of the etiology. 
 
 Climate. 
 
 That human diseases are more frequent in some climates than in 
 others is a fact familiar to us all: that climatic conditions play a 
 part in bee diseases seems to be quite probable. 
 
 Preexisting Disease. 
 
 Preexisting disease has very little, if anything, to do with bee dis- 
 eases. By preexisting disease we mean that when an individual 
 passes through an attack of a disease the disease predisposes that indi- 
 vidual to other diseases. This is illustrated in various human and 
 animal diseases. In bee diseases we do not know whether any larva 
 or pupa ever recovers sufficiently from an attack of disease to con- 
 tinue its development and emerge as an adult bee. Many bee keepers 
 think that adult bees in American foul-brood colonies are less active 
 than in normal colonies. Whether or not they suffer from disease we 
 do not know. It is possible, but not so probable, that they have suf- 
 fered a light attack of disease while in the developmental stage and 
 emerged as adult bees with weakened organs which do not perform a 
 normal function. If this were true, it would illustrate the impor- 
 tance of preexisting disease as a predisposing factor in etiology. 
 
 Having thus briefly considered some of the more important pre- 
 disposing causes which enter into the etiology of bee diseases, let us 
 consider two of the more important exciting causes — food and micro- 
 organisms. 
 
 EXCITING CAUSES. 
 
 Food. 
 
 The character of food is believed by many bee keepers to be an ex- 
 citing factor in dysentery. Should the food contain poisons, grave 
 results might follow. Some attribute paralysis to the character of 
 the food, but this is far from a demonstrated fact. 
 
 Micro-organisms. 
 
 By micro-organisms we mean those living plants and animals which 
 are very small and must be magnified greatly before they can be seen. 
 Those which are to receive our attention are bacteria, protozoa, and 
 fungi. 
 
36 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTI^RE. 
 
 lUictcria. — We havo now come to the consideiatioii of that factor 
 in the etiology of bee diseases which is most important and with 
 which we woukl have the bee keepers become familiar. The annual 
 loss sustained by the bee keepers of this country due to the one cause, 
 bacteria, is to be reckoned in millions. It is unfortunate that it is 
 necessary to use the word bacteria, because too many at once think 
 that they are not able to understand anything about bacteria. This 
 is a mistaken idea. It is not dillicult to understand the facts about 
 them which are most important in the treatment of disease. It might 
 be well to review here some of the things known concerning their life 
 history. 
 
 Nearly two years ago the writer had the honor of reading a paper 
 at a meeting of bee inspectors held at San Antonio, Tex., upon the 
 subject of the bacteriology of bee diseases. This paper appears in 
 Bulletin No. 70 of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, page 10. In it are discussed briefly the 
 nature of bacteria, their distribution, the methods of studying them, 
 and the results of their activity. It is stated that bacteria — often 
 called germs, microbes, and parasites — are very small plants; so 
 small, indeed, that 12,000 placed end to end measure but 1 inch. They 
 increase in number Avith marvelous rapidity. Under favorable condi- 
 tions each bacterium in twenty minutes becomes two. At this rate 
 countless millions are formed in twenty-four hours. As the soil be- 
 comes exhausted in which the}' are growing many species form spores 
 which are in a way comparable to the seeds of higher plants. These 
 spores are very difficult to destroy by heat and other disinfectants. 
 It is well to remember, concerning the distribution of bacteria, that 
 they are found in very large numbers everywhere about us, but that 
 most of them are as harmless as the A^egetables we eat. But should 
 there be introduced into an apiary, for example, the species of bacteria 
 which causes American foul brood, then the brood becomes exposed 
 to the disease and will probably contract it. 
 
 The study of bacteria must be carried on for the most part in the 
 laboratory. By the use of the microscope we are able to tell the 
 genus (e. g.. Bacillus) to which an organism belongs, and by specially 
 prepared media, or soils, we are able to determine the species to which 
 it belongs (e. g., alrei). 
 
 Having determined these things about bacteria, we are interested in 
 finding out what they are capable of doing. We learn that some do 
 good, as, for example, in bringing to decay the remains of dead ani- 
 mals and ])lants, while other species do harm by their ability to pro- 
 duce disease or death in the animals in which they are able to gain 
 entrance. The disease American foul brood, which causes the great- 
 est loss to the l)('e-k(>eping industry, has been demonstrated to be 
 
KELATION OF ETIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES TO TREATMENT. 37 
 
 caused by bacteria. Above all, you should understand that the death 
 of the brood is due to one species of bacteria growing in the larvae. 
 
 Protozoa. — In contrast to bacteria, the protozoa belong to the ani- 
 mal kingdom. They are very small unicellular animals. Many 
 species are harmless, as are many species of bacteria, while some 
 species have the power to produce disease. They produce disease 
 and death in a manner very similar to bacteria ; that is, by growing 
 in the body of a living animal. As far as we know, none of the bee 
 diseases is due to protozoa. One investigator described what he 
 thought was a protozoon and named it Spirochceta apis. It was 
 shown that he made an error in his observations. Therefore there is 
 no Spirochceta apis and no protozoon, as far as we know, which is 
 pathogenic to bees. 
 
 Fimgi. — The term " fungi " is a rather broad one, but in the dis- 
 eases of animals we usually refer, in speaking of fungi, to those 
 forms of plant life which are higher than bacteria. They are usually 
 made up of branching mycelial threads, and have a variety of meth- 
 ods for producing spores. One writer described one species, Aspergil- 
 lus poUini, which he was supposed to haA^e proved to be the cause of 
 pickled brood, but he had not done so. 
 
 To the above groups belong the known exciting causes. There are 
 also unknown exciting causes. ^Alien the unknown causes become 
 known they may be found to belong to the groups mentioned above. 
 
 There is a very important classification of diseases into those which 
 are infectious and those which are noninfectious. From what has 
 been said, this classification becomes clear to us. An infectious bee 
 disease is one which may be transmitted from one colony to another 
 through the natural processes in the apiary. American foul brood 
 and European foul brood are examples of this class of disease. ^Yhat 
 is transmitted in an infectious disease ? It is the exciting cause of that 
 disease. In American foul brood it is one species of bacteria. Bacillus 
 larvce. In European foul brood we do not know what is transmitted. 
 Since we do not know the exciting cause it must be classed under the 
 unknown exciting causes. 'VMien the cause is determined it will prob- 
 ably be found to belong to one of the three groups of micro-organisms 
 mentioned under the known causes. A noninfectious disease is one 
 which is not transmitted from one colony to another. The so-called 
 " pickled brood " and paralysis, as far as we know, illustrate this class 
 of diseases. 
 
 This brief discussion of the etiology of disease is given in order 
 that you may get a clearer idea of the nature of disease and what is 
 meant by etiology. We shall now consider the treatment of disease 
 and illustrate with bee diseases. 
 
38 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS OX APRl'LTURE. 
 
 TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 
 
 T\w ultinialo ()l)joct in the iiivostigalion of diseases is the successful 
 treatment of iheni. Before a disease can be treated rationally the 
 diaofnosis must be made; in other words, it must be determined what 
 disease is present. If, for example, the so-called " pickled brood " is 
 present in an apiary, the treatment will be cpiite different from what 
 it would be if American foul brood or P^uropean foul brood were 
 present; and if no disease is present, as sometimes happens, and the 
 bee keeper suspects a disease, it is important that a positive diagnosis 
 be made of this condition. 
 
 There is no method by which bee disease can be so positively diag- 
 nosed as by the finding of the exciting cause in the affected and dead 
 bees. This fact is made use of in diagnosing samples of brood sent to 
 the laboratory and illustrates one important advantage in knowing 
 the etiology of disease. If we. are to devise methods for treatment it 
 is important that we should know where the exciting cause exists, 
 under what conditions it grows, how it is carried from one place to 
 another, and how it may be destroyed. These facts are determined by 
 a study of the etiology of the disease, and it is upon such facts that 
 we should base the treatment. 
 
 Those who are familiar Avith bee diseases are also familiar with 
 the different methods of treatment. It is not the purpose of the 
 writer to discuss any of the classical methods, but to suggest a few of 
 the principles upon which such methods must be based if the}^ are to 
 be most effective. Treatment is both preventive and curative. 
 
 PREVENTIVE TREATMENT. 
 
 Too many believe that the treatment of bee diseases consists in the 
 control or eradication of a disease after it is found in the apiary. 
 This is only the minor part of treatment — the curative. The treat- 
 ment which is of major importance is the preventive treatment. Pre- 
 vention is much easier than cure. To prevent disease in the apiary 
 is to keep it out. To keep it out is to keep out the exciting cause. In 
 order to keep out the exciting cause, it is desirable to know its dis- 
 tribution or where it is found. In American foul brood the exciting 
 cause, Barillvs larva', is found in innnense numbers in the bodies of 
 diseased and dead larviv. These dead larva\ for the most part, are 
 allowed by the bees to remain in the brood cell as a scale. The honey 
 also has been demonstrated to contain the bacteria which produce this 
 disease. The i)()llen may be contaminated with the spores of this 
 disease-producing organism. The combs from an apiary affected 
 with American foul l)ro()(l are a fruitful source of infection. The 
 inside of the hives which have contained colonies suffering with 
 American foul brood may l)c contaminated with the germs which 
 
KELATION OF ETIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES TO TREATMENT. 39 
 
 cause the disease. Honey extractors, honey tanks, and wax ex- 
 tractors which have been used in infected apiaries are also a fruitful 
 source of infection. Therefore if you are to keep the disease-pro- 
 ducing bacteria out of your apiary, and thereby keep out disease, 
 you must not feed honey unless you are positive that it did not come 
 from an infected apiary or that it has been thoroughly boiled. 
 Neither must you use old combs unless you are positive that they 
 have not been in an infected apiary. Use no bee supplies from an in- 
 fected apiary unless they are thoroughly disinfected. 
 
 These things being true of the infectious disease American foul 
 brood, of which we know the cause, until the cause of any other in- 
 fectious disease can be determined we can do no better than to suggest 
 the use of the same principles in the treatment of such a disease as 
 must be used in the successful treatment of American foul brood. 
 
 CURATIVE TREATMENT. 
 
 In the curative treatment, considering the colony as a unit, use is 
 made of two Avidely different principles — the removal of the disease- 
 producing material, thereby removing the germs, and the use of drugs. 
 
 In separating the disease-producing germs from the colony, all the 
 combs are removed. This removes the principal sources from which 
 the brood is infected — foul-brood larvae and honey. It is always 
 safer to allow the bees to go into a ncAV hive or a hive which has been 
 thoroughly disinfected. The greatest care should be exercised in 
 protecting all infectious material which has been removed, that it may 
 not be robbed by the bees. 
 
 The principle involved in the treatment by drugs is that of an anti- 
 septic. The theory is that a small amount of some drug — like beta 
 naphthol, salicylic acid, carbolic acid, eucalyptus, formic acid, etc. — is 
 sufficient, when taken with the larval food, to inhibit the growth of 
 the pathogenic bacteria. 
 
 Having thus in a general way considered the subject of the etiology 
 of disease and the treatment in accordance with such knowledge, let 
 us consider the different diseases separately. 
 
 AMERICAN FOUL BROOD. 
 
 That Bacillus larvce is the cause of American foul brood has been 
 demonstrated conclusively. It is a species of bacteria which when 
 it is introduced into the healthy larvae multiplies rapidly and causes 
 the death of a large amount of the brood. ^Vhen the larva dies the body 
 decomposes and the remains dry down to a tongue-like scale on the 
 lower side wall of the cell. In this scale are millions of spores which 
 are able to produce disease in other larvae should they be fed to them. 
 
40 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Just how the bacteria are carried from a dead larva to a healthy 
 one we do not know. It is not unconnnon, in examining the brood, to 
 find only a portion of a larva in a cell, the bees having removed a 
 part of it. When the body wall of a larva is broken in examining 
 for foul brood, bees readily suck up the contents which flow out. 
 This is true when the larva which is punctured is healthy, or when 
 it is sick with disease, or after it has been dead a few days. The 
 larva^ at these stages of the disease contain a very large number of 
 the disease-producing bacteria. These observations would indicate 
 that in this way, in part at least, the infectious material might be 
 carried to healthy larva^. Actual contact of the appendages of the 
 bee with the foul-brood material, and the subsequent contact of the 
 same appendages with the food of the larva\ may be a method by 
 which the disease-producing bacteria are spread. We do know that 
 in foul brood it is possible to obtain Bacillus larvce from the honey, 
 and we do know that when bees are fed the spores of Bacillus larvm 
 in honey American foul brood will appear in the apiary. 
 
 The spores of this bacillus are very resistant to heat and other 
 disinfectants. They resist the boiling temperature of water for 
 fifteen minutes. In 5 per cent carbolic acid they were not killed in 
 two months' time. This was demonstrated by obtaining growth in 
 cultures after the spores had remained in this disinfectant for that 
 length of time. Likewise it has been demonstrated that the spores 
 of Bacillus larvce^ when taken from the scales of American foul brood, 
 resist the action of mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate), 1:1,000 
 aqueous solution, for two months. Having such facts before us, we 
 can better judge the methods for treatment. 
 
 In treating this disease we must bear in mind the j^reventive and 
 curative measures. In the preventive treatment many of the condi- 
 tions you can control; others may be difficult. You can at least be 
 sure that you import no bees or used supplies which might have been 
 in an infected apiar3\ Use no old combs and feed no honey of 
 which you do not know the history. In this way the bacillus which 
 causes the disease in a large measure can be kept out of the apiary. 
 There are conditions which are difficult to control. Should a near-by 
 apiary be diseased and some of the colonies become weak or die out, 
 it might be difficult for you, in a dearth of nectar, to keep your bees 
 from robbing the diseased apiary and in this way bringing these 
 disease-producing germs to your healthy colonies. 
 
 Some preliminary experiments have been made, but the results do 
 not indicate that drugs, in the treatment of this disease, have the 
 value advocated by some English writers. 
 
RELATION OF ETIOLOGY OF BEE DISEASES TO TREATMENT. 41 
 EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD. 
 
 European foul brood is another infectious bee disease. It attacks 
 the brood at an earlier period in the growth of the larvae, as a rule, 
 than American foul brood. The cause of this disease is not definitely 
 known. From brood dead of this disease Cheshire and Cheyne iso- 
 lated Bacillus alvei. From their work it was long supposed that 
 Bacillus alvei was the cause of the disease, but later investigations 
 make the value of their work doubtful. 
 
 A number of organisms have been found in the larvae dead from 
 this disease and some of them have been described. One species has 
 been encountered in our investigations of the disease which is of 
 special interest. The individuals of this species are quite small, 
 apparently non-spore-producing, and have so far failed to grow when 
 soAvn on our artificial media. Until we know more about this species 
 it will be referred to as Bacillus " 1'." Since the cause is not posi- 
 tively known, the amount of heat and chemical disinfectants to de- 
 stroy the virus has not been demonstrated. If, later. Bacillus " Y " 
 is demonstrated to be the cause, we shall expect that very much less 
 heat will be sufficient to kill it than is necessary to kill Bacillus larvce^ 
 the cause of x\jnerican foul brood. Likewise we shall expect that 
 chemical disinfectants will be much more readily effective. Until we 
 know more about the etiolog}^ of European foul brood we can do no 
 better than to suggest the application of the same principles which are 
 found advisable in American foul brood. 
 
 SO-CALLED '' PICKLED BROOD." 
 
 We refer to this disorder of the brood as the " so-called pickled 
 brood '• and not pickled brood, because the condition which AVilliam 
 R. Howard, of Fort Worth, Tex., described is not Avhat the bee 
 keepers know as pickled brood. The exciting cause of this disease 
 is not known. The larvae die at that age just preceding or just after 
 capping. Some bee keepers haA^e a theory that heredity plays a very 
 important part as a predisposing cause. As far as is known the 
 disease does not seem to be infectious. 
 
 This disease is treated by some bee keepers by requeening, on the 
 assumption that heredity is the important factor in the production 
 of the disease. If more were known concerning the etiolog}^, the 
 treatment might be materially changed. 
 
 PARALYSIS. 
 
 Paralysis is a disease of the adult bee. The cause of this malady 
 is not known. It does not seem to be infectious, although in some 
 apiaries a large number of colonies ma}^ be affected at the same time. 
 Some have advanced the theor}- that the character of the food is the 
 exciting cause. 
 
 78013°— Bull. 75—11 4 
 
42 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Since we know nothing positively about the cause, we can suggest 
 very little in the way of treatment. The removal of the stores from 
 the hive wouhl tend to remedy the defect if the character of the food 
 be an important factor in the etiology. 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 We have now briefly considered the nature and the etiology of bee 
 diseases and liave suggested some of the principles upon Avhich the 
 methods of treatment must depend if such treatment is to be most 
 efficient. If we review what we have just said concerning the 
 etiology and treatment of the different diseases, we observe the follow- 
 ing facts: 
 
 There is but one disease, American foul brood, of which we know 
 absolutel}^ the exciting cause. The cause is a species of bacteria, but 
 there are many things concerning the nature, the distribution, and the 
 activity of which we do not know. The facts wdiich have been deter- 
 mined enable us to suggest some of the principles upon w^hich the 
 treatment must be based. Just so rapidly as our knowledge of the 
 etiolog}^ of this disease increases, so rapidly w^ill we be able to suggest 
 principles for the improvement of the methods of treatment. 
 
 In European foul brood we only know positively that the disease 
 is infectious, and w^e can do no better than to use the principles 
 gained by the study of American foul brood. As our knowledge of 
 the etiology of this disease increases, the methods of treatment will 
 be altered. 
 
 In the so-called " pickled brood " w^e do not seem to have an in- 
 fectious disease. Nothing is positively known of the etiology except 
 that the larvic die at approximately the same age in all cases, which is 
 about the time of capping. The treatment that is used by some is 
 based upon the principle that heredity is an important factor, and 
 therefore requeening is resorted to. 
 
 In the disease of adult bees known as " paralysis," practically noth- 
 ing is knoAvn and practically no treatment is known to be effective. 
 
 It will be noted that in every case the treatment of bee diseases 
 is based upon the knowledge of the etiology. There are many things 
 of very great importance in the etiology which are j^et to be deter- 
 mined, but there are many things which are known that, if applied 
 by the bee keeper, will prove to be of great value to him financially. 
 It is to be hoped, then, that the bee keei)er will make himself as fa- 
 miliar as possible with the nature of the etiology of bee diseases, since 
 it is clear that the better the cause is known the better will be the 
 treatment. From this discussion one conclusion can be drawn — that 
 in the knowledge of the etiology of bee diseases lies the hope of their 
 control. 
 
Bui. 75, Pt. V, Bureau of Entomology, U, S. Dept. ol Agriculture. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
U. S. D. A., B. E. Bui. 75, Part V. A., January 19, 1909. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 
 
 By E. F. Phillips, Ph, D., 
 
 In charge of Apiculture. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Bee keeping on the Hawaiian Islands is one of the minor industries 
 which is being conducted with profit. As in all other places, this 
 business can never, from its ver}^ nature, become a leading industry, 
 but there is reason to believe that there is yet room for considerable 
 expansion. The modified methods made necessary b}^ a tropical 
 climate and other conditions of a local character present some new 
 phases of the keeping of bees, and in view of the fact that these modi- 
 fications will be of interest to bee keepers on the mainland, as well as 
 to those in Hawaii, it seems desirable to put on record a brief account 
 of what the author was able to observe personally and to learn from 
 others in the four weeks spent on the islands in making an apicul- 
 tural survey. 
 
 The author would express his thanks to the bee keepers of the 
 islands for the cordial way in which they anticipated his every desire 
 in 2:>lanning the trips of investigation. He would also mention the 
 particular assistance of Mr. D. L. Van Dine, entomologist of the 
 Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, who accompanied him 
 on all his trips, and from whom much of the information in this 
 paper was gathered. 
 
 PUBLICATIONS ON HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 
 
 Different phases of Hawaiian bee keeping are discussed in other 
 publications, a list of which is appended." The bee keepers of the 
 
 « Reports of the Royal Hawaiian Agricultural Society (1851-1856). 
 
 A Brief History of the Hawaiian People, by W. D. Alexander, 1899, p. 286. 
 
 Report of the Entomologist, by D. L. Van Dine, in Report on Agricultural 
 Investigations in Hawaii, 1905, by Jared G. Smith. Bulletin 170, Office of 
 Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. 
 
 Report of the Entomologist, by D. L. Van Dine, in the Annual Report of the 
 Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station for 1907, 1908. 
 
 Introduction of Honey-Producing Plants, by D, L. Van Dine; Hawaiian 
 Forester and Agriculturist, Vol. V, pp. 9-13. 
 
 Hawaiian Honeys, by D. L. Van Dine and Alice R. Thompson. Bulletin 17, 
 Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, 1908. 
 
 Chemical Analysis and Composition of American Honeys, by C. A. Browne, 
 including a Microscopical Study of Honey Pollen, by W. J. Young.. Bulletin 
 I\'o. 110, Bureau of Chemistry, V, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1903. 
 
 43 
 
44 MISCELLANEOUS PAPKRS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 islaiuls have been exlreiiiely fortunate in enlisting the interest of the 
 Hawaii A<j:ricultural Experiment Station. ]\Ir. D. L. Van Dine, the 
 entomologist of the station, has been very active in rendering valuable 
 assistance to the bee-keeping industry by his investigations, and Miss 
 Alice R. Thompson, the acting chemist, has done good work in chem- 
 ical analysis of honeys. 
 
 BEE-KEEPERS' ASSOCIATION. 
 
 The bee keepers of Hawaii are organized into an active and efficient 
 association, which has been in existence about two years. By united 
 effort this organization has accomplished much that is of great value 
 to the industry. When the question of marketing their honey under 
 the regulations of the food and drugs act of 1906 arose they sent a 
 representative to Washington to present their case. In this and 
 many other ways the bee men have shown themselves to be alert and 
 progressive in looking after their best interests. 
 
 METHODS OF MANAGEMENT. 
 
 At the present time bee keeping is largely in the hands of four 
 corporations, they owning and operating at least four- fifths of all 
 the bees on the islands. These companies are all managed by Ameri- 
 can citizens, but there are a number of smaller apiaries, some of which 
 are owned by Japanese. The last-named apiaries are usually not so 
 well kept nor are they so productive. The total number of colonies 
 at present is probably about 20,000, and the annual output of honey, 
 which is mostly shipped to the mainland or to Europe, is probably 
 about 000 tons.'^ The keeping of bees b}' corporations, as opposed to 
 individual ownership, is something which is rarely observed else- 
 where. As they are located a considerable distance from the market 
 and as the expense of supplies and shipping is high, it has seemed 
 desirable to the bee keepers to organize companies so that they may 
 make large shipments. There is also on the Hawaiian Islands a 
 tendency, to a marked degree, to incorporate all industries, and doubt- 
 less the prevalence of this method of conducting business has induced 
 the bee keepers to adopt it also. With this system it is possible for 
 one skilled manager to oversee the manipulation of several thousand 
 colonies, the actual manipulation being done in most cases by the 
 Japanese helpers; in this way the cost of maintenance of the apiaries 
 is reduced very considerably. Since the 2:)rice obtained for Hawaiian 
 honey is still rather low, it is of course iKM'ossary to reduce expense in 
 every way possible. 
 
 **The crop for 1008 will prol)al)ly amount to nearly 1,000 tons, according to a 
 recent report from the entomologist. 
 
Bui. 75. Pt. IV, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate vi. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 H X 
 m O 
 
 _ Z 
 
 ^ $ 
 
 2 ^ 
 ^ > 
 
 o $ 
 
 X > 
 
 m = 
 2 > 
 
 55 2 
 
 li 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 45 
 
 "BEE RIGHTS." 
 
 The buying of " bee rights," as it is practiced in Hawaii, is some- 
 thing practically unheard of elsewhere, and would certainly appear 
 to a mainland bee keeper as a new and strange procedure. The near- 
 est approach to it is the renting of locations for outyards, which can 
 not usually insure no competition. This practice would not be pos- 
 sible were it not for the fact that most of the available agricultural 
 land on the islands is held in large tracts, mostly as sugar-cane planta- 
 tions and ranches. Arrangements are made with the manager of 
 a plantation for locations for apiaries, and the bee keeper agrees 
 to pay a certain amount for the use of the land and for the honey 
 removed from these apiaries. Frequently this is in the form of an 
 agreement to pay a certain sum for each ton of honey removed from 
 the plantation, but at times it is a fixed sum for the year, the bee keeper 
 assuming what small risk there is of not getting a crop. The planta- 
 tion management in turn agrees to allow no other bee keepers to keep 
 bees in its territor}^ There are frequently small holdings within the 
 boundaries of the plantation over which the plantation company has 
 no control, and some other bee keeper may lease these with the idea 
 of allowing his bees to range over the entire plantation. If, for 
 example, he puts 200 colonies on such a holding, the immediate 
 placing of say 500 colonies just across the line has a discouraging- 
 effect on this poaching and it can end in onh^ one way, since the bee 
 keeper who has a right there has the advantage. The same thing 
 happens when an outside bee keeper gets too close to the boundary 
 line. 
 
 Naturally, when land is divided into smaller holdings, as is the 
 case almost everywhere on the mainland, such an arrangement is not 
 possible and a bee keeper must run the risk of competition. There is 
 no way of telling what amount of honey is taken from any given 
 area when the tracts are small. The moral right of priority claim, 
 which so many bee keepers advocate, has small place in the manipula- 
 tions of territory in Hawaii, where the bee-keeping companies pay 
 for what they get and insist on getting it. One of the large com- 
 panies gains its exclusive right by reason of the fact that it owns and 
 leases a tract of over 100,000 acres for ranch purposes. 
 
 EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY. 
 
 At the present time there are on the islands probably about 20,000 
 colonies of bees, most of which are, as above stated, owned by four 
 companies. From the custom-house statistics it is shown that the 
 annual shipments of honey amount to about 1,000 tons. The island 
 of Kauai now supports about 3,000 colonies, and, after traveling 
 over almost the entire cultivated portion of the island, the author 
 
40) MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 is of the ()j)ini()n that tlie island is just about half stocked. The 
 island of Oahu seems to be Avell covered from an apicultural stand- 
 point. Molokai is not a cane-producing island, but the algarroba 
 forest is nearly stocked, and the only place for heavy expansion seems 
 to be in the mountains, where several forest trees are nectar bearing. 
 The island of Maui could not be examined as carefully as the others 
 on account of inclement weather, but from reports received it is ob- 
 viously not stocked to the extent that it should be. The island of 
 Hawaii, the largest of the group, is relatively the least developed of 
 any of the islands. There are only a few apiaries on this area, which 
 is almost equal in extent to Connecticut, and there are great possibili- 
 ties. On the south coast there are vast areas of cane, and the same 
 is true of the ITamakua coast on the north. The Kona coast would 
 probably support some bees in the coffee plantations. One such 
 apiary was seen by the author (PL VII, fig. 2). On the interior of 
 the island there are vast areas wdiich are entirely undeveloped from 
 an apicultural standpoint, and the island can doubtless support 
 thousands of colonies of bees at a profit. 
 
 The total area now actually stocked w4th apiaries would not nearly 
 equal in size one-half the State of Rhode Island, while the honey crop 
 is probabW 20 times as great as in that State. According to the 
 Census Report for Rhode Island it would be 40 times as great, but we 
 can not use this figure on account of its obvious unreliability. This 
 comparison w^ill show the honey-producing capabilities of the islands 
 as compared with our more northern countries, and will also show how 
 thoroughly the areas are stocked where the industry has been taken 
 up. A small part of Oahu is doubtless overstocked, due to crowxling 
 into a given area by competitive companies. There was no evidence 
 of such overstocking elsewhere. 
 
 Overstocking an area with bees is a subject much discussed among 
 bee men, and the situation in Hawaii illustrates very beautifully the 
 fact that a theoretical discussion of how many colonies ma}' be kept 
 in one place is of no value whatever. Each location must be judged 
 on its owm merits, and a given area wdiich wdll support only 20 colonies 
 in one region may support 1,000 elsewhere. It is also obvious that 
 seasons vary to a marked degree. In many parts of the mainland it 
 is deemed advisable to keep not more than 100 colonies in one apiary 
 and to allow each apiary a radius of 1\ to 3 miles. On the basis of 
 these figures, from 50 to 200 acres are necessary to support a single 
 colony of bees. Without discussing the merits of these figures, it is 
 enough to say that this is the connnon mainland practice, particularly 
 in the more densely populated areas. In contrast to this, an examina- 
 tion of the methods in Hawaii is extremely significant. One area of 
 cane on the island of Oahu contains a little over 20,000 acres. As will 
 
Bui. 75, Pt. V, Bureaj of Er.-tonr.ology. U. S. Dept. o* Ag-icu:ture. 
 
 Plate VII. 
 
 Fig. 1.— a Typical Hawaiian Afiary, the Hives on Stands to Prevent Ant 
 Attacks. 'Original.' 
 
 Fig. 2.— Aw Apiary in a Coffee Plantation. (Original. 
 
A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 47 
 
 be discussed later, this is not all equally productive from a bee-keeping 
 standpoint. Near this is some algarroba forest, but not enough to in- 
 fluence the crop very much. This area supports nearh^ 5,000 colonies, 
 some of which yield exceptionally large crops. In certain parts of 
 this area competition is too strong to yield proper results, but some 
 apiaries yield over 200 pounds to the colony. In some other cane areas 
 this record can be almost equaled. Algarroba will not produce so 
 much per acre, but this is parth' due to the fact that it blooms for less 
 than six months, while cane fields furnish honeydew every day in the 
 year. One strip of algarroba forest on Molokai supports nearly 2,000 
 colonies. It will not average more than one-half mile in width, and 
 about 30 miles of it is used for bees. 
 
 SOURCES OF HONEY. 
 
 FLORAL HONEY. 
 
 The amount of floral honey produced on the islands annually is 
 about 200 tons. Formerly the only source of honey on the islands 
 which was widely enough distributed to make bee keeping commer- 
 cially important was algarroba, native '* keawe." (PL VIII, fig. 1.) 
 This tree was introduced into the islands by Father Bachelot, founder 
 of the Roman Catholic mission, in 1837, and the original tree still 
 stands on Fort street, in Honolulu. It has been carried to all the 
 islands and is one of the most valuable plants ever brought into the 
 group. It furnishes not only an excellent honey, but the pods afford 
 excellent fodder and the wood is the main source of fuel. 
 
 The honey from algarroba is " water white " in color and granulates 
 very soon after it is stored by the bees in spite of the warm climate of 
 the islands. This characteristic makes frequent extractions necessary 
 to prevent the combs from being clogged. In regions where algarroba 
 is practicalh^ the only source of honey, at the close of the flow an 
 amount of honey sufficient to keep up the colony until the next flow 
 is left in the hive. This, of course, soon granulates. AMien the 
 hone}' flow diminishes, the brood chamber is reduced* and considerable 
 honey is stored in the space formerly occupied by brood. "Wlien 
 the next flow comes on, a good deal of this granulated honey remains 
 in the combs, and since this can not be extracted, these combs are re- 
 moved and replaced either by empty combs or by foundation, to give 
 the queen more room. These combs containing granulated honey are 
 then placed in huge solar extractors, the largest that the author had 
 ever seen. With 200 or more colonies in an apiary, there is often need 
 for a solar extractor which will hold several hundred combs at a time, 
 and practically every apiary visited by the author had such a piece of 
 apparatus as part of the equipment. The sun's heat liquefies the 
 
48 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 lionev and molts most of tlio Avax, and i\w wax from the " slumgum " 
 is then extracted by the usual methods. The honey from these solar 
 extractors is not darkened, as one would expect. 
 
 The algarroba tree {Pro^opls juUfora) is either the same species as 
 or very closely related to the mesquite of the southwest. On the 
 islands it grows to the size of a tree, as is also the case in Mexico. In 
 Texas it is generally very much smaller. In 1008 the tree came into 
 bloom about the 1st of March, the time varying considerably in dif- 
 ferent localities on the islands. It usually blooms until August, and 
 this very long blooming period adds greatly to its value to the bee 
 keepers. 
 
 The following list of honey plants, other than algarroba, is fur- 
 nished by Mr. D. L. Van Dine, entomologist of the Hawaii Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. Mr. Van Dine has studied the honey 
 sources of the islands very thoroughly. Many of these plants were 
 pointed out to the writer while he was on the islands. 
 
 FOREST TREES. 
 
 Texas mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa). Growing in dooryard of Mr. C. C. 
 Conradt, Pukoo, island of Molokai. Seeds under propagation at Hawaii Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. Introduced by Mr. Conradt from Texas several 
 years ago. 
 
 Obia lebua (Metrosideros pohjmorplia). Produces a particularly bigb grade 
 of boney. Locations for apiaries as a rule somewbat inaccessible. One location 
 on tbe island of Molokai is witbin tbe obia lebua belt. 
 
 Various species of Acacia (black wattle, koa, etc.). Mountainous districts. 
 
 Various species of Eucalyptus. Mountainous districts. 
 
 Wiliwili (Erythrina monosperma) . In gulcbes on Molokai and Oabu. 
 
 Rose-apple {Eugenia jambos). 
 
 Mamani {Sophora clirysophylla). Found in bigber forest belts. 
 
 Catalpa {Cntalpa speciosa and C. hignonioidrs). Introduced by Mr. .Tared 
 G. Smitb, April, 1902, from tbe Missouri Botanical Gardens. Tbe seeds were 
 distributed to L. von Tempsky, Makawao, and 11. P. Baldwin, Puuneue, on 
 Maui ; to S. M. Damon, Moanalua Gardens, on Oabu ; to Francis Gay, 
 Makaweli, on Kauai ; and to Louissou Brothers and Albert Horner, Hamakua, 
 and B. B. Bond, Kobala, on Hawaii. Tbe seeds were sent to tbe above-named 
 parties under date of April 10, 1902. No reports are on file at tbis station as 
 to tbe results of tbis introduction. 
 
 Logwood {Ilwinatoxylon cnmpcchinnum). Found in dooryards. Two trees 
 are growing in tbe grounds of Oabu College and one in tbe grounds of Lunalilo 
 Home, Honolulu. Seeds under propagation at Hawaii Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station. Tbe boney produced by bees from this tree is repcn'ted to be 
 the finest table honey in the world. Tbe propagation and distribution of tbe 
 logwood throughout the Territory would be of great value to bee keepers. Tbe 
 wood furnishes the logwood dye of commerce. 
 
 The black mangrove of Florida. Introduced by Mr. Jared G. Smitb from 
 southern Florida, for tbe puri)ose of preventing tbe mud flats from washing, 
 along the coast of Molokai near Kaunakakai. Tbe introduction was made 
 several years ago and tbe trees are now well established at tbe above-mentioned 
 place. Tbe tree is a valuable boney plant. The station is now trying to secure 
 the Philipi)ine mangrove, a tree suitable for similar locations but po.ssessing 
 greater value as a timber, tree. 
 
Bui. 75, Pt. V, Bureau of Entomology. U. S. Deot of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate VIII. 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Part of an Algarroba Forest. 'Original.) 
 
 Fig. 2.— a Lantana Jungle. (Original.) 
 
A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 49 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Various species of Citrus (orange, lemon, lime, etc.)- 
 
 Avocado {Persca gratissima). 
 
 Bauana (Musa spp.)- 
 
 Guara (Psiflium spp.). 
 
 Loquat (Eriohotrya japonica). 
 
 Tamarind (Tamarindus indica). 
 
 PASTURE PLANTS. 
 
 California burr-clover {Mcdicago dcnticulata). Introduced on Maui in 1882 
 by Mr. C. R. Blacow. Now found generally on the ranches of the islands. 
 
 Carpet grass (Lippia rcpens). Growing on grounds of Hawaii Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 Alfilaria or filaree {Erodium cicutariiim and E. moschatiim). Seeds intro- 
 duced in California hay. Established on upland pastures on Hawaii and 
 Mololjai. 
 
 White clover (Trifolitiin rcpens). Found on Haleakala and Makawao 
 pastures. Maui. 
 
 CROP PLANTS. 
 
 Sisal (Agave sisalana). 
 
 Various species of cucurbits (melons, squashes, pumpkins, cucumbers, etc.). 
 
 FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 Alfalfa, several varieties. 
 
 Lupine, blue and yellow. Occasionally used as green manure plant on sugar 
 plantations. 
 
 Tangier pea {Lathy rus tingitanus). Growing at Haiku, Maui. 
 
 Sanfoin (Onobrychis sativa). A forage plant introduced by Mr. Jared G. 
 Smith in 1904. Seed distributed to ranches. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL PLANTS. 
 
 Palms, particularly the royal and cocoanut. 
 
 Poppy, a horticultural form of Romneya eoulteri, found in gardens in 
 Honolulu. 
 
 Chinese ink-berry {Cestntm diitrnum). 
 Thevetia neriifolia. 
 Vines (Ipomcea spp.). 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 Lantana, two species. (Plate VIII, fig. 2.) 
 
 California sages {Artemisia). Introduced by Hawaiian Bee Keepers' Asso- 
 ciation in 1907. Not as yet established. Suitable for waste, arid lands. The 
 most important honey plant in California. Valuable as a forage plant. 
 
 Ilima {Sida spp.). 
 
 Oi {Verbena honariensis). 
 
 Pili grass {Heteropogon contort us). 
 
 Spanish needle (lauki) (Bidens pUosa). 
 
 Puakala {Argemonc mexicana). 
 
 Alii {Dodonwa viscosa var. spathulata). 
 
 Hila hila (undetermined). 
 
 Other weeds are Waltheria americana, Ipomwa pes-caprw (vine along sea 
 coast), and ilalvastruni tricuspidatum. 
 
 OTHER SOURCES OF HONEY. 
 
 Insect honey dew. — Hawaii is peculiar in that most of the honey 
 produced is from some source other than flowers. Two-thirds of the 
 
50 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 honey shipped annually from the islands is largely or entirely honey- 
 dew honey. By far the greater part of this comes, from the exuda- 
 tions of the sugar-cane leaf hopper {Perh'mmella saccharicida Kirk.) 
 and possibly some of it from the sugar-cane aphis {Aphis sacchari 
 Zehnt.), although while on the islands the author observed none of 
 the latter S2)ecies. (See PI. IX, fig. 1, showing an apiary near a field 
 of sugar cane.) Of course, in a tropical country there are many other 
 insects producing more or less honeydew. The young " plant cane " 
 is most abundantly covered w^ith leafhoppers. 
 
 Honeydew from the sugar-cane leafliopper is very dark amber in 
 color and slightly ropy. In flavor it very strongly resembles molasses 
 from the cane juice. Since the color and flavor are so marked, a small 
 amount of this when mixed with the mild, light-colored algarroba 
 honey imparts the color and flavor of honeydew to the entire amount. 
 Most honeydew honeys on the mainland granulate very rapidly, but 
 this type does not granulate at all. Samples several years old are as 
 clear as when first extracted. 
 
 The chemical composition ° of Hawaiian honeydew honey is quite 
 unlike that of floral honey, and this fact has led to the charge of 
 adulteration by bu3^ers on the mainland and in foreign markets. 
 Since nowhere else, as far as the author is aware, is honeydew honey 
 produced in such large quantities, it is not strange that cursory ex- 
 aminations were misleading. The author saw enough while on the 
 islands to convince him that, howev^er unlike floral honey this product 
 may be, it is a natural sweet product collected and stored by the bee 
 and is then extracted and shipped with no additions of other sugars. 
 
 AVhen the food and drugs act of lOOG went into effect the Ha- 
 waiian Bee Keepers' Association sent a representative to Washington 
 to find out under what name they could market their crop, since it 
 does not conform to the standard of the Association of Official 
 Agricultural Chemists. They were informed that it could be sold 
 on the mainland market provided it were labeled just what it is. This 
 
 ChrmirnJ coiupoKlfion of Hawaiian lioncyilcw honcij made from siipar-cane 
 
 honeydew. 
 
 
 
 
 [From Bulletin No. 
 
 no, Bureau of Chemistry, 
 
 p. 37. 
 
 
 
 Polarization. 
 
 Complete analysis. 
 
 Free 
 acid 
 
 HS 
 
 for- 
 mic. 
 
 Re- 
 duc- 
 ing 
 
 su- 
 gars 
 
 as 
 
 dex- 
 trose. 
 
 
 Diri'ct. 
 
 Invert. 
 
 
 Im- 
 medi- 
 ate, 
 2(FC. 
 
 Con- 
 stant, 
 20° C. 
 
 Bl- 
 
 rota- 
 tion. 
 
 20° C. 
 
 87° C. 
 
 Dif- 
 fer- 
 ence. 
 
 Wa- 
 ter. 
 
 In- 
 vert 
 su- 
 gar. 
 
 Suc- 
 rose. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Dex- 
 trin. 
 
 Un- 
 de- 
 ter- 
 min- 
 ed. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 +24.9 
 
 +17.75 
 
 7.15 
 
 +18.68 
 
 +84.76 
 
 21.28 
 
 16.46 
 
 64.84 
 
 6.27 
 
 1.29 
 
 10.01 
 
 3.13 
 
 0.15 
 
 62.1 
 
 High in chlorid. 
 
Bui. 75, Pt. V, Bureau of Entomolog-y. U. S Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate IX. 
 
 Fig. 1.— An Apiary Near a Sugar-cane Field. 'Original. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Molasses Trough for Feeding Cattle. (Original.) 
 
A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 
 
 51 
 
 the Hawaiian bee keepers have done and it is now sold as ** honeydew 
 honey." The bee keepers of Hawaii fully realize the peculiar honey 
 with which the}^ have to deal and are not attempting to market honey- 
 dew honej' in competition with floral honey for table use. It goes to 
 the baking trade and for such use is reported to be satisfactory; at 
 any rate, the price received is equal to that received for algarroba 
 honey. 
 
 As stated elsewhere, bees prefer floral nectar to honeydew. How- 
 ever, when the supply of floral nectar is not great, the bees work on 
 both, and as a result there are mixtures of the two. stored in the 
 hives, varying all the way fi'om the x^ure honeydew honey to pure 
 floral honey. It is these mixtures that cause the trouble in labeling. 
 One of the requisites of a pure honey as defined by the standards" 
 is that it shall be laevorotator}^ to polarized light ; hence, since honey- 
 dew honey is dextrorotatory and there are blends made by the bees of 
 this and algarroba honey, it is necessary to have a chemical analysis 
 made to be absolutely certain whether a given quantity of the product 
 of the islands may be sold as honey or as honeydew honey. The 
 various mixtures which occur are well illustrated in Plate I of Bul- 
 letin 110. Bureau of Chemistry, here reproduced as Plate VI. This 
 plate illustrates very well the influence of honeydew on the physical 
 properties of honey. At one end of the series is the pure algarroba, 
 which is represented as granulated, while at the other end is a sam- 
 ple of honeydew honey which is as pure as it is usually found. Be- 
 tween the two in perfect gradation are shown various mixtures just 
 as they came from the hive in various extractings. The chemical 
 analyses of these particular samples, made by Miss Alice R. Thomp- 
 son,* show that the chemical composition varies in exactly the same 
 way. Of these samples. Doctor Browne ^ says : 
 
 From the polarizations and analyses of these samples (as given in the table) 
 it will be seen that there is a range in direct polarization from — 22.0 to 
 
 « U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of the Secretary, Cir. 19, p. 11. 
 ^ Polarization and analyses of honeydeic blends. 
 [From Bui. 17, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta.] 
 
 Data. 
 
 Algar- 
 roba 
 honey. 
 
 Polarization direct 
 
 (°V) -22.00 
 
 Polarization invert | 
 
 (°V) -27.61 
 
 Sucrose (percent).- 3.58 
 Reducing sugar I 
 
 (percent) ' 76.84 
 
 Ash (percent) ' .34 
 
 Nonsugars (per I 
 
 cent) 1.41 
 
 -18.3 
 
 21.4 
 2.4 
 
 76. M 
 
 .58 
 
 1.67 
 
 Blends. 
 
 14.3 
 
 -17.3 
 2.3 
 
 T7.28 
 .69 
 
 1.81 
 
 11.5 
 2.2 
 
 72.36 
 .72 
 
 -0.3 
 
 -3.8 
 2.7 
 
 65.56 
 1.06 
 
 +0.5 
 -4.2 
 
 56.16 
 1.11 
 
 12.09 
 
 -1-4.0 
 
 -1.0 
 2.3 
 
 67.28 
 1.12 
 
 11.84 
 
 ^3.2 
 4.5 
 
 63.08 
 1.33 
 
 15.27 
 
 +19.2 
 
 +12.4 
 5.3 
 
 58.92 
 1.77 
 
 17.68 
 
 Honey- 
 dew. 
 
 10. 
 
 +24.5 
 
 +15.3 
 7.2 
 
 59.76 
 2.04 
 
 15.88 
 
 Bill. 110, Bnrean of Chemistry, pp. 55-56. 
 
52 MISCKLLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 +24.5; in a«b, from 0.34 per cent to 2.04 per cent; in redncing sngars, from 
 70.S4 per cent to 59.70 per cent ; and in organic matter not sngar, from 1.41 per 
 cent to 15.S.S per cent. In sncrost* also tliere is an irregnlar increase from 3.58 
 to 7.2 iH'r cent, tills increase lu'coming more regular as soon as tlie quantity of 
 lioney(l<'\v is sullicient to mask the variation in sucrose content of tlie individual 
 honeys in the series of blends. The granulation of the blends decreases with 
 the increase of honeydew and ceases at about the point of optical inactivity. 
 The latter point, as has been said, is taken by the chemist as the arbitrary 
 dividing line between normal and abnormal honeys, and bee keepers, in the 
 Hawaiian Islands who are troubled with honeydew have in the matter of gran- 
 ulation a rough guide for the classification of tlieir product. If the honey 
 granulates, it may be put in the normal class; if it remains liquid for any 
 length of time, it probably belongs to the class of honeydews. This statement 
 does not apply in general to mainland honeys. 
 
 The dextrorotatory honeydew honeys can not be regarded as adulterated, in 
 the strictest sense of the word ; nevertheless they are frequently so pronounced 
 by chemists, who, in the general work of routine, are often satisfied with a most 
 superficial examination, and regard dextrorotation or high ash content as cer- 
 tain evidence of adulteration. 
 
 Tliere is a test which may be applied with considerable safety. 
 Algarroba honey granulates rapidly and pure honeydew honey does 
 not ; it has been found by analysis that mixtures which granulate are 
 as a rule of such a chemical composition that the}^ may be sold as 
 honey. The flavor and color may be characteristic of honeydew 
 honey in spite of the fact that the mixture contains enough floral 
 honey to be sold as such. 
 
 The sugar-cane leafhopper was first collected on the islands by Dr. 
 R. C. L. Perkins, now connected with the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, in 1900," and by February or 
 March of 1903 had " appeared generally throughout the cane fields 
 of Hawaii in numbers sufficient to prove a serious check to the growth 
 of the cane." ^' For several years the work of this insect caused a loss 
 of about $3,000,000 annualh^ ^ to the planters, and naturally they were 
 anxious that something be done to stop this heavy loss. By various 
 means the leafhopper has been brought under control until to-day 
 it is not abiuidant enough to hinder the growth of the plants, " and 
 plantations that were to a certain extent abandoned are again pro- 
 ducing heavy crops of sugar." '^ 
 
 During (he time spent on the islands the author saw no sugar-cane 
 fields that were seemingh' injured b}^ the leafhopper, but, on the other 
 
 hand, there were no cane fields examined that did not contain many 
 
 » 
 
 oThe Leaf-IIopper of the Sugar Cane, by R. C. L. Perkins. Bulletin No. 1, 
 Division of Entomology, lioard of Conunissioners of Agriculture and Forestry, 
 Territory of Hawaii, V.HV.i. 
 
 ^ The Sugar Cane I.eaf-IIopiicr in Hawaii, by I >. U. N'.iii l>inc. linllctin No. .5, 
 Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Stati..u. ISMM. 
 
 '^ Ifeport of the (Jovernor of Hawaii to the Secretary of the Interior for the 
 fiscal year ending June 30, 11M)7, p. 22. 
 
 <^ Ibid. 
 
A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 53 
 
 leaf hoppers. The fact that the leaf hopper is not doing damage 
 enough to hinder cane raising does not signify that it has disap- 
 peared, nor is there any biologic reason for believing that it will, while 
 cane is grown, unless some entirely new methods of fighting it are 
 found. The fact that -iOO tons « of honeydew are produced annually 
 from this source in spite of the fact that only a limited amount of the 
 cane area is accessible to bees is a certain indication of the untold 
 millions of these insects which still exist. 
 
 The leaflioppers exude a sweet, gummy substance on the leaves of 
 the cane and the honey bees work on this eagerly. However, where 
 bees have access to both honeydew and floral nectar, they prefer the 
 nectar to a marked degree. '\Alien algarroba begins to bloom the 
 honey stored becomes noticeably whiter. 
 
 In view of the fact that honeydew honey has the taste and color of 
 common molasses, it has been suggested that probably this product is 
 gathered by the bees from the sugar mills which are so numerous on 
 the islands. The writer visited several such mills located near apia- 
 ries on days when bees Avere actively flying. Xo bees were to be seen 
 anywhere around the mill. If bees actually did come to the mill 
 after sweets, the}^ would become a serious nuisance to the workmen. 
 ^Ali}' they do not is something of a mystery to the writer, but he can 
 vouch for the fact that he saw no mills screened to keep bees out, nor 
 did he see any bees at work in the mill or even on the pile of sweet 
 refuse (" mud cake ") outside. 
 
 Molasses is used quite extensively for feeding cattle on the islands. 
 It is poured out in troughs or half barrels where the cattle can get it 
 easily, and frequently these are located near apiaries. Many of these 
 were examined as the writer went about among the apiaries, and in 
 not a single instance did he ever see a bee at work on the molasses. 
 In some cases these feeding troughs are as near as a quarter of a mile 
 to apiaries. A dairyman near Waimea. Kauai, whose trough (PI. IX, 
 fig. 2) is located not a quarter of a mile from a large apiary, informed 
 the writer that he had ncA'er seen bees working on the molasses. Ob- 
 vioush\ Hawaiian honeydew honey does not come from this source. 
 
 Extra-floral plant honeydew. — The situation in Hawaii as regards 
 sources of honey is made still more complicated and interesting by the 
 fact that the hau tree {Parithim tiliaceum) has nectaries on its leaves 
 which secrete a honeydew. These are located on the veins of the 
 leaves near the stem and are one, three, or five in number. Small 
 drops of honeydew may frequently be seen on these spots. It is in- 
 teresting to note that these extra-floral nectaries are jDresent on the 
 outside of the calyx of the flowers. There is apparently no true floral 
 nectary. 
 
 oFive linudrecl tons in 1908, 
 
54 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 The hail tree is used quite extensively as a hedge, and grows from 
 20 to 30 feet high (PL X, fig. 1). It is doubtful whether this is the 
 source of any great percentage of the honeydew honey, but the fact 
 that it is present makes it still more diflicult to analyze the bee-keep- 
 ing situation on the islands. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF HONEY PLANTS. 
 
 In addition to the nectar-secreting plants now found on the islands, 
 either as native plants or as recently introduced, the bee keepers are 
 anxious that other good honey-producing plants be introduced to 
 increase still more the amount of floral honey. As before stated, 
 bees show a marked preference for floral nectar over honeydew. 
 There is on the islands a great deal of land which is not only not 
 cultivated at present, but which, from its rough character, can never 
 'be cultivated. There is doubtless an opportunity for the introduction 
 of some honey plants to the mountainous regions, Avhere they would 
 not interfere with cultivated crops or grow on land of value for any 
 other purpose. 
 
 From the sad experiences in plant introductions on the islands, it 
 will be well to watch any new honey-plant introductions very care- 
 fully. Lantana, which is used so much as a greenhouse plant on the 
 mainland, was introduced a few years ago. It soon escaped from the 
 greenhouse, however, and found in the climate of the islands the 
 proper conditions for rank rapid growth. It spread to all the islands 
 and forms dense jungles 10 feet or more in height, through which it 
 is impossible to pass without cutting a path (PI. YIII, fig. 2). Va- 
 rious methods are being tried with a vicAv to exterminating this pest, 
 but to-day there is still plenty of lantana. The cost of clearing a 
 lantana thicket for cultivation is about $10 an acre. Lantana secretes 
 nectar, but that is the only good thing which can be said for it. It 
 was, of course, not introduced for its honey, but this experience 
 should make the bee keepers cautious about what plants the}" bring 
 in. The sages of California are now being tried, as well as various 
 kinds of mangroves. 
 
 WAX PRODUCTION. 
 
 The price of honey fluctuates relatively much more than that of 
 beeswax. On account of the fact that Hawaiian honey has been sell- 
 ing for a low price and also because of the peculiar character of most 
 of the honey, the bee keepers of the islands are desirous of converting 
 their honey into w^ax, if it can be done, even at no great profit. The 
 long shipment necessary to get their honey to market means more or 
 less loss by leakage and heavy freight. AVax does not lose anything 
 
Bui. 75, Pt. V, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate X. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Hau Hedge. (Original.) 
 
 Fig. 2— a Hive Set Up in Cans to Keep Out 
 Ants. (Original.) 
 
A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 55 
 
 in transit, and naturally also wax weighs much less than an amount 
 of honey of equal money value, and the freight would be very much 
 reduced. 
 
 ^\lien the author arrived on the islands one of the first questions 
 asked him was how to bring about a production of more wax and 
 less or even practically no honey. After getting the available data, 
 which were freely given, a method was suggested which promises to 
 give some results, if we may judge by results obtained in some experi- 
 ments conducted in the short time which could be spent in Hawaii. 
 Before outlining this proposed method it will be well to review the 
 basis for the recommendations. 
 
 It is a well-known fact among bee keepers that at the time a swarm 
 is hived the activity of the inmates of the new home is at its height. 
 The bees not only collect nectar with great vigor, but, there being no 
 wax in the hive under natural conditions, the wax secreters become 
 very active and in a marvelously short time the hive is supplied with 
 combs. It is also true, of course, that wax is secreted at any time 
 during the active season when it is necessary that more combs be built 
 to accommodate brood or stores, provided, of course, that there is 
 room. If a comb is removed from the center of the brood chamber 
 or from the super, it is replaced as needed, but, as a rule, not so rap- 
 idly. The rapidity of the honey flow influences this wax secretion 
 greatly. 
 
 The amount of honey consumed in the secretion of a pound of wax 
 is a much-debated question among students of bees, the various esti- 
 mates ranging all the way from 2 to 20 pounds. There seems to be 
 little hope at present of arriving at anything definite on this question, 
 and the author is strongly inclined to the belief that the reason for 
 this great variation in estimates is due to the fact that the same 
 amount of honey is not always needed to bring about a desired result. 
 It would be bootless, therefore, to pay any attention to this phase 
 of the question in trying to get a method of wax production. Syl- 
 viac, in a series of articles in L'Apiculteur for 1901, offers evidence 
 that the amount of honey consumed in secreting a pound of wax is 
 least following swarming, and this quite coincides with the fact that 
 wax building is most rapid at that time. 
 
 In dealing with wax secretion on a commercial basis, data must be 
 drawn from the receipts per colony under different methods of man- 
 agement. The actual consumption of honey becomes of minor im- 
 portance. It was learned that the average annual return per colony, 
 after deducting freight charges, leakage, and other expenses incurred 
 after the honey leaves the apiary, would not exceed $2.50. The hives 
 are on an average two stories high during the entire year and, during 
 the height of the honey flow, are often higher. All figuring was 
 
5() MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 done on a basis of two-story colonies. The Avax m such a hive 
 weighs over G pounds," averaging in vahie $1.80, Hawaiian wax being 
 of the finest quality. 
 
 As additional data, it was learned that it is possible to increase the 
 number of colonies very rapidly. In one renuirkable case reported, 
 20 colonies were increased to 4'20 in eight months. This fact show^s 
 that a colony of bees can build up very rapidly under the conditions 
 existing on the islands. It must also be remembered that in cane sec- 
 tions there is practically no stopping of the honey flow. 
 
 In view of all these facts it was obvious that if the wax be taken 
 from each colony it will form a good beginning in the annual return 
 from a colony. If, then, the colony is in as good shape in a year's 
 time as it was when the wax was removed, there will be honey enough 
 stored to make the annual money return higher than if the colony had 
 been run for honey alone. 
 
 The method recommended is to shake the colony onto starters of 
 foundation. The brood is placed over another colony to develop so 
 that it may not be lost; the honey is to be extracted. By dividing the 
 apiary into two parts, one-half may be shaken and the brood piled on 
 the other half. These in turn may be shaken in three weeks or 
 more and their brood added to the colonies shaken at first. This 
 manipulation is identical with the shaking in treating for bee dis- 
 ease. Similar methods are often employed in honey producing to 
 prevent swarming and to cause bees to work in the supers. In the 
 present instance, however, there is an entirely different reason for 
 the i^ractice. 
 
 In the trial made with a view to wax production, a surprising 
 showing was made, and it seemed obvious that the operation could 
 be repeated in not more than three months' time, and probably less. 
 If this be true, then there will be removed $1.80 w^orth of wax or more 
 at each shaking, which means a considerable gain. 
 
 Xo positive statements of results can be made until the method has 
 stood trial for a time. If this plan serves the purpose in Hawaii, it 
 will also be valuable in other regions where there is a heavy honey 
 flow for a long time. 
 
 DISEASE SURVEY. 
 
 The bee keepers of the islands were very anxious to learn whether 
 or not they had any brood disease among their bees. They were quite 
 certain that there was none, but desired this opinion to be confirmed. 
 For this reason the apiaries visited were carefully examined by the 
 author and absolutely no trace of any known infectious disease wals 
 
 « Since this was written the writer has received a report, dated May 19, 1908, 
 on this series of experiments, sliowinj: that S.SS pounds were extracted from 
 20 frames, this being tlie actual average in an apiary of 120 colonies. 
 
A BRIEF SURVEY OF HAWAIIAN BEE KEEPING. 57 
 
 found. In view of the fact that a brood disease would spread rapidly 
 in that climate, the bee men may consider themselves extremely fortu- 
 nate. 
 
 Some time ago Mr. D. L. Van Dine sent to the Bureau of Ento- 
 molog}' a sample of brood which had died, and it was reported that 
 there had been considerable loss on this account. There was no indi- 
 cation of any infectious disease in the sample, and before another sam- 
 ple could be obtained the trouble had disappeared. Of this trouble 
 Mr. Van Dine wrote, under date of April 27, 1906 : 
 
 About tlie 1st of January it began and appeared simultaneously in several of 
 
 the apiaries of the Honey Company. In the majority of cases [of hives 
 
 having this trouble] from one-half to three-fourths of the brood died when the 
 larvae were nearly full grown or after transforming to the pupje. The sunken 
 caps and black color resembled the descriptions of foul brood, but there was no 
 odor or other symptoms. Many of the pupae showed signs of life after turning 
 nearly black and some adults emerged before dying * * *. As a precaution the 
 bees were fed medicated sirup, but I am of the opinion that the trouble is not an 
 infectious disease, but due to improper food. When the algarroba, our principal 
 honey tree, had ceased to flower the main source of pollen was gone, but the bees 
 could still get an abundance of honey from the sugar cane. The bee bread was 
 scanty, very dark in color, and rather hard. I have not been able to trace out 
 where they got it. Probably from various weeds * * *. The algarroba is 
 coming in flower again and it is a fact that the trouble is fast disappearing, 
 and I am inclined to believe that it was due to the food conditions I men- 
 tioned * * *. 
 
 On the island of Kauai the same trouble appeared at the same time as on this 
 island and the conditions are exactly the same. On the island of Molokai the 
 trouble did not occur and there they have no sugar cane and when the honey 
 plants failed the queens ceased to lay and no outbreak of the disease occurred. 
 
 Under date of June 5. 1906, he wrote : 
 
 For a time after the bees began to bring in pollen in abundance the trouble 
 seemed to disappear, but just now in certain colonies it is as serious as ever. 
 This seems to contradict the idea that the trouble is due to food conditions. 
 
 T^liile the author was on the islands only one case was seen which 
 resembled what was described in 1906. This was in an apiary on the 
 island of Kauai. The dead larvse in no way resembled those which 
 die of American foul brood or European foul brood. There is no in- 
 dication that the trouble is contagious, and the dead larvae resembled 
 certain phases of what is generally called '* pickle brood.'' 
 
 The bee keepers are anxious that no disease be allowed to enter their 
 territory, and at the request of the Hawaiian Bee Keepers' Associa- 
 tion the author drew up a letter of recommendation which is here 
 given : 
 
 For the information of your association in formulating proposed regulations 
 relative to the establishment of an effective quarantine against the various dis- 
 eases of the bee. I take pleasure in presenting the following statements as my 
 opinion concerning the questions involved. 
 78013°— Bull. 7.5—11 5 
 
58 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 3. Th< iKitiirr of the disra.scs. — There are now recoj^nized two diseases, viru- 
 lent and contajrious in their cliaracter, which attaclv the hrood of the bee. 
 These are know^i as American fonl lu'ood and Enropean foul hrood. It is defi- 
 nitely known that Anierican f<Mil hrood is caused by a bacterium, Bacillus 
 Uirr<i\ and from the symptoms and behavior of European fonl brood it is almost 
 certain that the latter disease is likewise caused by a micro-organism. There 
 are other diseases recognizetl by bee keepers, but it is not known that they are 
 infectious. 
 
 2. Methods of sjucml. — It is known that both diseases mentioned (European 
 foul brood and American foul brood) are transmitted in the following man- 
 ners: 
 
 («) By bees from healthy colonies robbing the hives of diseased colonies. 
 
 (h) By the bee keeper feeding honey from diseased colonies, as in the case 
 of feeding for winter stores in the colder parts of the mainland. 
 
 (c) By the accidental feeding of honey from diseased colonies, which has 
 been extracted and sold in bottles or other containers. (This applies to partly 
 empty honey bottles or cans which may be thrown out carelessly where bees can 
 gain access to them.) 
 
 {(1) By the introduction of queens taken from ai>iaries in wliich disease is 
 present and which are shipped in cages stocked with candy made from infected 
 honey. 
 
 It will be obvious from the local conditions that (&) does not apply to the 
 Hawaiian Islands. It is doubtless true also that (a) does not apply. I can not 
 say positively that neither disease is i)resent in the Territory, but it is almost 
 certain that they are not. 
 
 Means of itrcvvuting ihc introduction of disease to the Ilaicaiian Islands. — As 
 an innnediate action, it is desirable that all queens which are shipped to the 
 Territory be removed from the cages in which they arrive and be introduced to 
 colonies from a clean cage containing candy made from honey free from disease 
 organisms. This precaution, which is a very simple operation, will be a very 
 good assurance that disease will not be brought to your islands with imported 
 queens. 
 
 It is desirable that as soon as possible a quarantine apiary be established, to 
 which all importtnl queens shall be introduced. After two months' time, if the 
 colonies to which the (pieens are introduced are free from disease, the queens 
 may be sent to the owner with perfect safety. 
 
 It is above all desirable that no honey of any kind shall be shipped to your 
 islands unless it comes from healthy colonies and is accompanied by a certifi- 
 cate of a qualified inspector of apiaries that such is the case. This precaution 
 is of much more importance than those against infection through importation of 
 (pieens. The bee keeper who imports queens would probably soon recognize 
 disease if it aiipeared in a colony containing a choice imported queen, but if 
 disease is brought in with honey it might gain a strong foothold before its dis- 
 covery. This provision will not constitute a i)rohibition of the importation of 
 honey, since on the mainland there are now about 55 qualified apiarian 
 inspectors. 
 
 On September 2, 1908, the Ik)ard of Commissioners of Agriculture 
 and Forestry of the Territory of ITa^vaii passed re<ruhitions pertain- 
 ing to the imj)ortation and inspection of honey hees and honey, which 
 placed restrictions on such importations for the purpose of prevent- 
 ing the introchiction of contagious diseases. 
 
U. S. D. A., B. E. Bui. 75, Part VI. A., January 25, 1909. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 THE STATUS OF APICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D., 
 In Charge of Apiculture. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Few persons realize the magnitude, importance, and possibilities 
 of the present bee-keeping industry in the United States. Those 
 who are conversant with the pursuit, and even those who are exten- 
 sively engaged in it, generally fail to comprehend what an important 
 factor in the agriculture of "the country apiculture is as a whole, or 
 how much the honey bee, by collecting nectar and storing it to 
 produce a commercial product, is instrumental in saving our resources. 
 Although the total value of bee products is small as compared with 
 the value of the products of many other branches of agriculture, it 
 nevertheless has an importance which should not be overlooked. 
 The object of this paper is to review the present status of the industry 
 with a view to pointing out where we may look for advancement. 
 
 Few rural pursuits have made greater progress during the past 
 half century than has this one. Before that time the bees of this 
 country were kept in box hives, and as a result the amiual average 
 crop of honey per colony was small. In addition to this handicap in 
 not being able to manipulate the bees as was needed, bee keepers 
 generally lacked a knowledge of the methods of caring for them. With 
 the invention of movable-frame hives by Langstroth in 1851 it became 
 possible to care for bees properly and to manipulate in such a way 
 as to get the best crop. As the use of this type of hive and of the 
 honey extractor became general, bee keepers have become better 
 educated in modern methods of manipulation, and the industry has 
 advanced from a negligible quantity to its present important place 
 in agriculture. 
 
 In the vast majority of cases bee keeping is not the principal occu- 
 pation, but is carried on in conjunction with some other business. 
 
 59 
 
60 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 According to the census of 1900 the average number of colonies on 
 farms reporting them was 5.<S106, valued at $14.40 — a very small 
 investment. In some recent work of this Bureau" it has been 
 fountl that in the State of Massachusetts the average number of 
 colonies reported was 5.5 per bee keeper. This last figure should not 
 be taken as an index to the condition in tlie whole country, for as 
 one goes farther west the holdings are found to be larger. In Cali- 
 fornia, for example, while there are some small apiaries, the majority 
 are quite large, and the average is several times that of Massachusetts. 
 The number taken from the census can scarcely be accepted as 
 correct. 
 
 The number of men who rely solely on the production of honey 
 and wax for a livelihood is rather small, and most of the extensive 
 producers of the West carry on some other business, at least for the 
 part of the year when the bees are less active. The reason for this 
 is found in the nature of the industry. Any location is limited as to 
 the number of colonies of bees which it will support, and in con- 
 sequence a bee keeper must either carry on some other business or 
 establish numerous outapiaries to enable him to keep bees enough 
 to make it an occupation which will support him. Since the estab- 
 lishment of outapiaries is attended with certain disadvantages, it 
 usually follows that bee keeping becomes^ a minor part of a man's 
 occupation or even a side line. 
 
 Then, too, bee keeping is taken up by many as a recreation or a 
 subject of nature study. Such persons do not wish to make it their 
 sole or main occupation. Many farmers also keep a few colonies of 
 bees and add to their income to some extent in that way. It is 
 obvious that bee keeping must continue to be an avocation in the 
 majority of cases. 
 
 This brings up for consideration a question which has been much 
 discussed by those interested in bringing about an advance in the 
 industr}': Shall an attempt be made to increase the number of bee 
 keepers, or to make better ones of a smaller number? Bee keepers 
 who follow the pursuit on a commercial scale are usuallv anxious 
 that there be no increase in the number engaged in the business, 
 ])ut rather a decrease, with an accompanying advance in the pro- 
 ficiency of those so engaged. This desire is not wholly selfish, for 
 unless the increase is directly in the territory of the individual his crop 
 is not affected. ' 
 
 It frequently happens that a local market is ruined, temporarily 
 at least, by some uninformed bee kee])er who keeps a few colonies 
 and sells a poor grade of honey for a ridiculously low price, thus 
 
 "Gates, Burton N.— Bee Keeping in Massachusetts. Bulletin No. 75, Part VII, 
 Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (In preparation.) 
 
STATUS OF APICULTURE IX UNITED STATES. 61 
 
 making it almost impossible for the up-to-date bee keeper to sell 
 his honey for what it is worth in the same community. This con- 
 dition of affairs woidd not occur were it not for the fact that, for 
 table use at least, honey does not rank as a necessity, and the usual 
 causes for changes in market price do not operate so completely as 
 is the case \vith other commodities. 
 
 The main objection to numerous small bee keepers, rather than 
 fewer and more expert ones deeply engaged in the industry, is, that 
 when the larger number is interested it can not be hoped that all ^\-ill 
 become proficient. Under normal circumstances tliis matters little, 
 since anyone has a right to neglect liis bees if he so desires, but when 
 some contagious disease is present in a region tliis becomes a serious 
 matter. The expert bee keeper can not hope to rid his bees of dis- 
 ease if there are a great many unqualified bee keepers in liis neighbor- 
 hood. Under such a circumstance — wliich unfortunately is becom- 
 ing quite general in tliis country — the negligent bee keeper keeps 
 property which, if diseased, constitutes a nuisance, and is a constant 
 menace to the progressive man, for it is impossible to tell when 
 neglected colonies ma}' become infected. 
 
 If progress is to be made toward getting the largest possible honey 
 crop from the United States, it ^vill hardly be done by making bee 
 keepers who own an average of 5 colonies. It must be done by pro- 
 gressive bee keepei^ financially interested to an extent sufficient to 
 compel them to combat disease and to do their utmost to get the 
 entire crop. TVe may not hope to attain tliis ultimate condition, 
 but an effort might be made to discourage negligent and indifferent 
 bee keeping. 
 
 In spite of the fact that bee keeping is the sole occupation of but 
 few, it nevertheless commands attention in that it adds considerably 
 to the resources of the country and increases the income of thousands 
 of people. The possibilities for its increase are great, and the ad- 
 vancement of tliis vocation is a worthy object as aiming to save for 
 human use a resource which is now sa generally wasted. 
 
 SCOPE OF THE INDUSTRY. 
 
 It is veiy difficult to estimate accurately the annual value of the 
 products of the apiary, but from various sources of information it is 
 reasonable to suppose that the value of the honey produced annually 
 in the United States is on the average about S20,000,000 and of wax 
 about 82,000,000. Since the hone}' harvest depends so completely 
 on various climatic conditions affecting the secretion of nectar, it is 
 obvious that there is an enormous variation in the annual yield. 
 
 As nearly as can be learned, the number of sections for comb honey 
 manufactured annually by supply dealers is between 60,000,000 and 
 
62 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS OX APICULTURE. 
 
 7.5, 000, ()()(), and tliat ma>' bo considered as a fair estimate of the aver- 
 age number of jxmnds of com!) lioney produced in the United States, 
 since relatively few sections are exported. Extracted honey is pro- 
 duced more extensiveh', and it is safe to say that the annual crop is 
 three or four times that of comb honey. Taking into consicU^ration 
 also the chunk honey .sold and the honey not marketed but used in 
 home ccmsumption, the estimate of $20,000,000 is none too high. 
 
 Tt may be of interest to compare the data of various years given 
 by the census. Table 1 gives the amount of honey and wax, with the 
 ratio between them. It is very interesting to note a reported in- 
 crea.se in the ratio of honey to wax produced as the use of the honey 
 extractor has Ixrome more general. 
 
 Table I. — Vrodudion of honey and wax in the United States, 1S40-1900. 
 
 Census of— 
 
 Honey. 
 
 Wax. 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 honey to 
 
 wax. 
 
 1840 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 PoundH. 
 628, 303 
 
 
 1850 
 
 14,853,790 
 23,366,357 
 14, 702. 815 
 25,743,308 
 63,897,327 
 61.196,160 
 
 
 1860 
 
 1,322,787 
 631,129 
 l,ia5.689 
 1,166,.'588 
 1,765.315 
 
 17.7:1 
 23.3:1 
 23. 3:1 
 54. 8:1 
 34. 7:1 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890. 
 
 1900 
 
 
 " Beeswax and honev. 
 
 The last census, that of 1900, recording crop data for 1S99, gives the 
 
 following : 
 
 Total number of farms reported in censu.s 
 
 Number of farms reporting bees 
 
 Percentage of total 
 
 Number of colonies, June 1, 1900 
 
 Average number per farm reporting l^ees 
 
 Value of bees 
 
 Pounds of honey in 1899 
 
 Pounds of wax in 1899 
 
 Value of honey and wax in 1899 
 
 Number of farms of white farmers reporting bees 
 
 Percentage of all farms of white farmers 
 
 Number of farms of colored farmers reporting bees 
 
 Percentage of all farms of colored farmers 
 
 Average crop j)er farm rej)orting bees: 
 
 Honey 
 
 Wax 
 
 Average value of honey and wax ])er farm reporting b 
 
 Average value of bees j)er farm reporting 
 
 Average value of bees per colony 
 
 Average pounds of honey per colony 
 
 Average pounds of wax i)er colony 
 
 Average value of lioncy and wax ]>cr colony 
 
 o, 739, 657 
 
 707, 261 
 
 12. 
 
 4, 109, 626 
 
 3 
 8106 
 
 })ounds. . 
 ...d...... 
 
 $10, 186, 513 
 
 61, 196, 160 
 
 1, 765, 315 
 
 $6, 664, 904 
 
 677, 985 
 
 13.6 
 
 29, 276 
 
 3.8 
 
 86.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 $9.42 
 
 $14. 40 
 
 $2.48 
 
 14.9 
 
 .43 
 
 $1. 62 
 
STATUS OF APICULTURE IX UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tables II and III "^ give additional data on distribution. 
 
 63 
 
 Table II. — Xumber and value ofsuarms^ of bees, June 1, 1900, on farms and ranges, by 
 
 geographic divisions. 
 
 Geographic division. 
 
 Number of 
 farms. 
 
 Farms 
 report- 
 ing bees. 
 
 Per cent 
 of farms 
 report- 
 ing bees. 
 
 Swarms 
 of bees. 
 
 Value of 
 bees. 
 
 The United States 
 
 5.739.657 
 
 707. 261 
 
 12.3 
 
 4,109,626 $10,186,513 
 
 
 
 
 North Vtlantic 
 
 677.506 64.110 
 
 962, 225 151, 863 
 
 2.196.567 233.721 
 
 9.5 
 15.8 
 10.6 
 13.6 
 13.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 413.709 1.370.732 
 
 South Atlantic 
 
 854.909 1.664.636 
 
 North Central 
 
 1.187,856 
 
 1.289.384 
 
 362,381 
 
 1,387 
 
 3,5a5.675 
 
 South Central.. . 
 
 l.a58.166 
 
 '242,908 
 
 2,285 
 
 225,100 
 
 32.421 
 
 46 
 
 2.513.397 
 
 
 1, 123. 647 
 
 Alaska and Hawaii . 
 
 8,426 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 The word ''swarms" used in census reix>rts evidently should be "colonies." 
 
 Table III. — Pounds and value of honey and wax produced on farms and ranges in 1899, 
 with averages per farm reporting, by geographic divisions. 
 
 Geographic division. 
 
 Honey. 
 
 Wax. 
 
 Value of honey and 
 wax. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average 
 per farm. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average 
 per farm. 
 
 Total Average 
 per farm. 
 
 The United States 
 
 Pounds. 
 61.196.160 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 1.705.315 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 2.5 $6,664,904 
 
 $9.42 
 
 North Atlantic. . 
 
 0.855.027 
 9,468,843 
 20,055,502 
 14,849,824 
 9,870,094 
 96.870 
 
 106.9 
 62.4 
 85.8 
 6<3.0 
 
 304.4 
 2,105.9 
 
 1S2 S19 *> 9 801 147 
 
 1' 50 
 
 South Atlantic 
 
 379. 192 
 396.604 
 588,960 
 216.020 
 1 720 
 
 2.5 
 1.7 
 2.6 
 6.7 
 37.4 
 
 1.029.233 
 
 2,353.001 
 
 1,553,141 
 
 920.089 
 
 8 293 
 
 6.78 
 
 North Central. 
 
 10 07 
 
 South Central 
 
 6.90 
 
 Western 
 
 '>8 38 
 
 Alaska and Hawaii 
 
 180.28 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Taking the number of farms keeping bee.s as the basis, the five most important 
 bee-keeping States, June 1, 1900, were Texas, with 60,043 farms reporting; Kentucky, 
 with 44,974; Missouri, with 41,14o; North Carolina, with 41,051; and Tennes.see, with 
 38,225. 
 
 Taking the number of swarms, or colonies, of bees as the basis, the five leading 
 States were Texas, with 392,644; North Carolina, 244,539; Tennessee, 225,788; Alabama, 
 205,369; and Missouri, 205,110. Of the States included in the series given first, Texas, 
 Missouri, Tennessee, and North Carolina are found in the second. 
 
 Taking the value of the bees as the basis of classification, the five leading States 
 were Texas, with $749,483; New York, $593,784; Pennsylvania, $531,578; Kentucky, 
 $527,098; and Missouri, $508,217. 
 
 The five greatest producers of honey in 1899 were Texas, with 4,780,204 pounds; 
 California, 3,667,738; New York, 3,422,497; Missouri, 3,018,929; and Illinois, 2,961,080. 
 California, which has not been included in any of the preceding classifications, here 
 stands second. 
 
 Of the States producing wax, Alabama led with 162,020 pounds; Texas was second, 
 with 159,690; North Carolina third, with 135,920; California fourth, with 115,330; 
 and New York fifth, with 84,075. & 
 
 a Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900, Vol. Y, Agriculture, Part I, p. ccxxxiii. 
 & Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900, Vol. V, Agriculture, Part I, pp. 
 ccxxxiii-ccxxxiv. 
 
64 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 It will bo noticed that the data on honey and wax crops do not at 
 all agree with the author's estimate given above. In the light of the 
 evidence previously given, it is obvious that the census figures are 
 entirely too small and are far from doing justice to the industry. 
 The other data are probably much more reliable. It is hardly a fair 
 test to compare 1000 data as to the num})er of bee keepers with those 
 of 1906, but it should be noted that in the recent work of the Bureau 
 in Massachusetts " there were reported 2,127 bee keepers as compared 
 with 1,799, the number given in the census. 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 Tables IV to VII show the imports and exports of honey and wax 
 through the ports of entry of the United States. The data for these 
 tables were obtained through the courtesy of the Bureau of Statistics 
 of tliis Department.'' 
 
 « Gates, Burton N. — Bee Keeping in Massachusetts. Bulletin No. 75, Part VII, 
 Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (In preparation.) 
 
 b Tariff schedules on honey and wax under the different acts of Congress subsequent 
 to 1841 are as follows: 
 
 Acts of- 
 
 Tariff on honeJ^ 
 
 TarilT on wax. 
 
 August 30, 1842 
 July 30, 184«.... 
 March 3, 1837... 
 March 2, mil... 
 July 14, 1862.... 
 June 30, 1864... 
 March 3, 1H83... 
 October 1, 1890. 
 .Vugust 27, 1894 
 July 24, 1897.... 
 
 Not specifically mentioned 
 
 30 per cent ad valorem 
 
 24 per cent ad valorem 
 
 Not specifically mentioned 
 
 15 cents per gallon 
 
 20 cent.s i)er gallon. 
 
 20 cent.s i)er gallon 
 
 20 cents i)er gallon 
 
 10 cents per gallon 
 
 20 cents per gallon 
 
 15 per cent ad valorem. 
 20 per cent ad valorem. 
 15 per cent ad valorem, 
 10 per cent ail valorem. 
 20 per cent ad valorem. 
 .\ot specificallv mentioned. 
 20 per cent ad Valorem. 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
STATUS OF APICULTURE IX UNITED STATES. 
 
 65 
 
 Table IV. — Imports of honey into the United States, 1901-1908, by countries from 
 
 which consigned. 
 
 Cuba. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Year ending 
 Jime30— 
 
 Pounds.o 
 
 Average 
 ! in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 
 of total 
 
 imports Pounds.a 
 
 from all 
 countries. 
 
 ' Average ^^^f^^^ 
 
 1901 
 
 1902 
 
 1903 
 
 1904 
 
 809,784 
 
 131,736 
 
 1,-565,088 
 
 1,296,912 
 
 1,575,768 
 
 756,312 
 
 $31,591 
 
 5,807 
 
 64,867 
 
 42,597 
 
 57,918 
 
 26.9SQ 
 
 3.9 
 4.4 
 4.1 
 3.3 
 3.7 
 3.5 
 3.6 
 4.0 
 
 37.0 
 6.6 
 45.3 
 52.4 
 66.1 
 45.6 
 43.4 
 4.5.7 
 
 727,728 
 
 1,. 361, 052 
 
 1,166,796 
 
 652,404 
 
 516,804 
 
 724,488 
 
 884,340 
 
 1,045,944 
 
 $25,6.59 
 33,269 
 31,697 
 12,345 
 10,477 
 18, 107 
 27,534 
 37,926 
 
 3.5 
 2.4 
 2.7 
 1.9 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 3.1 
 3.6 
 
 33.3 
 67.8 
 33.8 
 26.3 
 
 1905 
 
 21.7 
 
 1906 
 
 43.7 
 
 1907 
 
 915,744 1 33^380 
 1,162,872 46.726 
 
 42.0 
 
 1908 
 
 41.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Santo Domingo. 
 
 
 Haiti. 
 
 
 Year ending 
 June 30— 
 
 Pounds.a 
 
 Average 
 1 in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 imports 
 from all 
 
 countries. 
 
 ' 1 Average 
 
 Pounds.a Value.^ ^'^^^^ 
 
 in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 imports 
 from all 
 
 countries. 
 
 1901 
 
 327,876 
 160,440 
 198,204 
 373,212 
 162,792 
 
 $13,091 
 4,853 
 4,897 
 8,982 
 4,063 
 820 
 746 
 1,376 
 
 4.0 
 3.0 
 2.5 
 2.4 
 2.5 
 2.9 
 2.4 
 2.8 
 
 15.0 
 8.0 
 5.8 
 
 15.1 
 6.8 
 1.7 
 1.5 
 1.9 
 
 146,256 $5,086 
 35,184 1,173 
 
 255,588 , 5,013 
 58,476 j 1,273 
 44,052 1 779 
 81,444 1,703 
 
 188,640 4,849 
 
 3.5 
 3.3 
 2.0 
 2.2 
 1.8 
 2.1 
 2 fi 
 
 6.7 
 
 1902 
 
 1.7 
 
 1903 
 
 7.4 
 
 1904 
 
 2.4 
 
 1905 ... . 
 
 1.9 
 
 1906 
 
 27,840 
 31,272 
 49,068 
 
 4.9 
 
 1907 
 
 8.9 
 
 1908 
 
 106,116 2,870 1 2.7 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other countries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Year ending June 30— 
 
 V 
 
 Potmds.a Value.b 
 
 \x-pr5ifrp Percentage! 
 
 Value.b 
 
 Average 
 
 price per 
 
 pound 
 
 in cents. 
 
 1901 
 
 174,708 $8,172 
 319,200 11,281 
 266,676 8,926 
 94,500 3,856 
 &3,988 3,482 
 68,568 3,782 
 88,068 4,345 
 179,904 9,527 
 
 4. 7 8 
 
 2,186,352 
 2,007,612 
 3,4.52,352 
 2.475,504 
 2,383,404 
 1,658,652 
 2,108,064 
 2,543,904 
 
 $83,599 
 56,383 
 
 115,400 
 69,053 
 76,719 
 50,651 
 70,854 
 98,425 
 
 3.8 
 
 1902 
 
 3 5 
 
 15 9 
 
 2 8 
 
 1903 
 
 3.3 
 4.1 
 4.1 
 5.5 
 4.9 
 5.3 
 
 7.7 
 3.8 
 3.5 
 4.1 
 4.2 
 7.1 
 
 3.3 
 
 1904 
 
 2.8 
 
 1905... 
 
 3.2 
 
 1906 
 
 3.1 
 
 1907 . . 
 
 3.4 
 
 1908 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 
 a Custom-house returns of honey are given in gallons, assumed here to weigh 12 pounds. 
 h Imports of honey into the United States are subject to a specific duty. 
 
 Values.— TYiQ values of all imported articles, whether subject to ad valorem or specific duties or free 
 of duty, are regulated by the act of Congress of June 10, 1890. 
 
 The actual market value or wholesale price of such merchandise as bought and sold in usual wholesale 
 quantities at the time of exportation to the United States in the principal markets of the country from 
 whence imported, and in the condition in which such merchandise is there bought for exportation to the 
 United States or consigned to the United States for sale, including the value of all cartons, cases, crates, 
 boxes, sacks, and coverings of any kind, and all other costs, charges, and expenses incident to placing the 
 merchandise in condition ready for shipment to the United States. 
 
 Valuation deceptions.— The value of imported articles subject to ad valorem duties is believed to be 
 determined with more accuracy, according to the legal method of valuation, than other imports, with 
 si)ecific duties or free, and exported articles; the valuation of dutiable imports and of exports dutiable in 
 foreign countries tend to understatement, and the valuations of imports that are free of duty are often 
 inflated for the purpose of trade deception. 
 
66 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Tahle \.— Imports of hccstrax into the United States, 1901-1908, by countries from 
 
 which consigned. 
 
 
 Cuba. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Year ending 
 June 30— 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value.a 
 
 Average 
 
 price per 
 
 pound 
 
 in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 imports 
 from all 
 
 countries. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value.a 
 
 Average 
 
 priai per 
 
 pouiKl 
 
 in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 imports 
 from all 
 
 countries. 
 
 1901 
 
 110,778 $28,5.39 
 l.')7,8:}9 44,. 364 
 147,917 42,3.57 
 98,4.'>5 28,682 
 79,926 24,006 
 1.58,. 523 ! 48,120 
 331,942 93,702 
 264,984 76,431 
 
 2.5.8 
 28.1 
 28.6 
 29.1 
 30.0 
 30.4 
 28.2 
 28.8 
 
 51.8 
 38.0 
 30.3 
 23.1 
 21.4 
 27.0 
 36.2 
 39.5 
 
 13,446 
 23,366 
 162,332 
 167,843 
 87,943 
 46.421 
 47,262 
 41 489 
 
 $3,080 
 5,070 
 36,476 
 45,673 
 23,265 
 13,485 
 15,417 
 
 l?l 900 
 
 22.9 
 21.7 
 22.5 
 27.2 
 26.5 
 29.0 
 32.6 
 32.0 
 
 6.3 
 
 5.7 
 
 33.2 
 
 39.5 
 
 23.5 
 
 7.9 
 
 .5.2 
 
 6.2 
 
 1902 
 
 19a3 
 
 1C04 
 
 19a5 
 
 190(5 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 Santo Domingo. 
 
 Haiti. 
 
 Year ending 
 June 30— 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value.a 
 
 Average 
 
 price per 
 
 pound 
 
 in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 imports 
 from all 
 
 countries. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value.a 
 
 Average 
 
 price per 
 
 pound 
 
 in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 imports 
 from all 
 
 countries. 
 
 1901 
 
 41,225 
 73,364 
 82,829 
 80,783 
 46,816 
 34,052 
 67,264 
 55,311 
 
 $10,241 
 21,118 
 21,364 
 21,061 
 11,193 
 8,. 596 
 16,941 
 13,085 
 
 24.8 
 28.8 
 25.8 
 26.1 
 23.9 
 25.2 
 2.5.2 
 23.7 
 
 19.3 
 17.9 
 16.9 
 19.0 
 12.5 
 5.8 
 7.3 
 8.2 
 
 11,286 
 6,373 
 25,276 
 38,106 
 62,547 
 27,311 
 48,831 
 58,147 
 
 $4,292 
 3,013 
 7,692 
 10,359 
 16,047 
 7,326 
 13,555 
 15,379 
 
 38.0 
 47.3 
 30.4 
 27.2 
 25.7 
 26.8 
 27.8 
 26.4 
 
 5 3 
 
 1902 
 
 1.6 
 
 1903 
 
 5 2 
 
 1904 
 
 9.0 
 
 1905 
 
 16 8 
 
 190(j 
 
 4.6 
 
 1907 
 
 5.3 
 
 1908 
 
 8.6 
 
 
 
 
 All other countries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Year ending June .30— 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value.a 
 
 Average 
 
 price per 
 
 pound 
 
 in cents. 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 imports 
 from all 
 
 countries. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value.a 
 
 Average 
 
 price per 
 
 pound 
 
 in cents. 
 
 1901 
 
 37,038 
 
 147,764 
 
 70,222 
 
 .39,981 
 
 96,337 
 
 .321,. 310 
 
 421,789 
 
 251,595 
 
 $9,732 
 42,372 
 19,331 
 11,103 
 26,610 
 90,487 
 125,022 
 76,584 
 
 26.3 
 28.7 
 27.5 
 27.8 
 27.6 
 28.2 
 29.6 
 30.4 
 
 17.3 
 36.2 
 14.4 
 9.4 
 25.8 
 54.7 
 46.0 
 37.5 
 
 213,773 
 408,706 
 488,576 
 425,168 
 373,569 
 587,617 
 917,088 
 671,526 
 
 $55,884 
 115,937 
 127,220 
 116,878 
 101,121 
 168,014 
 264,637 
 194,769 
 
 26.1 
 
 1902 . . 
 
 28.4 
 
 1903 
 
 26.0 
 
 1904 
 
 27.5 
 
 1905 
 
 27.1 
 
 1906 
 
 28.6 
 
 1907 
 
 28.9 
 
 1908 
 
 29.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 a Imports of beeswax into the United States are free of duty. 
 
 Values.— The values of all imported articlos. whether subject to ad valorem or specific duties or free of 
 dutv, are defined by the act of Congress of .Time 10, 1890, as— 
 
 The actual market value or wholesule i)ric(' of such merchandise as bought and sold in usual whol<'saIe 
 quanliti(>s at the tim(> of e.xportation to the Tnited States in th(> priiieijial markets of the country from 
 whence inij>orted, and in the condition in which such nierehaiulise is there bought for exportation to the 
 Ignited Stati'S or consigned to the rnited States for sale, including the value of all cartons, cases, crates, 
 boxes. .s;vks, and eovcrinizs of any kind, and ail other costs, charges, and exix'nses incident to placing the 
 merchandise in condition ready for shipment to tlie United States. 
 
 Vahintion decrptinns. The value of imported articles .subj(>et to ad valorem duties is Ix'lieved to be 
 determined with more accuracy, iieeording to the legal metliod of valuation, than the value of imports 
 with siKY-ifie duties or free of duly, or the value of exported articles; the valuations of dutiable imports 
 and of exports dutiable in foreign cotmtries t<'nd to understat<'ment, and the valuations of imports that 
 are free of duty are liable to inflation for the purjiose of trade deception. 
 
67 
 
 STATUS OF APICULTURE IN UNITED STATES. 
 
 Table VI. — Imports and exports of honey of the United States, 1855-1908 
 
 [The terms 'Comb" and "Extracted" honey used in these headings are used in place of -'Uns 
 and "Strained" honey in the reports of the Department of Commerce and Labor.] 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. « 
 
 Year ending June 30— 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Average 
 
 price, in 
 
 cents. 
 
 Comb. 
 
 Extracted. 
 
 Both comb 
 and ex- 
 tracted. 
 
 1855 
 
 5,245,908 
 5, 142, 432 
 4, 975, 908 
 
 4, 790, 388 
 
 5, 448, 372 
 4, 626, 420 
 
 S138, 189 
 169. 643 
 202, 436 
 149, 915 
 196. 751 
 163, 027 
 
 2.63 
 3.30 
 4.08 
 3.13 
 3.61 
 3.52 
 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 
 
 
 1857 
 
 
 
 
 1858 
 
 
 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1 
 
 1860 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 30,229,328 
 
 1,019,961 
 
 3.37 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1861 . -- - 
 
 3, 970. 320 
 4,311,960 
 3, 394, 896 
 3,461.832 
 1,899,072 
 3, 332, 724 
 2, 614, 824 
 2, 546, 112 
 
 146, 464 
 195, 48.5 
 158- 852 
 162, 071 
 87, 954 
 135,253 
 128, 537 
 117, 172 
 77, 405 
 76, 459 
 
 3.69 
 4.53 
 4.68 
 4.68 
 4.63 
 4.06 
 4.91 
 4.00 
 
 
 1 
 
 1862 
 
 
 
 
 1863 
 
 
 
 
 1864 
 
 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 si,i.52 
 
 8,520 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,285,652 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 
 56,891 
 80,014 
 
 128, 925 
 88, 379 
 
 109, 368 
 72.935 
 61,205 
 67,111 
 48, 169 
 59, 806 
 
 
 2,479 
 2,677 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 
 
 $28, 168 
 
 $30, 845 
 
 1873 
 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 
 
 714 
 
 3,586 
 
 2,534 
 
 36, 302 
 
 6,212 
 
 134, 728 
 
 26,820 
 
 57, 895 
 29.563 
 20, 079 
 54, 063 
 24,638 
 27, 958 
 28, 439 
 
 58, 009 
 
 1875 
 
 
 
 33. 149 
 
 1876 
 
 
 
 28, 613 
 
 1877 
 
 
 
 90,965 
 
 1878 
 
 1,403,724 
 1,005,984 
 1,293,360 
 
 4.78 
 4.79 
 4.63 
 
 30,850 
 
 1879 
 
 162, 086 
 
 1880 
 
 55, 259 
 
 
 
 
 
 772,803 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 2,364.528 
 1,831,164 
 1,939,500 
 1, 530, 432 
 1,821,432 
 1,-520,688 
 1, 766, 592 
 1, 893, 816 
 968,976 
 757, 428 
 
 110,059 
 78,976 
 78,911 
 57, 443 
 67, 572 
 45,551 
 47, 679 
 46,210 
 26, 624 
 27, 191 
 
 4. 65 
 4.31 
 4.07 
 3.75 
 3.71 
 2.99 
 2.69 
 2.44 
 2.74 
 3.59 
 
 109, 007 
 19, 082 
 
 27, 820 
 
 89, 761 
 
 30. 592 
 
 4,907 
 
 198. 768 
 
 1882 
 
 49, 674 
 
 1883 
 
 32, 733 
 
 1884 
 
 68, 764 
 
 1885 
 
 
 
 224, 212 
 
 1886 
 
 
 
 44, 735 
 
 1887 
 
 
 
 67, 154 
 
 1888 
 
 
 
 7,579 
 
 1889 
 
 
 
 93, 888 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 113, 101 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16,394,556 
 
 586,216 
 
 3.58 
 
 
 
 900, 608 
 
 
 
 
 
 1891 
 
 572,880 
 
 841,236 
 
 2,113,764 
 
 1,831,716 
 
 809, 328 
 
 959, 820 
 
 797, 184 
 
 1,159,248 
 
 1,514,604 
 
 1,762,320 
 
 20,808 
 31,418 
 79,396 
 56, 156 
 22,993 
 30, 009 
 27,599 
 38, 158 
 51,599 
 70, 857 
 
 3.63 
 3.73 
 3.76 
 3.07 
 2.84 
 3.19 
 3.46 
 3.29 
 3.41 
 4.02 
 
 
 
 83, 325 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 78, 048 
 
 1893 
 
 
 
 15.115 
 
 1894 
 
 
 
 127. 282 
 
 1895 
 
 
 
 118.873 
 
 1896 
 
 
 
 90, 909 
 
 1897 
 
 
 
 22. 368 
 
 1898 
 
 
 
 98, 504 
 
 1899 
 
 
 
 55. 900 
 
 1900 
 
 
 
 30, 191 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12, 362, 100 
 
 379,593 
 
 3.07 
 
 
 
 720, 575 
 
 
 
 
 
 1901 
 
 2, 186, 352 
 2,007,612 
 3, 452, 352 
 2, 475, 504 
 2.383,404 
 1,6.58,652 
 2,108,064 
 2, 543, 904 
 
 83.599 
 56, 383 
 115,400 
 69, 053 
 76, 719 
 50,651 
 70,854 
 98,425 
 
 3.82 
 2.81 
 3.34 
 2.79 
 3.22 
 3.05 
 3. 36 
 3.9 
 
 
 
 55. 574 
 
 1902 
 
 
 
 106,112 
 
 1903 
 
 
 
 64, 220 
 
 1904 
 
 
 
 69, 317 
 
 1905 
 
 
 
 63, 367 
 
 1906 
 
 
 
 111,945 
 
 1907 
 
 
 
 93, 690 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 78,102 
 
 
 
 
 
 a Only values are given in reports. 
 
68 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Table VII. — Imports and exports of beeswax into the United States, 1851-1908. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Year endinp June 30— 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Average 
 
 jwic-e, in 
 
 cents. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Average 
 price, in 
 cents. 
 
 1851 ! 
 
 
 
 6 415,923 
 6 32(5, 3(58 
 6 37(5, (593 
 6 327, .554 
 6 2.'-i7, 415 
 6 270, 320 
 6 315,378 
 6 36(5, 246 
 6 290,374 
 6 362, 474 
 
 6 $122, 835 
 6 91,499 
 
 6 113,602 
 6 87,140 
 6 69, 905 
 6 74,005 
 6 91,983 
 6 85,926 
 6 94,850 
 
 6 131,803 
 
 629 5 
 
 1852 .11 
 
 
 6 28 
 
 1853 1 
 
 
 
 6 30 2 
 
 1854 1 
 
 
 
 6 2(i. 6 
 
 1855 
 
 
 
 6 27 2 
 
 1856 
 
 
 
 6 27.4 
 
 1857. ... 
 
 
 
 6 29 2 
 
 1858 
 
 
 
 6 23.5 
 
 1859. 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 32 7 
 
 1860 
 
 
 
 
 6 36.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 3,308,745 
 
 6 963,548 
 
 29.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 270, 425 
 6 142,312 
 6 258,901 
 6 341,4.58 
 6 338,776 
 6 272, 987 
 6 253,065 
 6 826,887 
 
 6 94, 495 
 
 6 47, 383 
 
 6 80,899 
 
 6 170,418 
 
 6 2(51,381 
 
 6 130, 650 
 
 6 96,282 
 
 6 255, 365 
 
 189, 39(5 
 
 6 137, 443 
 
 6 34.9 
 
 1862 
 
 
 
 6 33.3 
 
 1863. 
 
 
 :::;i;:: 
 
 631.2 
 
 1864 
 
 a 54, 087 
 20,899 
 
 23,900 
 25,617 
 
 a $13, 667 
 
 6,414 
 
 a 10, 420 
 
 5,450 
 
 5,609 
 
 2.5.3 
 30.7 
 
 43.6 
 21.3 
 
 6 49.9 
 
 1865 
 
 6 77 2 
 
 1866 
 
 6 47.9 
 
 1867 
 
 6 38.0 
 
 1868. 
 
 6 30.9 
 
 18(59 
 
 
 
 1870. 
 
 a 19, 897 
 
 
 6 346,668 
 
 639.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 1, 463, 712 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 
 o 16, 817 
 20,196 
 
 14,661 
 7,918 
 
 15,400 
 
 14,6(58 
 o 16, 844 
 
 13,302 
 
 a 15, 861 
 
 o2,766 
 
 
 6 365, 195 
 6 446, 474 
 6 374, 486 
 6 342,068 
 6 353, 425 
 6 218,610 
 6 276, 891 
 6 326,613 
 168. 745 
 193,217 
 
 6 113,070 
 6 126, 130 
 6 118,053 
 6 113,800 
 6 96, 578 
 6 69, 127 
 6 84, 461 
 6 9.5,074 
 45,823 
 48,880 
 
 631.0 
 
 1872 
 
 
 6 28.3 
 
 1873 
 
 
 631.5 
 
 1874 
 
 
 6 33.3 
 
 1875. . 
 
 
 6 27.3 
 
 187(5 
 
 
 6 31.6 
 
 1877. 
 
 
 6 30.5 
 
 1878 1 
 
 
 6 29.1 
 
 1879. 
 
 
 27.2 
 
 1880 
 
 
 25.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 138, 433 
 
 
 3,065,724 
 
 910,996 
 
 29.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 
 o6,733 
 
 o5,312 
 
 41, 681 
 
 9,323 
 
 21,211 
 
 5,718 
 
 2,371 
 
 9,411 
 
 11,773 
 
 20,282 
 
 
 164,090 
 
 124,227 
 59, 455 
 51,748 
 30,877 
 
 136, 179 
 90,350 
 78,070 
 99,917 
 
 171,391 
 
 40,203 
 32,325. 
 17,604 
 16,042 
 9,758 
 36,626 
 24,997 
 20,554 
 23,918 
 19, 727 
 
 24.5 
 
 1882 , 
 
 
 
 26.0 
 
 1883 
 
 168, 879 
 48, 123 
 91,754 
 26, 546 
 10,843 
 51, 702 
 75,951 
 
 126,319 
 
 24.7 
 19.4 
 23.1 
 21.5 
 21.9 
 18.2 
 15.5 
 16.1 
 
 29.6 
 
 1884 
 
 31.0 
 
 1885 
 
 31.6 
 
 1886. ... 
 
 26.9 
 
 1887 
 
 27.7 
 
 1888. 
 
 26.3 
 
 1889 
 
 23.9 
 
 1890. 
 
 11.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 133, 815 
 
 
 1,006,304 
 
 241,754 
 
 24.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 1891 
 
 379, 135 
 271,068 
 248,000 
 318,(5(50 
 288,001 
 273, 464 
 174,017 
 272,097 
 452.016 
 213,813 
 
 80,485 
 65,487 
 62,024 
 80,024 
 78, 776 
 75,970 
 43,339 
 72, 473 
 109,957 
 51,526 
 
 21.2 
 24.2 
 25.0 
 25.1 
 27.4 
 27.8 
 24.9 
 2(5. 6 
 24.3 
 24.1 
 
 120,548 
 127,470 
 77, 434 
 469, 763 
 309, 212 
 222, 612 
 195,048 
 151,094 
 152. 494 
 319,379 
 
 30,027 
 31,898 
 22,048 
 118,093 
 90,875 
 65,844 
 56. 462 
 41,827 
 41,916 
 91,913 
 
 24.9 
 
 1892 
 
 25.0 
 
 1893 
 
 28.5 
 
 1894. 
 
 25.1 
 
 1895 
 
 29.4 
 
 1896. 
 
 29.6 
 
 1897 
 
 28.9 
 
 1898. .... 
 
 27.7 
 
 1899 
 
 27.5 
 
 1900. 
 
 28.8 
 
 
 
 
 2,890,271 
 
 720,061 
 
 24.9 
 
 2,14.5,054 
 
 590,903 
 
 27.5 
 
 1901 
 
 213,773 
 408.70(5 
 488, 57(5 
 42.'), \m 
 373. .569 
 587,617 
 917,088 
 671,626 
 
 55,884 
 115.937 
 127,220 
 116,878 
 101,121 
 168,014 
 264,637 
 194,769 
 
 26.1 
 28.4 
 26.0 
 27.5 
 27.1 
 28.0 
 28.9 
 29.0 
 
 140,276 
 125,283 
 70,811 
 5.5.631 
 85,406 
 101,726 
 117,169 
 
 39,464 
 36,541 
 21,337 
 16, .545 
 24,966 
 29,894 
 36,392 
 
 28.1 
 
 1902 
 
 29.2 
 
 1903 
 
 30.0 
 
 1904 
 
 30.0 
 
 1905 • 
 
 29.2 
 
 1906. 
 
 29.4 
 
 1907 
 
 31.0 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « Tnrliidlnp manufactured wax. 
 
 6 Stated siiTiDly as "wax," and Inclndinri wax of all lin 's. as well as beeswax. 
 
STATUS OF APICULTURE IX UNITED STATES. 
 
 69 
 
 The following figures give additional evidence of the magnitude 
 of the industiy: 
 
 Bee keepers' associations (estimated) 100 
 
 Number listed in office of Bureau « 86 
 
 Journals devoted to bee keeping ^ 3 
 
 Breeders of queens actually recorded (not including duplicates) c 164 
 
 Breeders of Italians 146 
 
 Breeders of Camiolans 37 
 
 Breeders of Caucasians 35 
 
 Breeders of Cyprians 6 
 
 Breeders of * ' Holylands '' 5 
 
 Breeders of Banats 6 
 
 In addition there are several large factories devoted either entirely 
 or in large part to the manufacture of supplies for use in the apiar}'. 
 
 VALUE OF THE HONEY BEE AS A POLLEXIZING AGENT. 
 
 The honey bee is of great value as a pollenizing agent, and in 
 estimating the value of the industry- in addino^ to the resources of 
 the countr}' this phase of the subject must be included. Other 
 insects, of coui^e, aid m this way, but the honey bee occupies a 
 peculiar position in a consideration of this subject. 
 
 Waite '^ mentions a large number of species of insects vrhich visit 
 pear blossoms, but says: "The common honey bee is the most 
 regidar and important abundant visitor, and probably does more 
 good than any other species." Mtiller,^ in. his vers' comprehensive 
 study of the fertilization of flowers, summarizes his results as sho^Ti 
 m Table \^II. 
 
 Table YIII. — Fertilization of plants by insects./ 
 
 Coleoptera 
 
 Diptera 
 
 Hvmenoptera. 
 
 (A"pidfP) 
 
 Lepidoptera.. 
 Other insects. 
 
 Total... 
 
 In Low Germany. 
 
 On the Alps generally. 
 
 Above the limit of trees. 
 
 \h 
 II 
 
 ii 
 
 2fe 
 
 || 
 
 
 SI 
 3S 
 
 
 o . 
 
 Ii 
 
 
 || 
 
 1 K"" 
 
 >-^ , 
 
 - ^ 
 
 re- >" 
 
 PhO 
 
 DQ"" 
 
 
 ' 129 
 
 469 
 
 8.96 
 
 83 
 
 337 
 
 5.90 
 
 33 
 
 134 
 
 4.82 
 
 I 253 
 
 1,598 
 
 30.55 
 
 348 
 
 1,856 
 
 32.49 
 
 210 
 
 930 
 
 33.46 
 
 368 
 
 2,750 j 
 
 52.57 
 
 183 ! 1,382 
 
 24.20 
 
 88 
 
 519 
 
 18.68 
 
 (205) 
 
 (2,191)! 
 
 41.31 
 
 (120) (1,141) 
 
 20.00 
 
 (49) 
 
 (402) 
 
 14.46 
 
 79 
 
 365 
 
 6.98 
 
 220 2,122 
 
 37.15 
 
 148 
 
 1,190 
 
 42.83 
 
 14 
 
 49 ' 
 
 .94 
 
 7 15 
 
 .26 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 .21 
 
 843 
 
 6,231 
 
 
 S-il 5, 712 
 
 
 482 
 
 2,779 
 
 
 a Several of the State and county organizations are affiliated with the National Bee Keeper's Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 6 Gleanings in Bee Culture, Medina. Ohio, founded 1S73. Bee-Keeper's Review, Flint, Mich., founded 
 1SS8. American Bee Journal, Chicago, 111., founded 1861. 
 
 cThe total number is probably twice this. 
 
 dWaite, M. B., 1895.— The Pollination of Pear Flowers. Bulletin No. 5, Division of Vegetable 
 Pathology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 eMiiller, H., 1883.— The Fertihzation of Flowers. Trans, by Thompson, London 
 
 / From Miiller, pp. 596-597. 
 
70 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 In Tabic VIII the entire family of the Apidae is credited with 
 41.31 per cent of the visits, but in the text Muller frequently refers 
 to the fact that on some plants the honey bee far outnumbers all 
 other insects. He speaks of the honey bees and the bumblebees of 
 the genus Bombus as playing ''by far the most important part in 
 fertilizing our [German] indigenous flowers." On the other hand, 
 Brit ton and Viereck « attempt to show that the honey bee is not so 
 imj)ortant as has generally been claimed by horticulturists and 
 entomologists. They find that ''honey bees were exceedingly scarce 
 in comparison with other species of Ilymenoptera — or in fact with 
 other insects." From collections made from flowers in 1904 at the 
 experiment station at New Haven and in 1905 at Branford, Conn., 
 the following records were made: 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 03 2 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 (S 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 & 
 
 5^ 
 
 
 
 Ilymenoptera 
 
 Apis inellifcra 
 
 46 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 32 
 1 
 
 16 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 7 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 Diptera 
 
 i9 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 8 
 2 
 
 16 
 5 
 
 
 
 Coleoptera 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 IleiTiiptera 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total number of 
 sp>ecimens 
 
 72 
 
 59 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 52 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 It seems fair to assume that on account of their great numbers the small bees belong- 
 ing to the Ilalictidne and the Andrenidte are more important agents in carrying pollen 
 than has been supposed, and in the vicinity of New Haven during the seasons of 
 1904 and 1905 were of far greater benefit in pollinating the flowers of the plants from 
 which they were collected than were the honey bees. 
 
 Earlier in the paper they say: "It is not known to the writers 
 that bees are kept in the immediate vicinity of the experiment sta- 
 tion; there are several hives less than 2 miles away. Wild honey 
 bees are probably not veiy abundant so near the city." 
 
 There are several facts which should be taken into consideration 
 in connection with this paper — facts not mentioned by the authors. 
 In the first place, comparatively few honey bees are kept in the part 
 of Connecticut around New Haven. Furthermore, a scourge of bee 
 disease is said to have decimated the bees of Connecticut some years 
 ago, and doubtless this decreased the number of bees in a wild state 
 as much as it is known to have done in the case of bees in hives. No 
 disease is now recorded from the vicinity of New Haven, but it may 
 still ])e there unreported, it being found in many parts of the State- 
 Further, in the vicinity of cities, bees are generally less prevalent 
 
 « Britton and Viereck, 1906. — Insects Collected from the Flowers of Fruit Trees and 
 Plants. Fifth Report of the Connecticut State Entomologist for the Year 1905, New 
 Haven, Conn. 
 
STATUS OF APICULTURE IX UNITED STATES. 71 
 
 than in the country. The principal point which should be consid- 
 ered, however, is that the winter of 1903-4, just before these counts 
 were made, was exceedingly severe, and 75 per cent of the colonies 
 of honey bees in Xew England are reported to have died. Honey 
 bees do not hibernate, and long-protracted cold weather is detrimental 
 to them. Taking these facts into consideration, it is not so strange 
 that the honey bee played a minor part in pollinating the flowers in 
 the cases investigated. 
 
 While in the particular cases observed by these authors the honey 
 bee was of little value as a pollenizer, the ease with which an enormous 
 number of honey bees could be brought to the aid of the orchardist 
 places this species in a class by itself. Estimating the population of 
 a colony of bees as low as 10,000 in early spring, it may easily be seen 
 how reacUly the orchardist may insure pollination by carri^^ing a few 
 colonies of bees to the orchard, provided of course that the weather is 
 such that bees can fly while the trees are in bloom. Under adverse 
 conditions in winter the other insects may be so decimated that they 
 are few in number, but while honey bees may also be killed off in 
 ^^'inter, there are means of protecting them, wliich is not the case 
 with the purely wild species. 
 
 Fruit growers as a rule recognize the value of the honey bee to 
 their industry. Taking into consideration the insurance of pollina- 
 tion by transporting colonies of bees to the places where their services 
 are needed, it is safe to say that the indirect benefit of the bee- 
 keeping industry annually adds to the resources of the country 
 considerably more than the amount received from the sale of honey 
 and wax. 
 
 PRESENT SOURCES OF LOSS. 
 
 There are several sources of great loss to bee keepers which might 
 be eliminated to a large extent by careful manipulation, but there is 
 much work wliich must be done before bee keepers are able to over- 
 come all these diflS-Culties. Certain losses are expected regularly, and, 
 while some do their utmost to overcome them, an annual loss must 
 figure in their calculations. 
 
 Swarming. — The average bee keeper loses many of the swarms 
 which issue from his hives, and these escaping swarms may well be 
 valued at a high figure. By careful manipulation and the use of large 
 hives swarming may be largely controlled, but among the majority 
 of bee keepers too little attention is given to this phase of the work 
 and nothing is done until the swarm actually issues. In the produc- 
 tion of comb honey smaller hives are generally used, and the control 
 of swarming becomes more difficult . It is doubtless true that swarms 
 aggregating in value $1,000,000 are lost every year. This loss may 
 be considerably reduced. 
 
72 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 The greatest obstacle in the control of swarming is the fact tha 
 the activities bringing on swarming ate so little understood. Thi 
 j)h(Miomenon represents the bee's natural method of increasing the 
 number of colonies, and it* may be attributed to instinct. This, 
 however, does not explain what factors induce the bees to swarm or 
 wliat tlieir activities are previous to swarming. When the behavior 
 of the bees before and during swarming is better understood, we may 
 have greater hope of a method of control. 
 
 Winffr losses. — The losses in winter are considerable, due largely 
 to starvation, dampness, too long a time without a cleansing flight, 
 or extreme cold weather. By wintering bees in cellars in the North 
 tliis loss may be considerably reduced, but while much has been 
 written on this subject the general loss to northern bee keepers is 
 probably at least 10 per cent every winter. An even temperature of 
 about 45° F. and a dry^ atmosphere are considered best, and the best 
 method of obtaining these conditions is an individual problem. 
 
 Wliere bee keepers do not pay any attention to the selection of 
 their best stock for breeding purposes, the loss of 10 per cent or more 
 of their colonies in winter must not be looked on as a total loss, for 
 generally the poorest colonies succumb. In the southwestern part 
 of the United States the winter problem can be said not to exist in 
 the way it does in the North, and, as a result, a large part of the 
 bees kept there are of poor stock, vastly inferior in many cases to 
 equally neglected stock in portions of the country where winters are 
 severe. 
 
 On the other hand, in these warmer portions of the country it is 
 necessary to leave much heavier stores of honey in the hives to carry 
 the colonies over from one season of activity to the next, so that 
 ' 'wintering " is very expensive. It has been suggested seriously that 
 colonies be placed in cold storage for several months to save this 
 heavy consumption. 
 
 ' ' Winter loss " is in many cases caused by disease, which so weakens 
 the colony during the summer that it is not able to survive the winter. 
 In such cases the bee keeper is usually ignorant of disease. 
 
 Waste of wax. — No other mani])ulation of the apiary is so primitive 
 as wax extraction and nowhere is there more room for improvement. 
 As every bee keeper knows, it is difficult to remove wax from the 
 comb, particularly in the case of old combs whicli have been used for 
 brood rearing for years. Th(^ amount of wax wasted ever^^ year by 
 inadecjiiate methods of extraction amounts to thousands of dollars 
 annually. In most cases over 10 ])er cent of the wax remains in the 
 ''slumgum, " and even l)y careful work 5 per cent is left. By repeated 
 rendering, the amount may b(^ nnluced, but the time necessary for 
 this usually makes it un])roiitable. 
 
STATUS OF APICULTURE IX UNITED STATES. 73 
 
 With the advent of the movable-frame hive and honey extractor 
 it became orthodox to continue the use of combs year after 3-ear. 
 The invention of methods making this possible was of such great 
 benefit to the apicultural industry that it may almost be said that 
 without it there would be no industry. At the same time it may be 
 that bee keepers have formed the habit of using their combs in this 
 way, and in consequence are losing wax. It must not be overlooked 
 that it is part of the life activity of bees to build wax, and in working 
 bees to get the maximum financial return from them it may be 
 desirable to allow them to spend some energ}^ on wax production. 
 For example, immediately after swarming, under natural conditions, 
 bees secrete a large amount of wax; they also, of course, build wax 
 at other times, but there is much more of a tendency then than at 
 any other period of their activity. There is good reason to believe, 
 also, that at the time specified the amount of honey consumed in 
 building a pound of wax is less than at any other time. With wax 
 worth so much more per pound than honey, it would seem to be 
 desirable in some cases to take advantage of the wax-building abihty 
 of bees. 
 
 In rendering wax from comb the usual procedure is to squeeze the 
 combs in a press while hot. With but few exceptions, this is the only 
 method used. Since this takes too long, and especially since all the 
 wax can not possibly be removed, it would be wise to look for some 
 other method. A better method would not only mean greater profits, 
 but would be a gigantic step in advance in bee-disease eradication. 
 
 The loss due to inadequate extraction does not, of course, include 
 the enormous loss from wax which is tlirown away or which is allowed 
 to be destroyed by wax moths for lack of fumigation. 
 
 Enemies. — ^When it is considered that bees five in a large com- 
 munity and seemingly present an excellent opportunity for the 
 intrusion of parasitic forms and predaceous animals, it is a matter 
 of surprise that they are so free from this source of loss. 
 
 The wax moths {Galleria melloneUa L. and Achroia grisella Fab.) 
 rarely trouble thrifty colonies, and therefore are not dreaded by 
 progressive bee keepers in the colonies; they do, however, often 
 destroy stored combs. 
 
 Diseases. — From the standpoint of present need there is no question 
 in apiculture which at all compares in importance ^vith the control of 
 bee diseases. There are now recognized two distinct brood diseases 
 which are contagious and which annually cause enormous losses to 
 those engaged in the industry. There is reason, too, to beheve that 
 these diseases are spreading to new localities at a rapid rate, and 
 unless vigorous steps are taken there can be no doubt that in a few 
 years they will be distributed to every part of the United States. 
 78013°— Bull. 75—11 6 
 
74 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 The a])athy of bee keej)ers, as a class, to these scourges is re- 
 markable, in view of the fact that information is available wliich 
 should ])oint out tlie dan^ijers now incurred by inadequate efforts 
 toward the control of these j)ests, or in most cases by no effort at all. 
 
 As an example of the annual loss from this source, the following 
 figures, furnished the author by Mr. Charles Stewart, one of the 
 State inspectors, froni the statistics of the New York department of 
 agriculture, are of value. These figures are based on the actual 
 number of colonies suffering from European foul brood wliich were 
 destro^^ed or ordered destroyed b}" the inspectors of apiaries and do 
 not represent the decreased returns from colonies not treated or 
 from those affected with disease and treated. This epidemic started 
 about 1897. The decrease in annual loss will be discussed later. 
 
 Previous to 1899 $39, 383 
 
 During 1899 25, 420 
 
 1900 20,289 
 
 1901 10, 853 
 
 1902 
 
 860 
 
 During 1903 $4, 741 
 
 1904 2,220 
 
 1905 1,725 
 
 Total 110,491 
 
 In the majority of cases it is absolutely impossible to estimate the 
 losses, because so little is known of the actual territory covered; but 
 if a loss of $25,000 is possible in a few counties in one State and 
 there are many areas much larger where disease is equally epidemic, 
 the loss ma}^ well be estimated at $2,000,000 annually. 
 
 The figures of the epidemic in New York offer an excellent example 
 of what may be done in eradicating a contagious disease. Unfor- 
 tunately that State had no means for taking up an extermination of 
 European foul brood as soon as it appeared, but steps were taken to 
 begin inspection as soon as such an innovation could be introduced. 
 B}' hard work on the part of four competent inspectors the annual 
 loss was rapidly reduced. The same results may be obtained any- 
 where by the employment of competent men to do the work, so that 
 from a rapidly spreading epidemic, threatening the bee industry, the 
 situation is changed until the disease becomes not so much a scourge 
 as an inconvenience. In the case in (piestion there can be no doubt 
 that the annual loss would soon have reached S50,000 or that the 
 industry would have been practically destroyed had no State aid 
 been given just when it wjis. 
 
 Not only is inspection of value in a case of tliis kind, but it is of 
 inestimable value in making j^ossible the stopping of an epidemic 
 in its early stages. To continue with New York as an example, the 
 same disease, European foul })rood, has since broken out in three 
 other localities, but the force of inspectors went to work at once and 
 there is litth* <hingcr of serious troubhv It is safe to say that the 
 value of inspection in tliis State is nearly eiiual to the annual value 
 
STATUS OF APICULTURE IN UNITED STATES. 
 
 75 
 
 of the industry in the State. The value of the honey and wax 
 produced in New York in 1899 — the year State inspection was 
 instituted — is given as $352,795 in the census for 1900. This is 
 obviously too low. 
 
 Several States have passed laws for the control of these diseases 
 and, in the majority of cases, the results are as good as can be ex- 
 pected. The laws are not alwa3^s all that could be desired. Table 
 IX shows the States having inspection and the force at work. 
 
 Table IX. — Status of bee-disease inspection in the United States. 
 
 State. 
 
 Method of inspec- ^"^i^^^ 
 
 Principal disease. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 
 County 15 
 
 . ..do 12 
 
 American foul brood State law. 
 
 Colorado 
 
 do 
 
 Do. 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Divisions of State I 2 
 State ! 1 
 
 Countv ' (?) 
 
 State ; 1 
 
 do 1 2(?) 
 
 -do 
 
 Do. 
 
 Illinois 
 
 American foul brood and 
 European foul brood. 
 
 American foul brood 
 
 State bee keepers' as- 
 sociation. (No police 
 power.) 
 
 State law. 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 American foul brood and Do. 
 
 
 European foul brood. 
 
 American foul brood 
 
 . ..do 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 .do . 1 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 County 2 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Do. 
 
 Nevada 
 
 
 (?) 
 Law against keeping 
 
 diseased colonies. 
 State law. 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 do i 
 
 Divisions of State.' 4 
 
 County 1 2 
 
 .do 
 
 American foul brood 
 
 European foul brood and 
 
 American foul brood. 
 do 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Do. 
 
 Oregon 
 
 
 (?) 
 
 Texas 
 
 Divisions of State. 4 
 
 County 4 
 
 ....do 1 
 
 American foul brood 
 
 do 
 
 State law. 
 
 Utah 
 
 Do. 
 
 Washington 
 
 . ..do 
 
 Do. 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 State 1 
 
 do 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 
 Other States are at work on tliis same question and it may be 
 expected that mtliin a few years the diseases will be controlled as 
 much as is possible by inspection. 
 
 Badly proportioned distribution of apiaries. — A present source of 
 loss to the industry as a whole is the fact that the available area for 
 nectar gathering is not properly covered with apiaries ; in some cases 
 it is overstocked, but far more generally there is room for several 
 times as many colonies. In pointing out the loss on this account it 
 need scarcely be expected that a method for remedying the present 
 conditions ^vill immediately follow. 
 
 As apiculture advances, more and more of the available bee terri- 
 tory will be covered and, naturally, overstocking will be brought 
 on in many cases. By natural growth of bee keeping the present 
 lost nectar will probabty be brought to the hives. Viewing the ques- 
 tion, however, from the standpoint of the industry as a whole, it is 
 desirable that this nectar be collected by bees under the manage- 
 ment of intensive bee keepers — by men who can get the maximum 
 crop from the bees. This can be brought about only by education 
 
76 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 of tlic lucn engaged in the work to the greatest possible proficiency. 
 It can not be hoped that men owning but a few colonies will be suffi- 
 cientl}^ interested to carry on intensive apiculture. If, therefore, 
 efYorts are put forth to bring the industry to its highest point, they 
 should be directed toward the making of specialists in larger num- 
 bers. Above all, there should be no ''booming" of the industry, no 
 effort to ''popularize" it, for it is not desirable that everybody keep 
 bees. Bee keeping requires careful work, and to get a financial profit 
 is not possible in the majority of cases. To advocate bee keeping as 
 a general avocation not only hurts reputable bee keepers but gen- 
 erally leads to grave disappointment on the part of those who are 
 led into it by glowing accounts. 
 
 THE NEEDS AND POSSIBILITIES OF APICULTURE. 
 
 That there is room for growth in the bee-keeping industry admits 
 of no doubt. The fact that honey for table use is a luxury rather 
 than a necessity makes possible a great increase in marketing by the 
 creation of a desire for it. This is recognized by those who are engaged 
 in the building up of a local market for their product, for it is found 
 that the amount of honey consumed in a community increases rapidly 
 when honey is brought to its attention. 
 
 A large part of the honey put on the general market does not go 
 into retail trade, but is used in manufacturing. This phase of the 
 market is of relatively recent growth and, in spite of the fact that most 
 bakers and confectioners pay a small price for honey, there is in this 
 case also room for more. Several confectioners have stated to the 
 author that they find it difficult to get enough honey in the general 
 market for their own use. 
 
 In discussing the needs of the bee-keeping industry these may per- 
 haps be best di^aded under three headings — scientific, economic, and 
 educational. In naming them it does not follow that all are absolute 
 necessities before the industry can reach its highest perfection, but 
 there are many lines which should be taken up which, wliile not neces- 
 sary, are very desirable in order that the men engaged in the industry 
 may be well informed concerning the various phases of the science. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC NEEDS. 
 
 Statistical. — In ordt-r that honey and wax may come to hold a stable 
 place in the market there should be available more detailed statistics 
 as to the scope of the industry and, following that, properly timed 
 crop reports, so that the products may sell for what they are worth. 
 
 Zoological.— In spite of all that has l)een written on races of bees, 
 the subject is far from being ('()m])letely exhausted. More reliable 
 work should also be done on the anatomy and embryology of the bee. 
 
STATUS OF -\PlCtrLTlJEE IX UNITED STATES. 77 
 
 Numerous papers and books have been written on these subjects, 
 especially on anatomy, but they generally prove incorrect and unscien- 
 tific when carefidly studied. It is regrettable that too often pseudo- 
 scientists have been allowed to impose on the bee-keeping pubhc by 
 sending out pubHcations purporting to be the results of research which 
 are in reality compilations in large part, and the actual observations 
 of the author are not based on a proper preparation for such work. 
 The amoimt of work done on the physiology of the bee is indeed 
 meager; the problem is a difficult one, but as tecluiique is perfected 
 such work should be taken up. The whole basis of practical api- 
 culture is a knowledge of the behavior of the bee; without such 
 knowledge there could be no good practical work. Probably no 
 insect has been studied from this standpoint more than has the honey- 
 bee, but every new piece of work done simply points out new lines of 
 work that are desirable. 
 
 Botanical. — Our knowledge of nectar-secreting plants now consists 
 largely of random observations, usually for a limited locality, recorded 
 in bee journals and books. Systematic work along this line, if done 
 by competent obser\'ers, would give to the bee keeper the means of 
 studying the possibilities of any locahty as it can not now be done. 
 More work is needed to give accurate information as to the part played 
 by the honey bee in plant pollination, as well as data showing the 
 present value of, and future possibilities in, that work. 
 
 Badendlogical. — The cause of one brood disease is now known, ^ 
 but there is still a great deal of work to be done in the study of the 
 bacteria of disease. This work is of the liighest practical importance, 
 for without a thorough knowledge of the organisms it is impossible to 
 diagnose the more obscure samples, and only by a detailed study can 
 information be gathered as to the amount of heat or disinfectant 
 which must be used in combating disease. 
 
 Chemical. — Considerable work has been done on honey analysis, 
 and a recent pubhcation^ of the Bureau of Chemistry of this Depart- 
 ment is an excellent piec« of work which lays the foundation of a good 
 market for pure honey in making it possible to detect adidteration. 
 In addition to what is already done, there should be a more detailed 
 study of honeys from individual honey-plant sources. 
 
 ECONOMIC NEEDS. 
 
 There is or should be no sharp distinction between scientific and 
 practical bee keeping. Practical bee keeping is but the apphcation 
 
 a WTiite, Dr. G. F. — The Cause of American Foul Brood. Circular No. 94, Bureau 
 of Entomology', U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 4 pp., 1907. 
 
 fc Browne, C. A., and Young, W. J. — Chemical Analysis and Composition of Ameri- 
 can Honeys, including a Microscopical Study of Honey Pollen. Bulletin No. 110, 
 Bureau of Cheniistrj% U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 93 pp., VI plates, 1908. 
 
78 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 of discoveries made by scientific work. It is not always recognized? 
 but it is nevertheless true, that careful systematic work on methods 
 of wintorintr, prochiction of the maximum crop of comb or extracted 
 honey, or the like, is really scientific work on tlie behavior of the bee, 
 and, if done properly, is just as truly scientific work as any that has 
 been mentioned previously. Breed in<j^ of better bees and inspection 
 for disease or for honey adulteration are but practical applications of 
 scientific investigations. 
 
 The question of breeding is economic and very important. It is 
 doubtless a fact that at least three-fourths of the colonies of bees now 
 found in the United States are not what they should be or what they 
 would ])e if proper attention were paid to breeding. By requeening 
 such colonies from good stock the annual output of honey would be 
 enormously increased, provided, of course, that the improved stock 
 were properly manipulated. 
 
 At present the tendency among bee keepers is to accomplish by manipulation the 
 things which would be attempted in breeding. Thus, instead of breeding for non- 
 swarming bees, we have attempts at the construction of hives which provide environ- 
 ments conducive to nonswarming. Instead of breeding for prolificness we have trials 
 at using two queens in one hive to get the same result. Good wintering qualities are 
 replaced by extra care in wintering, and tongue length becomes less important by the 
 use of alsike clover for pasturage in place of red clover, the nectar of which is largely 
 lost to the honeybee. Activity in honey gathering is replaced by the keeping of a 
 large number of colonies. 
 
 As long as the bee-keeping field is not more completely filled, these methods of avoid- 
 ing the breeding problem ^\^ll be more or less successful. The time should come, 
 however, and probably will, when bee keepers can no longer neglect this line of work.'^ 
 
 EDUCATIONAL NEEDS. 
 
 While the problems above enumerated represent a vast amount 
 of work which must be done, the problem which entails tlie greatest 
 amount of labor is the spread of information to the individual bee 
 keepers who want it. Several agencies are now at work doing valu- 
 able service, among which may be mentioned the journals devoted to 
 bee keeping, associations of bee keepers, the teaching of apiculture 
 in some agricultural colleges, and the work of some experiment 
 stations. The Bureau of Entomology aims to aid in the work. 
 Most of the text-books on bee keeping are educational rather than 
 records of personal investigation, for in large part they very prop- 
 erly draw from many soiu^ces and prepare the data for the use of the 
 bee keepers. 
 
 First of all there must be an improvement in the methods of com- 
 piling the work done by others. The literature on bee keeping is 
 so enormous that the average individual can not attempt to cover 
 
 o 1908. American Breeders' Association, Vol. IV, pp. 200-201. 
 
STATUS OF .\PICULTURE IX UNITED STATES. 79 
 
 it, and to aid in tliis phase of the work this Biureau is arranging a 
 bibliography of apicidtural papers and books. This has been begun 
 only recently, but it now contains about 8,000 titles and is growing 
 rapidly. This bibliography is in conjimction with the files contain- 
 ing the residts of investigations carried on in the Bureau, as well 
 as synopses, translations, and notes on the work of others in various 
 branches of the subject. 
 
 The greatest difficulty encountered is the finchng of the way to 
 get in touch ^-ith the bee keepers to present to them the residts of 
 work. Xaturally the bee journals are anxious to do the same thing 
 to increase their subscription lists, and the associations to increase 
 their membersliip. The Bmeau of Entomology has recently tried, 
 as an experiment, direct commimication with all the bee keepers 
 in Massachusetts and the results are liighly satisfactory; so much so, 
 in fact, that the same work is being carried on in two other States. 
 The amoimt of time and work that is necessary, however, makes it 
 impossible to carry out this work generally. 
 
 Under this heacUng comes also the education of the pubhc to the 
 use of honey. In most cases this must be done by the bee keeper 
 in his own locahty. The average amount of honey consiuned per 
 individual is now too small, and can be increased by some proper 
 means of bringing it to the attention of the public. 
 
 TThen the situation is carefully stucUed, it becomes evident that 
 the possible annual crop of honey and wax is several times greater 
 than the present crop. If bee diseases can be properly controlled 
 and good information be properly chsseniinated, there is good reason 
 for considering the future of commercial apiculture as very hopeful. 
 The industry of apicidtm-e depends on commercial bee keepers and 
 not on the bee keeper with small interests. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 The growth of apicidtiu*e during the past half centm-y has been 
 remarkable and its present extent is httle imderstood. 
 
 Bee keeping is usually not the sole occupation, but is a side line. 
 
 There are in the United States over 700,000 bee keepers producing 
 annually S20, 000,000 worth of honey and 82,000,000 worth of beeswax. 
 
 The average number of colonies per bee keeper is less than 6. 
 
 The annual importation of honey amoimts to about 2,500,000 
 pounds, and that of wax to about 700,000 pounds. 
 
 The honey bee probably does more good to American agriculture 
 as a pollenizing agent than as a honey producer. 
 
 The present sources of loss are due to swarming, winter losses, 
 waste of wax, enemies, disease, and wasted nectar. Of these sources 
 of loss, contagious diseases are the greatest and demand attention. 
 
80 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 There is much need of furtlier investigations in apiculture, and a 
 few of the desirable lines of work are pointed out. The work to be done 
 is<]:roupc(l in tliree classes — scientific, economic, and educational. 
 
 Bee keeping as an industry is benefited only by the making of 
 expert bee keepers financially interested in the business. The per- 
 sons interested but little are a serious detriment to the industry, 
 especially in regions where bee diseases exist. 
 
U. S. D. A., B. E. Bui. 75, Part VII. Issued May 24, 1! 
 
 MISCELLAXEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 By Burton X. Gates, 
 Expert in Apiculture. 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 When, in 1620, the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, this country knew 
 no bees; the Indians in their languages had no equivalents for bee, 
 honey, or wax. In Elliot's remarkable translation of the Bible he 
 was obliged to use the English word for honey, with sometimes an 
 Indian termination. Scarcely, however, had churches been erected, 
 scarcely were clearings made in the wilderness for growing agricul- 
 tural necessities, when the settlers turned their attention to securing 
 honey bees from England. That such remarkably early trans- At- 
 lantic shipments of l)ees were successful there can be no doubt. 
 Josselyn, who visited New England twice, once in 1G38 and again in 
 1663, speaks of '' the honey-bee. which are carried over by the English 
 and thrive there exceedingly." <^ but he does not tell when the first 
 attempts to secure bees Avere made. Belknap.^ however, wrote " that 
 the first person who brought a hive of bees to this country [Xew 
 England] was rewarded with a grant of land ; but the person's name, 
 or the place where the land lay. to whom the grant was made. I have 
 not been able to learn." Unfortunately the records of the Colonies 
 were not available to Belknap. 
 
 Xewbury. a coast town north of Boston, was established in 1635. 
 There the first effort to promote bee keeping in the Xew AYorld was 
 made. Furthermore, the importance of the industry was of munic- 
 ipal moment to the extent of holding out to one John Eales, who was 
 
 a Josselyn, John. 1675. An Account of Two Voyages to Xew England, p. 120. 
 Second edition. London. " The second edition is the first, with a new title 
 page merely." — Sabin. Reprinted in Massachusetts Historical Society Collec- 
 tions, Vol. Ill, third series, p. 292. and by William Veazie, Boston, 1865. 
 
 ^ Belknap, Jeremy. 1792. A Discourse Intended to Commemorate the Discov- 
 ery of America * * * to which are added, four dissertations * * * 3. 
 On the Question, Whether the Honey-bee is a Native of America? * * * 
 Boston, Belknap & Hall. 132 pages. 
 
 81 
 
82 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 then living: ii^ what is now IIin<rhain, Mass., an inducement to come 
 to Newbury for the purpose of teaching the settlers how to make hives 
 and to care for bees. In August, 1()44, Eales came " to one John 
 Davis a Renter of a farm with ye expectation of his doing service 
 which the Towne was not acquainted with."" Apparently, however, 
 John Eales was not, financially or otherwise, a success. He was later 
 arrested and put in jail in IpsAvich, according to the record, and, on 
 May 11, K)!.-), '* It is conceived John Eales should be placed in some 
 convenient place where he may be implied in his trade of bee-hive 
 making, etc.; c*v: ye town of Newbury to make up what his work 
 wanteth of defraying ye charge of his livelyhoode." ^ 
 
 There can be little doubt that John Eales is the man to whom 
 Belknai) refers and to wdiom credit is due as the earliest bee keeper 
 in the colonies.^ 
 
 Further convincing evidence of the very early introduction of 
 bees into New England is the date of their importation which Haydn ^ 
 gives. According to this author, " bees were introduced into Boston, 
 New P]ngland, in 1070, and have since spread over the continent." 
 The source of his information is not given, but it is probably in some 
 of the port records and can not refer to the first importation. 
 
 From these early times until more than a century later little or 
 nothing is known of bee keeping in the State. In fact, during this 
 epoch ai^iculture in the Old World was not well developed. It w^as 
 not until the middle of the eighteenth century that writings on 
 bees began to appear in Europe in any considerable number. Bees 
 Avere receivinof some attention in Massachusetts at this time, as is 
 
 « Ma ssaclin setts Arcliives, Vol. L, pp. 4-5. [Manuscripts in the State House, 
 Boston.] 
 
 ^18r>.3. Records of the Governor and Company of tlie Massachusetts Bay in 
 New England. Boston. Vol. 2, p. 101. [I»eriod covered. 1()42-1G49.] John 
 Kales was " Freeman made att the Generall Court, May 14, 1(534." Ibid., Vol. 1, 
 p. 3G9. 
 
 ^ See also : Adams, George W. 1906. Massachusetts Bee Keeping in 1044. 
 American Bee Keeper, Vol. XVI, pp. 280-281. 
 
 Gerstacker, A. 18G2. tJber die geographische Verbreitung und die Abander- 
 ungen der Ilonigbiene nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Ausliiiulischon Honigbienen 
 der alten Welt. (Zur XI. Wanderversammlung Deutsche Bienenwirthe zu 
 Bolsd.ini am 17, 18, und 19 September, 1S(;2.) Potsdam. According to Von 
 Buttel-Beepen this paper was given as "a card of admission" to those attend- 
 ing the Potsdam meeting. It has apimrently become lost, excepting one copy 
 from which Von Buttel-Keepen reprinted it as a part of his paper, "Apistica." 
 
 Von Buttel-Iieepen, Dr. II. 1900. Apistica. Beitrjige zur Systematik, 
 Biologic, sowie zur geschichtlicheu und geographischen Verbreitung der Ilonig- 
 l)iene (.4/>f.v mcUiflra L.), ihrcr Varictiiteu und der iibrigen Apis-arten. 
 Milllieilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum zu licrliii. Ill, lleft 2, 8 tig., pp. 
 IV + 121-201. Issued also as a separate. 
 
 ** Haydn, Joseph. 19(»4. Haydn's Dictionary of Dates and Universal Informa- 
 tion. 23d edition. New York. Also other editions. 
 
BEE KEEPIXG IX MASSACHUSETTS. 83 
 
 shown by a letter of a father to his son, dated. '* Sutton [Massa- 
 chusetts] June the 2d, 1788." « Besides sjDeaking of sending to his son 
 some homespun clothes the father adds, '^ as for news we have no 
 grate to rite to you our bees have swormed yesterday and they flew of 
 today." 
 
 New England is reputed to have suffered severely from attacks of 
 bee moths in the early part of the nineteenth century. There appears 
 to have been a period of general devastation by this enemy from 
 about 1800 to 1850. It handicapped the industry considerably, and, 
 according to some, completely wiped it out in certain localities, ^^^rit- 
 ing from Greenfield in 1853, L. L. Langstroth sa^'s : ^ *' The present 
 condition of practical bee keeping in this country [meaning the whole 
 of Xew England and Xew York] is known to be deplorably low. 
 From the gi-eat mass of agriculturalists * * * j^ receives not 
 the slightest attention." There is room for considerable doubt, how- 
 ever, whether the moth was the primary cause of this devastation, as 
 is explained below under the headings, "* Enemies " and ** Disease." 
 
 At the middle of the nineteenth century Langstroth, who had been 
 experimenting for several years, brought out his invention, the 
 movable-frame hive. As is explained under the head of '* Hives," 
 this revolutionized the industry; at that time modern bee keeping 
 began. 
 
 Considering the very early date of the first introduction of bees 
 to what is now Massachusetts, and that from this locality as a center 
 much of the present-day bee keeping "■ spread westward with the 
 home seekers, it is not a little surprising to discover so few extensive 
 bee keepers in Massachusetts, while there are many in Xew York 
 and Vermont. Compensating, however, for the lack of extensive 
 bee keepers, there is a vast number of small apiaries; their number 
 in jDroportion to the territory is probably greater than in any other 
 State in the Union. There are at least 2,100 '^ who derive some profit 
 from their bees. V^^ere these 2,100 to keep twenty-five colonies each 
 
 «A photograph of this letter is in the possession of the writer. 
 
 ^ Langstroth, L. L. 1853. Langstroth on the Hive and the Honey-Bee, a 
 Bee-Keeper's Manual. Northampton. First edition. 
 
 ^ The details of the present status of bee keeping in this pai^er are based 
 upon the returns from a series of questions sent to every known bee keeper 
 in Massachusetts. The method of securing the statistics was described in the 
 author's paper read before the Association of Economic Entomologists, Balti- 
 more, Md., December 29, 1908. This paper is published in the Journal of 
 Economic Entomology, Vol. II, No. 2, pp. 117-120, April, 1909. 
 
 ^ By actual count, the recorded bee keepers for Massachusetts number 2,127. 
 This exceeds the number recorded in the 1900 census by 328, which, consider- 
 ing that the author's work was accomplished through mail while the federal 
 census is the result of a house-to-house canvass, suggests a deficiency in the 
 figures of the federal census reports. Of the 2,127, 1,050 reported. 
 
84 MTSCELLANKOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 and Avere their apiaries properly distributed over the State, there 
 ini<rht not be forag^e enough to support them; but such is far from 
 reality. The average is only five and a half colonies per bee keeper, 
 which is evidently too small. In this is a key to the bee-keeping 
 situation of the State; if the resources are to be fully utilized, more 
 bees must be kept, not by more bee kc^epers, for there are too many 
 small ones at present, but by several hundred jiroficiont and energetic 
 bee men ])r(>|)erly distril)uted. 
 
 EXPERIENCE OF BEE KEEPERS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Although there are too few bees kept, it is interesting to ascertain 
 how ex})erienced the Massachusetts bee keepers now^ are. In order 
 to gain this information, a question, *"" How long have you kept bees? " 
 was included in the list of questions circulated throughout the State. 
 By thus knowing the length of time these men have been keeping 
 bees, some idea of their proficiency may be reached. Of those who 
 reported to the author, 38 per cent have had less than five years' 
 experience and must consequently be classed as amateurs. While this 
 array of amateurs, at first glance, appears high, it becomes more 
 significant upon considering that 32 per cent, having successfully 
 passed their apprenticeship, report from five to fifteen years' experi- 
 ence, or, in other words, have persisted and succeeded in bee keeping. 
 On the other hand, roughly estimating, 50 per cent of the bee keepers 
 who undertake this branch of agriculture discontinue it within their 
 first five years' trial. This is not due to lack of possibilities in the 
 bee-keeping industry, but must be attributed in a large measure to 
 sensational presentation, in the popular press and elsewhere, of the 
 ease of managing and the huge profits to be derived from bees. 
 This overstimulation of the bee industry is a positive detriment to the 
 bee-keeping interests. The number of persons who have taken and 
 will take time for a proper study of bee culture is exceedingly limited 
 in j)r()i)()rti()n to the number who undertake the work uninstructed. 
 Consecjuently a 50 per cent weeding-out process during the first five 
 years of attempted bee culture is a stroke of fortune for the industry. 
 After fifteen years' exi)erience, and before the twenty-five-year mark 
 of service is ])assed, there is another falling oti'. The figures of this 
 census show that 10 per cent of those reporting have kept bees from 
 fifteen to twenty-five years, which, when it is considered that a bee 
 keej)er is well along in life by that time and often must necessarily 
 relieve himself of care and work, is exactly what might be expected. 
 No less interesting is the fact that 1(> per cent continue after twenty- 
 five years of service. These are the truly old bee keejiers, many of 
 whom remember Langstroth and his experimenting. AVhile they 
 may not b(» exactly up-to-date, they are to be respected for their 
 [)ersistency. 
 
BEE KEEPING IX MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 85 
 
 For purposes of comparison divide the State into two sections, the 
 eastern section to inchide Worcester County and all other eastern 
 counties save Barnstable County, which is not at all comparable 
 either in population or from an agricultural point of view. If these 
 two sections be contrasted, there will be found an obvious difference 
 in their jDopulation. In the eastern section the cities and towns are 
 large and the population concentrated, Avhile in the western part the 
 population is less dense and is thus far less influenced, on the whole, 
 by large communities than the eastern section. It is in the large 
 communities that bee keeping is usually promoted by supply houses 
 and conventions, and it is there also that the majority who seek niral 
 recreation along lines promoted by popular agricultural papers 
 reside. Consequently, it is to be expected that the progress and 
 stimulation of bee keeping, either as a recreation or an industry, 
 should first be felt in and adjacent to these communities. This is 
 precisely what is noticeable in Massachusetts. Back in the country 
 of the more strictly rural section of the State, where population 
 acquires but slowly the progressive impulses which are first launched 
 in the larger communities, there are fewer new or amateur bee 
 keepers than in the more thickly populated eastern section. In this 
 western section the ratio of beginners to advanced bee keepers is as 30 
 to 70; while in the eastern section, where are found two bee-keepers' 
 societies, the proportion of beginners is larger, with a possible ratio of 
 41 to 59. Aside from the influence of societies in the eastern section, 
 supply houses have had a noticeable effect in stimulating popular in- 
 terest and in promoting new and improved methods. As is jjointed 
 out above, sensational stimulation is unfavorable to the industry. 
 
 Table I. — Proportion of amateurs to ijracticcd hcc keepers in the eastern and 
 icestern sections of Massachusetts. 
 
 
 
 t_ „ 1 
 
 Practiced bee keepers. 
 
 Total 
 number 
 
 Section of State. 
 
 ers (5 vears and 
 
 less). 
 
 5 to 15 
 years. 
 
 15 to 25 
 years. 
 
 25 years 
 and over. 
 
 Percent. 
 
 of bee 
 keepers 
 report- 
 ing. 
 
 We'Jt of Worcester County 
 
 Worcester County and east, 
 exclusive of " Barnstable 
 County 
 
 Barnstable Countv 
 
 Number. 
 95 
 
 302 
 3 
 
 Per cent. 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 Number. 
 105 
 
 209 
 
 8 
 
 Number. 
 56 
 
 104 
 
 Number. 
 67 
 
 94 
 
 1 
 
 70 
 59 
 
 323 
 
 709 
 1» 
 
 Total for the State 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 38 
 
 322 i 166 i 162 , 62 1,050 
 
 11 1 
 
86 
 
 MISCKLLANEOUS PAPERS ON APTCI'LTURE. 
 
 NUMBER OF COLONIES PER BEE KEEPER. 
 
 There are but two bee keepers in the State who rej)ort more than 
 100 colonies, bnt several have nearly this numl)er. 
 
 'IVmm K II. — l.iKdtiou of Mtis.sncliusclls' Inri/t si (iii'uirUs, as rcjtortcd for lUOG. 
 
 County. 
 
 60t«i75 
 colonies. 
 
 75 to 100 
 colonies. 
 
 100 colo- 
 nies and 
 over. 
 
 County. 
 
 50 to 75 
 colonies. 
 
 ?«; f« inn ' 100 Colo- 
 
 1 
 
 Bnrnstalilo 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •i 
 
 1 
 
 ll 
 
 Essex 
 
 1 
 
 
 PlviiuiiiMi 
 
 .. . ' a2 
 
 
 i*| 1 ' ' 
 
 
 Hutiiixlcii . 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 Total 
 
 9 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 " One of these bee keepers writes that he increased from .15 to l.'>."> colonies in 190G. 
 
 It is a peculiar fact that in Worcester County, where more bees 
 are to be found than in any other county and where bee keeping is 
 ju-ogressive, none reports 50 colonies and few have even 25. The 
 two largest bee keepers in the State are located in Plymouth County. 
 That there are so few large bee keepers in Massachusetts is due, in 
 the writers estimation, to the heretofore unrecognized ravages of 
 disease. This is discussed elsewhere in this paper and in another 
 publication of this Bureau." In ^liddlesex County, for instance, 
 where, so far as at present known, disease is not prevalent, the 
 greatest number of large bee keepers is found and also the second 
 greatest number of colonies. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF BEES IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 In the eastern section, exclusive of Barnstable County, with its 
 high ratio of novices, there are practically as many colonies of bees 
 l)er bee keeper as in the western section. According to the figures for 
 190(), the following table presents the conditions: 
 
 Table III. — Distrihution of hccs in Massachusetts. 
 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Fall- 
 
 Section of .State. 
 
 Number 
 of col- 
 onies. 
 
 Colonies 
 per bee 
 keeper. 
 
 Number 
 of col- 
 onies. 
 
 West of Worcester County 
 
 Worcester County and east, exclusive of Barnstable Comity 
 
 TlRrimt>i(>l(> ('oiiiitv .. . 
 
 1.760 
 
 3,897 
 
 182 
 
 .5.4 
 5.5 
 10.0 
 
 2.530 
 
 5,595 
 
 227 
 
 
 
 Total for the State 
 
 5,839 
 
 5.6 
 
 8,352 
 
 
 
 From the foregoing table it will be seen that the minimum number 
 of colonies is in direct disproportion to the large number of bee 
 
 o GateB, Bnrton N. Ift08. Bee Diseases In Massachusetts. Bulletin No. 75, 
 r.irt III. MtiroMU of Knt<uii(»l(W. V. S. I)oi»artinent <»f AjjricMilttire. Wash- 
 ington. Hnl. 11»4, Mass. Agr. Exi). Station. 
 
BEE KEEPING IX MASSACHUSETTS. 87 
 
 keepers. The large population might account for this in tlie east, 
 but this does not explain why the western bee keepers have not 
 enlarged their apiaries, which without question should ultimately 
 result. Again, disease is beginning to exert its influence, and a more 
 general understanding of its nature and remedies should benefit the 
 industry. 
 
 INCREASE IN NUMBER OF COLONIES. 
 
 The figures on increase which the writer obtained show an increase 
 from 5.839 colonies in the spring to 8,350 colonies in the fall of 1906, 
 a gain of 2,413 colonies, or 12 per cent. This is below normal and 
 suggests the prevalence of bee diseases. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF HONEY AND WAX. 
 
 The subject of first importance to every bee keeper is the crop — 
 How much honey and wax do the bees produce? Unfortunately, 
 however, the majority do not go beyond this and ask how much ought 
 the yield to be? 
 
 HONEY CROP. 
 
 The honey production of the State is little more than one-tenth 
 what it might be. The markets demand much more honey than is 
 produced in the State. As nearly as can be ascertained, some 80 tons 
 of honey are annually harvested. Most of this is not shipped, but 
 is consumed by the producer or his neighbors. There is no evidence 
 that any honey is shipped out of the State; on the contrary, much 
 comb and extracted honey is annually imported from Vermont, Xew 
 York, and sometimes from the far West and South.« 
 
 Approximately 100 tons represents the total consumption during 
 1906. This consumption varies greatly from year to year, depending 
 on the crop, as, for instance, in 1907, when scarceh^ any honey was 
 obtainable in the market. The man who shipped 5J tons from Ver- 
 mont the previous year sent less than 1,000 pounds in 1907. Xone 
 was received from Xew York, as in the previous year. But the 
 estimate for 1906 of 100 tons is only one-half the amount estimated 
 as consumed in 1904.^ That year 200 tons, divided among the 
 
 ° In 1906, 5+ tons came to Worcester from Vermont ; from New York State 2^ 
 tons. In Boston the imports, according to this authority, were approximately 
 the same. It may be roughly estimated, therefore, that for 1906 at least 16 or 
 at most 20 tons were received from points outside of the State. This informa- 
 tion was kindly furnished the writer by Hon. W. H. Blodget. in a letter dated 
 Worcester, Mass., April 11, 1908. 
 
 ^ Gates, Burton X., and Dr. C. F. Hodge. 1904. Bee Keeping ; How to meet 
 its dangers and difficulties. Mass. Crop Kept., vol. 17. No. 6, pp. 30-10, Boston. 
 October. Also Fifty-second Ann. Kept, of the Secretary of the Mass. St. Bd. of 
 Agric, pp. 411-426, Boston, 1905. 
 
88 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 inhabitants of the State, would have allowed less than two table- 
 spoonfuls per capita as a year's ration. Since then, however, the 
 population has increased to more than ;>.000.000," and with the esti- 
 mated crop of 100 tons in 190() would have afforded each person less 
 than one tablespoonful. Too little honey is available in Massa- 
 chusetts. This is ])()rne out by the common experience of those who 
 try to buy extracted honey in convenient amounts or even in bulk 
 for table use. The writer's experience is that it is almost impossible 
 to ])urchase at retail a 00-pound can of good honey or even of a 
 poorer grade at any price. As for being able to buy a gallon or a 
 quart, it is impossible unless the j^urchaser is willing to pay a high 
 price for a lot of small, fancy bottles, which may or may not contain 
 good-grade honey. With these facts in mind, it is evident that much 
 may be done to improve the retail trade in extracted honey. Comb 
 honey, on the other hand, is usually available either from a producer 
 or a retail store. 
 
 The crop in Massachusetts for 1900, as reported by something less 
 than half the number of bee keepers recorded, was 145,257 pounds, 
 approximately 73 tons; but since only a little over half the re- 
 corded bee keepers were heard from, 80 tons would be a conservative 
 estimate, as is shown below\ It is somewhat surprising that this study 
 should show the largest recorded crop, and especially so in view of the 
 fact that the investigation was carried on through the mails, while 
 census data are obtained by personal canvass. This at least suggests 
 that the census figures probably do not justly represent the industry. 
 
 Although 145,257 pounds of honey, of which 108,000 pounds was 
 comb and 36,597 was extracted, is the heaviest crop recorded for the 
 State, the product looks pitifully small when it is remembered that 
 single apiarists in the West frecjuently produce in a season a fourth 
 to a third more honey than Massachusetts' annual crop. If the 
 actually recorded crop is divided by the number of colonies reported 
 in the spring of 190(), this is an average of but 24 pounds per colony. 
 Conservatively estimating from experience and reports of large prac- 
 tical apiarists in New York State and the ^yest, the average yield, 
 considering all classes of bee keepers, should be about 35 pounds. 
 'J1iis would have made Massachusetts' crojD, merely from the recorded 
 number of colonies, sj)ring count, 204,330 pounds, or 102 tons. Con- 
 sequently the estimate of SO tons, assumed for convenience, is safe. 
 The question is, however, a larger one. The possibilities of the for- 
 age and the number of colonies which it would sui)port is more vital 
 than criticism of the present discrepancy. The writer has already 
 
 a Mass. Census. lOOH, popiiljition n.OOa.OSO. 
 
BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 89 
 
 fctated ^ that Massachusetts can support approximately 40,000 colonies 
 of bees. This number, producing an average of 35 pounds of honey 
 to the colony, would supply 1,400,000 pounds, or TOO tons, of honey a 
 year, contrasted with 73 tons. This crop would not be especially 
 burdensome, and, divided among the people, each would have less 
 than a half pound a year. Furthermore, there is no immediate 
 danger of the production of any such amount. 
 
 Table IV. — Honei/ «"f^ 'f«-P production reported in Massachusetts. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Honey. 
 
 Wax. 
 
 Sources of data. 
 
 1839 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Poiivds. 
 1,196 
 
 59,508 
 2, 324. 5 
 3,289 
 2, 454 
 1,195 
 2, 463 
 1,690 
 6, 250 
 1, 289 
 
 U. S. Census Kept, for 1840. 
 
 U. S. Census Rept. for 1850. 
 
 3d Ann. Rept. Sec. Mass. Bd. Agric. for 1856. 
 
 U. S. Census Rept. for 1860. 
 
 13th Ann. Rept. Sec. Mass. Bd. Agric. for 1866. 
 
 U. S. Census Rept. for 1870. 
 
 U. S. Census Rept. for 1880. 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1855 
 
 73. 677 
 59,125 
 80, 356 
 25, 299 
 49, 397 
 90,929 
 109,050 
 6145,257 
 
 1859 
 
 1865.. 
 
 1869 
 
 1879 
 
 1889 
 
 U. S. Census Rept. for 1890. 
 U. S. Census Rept. for 1900. 
 The author's census 
 
 1899 
 
 1906 
 
 
 
 ° Includes both honev and wax product. 
 
 " Extracted, 36,507 pounds ; comb, 108,660 pounds. 
 
 WAX CROP. 
 
 It is customary for bee keepers to save their old combs from year 
 to year before rendering them, which produces an annual variation 
 in the product. Futhermore, outbreaks of bee diseases cause much 
 more comb to be rendered. Severe winters, which frequently result 
 in a loss of bees, usually produce a relative increase in the wax 
 output the following year. It is therefore difficult to calculate a 
 representative annual product of Avax. The commercial importance 
 of the wax crop, and the relative returns from it as compared with 
 honey, are gradually becoming more and more realized; therefore, 
 as the honey product increases it is to be expected that the wax out- 
 put will proportionally increase. Table IV presents all the recorded 
 information on wax production in Massachusetts. 
 
 SOURCES OF HONEY. 
 
 Too little attention is given the nectar-yielding flora, even among 
 those who seek a livelihood in the production of honey. Although 
 it is sometimes difficult to learn the sources from which bees get 
 
 ou. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Bnl. 75, Pt. Ill, p. 23. Allowing an average of 100 
 to 125 acres to support a colony of bees, based on experience of large bee 
 keepers who maintain a series of outyards, and eliminating 500 square miles as 
 probably unavailable for bee pasturage, there remain 7,814 square miles, or 
 5,000,960 acres, for forage in Massachusetts, which would support approximately 
 40,000 to 50,000 colonies of bees. 
 78013°— Bull. 75—11 7 
 
90 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 their stores, a bee keeper should have some knowledge of the honey 
 plants of his locality and their honey value. 
 
 White clover. — Among the several clovers, white clover ranks first. 
 Tt is found in nearly all quarters of the State, but flourishes best on 
 liiiii'd or limestone soils, and is particularly abundant in the northern 
 and western parts of the State. Just over the line in the Champlain 
 A^dley of Vermont the chief source of honey is white clover, which 
 grows there in tangles and mats. AVhite clover honey ranks high 
 in the market ; its color and flavor make it one of the finest of Ameri- 
 can honeys. 
 
 Alsil-e clover. — This is frequently sown for forage, and is becoming 
 more and more renowned as a honey source. Under favorable con- 
 ditions it yields not only a good quality of nectar, but large quanti- 
 ties of it. It rivals the red clover, on which bees work to a limited 
 extent, but in which the vast stores of nectar are too deep in the 
 flower tubes to be within reach of the bee's tongue. Alsike blooms 
 with white clover and Avill bloom a second time wdien wdiite clover 
 has ceased, thus prolonging the honey flow from clover. 
 
 Red clover. — This is also a more or less continuous bloomer, which, 
 inasmuch as the second flowering brings smaller, shorter-tubed heads, 
 is somewhat accessible to bees. 
 
 Sweet clover. — There are two species, white and yellow, but neither 
 is abundant in Massachusetts. It is a bountiful source of honey else- 
 where, and may become so in this State. 
 
 Crimson clover. — As a hone}^ plant this is of slight importance 
 as far north as Massachusetts. 
 
 Golden-rod and asters. — These plants, as reported in this State, 
 rank close to the clovers in nectar secretions. Both begin to flower 
 in July and continue imtil frost. The early bloom, however, is not 
 Visited by bees to any extent, and it is not luitil September that the 
 flow begins, when the hive takes on a characteristic strong and pleas- 
 ant odor. The honey, though rather dark and thick, has a rich, 
 aromatic flavor, which many people consider superior. In Massachu- 
 setts a luMilvctable surplus is frequently taken in September. 
 
 Fruit hlooni. — Apple, pear, cherry, plum, peach, etc., which are 
 found in abundance throughout the State, are next in importance. 
 Fiiiit bloom is the source of early stores u})on Avhich the colonies 
 build up for the clover har\est. Insufficient numbers of bees at this 
 season and unfavorable weather make it difficult to secure a surplus 
 from this source, but the fortunate bee keeper who does secure a crop 
 should realize that he has a superior ]^roduct. The body is heavy, the 
 color is clear and light (usually an amber), and the flow comes with 
 a rush which insures handsome sections; but best of all is the exquisite 
 aroma of the 'A]}\)\q. blossom, which places fruit-bloom honey in a 
 class by itself. 
 
BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 91 
 
 Linden or hasswood. — Cutting for lumber has tremendously re- 
 duced the number of basswood trees in the State. It was once gen- 
 erally distributed in the forests, but at present occurs largel}^ only in 
 the northern and Avestern woods. This is doubtless the most val- 
 unable tree honey plant in Massachusetts and, together Avith its value 
 for timber, merits cultivation. It makes a fine shade tree. The 
 honey has quite a characteristic flavor and aroma, but requires to be 
 well ripened before its delicious qualities are appreciable. 
 
 Buckwheat. — This is a famous honey plant in New York State and 
 is reported from all counties of Massachusetts. Here, however, it is 
 far less extensively grown than across the line. Some bee keepers say 
 they plant small fields for the sake of their bees, but there is great 
 doubt if the bees benefit materially by it except in cases of extreme 
 scarcity of nectar. The honey is dark, with a brownish or purplish 
 cast, a heavy body, and a strong, rank flavor to those who are accus- 
 tomed to more delicate honeys, such as clover or fruit bloom. Many 
 in Xew York State, however, often prefer buckwheat to clover honey. 
 Especially if extracted, it usually commands a good price. 
 
 ^Vild raspljerry and hlaclxherry. — In the highland pastures wild 
 raspberry and blackberry abound. The nectar flow is of long dura- 
 tion, beginning soon after fruit bloom has ceased, and thus is an 
 important stimulant for the clover harvest to follow. Cultivated 
 varieties are quite as valuable for forage as the wild species. 
 
 Sumac. — There are several species of sumac which are important 
 honey sources, but which are greatly underestimated by the majority 
 of bee keepers. The}^ are free bloomers and flourish in nearly all 
 parts of the State. Apparently, however, the nectar yield is some- 
 what erratic. The writer recalls seasons in AVorcester County when 
 bees paid no attention to the great heads of greenish flowers. Sumac 
 honey, although not light, has a clear and firm body with a pleasant 
 flavor. 
 
 Locust. — Like the basswoods, locusts have been largely cut from 
 the woodlands. There are several species now found to a limited 
 extent by roadsides and in pasture walls, where they are valuable 
 forage for bees. In Colrain, Franklin County, one bee keeper at- 
 tempted to cultivate locust for his bees, but met with no great returns 
 for his efforts. Another bee keeper reports that locust is sporadic, 
 yielding nectar only once in three years. 
 
 Maple. — A considerable number of bee keepers report that maple 
 is a honey plant. It is, to be sure, one of the best sources of pollen in 
 early spring, which doubtless has confused the bee keepers and caused 
 them to report it as a honey plant. Swamp maple is especially val- 
 uable in early brood rearing. Maple is probably of less importance 
 as a honey source than, for instance, the mints, strawberry, and milk- 
 weed, which were reported but a few times. 
 
92 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 CletJwa, — This is also known as black alder and sweet pepper bush, 
 and is a valuable honey-secreting plant, largely confined to a belt 
 paralleling the eastern coast, where it thrives in profusion. The 
 aroma, a sweet smell, i:)owerful and penetrating, may be perceived a 
 ft)ng distance from the bush. Bees work upon it freely, and unques- 
 tionably produce considerable surplus honey, which is of good body 
 and light color. 
 
 These, so far as bee keepers' observations afford, are the most 
 prominent honey plants. Of the remaining list — each reported from 
 one to fifteen times — milkweed, wild cherr}^, knotweed, dandelion, 
 strawberry, chestnut, mints, gill-over-the-ground, and mustard are of 
 most importance. No one of these taken alone is a source of surplus 
 honey in Massachusetts, but all are important in the total yield. The 
 writer has observed, in the spring when fruit trees are in bloom, a 
 perceptible effect of dandelion nectar upon the delicate flavor of 
 fruit-bloom honey, producing the characteristic bitterish taste. 
 
 Mill'wccd. — Where milkweed occurs in large quantities it is a val- 
 uable honey plant. In Berkshire County, Mr. Dewey, of Great Bar- 
 rington, reports that milkweed is an important source of nectar. 
 
 One bee keeper in Hampshire County reports the Tartarian honey- 
 suckle as important and very productive. Sunflowers are valuable 
 but must occur in considerable numbers to make a perceptible differ- 
 ence in the crop. 
 
 Most of these plants are quite as important, so far as the economy 
 of the bee is concerned, for their pollen as for their nectar. ¥ov 
 instance, the willow and skunk cabbage, while they are reported as 
 honey plants, are far more important as pollen yielders, because at 
 their season of bloom pollen is scarce. The chestnut and, to a certain 
 extent, the dandelion are more valuable for the pollen which they 
 yield than for the honey. 
 
 TIIK :M()1{E IMJ'OirrANT IIONEV PLANTS IX MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Table V. — List of the m<nc imiKirtant honvy i>Uinis in Massachusetts. 
 |Arranjj:od acfordin^' to frequency of report.] 
 
 Name. 
 
 Clovers: 
 
 White ( Trifoliiim rrpnu) 
 
 Alsike ( 7'. hi/hridum) 
 
 Ked ( T. jiidiam) 
 
 ('riniHon ( T. iiirarnatuiii) 
 
 Sweet (Mfii/otiiK alhti and M. qtficinalis) . 
 Yellow ( T. wjrariu m) '. 
 
 fiolden-rods {SttUdago spp 
 Asters {Asler Hpp. ) 
 
 Times 
 reported. 
 
 626 
 37 
 7 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 
 677 
 
 330 
 99 
 
 429 
 
BEE KEEPING IX MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 93 
 
 Table Y. — List of the more i)ni)ortant honey plants in Massaehusetts — Cout'd. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Times 
 reported. 
 
 Fruit bloom (includes pear {Pynis spp.), apple, cherry, peach, plum {Prunus spp.). etc... 
 
 Linden or basswood ( Tilia spp. ) 
 
 Buckwheat {Fayopyrum spp.) 
 
 Raspberry (Eubus spp.) 
 
 Blackberry {Rubus spp. ) , 
 
 Sumac ( Rhus pp. ) 
 
 Locust a ( Robinia spp. ) 
 
 Maple {Acer spp. ) 
 
 Clethra ( Clethra alnifolia) : 
 
 " Does not yield everj- year; " Once in three years," one bee keeper says 
 
 337 
 160 
 114 
 
 103 
 23 
 
 120 
 
 LIST OF PLANTS REPORTED RELATIVELY FEW TIMES. 
 
 (Reported from one to fifteen times.) 
 
 Alder {Ahius spp.). 
 
 Arnica, white flowering {Arnica mon^ 
 
 tana). 
 Barberry {Berheris spp.). 
 Blueberry (raccin/wm spp.). 
 Burdock (Arctium lappa). 
 Buttercups (Ranunculus spp.). 
 Button bush (Cephalanthus occiderir 
 
 talis). 
 Cherry, wild (Prunus spp.). 
 Chestnut (Castanea dentata (marsh)). 
 Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis). 
 Cowpeas (Vigna catjang). 
 Cranberry (Vacciniuni spp.). 
 Cucumber, cultivated (Cucu)nis spp.). 
 Cucumber, wild (ilicrampelis lohata). 
 Dandelion (Taraiacuni spp.). 
 Elderberry (Samhucus spp.). 
 Elm (Ulmus spp.). 
 Gentian, fringed (Gentiana crinita). 
 Geranium, wild (Geranium spp.). 
 Gill-over-the-ground (Glecoma hed- 
 
 eracea ) . 
 Gooseberry, wild and cultivated (Rihes 
 
 spp.). 
 
 Hickory (Hicoria spp.). 
 Honeysuckle, Tartarian « (Lonicera 
 
 tatarica). 
 Horse chestnut (JEsculus spp.). 
 Huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.). 
 Knotweed (Polygonum spp.). 
 Milkweed (Asclepias spp.). 
 Mints, catnip, etc. (Mentha spp.). 
 Mustards, wild (Brassica spp.). 
 New Jersey tea (Ceanothus anicri- 
 
 canus) . 
 Radish (Raphanus spp.). 
 Shad bush, wild (Amelanchicr hotry- 
 
 apium ) . 
 Skunk cabbage (Spathyema fwtida). 
 Strawberry, wild and cultivated 
 
 (Fragaria spp.). 
 Sunflowers (Hclianthus spp.). 
 Syringa (Philadelphus spp.). 
 Thyme ^ (Thymus serpyllum). 
 Yiburnum (Viburnum spp.). 
 Willow (Salix spp.). 
 Witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana). 
 
 PERIODS OF NECTAR SECRETIONS IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES. 
 
 Through the courtesy of several bee keepers the writer is able to 
 present with considerable detail the periods of nectar secretion of 
 
 ° Reported of importance and very productive in Hampshire County. 
 
 ^ Jackson, Joseph J. 1894. Through Glade and Mead. Jackson (p. 293) 
 lists it for Worcester County. It was also reported to the writer three times 
 from Berkshire County. 
 
94 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 the more important honey plants in several sections of the State. 
 It should be remembered, however, that the dates of nectar yielding 
 must necessarily vary from year to year and at dilTerent elevations 
 in the same territory; consequently the data here presented may be 
 slightly at variance with other observations. 
 
 HEKKSIIIHE RPXJION. 
 
 ( I'urnishcd l)y E. II. I)«>woy, of (iroat Barrinj^ton, Mass.) 
 
 Pussy willow, April 1 to 15. Pussy willow in slioltored places will bloom as 
 early as' the loth of March aud be visited by bees for pollen. Whether they 
 ji(»t honey as early as that from this source I do not know. Just when pussy 
 willow bej;ins to yield honey I can not positively state, for bees work on it 
 very early, but I have seen them with tongues extended in search of honey 
 as early as the dates indicated. 
 
 Soft maple, April 1 to 8. 
 
 Hard maple, April 20 to May H. 
 
 Fruit bloom. May 1 to 25, 
 
 liaspberry, June 5 to 30. 
 
 Locust, June 5 to 15. 
 
 Wild mustard. Wild nnistard, I am told, appears about six weeks after culti- 
 vation. It is most frequently seen here from the middle of June to the 1st 
 of July. 
 
 Clover, June 5 to July 25, 
 
 White sweet clover, July 10 to Au.uust 25, 
 
 Sumac, July 10 to 20, 
 
 Basswood, July 1 to 15. 
 
 Milkweed, July 5 to 20. 
 
 Chestnut, July 10 to 15. 
 
 Buckwheat, August 1 to 25. 
 
 Smartweed, September 5 to frost. 
 
 Brook sunflower (Bidcns Iwvis), September 5 to — . It is fairly covered with 
 bees. I have seen three or four working on a single blossom. Grows on low 
 land and margins of water. 
 
 Golden-rod, August 20 to frost. One variety of golden-rod appears here the 
 middle of August, but never secretes honey. 
 
 Asters, September 1 to frost. 
 
 Tag alders, September 1 to frost. In my immediate locality tag alders are not 
 common, but can be found in swampy places a few miles from here. 
 
 CENTRAL REGION. 
 
 (Furnisl)O(l l).v Dr. ,Tainos I'.. Paij^o. Massaclnisotts Afjricultiiral CoUejif". Amherst. Mass.) 
 
 Fruit l)loom. May 12 to ."^O, Cherry, plum, :nul peach are the earliest. Appl<* 
 
 lasts the longest. 
 Clover, June 10 to August 1. 
 EuroiK'an linden, June 15 to July 1. 
 Raspberry. June (5 or 7 to about June 20. 
 
 American linden, July 21 or 25 and lasts ten days to two weeks. 
 Buckwheat, latter i)art of July or August 1, Lasts nearly a month, according 
 
 to (|uality of soil and location, 
 Golden-nxl and as'ters, September 1, Listing until frost. 
 .Smartweed, August 25 until frost. Does not api)ear to secrete after frost 
 
 comes. 
 
BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 95 
 
 Wild clematis, July 25 to September 1. Cultivated variety {Clematis paniculala) 
 blooms early in September, but I doubt if it secretes honey ; it is sparingly 
 visited for pollen. 
 
 Thoroughwort. ceases about 1st of September. 
 
 About the 1st of April we get soft maple, willow, skunk cabbage, alder and 
 
 some elms, and cultivated plants, such as crocuses, etc., which, I suspect, 
 
 supply more pollen than nectar. 
 
 CAPE COD REGIOX.« 
 
 (Furnished by Mr. Allen Latham, Norwich, Conn.*") 
 
 Dandelion, in May. 
 
 Huckleberry, in late May. 
 
 Blackberry,^ in late May. 
 
 White clover, in June and July. 
 
 Common locust (in Truro), June. 
 
 Sumac (Rhus copaUina) (occasionally), in July. 
 
 White alder {Clethra alnifolia), July to August. 
 
 Fireweed {ErecJitites hicracifoUa). August to September. 
 
 Cut-leafed water hoarhound (Lycopus amcricaniis), August to September. 
 
 Burr-marigold, August to September. 
 
 Pink knotweed, August to September. 
 
 Various golden-rods, August to September, especially Solidago scmpcrvircns. a 
 
 gigantic variety of golden-rod which thrives in the sand along the beach. 
 Various asters, like those which are common all over New England, September 
 
 to October. 
 Cranberry, flourishes and blooms for a long period. This may yield nectar. 
 Strawberry, grows wild by the acre and the children and women carry bushels 
 
 upon bushels of these berries home every June. Possibly in that region this 
 
 plant yields nectar. 
 The beach plum is an old settler and is found all about the Cape whitening all 
 
 the beach and dunes with its blooms in May. Whether the bees get any honey 
 
 from that bloom I do not know. 
 Wild cherry, both the black or " rum " and the " choke." grow in abundance. 
 
 As these yield practically nothing inland. I judge they furnish the bees no 
 
 nectar there. 
 
 Listed in the order of their importance to the bee keeper : 
 
 1. Huckleberry. — Without this one could not be sure of a crop of honey 
 often er than every other year, and possibly not one year in three. 
 
 2-3. Hoarhound and fireweed. — Probably the hoarhound should rank ahead of 
 fireweed. 
 
 4. Fall fiowers, golden-rod and asters especially. 
 
 The fall flowers will always furnish a crop if the weather permits the bees 
 to gather it, but too often the weather is foggy or high winds blow, or else it is 
 
 °A good account of bee keeping in this region is found in the following 
 paper: Miller, Arthur C. 190G. A Fnique System. How an Ingenious School 
 Teacher Harvests Crops of Honey from a Desert. American Bee Keeper, 
 Vol. XVI, pp. 206-210, October. Illustrated. 
 
 ^ Mr. Latham specifies that the data relate to the " plants known to yield 
 honey near Provincetown," the extreme end of Cape Cod, about 50 miles direct 
 by sea from Boston and 25 miles from Plymouth. 
 
 <' It is possible that blackberry is very important. I do not know its honey, 
 and the flavor may be lost in the honey from huckleberry bloom. 
 
96 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 too cold. I Lave never bad such crops of fall honey here (Norwich, Conn.) as I 
 have had down among those sand dunes, once hi three or four years, strong 
 colonies laying upward of a hundred pounds. 
 
 5-6. White clover and Clethra, about equal. 
 
 7. Sumac. 
 
 RACES OF BEES. 
 
 Among the bees of Massachusetts are found representatives of those 
 kept in all parts of the United States. They occur only in relative 
 degrees of purity, due to the fact that young queens often mismate. 
 " Hybrid " means any cross between recognized races, but more par- 
 ticularly and generally the cross between Italians and Germans. 
 
 ITALIAN BEES. 
 
 According to the data at hand, 594 bee keepers say they have Ital- 
 ians. This does not mean pure Italians in every instance, but it does 
 indicate that practically half of the bee keepers who reported have 
 Italians, a highly encouraging condition. Furthermore, 342 report 
 that they have hybrids, which may almost universally be interpreted 
 as a cross between Italians and Germans. By adding this to the 
 number who report Italians, it makes 930, or about 80 per cent, of 
 those reporting who have some Italian in their hives. This clearly 
 demonstrates the popularity of the race. 
 
 There are several strains of Italians, such as " long-tongued," or 
 " red-clover," and " golden," or '* five-banded," and the like. Al- 
 though these strains are all found in Massachusetts, data concerning 
 them is not sufficient to decide their relative merits or popularity. 
 
 GERMAN BEES. 
 
 Pure German or black bees are exceedingly scarce. In the county 
 of Worcester the writer has seen what he believed to have been the 
 pure-blooded Germans ; but these colonies are seldom met with. Al- 
 though, as is shown in the table below, 19G persons report that they 
 have German bees, there is as much or even more doubt that these 
 are strictly pure as there is doubt that all of the Italians reported are 
 pure. This race, at least in ^lassachusetts, is destined to be sup- 
 j)lanted by the Italians, although some bee keepers still complain that 
 their Italians are constantly being crossed with blacks. 
 
 CARNIOLAN BEES. 
 
 This race, from Carniola, Austria, is not generally used in Massa- 
 chusetts. Many who were interested when it was first introduced into 
 America tried it and since discarded it ; but 34 persons, or 3 per cent, 
 reported having it in 190G. 
 
BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 97 
 
 OTHER RACES. 
 
 Practically every other race of bees known in the United States is 
 on trial in Massachusetts. Several mention the newly introduced 
 Caucasians. The Punic, Q^prian, and Banat bees are also reported. 
 
 Considering the races by localities in the State, it is difficult to see 
 that either the Italians or the Germans are more common to any one 
 section than to another. Italian blood tends to predominate. Per- 
 sonal observation, however, shows that hybrids or the more purely 
 German are found in the back country, where newer methods of bee 
 keeping usually receive less attention; the pure Italians and more 
 recently introduced races are found near the large communities. 
 
 Table YI. — Prevalence of different races of bees. 
 
 Number reporting. 
 Percentage 
 
 Italian. 
 
 594 
 50 
 
 Hybrids.a 
 
 342 
 30 
 
 Black or 
 German. 
 
 196 
 16 
 
 Carnio- 
 lan. 
 
 34 
 
 other 
 
 Hybrids are largely an admixture of Italian and German races. 
 
 HIVES. 
 
 In 1852 Langstroth patented his movable-frame hive, which marked 
 the beginning of modern bee keeping. In the same year he moved 
 from Philadelphia, Pa., to Greenfield, Mass. Bee keeping was then 
 in a deplorable condition, as he remarked, most of the hives in use 
 being those impractical devices classed under the names of " box 
 hives," " patent hives,"' and the like. According to the writer's ob- 
 servations, these old-fashioned hives are fast being replaced by frame 
 hives ; colonies in box hives in the country are being exterminated by 
 disease; they are also bought up for transferring and for use in 
 cucumber greenhouses; at present, bee keepers seldom, if ever, start 
 with anything but frame hives. Of those who reported the kind of 
 hive which they use, 10 per cent have exclusively box hives and 8 
 per cent more acknowledge having a few. ^loreover, there are a 
 thousand persons who did not reply, and it is fair to presume that a 
 considerable percentage of these have box hives. It will, conse- 
 quently, not be exaggerating to estimate that 25 per cent, and possibly 
 30 per cent, of the bee keepers of Massachusetts still use these hives to 
 some extent. Lamentable, too, is the fact that the apiaries in Berk- 
 shire County, against the Xew York State line, are perhaps in worse 
 condition, so far as the box-hive problem is concerned, than other 
 apiaries of the State, for figures show that one-third of the bee keep- 
 ers of Berkshire County are using the old-fashioned hive. This 
 circumstance is particularly unfortunate because the flora promises 
 
98 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 g(K)d honey iH'oduction; and again because this is a border-line county, 
 which may serve, with its high jiercentage of box hives in which 
 diseases are controlled with difficulty, as a source of bee diseases in 
 both States. 
 
 The condition on the whole is hopeful — 90 per cent of those report- 
 ing hiive largely oi* exclusively frame hives, which shows a progressive 
 tendency. 
 
 It is not, however, within the province of this paper to discuss 
 the relative merits of the various frame hives which are in use. The 
 several makes and patterns in principle are the same; they vary only 
 in detail of construction and proportion. Climatic conditions, the 
 methods of the bee keeper, whether for comb or extracted honey — 
 in a word, the needs of the individual should govern his selection. 
 
 By far the most i)opular hive is the one generally used in the United 
 States, perfected by Langstroth. In its simplicity and propor- 
 tions it has proven satisfactory to the climate of Massachusetts. 
 Two sizes, the 8 and the 10 frame hives, are popular. According 
 to the statistics, the 8-frame hive is more common (340 bee keepers 
 report having it) than the 10 frame (260 bee keepers). There is 
 a rather strong tendency, judging from remarks in the reports, 
 toward the 10-frame hive. 
 
 Another 10-frame hive, devised in Franklin County, has a shorter 
 and deeper frame" than the standard, and is second in j^opularity. 
 Its use is rather local, however, being confined largely to central and 
 western Massachusetts, where 100 bee keepers report having it. 
 
 There is but one '' closed-end frame " hive in use to any extent. 
 Seventy-seven bee keepers are using it. 
 
 Besides these three types and the box hive, there are a great many 
 homenuide contrivances and a few patent hives wath some merit. 
 
 WINTERING. 
 METHODS. 
 
 Bees are wintered in two ways. By far the most common and at 
 the same time least laborious and less efficient in the latitude of Mas- 
 sachusetts is on the summer stands. The writer has seen bees go 
 thi'ough a winter in Massachusetts unprotected, without bottom board 
 and the corners of the hive rotted away. All manner of devices for 
 protecting the bees on the sununer stands are used. They are packed, 
 put in winter cases, and wrap])ed in ])aper. But the safest method 
 ill a climate as famous for severe and variable weather as that of 
 
 "The frniuo Is 14 inches lonj? and 10? inches deep, with a top bar one-half 
 incli lliick. 1 inch wide, and KJJ inclies lonj;, witli tlic corners clipped at each 
 end. Tile ends of the frames are one-half l)y seven-eijrhths inch, and the bot- 
 tom bar is one-fourth by seven-eighths inch. 
 
BEE KEEPING IX MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 99 
 
 Massachusetts is to winter in the cellar. Unfortunately, many of 
 those who attempt it are not altogether proficient. Of those who 
 have reported their method of wintering only 13 per cent winter 
 their bees in a cellar. It is well established that by proper cellar win- 
 tering the loss in northern countries may be reduced to a minimum. 
 In order to do this properly the bee keeper must be painstaking and 
 observing: he must use a dry cellar and maintain as nearly a uniform 
 temperature as possible. 
 
 MORTALITT. 
 
 In New England and the Xorthern States loss during severe win- 
 ters may run as high as 70 per cent. This loss is greatly reduced in 
 favorable winters, when it is as low as 10 per cent. Were all the bee 
 keepers competent and careful, this loss might generally be reduced 
 to 2 or 8 per cent. 
 
 II 
 
 i>) 
 
 0^% 
 
 \B/IPNST/JBL£ \ 
 BR/STOL 
 £SS£X 
 M/DDL£S£)( 
 /VO/?£Ol/< 
 PLVMOC/r/f 
 y5U££0l/< 
 
 C^^ ( B£/?/rs////?£ 
 
 <!^VWORC£ST£R 
 
 20% 
 
 /9% 
 
 tV/A/r£P£P /N TH£C£LL/fR =[_ 
 
 W/r^T£R£D ON SUMM£R STANDS ^\ 
 Fig. 1. — Proportionate loss of bees wintered in cellars and on summer stands. (Original.) 
 
 In the winter of 190G-7. which was not especially severe, the dam- 
 age amounted to 16 or 17 j^er cent (see fig. 1) : although this was not 
 disastrous, it was too great a loss. It taxed the bee keepers of the 
 State $4,886, valuing each colony at $3.50. "With plenty of stores and 
 proper protection it would not be expected that one-sixth of all the 
 bees in the State, 1.396 colonies, should succumb during winter. The 
 loss was most severe in localities where disease is now known to exist, 
 which suggests that the excessive loss in a measure resulted from the 
 depletion of colonies by disease. 
 
 BEES IN GREENHOUSES. 
 
 The use of bees in cucumber greenhouses is one of the many phases 
 of bee keeping, perhaps the most prosperous or certainly that most 
 peculiar to Massachusetts. The industry is little known outside of 
 
100 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 this State, j^et growers in other Athmtic and Central States have 
 undertaken it to some extent. Originating in AVorcester County, it 
 has assumed large proportions through the eastern part of Massa- 
 chusetts. The accompanying map (fig. 2) shows the ai^proximate 
 location of the industry. It is a difficult task to obtain satisfactory 
 data on this jihase of apiculture. Market gardeners who grow cucum- 
 bers under glass do not consider themselves apiarists; on this ground 
 they largely disregard requests for information. Only through 
 a jH'rsonal canvass among the growers has information been obtained. 
 
 1 ?^r ;;; L-iM.DDL 
 
 .J. 
 
 
 7i 
 
 ^ 
 
 V-1 
 
 Fig. 
 
 -Approximate location of greenhouses in which bees are used for the pollination of 
 cucumbers. (Orijrinal.) 
 
 There are at least 118 greenhouse cucumber growers. Only 73 
 of these, however, have furnished definite figures. These growers, 
 including some of the largest antl many of the smaller producers, 
 use on an average 8 colonies of bees a year to set the crop. If the 118 
 known growers, which is not by any means the total number, require 
 on the avei-age 8 colonies each, nearly a thousand hives of bees would 
 be utilized annually and, if the statistics from every grower were 
 at hand, the writer feels sure several hundred colonies more than 
 a thousand would be needed. AV^hen it is considered that practically 
 
BEE KEEPING IX MASSACHUSETTS. 101 
 
 all of these colonies are totally ruined while in the gi-eenhouses and 
 that the demand for bees is on the increase each year, it may be 
 readily seen what excellent opportunity there is of producing bees 
 for greenhouse use. Considering the recorded sale of bees in 1906, 
 which amounted to 1,027 colonies, it is probable that these sales 
 must have been largely a result of the demand for greenhouse use. 
 In illustration of the extent to which bees are used for this purpose 
 it may be mentioned that one grower who picks 10,000 bushels 
 annually requires 80 colonies of bees ; another having 10 acres under 
 glass requires 35 to 10 colonies ; a great many of the smaller growers 
 use from 5 to 20 colonies. Cucumber growers, as a class, know little 
 of bee-keeping methods, but they are anxious to learn. They feel 
 that they must, in the stress of competition and high expenses, reduce 
 the cost and loss in bees. 
 
 Bees are introduced into the greenhouses as soon as the cucumber 
 vines begin to bloom. If the houses are large, two or more hives, 
 according to the area of the house, are j^laced on boxes on the beds or 
 hung in the gables of the house. Various other methods of intro- 
 ducing the hives are also employed. Not being able to secure suffi- 
 cient stores in the winter, the colonies dwindle or become depleted in 
 seven or eight weeks or less. It is a common practice among the 
 growers to feed their bees sugar sirup or other sweets. Besides not 
 being able to secure nectar to any extent from the cucumber blos- 
 soms, the bees are also unable to gather much pollen, which is prob- 
 ably a factor in the rapid depletion of the colonies. During the 
 spring and summer, however, bees in the houses fare better, because 
 they are able to escape, through ventilators and lights of glass re- 
 moved for their exit, to the fields, where they secure nectar and 
 pollen. Even under these circumstances the writer has seen colonies 
 with no stores, with only a handful of bees and with scattered and 
 half-starved brood. It is not surprising under such conditions that 
 bee moths are such a great annoyance. To an experienced bee 
 keeper the reason for their presence is obvious; when a colony be- 
 comes weakened the moth gains headway on the combs. Xo remedy 
 for the moth in dwindled colonies can be suggested save killing the 
 larvae as they appear in the hive. A means of keeping the colonies 
 strong must first be looked for, which will relieve the bee-moth 
 nuisance. Without doubt, however, the pest could be reduced if the 
 greenhouse men would be more careful in disposing of hives in which 
 the bees have died. The moths breed by thousands in discarded 
 hives, and later are at hand to infest fresh material. Under no 
 circumstance should discarded combs be cast outside on the rubbish 
 heap to be devoured by the bee moths. Such a practice is a menace 
 to bee keepers for miles around. 
 
102 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Table VII. — Distribution of greenhouse eucumhcr groioers and record of bees 
 
 used in greenhouses. 
 
 County. 
 
 Number 
 known 
 to be en- 
 gaged in 
 cucumber 
 growing. 
 
 Number 
 report- 
 ing. 
 
 Number 
 of colonies 
 
 of bees 
 known to 
 
 be used 
 annually. 
 
 Bristol 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 7 
 2 
 21 
 
 140 
 
 Ksst> \ 
 
 15 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 244 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 1 50 
 
 
 1 20 
 
 Suffolk ... . . 
 
 1 1 15 
 
 Worcester 
 
 40 ' 100 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 118 
 
 o73 i J>584 
 
 
 
 
 "Average of those reporting, 8. ** ICsti mated total, 044. 
 
 THE BEE MARKET. 
 
 It is doubtful whether in any other State in the Union more 
 colonies of bees are sold, in proportion to the number on hand in the 
 spring, than in Massachusetts. As is pointed out, the cucumber in- 
 dustry has much to do with this. Although there are many small, 
 more or less amateur bee keepers in the State w^ho customarily sell 
 their surplus colonies, the trade is not at all confined to them. The 
 sup2^1y houses and commercial bee keepers sell heavily, which is 
 remarkable in a region where there is so little bee keeping on a large 
 scale. Peculiarly, every county in the State shares in the trade 
 about equally, in proportion to their respective number of colonies. 
 The table, arranged from the statistics of 190G, shows that the bee 
 keepers of Bristol, Essex, Franklin, Hampden, Hampshire, Middle- 
 sex, Norfolk, and Worcester counties sold approximately one-fifth of 
 all the colonies on liand in the spring. Plymouth County, however, 
 took the lead, selling 39 per cent, while in the remote counties of 
 Barnstable and Berkshire, and in the metropolis county, Suffolk, the 
 sale was relatively light. 
 
 Table VIII. — Xuniber of colonies sold as compared with colonies o/f hand in 
 
 spring of I'JOiJ. 
 
 
 Number of colonies 
 of bees. 
 
 County. 
 
 Number of colonies 
 of be^s. 
 
 County. 
 
 Sj>ring 
 of 1906. 
 
 Sold in 
 1906. 
 
 Spring 
 of 1906. 
 
 Sold in 
 1906. 
 
 BftrnRtftblc 
 
 185 
 495 
 321 
 531 
 491 
 366 
 
 1 
 29 
 80 
 J 07 
 102 
 73 
 
 1 Hampshire 
 
 408 
 962 
 364 
 463 
 67 
 1,199 
 
 46 
 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 142 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 72 
 
 Fsscx 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 170 
 
 
 1 Suffolk 
 
 Worcester 
 
 3 
 
 
 202 
 
 
 
 
BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 103 
 
 PRICES OF BEES. 
 
 Figured on a basis of $5 a colony, which is an exceedingly low 
 average price, the total sales reported for 1906 would have amounted 
 to $5,135; at $6 per colony they would have amounted to $6,162, 
 which more justly represents transactions. Colonies of bees sell as 
 low as $2, or, if they are in a nail keg or soap box, for $2.50 ; at about 
 $3 if in a regular box hive ; and from $1 to $10, according to the race, 
 strength, and season, if in frame hives of standard patterns ; a usual 
 price is $6. The customer sometimes furnishes an empty hive to the 
 bee keeper, in which to hive a swarm. Such swarms bring about $3. 
 
 THE QUEEN TRADE. 
 
 Besides a trade in colonies of bees, there are several persons in- 
 terested in commercial queen rearing. All but three of these, how- 
 ever, do a relatively local business. On account of late and cold 
 springs, Massachusetts is handicapped in producing early queens for 
 market which shall compete Avith those raised in the South. The 
 prices prevailing throughout the country — 75 cents, $1, and up — are 
 charged for queens produced in Massachusetts. It is difficult to 
 calculate just how many queens are reared for sale, but an estimate 
 of 500 may not be far from correct. 
 
 ENEMIES. 
 
 The only enemy which is formidable in all parts of the State, but 
 which is not detrimental to progressive bee men, is the bee moth, 
 Galleria mellonella L. This insect, however, has been credited by 
 all the early apiarists, Langstroth included, with devastating, crip- 
 pling, and practically annihilating the bee-keeping interests through- 
 out New England. According to Edmund Smith," it first took hold 
 in eastern Massachusetts about 1800. In 1805 it reached Connecticut. 
 Thence it spread westward. Writers — as, for instance. Smith — were 
 formerly inclined to consider the moth as a formidable enemy. Smith 
 says : " For a time, Avherever it appeared it nearly destroyed the bees. 
 At first it was more fatal than it has been since.'' The inroads of the 
 moth led to all sorts of claptrap devices in the form of " patent 
 hives " to protect the bees from the pest. But there is serious doubt, 
 in view of recent discoveries of the relation of moths and bee disease, 
 if this historical disaster was really due to the moth. There is good 
 reason to believe moths were secondar3^ while disease, not then under- 
 stood, was primary. This matter is more fully discussed in a former 
 
 " Smith, Edmund, Chairman. 1864. Bee Culture, Essex. From the report 
 of the Committee on Bread and Honey. Abstract of the returns of the agri- 
 cultural societies of Massachusetts. Bound together with Eleventh Annual 
 Report of Secretary of INIassachusetts Board of Agriculture, pp. 221-229. 
 
104 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 paper." The moth does not materially damage strong, healthy 
 colonies, but is a menace only to persons who are inattentive to their 
 bees or who are careless, leaving empty combs about their hives and 
 bee yards, and who fail to recognize and to treat bee diseases. 
 Combs not in use or not covered by l)ees should be fumigated with 
 carbon bisulphid and sealed in tight boxes for storage. 
 
 dama(;e to the bee-keeping industry by the gipsy moth (porthe- 
 
 TRIA DISPAR) and BKOWN-TAH. MOTH (eUPROCTIS CHRYSORRHCEA) . 
 
 Xumerous complaints came from eastern Massachusetts, where 
 gipsy and brown-tail moths are doing tremendous damage to forest 
 and shade trees, that they were causing a loss to the apiarist as well. 
 Damage is done both directly to the bees and indirectly to the honey 
 flora. 
 
 From Cliftondale, Plssex County, one bee keej^er says that they 
 have bothered during June and July by trying to crawl in at the 
 entrance of his hives. Another speaks of the caterpillars having 
 eaten up all the plants which the bees commonly forage upon, save 
 golden-rod and burdock, and have thus caused a loss of his bees. 
 Failure of his honey crop in 190G is attributed to severe ravages of 
 gipsy and brown-tail moths. The basswood of New England was 
 formerly a good honey producer and could be counted upon for a 
 crop, is a report from Melrose, but since the brown-tail and gipsy 
 moths defoliated the trees it can no longer yield much. A Medford 
 bee keeper contributes this interesting note: 
 
 Gipsy and brown tails liavo so spoiled the fruit bloom, an important factor 
 in spring buildinj?, that colonies fall to become sufficiently strong for the har- 
 vest. The willow, maple, and elm, early pollen yielders. have also suffered from 
 the moths, which has consequently damaged bee keeping. 
 
 Another peculiar case is reported from Cliftondale. Brown-tail 
 and gipsy moths were so thick on the trees when a number of swarms 
 came out that the bees did not stay near the apiary. 
 
 The trees were covered with them so that the bees would not stay to be 
 hived. * * * In regard to tlie honey plants, the moths destroyed all the blos- 
 soms on the fruit trees and wild plants. Every place was covered with them 
 each year from 1904 to 190(5; the result is that there was no honey this j-ear 
 (1900), owing to so many of the fruit trei^s and honey plants being destroyed 
 by the pest. 
 
 BEE DISEASES. 
 
 This subject lias already been treated with some detail in a former 
 paper.'' 'Since the api)earance of that paper, however, the extent of 
 diseases and the damage they are doing have become more fully real- 
 
 « dates, Rurton X. 190.S. Bee Diseases in Massachusetts. Bui. No. 75, Part 
 III, Bureau of Kntomology; Bui. 124, Mass. Agr. Exp. Station. 
 
 ''Ibid, pp. 2IWJL*; also Bui. No. V24, Agr. Exp. Station, Amherst, Mass. 
 
BEE KEEPING IN MASSACHUSETTS. 105 
 
 ized. Consequently their general distribution has been found to be 
 even greater than was then believed. 
 
 BEE KEEPERS' ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 Bee keepers' societies, fairs, institutes, conventions, and the course 
 of instruction in bee keeping at the Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
 lege at Amherst are strong factors in the advancement and progress 
 of apiculture in Massachusetts. The societies bring together the 
 practiced and proficient bee keepers in several sections of the State. 
 The instruction at Amherst reaches a few, largely beginners, each 
 year; conventions and institutes bring together the new and the old 
 bee keepers from over a large area for consideration of present-day 
 problems ; the State and county fairs and agricultural shows educate 
 the public and benefit the industry. 
 
 There are at present two societies organized in the interest of pro- 
 moting bee keeping. The oldest is the Worcester County Bee 
 Keepers' Society, organized April 14, 1900. Meetings are held 
 monthly throughout the winter months. At least once each summer 
 there is a field meeting and institute. Since 1906, in the fall of each 
 year, a '* bee show " or fair is held at T^'orcester, where are held com- 
 petitive exhibits of bees, products, supplies, etc. There is usually a 
 series of lectures in connection with the fair. 
 
 The other society is the Massachusetts Society of Bee Keepers, 
 which was organized March 24, 1906, when the Massachusetts Api- 
 cultural Society was disbanded. Meetings are held in Boston once 
 each month during the winter. 
 
 Another society, to be called the Franklin, Hampshire, and Hamp- 
 den Bee Keepers' Association, was provisionally organized at an insti- 
 tute meeting of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture at Lud- 
 low, Mass., July 21, 1908. 
 
 INSTRUCTIOX IX BEE KEEPING. 
 
 At the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, there is given 
 each year, beginning the fourth Wednesday in May and continuing 
 two weeks, a course in apiculture, which is free to those who enroll. 
 The course includes excursions to apiaries of peculiar interest, lec- 
 tures, and practical demonstration and practice. 
 
 CONVENTIONS. 
 
 The Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture is exceedingly in- 
 terested in promoting bee keeping and holds several institutes each 
 year, usually with the bee keepers* societies. Several papers on bee 
 keeping, enumerated in the appended bibliography, have been pub- 
 lished by the board. 
 
 78013°— Bull. 75—11 8 
 
106 MlSCKTJ.ANEors PAPKRS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 As early as 1(*»14 Iho colonii's made a he^inniiitj: in apiculture in 
 Massachusetts. Moie than two centuries passed, however, before 
 modern Ikh' keeping l)e<ran, which came with the invention of the 
 frame hive hy Lan^troth in 1S53. To-day there are more than 2,100 
 ])ers()ns in the State who derive some profit from tlieir bees. The 
 Ih'c keepers who reported in the spring count of lOOG had 5,839 col- 
 onies, or an averaire of 5.5 colonies. Massachusetts needs fewer but 
 more ])roiicient bee keepers, who will undertake their work ahmg 
 business lines. The major part of Massachusetts is quite as inviting 
 and pi-omisintr as Vermont and New York State, where bee keeping 
 is more })rotitably conducted. 
 
 There are but three persons who report 75 to 100 colonies in their 
 yards, and but two who have more than 100 colonies. The number of 
 amateur bee keepers is reduced through the dropping out of 50 per 
 cent of the beginners during the past five years. 
 
 In the production of honey and possibly of wax the effect of an 
 excess of semiproficient bee keepers is again apparent. In 190G the 
 honey crop reported w as 145,257 pounds, which is the largest recorded 
 for the State. But this is small when it is remembered that in the 
 AVest single individuals frequently produce in a single year from a 
 <iuarter to a third more honey than Massachusetts' total annual har- 
 vest. The crop would have been materialh^ heavier if those who 
 reported had even approached the standard average of 35 pounds 
 instead of having harvested only 24 pounds. This lowering of the 
 average crop is in a large measure due to the great number of non- 
 progressive small bee keepers and to the presence of bee diseases. 
 
 The more important honey sources, as reported by the bee keepers 
 in all parts of the State, are clovers, golden-rod and asters, fruit 
 bloom, basswood, wild raspberr}^ and blackberi'y, sumac, and locust. 
 Some other plants, such as clethra and huckleberry, are of local 
 importance and some listed as of minor importance are probably 
 underestimated. 
 
 The Italian race in varying degrees of purity is most popular. 
 The (lerman or " black '' still persists, but is rarely found pure. 
 
 Twenty-live j)er cent of the bee keej)ers still use box hives to some 
 extent. The prese^ice of box hives is most noticeable in the back 
 country, where modern methods penetrate less rajiidly. Of the frame 
 hive types, the one standard for the country, the Langstroth, is most 
 generally used. 
 
 The loss in the winter of r.>0G-7 was 10 to 17 per cent, which taxed 
 the Ix'e keepers nearly $5,000. By far the majority winter their bees 
 on summer stands, protected in various ways or unj)rotected. A few 
 take advantage of cellar wintering, but most of those who follow 
 this practice are not especially proficient. 
 
BEE KEEPING IX MASSACHUSETTS. 107 
 
 A thousand colonies or more are annually used in cucumber green- 
 houses. Since practically all of these colonies are useless after com- 
 ing out of the houses, there is a constant demand and sale for bees. 
 Several greenhouse men use from 40 to 80 colonies a year. The 
 average number reported is 8 colonies. In the sale of bees the several 
 counties, exclusive of Barnstable, Berkshire, and Suffolk, sold in 1906 
 approximately one-fifth of all their bees, spring count. In Plymouth 
 County the sale amounted to 30 per cent. The total income amoimted 
 to between $5,000 and $6,000. The queen-rearing industry is limited 
 to a few persons and late springs make it difficult to compete with 
 southern producers. 
 
 The chief enemy reported is the bee moth. There is great doubt, 
 however, if the damage attributed is really and primarily due to it. 
 There is, on the other hand, sufficient reason to believe that disease 
 is primary and that destruction by the moth is secondary. Gipsy 
 and brown-tail moths are also reported as interfering severely with 
 apiculture in the eastern part of the State. 
 
 Massachusetts is particularly fortimate and in some ways in 
 advance of other communities in her bee keepers' institutions. Xot 
 alone do local societies aim to promote bee keeping, but the State 
 Board of Agriculture, State Experiment Station, and Agricultural 
 Station as well, are deeply interested in the advancement of api- 
 culture. 
 
 A LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT ARTICLES ON BEE KEEPING IN 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 1906. Massachusetts field uieetiug. Americau Bee-Keeper, X\'I. i»i». ISS- 
 189. 
 
 VJiJS. Worcester County (Mass.) convention. American Bee-Keeper. XVI 1 1, 
 p. 43. 
 
 1908, Has annual meeting:. Worcester County Bee Keepers' Association 
 
 Elects Officers. American Bee-Keei)er, XVIII, pp. 40-41. 
 Adams, Geo. W. 
 
 1906. Farm bee keei^ers [in Massachusetts]. American Bee-Keeper, XVI, 
 
 pp. 88-89. 
 1906. Massachusetts bee keeping in 1(>44. Supply manufacturing before 
 the clays of new-fangled fixtures. American Bee-Keeper, XVI, 
 pp. 180-181. 
 Babcock, L. B. 
 
 1855. Bees. Xorfolk [County]. The agriculture of Massachusetts as shown 
 in returns of the agricultural societies, 1854. Prepared by Charles 
 L. Flint. Bound with Second Annual Report of the Secretary of 
 Massiichusetts Board of Agriculture. Boston. Pp. 403-405. 
 Brooks. Jennie. 
 
 1909. Memories of Langstroth by one who knew him in her childhood. 
 
 Bee Keepers' Review, XXII, Xo. 2, pp. 3r>-42. 
 Canning, Josiah D., Chairman : Cowles, David S. ; Weight, Asahel. 
 
 1854. Bees and honey. The agriculture of Massachusetts, as shown in the 
 returns of the agricultural societies, 1853. Prepared by Charles 
 L. Flint. Bound with First Annual Report of the Secretary of 
 Massachusetts Board of Agriculture. Boston. Pp. 390-393. 
 
108 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Dkwey. E. IL 
 
 r.K»7. K. II. Dowoy's doinj^s. Aniorican litH'-Kccpor, XVII. p. 85 
 IIMJS. Yes; KelcK.itc tho box hive. American liee-Keeper, XVIII, pp. 42^3. 
 Eddy, Dk. IIknky. 
 
 1S5S. IUh» cuUuiv. Abstracts of returns of the agricultural societies of 
 Massiichusetts, lsr)T: edited by Charles L. Flint. Bound with Fifth 
 Annual Kcj'oi't <>f the Secretary of Massachusetts Board of Agri- 
 culture. Pp. L'TS-l>Si). Illustrated. Boston. 
 Ellsworth, J. Lkwis. 
 
 IJMn). Bee keeping; in Massachusetts. Annual Kei)ort of the Secretary of 
 Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1IK).S. 
 
 ESTABBOOK, A. II. 
 
 1!M)S. Worcester County bee keeiK?rs' meeting. American Bee-Keeper, 
 XVI II, p. 17G. 
 
 [ESTAIIROOK, A. II. i 
 
 11M>7. Schedule of the bee show of the Worcester County Bee Keeiiers' 
 Association, Sept. 13 and 14, 11)07. American Bee-Keei)er, XVII, 
 pp. lSiy-190. 
 Flint, Chaklks L. 
 
 IStu;. Thirteenth Annual lieport of the Secretary of Massachusetts Board 
 of Ajxriculture for lS(r). Boston. Pp. 314-320. Apicultural statis- 
 tics by counties in I'art II of the Kei)ort, Abstracts of lieturus of 
 the Agricultural Societies of Massachusetts, 18G6. 
 (iATKs, Burton N., and Hodge, C. F. 
 
 11)04, 1905. Bee keeping: How to meet its dangers and difficulties. Mass. 
 Crop Report, XVII, No. G, October, VJ04, pp. 30-40. Fifty-second 
 Annual Beport of the Secretary of Massachusetts State Board 
 of Agriculture. Pp. 411-42G. Boston : 1905. 
 (iATKs, Burton N. 
 
 190G. The first annual bee show of the Worcester Co. (Mass.) Bee Keepers' 
 Association. American Bee Journal, XLVI, pp. 946-947. 
 
 190G. An interesting meeting. Report of the first of the series of winter 
 meetings of the Worcester County (Mass.) Bee Keepers' Associa- 
 tion. American Bee-Keei)er, XVI, pp. 200-2(51. 
 
 IJKX;. Worcester County Association. American Bee-Keei)fer, XVI, pp. 
 97-99. 
 
 1!>()T. Status of bee keeping in Massachusetts in 190G. American Bee- 
 Keeper, XN'II, pp. 79-81. 
 
 11)07. March meeting of the Worcester County (Mass.) Bee Keepers' Asso- 
 ciation. American Bee-Keeper, XVII, pp. 88-90. 
 
 19(J7, ltK)S. Bee keei»iug: Some suggestions for its advancement in Massa- 
 chusetts. Massachusetts Crop Report, XX, No. 4, August, 1907, pp. 
 2(h-.3(J. Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Secretary of Massachu- 
 setts State Board of Agriculture, 1907. Boston : 1<X)8. Pp. 370-383. 
 
 11M>7. Relegate the box hives. American Bee-Keeper. XVII. pp. 271-273. 
 
 r.>o.s. IUm' diseases in Massachusetts. Bulletin 75, I'art III. Bureau of 
 Entomology, IT. S. Department of Agriculture; Bulletin 124, Massa- 
 chusetts Agricultural College. 12 pp. 
 
 l'.K>'.». A UM'thod of sei'uring apicultural statistics. Journal of Economic 
 Entomology, II, pp. 117-120. 
 Latham, Allan. 
 
 1!K)8. Is it well to relegate the bo.x hive? American Bee-K(H'per, XVIII, 
 pp. 2^. 
 MiLi.KK. Akthir C. 
 
 19(m;. a uni(iue systenh American Be<'-KeeiH'r, XVI, pp. 20(>-210. 
 
 P.km;. Worcester County btH» keeix'''-**' show. American Bee-Keeper, XVI, 
 pp. 231-2;i.3. 
 
 l'.K»7. The Wiswell-Richardson apiary. Wi»st Medford, Mass. American 
 Bee-Keeper, XVII, p. S. 
 
 11M)7. The .Massachusetts society. American Bee-Keeper, XVII. pp. 100-101. 
 
 11K)7. The .Massiichusetts lield meet. American Bee-Keeper, XVII, p. 206. 
 
 1'.K>7. I'lie .Massjichusetts meeting. American Bee-Keei>er, XVII, pp. 220- 
 221 
 
 I'.KiT. Protltabh' meeting at Worcester, Mass. American Bee-Keeper, XVII, 
 PI.. 239-241. 
 
 1IM)7. Ob.idlah Bn»wn Hadwen. American Bee-Keeper, XVII, p. 282. 
 
 1908. Massjichusetts bee keepers. American Bee-Keeper, XVIII, p. 103, 
 
BEE KEEPING IX MASSACHUSETTS. 109 
 
 [Miller, Abthub C] 
 
 1908. Good work in Massachusetts. American Bee-Keeper, XVIII, pp. 
 137-13S. 
 Paige, James B. 
 
 15X)3, 1904. Bee keeping: Its pleasures and profits. Massachusetts Crop 
 Report, Bui. Xo. 3, July. l^KDS, pp. 30-40. Fifty-first Annual 
 Report of the Secretary of Massachusetts State Board of 
 Agriculture. Boston : 1ck:>4. pp. 399-111. Illustrated. 
 1906. Wood's bee disease. American Bee-Keeper. XVI, pp. 69-70. 
 
 1906. Death of James Fitts Wood, of Athol, Mass. American Bee-Keeper, 
 
 XVI, pp. 73-74. 
 
 1907. The first principles of bee keeping. Nature Leaflet No. 84, Massa- 
 
 chusetts State Board of Agriculture. 10 pp. Illustrated. 
 Rice, David, Chairman. 
 
 1861. Bee culture. Hampshire [County] Abstract of the returns of the 
 agricultural societies of Massachusetts for 1860. Bound with 
 Eighth Annual Report of the Secretary of Massachusetts Board of 
 Agriculture for 1860, pp. 22<:)-234. Boston. 
 Smith. Jerome V. C M. D. 
 
 1831. An essay on the practicability of cultivating the honey bee, in 
 maritime towns and cities, as a source of domestic economy and 
 profit. Boston : Perkins and Marvin ; New York. Frontispiece 
 and cuts. 106 pp. 
 Smith, Edmund. Chairman. 
 
 1864. Bee culture. Essex [County]. Abstract of returns of the agricul- 
 tural societies of Massachusetts, 1S63. Edited by Charles L. Flint. 
 Bound together with the Eleventh Annual Reix)rt of the Secretary 
 of Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, pp. 221-229. Boston. 
 Thacheb. James. M. D. 
 
 1829. A practical treatise on the management of oees : And the establish- 
 ment of apiaries, with the best method of destroying and prevent- 
 ing the depredations of the bee moth. Boston. 164 pp. 
 Wright, W. D. 
 
 1908. Equipment and manipulation of an apiary for comb honey. De- 
 
 livered at the Worcester County Massachusetts bee keepers' asso- 
 ciation. April 11, 1908. American Bee-Keeper, XVIII, pp. 115-116. 
 [Wright, W. D.] 
 
 1908. Foul brood. Worcester Telegram, April 12. American Bee-Keeper, 
 XVIII, pp. 120-121. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Page. 
 
 Acacia, sources of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 Acer spp. (See Maple.) 
 
 Achrom grisella, destructive to stored comb 73 
 
 work in colony infected with American foul brood 21 
 
 JEsculus spp. {See Horse chestnut.; 
 
 Agave sisalana, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Age, relation to bee diseases 34 
 
 Alder, black. {See Clethra.) 
 
 period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 tag, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 white. {See Clethra.) 
 
 Alfalfa honey, rapid granulation _ 9 
 
 source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Alfilaria. (See Erodium cicutarium and E. moschatum.) 
 
 Algarroba honey in Hawaii 47^8 
 
 introduction into Hawaii 47 
 
 "Alii." (See Dodonaea liscosa var. spathulata.) 
 Alligator pear. (See Per sea gratissima.) 
 ^Zniwspp. {See Xlder.) 
 
 Amelanchier hotryapium, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Andrenidae as pollenizing agents 70 
 
 Aphis sacchari, source of honeydew honey in Hawaii 50 
 
 sugar cane. (See Aphis sacchari.) 
 
 Apiaries, badly proportioned distribution a source of loss 75-76 
 
 Apiculture. {See Bee keeping.) 
 
 Apidae as pollenizing agents 69 
 
 Apis mellifera. {See Bee.) 
 
 Apple, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 93 
 
 Aquilegia canadensis, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Arctium lappa. {See Burdock.) 
 
 Argemone mexicana, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Arnica montana, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Artemisia, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Asckpias spp. (5^6 Milkweed.) 
 
 Aspergillus pollini, supposed relation to '" pickled brood " 37 
 
 Asters, importance as honey plants in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 92 
 
 Avocado. (See Persea gratissima.) 
 
 Ill 
 
112 MISCELLANEOUS PAPEKS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Pago. 
 
 Bacillus alvei, supposed relation to European foul brood 41 
 
 lanac, exciting cause of American foul brood 20, 24, 37, 38, 39-40, 41, 58 
 
 " IV' possible exciting cause of European foul brocxl 41 
 
 Bacteria, nature, distribution, methods of studying them, results of their 
 
 activity 36-37 
 
 of brood diseases, heating honey for their destruction 12 
 
 relation to bee diseases 36-37 
 
 Bacteriological needs of beekeeping in United States 77 
 
 Banana, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Barberry, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Basswood (see also Linden). 
 
 defoliation by gipsy moth and brown-tail moth 104 
 
 period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 93 
 
 Bee breeding, importance 78 
 
 brush, use 5 
 
 colonies sold in Massachusetts 102-103 
 
 disease in Hawaii resembling "pickled brood" 57 
 
 inspection 31 
 
 status in United States 75 
 
 survey in Hawaii 56-57 
 
 diseases can be controlled 30-31 
 
 cause, relation to treatment 33^2 
 
 causes, exciting 35-37 
 
 predisposing 34-35 
 
 damage therefrom 25-26 
 
 diagnosis 38 
 
 etiology (cause) 34-37 
 
 relation to treatment 33-42 
 
 heating honey for destruction of bacteria 12 
 
 in Massachusetts 23-32, 104-105 
 
 introduction not recent 27-28 
 
 present extent 26-27 
 
 lo68 to bee keepers 73-75 
 
 nature, methods of spread, means of preventing introduction into 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 57-58 
 
 relation of etiology (cause) to treatment, summary and conclu- 
 sions 42 
 
 spread 29-30 
 
 treatment 31-32 
 
 curative 39 
 
 preventive 38-39 
 
 escape, use 5-6 
 
 keeping in greenhouses and the spread of bee diseases 29-30 
 
 Hawaii 43-58 
 
 bee keepers' association 44 
 
 rights 45 
 
 disease survey 56-58 
 
 extent of industry 45-47 
 
 honey sources 47-54 
 
 introduction of honey plants 54 
 
 methods of management 44 
 
 publications thereon 43-44 
 
 wax production 54-56 
 
INDEX. 113 
 
 Page. 
 
 Bee keeping in Massachusetts 81-109 
 
 apiaries, number and size 83-84 
 
 articles thereon 107-109 
 
 bee diseases 23-32, 104-105 
 
 bees in cucumber greenhouses 99-102 
 
 colonies per bee keeper 84, 86 
 
 increase in number 87 
 
 conventions 105 
 
 distribution of bees 86-87 
 
 early records 81-83 
 
 enemies of bees 703-104 
 
 experience of bee keepers 8 1-85 
 
 historical sketch 81-84 
 
 hives used 97-98 
 
 honey production 87-89 
 
 sources 89-93 
 
 instruction in bee keeping 105 
 
 market for bees 102-103 
 
 organizations of bee keepers 105 
 
 pasturage, extent and capabilities 89 
 
 periods of nectar secretion in different localities. 93-96 
 
 queen trade 103 
 
 races kept 96-97 
 
 status 23-24 
 
 summary 106-107 
 
 wax production 89 
 
 wintering methods 98-99 
 
 mortality 99 
 
 United States 59-80 
 
 associations, number 69 
 
 breeders of queens, number 69 
 
 colonies, number and value, June 1, 1900 63 
 
 per farm 60, 79 
 
 honey production, average annual value 61, 79 
 
 imports and exports of honey and wax 64-68, 79 
 
 journals, number 69 
 
 loss, sources 71-76 
 
 needs 76 
 
 possibilities 76 
 
 production of honey and wax, 1840-1900 62-63 
 
 scope 61-71 
 
 statistics of Twelfth Census 62-63 
 
 summary 79-80 
 
 wax production, average annual value 61, 79 
 
 introduction of Langstroth hives 83 
 
 origin of industry in United States 81-82 
 
 winter losses 72 
 
 keepers, amateur versus experienced, in Massachusetts 85 
 
 professional 60-61, 80 
 
 association in Hawaii 44 
 
 associations in Massachusetts 105 
 
 United States, number 69 
 
 years experience in Massachusetts 84-85 
 
114 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Page. 
 Boo moths (sec also Wax moths, (Va/Ztrm mellonella, and Achroia grisella). 
 
 in New Enj^land 83 
 
 ])ollinalion of cucumbers 99-102 
 
 rights in Hawaii 45 
 
 vahie as pollcnizin<i: afj:ent 69-71 
 
 Boos and queens, ])urchasinfj:, how to avoid introduction of bee diseases 30 
 
 Banat, in Massachusetts 97 
 
 ( 'arniolan, in Ahissachusetts 96 
 
 Caucasian, in Massachusetts 97 
 
 C^^irian, in Massachusetts 97 
 
 distribution in Massiichusetts 86-87 
 
 enemies in Massachusetts 103-104 
 
 (ierman, in Massiichusetts 96-97 
 
 in <;reenhouses in Massachusetts 99-102 
 
 Italian, in ^hissachusetts 96-97 
 
 introduction into New En<i:lan(l in seventeenth century 81-82 
 
 price in Massachusetts 103 
 
 Punic, in Massachusetts 97 
 
 queen trade in Massachusetts 103 
 
 races in Massachusetts 96-97 
 
 robbinj^, prevention 6, 7 
 
 stmy, danger of infecting colonies therefrom 30 
 
 Berheris s\)\) . (iSce Barberry.) 
 Bidens Ixvis. {See Sunflower, brook.) 
 
 pilosa, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Blackberry, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 wild, source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 93 
 
 Blueberry, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Bombus, {See Bumblebees.) 
 
 Botanical needs of bee keeping in United States 77 
 
 Brassica sj)p. {See Mustard, wild.) 
 
 Breeders of queens in United States, number 69 
 
 Breeding bees, importance 78 
 
 Brood diseases of bees. {See Bee diseases.) 
 
 manipulation in extracted honey production 3 
 
 Browne, C. A., paper, "Methods of Honey Testing for Bee Keepers" 16-18 
 
 Brown-tail moth. (See Euproctis chrysorrhoea .) 
 
 Buckwheat, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts... • 94 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 93 
 
 Bumblebees as ])ollenizing agents 70 
 
 Burdock, source of honey in Massachusetts 93, 104 
 
 Burr clover, California. (See Mcdivago dcnticulata.) 
 
 marigold, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. 95 
 
 Buttercups, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Button bush. (See Ccphalanthus occidciitalis.) 
 ( 'a.stanea dentata. {See Chestnut.) 
 
 (Jalalpa bignonioidrs, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 speriom, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 Catnip, source (»f honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 ('entinthiis aincrirauuji, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Census of 1900, stati.sti<\son bee keeping 62-63 
 
 Cephalanthus occidentalU, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
INDEX. 115 
 
 Page. 
 
 Cestrum diumum, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Chemical needs of bee keeping in United States 77 
 
 Cherry, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 rum. (-S'ee Cherry, wild.) 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 93 
 
 wild, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. . 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Chestnut, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey and pollen in Massachusetts 92, 93 
 
 Chokecherry. {See Cherry, wild.) 
 
 Citrus, sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Clematis paniculata, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts. 95 
 
 wild, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 Clethra, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 96 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 92, 93, 96 
 
 Climate, relation to bee diseases 35 
 
 Clover, alsike, source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 92 
 
 crimson, source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 92 
 
 period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 red, source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 92 
 
 sweet, white (see also Melilotus alha) . 
 
 period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massa- 
 chusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90 
 
 j'^ellow (see also Melilotus officinalis). 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90 
 
 white, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. . 95 
 
 source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Massachusetts 90, 92 
 
 yellow, source of honey in Massachusetts 92 
 
 ' ' Cocoons " 5 
 
 Coleoptera as pollenizing agents 69, 70 
 
 Columbine. (See Aquilegia canadensis.) 
 
 Comb honey, average number of pounds produced in United States 61-62 
 
 Combs, shallow extracting 4—5 
 
 Conventions of bee keepers in Massachusetts 105 
 
 Cowpeas. (See Vigna catjang.) 
 
 Cranberry, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Crocuses, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 Crop plants, sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Crystallization. {See Granulation.) 
 
 Cucumber, pollination by honey bee 99-102 
 
 source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Massachusetts 93 
 
 wild. (See Micrampelis lobata.) 
 Cucumis spp. {See Cucumber.) 
 
 Dandelion, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 source of honey and pollen in Massachusetts 92, 93 
 
 Diptera as pollenizing agents 69, 70 
 
 Disease, definition of term 33 
 
 preexisting, possible relation to bee diseases 35 
 
116 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Page. 
 Diseases of bees. {See Bee diseases; Foul brood, American; and Foul brood, 
 European.) 
 
 Disinfection of hive materials against boo diseases 32 
 
 tools and hands after manipulating diseased bees 29 
 
 Dodonsea viscosa var. spathulata, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Drug treatment for bee diseases 39, 40 
 
 Economic needs of bee keeping in United States 77-78 
 
 Educational needs of bee keeping in United States 78-79 
 
 Eldorborry, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Elm, defoliation by gipsy moth and bro\\Ti-tail moth 104 
 
 pericxi of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Erechtites hieraci/olia. (See Fireweed.) 
 
 Eriobotrya japonica, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Erodium cicutarium, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 moschatum, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Erythrina monosperma, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 "Etiology, " definition of term 33 
 
 Eucalyptus, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 Eugenia jambos, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 Euproctis chrysorrhoea, damage to bee-keeping industry in Massachusetts 104 
 
 Extracting room or house for honey 6 
 
 Extractor. (See Honey extractor.) 
 Fagopyrum spp. {See Buckwheat.) 
 
 Feeding honey to bees, danger of spreading brood diseases 29 
 
 Fertilization. {See Pollenization.) 
 
 Filaree. (See Erodium cicutarium and E. moschatum.) 
 
 Fireweed, period of nectar secretion and importance as source of honey in Cape 
 
 Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 Food and drugs act of June 30, 1906, and Hawaiian honeys 44, 50-52 
 
 honey adulteration 1-2 
 
 relation to bee diseases 35 
 
 Forage plants, sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Foul brood, American, age of larvae with relation thereto 34 
 
 and wax moths 19-22 
 
 cause, excitmg 24, 37, 38, 39-40 
 
 causes, predisposing 34-35 
 
 description 24 
 
 in Massachusetts, intro<luction into State 27-28 
 
 present extent 26-27 
 
 preexisting disease possibly a predispasing factor 35 
 
 prevention 38-39 
 
 relation of cause to treatment 39-40 
 
 sex of larvae with relation thereto 34 
 
 treatment 38-39, 40 
 
 European, age of larvie with relation thereto 34 
 
 cause, ex<'iting, unknown 37 
 
 causes, predisposing 34-35 
 
 description 24, 25 
 
 in Massachusetts, intrcnluction into State 28 
 
 present extent 26-27 
 
 loss therefrom in Now York Stale 74-75 
 
 relation of cause to treat niont 41 
 
 sex of larvee with relation thereto 34 
 
INDEX. 117 
 
 Page. 
 Fragaria spp. {See Strawberry.) 
 
 Fruit bloom, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts. . . 94 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 93 
 
 spoiled by gipsy moth and brown-tail moth 104 
 
 industry, value of honey bee thereto 71 
 
 Fungi, relation to bee diseases '. 37 
 
 Galleria mellonella destructive to stored comb 73 
 
 enemy to bees in Massachusetts 103-104 
 
 work in combs infected with American foul brood 20-21 
 
 Gates, Burton N., paper, "Bee Diseases in Massachusetts " 23-32 
 
 ' ' Bee Keeping in Massachusetts " 81, 109 
 
 Gaylussacia spp. {See Huckleberry.) 
 
 Gentiana crinita, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Gentian, fringed. (See Gentiana crinita.) 
 
 Geranium, wild, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Gill-over-the-ground, source of honey in Massachusetts 92, 93 
 
 Gipsy moth. (See Porthetria dispar.) 
 
 Glecoma hederacea. {See Gill-over-the-ground.) 
 
 Glucose, detection in honey 17 
 
 Glycerin, use as adulterant of honey 12 
 
 Goldenrod (see also Solidago sempervirens) . 
 
 period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts .... 94 
 
 Cape Cod region of Massachusetts .... 95 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 92, 104 
 
 Gooseberry, source of honey in Iilassachusetts 93 
 
 Granulation of honey 9-12, 14-15 
 
 acceleration 13-14 
 
 retardation 13 
 
 Grass, carpet. (See Lippia repens.) 
 
 "Pili." (See Heteropogon contortus.) 
 
 Greenhouses, cucumber, bee keeping therein in Massachusetts 29-30, 99-102 
 
 Guava, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Hsematoxylon campechianum, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 Halictidse as pollenizing agents 70 
 
 Hamamelis virginiana, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 "Hau" tree. (See Paritium tiliaceum.) 
 
 Helianthus spp. {See Sunflower.) 
 
 Hemiptera as pollenizing agents 70 
 
 Heredity, relation to bee diseases 34 
 
 Heteropogon contortus, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Hickory, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Hicoria spp. {See Hickory.) 
 
 ' ' Hila hila," source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Hive for extracted honey production 3 
 
 Langstroth, introduction 83 
 
 Hives used in Massachusetts 97-98 
 
 Hoarhound, cut-leafed water, period of nectar secretion and importance as 
 
 source of honey in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 Honey, abnormal 14 
 
 adulteration, chemical detection , , 1-2, 16-18 
 
118 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Honey, -.vjiv as iiffcrtinfj; chomieal composilion 11-12 
 
 Alpirroba, in Hawaii, extraction 47-48 
 
 bee. (See Bee.) 
 
 bricks 14 
 
 "candied." production 13-14 
 
 coniferous 14 
 
 detection of cane 8up:ar therein 17 
 
 fi;lucose therein 17 
 
 invert sugar therein 17-18 
 
 determination of moisture therein 16-17 
 
 extracted, production, advantages 2-3 
 
 and care 1-15 
 
 brood manipulation 3-4 
 
 "candied " honey i)roducti()n 13-14 
 
 extracting room or house 6 
 
 extractor and its use 7 
 
 granulation of honey 9-12 
 
 hive best adapted therefor 3 
 
 method 3-7 
 
 packing 12-13 
 
 perforated zinc queen-excluding board and its 
 
 use 5 
 
 removing honey from hive 5-6 
 
 ripening honey 7-9 
 
 tiering 4-5 
 
 uncapping the honey 6-7 
 
 extractor and its use 7 
 
 extractors, solar, in Hawaii 47^8 
 
 fermentation or souring 8, 9 
 
 flavor of that from fruit bloom 90 
 
 floral, in Hawaii , 47-49 
 
 flow, "locality differences" 5 
 
 from honeydew and algarroba, granulation test 52 
 
 gate 9 
 
 granulation, acceleration '. 13-14 
 
 retardation 13 
 
 heating for destruction of disease bacteria 12 
 
 Herzfelt's artificial 10 
 
 high-purity types 14 
 
 honeydew 14 
 
 blends, ])olarization, and analyses 51-52 
 
 chemical composition 50-52 
 
 color and flavor 50 
 
 with reference to food and drugs act of 1!)0() 50-52 
 
 imports and <'xports 64-68, 79 
 
 liijuefaction before bottling 10 
 
 low-purity types 14 
 
 normal 14 
 
 other than floral, in Hawaii 49-54 
 
 packing 12-13 
 
 plants. {See Honey sources.) 
 
 production in Ma.ssiichusetts 87-89 
 
 United States, average annual value 61, 79 
 
 statistics of Twelfth Census 62-63 
 
INDEX. 119 
 
 Page. 
 
 Honey, removal from hive. 5-6 
 
 ripening 7-9 
 
 sources in Hawaii , 47-54 
 
 Massachusetts 89-93 
 
 strained, definition, wrong use of term 1 
 
 tariff schedules, acts of 1842 to 1897 64 
 
 testing, apparatus and methods for bee keepers 16-18 
 
 types 14-15 
 
 uncapping 6-7 
 
 Honeydew, extra-floral plant, possible source of honey in Hawaii 53 
 
 honey. {See Honey, honeydew.) 
 
 of insects, source of honey in Hawaii 49-53 
 
 Honeys, American, chemical analysis and composition, reference to publication 12, 16 
 
 flavors 8-9 
 
 granulation 9-12, 14-15 
 
 Honeysuckle, Tartarian, source of honey in Massachusetts 92, 93 
 
 Horsechestnut, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Huckleberry, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. . 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Hymenoptera as poUenizing agents 69, 70 
 
 "Hima." (See 5iWa spp.) 
 
 Inkberry, Chinese. (See Cestrum diurnum.) 
 
 Insect honeydew, source of honey in Hawaii 49-53 
 
 Insects, pollenization of plants thereby 69-71 
 
 Inspection against bee diseases 31, 75 
 
 Ipomxa pes-caprx, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 spp., sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 * ' Kia we . ' ' (See Algarroba . ) 
 
 Knives for uncapping honey. 6 
 
 Knotweed, pink, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 92, 93 
 
 "Koa." (See Acsicisi.) 
 
 Lantana, a plant pest in Hawaii 54 
 
 source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Lathyrus tingitanus, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 "Lauki." (See Bidens pilosa.) 
 
 Leafhopper, sugar-cane, damage to sugar cane 52-53 
 
 source of honeydew honey in Hawaii 50, 52-53 
 
 Lemon, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Lepidoptera as pollenizing agents 69 
 
 Lime, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Linden (see also Basswood). 
 
 American, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts. 94 
 
 European, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts. 94 
 
 Lippia repens, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Locust, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 93 
 
 Logwood. (See Hsematoxylon campechianum.) 
 Lonicera tatarica. (See Honeysuckle, Tartarian.) 
 Loquat. (See Eriobotrya japonica.) 
 
 Lupin, blue and yellow, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Lycopus americanus. (See Hoarhound, cut-leafed water.) 
 
120 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Malmstrum tricuspidatmn, Hoiirre of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 ' ' Manian i . " ( See Sophorn chrysophylla . ) 
 
 Mangrove, black, Hource of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 Philippine, introduction into Hawaii to be tried 48 
 
 Maple, defoliation by gipsy moth and brown-tail moth 104 
 
 hard, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts. . . 94 
 
 soft, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 93 
 
 pollen for bees. 91 
 
 Medicago denticulata, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Melilotus alba (see also Clover, sweet, white). 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90 
 
 officinalis, (See also Clover, sweet, yellow.) 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90 
 
 Melons, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Mentha spp, (See Mints and Catnip.) 
 Mesquite, Texas. (See Prosopis glandulosa.) 
 
 Metrosideros polymorpha, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 Micrampelis lobata, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Micro-organisms, relation to bee diseases 35-37 
 
 Milkweed, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 92, 93 
 
 Mints, source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 92, 93 
 
 Moisture, determination in honey 17 
 
 MusaBpp. (5ee Banana.) ^ 
 
 Mustard, wild, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts. 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Nectar, periods of secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95-96 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94-95 
 
 "Ohia lehua." (See Metrosideros polymorpha.) 
 "Oi." (See Verbena bonariensis.) 
 
 Onobrychis saliva, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Orange, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Ornamental plants, sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Palm, cocoanut, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 royal, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Palms, sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 "Paralysis " of bees, food with relation thereto 35 
 
 relation of cause to treatment 41^2 
 
 supposedly noninfectious 37 
 
 Paritium tiliaceum, exlra-floral nectaries a source of honeydew honey 53-54 
 
 Pasture planti*, sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Peach, period of nectar secretion in central region of Ma-ssachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 93 
 
 Pear, source of honey in Ma.s.sachusetttf 90, 93 
 
 Pea, Tangier. (Sec Lathyrus tingitanns.) 
 
 Pepper bush, sweet. (See Clethra.) 
 
 Perforated zinc. (See Zinc, perforated.) 
 
 PrrL-insifUa sarrharirida . (Sec Leafhopper, sugar-cane.) 
 
 Persea gratutsimu, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 PhiUuklphus spp. (Su Syringa.) 
 
INDEX. 121 
 
 Phillips, E. F., paper, "A Brief Survey of Hawaiian Beekeeping," 43-58 
 
 "The Status of Apiculture in the United States " 59-80 
 
 ''Wax Moths and American Foul Brood " ]9-22 
 
 "Pickled brood," age of brood with relation thereto 34 
 
 disease resembling it in Hawaii 57 
 
 heredity with relation thereto 34 
 
 relation of cause to treatment 41 
 
 supposedly noninfectious 37 
 
 Plants, pollenization by insects 69-71 
 
 Plum, beach, period of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. . . 95 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 90, 93 
 
 Pollenization of plants by insects 69-71 
 
 Polygonum spp. {See Knotweed.) 
 
 Poppy. (See Romneya coulteri.) 
 
 Porthetria dispar, damage to bee keeping industry in Massachusetts 104 
 
 Prosopis glandulosa, source of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 juliflora. (-See Algarroba.) 
 
 Protozoa, relation to bee diseases 37 
 
 Prunus spp. {See Peach, Plum, Cherry.) 
 
 Psidium spp. {See Guava.) 
 
 "Paukala." (See Argemone mexicana.) 
 
 Pumpkin, source of honey in Hawaii . . 49 
 
 Pyrus spp. {See Pear, Apple.) 
 
 Queens, purchasing, how to avoid introduction of bee diseases 30 
 
 Race, relation to bee diseases 35 
 
 Radish, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Ranunculus spp. {See Buttercups.) 
 
 Raphanussipip. (^ee Radish.) 
 
 Raspberry, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 wild, source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 93 
 
 Rhus copallina. {See Sumac.) 
 spp. {See Sumac.) 
 
 Ribes spp. (iSee Gooseberry.) 
 
 Robbing, prevention 6, 7 
 
 Rohinia spp. {See Locust.) 
 
 Romneya coulteri, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Rose apple. {See Eugenia jambos.) 
 
 Rubus spp. {See Raspberry, Blackberry.) 
 
 Sages, California. {See Artemisia.) 
 
 Sa I ix spp . ( See W il lo w . ) 
 
 Sambucus spp. (5eg Elderberry.) 
 
 Sanfoin. {See Onobrychis sativa.) 
 
 Scientific needs of bee keeping in United States 76-77 
 
 Sex, relation to bee diseases 34 
 
 Shadbush, wild. (See Amelanchier botryapium.) 
 
 "Shaking" treatment for bee diseases 32 
 
 "Shook swarming." {See Shaking.): 
 
 Sida spp. , source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Sisal. (See Agave sisalana.) 
 
 Skunk cabbage, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts. . . 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 92, 93 
 
 pollen for bees 92 
 
 7801 3 ° — B u 1 1 . If)— 1 1 9 
 
122 .MIS( KI.LANEOUS PAPERS ON APICULTURE. 
 
 Pajfe. 
 
 Snuirtwoed. period of noctar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 central region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 Solidago aejnperviretis, perio<l of nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massa- 
 
 chusetti^ 95 
 
 spp. (vS^-c Goldenrocls.) 
 
 Sophora chrysophylln, honey plant in Hawaii 48 
 
 i'^panish needle. (See Bidens pilosa.) 
 Spdthycinafietidn. {See Skunk cabbage.) 
 
 Spirochacta apis, supposed relation to bee dL^ease 37 
 
 Squashes, Bource of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Statistical needs of bee keeping in United States 76 
 
 Strawberry, period of possible nectar secretion in Cape Cod region of Massachu- 
 setts 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 92, 93 
 
 Sugar, cane, detection in honey 17 
 
 invert, adulterant of honey 10 
 
 detection in honey 17-18 
 
 Sumac, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts 94 
 
 Cape Cod region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 91, 93 
 
 Sunflower, brook, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachu- 
 setts 94 
 
 source of honey in Massachusetts 92, 93 
 
 Swarming, source of loss to beekeepers 71-72 
 
 Syringa, source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Tamarindus indica, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Taraxacum spp. {See Dandelion.) 
 
 Tariff on honey and wax, 1842-1897 64 
 
 Tea, New Jersey. (See Ceanothus americanus.) 
 
 Thevelia neriifolia, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Thorough wort, period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 Thyme. (See Thymus serpy Hum.) 
 
 Thymus serpyllum , source of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Tiering in extracted honey production 4-5 
 
 Tilia spp. {Set Basswood and Linden.) 
 
 Trees, forest, sources of honey in Hawaii 48 
 
 fruit, sources of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Tri/olium agrarium . (Sec Clover, yellow.) 
 hybridum. (5ec Clover, alsike.) 
 incarnatum. {See Clover, crimson.) 
 pratense. {See Clover, red.) 
 repcns. (5e€ Clover, white.) 
 t/Zmitsspp. (/Sec Elm.) 
 
 Uncapping box or can 6-7 
 
 honey 6 
 
 knives. {See Knives.) 
 Vntcniiiim spp. {See Blueberry and Cranberry. > 
 
 Vrrhrna honariensis, s<nirce of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Viburnum, source of honey in Ma.^sachusetts 93 
 
 \'i(jiin rntjanq, sour<"e of honey in Massachusetts 93 
 
 Wnlthrria amrricana, source of honey in Hawaii 49 
 
 Wattle, black, (^ee Acacia.) 
 
INDEX. 123 
 
 Page. 
 
 Wax, imports and exports 64-68, 79 
 
 moths. {See also Bee moths, Galleria melloneUa , and Achroia grisella.) 
 
 and American foul brood 19-22 
 
 moth, large. (See Galleria mellonella .) 
 lesser. (See Achroia grisella.) 
 
 production in Hawaii 54-56 
 
 Massachusetts 89 
 
 United States, average annual value 61, 79 
 
 statistics of Twelfth Census 62-63 
 
 tariff schedules, acts of 1842-1897 64 
 
 waste in bee keeping 72-73 
 
 "Weeds, honey plants in Hawaii 49 
 
 White, G. F., paper, "The Relation of the Etiology (Cause) of Bee Diseases to 
 
 the Treatment " 33-42 
 
 WTiite-sage honey, slow granulation 9 
 
 "Wiliwili." {See Erythrina monosperma.) 
 
 Willow, defoliation by gipsy moth and brown- tail moth 104 
 
 period of nectar secretion in central region of Massachusetts 95 
 
 pussy, period of nectar secretion in Berkshire region of Massachusetts. . 94 
 
 source of pollen for bees 92 
 
 Witch-hazel. (See Hamamelis virginiana.) 
 
 Zinc, perforated, in extracted honey production 5 
 
 Zoological needs of bee keeping in United States 76-77 
 
 o 
 
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 
 
 ;,„JIIIIIIIII!lllli!l 
 
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