>•• nb' > -)> > >■) -i)^ ■)V„ ;>> •> P Oj> p' v » p> > ) ) Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Lyrasis Members and Sloan Foundation http://www.archive.org/details/reportofisthmian07unit 3,15-7: R^/-x 57th Congress, ) SENATP1 j Document 1st Session. \ I No. 54. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, 1899-1901. Rear-Admiral JOHN G. WALKER, United States Navy, President. Hon. SAMUEL PASCO. ALFRED NOBLE, C. E. Mr. GEORGE S. MORISON. Col. PETER C. HAINS, Lieut. Col. OSWALD H. ERNST, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. WILLIAM H. BURR, C. E. LEWIS M. HAUPT, C. E. Prof. EMORY R. JOHNSON. Lieut. Commander SIDNEY A. STAUNTON, United States Navy, Secretary. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1901. S D— 57-1— Vol 7- 3Qk To the Congress of the United States: I transmit herewith the report, with appendices in three parts, of the Isthmian Canal Commission, established under section 4 of the river and harbor act, approved March 3, 1899, of its investigations made in pursuance of section 3 of said act. Theodore Roosevelt. White House, December %,, 1901. Department of State, Washington, November 30, 1901. Sir: I have the honor to transmit the Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, with appendices in three parts, all in duplicate, accompa- nied by one set of maps, profiles, and illustrations, which have this day been delivered at this Department by Rear-Admiral John G. Walker, president of the Commission. I am, sir, your obedient servant, John Hay. The President. 3 62.C9? CONTENTS. Sections of act approved March 3, 1899, authorizing the appointment of the Commission 9 Letter of appointment and instructions to commissioners 11 Organization of the Commission hy committees 12 Chapters: 1. Introduction 13 2. History of interoceanic projects and communications 20 3. Dimensions and unit prices 63 4. Other possible routes 69 5. Panama route 80 6. Nicaragua route 104 7. Earthquakes, volcanoes, climate, health 167 8. Rights, privileges, and franchises 172 9. Industrial and commercial value of canal 243 10. Military value 252 11. Cost of maintenance and operation 255 12. Conclusions 257 APPENDICES. A. Study of locks for Nicaragua and Panama routes, by Mr. S. H. Woodard. B. Historical notes relative to the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company, 1880- 1894, prior to the organization of the new company. C. List of documents furnished to the Commission by the New Panama Canal Company. D. Report on the hydrography of the Panama canal route, by Mr. A. P. Davis, chief hydrographer. E. Waste weir dimensions and discharges for Lake Bohio. F. Description of alternative location for canal between Gatun and Bohio. G. Discussion of the time required for transit through an Isthmian canal by the two routes. H. Discharge of the canalized San Juan River. I. Report of hydrographic investigations in Nicaragua, by Mr. A. P. Davis, chief hydrographer. J. Surveys from the Upper San Juan to the Indio River, by Mr. A. B. Nichols, division engineer. K. Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States, 1867, Dickenson- Ayon. L. Treaty negotiated between the United States and Nicaragua, December, 1884, Frelinghuysen-Zavala. M. Treaty between Great Britain and Nicaragua, relative to the Mosquito Indians and the rights and claims of British subjects, February 11, 1860. N. Treaty between Nicaragua and Great Britain, January 28, 1860. O. Treaty between Nicaragua and France, April 11, 1859. P. List of treaties made or negotiated by Nicaragua with other countries. Q. Treaty between the United States and Great Britain, April 19, 1850, Clayton- Bulwer. 5 6 CONTENTS. R. Contract between Nicaragua and the Nicaragua Canal Association. S. Act of Congress incorporating the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua. T. Contract between Nicaragua and Eyre and Cragin, representing the Inter- oceanic Canal Company. U. Contract between Nicaragua and the Atlas Steamship Company. V. Treaty between the United States and Costa Rica, July, 1851. W. Treaty between Spain and Costa Rica, May, 1860. X. Treaty between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, June, 1869. Y. List of treaties made by Costa Rica with other countries. Z. Contract between Costa Rica and Nicaragua Canal Association. AA. Protocol of agreement between the United States and Costa Rica, December, 1900. BB. Treaty between the United States and New Granada, concluded December, 1846. CC. Treaties between France and New Granada, 1856, and France and Colombia, 1892. DD. Treaty between Spain and Colombia, 1881. EE. List of treaties made by New Granada, or Colombia, with other countries. FF. Amended contract between Colombia and the Panama Railroad Company. GG. Contract between Colombia and Interoceanic Canal Association, March 20, 1878. (Wyse concession.) HH. Additional contract modifying that of May 20, 1878, December 10, 1890. II. Contract granting extension to the Panama Canal Company in liquidation, April 4, 1893. JJ. Contract granting further extension of time to the New Panama Canal Com- pany, April 25, 1900. KK. Memorandum showing legal status of the New Panama Canal Company, with laws, decrees of court, and charter. LL. Treaty negotiated by Mr. Hise between the United States and Nicaragua, June, 1849. MM. Contract between Nicaragua and the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, August 27, 1849. NN. Report on industrial and commercial value of canal, by Prof. Emory R. Johnson. PLATES. 1. General map of the Central American isthmus, from Tehuantepec to Buenaven- tura Bay, showing all the canal routes investigated. Scale ^sTsirwt 40 miles to an inch. 2. General map of the Isthmus of Darien, from Panama to Atrato River, Republic of Colombia, showing water courses and mountain ranges. Scale sTrcWtb 5 miles to an inch. 3. Map, Mandinga Harbor to mouth of Rio Chepo, Republic of Colombia, showing proposed San Bias Canal route. Scale ^Ivs- 4. Profile of possible canal route from Mandinga Harbor, Gulf of San Bias, to Bay of Panama. Horizontal scale s^ffff> vertical scale 2«Vij- 5. Map, Caledonia Bay to Rio Sabana, Republic of Colombia, showing topography to the divide and drainage. Scale gff& V o. 6. Profile of possible canal routes from Caledonia Bay to San Miguel Bay. Hori- zontal scale si^tftj, vertical scale j S Vtf- 7. Map, Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from San Bias to Caledonia Bay, Republic of Colombia, showing elevations observed from sea. Scale 55^5. 8. Map, Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Carreto Bay to the Atrato Valley, Republic of Colombia, showing elevations observed from sea. Scale ssfonf. CONTENTS. 7 9. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Rio Mangle to Rio Mandinga, Gulf of San Bias. Taken from point near Point San Bias. No. 1. 10. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Ratones Cay to Rio Diablo. Taken from a point near Puyadas Cays. No. 2. 11. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Ratones Cay to Rio Diablo. Taken from sloop going toward Ratones Cay. No. 3. 12. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Piedras Cays to Rio Playa. Taken from a point near Ratones Cay. No. 4. 13. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Rio Tres Bocas to Rio Pitgandi. Taken from a point near Limones Cays. No. 5. 14. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Caledonia Hills to Rio Grande. Taken from a point near mouth of Rio Tres Bocas. No. 6. 15. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Cape Tibu- ron to Piedras Cays. Taken from points near Isla Pajaros and Isla Pinos. No. 7. 16. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Caledonia Mountain to Sassardi Gap. Taken from a point in front of Sassardi. No. 8. 17. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, showing the Caledonia Gap. Taken from a point near Isla d'Oro. No. 9. 18. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Cape Tiburon to Pt. Escoces. Taken from sloop off Pt. Carreto. No. 10. 19 . Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Tutumate River to Pt. Tiburon. Taken from point near Piton Island. No. 11. 20. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from the Atrato Flat to Piton Island. Taken from sloop off Point Choco. No. 12. 21. General map of Panama route. Scale rffsW^ 22. Profile of Panama route. Horizontal scale tqtststhsj vertical scale ttj 1 ^- 23. Sheet of sections. Scale tsW- a. Colon Harbor. b. Swamp silt. c. Firm earth. d. Lake Bohio. Drowned Channel. e. Culebra. 24. Plan of Bohio Locks. Scale jfa, 40 7 to an inch. 25. Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks. Scale ^ 5 , SO 7 to an inch. 26. Bohio Dam. Scales 7 oW> :nnn>> *iv 27. Gigante Spillway. Scales ^V ?h>- 28. Map No. 1. General Map of Nicaragua Route. Scale r^Wir- Map No. 2. Canal line and general topography through the canal region, scale sihrn, in 4 sheets. 29. Sheet 1. Carribean Sea to Boca San Carlos. 30. Sheet 2. Boca San Carlos to Lake Nicaragua. 31. Sheet 3. Fort San Carlos to Las Lajas. 32. Sheet 4. Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific Ocean. Map No. 3. Canal line, borings, service railroad, and detail topography, scale t?2tmx> m 14 sheets, and 1 index sheet, scale xirooff- 33. Index sheet. 34. Sheet 1. Grey town to San Juanillo. 35. Sheet la. Rio Indio to Rio Misterioso. 36. Sheet 2. Rio San Juanillo to Rio Negro. 37. Sheet 3. Rio Negro to Serapiqui Hills. 38. Sheet 4. Lock 2 to Rio San Francisco- 8 CONTENTS. 39. Sheet 5. Rio San Francisco to Cafio Machado. 40. Sheet 6. Conchuda cut-off and dam sites. 41. Sheet 7. La Lucha to Agua Fresca. 42. Sheet 8. Agua Fresca to Santa Cruz cut-off. 43. Sheet 9. Isla Sombrero de Cuero to Isla Grande. 44. Sheet 10. Rio Chico to San Francisco cut-off. 45. Sheet 11. Rio Medio Queso to Lake Nicaragua. 46. Sheet 12. Lake Nicaragua to Cafio Guachipilin. 47. Sheet 13. Cafio Guachipilin to Pacific Ocean. Profile of Nicaragua Route. Horizontal scale u^w, vertical scale jh^, in 5 sheets. 48. Profile 1. Caribbean Sea to Conchuda. 49. Profile 2. Conchuda to Lake Nicaragua. 49a. Profile 2a. Profile of canal on adopted lines near Rio Sabalos, etc. 50. Profile 3. Lake Nicaragua. 51. Profile 4. Lake Nicaragua to Pacific Ocean. Eight maps of Greytown Harbor, scale t^to- 52. Puerto y Boca del Rio San Juan de Nicaragua, 1809. 53. San Juan de Nicaragua, by Geo. Peacock, 1832. 54. Greytown Harbor, by Commander Nolloth, 1850. 55. Greytown Harbor, by John Richards, 1853. 56. Greytown Harbor, by John Scott, 1856. 57. Greytown Harbor, by P. C. F. West, 1865. 58. Greytown Harbor, by Lieut. Jas. M. Miller, 1872. 59. Greytown Harbor, by officers of U. S. S. Newport, 1898. 60. One sheet of canal cross sections, scale ^j^. Two profiles of route from Upper San Juan River, near Machuca, to Indio. 61. 1. Machuca-Negro Line. 62. 2. La Cruz del Norte Line. 63. Map No. 4. Showing borings in Lake Nicaragua, scale ^sros- 64. Lock No. 1, scale - i \ JS . 65. Locks Nos. 2, 3, and 4, scale ^ T . 66. Locks Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8, scale -g\-$. 67. Waste ways, Eastern Division, scale T2 Vtf- 68. Conchuda waste way, scale yaW 69. Conchuda Dam, scale T2 Vo- 70. Map of Central America and neighboring countries, showing location of volca- noes, active and extinct. Scale sT3STyiny> 100 miles to an inch. 71. Map of Panama Route, showing zones of mean annual rainfall, scale TTTtnnre- 72. Map of Nicaragua, showing rainfall areas, 1890. Scale zszjs-uj 8 miles to 1 inch. 73. Map of Nicaragua, showing rainfall areas, 1900. Same scale as 72. 74. Map of the World, on Mercator projection, showing routes for steam and sail. 75. Map of Western Hemisphere, on Polyconic projection, showing routes, currents, wind areas, etc. Map of Central Chile, showing resources and industries, on two sheets. 76. Sheet 1. 77. Sheet 2. 78. Map of Northwestern South America, showing resources and industries. 79. Map of Japan, showing resources and industries. 80. Map of China, showing resources and industries. 81. Map of Eastern Australia, showing resources and industries. 82. Map of New Zealand, showing resources and industries. 83. Map of the Philippine Islands, showing resources and industries. 84. Map of Central America, showing resources and industries. 85. Map of Mexico, showing resources and industries. 86. Map of Transportation Divides. AN ACT Making appropriations for the construction, repair, and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Untied States of America in Congress assembled, That * * * Sec. 3. That the President of the United States of America he, and he is herehy, authorized and empowered to make full and complete investigation of the Isthmus of Panama with a view to the construction of a canal by the United States across the same to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; that the President is authorized to make investigation of any and all practicable routes for a canal across said Isthmus of Panama, and particularly to investigate the two routes known respectively as the Nicaraguan route and the Panama route, with a view to determining the most . practicable and feasible route for such canal, together with the proximate and prob- able cost of constructing a canal at each of two or more of said routes; and the Presi- dent is further authorized to investigate and ascertain what rights, privileges, and franchises, if any, may be held and owned by any corporations, associations, or indi- viduals, and what work, if any, has been done by such corporations, associations, or individuals in the construction of a canal at either or any of said routes, and particu- larly at the so-called Nicaraguan and Panama routes, respectively; and likewise to ascertain the cost of purchasing all of the rights, privileges, and franchises held and owned by any such corporations, associations, and individuals in any and all of such routes, particularly the said Nicaraguan route and the said Panama route; and like- wise to ascertain the probable or proximate cost of constructing a suitable harbor at each of the termini of said canal, with the probable annual cost of maintenance of said harbors, respectively; and generally the President is authorized to make such full and complete investigation as to determine the most feasible and practicable route across said isthmus for a canal, together with the cost of constructing the same and placing the same under the control, management, and ownership of the United States. Sec. 4. To enable the President to make the investigations and ascertainments herein provided for, he is hereby authorized to employ in said service any of the engineers of the United States Army at his discretion, and likewise to employ any engineers in civil life, at his discretion, and any other persons necessary to make such investigation, and to fix the compensation of any and all of such engineers and other persons. Sec 5. For the purpose of defraying the expenses necessary to be incurred in making the investigations herein provided for, there is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of one million dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to be disbursed by order of the President. Sec 6. That the President is hereby requested to report to Congress the results of such investigations, together with his recommendations in the premises. * * * * -H- * * Approved, March 3, 1899. Department of State, Washington., June 10, 1899. Rear-Admiral John G. Walker, U. S. N., retired, Member of the Interoceanic Canal Commission appointed tinder sections 3 and If. of the act of Congress approved March 3, 1899. Sir: The Congress of the United States passed at its recent session, and the President, on the 3d of March, 1899, approved, "An act making appropriations for the construction, repair, and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes," the third, fourth, and sixth sections of which read as follows: Sec. 3. That the President of the United States of America be, and he is hereby, authorized and empowered to make full and complete investigation of the Isthmus of Panama with a view to the construction of a canal by the United States across the same to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; that the President is authorized to make investigation of any and all practicable routes for a canal across said Isthmus of Panama, and particularly to investigate the two routes known, respectively, as the Nicaraguan route and the Panama route, with a view to determining the most prac- ticable and feasible route for such canal, together with the proximate and probable cost of constructing a canal at each of two or more of said routes; and the Presi- dent is further authorized to investigate and ascertain what rights, privileges, and franchises, if any, may be held and owned by any corporations, associations, or indi- viduals, and what work, if any, has been done by such corporations, associations, or individuals in the construction of a canal at either or any of said routes, and particu- larly at the so-called Nicaraguan and Panama routes, respectively; and likewise to ascertain the cost of purchasing all of the rights, privileges, and franchises held and owned by any such corporations, associations, and individuals in any and all of such routes, particularly the said Nicaraguan route and the said Panama route, and likewise to ascertain the probable or proximate cost of constructing a suitable harbor at each of the termini of said canal, with the probable annual cost of maintenance of said harbors, respectively. And generally the President is authorized to make such full and complete investigation as to determine the most feasible and practicable route across said isthmus for a canal, together with the cost of constructing the same and placing the same under the control, management, and ownership of the United States. Sec. 4. To enable the President to make the investigations and ascertainments herein provided for, he is hereby authorized to employ in said service any of the engineers of the United States Army at his discretion, and likewise to employ any engineers in civil life, at his discretion, and any other persons necessary to make such investigation, and to fix the compensation of any and all such engineers and other persons. Sec. 6. That the President is hereby requested to report to Congress the results of such investigations, together with his recommendations in the premises. The President, in pursuance of the provisions of this act, has appointed you one of the members of the Isthmian Canal Commission 11 12 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. provided for in it. You will be guided in the execution of the trust thus confided to you by the provisions of the act of Congress which I have quoted above, and your eminence in your profession is a sufficient guaranty of the energy and ability which the President is sure you will bring to the accomplishment of this task. At the same time your duties will not be limited by the terms of the act, but if any line of inquiry should suggest itself to you in the course of your work as being of interest or benefit, I am confident } T ou will not fail to give it whatever attention it may seem to deserve. The President trusts that the Commission will fulfill the important duties confided to them in such a manner that when their report is prepared it will embrace all the elements required for his own guidance and for the final action of Congress upon the subject of the location and construction of the interoceanic canal. I am, sir, with great respect, your obedient servant, John Hay. ORGANIZATION OF COMMISSION BY COMMITTEES, THE PRESIDENT BEING EX OFFICIO A MEMBER OF EACH COMMITTEE. For the investigation of the Nicaragua route: Mr. Noble. Mr. Burr. Colonel Hains. For the investigation of the Panama route: Mr. Burr. Mr. Morison. Lieutenant-Colonel Ernst. For the investigation of other possible routes: Mr. Morison. Mr. Noble. Colonel Hains. For the investigation of the industrial, commercial, and military value of an inter- oceanic canal: Mr. Johnson. Mr. Haupt. Mr. Pasco. For the investigation of rights, privileges, and franchises: Mr. Pascoe. Lieutenant-Colonel Ernst. Mr Johnson. Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, November 16, 1901. The President of the United States. Sir: The Isthmian Canal Commission having completed the investi- gations with which it was charged under the act of Congress approved March 3, 1899, and your instructions thereunder, communicated through the Secretary of State by letter of June 10, 1899, has the honor to submit the following report: Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. Organization of Com mis slon. The Commission was organized in the city of Washington, with Rear-Admiral John G. Walker as president, on the 15th day of June, 1899, and at a subsequent meeting, held on the 6th day of July, Lieut. Commander Sidney A. Staunton, of the United States Navy, was chosen as secre- tary. It at once entered upon its duties, taking as a guide the sections of the act of Congress entitled "An act making appropriations for the construction, repair, and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes," approved March 3, 1899, under which its members were appointed, and also the instructions commu- Instructlons. . 1A .,. nicated to them by the Secretary ot State in his letter of June 10, 1899. The investigations and ascertainments provided for in the law involved many different lines of inquiry, and in order to promote the progress of the work and procure the best results it was divided among several committees, each of which was to Committees. ° 7 take the lead in examining the particular subject intrusted to it; but before entering upon its special work each com- mittee was to prepare an outline of its plan of investigation and sub- mit it to the Commission for amendment or approval. The acts and conclusions of these committees were to be reported to the Commis- sion, subject to modification and amendment before approval and adoption, so that the final results and determinations represent not only the views and opinions of the several committees, but of the entire Commission. 13 14 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The following subjects of investigation were Subjects of Investigation. . . f 3 ° then determined upon, and each was referred to a separate committee, to be designated accordingly : The Nicaragua route. The Panama route. Other possible routes. The industrial, commercial, and military value of an interoceanic canal. Rights, privileges, and franchises. The president of the Commission was made ex officio a member of each of these committees. The two canal routes to which the attention of the Commission was specially directed by the law were in Nicaragua Appointment of chief j t» j l • j» • • j. i engineers. anc * " anama ) an d a chief engineer was appointed for each, to make his headquarters in the country and take the general control of the field operations to be inaugurated upon each line. After considering the results of surveys made in the past, it was judged best to limit the explorations in the search for other possible routes to that part of Colombia known as Darien, extending from Panama to the Atrato River, and a third chief engineer was appointed to direct the field work there. Competent assistants, whose education and train- an^sTn^^borerL aSSlSt " m £ had fitted them f or the special work to be done, were assigned to service under the chief engineers, and laborers, boatmen, and other workmen were emploj^ed wherever their services were required. In all 20 working parties were organized in Nicaragua, with 159 engineers and other assistants and 155 laborers; 5 in Panama, with 20 engineers and other assistants and 11 laborers; and 6 in Darien, with 51 engineers and other assistants and 112 laborers, making a total force of about 850, the number varying from time to time according to the requirements of the work. The chief engineers were directed, with the aid Directions for the work. . . ; of these working parties, to examine the geog- raphy, topography, hydrology, and other physical features of the dif- ferent countries and to make a special study of the routes in Nicaragua and Panama. The schemes already planned were to be thoroughly tested and further surveys were to be made, in order to vary the line and select better locations wherever the conditions were found to be unsatisfactory. A complete project was to be prepared for each route and the center line of a canal was to be marked upon the ground where it had not already been done. The cost of a canal in each country, according to these projects, could then be closely approximated, the advantages of each be compared, and an intelligent conclusion be reached as to which of the two routes is the more desirable from an engineering standpoint. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 15 This study involved examinations of the terminal harbors and approaches and the locations selected for dams, locks, and other aux- iliary works ; a series of borings to determine the nature of the sub- surface material at the sites for locks and dams and along the canal lines, and a continuance of the observations of rainfall and stream flow, and of the lake fluctuations in Nicaragua. Attention was also to be given to the supply of rock, timber, and other materials in each country available for purposes of construction and maintenance. The results of these examinations and observations and the data and material obtained were sent from time to time to the headquarters of the Commission at Washington, where they were arranged and entered upon the plats and profiles of the canals, under the direction of the committees, for examination and consideration in reaching their con- clusions and making their recommendations. On the 9th of August, 1899, the Commission left New York for Paris, where the New Panama Canal Company opened to its members its records, maps, plans, and profiles, and the results of the surveys made and the data collected by it and the old Panama Canal Company. Mr. Maurice Hutin, the director- general, Mr. L. Choron, the chief engineer, and other officers of the company received the commissioners with great courtesy and were ready at all times to assist them in making a study of this route in all its aspects. A special meeting of the Comite Technique was also called to give the commissioners such oral explanations as they might desire, some of its members coming from distant parts of "Europe for the purpose. While in Europe the Commission also visited and EaTpe' Tl8ltS WMle ,n examined the Kiel Canal in Germany, the North Sea Canal in Holland, and the Manchester Canal and Liverpool docks in England and returned to New York on the 29th of September. In accordance with the plan of investigation sorth t Am^rica! ntral ^ determined upon, a visit was afterwards made by the Commissioners to Central and South America. The purposes of this visit were to make a personal inspection of the entire canal lines in Nicaragua and Panama, examine the work already done by the parties in the field, give instructions as to its continuance, familiarize themselves with the local surroundings and physical fea- tures of the sections in which these routes are located, and gather such information as would promote the object for which the Commission was organized. They left New York on the 6th of January, 1900, for Greytown, Nicaragua. After spending a week in inspecting the harbor, the coast line near the eastern terminus of the canal, the work commenced by the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua, and the dredges, railroad plant, and other property it had 16 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. left there, they passed over the canal line from the mouth of the San Juan to Brito on the Pacific, stopping at the locations selected or deemed suitable for dams, locks, and other auxiliary works, and at other points where a careful examination was desirable, and making detours from the main line when necessary. From Brito they returned to the lake and proceeded to Managua, the capital, where they had several interviews with President Zela} r a, with reference to the con- struction of a navigable canal through Niearaguan territory by the United States. They were cor- dially welcomed by the President, and he expressed himself favorably with reference to the proposed maritime communication. They went from Managua to Corinto, and there took a steamer for Panama, where they arrived on the 3d of March. As the disturbed conditions in Colombia ren- ■ Panama. . . , . / ^ l dered it inadvisable for the Commission to at- tempt to meet the President at Bogota, the State Department, at the request of this Commission, communicated with the Colombian authori- ties through the United States minister there and asked that a repre- sentative of the Government be appointed to meet the commissioners when they reached the country and give them such information and assistance relative to their mission as he conveniently could. In ac- cordance with this request Mr. J. T. Ford, the consulting engineer of the Republic in technical matters connected with the Panama Canal, was assigned to this duty. He met them in this official capacity on their arrival at Panama, courteousl} r expressed an entire willingness to aid them in their investigations, and accompanied them from day to day upon their visits to different points upon the canal line and else- where during their stay upon the isthmus. Fifteen days were spent in the department of Panama, during which an investigation of the route from sea to sea was made, as had been done in Nicaragua. The work was greatly facilitated by the local officers of the New Panama Canal Company, who placed two houses in Colon at the service of the commissioners, furnished a special train each day to take them from point to point as the work progressed, permitted them to use their maps and plans, informed them as to the work then going on, accompanied them in their inspection of the line, and exhibited to them the plant and materials purchased by the old canal company for construction purposes, much of which was stored in sheds and warehouses at different points on the isthmus. During this period the commissioners went over the entire line of the* canal from Colon to Panama, and examined the sites for the differentiauxil- iary works. This included a trip to the upper waters of the Chagres, in the Alhajuela region, and they returned in boats, so as to have an opportunity of seeing the river. The Commission is indebted to Mr. Louis Royer, director on the REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 17 isthmus of the New Panama Canal Company, and to Col. J. R. Shaler, superintendent of the Panama Railroad Company, for courteous attentions. On the 16th of March Mr. George S. Morison Visit of Mr. Morison to ir-i.ii. j.u tt o o o • DarlolK left the party on the U. S. b. Scorpion to ascer- tain the progress of the explorations in Darien, with full authority to give instructions as to the continuance of the work according to the conditions which he might find upon reaching the camps of the different working parties. The The Scorpion. . i i , • i , , -Tt -tv scorpion had been assigned by the Navy Depart- ment to aid in the search for other possible routes in Darien, and was commanded h\ Lieut. Commander Nathan Sargent, United States Navy, who rendered valuable assistance in the explorations made in that section, and met the responsibilities which rested upon him credita- bly and successfully. From Colon the majority of the commissioners Costa tilca. went to Limon, in Costa Rica. Here a special San Jose. . . *■ train was placed at their disposal to convey them to San Jose, the capital. During the week that they spent in this city they conferred freety with President Iglesias upon the subject of an interoceanic canal and the use of the territory of the Republic, as far as necessary, in case the United States should desire to use the Nicaragua route. The President manifested a deep interest in the canal project and expressed the hope that it would be successfully accomplished. In the absence of Mr. William L. Merry, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, accredited to Nicaragua as well as to Costa Rica, the Commission was greatly aided in accomplishing the purposes of its visits at San Jose b}^ Mr. Ruf us A. Lane, secretary of legation and charge d'affaires, and at Managua by Mr. Chester Donaldson, United States consul. The members of the Commission are also indebted to these gentlemen for many personal courtesies which were highly appreciated. After returning to the United States, the Com- Dlraenslons and unit prices. . ° mission took up for consideration certain ques- tions relating to canal construction, which had to be determined before completing the projects, preparing the plans, and making the calcula- tions and estimates for the principal work at each route and its auxil- iaries. The most important of these were the dimensions of such a canal as was contemplated, its locks and other works, the best method of constructing the dams and the materials to be used, and the unit prices of work and materials. The settlement of these questions required a knowledge not only of vessels then in use but of those which were being constructed and planned, so as to form a correct judgment as to what the shipping interests will demand by the time S D— 57-1— Vol 7 2 18 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. a canal can be completed; also the cost of excavating and removing vast quantities of earth and rock, at different depths and under differ- ent conditions, by using the most satisfactory methods and the latest improvements and inventions in machinery. The conclusions reached were used in making the subsequent plans, computations, and estimates. Besides these questions of a preliminary char- ered '" qUeS 10nS CM1S " a °ter, which related to the engineering features of the canals, there were others which had to be con- sidered. Among them were the treaty relations which the Republics, within whose boundaries these canal routes are situated, hold toward the United States and other powers; the grants and concessions made by them to corporations, associations, and individuals, and the cost of purchasing those still in force; the industrial and military value of an interoceanic canal; the cost of operation and maintenance at each route; also the liability of seismic and other disturbances in the isth- mian country and their probable effect upon a canal and its auxiliaiy works when completed and in operation. A second visit was made to Nicaragua by Mr. su-arag™. *"" N ° M ' *° Alfred Noble to make some special examinations, inspect the work of the parties in the field, and give them such further information as he deemed proper. He left New York February 16, 1901, and returned March 26. The different working parties were disbanded as they finished their work, the laborers were at once discharged, and the engineers and other assistants were brought back to the United States, where some of them have since been employed in office work in Washington under the direction of the Commission. The field work was not com- pleted till June, 1901, when the last detachment of assistants returned from Nicaragua. The results of all these investigations and the final conclusions of the Commission are embraced in different chapters of this report. In order that these chapters may not be incumbered with matter which is useful mainly for reference, verification, and special study, many of the papers, documents, treaties, concessions, grants, special reports, and discussions mentioned in the text are attached as appendixes and are appro- priately designated so that eas} T reference may be made to them when their examination is desired. _ , , . . In order to present a fuller view of the indus- Spcrlal report on Indus- r trial and commercial value trial and commercial value of an isthmian canal than could be conveniently done within the limits of the report of the Commission, Prof. Emory R. Johnson, a member of the Commission, whose previous studies had qualified him to deal with these questions, was requested to make a thorough investigation of this subject and present the results in a special report. This has REPORT OB" THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 19 been done, and it i.s submitted in connection with this report, accom- panied by appropriate charts and diagrams. The report is also accompanied by maps of the canal routes and the countries where they are loca- ted, charts of the terminal harbors, plans and profiles of the projects, sketches and views taken at different points along and in the vicinity of the canal lines, and diagrams and other representations for purposes of description and explanation. A chapter has also been included, giving a his- tory of the early efforts to find a waterway to the Orient, of the transit routes used and established across the American isthmus, when no strait could be found there connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and of the different plans for establishing an arti- ficial maritime communication. The explorations and researches of the past have developed the projects which now exist, and it is believed that this account will add to the value and completeness of the report and be in harmony with the purposes of the investigation. Chapter II. HISTORY OF INTEROCEANIC PROJECTS AND COMMUNICATIONS. During the fifteenth century the subject of a maritime communica- tion with the countries and people in the far East engaged the earnest attention of many enterprising and thoughtful men in the European States bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean in the belief and expectation that a more direct route to those distant lands would result in greatly increasing the interchange of produc- tions which had for many centuries contributed to the wealth of the Western nations, notwithstanding the difficulties and disadvantages under which commercial intercourse had been maintained. During this period the art of navigation was largely and contin- uously developed, the mariner's compass was evolved from the electric needle, the properties of which had long been known, rough instru- ments were devised for ascertaining and determining the position of vessels upon the great deep, and the mariner began to venture beyond the sight of familiar landmarks; the Portuguese resolutely pushed forward their explorations southward along and near the west side of Africa, new capes and headlands and river mouths were passed, and islands and groups of islands distant from the coast line were discov- ered, some by those who were driven from their course, others by the more daring who steered from the land and risked for a while the dangers of the open sea. The diffusion of the geographic knowledge thus gained and the constant improvement in nautical appliances and charts inspired increased confidence in the theory of the maritime communication and its ultimate discovery, and, in the latter part of the century, brave navigators and seamen voluntarily entered upon long vo} 7 ages, through untried seas, in search of new pathways, east- ward and westward, to India, China, and the spice islands, under the patronage of enlightened monarchs, who, in addition to their desire to advance the commercial interests of their people, hoped and expected that new possessions, abounding in wealth, would be added to their dominions. It is claimed that Africa had been circumnavigated and was known to be a great peninsula many centuries before the Christian era. Herodotus states that Pharaoh Necho, who reigned in Egypt from 016 to 600 B. C. , sent out an expedition from the Red Early voyages. . J , - , . Sea to explore its coast, which passed around the continent, sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar, and in the third year 20 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 21 returned to Egypt by the Mediterranean. But the evidence upon which this and other early voyages rest is scarcely more than tradi- tional and they left no permanent impressions and were followed by no practical results. But if there was a sea route to India eastward it was surely in this direction, and the Portuguese had been persistent JSS^SS^ST in theil \ efforts to discover it. By 1486 their explorations along the west coast of Africa had extended to about the twentieth degree of south latitude. In 1487 an expedition was sent out by John II, under the command of Bar- tholemew Dias, to continue the explorations until the southern point of the continent should be reached. Near Cape Voltas, on the south- ern bank of Orange River, he met tempestuous weather and was driven far below the cape of which he was in search without seeing it. When he regained the land he advanced easterly as far as a point he named Santa Cruz, near Algoa Bay, where he raised a stone cross, as had been done at other points along the coast, in proof of the fact that he claimed the country for his king. The cape was not seen till he sailed homeward, and in memory of the trying circumstances under which he had gone by it on the outward voyage he named it the Stormy Cape, but King John, in full belief that Cape of (lood Hope (lis- ,i , .-, -17, -,. . -, coye J. ed the gateway to the East was now open, directed that it should be called the Cape of Good Hope. Notwithstanding the general rejoicing over the successful voyage nade by Dias, this hope was not realized till eleven years later. Vari- ous causes delayed the sending out of another expedition, but at length Vasco de Gama sailed with four vessels to follow Atrill to incmT At0Um U P ^ e resu lt s already obtained and, if practi- cable, to proceed to the eastern countries. He left Lisbon July 8, 1497, passed safely around the southernmost point of Africa, crossed the Indian Ocean, touching at various points on his way, and on the 17th of May, 1498, sighted the high land on the coast of India. Three days later he anchored his fleet before Calicut on the Malibar coast. After an eventful voyage he returned to Portugal in August or September, 1499, and was received with distinguished honors and magnificent displays. Two of his vessels and more than half of his men had been lost, but the great problem of opening a maritime communication with the eastern countries had been solved and the most sanguine expectations that had been indulged in were more than realized. Portugal improved the opportunities which this Results of maritime com- , j. ■. ., ,... munication with orient. g reat discovery opened; other expeditions were sent by this new route to the Orient; every sea was entered and every coast explored; she planted her colonies and trading stations wherever desirable locations were found; her arms 22 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. were everywhere triumphant; her ship* opened and maintained a lucrative commerce with India, China, and the Spice Islands. This commerce stimulated her home industries and brought vast wealth to the Kingdom, and for nearly half a century she enjoyed wonderful prosperity and power and held a foremost place among the nations of Europe. But before the discovery of the eastern commu- nication had been completed the studies of Colum- bus had convinced him that the same countries could be more speedily reached by sailing westward. He had no correct idea of the size of the world nor of the distance from Europe to the Asiatic coast and the neighboring islands, but supposed that it was several thousand miles less than it afterwards proved to be. He reached this conclusion from the delineations upon the rude maps of the world then in existence, based upon actual geographic knowledge when it was available, and when it was wanting upon hearsay and imagination and conjecture. When he embarked, under the auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella, at Palos on the 3d day of August, 1492, upon the voyage which resulted in the discovery of America, it was with the confident expectation that a favorable result would carry him to the eastern shores of the Old World or to some island in those regions which might lie across the track of his vessels. He was therefore not disappointed when he dis- covered island after island but not the mainland, and be believed that by sailing beyond these the continent could be found. When upon his second voyage he passed along the southern coast of Cuba, in 1494, he announced that it was some part of the Old World far remote from Europe, and his officers and crew joined in certifying their belief in this opinion. When he felt obliged to turn back, he still believed that if he could continue his voyage in the same direction some port would in the end be reached whence he could communicate with the Grand Khan of Tartary, to whom Ferdinand had given him letters. On his third voyage, in 1498, he discovered South America, near the delta of the Orinoco. He named it Tierra Firma and regarded it as another part of the Asiatic continent. When he left Spain in 1502, on his fourth and last voyage, his intention was to go still farther westward and endeavor to find a strait that would lead to India. He would thus com- plete his great discovery and demonstrate the correctness of the theo- ries upon which his expeditions had been undertaken. He reached Honduras and followed the coast line to Darien, but long-continued and severe storms, the hostile attitude of the Indians, and the dis- couragement of his followers interfered with his plans and progress, and with sorrow and regret he turned toward Hispaniola with his shattered ships before he had accomplished the long-hoped-for result, in which, however, his faith had not abated. When he died, on the 26th day of May, 1506, he was still fully satisfied that his discoveries REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 23 were in the eastern part of the Old World and never fully realized the extent and grandeur of his achievements. The success of these voyages aroused the activ- Other expeditions west- « x » ji •• j t^ 1 i m j ward tor discovery. ]t y oi other nations, and England, b ranee, and Portugal vied with Spain in this field of enter- prise and adventure. Each expedition returned with reports of additional discoveries, northward and southward, from Labrador to Brazil, but no strait was found which opened a wa} r to the Asiatic coast, and it began to be realized that these newly found islands and countries did not belong to the Eastern continent, but that a new world had been discovered. Strong confirmatory proof in support of this Balboa discovers the Pa- • j* j i • o i -< k-i r. 1 tr clfl( , view was afforded in September, 1513, by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, then governor of a province in Darien known as Castilla del Oro. The Indians had told him of a great sea beyond the mountains, and he determined to organize an expedition and go in search of it. He crossed from Santa Maria de la Antigua, the capital of his province, a city founded in 1509 or 1510, near the Atrato River, to a point near Caledonia Bay, where Acla was afterwards built; thence he proceeded with a considerable force of Spaniards and Indians across the divide, and on the 25th day of the month reached a high ridge above the gulf which he named San Mi- guel. Advancing beyond his companions to a favorable elevation, he was the first European to behold the great ocean to the south, which he called the South Sea, from the direction in which he viewed it. The march was continued to the coast, and four days later he entered the sea and with great ceremony claimed it by the right of discovery for his royal master, the King of Spain. Before the news of this great achievement reached the King, Balboa had been superseded as .governor, through the efforts of his enemies, by Pedro Arias de Avila, better known as Pedrarias. This was a bitter disappointment to him, for the Indians had Balboa hears from In- j. i i u • i_ i- ij.i-.li ji • l. dians of gold southward. told him when he crossed the isthmus of a rich country to the south, abounding in the precious metals, and he had planned the construction of a fleet to navigate the new sea, confident of his abilit} 7 to discover this country and make him- self master of its wealth. The accomplishment of these results twenty years later by Pizarro, who was with Balboa upon his famous expedi- tion, shows that his plans and expectations were not unreasonable. When Ferdinand received the report that a great Plans expedition south- i ii- • ■ ,i iiii ward for gold. sea > beyond his possessions in the new world, had been added to his empire he desired to recognize the importance of the event by bestowing suitable honors upon the dis- coverer, but was not willing to restore him to the governorship. The reward came in 1515, when Balboa was appointed adelantado of the 24 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Southern Sea and captain-general, but these distinction were to be enjoyed under the supervision of Pedrarias as his superior. In the following year the adelantado obtained the consent of the governor to enter upon the long desired voyage and he established his head- quarters on the north side of Caledonia Bay, at his former starting point, where he laid out the town of Acla. The expedition required ships on the opposite side of the isthmus and he undertook their con- struction. Suitable trees were abundant only on the Atlantic side, and he con- ceived the project of preparing all his materials there and transport- ing them over the mountain range on the backs -ESSSE? "" "* !»>>»«. '<> b <= P"t together at some navigable point on one of the streams flowing into the waters of the South Sea. The place selected was on a river, then called Rio de las Balsas, or River of the Rafts, probably the same as the Savana, though the authorities are not agreed. Thousands of Indians were brought together from all directions, materials for four brigantines were prepared, and the work was carried forward under merciless taskmasters, Spaniards and negroes. When the builders began to put the timbers together, many of them were found to be worm-eaten, and a new lot had to be prepared; then a tempest arose, and the deluging rains swept away the materials and buried them with mud in the swamps and low grounds. Balboa with unshaken resolu- tion sent out the woodcutters again, and dispatched parties for fresh supplies of provisions, and others to forage on the natives to satisfy the immediate wants of his force. For months the Indians continued their unac- ^toii and suffering of m- customed toilj through swamps, across streams, over mountain heights, ill fed, under a tropical sun, and if made desperate by their hardships and sufferings any tried to escape bloodhounds were put on their tracks. Bishop Quevado testified before the Spanish court that 500 poor wretches perished in this work, while Las Casas Transit of Isthmus. 111 n, Ann • i_ T"> i. says the deaths were nearer 2,000 in number. But the undertaking was accomplished, the four brigantines, in separate pieces, were carried from sea to sea, put together on the Balsas, and Balboa selected Isla Rica, the largest of the Pearl Islands, as his ren- dezvous, and frequent journeys were made thither from Acla in con- nection with the arrangements for the expedition. A short trip was made to the eastward and the little fleet returned to Isla Rica ready for the southern voyage; but before he set out Balboa was summoned by Pedrarias to Acla, charged with treasonable Execution of Balboa. ^ , ., ,. « „ , . , conduct, and, after the form ot a trial, was con- demned and beheaded in the latter part of 1517. Thus closed the. career of the brave and unfortunate man who first marked out a line of transit across the isthmus and demonstrated its practicability. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 25 Meanwhile the search for a westward waterway t<> the eastern side of the old continent had been continued, and after many fruitless efforts its existence was finally demonstrated by Voyage of Magellan. , ■ ^ b erdinand Magellan, twenty years alter the famous voyage of Vasco de Gama around the Cape of Good Hope to India, and the result was accomplished, as in the case of the eastern passage, by sailing around the southern point of the continent and not by a strait connecting the two oceans farther north. Magellan was a Portuguese navigator in the service of Charles V, the successor of Ferdinand upon the Spanish throne. He set sail from San Lucar de Barrameda on the 20th of September, 1519, with five ships, reached the mouth of the La Plata, sailed Discovers strait. i i i . -r. -it southerly along the coast of Patagonia, and dis- covered the strait which still bears his name, which separates the island of Terra del Fuego from the mainland. He supposed this island belonged to a southern continent, and this view prevailed until 1616, when two Dutch navigators, Van Schouten and Le Maire, found the passage around Cape Horn. Magellan successfully worked his way through the strait and on the 28th of November, 1520, found the great sea beyond, which he named the Pacific Ocean, on account of the fine weather which he experienced there. His crews were discouraged and mutinous and his provisions ran short, but with undaunted resolution he continued his voyage toward the Asiatic coast, making additional discoveries on his way, until he reached the Philippine Islands. There, on the island of Matan, near Zebu, he lost his life in an encounter with the natives on the 27th of April, 1521. One vessel had been wrecked on the eastern coast of Patagonia, another deserted the expedition and sailed homeward after the western opening of the strait had been dis- covered but before its passage, arid a third became unseaworthy and was burned at the Moluccas. The two remaining separated after the death of Magellan. The Trinidad sailed for Panama and the Victory returned homeward around the Cape of Good Hope and reached San Lucar, the port from which the expedition had started three years before, on the 6th of September, 1522, under the command of John Sebastian del Cano, having on board only 18 of the 265 persons who had embarked with Magellan. Espinosa, captain of the Trinidad, and three of his men returned to Spain five years later in a Portuguese vessel. The voy- age to Panama had been abandoned in consequence of continued storms, and the Trinidad returned to the Moluccas and was seized by the Portuguese. It finally reached Ternate, a small island of this group, where it went ashore in a squall and went to pieces. For the first time a continuous voyage had been made World oircumnavierated. - .. , around toe world, and a new maritime route had been found to the $x£ etisie'-ri countries a»id islands in both direc- tions, but this western passage did not reduce the" dhs'tsnce nor satisfy 26 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the wishes of those who sought a direct way thither by the discovery of a connecting strait along the coast line of the new continent. Though all previous attempts had been baffled, the belief in the exist- ence of such a strait was not entirely abandoned, and efforts to discover it were still prosecuted, but they were mainly confined to the isthmian section, from Mexico to Darien, where it had been developed that the two oceans were least widely separated. After Charles V came to the throne of Spain in thanes t is interested in 151 g he too k g reat interest in the exploration of discovery of interoceanic irijiniji-i- <• communication. the South Sea and the discovery ot a connecting strait. He charged the governors of his American provinces to have the entire coast line thoroughly examined and every bay and river mouth that offered a possible solution of the problem was entered and explored. In 1523 the Emperor wrote from Valladolid to Cortes to make careful search for the passage which would connect the eastern and western shores of the New World and shorten by two- thirds the route from Cadiz to Cathay. Cortes, in replying, assured him that his wishes would be diligently carried out, and that he had great hopes of success, adding that such a discovery "would render the King of Spain master of so many kingdoms that he might call himself lord of the world." It was in accordance with this policy that Gil ^Gll Gonzales sent to Fa- Gonzales de Ayila wag sent Qut f rom Spain to succeed Balboa, with instructions to search along the coast of the South Sea for the western opening of a strait con- necting with the Atlantic. He had authority to use the vessels that Balboa had constructed, but Pedrarias refused to deliver them to him, and in order to carry out the royal commands he took to pieces the two caravels in which he and his followers crossed tZZSZSZT* the ocean, transported them across the isthmus along the route used by Balboa, and rebuilt them at the Balsas on the Pacific side. These were lost, and he constructed others with which he sailed northward along the coast from the Bay of Panama in January, 1522, until they were found to be unseaworthy. They were repaired and the exploration was continued to the Bay of Fonseca, but Gil Gonzales proceeded by land with 4 horses and 100 men and discovered Lake Nicaragua, which he ^Discovers Lake Mcar- ^ ^^ Nicara()j & cMef whom he met ftt or near the present site of Rivas and from whom he at first received kind treatment. He found the country rich in gold, and took formal possession of it for his sovereign. Afterwards, encountering serious opposition from the Indians, he retreated to the coast and was so fortunate as to meet tjbe. vessels on their return voy- age after an unsuccessful search for the strait, When they reached Panama the news soon spread that a great inland sea had been dis- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 27 covered only a few leagues from the Pacific. Pcdrarias claimed that it was within the limits of his jurisdiction and at once undertook its conquest. He established a city at Granada, near Ufc^icuwra^ 11 '" t ne shore °f the lake, and reduced the Indians to subjection. It was at first reported that there was an opening from the lake to the South Sea, but a care- ful examination of the surrounding- country failed to develop such a connecting channel. Among the early settlers was Capt. Diego Machaca-s expedition Machuca, who, in 1529, undertook a thorough from Lake Mraniurua down exploration of Lake Nicaragua and its eastern out- let. A felucca and brigantine were constructed on its shores and were placed under his command with 200 men and some canoes. His land force kept within reach of his flotilla and he entered the Desaguadero River, now the San Juan, and attempted its pas- sage. He found the navigation difficult in places Rapids in the San Juan. & fe . » , because of the rapids, and those in one part of the river still bear his name. Overcoming all difficulties, he reached the Atlantic, but was uncertain as to the locality, and kept along the coast with his vessels in a southeasterly direction till he reached the Spanish settlement at Nombre de Dios. At a later period sea vessels passed regularly up and down the river, making voyages between Granada and Spain, Cuba and South America. This commerce was maintained as late as 1637, according to Thomas Gage, an English monk, who visited Nicaragua in that year, but there were delays and difficulties in passing the rapids. While efforts were being made to find a maritime channel between the two oceans which washed the shores of the Spanish provinces in the new world, the importance of a permanent communication across the isthmus by land was not overlooked. Soon isthmus. P ° Stb a ° r0SS a ^er the discovery by Balboa, Ferdinand ordered that a line of posts be established from sea to sea, and the plan was carried out by his successor. Acla was first selected as the Atlantic terminus, but it was afterwards determined that it was too far to the east, and in 1519 Nombre de Dios was founded and the Atlantic port was there established. After an examination of the Pacific coast, the site of old Panama was fixed upon as a suitable place to establish a city upon the western side of the isthmus. A set- tlement was commenced there in August, 1517, and Panama founded. , ° ' 1 in September, 1521, it was made a city by royal decree, with special privileges and a coat of arms. It became the Pacific terminus of the line of posts, and a road was at once con- structed between the two cities, crossing the Construction of road r^-i . ^ rnl . -, . ,, . across isthmus. Cnagres at Cruces. This road was cut through the forests, the trees often being used to make the swamps passable; bridges were laid across the streams, and rocks were 28 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. removed from their beds to make the passage over the mountains less difficult. The way was paved, and according to some accounts was onl}- wide enough for riders and beasts of burden, but Peter Martyr says that two carts could pass one another upon it. In 1597 Porto Bello was made the eastern port of entry instead of Nombre de Dios. It had a better harbor, was easier of access, was well supplied with fresh water the year round, was nearer to Panama, and the location was more healthy than Nombre de Dios, which had frequently been denounced in memorials to the Spanish court as " the sepulcher of Spaniards.* 1 In 1534, or soon after that date, a route by water for boats and light- draft vessels was established from Nombre de Dios along the coast and up the Chagres to Cruces. This was accomplished by removing obstructions which had interfered with the navigation of the river, but the use of the paved way was not discontinued. The value of this interoceanic communication increased every year. After the conquest of Pizarro vast quantities of gold and silver were brought from the mines of Peru to Panama, car- mus mil,erCe lCr0SS S " rie ^ across the isthmus on the king's horses, kept for that purpose, and transported from the eastern terminus of the paved way in royal galleons to Spain. As the Spanish colonies and provinces increased in population the commerce and travel across the isthmus grew in importance. At cer- Fairs at Cartagena tain t mies when vessels were due from Spain fairs Nombre de Dios, and Porto were held at Cartagena and Nombre de Dios, and later at Porto Bello, which were attended by the merchants of the Spanish Main and the countries bordering upon the Pacific. Caravans from Panama crossed to the Atlantic terminus with products to be disposed of at these fairs. With the proceeds such manufactured articles as were needed by the colonists and settlers were purchased from the Spanish ships and distributed at Panama after recrossing the isthmus, many of them going to Peru and Central America, where the abundance of gold assured a ready and profitable market. The commerce of the isthmus increased during Prosperity of Panama. the century and Panama became a place of great mercantile importance, with a profitable trade extending to the Spice Islands and the Asiatic coast. It was at the height of its prosperity in 1585, and was called with good reason the tollgate between western Europe and eastern Asia. Meanwhile the commerce, whose tolls only brought such benefits to Panama, enriched Spain, and her people were generously rewarded for the aid given by Ferdinand and Isabella in the effort to open a direct route westward to Cathay, notwithstanding the disadvantages of the isthmian transit. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 29 Another of the early transits across the isthmian country was at Tehuantepcc. When Cortes was instructed by Ti'huantepcc * , ^ Charles V to search tor the desired strait he pro- ceeded with his usual energy to carry out the wishes of the Emperor. He had obtained from Montezuma in 1520 a description of the country to the south, with a drawing of the gulf coast representing the bays and rivers. The indications at the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos appearing favorable, he had it examined and, though no strait was discovered, the isthmus presented advantages for transit which he found service- able in his subsequent operations. When he had in search oT'tniir °" S completed the conquest of Mexico he sent out ves- sels to explore the coast in all directions, along the Pacific as well as the Gulf of Mexico, and in 1527 he sent an expedi- tion to the Moluccas, hoping to establish a direct trade with those regions. The forests of Tarifa, on the Atlantic slope, supplied abun- dance of timber suitable for shipbuilding, and it was transported to each coast to be used in both seas. With timber from this source he constructed vessels on the coast near Tehuantepec for his expeditions in the Pacific, the other materials being carried from the Gulf of Mexico across the isthmus. The most important result of the coast- wise explorations was the discovery of the Gulf of California and the adjacent peninsula, but neither along the shore of this gulf nor else- where upon the Pacific side did any channel open a passage to the Atlantic. But though Cortes failed to find the strait, the course he marked, up the Coatzacoalcos, across the dividing ridge, and down the Pacific slope to Tehuantepec, became an important route of communication between the Atlantic and Pacific. A port and extensive works were established at the western terminus, and a profitable trade was opened and maintained with the Spanish provinces on the Pacific and with the countries and islands in and near the eastern part of Asia on the one side and with the Atlantic ports and Spain on the other. The importance of a maritime connection and the discouraging results of the efforts to discover a natural channel between the two oceans suggested to many minds_the idea of a ship canal, and the successful transits at the different points mentioned and the relatively short distance across the isthmus at each caused them to be regarded at an early period as favorable locations for canal routes. Tehuantepec, Nicaragua, Panama, and Darien each had its advocates. According to one authority Charles V directed that the isthmus of Panama be surveyed with this purpose in view as early as 1520. In February, 1534, a royal decree was confirmed directing that the space between the Chagres and the Pacific be examined by experienced men 30 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION and that they ascertain the best and most convenient means of effecting a communication between the navigable waters of Survey of Isthmus of ^ r[ d th ocean Rnd the difficulties to be Panama. met in the execution of such a project. The gov- ernor, Pascual Andagoya, reported that such a work was impracti- cable, and that no king, however powerful he might be, was capable of forming a junction of the two seas or of furnishing the means of carrying out such an undertaking. Charles abdicated the throne of Spain in 1555 and was succeeded by his son, Philip II, who reigned till 1598. Under the Policy of Philip II. i.i v £ a l i • j u A new monarch the policy ot the kingdom changed, the search for the strait was abandoned, the number of ports through which the gold and silver from the mines of his American provinces flowed to Spain was limited, and the project of a ship canal between the two oceans, across the American peninsula, was no longer prose- cuted. While these new possessions opened a constantly widening field for commerce and furnished an inexhaustible supply of the precious metals, why seek for or construct a maritime communica- tion through the continent into the ocean beyond for other explora- tions in the hope of new discoveries? Here was actual fruition. Why waste effort and time and money ♦in regions still more remote, where all was uncertainty? Besides, an opening through the isthmus would afford rival nations favorable opportunities to visit the shores of the new possessions, gain information as to their resources and advantages, and invite aggression and conquest in case of war. It was also urged that the opening of a canal through the isthmus would be in opposition to the will of the Almighty, who had placed this barrier in the way of navigation between the two oceans, and they who should attempt to remove it would incur the Divine dis- pleasure. The Atrato region offered favorable conditions for a transit, particularly for the commerce between Peru and the Spanish main. Some of its tributaries take their rise far to the south and near the Pacific coast, but the policy of Philip prevented the establishment of a channel of communication there, and the naviga- tion of the river was forbidden under penalty of death. This policy adopted by Philip II continued for two centuries after his death. The subject of a maritime connection was an attractive one and was often discussed. In connection with it explorations were made from time to time and much geographic and topographic infor- mation relating to the Spanish provinces in the isthmian country was collected, but it was not published to the world, and if any scientific data valuable for canal purposes were obtained they were not availa- ble when the subject was revived in the nineteenth century and the question of the feasibility of the different projects began to receive serious consideration. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 31 The most notable event relating to the connec- Paterson's colony at New ■• j> ,i > u • u 1 1 -i ii • Caledonia. tion °* ™ie two oceans which occurred while this policy of King Philip was maintained was the attempt of William Paterson to establish a Scotch colony in Darien. In 1695 the Scotch Parliament passed an act authorizing the formation of a company to trade from Scotland to Africa and the Indies. It received the royal sanction June 26, 1695, and William III issued let- ters patent to carry out the terms of the act. The company organized under this authority is generally known as the Darien Company, and in July, 1698, it sent out an expedition from Edinburgh with three ships and two tenders, having 1,200 men on board, with the intention of set- tling on the American isthmus. William Paterson was the originator of this scheme. He had become acquainted with the advantages of the Darien section while engaged as a merchant in the West Indies, and from a knowledge of the movements and exploits of the buccaneers. The vessels arrived safely at Darien and anchored in a bay which they called Caledonia Bay, a name it still retains. The colonists entered into friendly relations with the Indians and bought lands from them. They named the country Caledonia and established a settlement, which they called New Edinburgh, on a small peninsula, which formed a harbor, which still bears the name of Port Escoces. A fort was built for the protection of the settlement, which they named New St. Andrews, and a channel was cut across the peninsula, so that the sea might encompass the city and fort. While no attempt was made to construct a canal or to open a commu- nication with the South Sea, the patent under which the company was organized authorized colonies to be planted in Asia, Africa, or America, and Paterson's plan contemplated the ultimate establishment of settle- ments and ports on both oceans, so as to open commercial connections with all parts of the world. One of the first acts of the colonial gov- ernment was to declare freedom of trade to those Paterson's plans for In- <• n ,• i • . , i i .,, ,, teroceanic communication. ot a11 nations who might be concerned with them, and full and free liberty of conscience in matters of religion. The success of this first colony would have been fol- lowed by efforts to establish others on the Pacific side, with which a transit route would then have been opened, but the colonists became discouraged, the supply of provisions failed, a vessel sent out with fresh stores foundered off Cartagena, the unhealthf ulness of the cli- mate filled their hospitals and graveyard, and in less than eight c ... . . . . months the survivors abandoned the settlement, Settlement abandoned. ' and only a small remnant lived to return to Scot- land. Other vessels were sent out with more emigrants before these disasters were known, others followed them a few months later, and fresh attempts were made to establish a permanent colony, but with no better results. In addition to their other troubles and misfor- 32 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. tunes, Spain protested that her territory was being invaded, and a military force was sent to drive them from the country. The few survivors at length capitulated, and after the loss of more than 2,000 lives and the expenditure of vast sums of money the company aban- doned the promising scheme which Paterson had planned and inau- gurated. During this period communication between the two seas was main- tained at the locations already mentioned. As Panama declined in importance much of its business was transferred to Nicaragua. The shortest distance from ocean to ocean was in the Xrnusit routes Darien section. The general course marked out by Balboa was followed by the buccaneers in some of their incursions against the Spanish settlements and posts in the seventeenth century. Captain Sharp crossed here when he made his successful attack in 1680 upon Villa Maria on the Tu} 7 ra River, but no continuous transit was ever maintained, probably because of the fierce jndia„ s hostile to Spa.,- and persistent hostility of the Indians toward the Spaniards. They aided the buccaneers because they were warring against their special enemies and not because they wanted white men to enter their borders. The Indians in this section were never subdued, though forts and strongholds and mission sta- tions were from time to time established on Caledonia Bay and at other points on the Atlantic side and on the rivers emptying into the Gulf of San Miguel. They had secret passes through the mountains, caves in which their canoes could be safely concealed, trails from their vil- lages by which they could pass f reel} 7 from point to point, and a system of signals by which the} 7 could give notice of the movements and approach of their enemies; with these advantages they often made successful raids upon the Spanish settlements, slaughtered the gar- risons, and destroyed their works. Under the administration of Andres de Ariza, Ariza's road In Darien. . , __, who became governor of the province in 1774, a determined effort was made to bring the Indians under subjection to the Spanish. Military posts were again established on both sides of the isthmus; Puerto Principi, on the Savana River, was fortified and garrisoned, and a trail was cut thence to the Chucunaque, near the mouth of the La Paz, which was afterwards known as Ariza's road. It was deemed best to connect these posts on the Atlantic and Pacific by a military road, and with this purpose in view a reconnaissance was made from Caledonia Bay across the divide to the terminus of Ariza's road, under the direction of Manuel Milla de Santa Ella, who found that it was practicable. But the Indians objected to the occupation of their country for this purpose and threatened resistance. Their oppo- sition was so serious that the plan was abandoned, and no regular com- munication between the two coasts was ever accomplished. The REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 33 Spaniards became satisfied that their supremacy yielded them no advan- tages commensurate with its cost, and in 1790 Spaniards .bandon their d . to ^. with th India j which nillllnry posts. •> ' J they agreed to abandon their military posts and withdraw from the country. Toward the latter part of the eighteenth century Examination or t,.„.:„,. there was a revival of interest in the subject of a tepee route. J maritime communication between the two oceans through the American isthmus. Some pieces of ancient bronze can- non in the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, at Vera Cruz, in Mexico, were accidentally discovered in 1771 to have been cast in Manila, in the Philippine Islands. It seemed improbable that they had been trans- ported thither by water around either continent, as the only commer- cial intercourse with the islands had been through the Pacific port of Tehuantepec The subject was investigated and it was satisfactorily proved by old records and traditions among the inhabitants of the isthmus that the cannon had been transported from Tehuantepec to the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos by the route established in the days of Cortez. This transit had long been abandoned, but the remembrance of its former importance had been preserved, though in the lapse of time the difficulties and obstructions attending the passage had been forgotton. The viceroy of Mexico, in the hope that it would afford a favorable location for a canal, determined to have the country examined, so as to ascertain its topography and the practicability of opening a maritime communication between the two oceans, and two engineers, Augustin-Cramer and Miguel del Corral, were directed to survey the isthmus and report the result of their investigations. They made an exploration up the Coatzacoalcos and found that its source was not near Tehuantepec, as they had been led to suppose; nor did any river have a channel flowing into each ocean. Instead of a river communication they found a range of mountains of considerable height between the headwaters of the streams emptying into opposite seas. In one place they reported that the mountains formed a group rather than a continuous chain, and that a valley- existed, through which a canal of small dimensions was practicable, connecting two rivers on opposite slopes, which would form a continuous communication across the isthmus. Charles III was then upon the throne of Spain and had interested himself in the work that had been undertaken at Tehuantepec. Not satisfied with its results, he authorized an investigation to be made in Nicaragua to determine the practicability of connecting the lakes with the Pacific. The work was undertaken by Manuel Galisteo in 1779, and a report was made in 1781 full of discourage- Examination of Nlcara- t •, i . , ■% .i_ ■ t i xt- gua route i.y (jaiisteo. ment. In it he stated that Lake Nicaragua was 134 feet higher than the Pacific, and that high S D— 57-1— Vol 7 3 34 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. mountains intervened between the lakes and the ocean which, in his opinion, made their connection impracticable. Notwithstanding 1 this report, a company was afterwards formed under the patronage of the Crown to undertake the project, and the route selected was from Lake Nicaragua along the Sanoa River to the Gulf of Nicoya. The royal fleet in the Pacific was directed to aid this work by further surveys, but the project was never commenced and no further progress was made in the construction of an interoceanic communication. When Galisteo's party set out. in 1779 they were accompanied in a private capacity b}^ the British agents at Belize, and the territory claimed in the name of the Mosquito Indians. After their return they made favorable representations of the countiy they had visited, and declared that the canal project was entirely feasible. This manifesta- tion of interest in the subject was followed by an invasion of the country early in 1780, after Spain had declared war Invasion of Mcaravuii • , f~\ , t> *x • tm • J* i'±. m by British forces. against Great Britain. 1 he invading expedition, under the command of Captain Poison, set out from Jamaica. Admiral Horatio Nelson, then a post captain, was in charge of the naval operations. Nelson, in his dispatches, states the general purpose of the expedition as follows: "In order to give facility to the great object of government I intend to possess the Lake of Nicaragua, which for the present may be looked upon as the inland Gibraltar of Spanish America. As it commands the only water pass between the oceans, its situation must ever render it a principal post to insure passage to the Southern Ocean, and by* our possession of it Spanish America is divided in two." The plan of the campaign was to enter the mouth I'lini nl' rampaiirn. ■*• - r of the San Juan River, capture hort San Juan, at Castillo Viejo, take possession of all other fortified positions on the river and lakes, occupy the cities of Granada and Leon, then push on to Realejo, by the seizure of which they would complete their control of the province and the lines of communication between the two oceans. The attacking party went up the San Juan in boats and met with no resistance till a small island, named San Bartolome, an outpost of the enemy, was reached. This was soon captured, and two days later Fort San Juan at Castillo Viejo was besieged. After a Capture of Castillo Ylelo. . -, ■■ . , , .. , , L stubborn resistance, protracted lor ten days, the fort was surrendered and the garrison was allowed to march out with the honors of war. The invading force had little protection from the constant rains, their numbers were daily reduced by deadly fevers and other prostrating diseases, their situation became distressing, longer stay was useless and would have been fatal to the few survivors, and reluctantly the expedition was abandoned. Of the crew of Nel- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 35 son's ship, the Sinchmbrook, 200 in number, 87 fell sick in one night, only 10 were living soon after the return of the expedition to Jamaica, and Nelson himself was in such an enfeebled condition that his life was saved only by careful nursing. This terminated the effort to weaken the Spanish K2::;Sr ,W " Power in Central America, and in the treaty of 1783, which terminated the war, Great Britain relinquished whatever territorial rights she may have claimed there. While the privilege of cutting wood for dyeing was granted to Eng- lish settlers, it was only to be exercised in a part of Honduras with certain specified boundaries, within which the woodcutters, then dis- persed through the country, were required to retire within eighteen months. The British agreed to demolish their fortifications within this district and to instruct their settlers to build no new ones, and they recognized and declared Spain's rights of sovereignty. Owing to delays in the retirement of the woodcutters within the agreed limits by the time specified, new complications arose between the two powers and the negotiations which followed resulted in another treaty which was signed at London in July, 1786. Treaty of 1786. / • i i- • n n i By the new convention the district allotted to the woodcutters was enlarged and their privileges were increased, but they were not to establish any plantation of sugar, coffee, cocoa, or other like article, or any manufacture by means of mills or other machines except sawmills for preparing their timber for use. The reason given for this restriction was that "all the lands in question being indispu- tably acknowledged to belong of right to the Crown of Spain, no settle- ment of that kind or the population which would follow could be allowed." In another article all the restrictions specified in the treat} 7 ^ of 1783 for the entire preservation of the right of the Spanish sover- eignty over the country were confirmed. Another article related to the Mosquito country, in which England had exercised a protectorate over the Indians and had assisted them in resisting the authority of Spain. In it Spain was pledged, by motives of humanity, not to exercise any severity against the Mosquitos on account of their former connection with the English, and his Britannic Majesty agreed to pro- hibit his subjects from furnishing arms or military supplies to the Indians. These treaty obligations were disregarded by Great Britain as no longer binding after the Spanish provinces acquired their independ- ence. The protectorate over the Mosquito Indians was revived and new territorial rights were set up in Central America. Nicaragua claimed sovereignty over the Mosquitos and resisted what she regarded as the encroachment of the British. The latter claimed, on behalf of the Indians, that their territory extended to the San Juan, and in 1848 took possession of the port at the mouth of the river, raised the Mos- 36 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. quito flag there, and changed its name from San Juan to Greytown. Treaty between Great In 1859 a treaty was made between Great Britain Britain and Guatemala of and Guatemala bv which the title of the former to 1859 as to Belize. the settlements made in and near the Bay of Hon- duras, known as Belize, was recognized and the boundaries were defined. In 1860 a treaty was made between Great Treaty between Great . . ., 1 • 1 1 Britain and Nicaragua of Britain and Micaragua by which the protectorate 1860 as to Mosquito in- over t h e Mosquitos was to cease in three months, the territory occupied by them was to be under the sovereignty of Nicaragua, its boundaries were defined, extending no farther south than the river Rama, and Greytown was declared a free port. But the Indians were to have the right of self-government, and Nicaragua was pledged to respect their customs and regulations and not to interfere with them, provided they were not inconsistent with the sovereign rights of the Republic. It was also provided that Nicaragua should, for ten years, pay to the Mosquito authorities $5,000 annually to promote their improvement and provide for the maintenance of the government they were to establish for themselves within their district. In another article it was declared by the con- Mosquito Indians incor- tracting parties that the treaty was not to be con- porated into Republic of i .1 t»t t j- Nicaragua in 1894. strued so as to prevent the Mosquito Indians at any time in the future from agreeing to absolute incorporation into the Republic of Nicaragua, on the same footing and subject to the same laws as other citizens. This solution of a long-existing cause of irritation and disturbance was reached in November, 1894, when a convention of the tribes assembled under the direction of their chief and agreed that their territory should become a department of the Republic. At the close of the eighteenth century Spain tht'Sttcentur 1 ?. 6010860 ' continued to maintain her sovereignty over the entire isthmian country, but the Cordilleras still kept the two oceans apart; the old transits had fallen into disuse and her intercourse with the western ports of her American provinces was maintained almost entirely by way of Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope; the chief exception being at Tehuantepcc, where a com- munication across the isthmus had once more been opened. No actual progress in the way of establishing a maritime communi- cation from the Atlantic to the Pacific had been made during the three hundred years of Spanish occupation. Baron Von von Humboldt's state- n ulu boldt, who visited New Spain about this time III (Til. r and took a great interest in this subject, deplored the lack of accurate knowledge of the physical features of the isthmian country. After making his investigations he said that there was not REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 37 a single mountain, plain, or city from Granada to Mexico of which the elevation above the sea was known. It was even a matter of doubt whether an uninterrupted chain of mountains existed in the provinces of Veragua and Nicaragua. The publications of Humboldt were extensively read and revived the interest of the commercial nations of the world in this subject. The Spanish Cortes was aroused to action and in April, 1*14, passed a formal decree for the construction of a canal through the peninsula for vessels of the largest size and provided for the formation of a com- pany to undertake the enterprise, but it led to no results and Spain's opportunities to obtain the glory of opening this great highwa} 7 for the commerce of the world terminated in 1823, when the last of her Central and South American provinces succeeded in establishing their n dependence. The States of New Granada, Venezuela, and f"ZT ie ° f t " l0n "' la Ecuador united in 1811) in forming the Republic of Colombia, w T ith Simon Bolivar as President. This continued till 1831, when they separated into three independent republics. In 1823 Gautemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Formation of Federal , _. . Republic of the united Nicaragua, and Costo Rica, having successfully provinces <,< central res j s t e d the efforts of Iturbide to extend the power America. , , .. . n . _ ~- _ . of Mexico over them, established the federal Republic of the United Provinces of Central America. The governmental changes wrought by these successful revolutions and the formation of these new confederations were followed by a revival of interest in the interoceanic communication. Aaron H. Palmer, of New York, and his associates made proposals to the new Republic of Central America with a view to the construction of such a work, which were favorably regarded. But before any action was taken Don Antonio Jose Canaz, the envoy extraordinary representing the Republic at Washington, was instructed to call the attention of the Government of the United States to the subject. He accordingly addressed a letter to Mr. Clay, then Secretary of State, on the 8th day of February, 1825, assuring him that nothing would be more grateful to "the Republic of the Centre of Amer- Repubiic of central j ca " than the cooperation of the American people America makes proposi- . . » i c • • tions to United states. in the construction of a canal of communication through Nicaragua, so that they might share, not only in the merit of the enterprise, but also in the great advantages which it would produce. He stated that a company of respectable American merchants was read}^ to undertake the work as soon as it could be arranged by a treaty between the two governments, and that if a diplomatic agent were appointed and instructed upon the matter, 38 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. he was prepared to do what he could on the part of the Republic he represented in the arrangement of the business. Mr. Clay made a favorable response to this communication, assuring Response of Secretary ... , . . . . ciay. the minister that the importance of uniting the two seas by canal navigation was fully realized and that the President had determined to instruct the charge d'affaires of the United States to investigate with the greatest care the facilities which Nicaragua offered. He added that, if this investigation con- tinued the preference which it was believed this route possessed, it would be necessary to consult Congress as to the nature and extent of the cooperation which should be given toward the completion of the work. The proposed instructions were not, however, Instructions to minister. , given until February, 1826, when a letter was addressed to Mr. Williams, the charge d'affaires, in which he was informed that the President desired to be put in possession of such full information upon the subject as would serve to guide the judg- ment of the constituted authorities of the United States in determining their interests and duties in regard to it. The matter was afterwards referred to in the official correspondence with the Department, but it does not appear that the desired information was ever furnished. When it was proposed to hold a congress of dif- Couirress of Panama. • -rt • i ferent nations at Panama in 182b, and President Adams had appointed commissioners to represent the United States, they were advised in their letter of instructions that a cut or canal for purposes of navigation somewhere through the isthmus that connects the two Americas, to unite the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, would form a proper subject of consideration at the congress when it should assem- ble. The opinion was also expressed that, if the work should ever be executed, the benefits of it ought not to be exclusively appropriated to any one nation, but should be extended to all parts of the globe upon the payment of just compensation or reasonable tolls. But without waiting for governmental action on the part of the United States, the Republic of Central America, on the 16th of June, 1826, decreed that proposals should be received for the right to con- struct an interoceanic canal, accepted the terms offered by Aaron H. Palmer and his associates and entered into a contract with them. The canal was to be for the navigation of vessels of the central America makes largest burden and was to be commenced twelve contract for construction " of canai. months after the signing of the contract, or sooner if possible, but in case of insurmountable difficulty, the time for beginning was to be extended for not more than six months. The contract was to remain in force as long as might be necessary foi the reimbursement of the capital invested in the con- struction of the canal and the fortifications for its defense, together REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 39 with interest at tho rate of 10 per cont per annum, and for seven years after such reimbursement the company of construction was to receive half of the net proceeds of the canal, the expense of collection and repairs being deducted. The navigation and passage through the canal was to be common to all friendly and neutral nations, without any exclusive privilege. The contract can be seen in full by reference to Report No. 145, House of Representatives, Thirtieth Congress, second session, pages 362-367. Mr. Palmer next attempted to organize a company to undertake the construction of a canal under this contract, to be called the Central American and United States Atlantic and Pacific central American and Canal Company, with a capital stock of $5,000,000. United States Atlantic and TTT . ... . . ~ , , \ „ ' , Pacific canai company. With this purpose in view, in October, 182b, he assigned the contract in trust to De Witt Clinton and four others, to be held by them until an act of incorporation could be obtained for the proposed company. In December he went to London, furnished with letters of introduction to the American min- ister and other influential persons, issued a prospectus, and for ten months endeavored to secure the aid of capitalists there in disposing of tho stock, but was unsuccessful and the contract was never executed. The Central American Republic afterwards entered into negotia- tions with a company in the Netherlands for the iand"co a m P rny h " ***"*' construction of a canal across Nicaragua, and a basis for an agreement was adopted by the two Houses of Congress in September and December, 1830. When the Administration at Washington heard that such a contract had been made or was about to be made, Mr. Edward Livingston, then Secre- tary of State, directed the United States minister at Guatemala to ascertain the facts and to signify to the Government that the United States would consider themselves as entitled to the same advantages, in passing through the canal or using the terminals, as were accorded to other nations. The effort, however, ended in failure and the proj- ect was abandoned. After this failure the Congress of the Republic of Central America again turned to the United States and offered to grant to the Govern- ment the right to construct a canal. In response Further negotiations of to ^g act i n the Senate, on March 3, 1835, passed Central American Kepub- . , ' • . ' x lies with united states. a resolution requesting the President to consider the expediency of opening negotiations with other nations, particularly with the republics of Central America and New Granada, for the purpose of protecting by suitable treaty stipulations such individuals or companies as might undertake to unite the At 1 ' and Pacific oceans by the construction of a ship canal across ' ' ican isthmus and of securing forever to all nations th right of navigating it on the payment of reasoD"' 40 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. President Jackson acted upon this resolution by sending Mr. Charles Biddle to visit Nicaragua and Panama, with instructions to examine the different routes of communication Mr. Biddie sent to Cen- that had been contemplated, whether by canal or tral America and Colom- .. ,, . ,. .. bla . railroad, making such observations and inquiries on his route as would enable him to procure copious and accurate information in regard to the practicability of the different projects, and to procure such public documents as were obtainable relating to the different plans, and copies of all laws and contracts made and entered into by the two Governments with refer- ence to the construction of such a communication, and an} r surveys and estimates of cost of any of the projects that could be procured. But the mission led to no satisfactory results, and on January 9, 1837, a message was sent to the Senate to the effect that it was not expe- dient at that time to enter into negotiations with foreign governments with reference to a transisthmian connection. In January, 1838, Aaron Clark, mayor of New Memorial of Aaron ciark York, and a few other influential citizens pre- with reference to canai. sented the subject to the House of Representatives in a memorial, urging the great national impor- tance of a navigable waterway between the Atlantic and Pacific, and recommending that negotiations be opened with New Granada and Cen- tral America and the great powers of Europe for the purpose of enter- ing into a general agreement for the promotion of this object, and, as a preliminaiy step, that competent engineers be sent to the sth- mian country to make explorations and surveys, so as to determine the most eligible route and the cost of constructing such a work. This memorial was referred to the Committee on Roads and Canals and led to an interesting and valuable report, which was presented by Mr. C. F. Mercer March 2, 1839, in the Twenty -fifth Congress, third session, and is designated as H. R. Report ,.ri°™£;.°" 322. The value of a canal was fully recognized, but no action was recommended, except to request the President to open or continue negotiations with foreign nations according to the terms of the former Senate resolution and in harmony with the wishes of the memorialists. The resolution favoring this action was at once adopted. President Van Buren sent another agent, Mr. John L. Stephens, to the isthmus. He recommended the Nicaragua Mr. Stephens sent as rou te as the most desirable, and estimated the cost agent to Isthmian conn- of & ^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ ]mt did not think the time was favorable for undertaking such a -^e of the unsettled and revolutionary condition of the 4 these memorials and resolutions were being REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 41 considered by Congress, and efforts were being made to obtain con- cessions from the States through whose territory Examination of routes. V ^ the canal routes extended, examinations were made from time to time to determine the feasibility and cost of the differ- ent projects. In 1824 the Mexican Government and the State TehuantepeebyOrbesoKo G f Vera Cruz each appointed a commission to make a reconnaissance of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, the former under the supervision of Juan de Orbegoso, the latter under Tadeo Ortiz. Their reports contain much valuable information relating to the geography, topography, productions, and resources of the country. But their examinations demonstrated that great difficul- ties opposed the construction of a navigable canal through the isthmus, and they reported that the only available expedient to be adopted was a carriage road from the navigable waters of the Coatzacoalcos River to the lagoons on the south coast. This they considered both easy and advantageous. The report of Orbegoso is found in House Report 322, Twenty-fifth Congress, third session. A survey of the Nicaragua route was made by Nicaragua, by John Bally. Ml . J onn Ba jl y? who ha( J been sent Qut by afl English company in 1826 to explore the country and negotiate for a concession. Failing in his main purpose, he had remained in Central America, and in 1837 was employed by President Morazin to deter- mine the best location for a canal. The route that he favored was from San Juan, now Greytown, to Lake Nicaragua, across the lake to the Lajas, and thence to San Juan del Sur on the Pacific. The harbor of Greytown presented "as many conveniences as would be required;" it could "be entered at all seasons and in all weathers without risk;" it furnished good anchorage in 4 or 5 fathoms of water, and there was no danger within it. San Juan del Sur offered similar advantages as a Pacific terminus, with a depth of 10 fathoms. He proposed to use the San Juan through its entire length. This would require the removal of the rocks at the rapids, the closing of the Colorado so as to divert its waters through the channel of the San Juan to Greytown Harbor, and the deepening of this part of the San Juan. He stated that the four principal rapids were within a space of 12 miles, and were formed by a transverse elevation of rocks, rising in sharp and broken masses above the water when low, but leaving a channel on either side sufficient for the passage of boats, with a depth of from 3 to 6 fathoms. The river was then navigated by piraguas, or large flat-bottom boats of 5 to 8 tons burden, with crews of ten or twelve men, whose chief labor was at the rapids, which, however, were passed without serious hazard. From a series of levels along his line, taken in 1838, he reported that the lake was 128 feet 3 inches 42 REPORT OF' THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. above the level of the Pacific at low water at San Juan del Sur, and he accepted the conclusions reached by others that the Pacific at low water was 6 feet 6 inches lower than the Atlantic. His line from the mouth of the Lajas was 28,408 yards in length, the summit level was4s7 feet above the lake, and the canal was to be navigable for ships of 1,200 tons burden, with a depth of 18 feet of water. By straighten- ing the line in a few places it could be shortened 2,000 yards and the Lajas could be made available for 5,400 yards. He proposed an alter- native plan which would reduce the summit level to 122 feet above the lake, and the connection of two of his stations by a tunnel 3,833 yards long. He pointed out the difficulties of the work, and in case it should not be regarded as an advisable project suggested the consideration of a route through the Tipitapa and Lake Managua to the port of Realejo, but could not speak of the feasibility of this route with confidence, as it had not been surveyed. He had, however, traveled over the coun- try between Lake Managua and the ocean, and regarded it as worthy of examination. In November, 1827, Mr. J. A. Llovd received a Panama, bj J. A. Lloyd. . . J commission from President Bolivar to survey the Isthmus of Panama, in order to ascertain the most eligible line of com- munication across it, whether by road or canal. At this time neither the relative height of the two oceans nor the height of the mountain range between them had been accurately determined, and the geographic features of the isthmus were imperfectly understood. He spent two seasons in exploring the country and carried his line of levels from Panama to La Bruja, a place on the Chagres River about 12 miles above its mouth. He reported that the mean height of the Pacific at Panama was 3.52 feet higher than that of the Atlantic at Chagres. He recommended a new line across the isthmus, instead of those in use from Porto Bello and Chagres by Cruces to Panama, beginning at the Bay of Limon, thence to the Chagres by a canal and up the river to a favorable situation on the south bank of the Trinidad River, and thence by a railroad to Panama or Chorrera, the latter being tin 1 nearer ter- minus, but the former being preferable as a better port, and the capital of the State, where its trade was already centered, lie made no rec- ommendation in favor of a canal, but said that if a time should arrive when a project of a water communication across the isthmus might be entertained, the River Trinidad would probably offer the most favor- able route. For some distance 1 he found it both broad and deep, and its banks well suited for wharves, especially in the neighborhood of the place designated as suitable for railroad communication. After the Republic of Colombia was divided, in BdaraLbiiBtaedinissi/" November, 1831, the control of the Panama route belonged to New Granada, within whose terri- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 43 torial boundaries it was located. Th,is Republic, in L838, granted to a French company a concession, authorizing- the (onr,mny! frantt0aFn ' , ' , ' h construction of macadamized roads, railroads, or canals across the isthmus with the Pacific terminus at Panama. The company spent several years in making- explorations and communicated the results to the French Government through M. M. Salomon, the leading spirit in the enterprise, in the hope of secur- ing its aid in constructing the proposed work. These results presented the project in an attractive way, and it was stated o« B p«^.°™ate! 0ratl0,,S thtlt Jl depression in the mountain range ottered a passage only 11.28 meters, about 37 feet, above the average level of the sea at Panama. The representations were of a character so surprising that it was decided to send an officer to the spot to study the subject, and in September, 1813, M. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs, instructed Napoleon Garella to proceed to Panama to investigate the question of the junction of both seas by cutting through the isthmus, and to report the means of effecting it, the obstacles to be overcome, and the cost of such an enterprise. He favored a canal as the only means of com- Examlned by Garella. . t c munication adequate to the demands or commerce, and, as the representative of a great commercial nation, directed all his labors to this object. He preferred to establish the Atlantic ter- minus at the Bay of Limon rather than at the mouth of the Chagres, following the recommendation made by Lloyd; a connection with the river was to be made somewhat below the mouth of the Gatun. The low depression, making a sea level canal practicable within a reason- able limit of cost, could not be found, and he proposed to cross the divide through a tunnel 5,350 meters, a little more than 3^ miles, long, but he also estimated for a cut through the ridge instead of a tunnel. The bottom of the tunnel was to be 41 meters, about 134^ feet, above the ocean; 99 meters, nearly 325 feet, below the summit, and the level of the water 48 meters, nearly 158 feet, above the ocean at extreme high tide on the Pacific at Panama. The summit level was to be reached by 18 locks on the Atlantic slope and 16 on the Pacific, with a guard lock at each extremity to protect the entrance. The supply of water was to be furnished by two lateral canals from the Chagres. The Pacific terminus was to be in the small bay of Vaca de Monte, about 12 miles southwest of Panama. The estimate of cost was 130,000,000 francs, about $25,000,000, if the summit level was established by means of a tunnel. By establishing the summit level by means of a trench of a maximum depth of 84 meters, about 275 feet, the bottom of which would be 15 meters, nearly 50 feet above that of the tunnel, the cost would be increased to 149,000,000 francs, or about $28,000,000. These estimates were made for a canal that would accommodate ves- 44 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. sels of 1,200 tons burden, 198|- feet long, with extreme breadth of beam of 45i feet and a maximum draft when loaded of 21i feet, giving a depth of 23 feet. Garella's report is found in House Report 322, Twenty-fifth Con- gress, third session. It disappointed the expectations that had been raised by the projectors; no further steps were taken in the matter and the concession was forfeited. About the middle of the century a succession of Increased importance of . , ±1 • 1 ±u •_ a £ maritime communication. £ reat events vastly increased the importance of a maritime connection between the two oceans to the United States. The dispute with Great Britain, as to the boundary line west of the Rocky Mountains, was settled by the Buchanan- Packenham treaty in 1846, and in August, 1848, an act of Congress was passed under which Oregon became an organized Territory. The war with Mexico was commenced early in 1846, and by the terms of the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty, which closed it in 1848, California was ceded to the United States. Before the treaty had been ratified gold was discovered there, and in a few months many thousands from the eastern part of the country were seeking awa} T to the mining regions. To avoid the hardships and delays of the journey across the plains or the voyage around the continent, lines of steamers and packets were established from New York to Chagres and San Juan del Norte and from Panama to San Francisco, some of the latter touching at the Pacific ports in Nicaragua. For a while those traveling by these routes had to make arrangements for crossing the isthmus after their arrival there, and were often subjected to serious personal incon- veniences and suffering as well as to exorbitant charges. The requirements of travel and commerce demanded better methods of transportation between the Eastern States and the Pacific coast, but there were other reasons of a more public character for bringing these sections into closer communication. The establishment and maintenance of army posts and naval stations in the newly acquired and settled regions in the Far West, the extension of mail facilities to the inhabitants, and the discharge of other governmental functions, all required a connection in the shortest time and at the least distance that was possible and practicable. The importance of this connection was so manifest that the Government was aroused to action before all the enumerated causes had come into operation, and negotiations were entered into with the Republic of New Granada to secure a right of transit across the Isthmus of Panama. This was Ne?« a lr;n a ir« W,th ^ted by a treaty concluded in December, 1846, though the ratifications were not exchanged until June, 1848. A copy of it is attached to this report, marked "'Appen- dix BB." REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 45 The increased importance of an interoceanic Resolutions relating to . * nteroceanic conununicii- communication brought the subject also before tions come before con- Congress. A joint resolution was introduced in the House of Representatives during the Thirtieth Congress, authorizing the survey of certain routes for a canal or rail- Referred to select com- l * oa d between the two oceans, which with other mittee. papers of a like character was referred to a select committee of which Mr. John A. Rockwell was made chairman. The committee did not feel prepared to say to JieportofRoclnvelleon,. what ^^ [f ^ ^ ^ q{ ^ Government should be rendered to these projects, but recog- nized the importance of a communication from ocean to ocean, and presented such information as was available in relation to the princi- pal routes to which public attention had been directed. The superior importance of a ship canal was recognized, but it was suggested that until one could be constructed a railroad would be valuable for earlier use and as an auxiliary to a canal. The passage of the joint resolution was recommended with an amend- ment, authorizing surveys from some point on the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, in addition to the surveys provided for in the joint resolution. The report of this committee was made to the House February 20, 1849, in the second session of this Congress, and is numbered 145. At the same session, William H. Aspinwall, Pa^l^rliiroT 60 * ' 80 ' John L - Stephens, and Henry Chauncey, who, as will appear a little farther on, had undertaken the construction of the Panama railroad, presented a memorial, asking that the Secretary of the Navy be empowered to enter into a contract with them for the transportation over their road, when completed, for a period of twenty years, of naval and army supplies, troops, munitions of war, the United States mails, and public agents or officials, at a rate not exceeding the amount then specified by law to be paid for the trans- portation of the mails alone from New York to Liverpool, on condi- tion that they commence within one year, and complete within three years their proposed road across the isthmus. The memorial was referred in the House of Representatives to the Committee on Naval Affairs, and a report was made recommending that they be granted $250,000 a year to aid in building the road. No action was taken upon this report, but annual appropriations were made for carrying the mails across the isthmus after the road was completed. Soon after the convention with New Granada with^icaraTua.^ ** y had been ratified and proclaimed, efforts were made to negotiate a treaty with Nicaragua, so as to obtain favorable transit rights through that country for the Govern- ment and citizens of the United States. 46 REPOKT OB THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Advantages of Nicaragua The advantages which this country offered for an interoceanic canal had been known for centu- ries, and the desire to secure them led to the negotiation of a treaty with Nicaragua by Mr. Elijah Hise, charge d'affaires of the United States, in June, 1849. By Hise treaty. its terms the Republic undertook to confer upon the United States, or a company of its citizens, the exclusive right to construct through its territory canals, turnpikes, railways, or any other kind of roads, so as to open a passage and communication by land or water, or both, for the transit and passage of ships or vehicles, or both, between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The terms of the treaty were most liberal, and in return the United States was to aid and protect Nicaragua in all defensive wars, the Army and Navy and all available means and resources of both countries to be used, if necessary, to defend the territories of the latter or to recover such as might have been seized or occupied lyy force. Nicaragua con- sented to these terms because it was desired to secure the aid of the United States, in resisting the policy which Great Britain was then pursuing in Central America, with the apparent intention of securing the permanent control of the lower waters of the San Juan, under a claim already mentioned, that the boundaries of the Mosquito district extended to and included the mouth of that river, where at this time the Mosquito flag was maintained under British protection. Mr. Hise had exceeded his authority in making Hise succeeded by Squier. , . . this treaty and it was not approved by the Adminis- tration at Washington. He was afterwards recalled and was succeeded by Mr. E. G. Squier, who negotiated another treaty upon the subject and a contract for facilitating the transit from Contract of American, . . , n , . . Atlantic and Pacific ship the Atlantic to the Pacific, by means ot a ship Canal Company with Nic cana i or ra il roa d, in the interest of the American, Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, com- posed of Cornelius Vanderbilt, Joseph L. White, Nathaniel H. Wolfe, and their associates. These two treaties were never ratified, but they were subjects of conference and discussion during the negotiations Clayton- Bulwer treaty. . . , ' , T . which led to the Clayton- bulwer treaty ot Jul}' 5, 1S50. By this it was agreed, among other things, that the two con- tracting parties would support and encourage such persons or company as might first commence a ship canal through Nicaragua with the necessary capital and with the consent of the local authorities and on principles in accord with tin 1 spirit and intention of the convention. And if any such person or company had already entered into a contract for the construction of such a canal, with the State through which the same was to pass, it was agreed that such person or company should have a priority of claim, if the parties to the treaty had no just cause of objection to such contract. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 47 This provision was understood to be in the interest of the company for which Mr. Squier had obtained a contract in Terms of control mtt A t lg49 By its terms thc State had granted ( 11 ii »l Company. & ' J " to it, for a period of eighty-five years, to be counted from the completion and opening of the work to public use, the exclusive right and privilege of excavating a ship canal for vessels of all sizes, from Grey Town, or any other feasible point on the Atlantic, to the port of Realejo, Gulf of Amapala or Fonseca, Tamorinda, San Juan del Sur, or any other point on the Pacific, b} r means of the San Juan River, Lake Nicaragua, the Tipitapa River, and Lake Managua, or any other waters within its jurisdic- tion. The contract also gave to the company the exclusive right to construct rail or carriage roads and bridges- and to establish steam- boats and other vessels on the rivers and lakes as accessories to and in furtherance of the execution of the canal project. And if the con- struction of the canal or any part of it should be found to be imprac- ticable, then the company was authorized to establish a railroad or some other communication between the two oceans within the time limited and subject to the same terms and conditions. Subsequently in March, 1850, the compan}^ was r ; .^h,^!r^,r' ,,r " ' incorporated by the Republic of Nicaragua to prevent any embarrassments in the development and prosecution of its enterprise. A new arrangement was made in August, 1851, by which the part of the contract relating to steam navigation upon the waters of the State was separated from that relating to the canal. This was desired by the company so as to establish a transit route across the isthmus connecting with steamship lines at the terminal ports. It was accom- plished by a new charter, authorizing the organization of another company with the same membership, but distinct S o^ r TMn R ftconi pai. A y! CeS and separate, to be known as the Accessory Tran- sit Company, with the understanding, however, that neither party was to be relieved from the performance of the obligations imposed ))y the former contract and charter. The accessory company, during the following Transit route established -i i •. -ip » i i.u • - i £ ii. 17-1 ■ ican company. ment transferred the privileges of the Kline con- tract, with some modifications which will appear in another chapter of this report, to Aspinwall, Stephens, and Chaun- cey, who, with their associates, organized the Panama Railroad Com- pany, by which the road was constructed and Panama Kallroad com- -i, ii- » • -icr*- js a • 11 pieted in 1855. opened to public use early in 185o from Aspinwall, or Colon, to Panama, a distance of 17f miles. But this railroad, valuable and useful as it promised to be, was only a forward movement. The barrier was more easily passed, but it still remained. The desire for a maritime canal was increased rather than abated, and further examinations and surveys were ferelVcrr' ro'ut"r° f,nf ' diligently prosecuted at different locations in the isthmian country to ascertain and develop the advantages and possibilities of the different routes and schemes that had been from time to time proposed. The Government and people of the United States. Great Britain, and France were the most active in these explorations. They were confined for a time mainly to the Darien country, between Panama and the Atrato River. It was known that there were good harbors in this section in both oceans, and in sev- eral places the distance across the isthmus was comparatively short, but only the native Indians were acquainted with the interior. The early Spanish settlers had often crossed the country, and the bucca- neers had frequently penetrated it successfully in their incursions. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 51 There were traditions and reports of the existence of low depressions in the mountain range and of passages for canoes used by the Indians when they wished to cross from sea to sea. So when the difficulties of the Nicaragua and Panama canal routes were made known by the Childs survey and the survey for the railroad, public attention was directed to this region in the hope of finding a shorter and easier transit, where a sea-level canal might be excavated. Three general lines were examined — the San Bias, Caledonia Ba}% and the Atrato. The}' derived their names in each case from the Atlantic terminus, but there were variations of each, following the courses of different rivers, and, in case of the Atrato, reaching the Pacific at different points from the Gulf of San Miguel to the mouth of the San Juan at Chirambira Bay, more than 300 miles farther south. These examinations were made in some cases at unit«~ t„ Panama cana. co„, P any. Universelle dn ( unul Lnteroceamque de Panama, better known in the United States as the Panama Canal Company, which was organized early in 1881 to construct a sea- level canal by the proposed route. The history of this company and of the New Panama Canal Company, which undertook the work after it failed and went into liquidation, and a description of the engineer- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 57 ing features of the different plans upon which they have operated, will appear in another chapter of this report. The report of the Interoceanic Canal Commission was generally accepted with reference to the feasibility of the proposed canal routes in the Tehuantepec, Darien, and Atrato regions, and no further sur- veys were made under the authority of the United JSESSST States. But when Mr. James B.Eads, in 1881, endeavored to carry out his project for a ship railway, he recognized the advantages of the Tehuantepec transit for his purposes and obtained a charter from the Government of Mexico authorizing him to use this route. His plan for transporting vessels from ocean to ocean had many advocates, who believed that such a communication was entirely practicable, and could be constructed at less cost than a maritime canal by any of the routes that have been considered. The plan was brought before Congress in an effort to secure governmental aid, but without success, and since the death of Mr. Eads, in 1887, no further efforts have been made to carry the project into execution. The Nicaragua route was again surveyed in 1885, ^Nicaragua Menocal sur- ^^ ^ ^^^ Qf ^ g ecretary of ^ Nayy? by Mr. A. G. Menocal. In his report he recom- mended a plan which is stated in the chapter of this report on the Nica- ragua route. + + The report of this survey was printed as Senate Ex. Doc. No. 99 in the first session of the Forty-ninth Congress. In December, 1884, a treaty had been negotiated Treaty negotiated «iti, between the United States and Nicaragua, author- Mcarasua in 1884. . ~ izing the construction of a canal by the former over the territory of the latter, to be owned by the two contracting parties. It is more particularly referred to in another part of this report and appears as Appendix L. In December, 1885, while the treaty was still pending in the Senate, it was withdrawn from further consideration by the Chief Executive, who stated as a reason for his action that it proposed a perpetual alliance with Nicaragua and the protection of the integrity of the territoiy of that State, contrary to the declared policy of the United States. In April, 1887, Nicaragua granted a concession sion'TMenocarlnnsso" to Mr. A. G. Menocal and others, authorizing the elates. construction "hi a ship canal from Gre} r Town to Brito, and as the proposed canal would affect the territory of Costa Rica also the promoters found it necessary to secure a like concession from that Republic, which costa e BieT CeSSl ° n fr ° n ' was accomplished in August, 1888. These con- tracts appear as appendices, marked "R" and "" Z." 58 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. A company of execution was organized, under the name of The Mari- time Canal Company of Nicaragua, to construct Maritime Canal Company. ^ operate a can!l l un der these Contracts, and it was incorporated by Congress in February, 1889. The features of the project adopted by this company, the work it accomplished, the subsequent failure of the construction company organized in connection with it, and the action of the Government of Nicaragua in declaring its contract forfeited and terminated because of the lack of fulfillment of its most essential clauses are stated in another chapter of this report. Propositions to aid the company were before Congress for several years, through an arrangement by which the Government was to become a stockholder and an indorser of the company's bonds, and a bill for the accomplishment of this purpose was passed by the Senate in January, 1895, but failed in the House of Representatives. Another bill, retaining the company organiza- tion, but eliminating the private or individual stockholders, was passed by the Senate in January, 1899, but no final action was taken upon it by the House before the close of the Congress. While the former bill was pending in the House an amendment to the sundry civil appropriation bill was adopted in the Senate for the purpose of ascertaining the feasibilit} T , permanence, and cost of the construction and completion of the canal through Nicaragua by the contemplated route. A board of three engi- Mcaraifiia Canal Board. *■ . , . . . neers was provided tor, to be appointed by the President — one from the Corps of Engineeers of the Army, one from the engineers of the Navy, and one from civil life. Under regula- tions to be made by the Secretary of State,* with the approval of the President, this board was to visit and personally inspect the route, examine and consider the plans, profiles, sections, prisms, and specifi- cations for its various parts, and report to the President. In case it should be ascertained that any deviation from the general line of the proposed route was desirable, the board was directed so to state in its findings and conclusions. The bill was passed with this amendment and was approved March 2, 1895. The President appointed Lieut. Col. William Ludlow, Corps of Engineers, United States Army; Civil Engineer M. T. Endicott, United States Navy, and Alfred Noble, civil engineer, to constitute this board, which was designated as the Nicaragua Canal Board. The appointments were made April 25, and the members of the board pro- ceeded early in the following month to Nicaragua and, after their examinations there, completed their work in time to make their report by the 1st of November, as required by law. This report was printed during the first session of the Fifty-fourth Congress as House Doc. No. 279. The Nicaragua Canal Board found it impracticable within the time REPORT OK THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 59 fixed in the law, and with the limited means appropriated for the accomplishment of its work, to make a full and thorough examination of the route and obtain the necessary data for the formation of a final project of a canal, and in the report a recommendation was included that there be further explorations and observations, so as to collect the information and data regarded as essential to the comprehension of the fundamental features of the canal problem, which should decide the final location and cost of the work. In accordance with the views of the board, there was included in the sundry civil appropriation act, which was approved June 4, 1897, an appropriation to continue the surveys and examinations in Nicara- gua, authorized by the former act, under which the Ludlow Board had been appointed. By this latter act the President was empowered to appoint, by and with the advice and consent of the Nicaragua Canal Comnils- o x. • • ± n glon Senate, a commission to consist of one engineer from the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army, one officer of the Navy, from the active or retired list, and one engineer from civil life. This Commission was to have all the powers and duties conferred upon the former board and was to report upon the proper route for a canal in Nicaragua and the feasibility and cost of the work, with the view of making complete plans for the con- struction of such a canal as was contemplated. Pursuant to this authority, the President appointed Rear- Admiral John G. Walker, United States Navy, Col. Peter C. Hains, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, and Prof. Lewis M. Haupt, civil engineer, to constitute the Commission, which was designated as the Nicaragua Canal Commission, Admiral Walker being named as presi- dent. The Commission performed the duties assigned to it and made its report to the President May 9, 1899; it includes the results of the latest investigations made of this route prior to the appointment of the present Commission. A limited number of copies of this report, including an atlas which was prepared to accompany it, was printed under the direction of the present Commission for its information, but it has not yet been published as a Congressional document. This brings the history of the transits of the American isthmus and of the efforts to discover or construct a navigable waterway from the Atlantic to the Pacific to the close of the nineteenth century. Four hundred years have passed since Columbus sailed westward, hopeful and confident that his voyage would be continued without interruption to the Asiatic coast. He reached the shores of Panama and Darien, where the waters of the two oceans are less than half a degree of lati- tude apart, and no progress has been made since his day in accom- plishing his original purpose. The search for the strait was soon given up and the narrow neck of land which hindered his progress, fortified by the Cordilleras, has ever since obstructed the advance of navigation in that direction. 60 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Nor has any line of transportation by land or sea been developed in either hemisphere that has furnished the advantages expected from the desired waterway. The passages to the Orient around the Cape of Good Hope, through the Strait of Magellan and around Cape Horn have not satisfied the desire for a direct line of communication eastward or westward. The passage north of the American continent, discovered in 1851, and that north of Asia, first made in 1879, were valuable onl} 7 as contributions to geographic knowledge, for they are through arctic regions where the ice seldom permits a continuous voyage. Lines of transconti- nental railroad connecting Atlantic and Pacific ports have facilitated travel and commercial intercourse, but the} 7 have not filled the place of a ship canal. The reopening of the ancient communication, mainly upon a new line, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean by the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 has made the inter- oceanic connection westward of less importance to the people of Europe, but it has had little effect on the American continent. The demand that the American isthmus be opened to navigation from sea to sea is each } r ear becoming more imperative. The extension of our territory to include the Hawaiian Islands and afterwards the Philippines has made this connection most desirable for the proper exercise of governmental functions wherever they are to be discharged. The preparatory work has been practically completed. The exam- inations and surveys, made under the authority of the United States, have furnished accurate knowledge of the geography, topography, and other physical features of the isthmian country, nnd dispelled the exaggerations and fictions which were brought back many years ago from some sections by credulous travelers and unreliable explorers. The comparative merits of the different routes are better understood than ever before, and those involving engineering difficulties and cost disproportionate to their value have been eliminated. The two remaining routes — the Nicaragua and Panama — have been carefully studied by the present Commission, and this report will con- tain a statement of the advantages and disadvantages of each and an approximate estimate of their costs, and also the judgment of the Com- mission as to which, in view of all the facts, is the more practicable and feasible route. Time has also developed that the only well-grounded hope of accom- plishing the desired result is through the power and resources of a great nation. The republics, through whose territory they extend, seem to be now impressed with this belief. They have made many contracts with individuals and companies for the construction and operation of canals, and the general result has been failure, followed by forfeiture and annulment. These contracts usually contain provisions forbidding their transfer to foreign Governments, indicating an unwillingness to REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 61 permit the occupation of their territory by another power for the.se purposes; but their great desire to see the two oceans thus connected and their willingness to promote such an enterprise has, it is believed, modified their views and policy to such an extent that they are ready to enter into negotiations with the treaty-making power for the occu- pation of their territoiy by the United States for canal purposes, provided they receive satisfactory assurance that their rights of sovereignty will be respected. When these international questions are definitely settled and Con- gress has enacted the necessary legislation, the removal of the barrier between the two oceans and the opening of the long-desired maritime passage to the ships and navies of the world can be accomplished. Chapter III. DIMENSIONS AND UNIT PRICES. In fixing the dimensions of the canal, it is neeessaiy to consider care- fully the dimensions of the ships which will use it; the prevailing as well as the exceptional types of the present day, and the probable developments of the near future. If the dimensions adopted are too large, the cost of the work will be augmented Unnecessarily; if too small, the canal will not fulfill its intended purpose. The greater part of the world's commerce by sea is carried on by ships of moderate size. Lloyd's Register for 1900-1901 contains the names and dimensions of 16,264 steam vessels of Dimension of ships no W al j kinds, of which about 8,900 are more than 200 In use. feet long on the keel. This number may be taken as approximately the number of cargo vessels. Only 421 seagoing ships have as great a beam as 50 feet, and only about 800 would require a lock more than 400 feet long. Until recently the larger ships were employed mainty on the North Atlantic route, and the largest were fast passenger ships not adapted to any other trade. The building of large freight ships with more or less passenger accommodations has now become a marked feature of the development dimenrfU'! 6 ™ 86 '" ^ of shi P building. In the years 1897 to 1900 there were put in service on the North Atlantic route several ships of this type, about 600 feet long over all, 63 to 65 feet beam, and drawing, when fully loaded, 30 to 32 feet. These were fol- lowed by the White Star ship Celtic, recently built, said to be 698 feet 8 inches long over all, and 75 feet 4£ inches beam. On other routes ships of similar dimensions arc being introduced, the largest now in use being the White Star ships of the Afric class, built for the British colonial service via the Cape of Good Hope, which are about 550 feet long between perpendiculars, 64 feet beam, and have a load draft of 32£ feet, and the Cape mail steamship Saxon, built for the Union Com- pany, which is 585 feet 6 inches long over all, and 64 feet beam. The ships now building at New London for the Great Northern Railway Company are particularly noteworthy, being designed for the trans- pacific trade; they arc to be 630 feet long and 73 feet beam. They will be in the same class as the Celtic. The steady growth in ships' dimensions, the introduction of large ships on so many different routes, and the undoubted fact that for long 62 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 63 routes and for freight which can be quickly handled at the ports, the large ship is the more economical carrier, gives Depth (if ninal. , i • • • . . , these ships an importance in determining- canal dimensions much greater than their relative number or aggregate ton- nage would indicate. A ship drawing 32£ feet in salt water, which is no longer exceptional, will draw nearly 1 foot more in fresh water, and requires for safe navigation not less than 35 feet of water in the canal. This depth is therefore fixed as the minimum in all the chan- nels. In fixing the width of locks and prism it is not necessary to take into account the fast passenger ships of the North Atlantic routes. Such a trade is not likely to develop through the Isthmus. Limiting the inquiry to freight or combined freight and passenger ships like those mentioned, it will be noted that the maximum Beam of commercial ships. ■ ' .. ... beam of 73 to Co feet is found in veiy tew ships; excepting these, the greatest is 63 to 65 feet, which is found in quite a numerous class. If the canal were intended for commercial uses only, it might be questioned whether dimensions should be fixed for the extreme beam of 75 feet or more, with the added cost of construc- tion and minor disadvantages, but the imperative requirement that the canal shall afford a passage for the largest war ships makes it necessary to provide for a beam considerably greater. The Beam of war ships. L , " ~ - T broadest ships building for the United States .Navy are those of the Virginia class which have a beam of 76 feet and 2£ inches. The broadest battle ship afloat is the Italian ship Regina Mar- gherita, recently launched, which has a beam of 78.2 feet. While the increase in beam of war ships has for some years been less rapid than that of commercial ships, it is unmistakable. For Width of locks. . . .ill i -Tii ii convenience in operating the locks the width should be 2 or 3 feet greater than the beam of the ship. The width is there- fore fixed at 84 feet with a view to provide for some further increase in beam of ships. The largest ships of war are shorter than commercial ships of like beam, and a clear length of lock chamber of 600 feet would be suf- ficient for any war ship now afloat or building. In order to make the canal practicable for the largest existing commercial ships, and also to provide for a considerable increase in size, the only additional expense to be incurred in the building of the canal, after providing for war- ship requirements, is to increase the length of the Length of lock chambers. * ^ , ' , n • • locks. This added cost is so small in comparison with the advantage gained that it is unquestionably judicious to incur it, and the length is therefore fixed at 740 feet in the clear. The width of the canal has been fixed after care- cana™ 6180118 ° Pr Sm ^ consideration Q f the dimensions adopted and experience gained elsewhere. The Suez Canal 64 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. had originally a bottom width of 22 meters (72 feet 2 inches). It had been intended, when the work was projected, to Prism dimensions of for- i , i • •jji ■ < a. m i \ £ i • i_ \ t'Un cauais. make this width 44 meters (144 feet 4 inches) between the Bitter Lakes and the Mediterranean, and 64 meters (209 feet 11 inches) between the Bitter Lakes and the Red Sea, but the resources of the company proved insufficient to carry out the work on this plan. The width finally adopted proved incon- veniently small, and it has since been increased to about 115 feet. At the same time the depth has been increased from 26 feet 3 inches to 27 feet 10 inches. The ratio of present width to depth is about 4:1. In the Manchester Canal the depth is 26 feet, but is to be increased to 28 feet. When this is done the bottom width will be about 114 feet, and the ratio of width to depth will also be about 4:1. The Amsterdam Canal is at present 36 meters (118 feet 1 inch) wide at the bottom and 8.5 meters (27 feet 10 inches) deep, giving- a ratio of width to depth of 4:2. These dimensions are to be increased to 50 meters (164 feet) width and 9.8 meters (32 feet 2 inches) depth, with adopted? ° ** *" tl nx ^° or ' 5:1. The bottom width of 150 feet, which has been adopted by the Commission for the canal sections of the Isthmian routes, gives a ratio of width to depth of 4:3, which is slightly greater than at the Suez, Manchester, and Amsterdam canals, and considerably less than the enlarged Amsterdam Canal will give. Mention should be made of the Kiel Canal, which Canai! m * nas the °°tt° m width first given to the Suez Canal, viz, 72 feet, and has a depth of 29.5 feet, giving a ratio of width to depth of 2.5. This has not been taken into account in the preceding comparison, for the reason that the width is clearly shown to be insufficient for commercial purposes by experience at Suez. The Kiel Canal was built primarily for an outlet to the North Sea for the German navy, and is adapted for the possible transfer of warships rather than for the convenience of commercial ones. Few commercial ships of large size traverse it. The average tonnage of the vessels passing in 1899 was about 100 tons, which may be com- pared with the average of nearly 4,000 tons for the ships passing through the Suez Canal during the same }^ear. The side slopes of the isthmian canal sections Prism In soft earth and •,] ,\ ± • 1 t £l l\ j Han(1 vary with the materials. In sort earth or sand they arc taken 1 on 3 below water and 1 on 2 above water; in firm earth, 2 on 3 below a berme 10 feet wide 6 feet under water and 1 on 1 above such berme. The 1 on 1 Prism In firm earth. . slopes are to be protected by paving from the berme to 6 feet above water. In rock the sides are vertical from the bottom to a berme 5 feet above water, with slopes Prism In rock. , l ol 4 on 1 in hard rock and 2 on 1 in sort rock above REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 65 such berme, the berme being of such width that the extended slopes would intersect the bottom of the canal at the foot of the vertical sides. In several places a slope of 1 on 1 is used, as in the Culebra Cut, on account of the peculiar nature of the material, and in places on the Nicaragua route where rock is underlaid by clay. Where the material is liable to disintegrate in water, as in the Culebra Cut, or where the rock is shattered or deficient in hardness, as in many places on the Nicaragua route, retaining walls are provided, taking the place of the vertical sides of rock cuts. Where channels are excavated in open water Channels In open water. . , , . and the sides will be submerged, the width is made greater. In Panama Bay the bottom width is to be 200 feet, with side slopes of 1 on 3, but at mean tide the width 35 feet below water will be 260 feet and at high tide 320 feet. In the San Juan River the exca- vated channel will be 250 feet wide at bottom with side slopes of 1 on 1, and in Lake Nicaragua 300 feet with side slopes of 1 on 2. in firm clay and 1 on 6 in overlying mud. In the artificial harbors at Colon and Greytown it will be 500 feet with turning places 800 feet wide. The entrance to Brito Harbor will also be 500 feet wide, but the har- bor itself, on account of its restricted length, will be 800 feet wide. The channel widths above given are for straight sections. On curves of less than 12,000 feet radius, in channels less than 500 feet wide, the width is increased at the rate of 1 foot for each 200 Widening on curves. . feet reduction ot radius, the widening on a curve of 6,000 feet radius being 30 feet. This is an arbitrary allowance. It is the same as the allowance in Kiel Canal for a radius of 5,000 feet; less than in the Kiel Canal for radii under 5,000 feet and more for radii over 5, 000 feet. As already stated, the locks are to have a clear Description of locks. " length ot 740 feet and a width or 84 feet between the side walls. The depth over the head wall and over the miter sills at the lower end of the locks, which fix the available depth for ships, is to be 35 feet, the same as in the prism of the canal. The miter sills at the head of the locks are placed 1 foot lower, the slightly greater safety thus afforded for these sills being secured by merely exchanging 1 foot in height of gate for 1 foot in height of miter sill wall and without appreciable cost. In order to give the required clear length, all single locks and the upper locks of combined systems are to be made 788 feet long from quoin to quoin. The lower locks of combined systems will be 793 feet from quoin to quoin, the greater length being due to the greater thickness of the cross wall at the middle gates. Twin locks are provided in every case. This Twin locks provided. . . * , . . - will insure uninterrupted navigation if one lock at any locality is closed for repairs. To facilitate making these repairs S D— 57-1— Vol 7 5 66 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. with the least possible delay, guard crates of the Guard gates. * l J + if *k A * ordinary miter form are placed at both ends of every lock or flight of locks, those at the foot opening downstream. "When repairs to the lock are needed, these gates can be closed and the lock pumped out immediately, thus avoiding the dela} T of building cofferdams or the uncertainties attending the use of caisson gates. This provision is not usual, but has been adopted for all the locks of the St. Marys Falls canals, and its utility has been frequently demon- strated there. These gates are supported by extensions of the lock walls. The extreme length of the masonry is 1,031.5 feet for a single lock and 1,829.5 for a flight of two locks. While these locks provide for the passage of the largest ships antici- pated in the near future, it is realized that the larger part of the sea traffic of the present day is carried on by much smaller ships. Smaller locks than those adopted could be operated more quickly and would effect a material aggregate saving of time to the greater part of the traffic and reduce the amount of water consumed. The width of the locks can not be reduced without excluding the large ships. It is practicable, however, to provide a shorter lock by the introduction of intermediate gates, whereby two smaller chambers can be obtained and some of the advantages secured of having a small lock for small ships. By the arrangement shown in the plans the whole chamber can be used, the intermediate gates remaining open; by using these gates in connection with the upper lock gates, a cham- ber is provided having a clear length of 292 feet, and by using them in connection with the lower lock gates, a chamber is provided having a clear length of 400 feet, sufficient for most of the freight ships now in use. With two locks combined in a flight, only one of the smaller chambers in each lock is available, the intermediate gates being so placed that either the full length of the 100-foot chamber can be used. It ma} 7 be found expedient in construction to make the length of the reduced chamber 150 feet. All the locks on both routes will have rock foun- Foundatlons of locks on i . • m i • ji_ » 1 i a rocfe dations. I he rock varies greatly from hard to soft and partially disintegrated. The poorest will carry safely the imposed load, but will permit slow seepage for con- siderable distances, and will offer little resistance to abrasion. The floors of the locks are protected by inverts of concrete, the thickness being greater in soft rock. In the vicinity of the lock gates the floor is of sufficient thickness to sustain the full hydrostatic head. The walls are also to be of concrete throughout, walls to be of concrete. . . . . , ... ,. except the quoins, the tops of the miter-sill walls, and exposed angles at the inlets and outlets of the culverts. The use of concrete for the construction of locks is of comparatively recent ntroduction. The locks of the Manchester Canal are perhaps the most REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 67 notable example, the great mass of masonry being concrete, granite being used only for quoins, copings, and exposed angles, and brick burned to the point of incipient vitrification for facing the walls above low water and for culvert linings. The moist, warm climate of the Isthmus is particularly favorable for concrete. In the locks of greatest lift the velocity of Culvert llnlnsrs. • i , .,1 - water in the culverts will reach 50 to 60 feet per second, which would severely test any masonry, even of the best brick or cut stone. Even in locks of the smaller lifts some kind of protec- tion for the surfaces of the culverts will probably be necessary. As a basis for estimates a lining of cast iron of a minimum thickness of 1 inch is provided where the extreme head of water in the culverts exceeds 30 feet and a lining of vitrified brick for smaller heads. The gates are designed of steel of the ordinary miter form. They are based on actual designs of gates of nearly equal dimensions prepared under the direction of the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. In designing the locks the varying height of rock at each of the lock sites has been taken into account. The details of the studies con- cerning the stability of the walls, as well as of the loss of water by leakage, etc., are given in Appendix A. In order to facilitate the movement of ships into the locks, as well as Approach walls. ^o a ff 01 'd a safe place for ships to tie up while awaiting lockage, a vertical approach wall 1,200 feet long is provided on one side of the canal at each end of every lock or flight. Unit prices have been fixed by agreement of all the members of the Unit prices. Commission, on the principle that, whatever dif- ferences of opinion or circumstances may exist, they are not enough to interfere with a fair and close comparison of the different routes. These prices are as follows: Removal of hard rock, per cubic yard $1.15 Removal of soft rock, per cubic yard .80 Remov*al of earth, not handled by dredge, per cubic yard . 45 Removal of dredgable material, per cubic yard .20 Removal of rock, under water, per cubic yard 4. 75 Embankments and back filling, per cubic yard .60 Rock in jetty construction, per cubic yard 2. 50 Stone pitching, including necessary backing, per square yard 2. 00 Clearing and grubbing, in swamp sections of Nicaragua, per acre 200. 00 Other clearing and grubbing, on both routes, per acre . . 100. 00 Concrete, in place, per cubic } T ard 8. 00 Finished granite, per cubic yard 60. 00 68 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Brick in culvert lining, per cubic } T ard $15. 00 All metal in locks, exclusive of machinery and culvert linings, per pound . 075 All metal in sluices, per pound . 075 Cast iron in culvert lining, per pound .04 Allowance for each lock chamber for operating machin- ery 50, 000. 00 Additional allowance for each group of locks for power plant 100, 000. 00 Price of timber in locks, per M. B. M 100. 00 Sheet piling in spillways, per M. B. M 75. 00 Bearing piles in spillways, per linear foot .50 Average price of pneumatic work for the Bohio Dam, below elevation —30, per cubic yard 29. 50 Caisson work for the Conchuda Dam, in place, per cubic yard 20. 00 Single-track railroad, complete, with switches, stations, and rolling stock, per mile of main line 75, 000. 00 It has been determined to add 20 per cent to the estimates of the cost of construction to cover expenses that will be incurred for engineering, police, sanitation, and general contingencies. The Contingencies, et«. r . I rr> • . . . , prices are based on emcient organization and thorough equipment, with the understanding that while the work would be vigorously handled it would not be so driven as to call for unnecessary duplication of machinery. The cost of the equipment and plant will be large, but it will be distributed over a very large work. Chapter IV. OTHER POSSIBLE ROUTES. The American isthmus, in the most extensive General description meaning, i.s about 1,400 miles long, extending- from American Isthmus. fe ' ' . /•» i - t- the seventy-seventh to the ninety -fifth meridian of longitude and from the eighth to eighteenth parallel of latitude. It embraces that portion of the Republic of Colombia which lies west of the Atrato River in South America, the whole of the five republics which are grouped together as Central America, and so much of Mex- ico as lies east of Tehuantepec. The general direction of the isthmus is from southeast to northwest. For the eastern 600 miles the width of this isthmus is comparatively small, varying from a minimum of barely 30 miles to a maximum of 120 miles. It then widens to 300 miles near the boundary between Nicaragua and Honduras, narrows to about 120 miles opposite the Bay of Honduras, widens again into the great peninsula of Yucatan, and finally narrows to 120 miles at Tehutntepec. A glance at a map indicates that the only possible routes for an interoceanic canal must be at Tehuantepec, at the Bay of Honduras, or within the eastern 600 miles. So far as convenience of approach and acces- Tehuantepec route. . . sibihty from United States ports on both sides of the continent are concerned, Tehuantepec is by far the best location. Practically the whole length of the isthmus is eliminated on the dis- tance to Pacific ports, and while the distance from New York is practically the same to all ports on the Atlantic side of the isthmus, the mouth of the Mississippi River is only about half as far from Tehuantepec as from the Atrato. For these reasons Tehuantepec was selected by Capt. James B. Eads as the location for a ship rail- way across the isthmus. If a ship railway is to be built it is probably the best location. The duties of this Commission, however, are con- fined to finding a route for a canal between the two oceans. The Tehuantepec summit is in the neighborhood of 700 feet above tide water. It is, moreover, a broad summit which can not be materially lowered b} r an}' excavation of practicable dimensions. It is doubtful whether a water supply can be found for a summit level. It would require 20 locks of an average lift of nearly 35 feet on each side of the summit. The cost of these locks alone, on the basis of the estimates considered in another chapter of this report, would be about 69 70 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. $200,000,000, while the canal would probably at least double this estimate. Attractive as the Tehuantepec route is from its geographical location, it must be discarded as impracticable for a canal. The next point is at the head of the Bay of Hon- Bay of Honduras. «./, ,. llu , J ., , auras. 1 his location would be nearly as accessible as Tehuantepec on the Atlantic side, but the Pacific terminus would be 400 miles farther from north Pacific ports. The passage of the isthmus here b} T a canal, or even by a railroad of moderate grades, is out of the question; it is a mountain region which must be dismissed from consideration. There remains the 600-mile stretch at the cast- isuuuu < s 7 easter,,p0rtl0,,0f ern end of the isthmus, within the limits of which several routes have been proposed. At the west- ern limit of this stretch lies Lake Nicaragua. The features of the Nicaragua route are thoroughly considered in another chapter of this report, and nothing more need be said of it here. From Lake Nicar- agua to the promontory Avhich terminates in Mariato Point and Cape Mala, and which forms the western boundary of the Gulf of Panama, the isthmus, though narrow, is traversed by a high range of moun- tains, which prohibits its consideration as a location for a canal. The Gulf of Panama measures about 120 miles from east to west between the headlands known as Cape Mala and Pinas Point, which practi- cally form its southern limit, and about 100 miles from a line con- necting these two points to its northern extremity. The southern limit corresponds closely with the 100-fathom curve. The isthmus sweeps around this gulf on a curve which forms a rough approxima- tion to a half circle; the narrowest part of the whole isthmus lies north of the center of the Gulf of Panama. The Atrato River, rising near the fifth degree of Atrato River. ' f & north latitude, flows northward about 300 miles at a comparatively short distance from the Pacific and parallel to it, thus forming what resembles an extension of the Isthmus southward; but the eastern boundary of this extension is not the ocean. The Atrato is a silt-bearing river having a considerable fall, and not in itself adapted to the use of ocean-going craft, without large expenditures for improvement and maintenance. "With the exception of Nicaragua and Tehuantepec, all the routes which have been proposed for an isth- mian canal terminate in the Gulf of Panama or on the South American coast south of that gulf, the latter using the Atrato for their Atlantic approach. Three routes which terminate on the Gulf of Routes termlnatinu: on t-> i i ±. n j «• » uuir <»f Panama. Panama have been talked of for many years. They are commonly known as the Panama route, the San Bias route, and the Caledonia route. The Panama route is the most westerly of the three, and the one of earliest use and occupa- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 71 tion. The old citj 7 of Panama was founded in 1517. The Spanish crossing was by a paved road from Nombrc dc Dios, and later from Porto Bello, on the Atlantic side, to Panama, on the Pacific. Porto Bello Harbor was discovered and named by Columbus in 1502, and the town of Porto Bello was founded in 1584/ The Panama Railroad was built fifty years ago near this ancient crossing, and its location is prac- tically identical with that selected for a canal. As the Panama route is treated in full detail in another chapter of this report, nothing further need be said of it here. The distance from the mouth of the Atrato River Atrato routes. . _^ . _ . to tide water on the Pacific at the nearest point is about 70 miles. Anything like a direct passage is entirely out of the question, and it is manifestly impossible to find a canal line from the mouth of the Atrato to the Pacific which will be less than 100 miles long, if the improvements on the Atrato are considered a part of the canal; the lines which have been suggested for this purpose are gen- erally much longer. While it is not impossible that a practicable line on which to construct a canal can be found with its terminus in the Atrato Valley, the necessary length of the line, together with the diffi- culties which would attend a terminus at the mouth of a large silt- bearing river, are enough to show that in use it would be inferior to either the Panama or the Nicaragua location. In the search for other possible routes the field Limits of field work. . . . , , n work of this Commission has been confined to the region lying between the Panama route and the Atrato River, not including the routes which would utilize this river. Throughout the portion of the Isthmus thus explored the continental divide, which else- where lies near the Pacific, lies close to the Atlantic coast, and there are intermediate valleys separated from the Pacific coast by ranges of less importance. The Chepo River enters the Gulf of Panama 30 miles east of the city of Panama, coming from the east and draining a valley nearly 70 miles long. On the easterly side of the Gulf of Panama lies the Gulf of San Miguel, which is an excellent harbor, carrying tide water halfway across the Isthmus. The Savana River enters this gulf from the north and the Tuyra River from the southeast, while the Chucunaque, heading near the Chepo and flowing southeaster^, is a tributary of the Tuyra. The continental divide on this section of the Isthmus is therefore the divide between the Caribbean Sea on the north- east and the Chepo, the Chucunaque, and the Tuyra rivers successively on the southwest. The divide at the head of the Chepo and the Chucunaque rivers connects the continental divide with the chains of hills which separate those rivers from the Pacific. The general situation is fully shown in pi. 2, accompanying this report. Within these limits two routes, each of them presenting possibilities of several varieties of location, have long been suggested. One of these is known as the San Bias route and the other as the Caledonia route. 72 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The San Bias route was explored under the direc- San Bias route. . , . *„ tion ot Mr. Frederick M. Keller in 1857, and was subsequently examined by the United States Darien expedition, under the command of Commander Thomas Oliver Self ridge, jr.. United States Navy, in 1870. The Kelley examination, starting from the Pacific, was carried with level and transit up the Chepo and the Mamoni rivers across the summit to a point on the Carti, following the valleys of these streams. The Selfridge surveys, starting from the Atlantic side were carried with level and transit up the Mandinga Kiver, across the divide, and up the Nercalagua River nearl} T to the divide, while barometrical reconnaissances were made up the Carti River overlapping the Kelley surve} 7 . This is the narrowest place on the isthmus, it being less than 31 miles from shore line to shore line and only about two-thirds of this distance from the Atlantic to tide water in the Chepo River. Furthermore, the Pacific harbor is quite as good as that at Panama, while Mandinga Harbor, in the Gulf of San Bias, at the northern end of the route, is all that could be desired. The difficulty of the line lies in the height of the summit, to cross which tunnels from 8 to 10 miles in length were proposed. The Caledonia route has the distinction of being Caledonia route. . . the location where the isthmus was first crossed by white men. In 1513 Balboa started with his band of followers from Caledonia Bay and crossed by a tiresome march to San Miguel Bay. Nearly two hundred years later, in 1698, William Paterson chose this location for his Scotch colony of New Edinburgh, which by occupying the line of transit across the isthmus was to control the trade of the Pacific and the East. The bay, which would be the northern terminus of the canal, is still known as Caledonia Bay, while the promontory at the southern end of the bay, near where he founded his town, is called Point Escoces. All vestiges of Paterson's work have long since disappeared and it would be hard to find any spot in America where there are fewer signs of the work of the white man. Caledonia Bay is a beautiful body of water separated from the Car- ibbean Sea by a series of coral keys and furnishing fairly good anchor- ages at both ends, though the intermediate portion is shallow. The route for a canal in this location would be from Caledonia Bay to San Miguel Bay. As seen from the sea, the Caledonia gap is a very marked depression in the mountains and the summit is less than 1 miles from the bay. It looks much lower than it really is and (he first impression made is that it is an ideal location for a transisthniian line. This route was advocated as early as 1850 by Dr. Edward Cul- len, of Dublin. It was explored in 1852 by an English engineer. Mr. Lionel Gisborne, and it was subsequently examined by Lieut. Isaac Gr. Strain. U. S. N.. in L854. Reconnaissances were subsequently made by others, the most important being by the United States Darien REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 73 expedition in 1870. It was claimed by Dr. Cullen that the height of the summit on this line was not more than 150 feet and that from a ridge onty 2 miles wide a level plain extended to the Savana River, the northern tributary of the Gulf of San Miguel. Mr. Gisborne, whose examination was not continued completely across the isthmus, reaffirmed this claim. Strain's examination and all subsequent ones failed to rind any such condition. All the examinations of which there is sufficient information to give them any authentic value were made on the principle of following up streams. While this method of examination is permissible when time and means do not allow the use of better ones, conclusive results can not be obtained in this way. The claims made for some of these routes, especially in the neighborhood Caledonia Bay, were such that if substantiated they would be better than any others. It became necessary either to find these locations or to disprove their existence. The proof derived from the examinations of the several valleys must always be of negative character; it can not be conclusive until it is shown that every stream has been explored. If, however, the divide could be traced continuously, positive proof would be substituted for nega- tive proof. The Commission therefore organized a force for the pur- pose of tracing the divide and determining its continuity. It was at first proposed to trace this divide continuously from the Chagres to the Atrato. This has not been done, but the divide has been traced from the Chagres to San Bias and far enough beyond to cover all routes that have been suggested for this location. It has been traced in both directions from Caledonia Bay far enough to cover all the locations which have been suggested there. The mountain range has been examined from the coast continuously from San Bias to the Atrato. The results of these surveys and this examination are embodied in the maps and sketches which accompany this report. While they have not been absolutel} r complete, they have proved con- clusively that no low summit exists within the limits by which a canal line would approach either San Bias Bay or Caledonia Bay. Any canal terminating at either of these harbors will involve the construc- tion of a tunnel. There is a bare possibility that some low summit may exist in the portion of the range which was only examined from the sea, but the general topography of the country indicates that this is extremely improbable, while the appearance of the range shows that if any such low summit can by any possibility exist, it must be approached by valleys of such crooked and restricted character that it would almost certainly be impracticable for a canal. The divide has been traced continuously from latitude 9° 19' N., longitude 78° 59' W., westward to the headwaters of the Chagres River. The lowest summit found within these limits was 956 feet: 74 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. this elevation was determined by actual leveling. The Chagres River was then followed down to the Panama Railroad, thus connecting this survey with the Panama route. The ridge has been continuously traced from the Carreto summit, latitude 8° 15' N., longitude 77° 38' W., to the Sassardi summit, lati- tude 8° 58' N., longitude 77° 52' W., covering the entire divide in the vicinity of Caledonia Bay. The lowest summit within this limit is the Caledonia gap, with an elevation of 681 feet. Five other gaps, with elevations respectively of 815, 710, 827, 991, and 1,098 feet, were observed within these limits. All of these elevations were determined by actual leveling. Between -the limit of these two actual surveys Observations from the sea . , , ^ there is a distance of 81 miles in an air line where the divide has not been traced. There is also a distance of about 60 miles from the Carreto summit southeast to the Atrato where no actual surveys have been made. Through these distances the divide has been carefully reconnoitered from the sea, the elevations of the higher peaks being ascertained as well as those of the visible gaps, and the distances being determined by observation made with two sextants. While this method of examination is not absolutely conclusive, the results are such as to show that there is no probability of any low summit existing within these limits; this improbability is further increased by the general character of the watershed of the country. Examination from Pacific All this summit examination was made from the 8lde " Atlantic side. In addition to this, a survey was made up the Chucunaque and the Chucurti rivers which was not quite connected with the work done from the Atlantic side, owing to the threatening attitude of the Indians. The gap of 2 or 3 miles has been supplied from the Selfridge survey of 1870. These surveys were extended up the Tuyra and Aputi rivers and up the Savana and Lara rivers, besides running a surve} T from the mouth of the Lara in an easterly course to the Chucunaque. The explorations of other possible routes, while not entirely com- plete, have shown that it is practicable to follow the divide in this section of the isthmus and that this is the method of exploring which is applicable to the isthmus. The good health of the field parties has shown that this country is not one which is exceptionally unhealthy to explore. The result of these examinations and surveys No canal uitliout a tunnel. . , ....... shows that there is no probability ot the existence of any practicable canal location between Panama and the mouth of the Atrato River except by the adoption of a tunnel line. The objections to a tunnel on a canal arc so great that a tunnel loca- tion should not be adopted unless there are manifest advantages of sufficient weight to overcome these objections. No such advantages REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 7- r > appear to exist. The .surveys, however, have shown that there is a possible tunnel location on the San Bias route and at least three on the Caledonia route. Each of these four locations, though involving a tunnel, provides for a sea-level canal. With a view to determine the approximate cost of a canal tunnel a section of tunnel was worked out, and this section is shown in tig. 1. This section provides for a depth of 35 feet, for a width of 100 feet at the bottom, of 117 feet on the water line, and for a height of 115 feet from the water surface to the intrados of the lining. The estimate is made on the basis of the entire tunnel being lined with concrete 5 feet thick. The quantities and estimated cost of a single foot of this tunnel are as follows: 670.2 cubic yards excavation, at $5 _ _ $3,381 88.7 cubic yards concrete, at $10 887 Total 1,208 This corresponds to $22,535,040 per mile. In the estimates the tun- nel has been assumed to cost $22,500,000 per mile. Tunnel tide level, San Bias The location which seems to promise best for Canal - such a canal is shown in pi. 3 aecompairying this report. The line starting from Mandinga Harbor follows up the Rio Carti, passes through a tunnel 1.5 miles long, and descends by the valle} r of the Chorrah to the Chepo. Open excavations are maintained on both sides of the tunnel to a maximum depth of 100 feet. The total length of the line of canal is 37 miles, and the length from tide- water to tidewater 21 miles. There has been no actual examination of the .valley of the Chorrah because of the revolution existing at the time the attempt was made. A profile of this location is shown in pi. 1, and the following is a rough estimate of the possible cost of such a canal. In the absence of an}^ means of classification the soft- rock price has been adopted as a fair average for all dry excavation outside of the tunnel. 160,000,000 cubic yards excavation, at 80 cents $132, 800, 000 39,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents 7, 800, 000 Clearing . 500, 000 4.2 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 94, 500, 000 Tide lock 4, 000, 000 25 miles railroad, at $75,000 _ . 1, 875, 000 Total , 241,475,000 20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc. . 48, 295, 000 Total 289,770,000 ., , , , , .... The distance from Caledonia Bav to tide water 1'aleaonla tunnel tide- level canals, on the Savana River is about 30 miles in a straight line. Studies have been made of three lines across 76 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the divide, all of them striking the same point on the Savana River near the mouth of the Lara, the approaches on the Atlantic side being through the three valleys of the Caledonia, the Aglaseniqua, and the Sassardi. The distance from Caledonia Bay to the mouth of the Lara varies from 32 miles b} r the Sassardi route to 36 miles by the Caledonia route. The Sassardi route has not, however, been explored through its whole length, and it is quite possible that an actual survey would make it as long as the Caledonia route. Each line would require a tunnel. If the Sassardi route is taken, the length of this tunnel, assuming open cuts to be used to a depth of 400 feet at each end, would betibout 1.6 miles. On either of the other two the tunnel would be about 2 miles longer, while the approaches on the south side would be much heavier. Caledonia Bay is virtually tideless. San Miguel Bay has a tidal range of 20 feet or more. This heavy tide causes currents in the Savana River strong enough to be a serious menace to navigation, and it would be necessary to build a tide lock and dam near the mouth of the Savana. The distance from the mouth of the Lara to the tide lock is about 11 miles, the upper portion of which is in a narrow river which would require enlargement for a canal. This makes the total length of canal navigation from Caledonia Bay to the tide lock about 50 miles. The locations of these three canal routes are given in plate 5 accom- panying this report. Approximate profiles of each location are given in plate 6, and from these the following estimates of the possible cost of such canals have been made. The more extended examination of the country gives an indication of the character of material which has been used in making a rough classification into hard rock and earth. Sassardi location. 80,000,000 cubic yards hard rock, at $1.15 $92, 000, 000 137,000,000 cubic yards earth, at 15 cents 61, 650, 000 9,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents 1, 800, 000 4,000,000 cubic yards submerged rock, at $1.75 19, 000, 000 Clearing 1,000,000 1.6 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 . 36, 000, 000 Tide lock and dam 5, 000, 000 10 miles railroad, at $75,000 3, 000, 000 Total 219,150,000 20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc 43, 890, 000 Total 263, 310, 000 EEPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 77 Aglaseniqua location. 66,000,000 cubic yards hard rock, at $1.15 _ $75, 900, 000 1 K».000,000 cubic yards earth, at 45 cents 49, 500, 000 9,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents . _ 1, 800, 000 4,000,000 cubic yards submerged rock, at $4.75 19, 000, 000 Clearing 1,000,000 3.6 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 81, 000, 000 Tide lock and dam 5,000,000 40 miles railroad, at $75,000 3, 000, 000 Total 236,200,000 20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc 47, 240, 000 Total 283,440,000 Caledonia location. 77,000,000 cubic yards hard rock, at $1. 15 $88, 550, 000 129,000,000 cubic yards earth, at 45 cents 58, 050, 000 9,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents 1, 800, 000 4,000,000 cubic yards submerged rock, at $4.75 ■ 19, 000, 000 Clearing 1,000,000 4 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 90,000,000 Tide lock and dam 5,000,000 44 miles railroad, at $75,000 3, 300, 000 Total 266,700,000 20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc 53, 340, 000 Total 320,040,000 These estimates are made without the careful examination which is necessary for accurate figures. They may be e S umir imate8minimUm regarded as minimum estimates; favorable mate- rial has been assumed for tunnels and favorable material for excavation in the body of the canal; in fact, these esti- mates represent the best possible results which can be looked for on either of the four locations. If borings either on the divide or in the low country south of the divide should show unfavorable material, these estimates must be increased. It is even possible that material might be found in the tunnel sections which would render tunnel con- struction virtually impracticable and compel the adoption of open cuts of enormous depth. All these estimates are made on the basis of a tide-level canal. The only restriction on the length of a ship passing through such a canal 78 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. would be the curves. The tunnels would be as absolute restrictions on depth and width as the locks of Nicaragua or Panama. A tide-level canal at Panama would be without a Harbors the only advan- , i mi 1 j ±. u* u £ j.i_ tage oyer Panama. tunnel. The only advantage which an}' of these canals would have over the tide-level canal at Panama would be in the superiority of their Atlantic harbors, Mandinga Harbor in San Bias Bay and Caledonia Bay, both being very much superior to the harbor at Colon. The advantage of the harbors would not be enough to overcome the disadvantage of the tunnel. The only reason for constructing a canal on its D of r il™rco^? s ?ion m " either of these locations in preference to Panama would be that the territory is entirety wild and the work would be untrammeled by vested rights of occupation. This advantage is more apparent than real. Many of the legal com- plications involved in obtaining the right to complete the Panama Canal would interfere equally with the construction of a canal at San Bias or Caledonia. The Wyse concession, under w T hich all the French operations at Panama have been conducted, confers the exclusive privilege for excavation and construction of a maritime canal across the territory of the Republic of Colombia between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; all possible routes east of Panama, including the vari- ous Atrato lines, come within the limits of the Republic of Colombia. The contract of 1867, under which the Panama Railroad now holds its concession, gives to that company the exclusive right of isthmian tran- sit west of a line connecting Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic with Point Garachine on the Pacific; the San Bias and the Caledonia routes both fall west of this line. No canal can therefore be constructed at either of these places unless some arrangement is made with the holders of the Wyse and the Panama Railroad concessions. The results of the surveys made under the direc- Maps and other drawings. • • -i • .- £ -i tion or the Commission on this portion or the isthmus have been embodied in a series of maps and other plans which accompany this report. The}' embrace a general map covering the entire isthmus and the Gulf of Panama, pi. 2; two maps on a larger scale covering, respectively, the San Bias, pis. 3 and 4, and the Caledonia and San Miguel regions, pi. 5; two maps on same scale as the last showing the coast and elevation observed from the sea, pis. 7 and S, besides 12 panoramic sketches taken from the sea, pis. 9 to 20, and profiles of the routes already mentioned, pis. 4 and 6. The thanks of the Commission are due to the ^Thanks for u.s.s.scor- Navy Depar t m ent, which detailed the steamer Scorpion for service on the Atlantic side of the isthmus during these surveys, and especially to her commander, Lieut. Commander Nathan Sargent, her executive officer, Lieut. Roger Welles, and her other officers. The presence of this vessel rendered practica- ble a task which otherwise might have been impossible of execution. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 79 Fig.l. Chapter V. THE PANAMA ROUTE. The natural attractions of the Panama route lie in the combination of a very narrow isthmus with a low summit. The width of the isth mus is less than 36 miles in a straight line, only 5 miles more than at San Bias, the narrowest place, while the original summit was less than 300 feet above tide water, which, though higher than the Nicaragua summit, is less than half the height of any other summit which has been investigated. Furthermore, the high portion General description. . ° . ' . V» • of the isthmus is limited to a width ot about 6 miles near the Pacific side, and the Chagres River affords access by canoe navigation from the Atlantic to within 16 miles of the Pacific. When steamship lines to California were first opened the Atlantic steamers discharged their passengers at the mouth of the Chagres, whence they were conveyed up that river in canoes to Las Cruces and thence overland to Panama, where they took the Pacific steamer. When the Panama Railroad was built, in the early fifties, its Atlantic terminus was fixed at the Bay of Limon, 7 miles east of the mouth of the Chagres. The road followed the valley of the Chagres to Obispo, a few miles below Las Cruces, and thence crossed through the lowest gap to Panama. This location is almost identical with that subse- quently adopted for the canal. (See pi. 21.) The isthmus here runs nearly east and west, but the course of the railroad or canal is from northwest to southeast, the Pacific terminus being about 22 miles farther east than the Atlantic terminus. The Atlantic port is Colon, and the Pacific port Panama. At Colon the mean tidal range is about 1 foot; at Panama it is about 20 feet. The harbors are not of the first class. The} r have served the demands of a limited commerce heretofore. Some improvements at Colon would be necessary if the canal should be built. The defect of Colon Harbor is that it is exposed to "northers." When these are severe, ships are now compelled to go to sea. This may occur once or more each year. Panama Harbor is a roadstead behind islands at the head of a great bay or gulf. For the terminus of a canal it is sufficient, as the stay of vessels is expected to be short. The Panama route was surveyed by Commander E. P. Lull, United States Navy, in 1875. He recommended a canal Lull survey, 1876. . . , , J ' . , , . „ , with locks and with a location generally above the overflow bottom of the Chagres. It was to have a depth of 26 feet and 80 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 8l a bottom width of 60 to 72 feet. The locks were to have a length 450 feet between miter .sills and width 65 feet. He fixed his summit level at 124 feet above tide level and proposed to use 12 locks on each side. To supply the summit level water was to be impounded by a dam to be built across the Chagres River at a site not far from the one subsequently selected by the new French company at Alhajuela, from which a feeder of complicated character would lead it to the canal. He estimated the cost of this canal at $94,511,360. In the year 1876 an association entitled " Societe Civile Internationale du Canal Interoceanique" was organized in Paris, with Gen. Etienne Tiirr as president, to make surveys and explorations for a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. An expedition under the direction of Lieut. L. N. B. Wyse, an officer of the French navy, was sent to the Isthmus. In May, 1878, Lieutenant Wyse in the The Wyse concession. . . . name or the association obtained a concession from the Colombian Government, commonly known as the Wyse concession. In May, 1879, an international congress, composed of 135 delegates from various nations, including the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, but the majority of whom were French, was convened in Paris under the auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps to consider the question of the best location and plan for a canal across the American isthmus. After. a session of two weeks, the congress decided that the canal should be located on the Panama route, and should be at the sea level and without locks. Immediately after the adiourn- The old company. _ " " ment or the congress, the Panama Canal Company was organized under a general law of France with the title "Com- pagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique," with Ferdinand de Lesseps as president. It purchased the Wyse concession from the first-named company, paying therefor 10,000,000 francs. An attempt to float the stock of this company in August, 1879, failed, but a second attempt, made in December, 1880, was fully successful. The issue was fixed at 600,000 shares of 500 francs each. It was all sold. The next two years were devoted to surveys and examinations and prelim- inary work upon the canal. Operations upon a large scale were inaugurated in the early part of 1883. The plan adopted was for a sea-level canal having a depth of 29. 5 feet and bottom width of 72 feet, involving excavation estimated at 157,000,000 cubic yards. The terminus on the Atlantic side was fixed by the anchor- age at Colon and that on the Pacific side by the anchorage at Panama. Leaving Colon the canal passes through low ground by a direct line for a distance of 6 miles to Gatun, where it intersects the valley of the Chagres River, passes up that valley a distance of 21 miles to Obispo, where it leaves the Chagres and, following the S D— 57-1— Vol 7 6 82 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. valley of a small tributary, cuts through the continental divide at Culebra and thence descends by the valley of the Rio Grande to Panama Bay. Its total length from 30 feet depth in the Atlantic to 30 feet depth in the Pacific is about 47 miles. Its location is such as to give easy curvature everywhere. To secure this, it was necessary to select a point for crossing the divide where the height was some- what greater than that of the lowest pass. The maximum height on the center line in the Culebra cut is about 333 feet above the sea. To control the floods of the Chagres, various schemes were proposed, the most prominent being the construction of a dam at Gamboa to impound the water of the upper river and the excavation of inde- pendent channels to the sea. The dam was afterwards decided to be impracticable, and the problem remained unsolved. The cost was estimated by de Lesseps in 1880 at $127,600,000, and the time required at eight years. Work under this plan continued until the latter part of 1887. The fact had by that time become evident to all, which had for a long time been evident to the well informed, that the canal could not be completed at the sea level with the resources of time and money then available. A provisional change of plan was accordingly made, under which the final completion at the sea level was to be deferred to a future time, and the opening of a canal to navigation was to be hastened by the introduction of locks. This being considered a temporary expedient, the summit level was to be supplied with water from the Chagres River by pumps. Work under this plan was pushed with vigor until 1889, when the company becom- ing bankrupt it was dissolved by a judgment of the Tribunal Civil de la Seine, dated February 4, 1889, and a liquidator was appointed by that court to take charge of its affairs. In the appointment of the liquidator the court kept prominently in view the completion of the canal, and it authorized him to cede to a new association all or part of the assets, to make or ratify agreements with the contractors which had for their object Liquidation. .... the continuation of the works, and to borrow money for that purpose. The liquidator reduced the force gradually and finally suspended the works May 15, 1889. He then proceeded to satisfy himself that the canal project was feasible, a question about which the failure of the company had caused grave doubts. He appointed a "commission d'etudes," composed of French and foreign engineers, 11 in number, having at their head Inspector-General Guillemain, director of the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees, which, after a study of the entire subject and visiting the isthmus, rendered a report May 5, 1ew company's plan. * ■ J i levels above the sea-level — one of them an artificial lake to be created by a dam at Bohio, to be reached from the Atlantic side by a flight of two locks, and the other, the summit level, to be reached by another flight of two locks from the preceding; the summit 86 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. level to have its bottom 68 feet above the .sea and to be supplied with water by a feeder leading from an artificial reservoir to be constructed at Alhajueala, in the Upper Chagres Valley; the ascent on the Pacific side to be likewise by four locks, of which the two middle ones are combined in a flight. The canal is to have a depth of 29.5 feet and a bottom width of about 98 feet, with an increased width in certain specified parts. Its general location is the same as that adopted by the old company. The dimensions of the lock chambers are 738 feet in length, 82 feet in width, and 32 feet 10 inches in depth in the clear; the lifts to vary from 26 feet to 33 feet, according to location and stage of water. The cost was estimated at $101,850,000 for the works, which does not include administration or financing. While this is the plan recommended by the French engineers, they worked out in detail a second plan, which is an extension or modification of the foregoing, which they seemed to prefer in itself, but which they feared would require more time to execute. The limits of their concession and the heavy cost of financing led them to attach very great weight to the consideration of time. Under this second plan the upper level was omitted, the cut through the continental divide being deepened until its bottom was 32 feet above the sea; Lake Bohio was made the sum- mit level and was fed directly by the Chagres; one flight of locks on the Atlantic side and one lock on the Pacific were omitted; the feeder from Alhajuela was omitted, but the dam at that place was retained. The estimated cost of completing the canal under this plan was not much greater than that for the other, being about $105,500,000. All work done for several years under the first plan would be equally available under the second plan, and the company contemplates revert- ing to the second plan if the experience of the first few years shows that time will permit. In both plans the dam at Bohio converted the river between that point and Obispo into a lake of such dimensions as not to be seriously affected by the partial floods admitted to it, while diversion channels were to be constructed on both sides of the canal from this lake to the sea. With a carefully designed system of sluices and controlling works the violence of the floods was to be checked by impounding the water both above the Alhajuela dam and Lake Bohio, so as to keep the flow below the Bohio dam within the capacity of the two diversion channels. The old Panama Canal Company began its work Physical data available. . . . . , , . , without adequate knowledge of the physical con- ditions at the Isthmus. It inaugurated at an early day some of the surveys and examinations required to supply the deficiency, and some of these it maintained as long as it continued to exist. Additional surveys were made by the liquidator, and very extended additional surveys and observations have been made by the new company. The information relating to the topography, hydrography, and geology of REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 87 the Isthmus is now much more complete than is usual before the inaug- uration of an engineering enterprise in a new country. The canal couipain' spared no trouble or expense in laying it all before the Com- mission. The most important maps, drawings, and documents were lithographed or printed and systematically arranged for the use of the Commission, copies being furnished for each member. Many other documents were supplied in manuscript. In all some 340 documents, many of them elaborate studies, were furnished. A list of them will be found in Appendix C. These supplied essentially all the data required for the preparation of plans and estimates, though further information was desired as to the foundation upon which the great dam at Bohio must be built, and as to the area of the Chagres River drainage basin. This additional information was obtained by the field parties of this Commission. It was necessary also for the purpose of this investigation to verify the French data. Independent lines of levels, measurements of distances, borings, soundings, and hydro- graphic observations made by its own parties, supplemented by per- sonal observation, enable this Commission to state that the data furnished by the canal company are essentially correct. The circumstances under which the Commission pian for the United states appr oaches the study of a plan for the canal differ differs from that for a com- „ , ■ 1 n i • merciai corporation. from those of the h rench engineers in two impor- tant particulars. The question of the time required for completion is of less vital importance, since a new concession from the Colombian Government must be obtained in any event, and since the cost of financing would be much diminished if the United States should provide the funds, that question would not be decisive against a plan which is otherwise preferable. In a plan prepared for a government seeking the permanent development of its possessions, and content to receive its returns in an indirect wa}^ and at a future time, the canal must have dimensions which will permit the passage of the largest ships now afloat or likely to be constructed. For a time such ships may be exceptional and the canal revenue derived from them may be small. A plan prepared for a commercial corporation investing capi- tal from which an immediate and direct revenue is desired would probably exclude such exceptional ships, and the dimensions given the canal — at least in the beginning- — would be less than in the former case. One of the greatest natural difficulties to be JSSST """ * " at " raI encountered in the construction of a ship canal on the Panama route lies in the control of the Chagres River. That stream is about 145 miles long and has a drainage area above Bohio of about 875 square miles. Above Obispo it is in general a clear- water stream flowing over a bed of coarse gravel; but sand, clay, and silt in moderate quantities appear in the lower portions of 88 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. its course. It flows through a mountainous country, in which the average annual rainfall is about 130 inches. A maximum rainfall has been observed of over 6 inches in twelve hours. Its discharge at Bohio varies from a minimum of about 350 cubic feet to a possible maximum of 136,000 cubic feet per second. The excessive rainfall and the precipitous slopes of the valley give to the river a torrential character. On December 1, 1890, it rose at Gamboa 23 feet in sixteen hours, its discharge, which was about 9,000 cubic feet per second at the beginning of the rise, increasing in the same time to six or seven times that volume. This is the most violent change of which there is definite record, but similar changes of somewhat less violence are not uncommon. The admission of a stream of this character to the canal would create conditions intolerable to navigation unless sufficient section of prism be provided to reduce the current to an unobjection- able velocity. If a sea-level canal be constructed, either the canal itself must be made of such dimensions that maximum floods, modified to some extent by a reservoir in the Upper Chagres, could pass down its channel without injury, or independent channels must be provided to carry off these floods. As the canal lies in the .lowest part of the valley, the construction of such channels would be a matter of serious difficulty, and the simplest solution would be to make the canal prism large enough to take the full discharge itself. This would have the advantage, also, of furnishing a very large canal, in which navigation under ordinary circumstances would be exceptionally easy. It would involve a cross section from Obispo to the Atlantic, having an area of at least 15,000 square feet below the water line, which would give a bottom width of about 100 feet. The quantity of excavation required for such a canal has been roughly computed, and is found to be about 266,228,000 cubic yards. The cost of such a canal, including a dam at Alhajuela and a tide lock at Mira- flores, near the Pacific end, is estimated at not less than $210,000,000. Its construction would probably take at least twenty years. This Commission concurs with the various French commissions which have preceded it since the failure of the old company in rejecting the sea- level plan. While such a plan would be physically practicable, and might be adopted if no other solution were available, the difficulties of all kinds, and especially those of time and cost, would be so great that a canal with a summit level reached by locks is to be preferred. In the case of a canal with locks the problem of w m!' t i!Kks. UPPly '° r ,a " al controlling the floods is very much simplified, but a new one is introduced — that of supplying the summit level with water. The quantity of water required for the operation of the canal will vary with the amount of traffic and the size of the vessels carrying it. Assuming lo lockages per day for vessels REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 89 of about 3,000 tons each, an annual traffic of about 1.0,000,000 tons will be accommodated, which is greater than the amount to be expected at the opening of the canal. Ten lockages will require 35,127,960 cubic feet per day, or 406 cubic feet per second, assuming that four of these lockages are for the full-size lock and six of them for the reduced size, using the intermediate gates. The loss from evaporation is assumed to be 6 inches per month. The area of the lake to be proposed hereafter is 38.5 square miles, or 1,073,318,400 square feet. The loss from evaporation over this area is 536,659,200 cubic feet in a month, or 207 cubic feet per second. The loss from leakage at the lock gates is estimated at 250 cubic feet per second. To this has been added 200 cubic feet per second for power and other contingencies. Adding these amounts together, the total amount required to operate the canal for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons per annum is found to be 1,063, or, in round numbers, 1,070, cubic feet per second. The average annual discharge of the Chagres is far in excess of this, being about 3,200 cubic feet per second, but there is a well-defined dry season when the daily discharge is often less. A deficiency during the months of Feb- ruary, March, and April is to be apprehended and must be provided for, though it does not always occur. For use during these months some of the surplus waters of the other months must be stored. The minimum average discharge at Bohio for any month covered by the records is that for March, 1891, when it was 600 cubic feet per second, or 470 cubic feet less than the amount required. If water enough be stored to supply this deficiency, supposing it to exist continuously for three months, provision will be made against a state of affairs worse than any that has ever been known or is likely to occur. A deficiency of 470 cubic feet per second for ninety days gives an aggregate deficiency of 3,654,720,000 cubic feet, for which storage room must be provided. In a lake having an area of 38.5 square miles it corresponds to a depth of 3.4 feet. The greatest flood which has occurred since the Flood discharge of the , • j. ,i . , . , ji -r> t» m cha!?res occupation of the isthmus by the Panama Kail- road (which covers a period of fift} T years), and so far as known the greatest which ever occurred, was that of November 18, 1879. No measurement was made of its volume, but the height which it reached at Bohio is stated upon the authority of Mr. Sosa, a Colombian engineer, to have been 39.3 feet above low water. A comparison of this height with that reached by floods of which the volume was measured (see Appendix D) leads to the conclusion that the maximum discharge at Bohio at the highest point of the flood in 1879 might have been as much as 136,000 cubic feet per second. In reaching this conclusion one of the assumptions is that there was no change in the size of the waterway between 1879 and the dates of the later floods, and that if the same quantity of water 90 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. nad been flowing at the later dates as in 1879, it would have reached the same height. Inasmuch as the size of the waterway was much increased subsequently to 1879 b}^ the excavations of the old company, this assumption gives a result which is certainly not too low. In this, as in all other cases of doubt, the assumptions have been made such as to err on the safe side, if at all. The other greatest floods of which there are records are those of 1885, with a height at Bohio 33.8 feet; 1888 with height 31.7 feet; 1890 with height 32.1 feet, and 1893 with height 28.5 feet. The last two were measured, the maximum dis- charge in 1890 being 71,998 cubic feet per second, and in 1893, 18,975 cubic feet. Thus it appears that the floods in which the discharge exceeds 75,000 cubic feet per second are of rare occurrence. If the works be so designed that such a flood would produce no currents which would interfere with navigation, and that a flood of 110,000 cubic feet per second, while it might temporarily suspend navigation, would not injure the structure of the canal, ample provision will be made for the flood control of the Chagres. No location suitable for a dam exists on the Chagres River below Bohio, and while this location is not without difficulties it has the great advantage that about 3 miles southwest of the dam, near the head of the Rio Gig-ante, a tributary of the Cha- gres, there exists an excellent site for a spillway, by which the discharge from the lake can be kept well away from the dam and accessory works, and may be made extremely large without inconvenience either to the canal itself or to the country below the lake. The height of this spillway would regulate the height and area of the lake. After careful consideration of the requirements for flood control and for storage against deficiency in the diy season, and also of the effect upon the amount of excavation required for the canal through the continental divide, the Commission has decided to fix this height at 85 feet above mean tide, and to make the spillway a fixed weir 2,000 feet long. The area of the lake at this height is 38.5 square miles, or 1,073,318,100 square feet. Using coefficient 3.5 in the weir formula, it is computed that with a depth of 5 feet over its crest the weir will discharge 78,260 cubic feet per second. In reaching elevation 90 the area of the lake will be enlarged to about 13 square miles and it will impound over 5,680,000,000 cubic feet of water. The quantity of water discharged over the weir while the lake is rising from elevation 85 to elevation 90, assum- ing circumstances of flow similar to those observed in the flood of 1893, is computed to be about 1,000,000,000 cubic feet. (See Ap- pendix E.) The total quantity of water impounded and discharged before the lake will rise above elevation 90 is therefore nearly 10,000,000,000 cubic feet. It provides for unimpeded navigation during all floods not exceeding 75,000 cubic feet per second, The REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 91 velocity of the currents in the narrowest part of the lake would not exceed 2 feet per second. Floods may occur, however, which will cause the lake to rise above elevation 90. From the data avail- able it is not possible to compute with precision the exact height which a flood ma} T hereafter attain, but the extreme possible effect of a flood discharging 140,000 cubic feet per second for a prolonged period would be to raise the water over the spillway to 92.5 feet. All great floods are of short duration, and such a flood is absolutely without precedent, being as improbable as any other convulsion of nature. The crest of the dam has, however, been placed at 100 and the top of the lock walls and gates at 94, to make them entirely safe from overflow by even such a flood, the ill effect of which would be limited to the temporary obstruction of navigation by swift currents in the narrowest part of the lake, where the velocity might reach 5 feet per second. Under extreme conditions the lake might be lowered to 82 to provide water for operating the canal during the dry months. The excavations will be so adjusted as to give a depth of 35 feet at that level. This provision for the storage of water for use in the dry season is ample for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons per annum Future increase of water • 1 <• ,1 • _ T , gu . in vessels of the size now in common use. It will be equally ample for a much larger tonnage if, as seems probable, the size of vessels continues to increase. For example, the number of vessels which passed the Suez Canal in 1900 was 3,441, against 3,389 in 1890, while the gross tonnage in 1900 was 13,699,238, against 9,749,129 in 1890. The number of vessels in 1900 was less than in 1898, while the total tonnage was greater. The annual flow of the Chagres and the topography of the country are favorable, however, to a very large increase of the supply, if that be found desirable in the future. A reservoir can be constructed at Alhajuela with a capacity for storing an additional volume of water four times that now provided for daily consumption. The overflow of Lake Bohio will discharge Disposal of overflow. . . *->i through the (Jigante spillway into rena Blanca Swamp, thence through natural and artificial channels to the Chagres River below Gatun, and thence through that river to the sea, being kept out of the canal in the lowlands by levees where necessary. The canal, as thus projected, may be described Detailed description. „ „ ' , , as follows (see pis. 21, 22, 23): Beginning at the 6 fathom line in Limon Bay, a channel 500 feet wide at bottom, and with side slopes 1 on 3, is excavated, curving gently to the left upon a radius of 6,560 feet, until it reaches a point just inside the jetty constructed by the old Panama Canal Company. Here it changes direction to the right upon a curve of 3,280 feet radius, and is then conducted upon a straight line for a distance of 2,000 feet 92 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Entrance and harbor at to a point 2.39 miles from deep water in the bay. For about a mile this wide channel is inside the Colon. shore line, forming- a narrow but well-protected harbor. Near the apex of the second curve the bottom width is increased to 800 feet for a length of 800 feet, to provide a turning basin. The estimated cost of this entrance and harbor is $8,057,707, of which $1,936,991 is for work outside the jettj T . The annual cost of maintenance is estimated at $30,000. From the inner end of the harbor the bottom width of the canal is 150 feet, the side slopes of 1 on 3 being retained for 1.86 miles through the swamp, after which they are reduced to the standard used in firm earth, and are kept at that standard for a distance of 12.56 miles farther to the Bohio locks. The length of this level measured from the inner end of the harbor is 14.42 miles. Its estimated cost is $11,099,839, including $151,347 for levees to exclude flood waters and $299,000 for the lower approach, 1,200 feet long, to the lock. At Bohio is located a double flight of locks, having a total lift vary- ing from 82 feet at the minimum level of the lake to 90 feet at the maximum, 41 to 45 to each lock, the normal lift being 85 feet. These locks are on the location adopted bv the French Bohio locks. to company, lhey are shown on PI. 24 and are of the type adopted for both the Nicaragua and Panama canals and described elsewhere in this report. The estimated cost of this flight of double locks, four lock chambers in all, is $11,567,275, including excavation. Above the locks the canal enters the artificial lake formed by the Bohio dam and known as Lake Bohio. For the first 7 miles it is a broad, deep body of water, affording room for anchorage, as well as navigation. Beyond this some li^ht excavations Lake Bohio. te J & are necessary. At the upper end the channel will be enlarged to provide for the flood discharge of the Chagres, being given a minimum section of 42,000 square feet. The length of the channel in Lake Bohio is 12.68 miles from the locks to the point where the canal leaves the Chagres. The section extends ninety-three hundredths of a mile farther, to the point where it enters the cut through the divide. The estimated cost of this section is $2,952,154, including $434,400 for the upper approach to the Bohio locks. Near the entrance to the summit cut will be placed a pair of gates 100 feet wide, so that if it should become necessary to draw off the water from the summit cut the level of Lake Bohio would not be affected. These gates will be at the site of a lock proposed by Obispo Kuard sates. ._ ° «5_ • j the h rench company near Obispo, with a founda- tion on hard rock. The estimated cost of these gates, including masonry and excavation, is $21*5,434. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 93 The summit cut is 7.91 miles long from the Obispo gates to the Pedro Miguel locks. The highest point is about 5 miles from the Obispo gates, where the bottom of the canal at the axis is 286 feet below the natural surface of the ground. This is the Culebra cut. ° famous Lulebra cut, though the name has often been applied only to the mile of heaviest work. There is a little very hard rock at the eastern end of this section, and the western two miles are in ordinary materials. The remainder consists of a hard indurated clay, with some softer material at the top and some strata and dikes of hard rock. In fixing the price it has been rated as soft rock, but it must be given slopes equivalent to those in earth. This cut has been estimated on the basis of a bottom width of 150 feet, with side slopes of 1 on 1. While the cut would probably not be fin- ished with this uniform slope, this furnishes as correct a basis of esti- mate as can now be arrived at. The entire cut will be lined with masonry walls, finishing at elevation 92, 2 feet above high water, these walls having nearly vertical faces and furnishing benches 38 feet wide on either side of the canal, on one of which the Panama Railroad will be laid, while it is probable that a service track will be placed on the other. Much has been said about the instability of the Culebra cut; in point of fact, there is a clay in the upper portion of the deep cut which flows readily when saturated, but which will give little trouble if thorough!} 7 drained; probably nine-tenths of the material would naturally be classed as hard clay of stable character; it would weather somewhat, and the surface might require some repairing with concrete in bad places, a practice common in deep cuttings in Europe. This cla} 7 disintegrates rapidly in water, and for this reason the canal prism should be confined between masonry walls. With the provision made for broad benches on each side, on which any slight slides would be arrested, it is believed that no trouble will be experienced. The estimated cost of the 6.02 miles of heavy work is $41,940,180, and of the entire 7.91 miles between the Obispo gates and the Pedro Miguel locks, $44,414,460, including the upper approach to these locks. It would probably take eight years to excavate this section of the canal. The amount of excavation in this section is 43,237,200 cubic yards. The concentration of so large an amount of excavation in so small a space is without precedent. The engineer will recognize at once that thorough organization and tools specially adapted to the work are here required. Fortunately there is ample ground on which to deposit the spoil both north and south of the divide. The method of conducting the work in general principles and in detail should be thoroughly worked out before actual execution is begun. No work has ever been undertaken on which the highest class of practical engineering talent could produce so great economies as in this great concentrated exca- 94 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. vation. Its cost has been estimated at 80 cents per cubic yard; bad management might easily increase this to a dollar, and it is not impos- sible that with a carefully considered equipment the cost might be reduced to 60 cents. The Pedro Miguel locks (see pi. 25) will be similar to the Bohio locks, the aggregate lift varying from 54 to 62 feet. There is an excellent rock foundation here. The estimated cost of these locks, including an adjacent dam, is $9,081,321. A level 1.33 miles long extends from the Pedro Pedro Mlstuel level. Miguel locks to the last lock, which is at Miraflores. The normal elevation of the surface of the water is 28. The estimated cost of this section is $1,192,286 including $388,880 for lock approaches at each end. At the end of this level will be located the Miraflores look. Miraflores lock (see pi. 25), with a hit varying from 18 feet at high tide to 38 feet at mean low tide. There is a good rock foundation for this lock. A spillway will be required to regulate the height of this level. The estimated cost of this lock and spillway is $5,781,401. For 4.12 miles beyond the Miraflores lock the canal extends through a low swamp country through which the Rio Grande runs. Occa- sional rock is found here, but the material is generally very soft and the canal has been estimated for a bottom width of Pacific maritime section. . ... 150 feet with slopes ot 1 on 3. I his brings the canal to a point known as La Boca where the Panama Railroad Com- pany has constructed a large and substantial wharf. A dredged chan- nel 200 feet wide with slopes of 1 on 3 will extend from this point 4.41 miles to the 6-fathom line in Panama Bay. The first 2 miles of this dredged channel are through flats which are bare at low water, where there is a considerable amount of submerged rock. The total cost of this section from the lock to deep water is estimated at $12,- 427,971, of which $1,464,513 is for work outside of La Boca. The cost of maintenance of this channel is included in that of the canal. No separate estimate for maintaining a harbor at Panama is submitted, because it is a natural roadstead, not requiring expenditure. The Bohio dam is the most important structure ItolllO (I.I III. IT 1 • e • .,,,. road would be worth $3,500,000, which is half the face value of its capital stock. In view of its good condition and its valuable termini, it should, not be estimated for purposes of canal construction at less than ^vSOU/JOO, the par value of the 68,500 shares REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 103 of its stock held by the canal company. The exceptional gauge — 5 feet — somewhat reduces its value, as it adds to the cost of rolling stock. The maps, drawings, and records are unusually Value of maps and records. . complete, and their value is great, though not capable of accurate estimate. In the judgment of the Commission, a fair allowance for these would be $2,000,000. T . , , , ,. „ Summing up the foregoing items, the total value Total value of the Panama fe 1 . & & ) s, drawings, and records ... 2, 000, 000 Total „ _ 36. 324, 033 to which add 10 per cent to cover omissions, making the total valua- tion of the Panama Canal $40,000,000. Attractive features. Chapter VI. THE NICARAGUA ROUTE. The Nicaragua route attracted the attention of explorers in the early days of interoceanic canal discussion, and was regarded by many as a most favorable one. Water communication by means of a large river and lake from the Atlantic to within a short distance of the Pacific accentuates the natural advan- tages of this route and at the same time tends to exaggerate them and to obscure the attendant difficulties. Lake Nicaragua is about 103 miles long. It lias Lake Nicaragua. . . -., , .-, j a maximum width or about 45 miles and an area of about 3,000 square miles. It is fairly regular in outline, with its longer axis nearly parallel to the Pacific coast, which in this vicinity has a northwesterly direction. It resembles Lake Erie somewhat in shape, but has only about one-third the area of the latter. Notwith- standing the fact that the existence of this lake had long been known, it appears that the first instrumental survey was made by the Nicara- gua Canal Commission in 1898. It was then found that the bottom of the lake is above sea level over the greater part of its area, a com- paratively small depression being below that level. The maximum depth is about 200 feet, and is found just south of the island of Ometepe, which has an elevation of 5,000 feet. About 18 miles to the northwest of Lake Nica- Lake Managua. . , . ragua. and on the prolongation, ot its axis, lies Lake Managua, extending a distance of 37 miles toward the Gulf of Fon- seca, a large natural harbor opening to the Pacific Ocean. The drain- age of Lake Managua is through the river Tipitapa, which, however, is frequently without water in the dry seasons. This lake is <>.'> miles from the Gulf of Fonseca. A somewhat shorter route from Lake Managua to the Pacific crosses I he plain of Leon to the bay of Corinto, a distance of about 35 miles in an air line. The surface of Lake Nicaragua is generally a >irar;S!"° ns °* '' a k " little more than LOO feet above sea level, [ts ex- treme fluctuation is not definitely known. Its annual fluctuation varies with the annual rainfall and the discharge of the streams that empty into it. These are small, and in the dry season they discharge very Little. Mr. Menocal in his report for L885 states that the lake was as high as 1 L0.63 feet above mean sea Unci at the end mi REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 105 of the wet season of L878. This is perhaps founded on the observations of the residents of Granada, who are reported to have seen the water of the lake up to the top of the steamboat wharf at that place. This may be regarded as an approximate determination of highest lake level. The data for fixing- the minimum level of the lake are equally uncertain; but it is stated on the authority of what are believed to be competent witnesses that it has been as low as 97 or less. These extremes have only been reached at long intervals. The fluctuations in the last three years, during which time regular observations have been taken, have amounted to only 6.09 feet. The drainage basin of the lake is in great part mountainous. This is particularly the ease on the east side, where it is separated (except in the immediate vicinity of its outlet) from the district draining into the Atlantic by a mountain range. There is reason to Characteristics of drain- fe j. that his formerly the continental aire basin. fe divide. At the present time the divide is between the lake and the Pacific. Until the surveys of Colonel Childs, made in 1850-1852, the lowest passes known across this divide were supposed to be those from Lake Managua to the Gulf of Fonseca and the Baj r of Corinto, and canal lines from the lakes to the Pacific were projected to those points. Colonel Childs developed a far better route, crossing the divide at an elevation of only 153 feet above mean tide and follow- ing the valley of a small stream ealled the Rio Grande to the Pacific at Brito. The entire region between the lakes and the Pacific is now well enough known to establish beyond doubt that this is the lowest erossing of the divide, and is in every respect the best canal route. The San Juan River, through which the lake discharges at Fort San Carlos, follows a tortuous course in a southeasterly direction and empties through several mouths into the Caribbean Sea near Grevtown. The distance from the lake outlet to The San Juan River. . . . . „ the mouth of the river is about 80 miles in an air line, but about 120 miles following the windings of the river, the greater portion of the valley drained being on the right bank, where the divide, a lofty mountain range, is about 50 miles distant. On the left bank the divide is only 10 to 20 miles from the river, and the crest is much lower. The Indio, which empties into the Caribbean Sea some 6 miles northwest of Grevtown, runs generally parallel to the San Juan, the headwaters of some of its tributaries being only about 15 to 20 miles distant from that river. The principal tributaries of the San Juan on the 3 ^n^ntnZ^ n left bank are the Melchora, Sabalos, Santa Cruz, Bartola, Machuca, Danta, and San Francisco, but none of them are of great size. The most important in their relation to the canal project are the Danta and San Francisco. They are in a region of heavy rainfall, hut it is impossible to measure their greatest 106 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. flood discharges because they overflow their banks and intercommuni- cate, and also because backwater from the San Juan extends for a considerable distance up their valleys. The soil in their beds and banks is of a soft, alluvial character, generally free from grit, and contains quantities of decayed or decaying vegetation. When drained it stands well on steep slopes, as is shown by the banks, which are often vertical. At a short distance from the banks, where the drainage is imperfect, the material is very soft to a great depth. Their drainage basins are covered with a dense tropical growth which pro- tects the soil, so that water finds its way into the streams with compar- atively little solid matter in suspension. The Sabalos, while not a large stream, attains considerable size at times. Gaugings taken b\ T this Commission show that the discharge often reaches as much as 2,000 cubic feet per second. The maximum measured was on Sep- tember -I'd. 1899, when it reached 12,000 cubic feet per second. The minimum discharge is as low as 23 cubic feet per second. The Santa Cruz is of similar character, while the Melchora, Bartola, and Machuca are much smaller streams. On the right bank are the Frio, the Poco Sol, the San Carlos, and the Se'rapiqui, besides several smaller streams. The Frio is treated as a river discharging into the lake. Its mouth, however, is close along- side the outlet of the San Juan. It is a river of some importance when in flood, though it is small in the dry season. A discharge of nearly 12,000 cubic feet per second was observed by the Nicaragua Canal Commission. The Poco Sol is a much smaller stream. There is little known of its watershed, though the maps show its source in the moun- tainous region of Costa Rica. The river has been gauged and its dis- charge determined in a series of 18 gaugings extending over a period of one year, viz, from October, 1899, to the latter part of September, 1900. On April 20, 1900, the discharge was only 34 cubic feet per second. On July 15, 1900, the discharge was 2,651 cubic feet per second; this was the maximum observed. No appreciable amount of sediment has been brought into the San Juan by li^rTr^tl^.^" anv oi tnese tributaries during the continuance of the surveys extending over tin 1 last four years, and there is no indication in tin 1 San Juan itself that any of its tributaries above the San Carlos contributes an amount of sediment that is appre- ciable in connection with the maintenance of a navigable channel. The largest and most important tributary of the San Juan is the San Carlos. It rises in the mountains of Costa Rica, flows northeasterly and empties into the San Juan about 57 miles (measured along the windings of the river) from the lake. Ltisawide, swift stream, having a drainage area of about L,500 square miles, as determined from the best maps available. This esti- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 107 mate may be too great or too small, as the region has never been sur- veyed. The discharge varies within wide limits. It is known to have been as low as 3,000 cubic feet pev second, and as high as 66,820 cubic feet per second. The estimated possible maximum is 100,000 cubic feet per second. Its banks as far as they have been explored are of clay and withstand well the action of the river current. It is proper to remark, however, that information on the physics of this river is mainly limited to what is obtainable near its mouth. The bed of the river in the lower part is sand which is easily put in motion. It is supposed that the sources of this sand are the volcanoes in the Costa Rican mountains. That found in the delta of the San Juan River is similar in character. The floods of this stream are of great violence and frequency. The Serapiqui is a river of similar character to Seraplqui Klver. * ■*■ . . . the San Carlos, but it is not so large. It is a sand- bearing stream and adds a large quota of this material to the main river. Its measured discharge varies from about 3,000 cubic feet to about 26,000 cubic feet per second. Its maximum is doubtless much greater. There is another river still farther to the east- ward called the Negro, which, according to the maps, drains a large area of Costa Rican territory, and discharges into the Colorado outlet of the San Juan. Very little is known of the characteristics of this stream and no effort was made to secure any information, as it does not affect the question before the Commission. The fall of the San Juan River from the lake to Fall in San Juan Klver. . . the sea is about 100 feet. About one-halt of this occurs above the mouth of the San Carlos, and is mainly concentrated at several rapids. At each of the principal rapids the lied of the river is rock. The most important of these is at Castillo. The fall in the river is here 6 feet in a distance of little more than one-third of a mile. The existing navigation of the river is very much obstructed here and boats can only pass when the river is high. Ordinarily freight and passengers are carried around the rapids on a tramway. Between the Machuca Rapids and the mouth of the San Carlos the river is deep and the current moderate. In low stages it is almost imperceptible. When the San Carlos is in flood the San Juan current may even set upstream. This part of the river is called the Agua Muerte (dead water). The bottom of the channel in places is below the sea level. The amount of sediment delivered to the river by its upper tributaries has evidently been no greater than its waters have been able to transport, notwithstanding the moderate current. Below the moutn of the San Carlos the fall is quite uniformly distributed. 108 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The following table gives approximately the fall in feet for the vari- ous reaches of the Sun Juan River from the lake to the sea. with the lake at elevation 104: Slopes in various reaches of San Juan. Reach. Distance in miles. Fall in feet. 27. 16 5.4 1.70 7.3 7. 98 1.2 .38 6.0 11.17 24.5 .95 4.0 15.37 1.0 33.02 30.0 5. 28 4.0 18.65 20.6 121.66 104. From the lake to head of Toro Rapids In Toro Rapids From foot of Toro Rapids to head of Castillo Rapids In Castil lo Rapids From foot of Castillo Rapids to head of Maehuca Rapids In Maehuca Rapids From foot of Maehuca Rapids to mouth of the San Carlos (Agua Muerte) From mouth of San Carlos to head of the San Juanillo From head of San Juanillo to the head of the Colorado From head of Colorado to sea (via Lower Sau Juau) Total, from lake to sea The slopes above given are approximate only, and result from the lake being at elevation 104 and the river under normal conditions. They will vary with the stage of the lake and with the rainfall in the drainage basin of the river. The bed of the Upper San Juan (and by this is Bed of I'pper San Juan. _. T 7. , . . . ' . meant the San Juan from the lake to the mouth of the San Carlos River) consists chiefly of silt, clay, or rock. The river banks general!}' resist the erosive action of the currents, even where the velocities are great. This is due in a measure to the pro- tection afforded by growing vegetation, which reaches to the water's edge and sometimes extends below it. but mainly to the cohesive character of the material. Below the mouth of the San Carlos the bed of the San Juan consists mostly of sand, which forms shifting bars. Freshets in the rivers of the United States are San Juan In freshets. • i t • • > 1 usually characterized by quantities of logs ana other drift floating on the surface. As a rule fallen timber in the San Juan River remains where it falls, or at least is not moved any great distance, as the most of it is too heavy to float. This is an important fact in connection with the construction of the canal. Where the line passes through old swamps, doubtless considerable heavy timber will be encountered below the surface of the ground. About 8 miles below the mouth of the Sera- San Juanillo Hirer. ... , T .,. . piqui the oan Juanillo branches off, following a tortuous course until it again joins the Lower San Juan, a short dis- tance southeast of Grey Town. The indications point to this strean as having been in remote times an important outlet of the main river. A short distance below the mouth of the Sera- Coastal plain. , piqui the San Juan River enters the coastal plain. a region of swamps, bayous, and lagoons. About 20 miles from the KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 109 sea it divides into two outlet branches — the Lower Sun Juan, which dis- charges through Harbor Head Lagoon near Grey Town, and the Colo- rado, which discharges directly into the Caribbean Sea, about 15 miles to the southward. The latter is the principal outlet and may be enlarging at the expense of the Lower San Juan, although as long ago as 1851 the gaugings made by Colonel Childs showed that the Colorado was carrying nearly four-fifths of the total amount at a mean stage. Each of these outlets is subdivided and the entire system intercom- municates. , , . , There are indications of a general subsidence of subsidence. , a the Atlantic coast in this region. The former rocky bed of the San Juan appears to have been depressed. At Machuca Rapids rock appears near the water surface. At the dam site adopted by this Commission at Conchuda the distance from the low T - water surface to the lowest point in the rock cross section is about 80 feet. At the dam site suggested by the Nicaragua Canal Commis- sion the distance is about 110 feet. At Tambor Grande, 18 miles farther downstream, it is not less than 140 feet, and is doubtless con- siderably more in the lowest depression. From the mouth of the San Carlos down is a deep rock} T trough, which is tilled with sand. Some sand has also been carried a short distance above the San Carlos by floods from that stream when the San Juan was low. In the coastal plain, which consists mainly of swamps, vegetable matter intermixed with silt is found to a considerable depth, but within 5 or 6 miles of the coast sand is found extending to a great depth under a light covering of mud. Along the Atlantic coast in the vicinity of Grey Town and for some distance inland the rainfall is the greatest known on the continent. There is no detinite dry season. Rain may be expected almost any day in the year. On the other hand, the entire drainage basin of Lake Nicaragua lies in a region having a well-detined dry season. The annual rainfall near Grey Town sometimes amounts to nearly 300 inches. The average is probably 260 to 270 inches, while at Bluefields, 75 miles to the north, and at Port Limon, 70 miles to the southeast, it is less than half as much. There is a perceptible diminution in the annual Rainfall. rainfall as one proceeds westward to the lake. The total for the year 1899, at Grey Town was 2S5. 93 inches, while that for the same period at Ochoa was 177.91 inches, and at Fort San Carlos 77.20 inches. For the year 1900 the annual rainfalls were for Grey Town, 266.10 inches, for Ochoa, 158.83 inches, and for Fort San Carlos, 89.34 inches. The heaviest observed rainfall in a short period was that at Silico station on Lake Silico, November 4, 1899, when 10.5 inches fell in six hours, an average of If inches per hour. On the same date a fall of 12.48 inches in twenty-four hours was observed at Grey Town. A rainfall of 4 inches or more in one day 110 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN" CANAL COMMISSION. is not a rare occurrence in that vicinity. In the drainage basin of Lake Nicaragua the average annual rainfall is about 65 inches. The trade winds blow almost constantly, but Minds. . , . , they are not strong enough to sensibly aftect canal navigation. At rare intervals violent northers occur, which are felt to a less degree in the interior. It is not believed that the winds would seriously interfere with canal navigation at any time. It can be readily understood that the Nicaragua route, affording water transportation from the Atlantic to within a few miles of the Pacific, was very attractive when navigation was carried on by means of small ships. It became a favorite transisthmian route immediately after the discovery of gold in California. Passengers arriving by sea at the port of Grev Town, at that time an excellent Transit route. harbor, were transported by steamboats to the west shore of the lake; whence the Pacific was reached by a short stage line, which terminated at the port of San Juan del Sur. This was a busy traffic route for some years. Successive projects for inter- oceanic communication have had to provide for the increasing dimen- sions of ships, and as channel dimensions have thus been enlarged the difficulties of providing for a safe navigation have become greater. The serious difficulties, however, are nearly all found between Machuca Rapids and the Caribbean. The region of practicable canal routes is limited to the north side of the San Juan River, by the existence of the San Carlos and Serapiqui rivers on the south side. Financially it would be ranlfrltos! ,,ra, ' n, * il " U ' impracticable to divert these streams,* and it would be equally impracticable to take them into the canal. Hence all the surveys and examinations for a canal route have been confined to the north side of the river. The topography of the country in the vicinity of the route adopted is generally rough. The hills as a rule do not attain a great height, but they are usually steep and bunched together, with areas of swamp or low flats about them. The surface is covered with a dense growth of tropical vegetation which renders exploration Topography. ° or surveys extremely difficult and expensive. There are few places where a transit line can be run 50 feet without cutting out a line of sight. This difficulty accounts for the paucity of existing topographical information, notwithstanding the fact that the country has long been known and studied for a canal route. From Grey Town to Castillo the boundary between the republics of Costa Rica and Nicaragua follows the right bank of the San Juan River. Thence to the lake, the boundary is a line Boundary. . .. on the right bank, generally about 2 miles from the river. Both shores from Castillo to the lake are therefore m Nicaraguan territory. When the level of the water of the river is REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Ill raised by the construction of the proposed dam at Conchuda, sonic of the lands in Costa Rican territory will he submerged, although the canal line from Castillo westward to the Pacific will lie wholly in X iearaguan territory. While many propositions more or less indefinite had previously been made for a canal across the isthmus in Nicaragua, the first actual sur- vey made and definite project proposed were those Chilils's project. Is.VJ. ^ * .... ,, . . . of Col. (J. \\ . Childs, a civil engineer of high, standing, in 1850-52. The survey made by him was for a private corporation known as "The American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company." His project has been the basis for all subsequent ones, and the route followed by him does not differ greatly from that which is now recommended by this Commission. He reached the conclusion that a ship canal through Nicaragua from the Atlantic to the Pacific could not be considered practicable upon any other route than that through the valley of the San Juan to Lake Nicaragua, and from that lake either southwesterly upon a line through some A'allev extending across the dividing ridge, or northwesterly up the river Tipitapa to Lake Managua, thence through the valle}' extending from the head of that lake to some feasible point for a connection with the Pacific. In view of the greater length of a canal by the latter route, the greater amount of lockage, and uncertainty of obtaining a full supply of water upon the higher summit, it was deemed best to begin by exploring the country lying directly between the west side of Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific. He then examined different routes from Lake coionei e ('hihis. mine< * Nicaragua to the Pacific, beginning with that via the Sapoa and terminating in Salinas Bay. The conclusion was reached that the line leading from the lake at the mouth of the River Las Lajas up the eastern slope of the divide and down the valley of the Rio Grande on the western slope to the Pacific at Brito presented more favorable conditions than any other between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific, and was superior to anj T route b} T way of Lake Managua. He thus disposed of the routes terminating at the Gulf of Fonseca, Port Realejo, and Tamorinda River. The divide on this line was crossed at an elevation of about 46 feet above the level of the lake. The plan adopted made the lake the summit level; its surface was to be maintained at about 108 feet above sea level by means of a dam 1,050 feet long and 16.21 feet high at Castillo Rapids, and another on the west side at Buen Retiro, about 10 miles west of the lake. The latter dam was to be 290 feet long and 33 feet high. The summit level made by these dams, as given by Colonel Childs in his report, was to be 103.43 miles. It would have been longer, as the distance across the lake was underestimated. The fall from high lake to low tide on the Atlantic side was to be 108.73 feet 112 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. and on the Pacific .side 111. 17 feet. On the eastern side the summit was to be reached by 12 locks of 8 feet lift each, 1 of 6.5, and 1 of 6.23 feet; on the western side by 13 locks of 8 feet each and 1 of 7. IT feet. The water in the canal was to have a depth of 17 feel and a bottom width of 50 feet. In earth, the side slopes were to be I on '2 for a height of 9 feet from the bottom, then a berme of »> feet followed by a slope of 1 on 1^, paved with stone. In rock the bottom width was to he the same, but for a height of !> feet above slopes. 6 ™ 0n tn< * bottom each side had a slope of 1 on H; from there to a height of 15 feet above the water in the canal the slope w T as to be 21 on 1. At this level there was a berme 9 feet wide for towing purposes, and from the back of this berme the side slope was 4 on 1 until earth was reached, when the slope was changed to 1 on 1-J. A passing place was to be made at the head of each lock and at least one in every mile of length of the canal. At these passing places the bottom width of the canal in earth was to be increased to 90 feet, and in rock to L05 feet. The bottom width of that portion of the canal occupying tiie Rio Las Lajas was to be 1(H) feet; at all of the cuts through bars in the river the width at bottom was to be 150 feet. The locks were to be 60 by 250 feet, with 17 feet depth of water on their miter sills. Slack water navigation was to be made in the San Juan from the lake to about one-half mile below the mouth of the Serapiqui River by a series of 7 dams. These were to be passed by moans of locks on short canals. Below this point the canal left the river on the north side and was to be excavated for a distance of 28.50 miles to 17 feet depth of water in the harbor of Grey Town. The line crossed the Rio San Jaunillo about three-fourths of a mile from its junction with the San Juan. The San Juanillo was to be diverted to the north. The project included the formation of a harbor at Brito and the improvement and enlargement of the one at Grej Length ami cost of the ■-,■, , . ,. , , ,. . • • v , , cana] I own by jetties and by excavation. A lighthouse was provided for at each harbor. Grey Town, at the time of the examination made by Colonel Childs, was connected with the sea by a channel 24 feetdeep and L,300 feet wide. In the lake the channel from near Fort San Carlos to near Boccas (Solentiname) Islands, which w T as to be 150 feet wide, was to be protected by a row of piles driven on each side. On the western side, near the mouth of the Las Lajas, the cut in the lake wits to be protected by a pier con- structed on either side and extended to deep water. The total length of the route was given as follows: Miles. From the 17-foot curve in the Pacifictodam at Buen Retiro 8.809 From dam at Buen Retiro to Lake Nicaragua i».77'.> Total western division . 18.588 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 113 Miles. Across Lake Nicaragua (now known to be 70.51 miles) 56.500 From Lake Nicaragua to dam near Castillo 37, 151 From dam near Castillo to dam near Serapiqui 53, 874 From San Juan River to 17-foot curve in Caribbean Sea 28,280 Total eastern division 119.305 Total 194.393 Summit level: West of lake ■ 9.779 Lake 56.500 East of lake 37.151 Total 103.430 The total cost of the canal was estimated at $31,538,319.55, which included 15 per cent for contingencies, and the work was to be com- pleted within six years from the time of breaking ground. The contract between Nicaragua and the corn- Depth of cauai not as required that the canal should be large enough great as contract required. 1 .' 1 " » to accommodate vessels of all sizes, and Colonel Chi Ids had been instructed by the company to make surveys and esti- mates for a work of such dimensions as would comply with this require- ment. He recognized that the dimensions proposed would not meet it. His reasons for limiting the depth to 17 feet were that the ratio of increase of the expense of a deeper canal would be very great, and that the construction of a canal of the dimensions required for vessels of the largest size would be an injudicious application of means that the company would scarcely favor or the interests of commerce require. He stated also that no vessels were plying between the Atlantic States and the eastern coast of the Pacific with a draft as great as 17 feet, and that of 261 steam vessels, mostly English, as given in Murray's Treatise on Marine Engines and Steam Vessels, only 15 drew over 17 feet, 21 drew 17 feet, and 225 less than 17 feet each at the load line. He had therefore made his plans and estimates with due consideration of the disparity in cost and general utility of a canal of larger dimensions. At the request of the company this report of the survey and loca- tion was submitted by President Fillmore to Col. Report referred to J . Colonel Abert and Major J. J. Abeit and MilJ. W. Tumbull, Corps Ot Turi,b ' 111 - Topographical Engineers, for their inspection and opinion, and on the 20th of March, 1852, they reported that the plan proposed by Colonel Childs was practicable, but they expressed the opinion that the jetties at Grey Town Harbor and one or both at Brito S D— 57-1— Vol 7»— 8 114 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. could be dispensed with; also the pile work in the lake near Fort San Carlos; and that one row of guide piles about 100 feet apart to mark the channel from there to Boccas (Solentiname) Islands would be suffi- cient. It was also recommended that additional surveys be made between the San Juan River and Gre} 7 Town Harbor to determine whether a more direct line could be found. These modifications, it was suggested, would materially diminish the cost of the canal, also the time in passing it. Colonel Childs subsequently proposed a project for a canal 12 feet deep with a smaller prism and smaller locks. Nothing further was done by either the Ameri- LnU's project, 1873. fe J can Atlantic and Facinc Snip Canal Company or anyone else looking to the construction of this canal for about twenty years, when an expedition was fitted out by the United States Govern- ment, under the charge of Commander A. F. Grossman, U. S. N., for the purpose of surveying an interoceanic canal Expedition under Com- , rpi j-j.- -i 1 ji rr tx t j. mander Grossman, i.s.n. route - The expedition sailed from Key West, and arrived off Grey Town on April 7, 1872. On April 12, while attempting to make a landing at Grey Town, the boat containing Commander Grossman capsized, and he with a num- ber of his party was drowned. The command of the expedition then devolved upon Commander Hatfield, U. S. N., who proceeded with the surveying parties to Lake Nicaragua and began operations on the west side of the lake, securing some valuable information respecting the routes between the lake and the Pacific. His investi- gations showed that Colonel Childs's survey of the western portion of his line was correct. Commander Hatfield's party made recon- noissances, with the object of finding another line by which the route could be shortened and the Rio Grande avoided, the upper part of the valley of the latter being practically a gorge and liable to give trouble in time of flood. The parties under the charge of Commander Parties under Comman- T t .^ it • i ,1 , • <• ,. i *, der iiatfleid. Hatfield, with the exception of a tew men, left to do some hydrographic work in the lake, for which the calmer weather of the rainy season is more favorable, were withdrawn from the Isthmus in .July. In November of the same year an expedition was fitted out under the command Lull succeeds Hatfield. * . of Commander L. 1 . Lull, u. S. N., who arrived off Grey Town December, 1872. and took up the work begun by Com- mander Hatfield. Commander Lull made an examination of a Dumber of routes between the lake and the Pacific, and finally adopted the one known as the Medio route. From the Pacific Ocean to a place called Las Serdas, near the outlet of the Rio Grande gorge, the line is practically the same as that adopted by Colonel Childs. From thence it swings to the northward on a radius of 2,200 feet, following the valley of a West Division. *f ~ small stream then called the Chocolata (called Gua- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 115 chipilin on recent maps) for a short distance, and crosses the divide into the valley of the Medio, which it follows to the lake. The total length of the line from Brito to the lake was 16.33 miles, being about a mile and a half shorter than the Childs route. The summit of the divide was 134 feet above the level of the lake, or about 241 feet above sea level, giving a maximum depth of cutting of lt50 feet. There were to be 11 locks in this section, including a tide lock at Brito, to admit ships at any stage of the tide. The tide lock was to have a lift of 9 feet, the others of 10.31 feet each. The brook Chocolata, which the route crossed, was to be taken into the canal, but the Tola, as well as several smaller streams, was to be passed under the canal by means of culverts to the Rio Grande. The waters of the latter stream were conducted to the Pacific on the south side of the canal, diversion chan- nels being provided where necessary. By this departure from the Childs route the Rio Grande was excluded from the canal, a feature then deemed important. A small harbor at Brito was to be formed by the construction of a breakwater extending easterty from Brito Head and a short jetty from the beach on the opposite side of the entrance. The mouth of the river was to be utilized for harbor purposes, and the diversion of the stream to the eastward of the entrance was provided for. The harbor as designed was well pro- tected. From the lake eastward it was proposed to canalize the San Juan River by the construction of dams and locks and short sections of canal at Castillo, Balas, and Machuca Rapids, and at a place about 2 miles below the mouth of the San Carlos. All the dams were to be comparatively low, and the waters of the river Eastern division. "L . were to be discharged over them. It was esti- mated that the fall at the first three dams would be 10.28 feet each. The fall over dam No. 4 was expected to be 23.87 feet. The lake was to be held at a minimum of 107 above sea level, but no provision was made for holding it close to that level against a rise, except that which was afforded by the discharge through the river; and no effort whatever was made to provide for the deficiencies of the diT season, when the lake would naturally fall below 107 from evapo- ration. The danger of taking the San Carlos into Lake Nicaragua. » i • the canalized part of the river above dam No. 4 seems to have been fully realized by Commander Lull, for we find that he proposed to divert the waters of the San Carlos by a cut-off and discharge them into the San Juan below the dam, but it is evident that the difficulties of this work were not fully appreciated. From near the mouth of the San Carlos to Grey Town the canal was to be carried 'in excavation a distance of 41.9 miles. The least radius of curvature was 2,500 feet. The line was to follow the general course of the main river bank, cutting off bends wherever the conformation 116 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of the ground would permit, until the head of the San Juanillo was reached. From there to Grey Town Harbor it was canal from near San car- neai .j v a straight course. Seven locks, in addition los Hirer to (irey Town. J fe to those abreast of the dams, were proposed, mak- ing ten in all. The last two locks were to be placed together and sea level reached just before the canal entered the Silico Lagoon. From there to Grey Town it was expected to dredge a channel, embank- ments not being thought necessary. The seven locks were to have each a lift of 10.87 feet. The depth throughout the canal was to be 26 Dimensions. , < , • . feet and the locks were to be 400 feet long by 75 feet wide. A number of the streams which are crossed Irv the canal were to be passed under it by means of culverts. The bottom width of the canal varied from 50 feet in the deep earth cuttings to 60 feet in the rock cuttings and 72 feet in the shallow cuttings. The harbor that existed at the time the Childs project was made had since been inclosed by the sand spit, which had moved westerly until it united with the mainland, converting the harbor into a lagoon. It there- fore became necessary to construct a harbor at this entrance. All communication was to be cut off between the harbor and the San Juan River, so as to cause the entire waters of the San Juan to be discharged by the Colorado branch, but the San Juanillo was to be discharged into the harbor and a jett}^ extending from the shore to 35 feet of water was to be built. A channel into the harbor was to be dredged under the lee of this breakwater, which had a direction of NNW. The total estimated cost of this project, allowing 25 per cent for con- tingencies, was $65,722,137. From 1873 to 1881, a period of eleven years, no surveys were made by the Government or by individuals in this connection. In 1884 the Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty was negotiated with Nicaragua, giving to the United States the right to build a canal across the isthmus from ocean to ocean within the territory of that Republic, following the most available route. Another survey was then ordered. This expedition was under the command of Mr. A. G. Menocal, Venocal surrey. . rT - v , , i , ,, civil engineer, U. S. JN., wno had been the prin- cipal assistant to Commander Lull in 1872 and LN73. The object of this survey appears to have been chief!}' to determine the advisability of any changes in the route for shortening the canal and diminishing the cost. As a result of Mr. MenocaTs work a new proj- Menocal nrojeet, 1885. .... ,, , \, ect was submitted m a report to the Secretary oi the Navy November, 1885, in which very radical changes were made in the Lull project. On the west side, between the lake and the Pacific, the changes were confined to that part of the route between Las Serdas and the lake. Instead of following the valley of the Medio from the REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 117 lake across the divide to the valley of the Rio Grande, lie adopted the Las Lajas route, several miles to the southward, whieh was the one originally surveyed by Colonel Childs. This made it necessary either to receive the waters of the upper Rio Grande into the canal or to divert them to Lake Nicaragua through a new channel, the Rio Grande gorge being too narrow to take the canal and river separately. The maximum discharge of this stream was estimated by Colonel . , ,, , . Childs at 5,070 cubic feet per second, but it was Changes In Lull project ^ ' * # 7 on west side suggested by thought by Mr. Menocal that it might sometimes, M * nocaK for short periods, be as great as 10,000 cubic feet per second. He thought the taking of so large an amount of water into the canal would be dangerous to navigation and the stability of the work; hence he sought to find some method of diverting it. This he found could be done by building a dam across the river several thousand feet from the canal and excavating an artificial channel through the ridge which separated the valle} r of the Grande from that of the Juan Davila, a branch of the Las Lajas. The proposed channel was to have a width of 75 feet at the bottom, to be 15 feet deep, with proper slopes, and a fall of 2.53 feet per mile. The length from the dam to the Juan Davila was 3.88 miles. The waters of the Rio Grande being thus diverted, the valley of that river was practically diy as far as the Tola, and this enabled a better alignment to be made. The Tola was to be passed under the canal by means of a culvert, as in Lull's project. The sailing line across the lake was changed back to the old route, which started from the mouth of the Las Lajas instead of from that of the Medio. On the section from the lake eastward radical changes were intro- duced which rendered the project for this section entirely unlike any that had jet been suggested. Instead of a succession of comparatively low dams as far down as the San Carlos, a single dam was proposed at Ochoa, about 3£ miles below the mouth of that river. This dam was to create slackwater naviga- tion in the river, raising the like to 110. It practically converted the river from the lake to the dam into an arm of the lake. It was expected that a slope of 4 feet from Fort San Carlos to the dam, which was provided for, would discharge the surplus waters from the lake and the drainage of the river basin. The Ochoa dam was to be built of concrete masonry, with a large amount of loose stone on the upstream side and an apron on a pile and grillage foundation on the lower side to prevent undermining. The entire surplus waters of the San Juan River were to be discharged over the crest of the dam. No borings had been made to determine the nature of the foundations, but it was supposed from the outcropping bowlders on the side hills and on the banks, that rock underlaid the gravel and sandy bottom at no great depth. 118 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. It was supposed that the hills south of the San Juan formed a con- tinuous range which would hold up the sumit level on that side. It was discovered some }^ears later by the Maritime Canal Company that this was not the case, but that embankments of the *San Juan? S ° U ' ° considerable magnitude would be required between the hills. The project now being considered did not contemplate such embankments, and no estimate was made for them. Starting from a point a short distance above the dam on the north side of the river, the canal was to be carried in excavation through the broken country at the headwaters of the Danta, crossing the latter stream into the valley of the San Francisco, which it also crossed and followed to its confluence with the Chanchos ; it then ascended the latter and a tributary thereof to the divide which separates this drain- age system from that of the Deseado, a tributary of the San Juanillo. After crossing the divide the line entered the eastward™" 1 ° l0a *" va ^ e J °f the Deseado, which it followed to the coastal plain, whence it took a direct course to Gre} 7 Town lagoon. The summit level was to be maintained across the Danta, San Francisco and Chanchos, and through the "east divide " by a small embankment not far from the Ochoa dam and a large one 6,500 feet long and 51 feet high across the vallej 7 of the San Francisco below the mouth of the Chanchos. The subsequent surveys of the Maritime Canal Company showed that a large number of embankments was necessary. The ""divide cut" was an important feature in Divide cut. this project. It was stated to be a little less than 3 miles long and was nearly all in curvature. Mr. Menocal states that the elevation of the divide between the eastern and western flow- ing waters was 280 feet, but it being impossible to locate the canal so as to follow the turns of the valley, the line would cut several spurs where the excavation was still deeper. The maximum cutting would have been about 350 feet. The saving in distance from the Pacific to the Atlantic over the Lull route is stated in Mr. Menocal's report to be 10.96 miles. The project contemplated a depth of 28 feet, increased in places to 30. The sum- mit level was to be reached by three locks on the east side and four on the west. The locks proposed were to have a uniform length of 650 feet between the gates and a least width of 65 feet. Locks 1, 2, and 3 on the east side had lifts of 26, 27, and 53 feet, respectively. The locks on the west side, counting from the lake to llllk- the sea, had lifts as follows: 26.4 feet for the first, 29.7 feet each for the second and third, and for the last, being a tide lock, the lift was to vary between 24.2 and 33.18 feet, depending upon the state of the tide. The lock with 53 feet lift was proposed to be REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 119 cut out of solid rock on the eastern slope of the divide, concrete to be used only to the extent required to fill cavities, to give proper dimen- sions to the various parts and a surface to the blasted rock. All the other locks were to be built of concrete, and all were to have a heavy timber lining in the chambers and bays extending from the tops of the walls to 15 feet below low-water level. A narrow-gauge railroad was to be built from Grey Town to the dam across the San Juan River and another between the lake and Brito. The total estimated cost was $64,036,197. This included 25 per cent for contingencies, but nothing for surveys, hospitals, shops, man- agement, and other necessary expenses in addition to the construction contingencies proper. The Frelinghu} T sen- Zavala treatv was withdrawn pan^?iroje.-tri8 l 8 ! ). (0n '' from the United States Senate by the President before ratification, and became inoperative. But a concession, known as the Menocal concession, was granted by Nica- ragua to the Nicagagua Canal Association, in 1887, to construct a canal connecting the two oceans. A similar concession was granted by Costa Rica in 1888. The Maritime Canal Com- pan} gil " 1Ziltl °" ° f COm " P an . v '» °^ Nicaragua, was organized under the terms of these concessions in February, 1889, and a charter was granted by Congress to enable the company to execute the work. (See act approved February 20, 1889.) The project of the canal company was essentially sam^MeToears! 1 " ** the same as that of Menocal, of 1885, modified in respect to the summit level. This was to be extended on the west side to within 3£ miles of Brito \>y the construc- tion of a dam across the Rio Grande at La Flor. Surveys had shown that a continuous ridge, with a single break at the crossing of the San Francisco from the north end of the Ochoa dam to the "east divide," did not exist, and that in addition to the embankment or dam across that stream, a great San Francisco embank- i , i i rrn nH , utllm , number were necessary m other places. 1 he sup- posed ridge proved to be a series of hills of greater or less height, with saddles or low valleys between them. The total number of embankments, great and small, required between the Ochoa dam and the divide, as stated in the report on final location in 1889, was 67, having a total crest length of about 6 miles. Most of them were small, but four of them were very large, and their construction constituted a most difficult engineering problem on account of the great depth and the soft and yielding nature of the soil at the sites. It was also found that the ridge from the south end of the dam was not continuous to the hills in Costa Rica, and that a number of embank- ments to connect these hills would be required. The total number was 120 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 21, with an aggregate length of 5,540 feet on their crests. These embankments were to be entirely of clay. This embankment line was not only shorter than the San Francisco line, but the construction of the dams in the saddles of the ridge presented no special engineering difficulties. It was proposed to build a waste weir in the ridge about 2f miles from the Ochoa dam, having its crest at 106 feet above mean sea level, to discharge the flood waters of the San n ,e2. (arl ° S en, " ank " Carlos into the valley of Curena Creek, which empties into the San Juan below the Ochoa dam. Embankments or dams were also required east of the divide in the valley of the Deseado, one of which was to be 70 feet high and 1,050 feet long. Weirs and sluices were provided in the San Francisco and Deseado valleys for the control of floods. Some of the largest of the embankments or dams on the San Francisco line were first designed as rock tills backed with earth, their crests to be 107 Other embankments. . . 1 , -. , , feet above mean sea level, and the top and outer slopes so shaped and paved with large stones as to admit the free flow of water over their surfaces. These were to be, in fact, so many waste weirs for the discharge of the surplus waters from the summit level. The Ochoa dam, which was originally to be of masonry with a timber apron, was modified to a rock fill backed with earth. The crest of the dam was fixed at 105 feet above mean sea level. Its width across the top was to be 25 feet. As the water of the San Juan was to be held at 106 in the vicinity of the dam, a constant discharge due to a head of 1 foot over the dam was expected. This, however, would not have been the case, for the lake would have fallen to 106 or lower in the dry season and the level at the dam could not have sallTuaT^o"^^ " been maintained. It was estimated that the dis- charge over the crest of the dam might sometimes reach 42,500 cubic feet per second, and the combined discharges with the lake at 111 over the dams, weirs, and through sluices were esti- mated at a maximum of 147,800 cubic feet per second. The dam was to be built of rock taken from the east divide cut and deposited by means of cables stretched across the river. On the upstream side of the rock pile thus formed clay was to be deposited to render it water- tight. On the west side of the lake the summit level was La Flordam. . . . . . to be continued through the west divide and down the valley of the Rio Grande to a point called La Flor, about 3£ miles from the Pacific, where the valley narrowed to about 1,600 feet. At this place the valley was to be closed and the summit level maintained by a large dam. For several miles above this site the valley is about a mile or more wide, and a large, deep basin would thus be formed into REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 121 which the floods of the Rip Grande, Tola, and other (smaller streams would be received, it was hold that the creation of this large pool would render unnecessary the proposed diversion of the Upper Rio Grande into Lake Nicaragua, and thus save about $1,500,000, which the proposed diversion would cost. It was at first intended to build the La Flor dam as a rock till backed with earth, in the same manner as proposed for the Ochoa dam, but finding the underlying strata of earth unsatisfactory, the plan was changed to an earthen dam with a masonry core extending down to rock. A waste weir 300 feet long was to be provided cast of the dam to discharge the surplus waters into the bed of the Rio Grande. With the adoption of a dam at La Flor, the loca- tion of the locks was fixed near its western end, the combined lift of two being 85 feet. A third, which would be the tide lock, was to be located a short distance from the harbor and have a variable lift according to the stage of the tide of from 21 to 29 feet. The total cost of the canal was estimated at Cost. . $65,000,000, inclusive of 25 per cent for contingen- cies, but exclusive of interest, commissions, and other charges not coming under the cognizance of the engineers, and on the basis that the work would be prosecuted with vigor along the whole line and without intermission. In the early part of the year, 1899, the project was submitted to a board of consulting engineers for examination, report, etc. This board made a report on May 9 of that year, giving Report of Board of Con- ,i • • ,i L j> ,i • j. ,. « • i i suiting Engineers. the opinion that from the information furnished by the maps, profiles, borings, samples, and state- ments of the chief engineer and other employees, the project was "unquestionably feasible." The board stated, however, that there was a possible hazard in respect to the San Francisco and other basins that they might not prove sufficiently retentive, owing either to the leakage around the ends or under the bases of the dams and embankments from concealed permeable strata beneath the natural surface. They deemed "this a remote danger, since both the surface and subterranean for- mations, as far as revealed by the borings and by the reports of obser- vations of reliable men familiar with the locality, are favorable.' 1 The estimate of cost as determined by this board, inclusive of 20 per cent for contingencies, was $87,799,570. On March 2, 1895, Congress passed an act pro- Mcaragua Canal Board, • j • £ ,i . , , .. , -i i> 1896> viding tor the appointment of a board of engin- eers to make a survey and examination for the purpose of ascertaining the feasibility, permanence, and cost of the construction and completion of the Nicaragua Canal by the route con- templated and provided for by an act which passed the Senate January 122 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 28, 1895, entitled "An set to incorporate the Maritime Canal Com- pany of Nicaragua, approved February 20. 1889." Report of Nicaragua ^he repor t G f this Board was published in House Canal Board and estimate * , ,-*• r> of cost, Doc. No. 279, h lfty -fourth Congress, first session. It was stated therein that more specific informa- tion was necessary before a satisfactory final estimate of the com- pany's project could be prepared, and recommended additional examinations and surveys. The Board submitted a tentative approxi- mate estimate based on the company's plans and data amounting to about $133,000,000. On June 4, 1897, Congress passed an act for the MeL^u^iS!! appointment of the Nicaragua Canal Commission to "continue the surveys and examinations authorized by the act approved March 2, 1895. * * * into the proper route, feasibility, and cost of construction of the Nicaragua Canal, with a view of making complete plans of Act March 2, 1895. ' . b . . , , the entire work of construction of such canal as therein provided." The results of the surveys and examinations of the Nicaragua Canal Commission are contained in the report to the Presi- dent of the United States, May 9, 1899. As the project of the Nicaragua Canal Commis- vLTvLmLu>r TSl?UA sion i& ; essentially the same as that of the existing Isthmian Canal Commission, with slight modifica- tions, and as a description of the latter is given in full, a brief descrip- tion of the former is all that seems necessary. The route adopted by the Nicaragua Canal Commission was practically that suggested by Colonel Childs, in 1852, but his project was modified in some impor- tant respects and greatly enlarged. The project provided for a canal with a depth of 30 feet, a bottom width of 150 feet, and with locks 665 feet long between quoins, and 80 feet wide. A single high dam across the San Juan, above the mouth of the San Carlos River, was provided for, and the canal carried thence on the left bank of the San Juan River to the Caribbean Sea. Provision was made for the regula- tion of the lake level, a subject which no prior project had adequately dealt with. The Nicaragua Canal Commission determined Safety of prime Impor- ,-, , • i £ ,1 .. j i • , tance. that in a work ot the magnitude and importance of a canal connecting the two oceans, and of the disastrous consequences that would result from a failure to maintain its integrity after it was once opened, it was of far more importance that it should be safe than that it should be cheap. Plans that seemed to the Commission to possess advantages in certain respects, but were coupled with dangerous engineering works, were rejected for other plans reasonably free from risk. The short and comparatively straight cut across the country from the neighborhood of Ochoa and the exten- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 123 sion of the summit level neatly to the Atlantic were attractive features of the Menocal project, but necessitated dealing with some hazardous problems. The safer alternative of terminating the summit level at the San Juan River dam and then following the left bank of the San Juan was chosen. The large embankments across the Danta, the San Francisco, and at other places would have proved not only far more expensive than was anticipated, but hazardous to maintain. The adoption of the longer line with lower level does not eliminate all the difficult constructions, for some will be found in any project for a canal across the American isthmus, but it reduces their number and brings them within the limits of safety. The Commission thought also that the proposed rock till dam across the San Juan River involved such serious risks in construc- tion and maintenance that this form of structure should be avoided. This course seemed the more imperative from the greiur«nder eltim , ateJ! ,a " fact that the discharge of the San Juan River had always been very much underestimated. Gaug- ings at Ochoa made by the Nicaragua Canal Commission in Novem- ber, 1898, gave 104,928 cubic feet per second as the discharge on that day, and at the time the San Carlos was only discharging 32,265 cubic feet per second, whereas it is now estimated that the latter stream alone may discharge as much as 100,000 cubic feet per second. A pos- sible discharge of 200,000 cubic feet per second at Ochoa might rea- sonably be anticipated when both rivers were in high flood at the same time. The construction of a high dam at Ochoa, or at any point below the junction of the San Carlos, was regarded as a work of such difficulty that a search was instituted for a site higher up the river, suitable for a masonry structure. Such a site was found about 3 miles above the mouth of the San Carlos. The first borings, which were few in num- ber, indicated hard rock at a maximum depth of Dam at Boca San Car- i , -4 , » , •■ i i i v j. j.i_ i os# about li feet below sea level, but the more exten- sive system made subsequently by the Isthmian Canal Commission disclosed a very irregular bottom with a maximum depression 16 feet lower. Nevertheless, the site of the dam was far more favorable than the one at Ochoa, as the floods of the San Carlos could do it no harm. The La Flor dam was a large and difficult work, on account of the unsatisfactoiy foundations. The western end of the summit level was brought so near the sea that the space available for locks was much restricted. The ridge near the north abutment rises abruptly to a height of 300 feet and over, which would have necessitated the location of the locks on the side of a steep hill. Near the south abutment the ground was also unfavorable. The project of the Nicaragua Canal Commission did not call for locks in duplicate, but the desirability of 124 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. so locating 1 them that an additional lock could bo added in case of future demands was not lost sight of. It would p,™;;:,!^:;^" have been very expensive to build locks in dupli- cate on either side of the La Flor dam. On the other hand, there were no serious engineering difficulties in the way of constructing a canal in excavation from the lake to the sea. and the slight advantage of the Tola basin as against a canal pure and simple did not, in the opinion of the Commission, compensate for the extra risks. The project of this Commission follows the gen- tSSSS^SS!''^ eral route of that Prosed by the Nicaragua Canal Commission, but the depth of water in the canal has been increased, the locks duplicated and enlarged, and a new and better site for a dam in the San Juan found. The project is as follows : Beginning at the 6-fathom curve the entrance to the canal will lie between two jetties running nearly north and south, Grey Town Harbor and J & J entrance. about If miles northeast of brey town and pass- ing close to the most westerly bend of the lower San Juan, near its entrance to Harbor Head Lagoon. The entrance to the harbor is to be 500 feet wide and not less than 35 feet deep at low water. At the shore end of the jetties the line swings to the right on a curve of 4,175 feet radius and then passes into a tangent across the existing Grey Town Lagoon. For a distance of 2,500 feet from the inner end of this curve the w T idth is continued at 500 feet. It is then widened to 800 feet for a further distance of 1,000 feet, in order to furnish a turning basin. It is then gradually reduced to 150 feet, the regular width of canal at the bottom. This width is reached 2.15 miles from the 6-fathom curve in the Caribbean. The head of the east jetty is to extend to this curve and is the zero point to which dis- tances along the canal are referred. The harbor thus formed is well protected. The estimated cost of the entrance and harbor is $2,198,860. From the harbor the line runs in a southwesterly Lock Mo™ l r0 ™ lir0r ° direction, crossing the San Juanillo to the low, swampy ground along the Rio Misterioso. At a distance of 7.56 miles from the entrance the line swings to the left on a curve of 11,459 feet radius, and then follows a straight line in a direction a little west of south through the first lock, which is located 9.59 miles from the entrance. From Grey Town to the Misterioso the line passes Swamp section. . . . . through a region covered in places with coarse swamp grass or silico palms, in other places heavily timbered. The surface is but little above sea level. The soil is generally mud to a depth of 3 or 1 feet, underlaid with sand or sandy silt to below the grade of canal bottom. The borings made in this section extend from 50 to 112 feet below sea level without reaching other material. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 125 From the first crossing of the Misterioso to lock No. 1 the- canal line traverses a country in which low hills are interspersed in the coastal plain, and skirts the northwestern edge of the mass of bills about Silico Lake. The hills are heavily timbered, Material in other places. 1 • . t but between them the around is flat and swampy, the surface being composed of soft mud mixed with decaying vege- table matter, which in places extends to a depth of 30 feet or more. This material is generally underlaid with firm clay. After the first crossing of the Misterioso the line follows the general course of that stream for several miles, the swampy surface being from 5 to 10 feet above tide. Lock No. 1 is located in a hill on the southwest side of the stream, and will have a lift of 36i feet above mean low tide. This lock, as well as all others, will be in duplicate and founded on rock. The swamps communicate freely with the San Juan River through the San Juanillo and other streams, and the flood level rises at lock No. 1 to about 1 1 feet above sea level. It is proposed to exclude flood water from the canal on this section. This will require embankments on both sides. They are to have a minimum top width of 15 feet, with side slopes of 1 on 3. The crest of the embankments will be 5 feet above the highest flood levels. These dimensions apply to all sections of the canal where embankments are required. On the south side the embankment will be formed of spoil from the canal prism from Grey Town to the Misterioso, where it connects with the Silico hills, the remaining distance to lock No. 1 requiring only one short embankment across a small stream. On the north side the embankment will be formed in the Embankments. e~nrr\ • same way from Grey Town to the crossing of the San Juanillo. From this point to lock No. 1 the embankment line follows first the right bank of the San Juanillo to a point about 1 mile above the mouth of the Deseado and then crosses a region of low hills and swamps to the canal line. This embankment line is circuitous, and a better one may possibly be found; but it is perfectly practicable and the construction will not be difficult or costly. The canal embankment will cut off the San Juan- Diversion of San .Juanillo. .... lllo. lhe latter has another connection with the Caribbean Sea through the Benard Lagoon and the Indio, but the route is long and it is deemed better to provide a shorter one. A diversion is therefore to be made by a channel dredged from a point on the San Juanillo about five-eighths mile north of the canal crossing to the excavation made by the Maritime Canal Compan}^ and through this to Grey Town Lagoon. The length of the channel to be dredged is about 1^ miles. The length of this section is 7.44 miles. For a distance of 6.20 miles the side slopes of the canal prism will be 1 on 3. For the remain- ing distance the material is generally firm and the cross section will be that provided for firm earth. 126 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The estimated cost of this section, including approach wall to lock No. 1. embankments, mid diversions of the lower San Juan and San Juanillo, is $5,056,747; lock No. 1, including excavation, fc5,7iy.686. From lock No. 1 the line continues in the gen- sectio. .from Lock No. i j direction of the Misterioso for about 2 miles. to Lock No. 2. It then crosses the Pescado, which drains a swampy region to the southward, and enters the region drained directly into the San Juanillo. It crosses this stream about 2 miles from the place where the San Juanillo leaves the San Juan, and then traverses about a mile of swamps and low hills, passing into the valley of the Rio Negro, a tributary of the San Juanillo, behind the hills at Punta Petaca, where it is about 1 mile distant from the San Juan. It then continues in the valley of the Rio Negro, crossing it about a mile east of the Negro hills in which lock No. 2 is located. There are two curves on this section, each of 8,594 feet radius. The section is generally swampy, but in the Rio Negro Valley the line cuts through some hills. The canal surface in this section is to be maintained at a minimum elevation of 36 feet above mean tide. The flood levels immediately above lock No. 1 appear to be about 31 feet above the same reference and immediately below lock No. 2 about 43 feet above it. The region communicates freely with the San Juan during high water in the latter, whence most of the flood water comes, and also receives considerable drainage from the mass of hills north of the line. The embankments have not only to maintain the canal level, but are also required to exclude floods from the San Juan on the upper portion of the section. On the north side of the canal hills form the greater part of the line of protection, although a few swamps have to be crossed by embankments. On the south side the Silico hills protect the level for several miles, but to the westward of them are long stretches of swamp with soft bottom where embankments are required. These embank- ments constitute one of the difficulties of this section. The estimates provide for the removal of the soft material for a width of 30 feet at bottom to make the embankments safe when built. They are located in most places so far from the canal line that the material excavated would not be available even if suitable, which it seldom is. They will be formed from clay borrowed from the hills. The swamp level near lock No. 1 is at about elevation 16, and at lock No. 2 about elevation 38. Almost the entire area within the embankment lines (some 12 or 13 square miles) will be below the level of water in the canal. The total drainage tributary to the section is probablv about 25 square miles. A waste Waste way anil lock. . " . , way is required which will be located at or near the Silico hills where the flood level in the San Juan is below the canal level. It is to be a simple overflow weir with crest at elevation 36, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 127 the minimum canal level, and to have a length of 600 feet, which will prevent the canal level rising above elevation 37.5. The assumed maximum rainfall is 12 inches in twelve hours, all reaching the pool within twenty-four hours. No site with rock foundations has been found for this waste way. It will be built in the clay hills. Loek No. 2 will have a hard rock foundation. The lift will be 18^ feet, from elevation 36 to elevation 54.5. The length of this section is 10.96 miles. A part is through swamps, requiring side slopes of 1 on 3. In the remaining portion the cross section is reduced to the standard adopted for firm Length and cost. . . - . . . earth, lhe estimated cost of this section, includ- ing approach walls to locks, embankments, and waste ways, is $6,296,632; lock No. 2, including excavation, $4,050,270. The general direction of the line in this section is a little north ot west. It leaves the Rio Negro Valley near lock No. 2, and passes behind the Serapiqui hills, which were formerly Section from lock >'o. "2 1 x i ] -xi il i • 1 ± to lock No. 3. supposed to be connected with the high range to the northward. At this point the line is more than a mile from the San Juan. A short distance farther west the route crosses the Tamborcito ridge, after which at short intervals it crosses the Tambor Grande and San Francisco ridges. A line located around the ends of these ridges near the river would have inadmissibly sharp curvature, and would be liable to injury during river floods. If car- ried across them far from the river the cuttings would be very heavy. The line projected by this Commission is at a safe distance from the river, and although involving heavy work, avoids the much heavier work that a location farther from the river would require. The deepest cut on the center line of the canal is 297 feet, in the Tambor- cito ridge. Riprap protection against river floods will be Protection against floods j • ,1 i , « ,1 . •..,. in San Juan. required in the swamp levels ot those localities where the line approaches close to the river. After crossing the San Francisco River the line follows a westerly direction to the Danta, which it first crosses about 2 miles from the San Fran- cisco. It then follows the valley of the Danta, which it crosses several times, to lock No. 3. This portion of the line passes through a swampy region with occasional low hills. The cut in the Tamborcito ridge is the deepest Tamborcito cut. , ° L on the route, and will consist largely of hard, basaltic rock. It is, however, onty about 3,000 feet from the foot of the ridge on the east side to the foot on the west, and the crest is narrow. There are eight curves on this section of the turves. l » i_« l canal, ot which one has a radius of 4,911 feet, four of 5,730 feet, one of 6,876 feet, one of 8,594 feet, and one of 11,459 feet. 128 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Since the line was laid out borings have shown that deep sand exists under a part of that portion of it lying between the Tambor Grande and the San Francisco, its upper surface being near the canal bottom. It is probably a former bed of the San Juan River. Beeent examinations. *■ Recent surveys and borings have shown that this material can be avoided by a location farther inland, but as it has not been practicable to take new borings across the ridges on the new lines, the estimates are made on the line that is laid down, and include an allowance for puddling the bottom of the canal where needed. A small amount of permeable material is also shown b} T the borings in a hill crossed by the canal line near the Florida Lagoon, and the esti- mates provide for puddling at this localit}\ The surface of the swamp near lock No. 2 has an elevation of about 38 feet above sea level, and gradually rises to elevation 45 in the Florida Lagoon, near lock No. 3. The line intercepts the drainage from about 75 square miles lying to the northward, and crosses the Guasimo, San Geronimo, Tambor Grande, San Francisco, and Danta, as well as a number of small creeks. The beds of the larger streams are from 15 to 20 feet below swamp level. The swamp bottoms are of clay silt, which may settle under the embankments, but should not offer serious difficulties to good construction. The level of the canal is to be maintained at the minimum elevation of 51.5 feet, submerging all the swamps. The flood levels appear to be about 53 feet at the Serapiqui and 56 feet in the San Francisco region, the latter being 1£ feet above the minimum stage in the canal. In order to diminish the currents through the narrow connecting channels, Drainage. h ' .. & • . . three waste ways are provided, one in the Serapiqui Hills, 500 feet long, one of the same length in the west flank of Tam- borcito, and one of 1,000 feet near the Danta. With these waste ways it is estimated that the water in the canal will never rise more than 2£ feet above the normal stage. The wasteways are designed to be plain over- Wasteways. J • i i i now weirs built oi concrete, with the crests at ele- vation 54.5, the minimum canal level. At rare intervals the crest of the Danta wasteway may be submerged by the San Juan Hoods, but the amount of water taken into the canal over it will be so small that no trouble is apprehended. The borings made at the site of the Danta wasteway show unfavorable material For foundations, involving an additional expense for safe construction, for which provision has been made in the estimates. Lock No. 3. which terminates this section, is located on a rock foundation, having a lift of bsl feet, viz. from ele- vation 54.5 to elevation 73 at minimum canal level. The length of this section is 1(1.75 miles, and the Length and cost. . .... in i 1 estimated cost, including approach walls, embank- ments and wasteways, is $19,330,654; lock No. 3, including excavation, $3,832,745. ' REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 129 Westward from lock No. 3 the lino follows down Section from lock No. S ,1 n » t? i i • , < i , -.i • i to lock No. 4. lll( ' valley of hmbankmont ( rock to witlim about 1,700 feet of its mouth, and then crosses some hills and the Machado to lock No. 4. There arc Curves ami drainage. two curves on the section having radii of 11,459 feet each. The excavation will be mainly in firm earth with standard slopes to correspond. Some rock will be found near the site of 'lock No. 4, and soft mud in crossing- the valley of the Machado. The drainage area tributary to this section has not boon well determined, but is taken at about 9 square miles, about 1 square mile of which will be submerged. It is proposed to control the surface of the pool, between elevations of 73 and TO feet, by a weir 300 feet long, located in a hill a short distance east of the Machado. Two embankments will be needed between the Embankments. eanal and the ban Juan Kiver, one across kni- bankment Creek, the other across the Machado, where the crest will be about 31 foot above the bottom of the stream and about 24 feet above the swamp level. The borings show the surface material in this swamp to be soft, and some of it will have to be excavated, so that the embankment may rest on firm material. Lock No. 4 is located in a hill immediately west of the Machado. It is proposed to control the surface of the summit level of the canal between the elevations of 104 and 110 feet, hence this lock is designed to have a variable lift, the maximum being 37 feet and the minimum 31 feet. The length of this section is 2.77 miles. The Length and cost. . ° ..... estimated cost, including approach walls, embank ments, and waste wa} T , is $4,310,580; lock No. 4, including excavation, $5,655,871. Westward of lock No. 4 the line passes through Section from lock No. 4 l 1 -n • 1 1 ±±- to the san Juan Kiver. a rough, hilly region where deep cutting is encoun- tered. About three-fourths of a mile west of the lock the depth to the bottom of the canal on the center line is 218 feet below the surface. The borings show a stratum of cla} 7 10 feet thick, from elevation 65 to elevation 55, the top being about 4 feet below the bottom of the excavation. About 1 mile farther westward is another cut 170 feet deep on the center line, with a clay stratum 10 feet thick, the upper surface being at elevation 89. In the latter case the clay stratum is in the wetted prism of the canal. In both cases there is rock overlying the. clay. It is supposed that the rock „ . , , is a volcanic overflow. Where the clay shows in Special slopes. ^ the wetted prism, slopes of one on one are pro- vided for both rock and clay. „.. , The section forms a part of the summit level, Summit level. 1 7 and has two curves, each of 5,730 feet radius. The point where it enters the San Juan Kiver is 46.17 miles by the S D— 57-1— Vol 7 9 130 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. canal line from the 6-fathom curve in the Caribbean Sea. The upper end of this section i.s 3.3 miles by the river from the dam site at Con- chuda. This dam will maintain the summit level, regulated by waste- ways at the dam and in the hills a short distance southwest on the Costa Rica side. The dam, wasteways, and system of regulation are fully described elsewhere. The length of this section is 5.30 miles. The estimated cost, including approach wall to lock, is Length anil cost. 18,579,431. San Juan River section. This section embraces that portion of the river from the poiut where the canal enters it above the dam to Lake Nicaragua. As already stated, the San Juan River above the mouth of the San Carlos is practically free from sediment, and in this respect is well adapted for slack-water navigation. It is very crooked, however, the curves being so sharp in places that the natural channel, even if deep enough, would be difficult for large ships to navi- gate. Cut-offs have been located in such places, improving the course of the channel and reducing the sailing distance. These improve- ments leave 54 per cent of the total distance from the dam to the lake in curvature. Except in a few cases the radius exceeds 5,000 feet, but in the section between the Machuca and Castillo Rapids the limit was reduced to 1,015 feet. In the present project the Curvature and cost. x . curves are of larger radius than in any previous one. They could be improved, but the cost would be increased. It has been the governing motive to preserve a judicious balance between curvature and cost. In this section there are four curves of 1,015 feet radius, one of 4,297, two of 1,911, three of 5,289, six of 5,730, two of 5,927, four of 6,876, one of 8,385, five of 11,159, and one of 17,189. The bottom of the excavated channel is established at elevation 69, giving a depth of 35 feet when the lake is at 101, its lowest stage. From the dam to the Machuca Rapids the general direction of the channel is north- westerly. The dam raises the water so as to permit a material straightening of the line on this part of the section with but little excavation. At the Patricia Rapids (in the fifty- curves. . -1X1 ' 1 • ninth mile) the bed of the river rises above the grade of the channel bottom, and excavation is required thence to deep water in the lake. The necessary straightening of the channel past the Machuca and Diamante Rapids, which are nearly continuous, and the Pilares Rapids immediately above them, requires two small cut- I'rliiclunl cut-offs. l i • i oil's and slight widenings ai two other places. There is also a cut-off between the Patricia Rapids and the mouth of the Rio Bartola. At several places between the Bartola and Castillo, points of bends are cut off to reduce curvature. The line passes REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 181 through two small cut-offs between ( lastillo and the mouth of the Santa Cruz. At the first, a short distance west of Castillo, the borings show thai considerable rock will have to be excavated. At the second there is comparatively little, The Santa Cruz cut-off, a short distance above the mouth of the Santa Cruz River, saves nearly 1 miles of distance. The line then crosses Sombrero de Cuero Island and enters the Toro Rapids. There will be a large amount of rock excavation underwater between Castillo and the head of the Toro Rapids. The line then fol- lows the river, impinging slightly on the banks in several places, bisects Isla Grande, and one-half mile above the latter enters the Palo de Arco cut-off, which effects a saving of 1.36 miles. It then follows the river, cutting* off one small point just above the Rio Palo de Arco to the mouth of the Rio Medio Queso, where it enters the San Fran- cisco cut-off. This is the longest cut-off on the route, and saves If miles. Beyond this the line continues in the river to the lsla del Padre, and then cuts across the marsh on the right bank of the river. It again enters the river nearly opposite Fort San Carlos, after passing which it enters the lake. Opposite Fort San Carlos there is some rock to be excavated. The bottom width of the channel in the river and in the shorter cut-offs is tixed at 250 feet on tangents, but increased on the curves according to the rule given elsewhere, The longer cut-offs have the standard canal width of 150 feet at the bottom on tangents, w*ith corresponding widenings on curves. In the vicinity of Rio Sabalos, Isla Grande, and Fort San Carlos, it was found, after the line described above had been laid down, that a material reduction in the estimated cost of the canal could be made by slight changes in alignment at these places. These changes in align- ment have been adopted by the Commission, and are indicated on plates 30, 31, 12, 13, 1-1, 15, and 63 by broken lines, and on profile, plate 49a. The estimates are based on the new alignment. The changes are as follows: First, that near Rio Sabalos begins in the Santa Cruz cut-off at mile 69.41, follows a westerly course, cutting off a small portion of Isla Sombrero de Cuero, and passes through Toro Rapids a little north of the line first adopted. It then crosses the latter, passes through the point of land opposite the mouth of Rio Sabalos, crosses the San Juan into Sabalos cut-off, and rejoins the line first adapted to mile 75.61. The second, near Isla Grande, begins near the middle of the long curve east of Isla Grande, mile 79.72, continues on a curve following approximate^ the old channel north of the island, and joins the line first adopted at mile 82.51. The third begins about If miles below Fort San Carlos, mile 93.94, follows close to, but north of, the line first adopted, crosses the latter at mile 91.85, and enters the lake about 400 feet to the southward of the first line. 132 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. These changes add 479 feet to the total distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and change slightly the curvature given in a preceding paragraph. The total length of the river section on the Length and cost. it . adopted alignment is 49.64 miles, and the estimated cost is $23,155,670. The line enters the lake on a curve of 11,459 Lake Nicaragua section. feet radius, and then continues on a tangent, pass- ing southward of the Balsillas Islands and northward of the Solen- tiname group. Near the latter it crosses a submerged channel, where for a short distance no excavation will be required, and, passing around a short curve in deep water, enters a second tangent, where some exca- vation is required for a distance of 10.77 miles. This tangent con- tinues to the vicinity of the mouth of the Las Lajas on the west side of the lake. The lake bottom on the sailing line lies below the grade of the canal bottom for a distance of 41.78 miles; the remainder, 28.73 miles, will require excavation. On approaching the mouth of the Las Lajas, the line swings to the westward in deep water to the long tan- gent at the east end of the western division of the Dredged channel in lake. ° canal, lhe bottom from .bort ban Carlos to deep water in the lake consists of soft mud 6 to 17 feet deep, underlaid by hard clay and sand. The mud is so soft in places that it is difficult to determine its surface. The steamboat navigating the lake pushes its way through several feet of it when the lake is low. This mate- rial will take a flat slope, and after a channel is excavated through it there will be some expense for maintenance. On the west side the excavation in the lake com- Channel on west side of -, er , -i j: ±l i~ tj. *ii • i. lake> mences 1.52 miles from the shore. It will consist chiefly of rock, and, as it is submerged, is estimated at the price for rock excavation under water. The material excavated from the west side of the lake can be wasted where it will form jetties for the protection of this entrance. The bottom width of the channel in excavation in the lake, both on the east and west sides, will be 300 feet. The total length of the lake division is 70.51 miles, and the estimated cost is $7,877,611. The entrance to the canal from Lake Nicaragua ^ Lake Nicaragua to lock . g ^^ ^^ ^ ^.^ Qf ^ ^^ of ^ r[q Las Lajas. The line extends in a southwesterly direction, following first the Las Lajas, which it crosses four times in a distance of H miles, then following the general course of a small tributary, called the Gruiscoyol, to the continental divide. The sur- face of the ground from the lake rises gradually until the divide is reached at elevation 153, a distance of about 5 miles from the lake shore. The highest point on this section is a small projecting hill REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 133 three-fourths of a mile east of the divide, at elevation 156 on the center line. From the divide the line follows the valley of the Espinal to the Rio Grande, and then continues in the valley of the latter to the Pacific. From the mouth of the Espinal to Lock No. 5 the valley of the Rio Grande is narrow and crooked, with hills on either side rising to eleva- tions of 150 feet and upward. Here the line passes through several spurs, with rather deep but short cuts. The most important feature of this section is the cut through the west divide. Its maximum depth on the center line of the canal is 87 feet; for a distance of about 3 miles the average cut is about 75 feet. The rock is of all degrees of hardness from partially disintegrated sandstone to hard trap. Lock No. 5 is located in a hill on the north side of the Rio Grande at Buen Retiro, and will have an excellent rock founda- tion. On the southside of the lock a small dam will be required across the river to the adjacent hills to maintain the summit level. This dam is designed to be of earth with a masonry core wall extending to rock. The lock will have a variable lift from 22£ to 28i feet, depending on the height of the lake. The section con- tains four curves with radii of 17,189, 5,730, 5,209, and 5,056 feet, respectively. Three of these are between the divide and the lock. The estimates provide for diverting the Las Lajas into the lake and for receiving basins at the points where the waters canal!* 1 " 8 * en n ° of the Rio Grande and the Chocolata enter the canal. These consist simply of enlargements of the river channels sufficient to pass the estimated maximum floods with velocities that will not interfere with navigation. At the head of each receiving basin there will be an overflow weir to act as a sand catcher. Other small streams that are crossed will be taken into the canal, but they will be relatively unimportant, and are provided for in the estimates only in the item of contingencies. A ferry will be needed for the highway traffic between Rivas and San Juan del Sur. The canal prism will be almost wholly in rock, and will have a bottom width of 150 feet, with vertical sides. The length of this section is 9.09 miles. The Length and cost. . ° . ' , , . estimated cost, including approach wall to lock, diversion of the Las Lajas, and receiving basins for the Rio Grande and Chocolata, is $19,765,957; lock No. 5, including excavation, $4,913,512; dam near Buen Retiro, $125,591. The valley or gorge of the Rio Grande gradu- Lock No. 5 to lock No. 6. . , . , . S . . . , ally widens in this section, opening into the so- called Tola Basin. The soil of the Rio Grande Valley is a light, sandy loam, readily acted upon by currents. The grade of the canal is established so low that the prism will be almost wholly in exca- 134 EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. vation, and the embankments will not be heavy and can easily be pro- tected. This .section contains a single curve of 4,i>X v 2 feet radius. A by-pass in lock No. 5 will provide water for this level. A small wasteway will discharge surplus waters into the Rio Grande. The excavation will consist mainly of sandstone much disintegrated near the surface, but less so farther down. Lock No. 6 is located in a small hill on the south side of the Rio Grande about one-half mile above the mouth of the Rio Tola. The foundation is on rock. The lift is 28i feet. The length of this section is 2.04 miles. The Length and cost. . .-,-,. estimated cost, including approach walls and wasteway, is $3,259,283; lock No. 6, including excavation, $4,368,667. In this section the line crosses the bed of the Lock No. (i to lock No. 7. " . Rio Grande several times, and short embankments 20 to 30 feet in height will be required; elsewhere the embankments will be unimportant, the grade line being low, as in the preceding sec- tion. This section contains a single short curve of 5,056 feet radius. The excavation will be mostly in sandy earth, except in the vicinity of the lock sites. While the excavation is sandy, it contains enough earthy material to form water-tight embankments. A new channel will have to be provided for the Rio Grande for New channel for Bio i ,1 ,• j« , rrn • -n • j_i Grande needed. nearly the entire distance. lhis will receive the drainage from the north side of the valley, includ- ing that of the Tola. On the south side the drainage will be received into the abandoned bed of the Rio Grande, and thence discharged into the canal. A wasteway located near the upper end of the section will discharge surplus water from the canal into the new channel of the river. Lock No. 7 is located in a hill at the site for- Loek. ini t merly proposed tor the south abutment ot the La Flor dam. The lift will be 2S-, feet. The prism of the canal will be mostly in sandy silt with side slopes of 1 on 3. The length of this section is 1.83 miles. The Length and cost. . 1 .... estimated cost, including wasteway, river diver- sion, embankments, and approach walls, is $2,485,890; lock No. 7, including excavation, $4,709,502. The conditions in this section are almost exactly Lock No. 7 to lock No. 8. . • the same as in the preceding one. the material consists chiefly of light sand mixed with loam, which can be dredged by machines taken through lock No. 8 after the latter is built. It contains two short curves of 5,730 feet radius. A lock* * ' W * Way ' m sn) ;i" wasteway is located near the upper end of the section where the canal is entirely in excava- tion. It will not have a rock foundation, and will be merely a depressed section of canal bank with protected surface. KKl'OKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION". 135 Length and cost. Lock No. 8, which connects with tide water, is located in a project- ing spur, and will have a rock foundation. Its lift will vary with the tide from 2sl feet at mean low water to 20£ feet at mean high water. The length of this section is 2.43 miles, and the estimated cost, including approach walls, river diversion, embankments, and waste way, is ^1,1)05,076; lock No. 8, including excavation, 14,920,899. This includes a short section of the canal proper Lock No. 8 to the Pacific. , ,._ . , , . , „ ., . , . *. r „ and an artificial harbor at Brito. A description or this harbor is given elsewhere. The excavation in this section consists mostly of sand. Some rock will be encountered near the lock site. The entrance to the harbor will be straight and have a width of 500 feet on the bottom. The length of this section to the 6-fathom curve in the Pacific is 1.15 miles. The prism, except near the lock, will have side slopes of 1 on 3. The estimated cost is as follows: Lock No. 8 to Brito Harbor, including approach wall to lock $553,470 Brito Harbor and entrance, including jetty 1, 509, 470 The total distance from Lake Nicaragua to the 6-fathom curve in the Pacific is 17.34 miles. The following table shows the amount and length of curvature for the entire line: Number Radius. Length. Total degrees of of curves. curve. Feel. Miles. O 1 ii 2 17, 1*9 1 . 53 26 51 10 8 11. 159 6.80 179 31 50 4 8, '■ 9 1 4.31 151 10 50 1 v .... 1.43 51 41 30 2 7,81 1 1.90 73 28 30 1 7. 759 1.73 67 16 50 5 c; -7.; 4.64 204 34 40 2 5, 927 2.40 122 41 20 lii 11.08 584 47 40 2 5, 289 2.27 129 45 50 1 5,209 1.15 66 38 30 2 5,056 1.22 73 17 40 1 1,982 .82 49 49 00 3 4,911 . 75 169 36 00 1 4,297 .63 44 19 50 1 4,175 .81 58 20 40 4 4,045 3.82 285 25 40 56 49.29 2,339 50 30 There are two curves of 11,459 feet radius Slaving a combined length of 1.89 miles and a combined angle of 49° 58' 50" located in deep water in Lake Nicaragua, which for obvious reasons are not included in the above table. As there is no natural harbor at either end of the proposed canal artificial harbors will have to be constructed. This lack of harbor facilities will be seriously felt on the east side in the early stages Harbors. Lack of harlior facilities. 136 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of the work, as the difficulties and expense of landing- material before the harbor can be constructed are great. A fine harbor once existed at Grey Town, with Grey Town Harbor. » • » 1 • about 30 feet of water at the anchorage and in the entrance. This was not such as is often found at the outlet of a large river like the San Juan, where the current scours an entrance, but rather a bight or protected area formed on the lee side of a sand spit which was itself built by the action of the waves and sea currents act- ing under conditions which favored such formation. Destruction or Grey To W „ A study of the various maps of Grey Town from Harbor caused by moving the earliest to the latest reveals, it is believed, the processes by which natural forces acting on the movable sands composing the delta of the San Juan River have formed successively in ages past harbors which were after- wards converted into lagoons or lakes. The process seems still to be going on, and Grey Town lagoon is the latest development. Ibo, Barco, Sucio, and Shepherds lagoons were probably formed in the same way and by the same agencies. There is a large area of low flat country lying to the eastward of a north and south line through the westerly end of Grey Town Lagoon, which, except for a fringe of the coast and the vari- Region unexplored. r . °. ous outlets of the river, is practically unexplored. What there is in this region can not be stated with certainty, but it is probable that there are other lagoons similar to those just enumerated, or to the Parada and Agua Dulce, which connect with the Colorado branch of the river. The sand composing the delta of the San Juan is volcanic, like that ■now brought down by the San Carlos and Serapiqui, which take their rise in the mountains of Costa Rica. This sand sa^Tuan Kivt! *°™ * bein g deposited in f ront of the mouth of the river would form, if it were not acted on by other agen- cies, a bar approximating more or less the form of a crescent. The winds and waves of the sea, however, tend to give it an irregular shape, depending on the direction from which they come, while the currents of the river tend to cut out the channels. As the sand deposit increases the bar rises until finally the outlet of the river is in part cut off, and then it cuts out other channels. The San Juan River has no less than three outlets at the present time and perhaps has had more. Each outlet carries its load of sediment, and each has doubtless been an active agent in building up the existing delta. This delta forms a low area projecting into the sea from the general coast line between the Indio and the Tortuquero, some miles south of the Colorado. There are some old maps of Grey Town Harbor, which have appeared in publications from time to time, that afford data of more or less value in studying the operations of nature that converted this once REPORT OF THE L.STHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 137 excellent harbor into a lagoon. The absence of definite common points and uncertainties as to compass bearing, however, render it impossible to make accurate comparison of the maps of earlier date, but they contain much information tending to throw light on the sub- ject under consideration. The oldest of these maps is that bearing- the title "Puerto y Boca del Rio de San Juan de Nicaragua," and is pub- lished in Sullivan's "Problem of interoceanic communication by way of the American Isthmus." It is not known what value attaches to this map. The onty authority for it is given in a note. The name of the .surveyor is not given, and it seems to have been a sketch rather than a chart from an instrumental survey. The map has no date, but the note referred to would indicate that it was about 1809. The soundings would seem to be fairly correct so far as they go, but they are few in number and cover only a limited area at the anchorage and the mouth of the San Juan. There are no offshore soundings shown. This map shows a sand spit that had formed to the northeast of Grey Town, connecting with the mainland and extending westerly, covering an area of deep water which was thus protected from the sea. The westerly end is bent in toward the shore, giving a good anchorage with deep water under its lee. The depth of water in the protected area is somewhat greater than is shown on later maps, and this tends to verify it, as a greater depth would naturally be expected at first. The westerly point of the spit was at that time almost due north of the mouth of the river. The next map in order of date is that derived from the Peacock survey, which was made in 1832 by G. Peacock, master of H. B. M. ship Hyacintli. This map having been made by an officer of the Brit- ish navy, may be presumed to be reasonably accurate. Besides the soundings in the harbor, it shows soundings off the coast a distance of 2 nautical miles and more. This map, as published in the work of Felipe Molina, entitled "Bosquejo de la Republica de Costa Rica," and republished in other works, shows accretions to Map of 1832. , ... the spit during the period from 1832 to 1848. It is not known on what data these indicated accretions are founded; neither is it certain whether the soundings in the harbor are those of 1832 or later. One would naturally suppose that they belong to the earlier date, but those inside the spit would seem to indicate the con- trary. This map was used by a committee of the National Academy of Sciences in making a report, in 1806, on the restoration of Grey Town Harbor, and as that committee was composed of the most emi- nent men in their respective professions, it is believed that the map can be taken as essentially correct. Subsequent to 1848 frequent surveys were made by officers of the British navy and published by the British hydrographic office. The accretions to the sand spit indicated on the map of 1832 are probably 138 EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. founded on similar data. It is not a matter of vital importance, how- ever, whether this be so or not, for a study of the subsequent surveys without reference to these leads to the same conclusions. If they be correct, they enable the progress of the sand movement to be traced from an earlier date than otherwise could be done. These early sur- veys were made with a view to giving information ureat Britain " r ' iir s ' to mariners as to the depth of the water at the en trance to and within the harbor of Grey town and the protection afforded at the anchorage. They do not contain all the information desirable in studying the problem of the restoration of the harbor, but they show unmistakably how the harbor was origi- nally formed and subsequently destroyed. From the mouth of the Indio southward a distance of about 3i miles, the shore line now has a direction nearly south-southeast. It then bends to the eastward and follows this course for a far- ther distance of about 4 miles, when it curves gradually toward the south, and after passing the Tauro outlet it follows a nearly straight course for a distance of more than 40 miles. If a Trend of coast. . . straight line be drawn from a point a little north of the mouth of the Indio to the mouth of the Tortuquero, about 27 miles south of the Colorado, it would pass through the western edge of the Ibo Lagoon. It is probable that this was once the general trend of the coast. The area to the eastward is low and sandy, and has in all probability been formed from the more recent deposits from the San Juan River. The various outlets of this river lie to the eastward of Greytown Lagoon and all arc sediment bearing. The quantity of material car- ried depends in a great measure on the amount of water being dis- charged. When the river is swollen the currents Outlets of San Juan. . » <. • are swift and the amount of material is great. When the river is in its normal condition the amount is not so great, though it is seldom small. This sediment being deposited from the various outlets of the river firsl builds up a bar or shoal; as the accretions continue, some is pushed out to sea, some driven shoreward, and some to the right or left, according to the direction of the prevailing winds Sedimentary deposits. . . and waves. Ihe material m suspension may be wafted far out to sea, but the sand which is moved along the bottom. and not held in suspension, is deposited near the outlet. When the accretions are sufficient to raise the shoal above sea level the waxes drive it up still higher and the wind carries some of it still farther inland. In this way the sandy deposit widens out and in time is cov- ered by a vegetable growth that protects it. In a moist, warm climate like that at Greytown, the silt or loam mixed with the sand, and that derived from decaying vegetable matter, will, in the course of a few years, support the growth of a forest. REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL commission. 139 The const line directly in front of Greytown has now nearly an east and west direction; the waves produced by the northeast trade winds break diagonally on the shore. Even when the wind is from the north the breakers come from an easterly direction. The longest fetch of the sea is nearly due east. The breakers are persistent for the greater part of the year, and as they roll in on J'l,,.,ff,.,-tof,vavoa ( -«on ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^.^ quantit j eg of s . md and drive it westward on a zigzag course that is plainly visible to an observer on the shore. This westerly movement of the sand first formed a spit or hook, behind which was an area of comparatively still water. This area is the incipient harbor found on pi. 52. It is there shown as comparatively small, but the spit rising above the level of the sea acts like a breakwater and gives good anchorage behind it. PL 54 shows a steady movement of the sand spit westward and a gradual shoaling of the harbor up to and including the year 1848. The shoaling- in the harbor is due doubtless to the lighter deposits from the San Juan that have been carried down the stream in suspension and deposited where the water has become comparatively quiet and to the light sand that is blown into the harbor by the winds. The later charts show the progressive movement of the sand HoTement of Band spit. . «. • spit until tliat of 1865 which shows that the entrance was completely closed. It has remained practically closed ever since. On one occasion an opening was made by cutting a ditch across the spit to release the pent up waters of the river which had risen so as to flood the town. When the jetty was constructed by the Maritime Canal Company in 1891, an opening having a depth of about 7 feet formed to the leeward of the jetty by natural forces. In both cases the opening was only temporary. The outlet by way of Harbor Head is the shorter one and comparatively little water from the river in its normal stages finds its way to the Greytown Lagoon, but when it is in flood, water comes into the lagoon by way of all the small channels connecting with the river. At such time the amount of water may be sufficient to maintain a small but temporary outlet. The surveys made in 1898 and 1900 show that the shore line at a point about 1 mile eastward of the jetty built by the Maritime Canal Company has been eroded to the extent of 1,200 feet from January, 1898, to July, 1900. During the same period the shore line about 1,200 feet west of the jetty receded 700 feet. There was no erosion in close vicinity to the old jetty. The erosion on the east and west sides, however, would seem to indicate that the normal supply of sand from the eastward had been reduced, or perhaps temporarily cut off, or that a change had taken place in the direction of the prevailing wind and waves. A change in the direction of the waves that impinge 140 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. on the coast, or a diminution or increase of the sand supply, will modify the existing conditions and may tempo- Erosion or accretion de- rar Q y pro duce abnormal results. The resultant pendent on direction of waves ami sand supply. movement, however, ot the sand between the angle west of the old jetty and Harbor Head is westward and has been for years. This is attested by a comparison of the maps. What it is eastward of Harbor Head is more a matter of conjecture, as few of the maps cover that region. The Commission, when it was in Nicaragua, inspected the mouth of the Colorado River and the beach at a point about 4 miles to the northward. At the latter place there was no evidence of recent erosion or accretion. The shore seemed to be fairly permanent. A heavy growth of timber extended almost to high water, but the usual evidence of recent erosion, such as stumps or trees standing out in shoal water, was lacking. There was a house not far from the shore which was occupied, and the occupants, who had been living there several years, stated that the seashore had not changed materially since they had been there. At the time of the visit the wind came from about east-northeast and the waves broke nearly normal to the shore. One of the marked results shown by a compari- Reeutrant angle. ...... ,. . son ot the charts is the hi ling ot the reentrant angle of the shore west of the old jetty. This doubtless comes in greater part from the eastward, but there are also some indications that a part comes from the northward and ma} r possibly be contributed by the Indio. An examination of the chart of 1832 shows that a considerable reentrant angle once existed in the vicinity of the entrance to the canal of the Maritime Canal Company. The later surveys show that this has tilled out several hundred feet. From a comparison of the chart of 1832 with the Apparent recession of „ , • , ,1 . .1 j- . 8-fathom curve. more recent surveys, it appears that the distance from the shore line to the 8-fathom curve, meas- ured from a point near the site of the buildings of the Maritime Canal Company, has changed considerably. In 1832 the distance was about 13,000 feet, while now it is only about 9,000 feet. This indicates that the contour must have moved in or the shore line moved out, or that the change was due in a measure to both. It is known that the shore line in the neighborhood [referred to has moved out, but it hardly seems possible that it could have moved out 4,000 feet; a part of the difference in distance may be accounted for by errors of sounding. The old charts do not record fractional parts of fathoms beyond the 6-fathom curve. There has been an apparent recession of the Apparent recession ot n « ,\ , L , ,1 ji« x , ,, o-fathom curve. 6-fathom curve also, but the dinerence between the relative distances of the shore line and that curve are not so great. The sand that forms the beach extends gradually to REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 141 about the 7-fathom curve, beyond which soundings show mud. There is an easterly current in front of Grey Town out in the deep water, while that close to the shore is westerly; but enough is not known of the velocity of the outer current on which to base an expression of opinion as to its effects on the bottom. The seaward advance of the shore line is confirmed by the existence at the present time of wrecks now visible nearly buried in the sand; one near the Maritime Com- pany's hospital, one about 1,800 feet northwest, and one near the head- quarter buildings. While, therefore, we may not be in possession of all the facts touch- ing the formation and subsequent destruction of Grey Town Harbor, sufficient is known to indicate unmistakably that the harbor was first formed by the westerly drift of sand which formed of H ^r tOP " eSterl,drift the spit or hook shown on the ma P s as Punta Arena or Punta Castillo, and that by the gradual exten- sion of this spit westward the harbor was shut in from the sea and thereby destroyed. If, then, the westerly drift of sand can be stopped by interposing some obstacle, such as a jetty extending into the sea, there need be no difficulty in keeping open a channel on the lee side of it by dredging. This method of improving the entrances to harbors is one in common use, and is applied notably to the Mediterranean entrance of the Suez Canal, which is a similar case in many respects to that under consideration. The feasibility, moreover, of constructing a harbor at Grey Town has been practically demonstrated by the work done by the Maritime Canal Company. About 1,000 linear feet of jetty was constructed by that company at a place a short distance west of the location proposed by this Commission, and where the conditions of sand movement are identical. This was quickly followed by the scouring out of a channel on the lee side to a depth of about 7 feet. This channel was made through the sand spit which converted Grey Town Harbor into a lagoon. The channel was increased in depth to 12 or 14 feet by dredging. No difficulty would have been experi- Constructlon of harbor *? . ° . , . , ,.,, n • feasible. enced in deepening this channel still more and in maintaining the increased depth by the further extension of the jetty seaward aided by dredging and the possible construction of another jetty on the west side. The harbor which this Commission proposes at Grey Town will have a length of 2,500 feet and a width of 500 feet, widened at the inner end to 800 feet in order to provide a turning basin. The depth throughout the harbor and entrance will be 35 feet. The entrance will be located about one mile east of the old jetty of the Maritime Canal Company. A jetty is proposed on the east side of the entrance, having a direction a little west of north. It is to be built of loose stone of irregular shape and size, resting on a suitable 142 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. foundation, the hearting of the jetty to be composed of small stone intermixed with large so as to form a compact mass, and this to be covered bj T stone not less than 10 to 15 tons in weight irregularly deposited to break the force of the waves. It is confidently expected that the partial construction of the east jetty will be followed by the scouring out of a channel of moderate depth on the lee side of it, as was the case when the Maritime Canal Company's jetty was con- structed; but as it is not expected that the depth will be sufficient for navigation, dredging will be required to obtain the desired depth. The east jetty should be extended to the 6-fathom curve. It is believed that a second jetty will be necessary on the west side to catch the sand that may at certain times come from the westward. It will be shorter than the one on the east side and its cost is included in the estimates. The jetties are to be built not less than 6 feet above high water with a width on top of 20 feet, and, for purposes of estimate, side slopes of 1 on 2 and 2 on 3 have been assumed. After a navigable entrance has been made, dredging will be required for its maintenance, and probably some extension of the jetties may in time be needed. The cost of maintenance is not susceptible of accurate determination, as it is impossible to predict how much sand will accumulate on the east side of the jetty or pass around it into the dredged channel. Some have estimated the total sand drift along the shore at 750,000 cubic yards per annum, but reliable data for an estimate are not available. It is believed that this westward drift is diminishing and may in time become quite small. A dredge could be worked on the east side of the jetty to remove the sand that will accumulate there, but much time would be lost on account of the Maintenance of harbor. . . . . - rough seas. A better method of operation would be that practiced at the Mediterranean entrance of the Suez Canal, where the shore end of the jetty is kept low for some distance out, so that the sand is washed over it by the waves and is easily removed by a dredge working in the comparatively quiet water under its lee. The conditions in the two cases are very similar. The jetty is given a direction a little west of north, the purpose being to provide an area in which this sand may be allowed to accumulate. It is estimated thai about two years will be is^t of'naierl 1 t0 S, ' ,Ur< ' required to make the necessary preparations and to construct an entrance and working harbor at Gre} r Town having a depth of 18 feet, which is regarded as the least that would afford reasonable facilities for the landing of material needed to construct the canal. The prompt construction of this entrance is therefore of the utmost importance. The estimated cost of constructing a harbor, Coal of construeUon and hj , { { fc ft < f ,,„, j( . t| - [g $ 2 ,198,860, maintenance. ■' ' ' ' and this sum is included in the total estimated cost EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CaNA t . COMMISSION. 143 of the canal as given. The cost of maintenance is estimated at $100,000 annually, which includes everything needful to maintain a depth of 35 feet in the harbor and entrance. The Rio Grande empties into the Pacific Ocean llrlto Harbor. . L at Brito, close under the rocky headland of that name. At low water in the dry season there is about 3 feet depth at the entrance, but as the tide rises and falls from or Rio ttrande*. * ** m0Uth ^ to 10 ^ eet tne depth is much increased at the high stage. The entrance to the canal will be through a low sandy beach and a harbor excavated in a swamp extending a considerable distance inland. Little is known of the physical changes that have taken place on this part of the coast, but the indications are that it is much more perma- nent in character than the coast near the eastern How harbor can be con- , T) ., TT j » ,. ... strilH(>(1 entrance. Brito Head forms a projecting jetty on the northerly side. Much of the coast in this vicinity is of a rocky character, sand being found in the indentations. As the Rio Grande and other rivers which discharge into the Pacific along this part of the coast drain only limited areas, the amount of sediment brought down by them is insignificant. Another favorable feature is that the winds blow offshore almost invariably. The waves break normally on the beach and have little tendency to drive the sand along the coast in either direction. The depth of water offshore increases rapidly, the 10-fathom curve being found at about 2,200 feet from low-water mark. The entrance to the harbor will be 500 feet wide, protected by a single jetty on the southeasterly side. The har- bor itself will be 2,200 feet long and 800 feet wide. From the easterly end of the harbor this widtli is narrowed gradually to the approach to lock No. 8. The jetty will have a southwesterly direction and will reach the 6-fathom curve at a distance of 1,200 feet from the shore line. The difficulties of landing material on this side in the early stages of the work before a harbor can be constructed are less than at Grey Town. The sea is comparatively smooth most of the time. Material for construction purposes could be landed on a pier reaching to deep water, similar to those on the coast of California, or a tempo- rary entrance to the Rio Grande could be made within a short time and at comparatively little cost. The estimated cost of the harbor, including the Cost of construction and -. . . . . , , , , , maintenance. entrance and protecting ]etty, as stated elsewhere, is $1,509,470. The annual cost of maintenance is estimated at $50,000. The summit level of the canal is the surface of Regulation of level of ,\ , . ,, , . . , ,. n . Lake .Nicaragua. tne wat er in the lake. A dam across the ban Juan River at Conchuda, 52.9 miles from the lake, extends the summit level to that point. In other words, if a dam be 144 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. built at the Conchuda site an arm of the lake will reach to it, carrying the lake level during a period of no discharge to the same point. The canal will leave this arm of the lake at a point 8.3 miles up stream from the dam. These arc the general conditions iem° n ° n8 ° ie Pr °" which must be preserved, and the problem of the regulation of the lake level involves the control of the latter within such limits, more or less exact, as will never permit the navigable depth of the summit level to be anywhere less than 35 feet on the one hand, nor permit the lake to rise materially beyond a determinate elevation on the other. This regulation can be accom- plished by the construction of dams across the Rio Grande west of the lake and across the San Juan on the east side, both being designed with suitable waste ways for the discharge of surplus water, or all the surplus water ma}' be wasted through the San Juan. As wasteweirs at or near the Conchuda dam may be given sufficient capacity to dis- charge all the wastage, and as the latter may readily be discharged through the lower San Juan, the entire regulation works are designed to be located at or in the immediate vicinity of the Conchuda dam. Obviously, after any given dry season has begun, Maximum and minimum w j tn jj^g fafc e sur f ace no higher than the maximum elevations not precisely de- . . terminable. permitted elevation, only the remaining surplus run-off, if there be an}', will be allowed to escape over the dam or wasteway, the lake acting as a reservoir of sufficient capacity to hold available at least all the water that may be needed for navigation until the beginning of the next season. On the other hand, the wet season must be utilized in restoring the depleted lake, but if the amount of rainfall during that season is more than sufficient to raise the lake surface above the desired maximum level, the surplus inflow must be allowed to waste with sufficient rapidity to prevent the lake rising high enough to produce serious inconvenience or damage. The precise minimum elevation of the surface of the depleted lake, and the maximum height to which the water in the lake may be allowed to rise, may not be determinable, but it is not difficult to prescribe such a control of the lake surface by available means as to fix those limits near enough for the certain and safe operation of the canal or for the preservation of the usual industrial operations about the shores of the lake. The storing of a sufficient supply to meet the demands of dry seasons is a simple matter of computation of reservoir capacity, and can readily be prescribed. The determination of the maximum elevation of the water surface to be permitted in the lake involves J^ 15 CBpacM * of the discharging capacity of the canalized San Juan River from Fort San Carlos to the Conchuda dam after it has become practically an arm of the lake. The iirst part of REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 145 the problem will, therefore, consist of the determination of the dis- charging capacity of the San Juan River for 52.88 miles of its length from the lake to the Conchuda dam, corresponding to various eleva- tions of the lake surface. The total available length of the wasteweir or dam must be such as to give the maximum discharge with a head on the crest of the weir that shall not in general trench upon the navigable depth of 35 feet in the summit level of the canal. The minimum elevation of that summit level has been tixed at 104 feet above the sea level. It will be necessary, therefore, so to proportion ftie regulating facilities at the dam as to attain the maximum discharge of the canalized river with an elevation of water surface at the same point of 104 feet. Evidently the maximum discharge will be required when heavy rain- falls cause the lake to be at or near its maximum elevation; or it may be desirable to determine the discharge of the canalized river with the lake surface at almost any elevation between the minimum and the maximum, while the elevation of the water surface at the dam has its minimum value of 104 feet. It ma}' therefore be necessary to know not onlv the discharge of the lake at an} 7 elevation Discharge of lake at any ^^ ^ eleyation of 8ur f ace at the dam above given stage. J the minimum, but also what will be of greater practical consequence — the discharge of the lake at an} 7 given stage with prescribed elevations of the water surface at the dam. This part of the investigation has been made by finding the contin- uous slopes of water surface from the lake to the dam, corresponding to discharges of 20,000, 30.000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, and 70,000 cubic feet per second for each elevation of the lake slopes of canalized river 8ur f ace 104, 106, 108, 110, and 112. These slopes corresponding to various •/•«»» t tt ,• i • discharges. are shown in fig. 3 of Appendix H. After having determined these slopes, the curves shown on the right-hand side of tig. 3 will give the varying discharges for a given elevation of lake surface and corresponding to different elevations of the water surface at the Conchuda dam. The curves shown in rig. 4 of Appendix H are then at once so drawn as to exhibit the discharge for a given elevation of water surface at the dam with any elevation of the lake surface. These results afford all the information regarding the discharge of the canalized river required for the complete treat- ment of the regulation of the lake surface. Obviously, at the end of the dry season the gates at the dam will always be found closed, and there will be no water escaping from the lake except by evaporation and to supply the needs for canal uses. It is equally evident that the gates will also remain closed, so as to permit no wastage during the early part of the wet season, starting from its beginning. As the wet season proceeds, the S D— 57-1— Vol 7 10 146 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. surface of the lake will rise toward and generally quite to its maximum elevation, and then the operation of wasting over Regulation of gates. .'.,-, r™ • the weirs will commence, lhe time of beginning of this wastage will depend upon the amount and distribution of the rainfall during the wet period. Indeed, no wastage whatever would be permitted during- such a low water wet season as that of 1890. The rainfall from the entire drainage basin would be impounded in the lake, and it would then fall short of restoring the depletion resulting from evaporation and requirements of the canal. On the other hand, during such a wet season as that of 1897, wastage would begin at an early date. In general it may be said that neither the rate nor the law of the rise of water surface in the lake ran be predicted. There may be years when no wastage will be permitted, but generally consider- able wastage will be necessary in order to prevent the lake rising- above the permissible stage. An examination of the rainfall statistics and diagrams furnished in the report of Mr. Arthur P. Davis, hydrographer to the Commission, and found in Appendix I. shows, as would be anticipated, that even a high monthly rainfall in the early part of the wet season falling on parched ground will have a comparatively small effect upon the eleva- tion of the lake surface. The same amount of Jreclpltatlonlnwetsea- precipitiltion> on the othor h;lm j, falling later in the wet season, when the 1 ground is saturated, has a much more marked effect upon the elevation of the lake surface, both in rapidity and amount. A careful study of the results of Mr. Davis's observations shows thai the maximum rate of rise of the lake during the three years. L898 (<> 1900. inclusive, is 19.5 inches in twenty-two days. This took place between the 2d and 21th of October, in the year 1900. The total amount of rainfall at Granada in October of that year was 16.7 inches. The total rise of the lake for the entire month of October was prac- tically 21 inches. In the month of June. L897, a year of maximum rainfall, the precipitation at Granada was 31 inches. Unfortunately, no observations on lake elevation were made during the latter year, and hence the corresponding movements of the lake surface can not be given. It is most important to observe, in connection with this matter of lake regulation, that the effect of a heavy rainfall is not felt im- mediately, except for that portion of the precipitation which falls directly upon tin 1 lake surface. While no precise statement can be made as to the time which elapses between the beginning of a month's heavy rainfall and the resulting material effect upon the elevation of lake surface, due to run-off, it would appear from the consideration of the data available to the Commission that from two to three weeks may be taken for that purpose. This is an im- imme n -.• ,1 v. • <. ,1 -, • tion set forth regarding the condition or the sluices at the waste wa} T on specified dates, the general lines of their operations should be as stated below, viz: 1. A full lake with surface probabby a little above 110 on December 1. 2. Waste-way sluices closed at least from about December 1 to some date in the early portion of the succeeding rainy season, or throughout that season if it be one of unusually low precipitation. 3. A variable opening of waste-way sluices, if necessary, during the intermediate portion of the rainy season, so as to maintain the lake- surface elevation but little, if any, below 110 at the beginning of October. 4. The operation of waste-wa} 7 sluices during October and November so as to reach the 1st of December with a full lake, or lake elevation probably a little above 110. The mean velocities in the minimum sections of the canalized river corresponding to the greatest discharges required in the regulation of the lake are as follows: Elevation of lake. Elevation of water at dam. 103 feet. 104 feet. 110 feet. 111 feci. 112 feet. Ft. per sec. Mi.perhr. FLperse.c. MLperhr. 4.16 j 2.8 3.9 2.7 4.51 j 3.1 4.2 4.85 3.3 4.5 2.9 3.1 The discharge of the river corresponding to the Velocities. . " . velocity or 2.7 miles per hour is 53, 21 Hi cubic tect per second; while that corresponding to 3.3 miles per hour is 77,000 cubic feet per second. These estimated high velocities will occur but rarely, and they will not sensibly inconvenience navigation. In reality they are too high, for the reason that while the overflow at the mini- mum river section materially increases the areas of those sections, it has been neglected in this discussion. It is probable that at some periods of heavy rainfall when the lake is at or near its maximum elevation, the Sabalos and other smaller rivers tributary to the San Juan between Fort San Carlos and the Conchuda dam may be discharging at their greatest capacity also under the influence of heavy rainfalls on their respective drainage areas. It is even possible that the concurrent flood inflow of these streams may reach as high as 50,000 cubic feet per Effort of tributaries of g^ d ^ ff fc f ^ ^ discnargeg San Juan. " te ° _ ° on the elevation of the lake surface has been ignored for two reasons. In the first place, their points of discharge are mostly REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 157 far removed from the lake and Largely below the steepest portion of the river slope. Hence their effect upon the lake elevation would not be great even if these tributary flood discharges continued for a con- siderable period of time. In the second place, these tributary flood discharges continue for a short time only; in fact, in nearly or quite all eases for less than twenty-four hours. Under such circumstances they can have no material influence upon the maximum elevations reached by the lake. The drainage areas from which they flow are all small and the total flood volume contributed by tliem for short periods of a few hours only is insignificant when compared with the volume required to raise to any sensible extent the surface of the lake. Again, in all the preceding computations the volume of water required for the uses of the canal has been ignored. Should this vol- ume be equal to a rate of consumption of 1.0(H) cubic feet per second, a depth of only 0.4 inch per month would be required to supply it, and that is an amount too small for consideration in connection with the question of lake control. The regulation will be effected by wastewa3 T s at wLteTOy." " am ""* the east end of the summit level, 'it being neces- sary to have control of the discharge, a movable dam of some form is essential. The form adopted consists of vertically moving gates of the Stonev type, each giving an Sfcmey gates. . , , . , ' „ \ opening of 30 feet in the crest of the wasteway. The discharge through the upper section of the canalized San Juan will be 63,000 cubic feet per second, with the lake at 110 and the pool immediately above the dam at 104. This will be reached nearly every year, but. as before shown, the lakes may rise, in exceptional circumstances, possibly to 112, increasing the discharge of the river to 76,000 cubic feet per second, with the water at the dam at 104. To produce such a discharge from the lake the rainfall would have to be extremely heavy over the entire basin draining into it. There would probably be a simultaneous heavy rainfall over the San Juan basin from the lake to the dam, most of which would reach the river below the constricted section which limits the discharging capacity from the lake, and would increase considerably the required discharg- ing capacity of the waterway. This structure is feet'per'J^old!' 000 "*" therefore designed to discharge 100,000 cubic feet per second, with the water in the pool immedi- ately above it at 104. It is deemed judicious to limit the depth of water on the crest, under normal conditions, to 7 feet, fixing the crest of the wasteway at eleva- tion 97. With a high lake and heav} T rainfall in the district near the dam the pool might, for a short time, rise a little above 104. The discharge of 100,000 cubic feet per second, with Depth on crest, 7 feet. ° . l i feet on the crest, requires a weir 1,590 feet long. 158 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION This is provided by placing on the dam 21 sluice gates, each of 30 feet opening, and 32 similar ones at a site about 2,500 feet from the dam in Costa Rica. The latter structure is designated "Conchuda Plan. wasteway" on the map. Its sluices will be placed on a concrete structure, which will have a foundation on hard rock. Small ravines head near the site on both sides, and will require enlarge- ment to permit the water to reach the wasteway and flow away from it with moderate velocities. The plan of the wasteway and approaches is shown on pi. Q8. The most important structure on the route is the Conchuda dam. Before deciding on its location a large number of borings were made to ascertain the depth to suitable hard rock for the foundation, both at the Conchuda site and at the one near Boca San Carlos suggested by the Nicaragua Canal Commission. At the latter site the greatest depth to hard rock is 120 feet below the surface of the river at low stage. At the Conchuda site the greatest depth to hard rock is 82 feet, which is very important, because the foundations will probably have to be placed by the compressed-air process, and the depth is well within that at which the foundations of many bridge piers have been built by the same method. A plan of the Conchuda dam is shown on pi. 69. The portion of the dam across the river and the swamp on the Costa Rica side, for a total distance of 731 feet, will consist, below low water, of caissons placed close together with the joints between them scaled. Upon the platform thus made the part above low water will be built as a continuous monolithic structure and will support the sluices already mentioned. From each end of this portion the dam will be built for a further distance of 100 feet into the hillsides in open excavations and with cross section designed to sustain the full head of water. Core walls extend 100 feet farther on the Costa Rica side and 210 feet on the Nicaragua side. The total length of the dam. including core walls. will be 1,271 feet. The foundation is on hard rock for the entire length. ]n its preliminary report this Commission estimated the time for completing the entire work on the Nicaragua route at about ten years. This was based on the expectation that two years would be required for preparatory work and eight years to construct the dam at Boca San Carlos, which would be begun only after a temporary harbor at Grey Town was constructed and other work done. A more favorable site for the dam having been found at Conchuda, its construction is no longer the controlling feature. It is estimated that this dam can be built in four years. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 159 The estimated cost of the dam and auxiliary Cosfc . wasteway is as follows: Dam at Conchuda, including sluices and machinery $4,017,650 Auxiliary wasteway, including sluices, machinery, and approach channels 2 f 045, 322 Total for dam and wasteway 6, 062, 972 The wasteways for the disposal of floods in the VYastewnys for reiriila- 1 1 1 ' 1 £ ^.1 1 /^i •_•. tion of levels in pools. several levels or pools ot the canal (the summit level excepted) are simple overfall weirs, with the crests at the elevation of lowest water surface in the pool. The areas of the watersheds which drain into the several Overflow weirs. pools, and the areas permanently submerged, are for the eastern division approximately as follows: Level. Area to be submerged. Total area of water- shed. Lock No. 1 to lock No. 2 Sq. miles. 13. 1 7.5 1.1 Sq. miles. 24 'i Lock No. 2 to loci No. 3 7;; i Lock No. 3 to lock No. 4 9 3 The areas for the division west of the lake, while not accurately determined, are known to be small. The eastern division is the region of heaviest rainfall. The ground is generally saturated, the slopes steep, and the basins small in area, so that the run-off is rapid and its ratio to rainfall unusually large. The greatest observed rainfall in twenty-four hours, as already stated, occurred at Grey Town in November, 1899, and amounted to 12.48 inches, of which 8 inches fell in six hours. During the same storm at Lake Silico 10.50 inches fell in six hours. The wasteways provide for a rainfall of 12 inches in twelve hours, the total amount falling on the areas not submerged reaching the pool within twenty-four hours. „ , , The embankments are given a freeboard of 5 feet Freeboard. a above the level to which the assumed floods would rise, increased where the floods in the San Juan rise above the flood levels in the canal. The data concerning the flood levels of the San Juan are necessarily not exact. These assumed rainfalls and run-offs are greater than are likely to occur; but if they should be exceeded the works would not be endan- gered. If, for example, there should be a continuous rainfall of 1 inch per hour, extending indefinitely, the freeboard would be reduced in the lower end of the pool between lock No. 1 and lock No. 2 to 3.5 feet. Such a rainfall continued for twenty-four hours is without 160 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. precedent on this continent, so far as known. Plans of wasteways for the eastern division are shown on pi. 67. A small wasteway is provided in each of the levels between the summit level and the Pacific. Each of these is to be 100 feet in length. In the level between lock No. 5 and lock No. 6 the wasteway and channel lending therefrom will consist simply of a cut through sound rock to the Rio Grande, the bed being at the minimum canal level at the canal bank, and sloping thence toward the river. The wasteway in the level between lock No. t> and lock No. 7 is Wasteways on Pacific , i • -i t ±i ± 1 1 glde to be similar in every way. In the next level toward the Pacific, which ends at the tide lock, there is no site for a wastewa} r with a rock foundation, but the water in the canal will be 12 or 15 feet below the surface of the valley at the upper end of the level, and but little below it at the lower end. It is proposed here to form a wasteway by excavating a channel in the earth from the canal to the river and to pave this for a distance of about 500 feet from the canal. The amount of water to be discharged here is small, and as the canal will be below valley level, a break in the canal bank will be impossible. Some of the rock which will be found in the Retaining walls. . . n . cuts is much disintegrated. Kock from which no core, or only small pieces, can be obtained by the diamond drill is classified in the estimates as soft rock. The rock thus classified is usually very soft on top, gradually becoming harder farther down and passing into the material classified as hard rock, where cores nearly continuous are obtained. For the purpose of making the esti- mate, it is assumed that the soft rock for half its depth will require lacing with a retaining wall. The top of the wall, 5 feet above the water surface in the canal, will be 5 feet wide. The face will be ver- tical. The back will also be vertical for 10 feet from the top and below that point will have a batter of 2 on 1. The project now presented is based upon a care- Mtematlve surveys. , x J A . . tul and detailed examination ot the physical con- ditions of the entire route. The line has been marked out on the ground, improvements have been made in location, and the subsurface materials have been explored by means of borings, many of which have been made with diamond drills. Samples of all materials have been obtained, and the classification is based on a careful study of* them. The completeness of the system of borings Examinations and borings. .... ., . , ' , will be evident on an examination of the maps and profiles. The alternative dam sites at Boca San Carlos and Conchuda have received special attention. At each place three lines of borings, LOO feet apart, were made from bluff to bluff, the borings generally being LOO feet apart on each line, reduced to 50 feet where marked depressions in the rock surface had been revealed or indicated by the earlier borings. EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 161 With these data at hand, it is believed the difficulties of the route are fully disclosed. Should construction be decided on, doubtless minor improvements in location could be made, particularly in the section between the Conchuda dam and Grey Town where, on account of the dense vegetation, one can see but a short distance from any point. A few explorations of considerable magnitude were made to avoid special difficulties on this section. The first one to be made was to ascertain whether there existed a practicable route Route from I'pper San - . _ _ * Jum to headwaters of the from the valley of the ban Juan to that 01 the Indl °- Indio. For years vague but persistent rumors of the existence of a low pass in the divide between the headwaters of the Machuca River and the Indio have been current. These reports were made chiefly by rubber hunters, the pioneers of this region, and considerable credence was given to them by many persons. If such a pass could be found, and the canal tea into another valley, avoiding the difficulties of the Lower San Juan, the change would be of great importance. A dam across the San Juan River at Machuca Rapids could be built more quickly, and would cost much less than at Con- chuda or any other point below Machuca; but a canal in the San Juan Valle} 7 between Conchuda and Machuca would be very expensive on account of the hilly character of the country. Under the direction of this Commission a search Explorations. for such a route, extending over several months, was made by a well-equipped party. Surveys were made up the Bartola and Machuca rivers, with a view of utilizing the Machuca site for the San Juan River dam. The survey was carried up the Bartola to a point 638 feet above sea level without reaching the sum- mit, and the route being manifestly impracticable, the survey was stopped. A survey was also made up the Machuca River, connecting with a survey of the Indio and its tributary, the Negro. The divide is 544 feet above sea level, and it would require a summit cut 24i miles long and 475 feet deep at the maximum to carry Lake Nicaragua level across it. The cost of this work alone would be greater than that of the entire canal fiom Machuca to the sea by the adopted route. It was decided also to examine the La Cruz del Norte, which dis- charges into the San Juan between Machuca Rapids and Conchuda. If this route had proved practicable, the Conchuda dam would still be required. The survey was carried over the divide to the Salvador, a branch of the Negro. The summit was 469 feet above sea level, and a summit cut 15£ miles long would have to be made. The cost of the canal by this route would be much greater than by the one adopted. In the district between the San Francisco hills and lock No. 2 borings along the center line of the canal revealed two sand deposits — one west of Tambor Grande ridge, extending about a mile along the canal line, with sand a little below the grade of canal bottom, and the other east S D— 57-1— Vol 7 11 162 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of Tamborcito ridge, where the prism of the canal would be partly in sand. Borings were made to ascertain the limits route.* deP ° SUS ° n C3nal of the sand deposits, as well as surveys for a location farther inland. It was ascertained that such a loca- tion, avoiding the sand deposits, was practicable, but the cost of the canal would be greater than by the adopted route. A survey was also made of a line which leaves the adopted one 15i miles from the Caribbean, passes through Lake Silico, and continues to Grey Town. The line would be more direct, and the existing navigation from Grey Town to Lake Silico, which could easily be improved, and the narrow-gauge railroad recently built from Lake Silico to the San Juan River might be useful in the earlier period of construction. Lock No. 1 was located in the hills on the west side of Lake Silico, and the site was bored. The surface material, which was clay, was over the greater part underlaid by rock. This proved to be a volcanic overflow, underlaid by mud and sand. At the upper end of the lock site the lock foundation would have been in the sand. A good lock site hav- ing been found on the adopted line, the one through Lake Silico was abandoned. It is still possible that a better location may be found in this vicinity. As already stated, the movement of the sand along the coast, which at Grey Town seems to be at the maximum, decreases as the mouth of the Indio is approached. This stream doubtless brings down some sand and silt during floods. The amount is unknown, but is probably small. Immediatel} T north of its mouth a forest growth, fringing the ocean front, indicates that the shore line is not now being subjected to much change. In view of the small sand movement in the neighbor- hood of the mouth of the Indio and the apparent stability of the shore line there, it was thought advisable to locate an Indio route. . . . , - T . . alternative route from iock JNo. 1 to a harbor site at that place. The line was a continuation of the tangent through lock No. 1 to a point near the sea, Avhere it curved slightly to the harbor and entered the sea on another tangent. It crosses the San Juanillo and Deseado near their junction. These streams would be diverted through a channel northwest of and practically parallel to the canal line and at a safe distance from it, and discharged into the sea to the northward of the harbor. This alternative route is of about the same length as the adopted one to Grey Town, but has a little less curvature. The fore shore of the coast is flatter thaD in the vicinity of Grey Town, requiring longer jetties to secure a harbor. The jetties should converge seaward to give a large area outside the shore line in which the force of the waves may expend themselves, as at Ymuiden. The first cost of this alter- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 163 native route, both for excavation and harbor jetties, would be greater than that of the adopted one. There is reason to believe, however, that the cost of maintaining the harbor would be less, and possibly the saving in this respect would be sufficient to warrant the greater expenditure for construction. The harbor site at Grey Town, on the other hand, has one important advantage, that a harbor for light-draft vessels can be formed in less time. Protection to the entrance to such a harbor would be afforded by the east jetty before its construction was far advanced. An entrance with about 18 feet of water, opening into Grey Town lagoon, would be of great value for the landing of materials to be used in the construction of the railroad and canal. Moreover, an entrance at Gre} T Town would make it practicable to transfer materials to the river steamers, which in the earlier stages of the work would be of considerable value. The Commission estimates that such a harbor could be opened at Grey Town in about two years. A working harbor could also be constructed at the Indio site, but as the entrance there opens more directly seaward, both jetties would have to be commenced and built farther out to give adequate protection and would require considerable more time. Since the formation of the working harbor is preliminary to the beginning of canal construction proper, this additional period required at the Indio site would delay by a like mount the opening of the canal itself. The data concerning the Indio route are not so well ascertained as those relating to the adopted route terminating at Grey Town, but its advantage in respect to maintenance of the harbor can hardly be doubted. The Commission believes, however, that it is practicable to maintain a harbor at Grey Town which will be fully as serviceable in every way, and regards its advantages as a working harbor as of such importance that its estimates are based on that location. Mean sea levels of the Pacific at Brito and of the Atlantic at Grey Town were determined by the Nicaragua Canal Commission in 1898 and 1899 by a series of tide observations at each place and b}?- a line of precise levels from Grey Town to Lake Nicaragua, and from Lake Nicaragua to Brito. The levels across the lake were transferred by water level in the lake, a series of observations extending over a period of twent3'-nine days being taken for this purpose. As thus determined, mean sea level in the Caribbean Sea at Grey Town was apparently 0.99 of a foot above that at Brito in the Pacific, but during this period the Pacific Ocean at Panama, as determined by the tide tables of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, was one foot below the normal. Assuming this to be true at Brito, and there seems to be no reason for doubting it, the mean level of the two oceans would be the same. Gopd sand for construction purposes can be had in large quantities in the bed of the lower San Juan, as well as on the seashores. There 164 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Railroad. are ample quantities of good stone for rubble and concrete. Cement is not now manufactured in Nicaragua, and it will probably be nec- essaiy to import it. There are now in Nicaragua small dams, cisterns, indigo vats, and other constructions built of concrete, which are quite old and in excellent state of preservation. Concrete ought to last indefinitely in the mild climate of Central America. There is an ample supply of stone on both sides of the lake suitable for jetty construction. A railroad for construction purposes will be necessary, and provision has been made for building one from Grey Town to the mouth of the Sabalos River, and from the west shore of the lake to Brito. The intervening space can be trav- ersed by boats, the river between Fort San Carlos and the Sabalos being deep enough to accommodate, without improvement, such vessels as can reach the deep water of the lake from the San Juan. It is possible that the portion of the railroad between the Conchuda dam and Sabalos might be dispensed with, as the work between those points is almost entirety in the river, but it was thought best to pro- vide convenient communication between the two oceans, as a transfer of material and men from the east to the west side of the lake, or from the west to the east side, might become important. The portion of the river between the dam and Sabalos is navigable only for small steamers. The railroad has been located on the south side of the canal, with the grade not exceeding 0.5 per cent. It is to be of standard gauge, supplied with sidings, stations, and water tanks, and fully equipped with the necessary rolling stock. The estimate is made on the basis of $75,000 per mile for the railroad completed and ready for operation. Summing up the various items, the total estimated cost of construct- ing the Nicaragua Canal is as follows: Miles. Cost. Grey Town Harbor and entrance Section from Grey Town Harbor to lock No. 1, including approach wall to lock.. Diversion of Lower San Juan Diversion of San Juanillo Lock No. 1, including excavation Section from lock No. 1 to lock No. 2, including approach walls, embankments, and waste way Lock No. 2, including excavation Section from lock No. 2 to lock No. 3, including approach walls, embankments, and wasteway Lock No. 3, including excavation Section from lock No. 3 to lock No. 4, including approach walls, embankments, and waste wa y Lock No. 4, including excavation , Section from lock No. 4 to San Juan River, including approach wall and em bank- its Conchuda dam, Including sluices and machinery Auxiliary wasteway, including sluices, machinery, and approach channels San Juan River section Lake Nicaragua section Lake Nicaragua to lock 5, including approach wall to lock and receiving basins for the Rio Grande and Chocolata Diversion of the Las Laj as Lock 5, including excavation Dam near Huen Retiro Section from lock No. 6 to lock No. 6, including approach walls and wasteway .. Lock 6, including excavation 2.15 7.44 .20 10.96 .20 16.76 .20 2.77 .20 6.30 49.64 70.51 9.09 2.04 .20 $2, 198, 860 4, 899, 887 40,100 116,760 5, 719, 686 6, 296, 632 4,050,270 19,330,654 3, 832, 745 4, 310, 580 5, 655, 871 8, 579, 431 4,017,650 2,045,322 23, 155, 670 7,877,611 19, 566, 675 199, 382 4, 913, 512 125, 591 3,259,283 4,368,667 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 165 Miles. Cost. Section from lock No. 6 to lock No. 7, including approach walls, embankments, ami wasteway 1. 83 Diversion of Rio Grande Lock No. 7, including excavation Section from lock No. 7 to lock No. 8, including approach walls, embankments, and wasteway Diversion of Rio Grande Lock No. 8, including excavation Section from lock No. 8 to Brito Harbor, including approach wall Brito Harbor and entrance, including jetty Railroad, including branch line to Conehuda dam site, at 875,000 per mile Total Engineering, police, sanitation, and general contingencies, 20 per cent Aggregate 2.43 .20 .23 .92 82, 309, 710 176, 180 4,709,502 1,787,498 117,580 4, 920, 899 553, 476 1,509,470 7,575,000 183.66 158,220,052 31,644,010 189,864,062 An estimate has been made of the time required to pass through the canal by ships of several t} r pes, the details of which are given in Appendix G. The estimated time is thirty hours for a ship of aver- age size, 400 feet long, 50 feet beam, and 24.5 feet draft, and thirty- seven and six-tenths hours for a ship 650 feet long, 70 feet beam, and 32 feet draft, which corresponds closely with the largest ships afloat. The following is a brief summary of the work ££££££££ that has been done by the corporation known as the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua in the construction of a canal on the Nicaragua route: The annual reports of the Maritime Canal Company for the year 1889 and subsequent thereto, made in pursuance of the requirements of the act of Congress incorporating the company, show that actual work of con- struction was begun October 8, 1889, and was suspended some time in 1893. During this period of over three } T ears comparatively little work was accomplished. In 1893 the Nicaragua Canal Construction Company, with which a contract was made by the Maritime Canal Company for construction, suspended payments and work ceased. The reports of the company show that during this period a telegraph line was built from Grey Town to Castillo, where it connected with the lines belonging to the Nicaraguan Government. Other telegraph and telephone lines were established to connect headquarters with some of the camps or stations. A single-track standard-guage railroad was built, 11^ miles in length, from Grey Town to a point between the sites of the first two locks, and is reported to have been equipped with 4 locomotives, 50 cars, and other requisites. Much of this railroad was built across a swamp, requiring timber cribbing, on which a temporary track was laid, and the permanent embankment was formed of sand hauled by trains from the canal spoil banks near Grey Town. A number of buildings, work- shops, quarters, hospitals, and storehouses were also constructed. In all, 39 buildings, having a floor space of 75,902 square feet, sheds, water tanks, and other smaller structures are reported as having been constructed, in addition to wharves equipped for unloading heavy freight. 166 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. A jett}" or pier was constructed for securing- an entrance into Grey Town Lagoon from the sea. It was built 42 feet wide, of creosoted piles and timber, and filled with brush, stone, and concrete blocks. It extended about 937 feet into the sea. The pier was intended to intercept the westward drift of the beach sand and cause an opening to be formed into the lagoon, which it did. The current soon deep- ened it to about 7 feet, permitting the dredges which Imd been pur- chased by the canal company to be floated in. Afterwards the entrance was still further deepened by dredging to a depth reported as about 15 feet. The channel has since been closed by sand, the jetty is much decayed, and some of it washed into the sea. The company brought to Grey Town six dredges which had previously worked on the Panama Canal. In the reports to the Secretary of the Interior it is stated that seven were purchased. One was said to have been lost at sea between Colon and Grey Town. Besides the dredging done in the sea entrance to the lagoon, some was done to provide anchorage and access to the company's buildings and shops and also on the canal proper. This latter work was done b} 7 an elevator dredge, making a single cut for a distance inland of about 4,350 feet, with a width of 167 feet and depth of 16i feet. This was followed by another cut of about 3,000 feet in length, the width of the double cut being 279 feet. There has been no apparent deterioration in this excavated portion of the canal. The canal company's reports state that important work had been done on the Machuca Rapids and quantities of rock removed from the bed of the San Juan at that point. The canal line was reported cleared of timber for a distance of 20 miles from the Atlantic coast. The company also reported that 8 miles of the route of the canal on the west side of the lake was cleared of timber and undergrowth and that the line of the railroad which was to extend from the lake to the Pacific was caref ully surveyed and located. Nearly all the property of the Maritime Canal Company, including dredges, boats, tugs, etc., has gone to ruin, except the railroad and the 4,350 feet of partially constructed canal. The buildings now standing are in bad condition. Some of them in 1897 were capable of being repaired and were used by the employees of the Nicaragua Canal Commission and later by the employees of the Isthmian Canal Com- mission. Practically none of the property would have any value to-day in the construction of the canal, except, possibly, the canal excavation made from Grey Town Lagoon inland, and this would be of value only as part of a channel for the diversion of the San Juanillo River. It is now understood that the failure of the Maritime Canal Company to complete the canal within the time required by the concession has worked the forfeiture of the latter, and that all the property of the company in Nicaragua has been taken possession of by the Nicaraguan Government. CHAPTER VII. EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES, CLIMATE, HEALTH. So much has been written upon the liability of Earthquakes. ... . . , . an isthmian canal to injury or destruction by earth- quakes, that a brief discussion of the subject seems desirable. The cause of earthquakes is not well understood, Obscurity of subject. • -> , , • but amid the obscurity surrounding the subject there are a few salient facts which seem to be generally accepted. The first is that the geographical distribution of volcanoes corre- sponds with the areas most subject to earthquakes. One of the most celebrated and destructive earthquakes known to history — that of Lisbon in 1755 — occurred far from any volcano; S u!, 1 ""lfea 1 r ir' i rk f " ,0S< and so with that of New Madrid, Mo., in 1812, and that of Charleston, S. C, in 1886; but the general statement is correct, that they are more frequent in volcanic countries than elsewhere, though there is probably no part of the earth's surface which is entirely exempt from these disturbances. It does not follow that volcanoes and earthquakes bear to each other the relation of cause and effect, but it is highly probable that they repre- sent different manifestations of the same subterranean forces. 1 The doctrine that volcanoes are safety valves Yolcanoes safety Yalves. 1 • 1 t • • i i • i ,. which diminish the violence of earthquakes in their vicinity is accepted by such writers as Baron von Humboldt, Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Charles Daubeny, and J. Le Conte. 2 In general terms, then, the region of volcanoes is the region of earthquakes, but the immediate vicinity of the volcanoes is not neces- sarily the most dangerous part of the region. The location of the principal volcanoes in the can"c region. m " P art °^ the world where lies the isthmus is shown on plate 70. From a glance at this map it is evi- dent that the entire isthmus between North and South America is a volcanic region. Humboldt thus speaks of it : " The grandest example of a continental volcanic ' chain ' is offered by the great rampart of ^'Earthquakes," by John Milne. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y., 1899. 2 Humboldt's "Cosmos," Sabine's translation, eighth edition, Vol. I, p. 202; "Principles of Geology," by Sir Charles Lyell, first American edition, Vol. I, p. 32; "Volcanoes," by Charles Daubeny, second edition, p. 691; "Elements of Geology," by J. Le Conte, fourth edition, p. 105. , 167 168 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the Andes extending from the southern part of Chile to the northwest coast of America." 1 No portion of it is exempt from earthquakes. The record of those which have occurred is meager, being as a rule confined to those severe enough to inflict damage upon buildings or otherwise attract general attention. The most complete catalogue to which the Commission has had access is that Records available. • * -n -i ■» *■ i-r.ii « prepared by Mr. p. de Montessus de Ballore, published in 1888. It covers the entire period from the time of the Spanish conquest to the year 1886. No very important earthquake has occurred upon either the Nicaragua or Panama lines since the latter date. The record for points upon the line of the Nicaragua Canal shows 14 earthquakes. Two of these were felt at Grey Town, which has been supposed b} T some writers to be exempt. The only one which is reported to have caused serious injury was that of 1844 — Rivas was almost destroyed, and great damage was done at Earthquakes on Klcara- Q T()wn Riyas y 4 m[} ^ from ^ ^^ ^ gua liue. * and is the only town of consequence in that part of Nicaragua. It has had a continuous existence since a period ante- dating the conquest, when it was known as Nicarao. It was subse- quently known as Nicaragua. For Panama the records show 28 earthquakes. Of these, 12 occurred in the three years 1882, 1883, and 1884, which illustrates the incom- pleteness of the record as a whole. The only one that could be called destructive was that of 1621, which destroyed nearly all the houses in Panama. The next most severe was that of Sep- ^Earthqnakes on Panama ^^ ^ jgg^ During fchi g earthquake a part of the front of the cathedral in Panama was thrown down and the headquarters building of the canal company was cracked; the railroad had its track and roadbed in places thrown out of line, and the masonry of three or four bridges and culverts was damaged; at Las Cruces the church was thrown down; at Colon some lives were lost and crevasses were opened, and the Jamaica telegraph cable was broken. It is evident that this list is not complete enough to justify a com- parison between the Nicaragua and Panama routes as to either the number of earthquakes or their severity. They t w N o°nne ff 8 e . renCebetWee,,t!,e are on precisely the same footing historically as the} 7 are geographically. In neither case is there recorded any great disasters such as have occurred in neighboring countries. The earthquake of Caracas to the eastward in 1812, and 1 Cosmos, Vol. I, p. 228. J Tremblemente de Terre et Eruptions. Volcaniques au Centre-Amerique, by F. de Montessus de Ballore, p. 61. Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Saone-et-Loire, Dijon, 1888. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 169 that of Jamaica to the northward in 1092, are well known as among the most destructive in history. To the northwestward the town of San Salvador has been ruined ten times and that of Guatemala seven times. To the southward, the earthquake of Riobamba, in the prov- ince of Quito, in 1779, was one of the most terrible phenomena in the history of the globe. 1 With the exception of the injury to Panama in 1621 and to Rivas in 1844, the worst that has ever happened at the isthmus upon either line was to throw down or crack a few walls; and even in those cases it is to be remembered that comparatively few of the houses were substantially built. The internal disturbance which results in an earthquake is trans- mitted to any given point of the earth's surface in the form of an elastic wave of compression, and its effects may be of infinite variety, depending upon the varying elasticity of the different media through which it passes, and their shape, as well as the eaX.Tkes! aCtl be set apart for the work. This was to be owned by the contracting parlies, but Nicaragua was to exercise civil jurisdiction within it, and was to provide a police system to keep the peace and prevent smuggling into her territory; the cost of this service was to be a charge upon the revenues of the canal. The net earnings of the work when in operation were to be divided quarterly between the tw T o contracting parties, one-third to belong to Nicaragua, two-thirds to the United States. The United States agreed also to advance to Nicaragua $4,000,000, to be repaid with 3 per cent interest from its share of the dividends or from the general revenues of the Republic, as might be most conven- ient, but the repayment was not to be exacted till ten years after the opening of the canal to commerce. If the terms of the treaty were not compatible with other treaties made by the Republic with other Governments, Nicaragua agreed to terminate such incompatible treaties without unnecessary delay. Each party agreed not to dispose or suffer itself to be deprived of its interest in the canal property without the consent of the other manifested by legislative enactment. This treaty was submitted to the Senate and was there rejected, but a motion was made to reconsider the rejection, and Congress adjourned before final action was taken upon this motion. At the beginning of the next Congress and before any further action had been taken the treaty was withdrawn by President Cleveland for the reason, given in his message of December, 1885, that the engagement to form a per- petual alliance with Nicaragua and protect the territorial integrity of that State was inconsistent with the declared policy of the United States. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix L. Prior to these treaties with the United States Treaty between Nicaragua Nicaragua, on the 11th day of February, 1860, and Ureal Britain, Febru- T • •" ' ary, 1SG0. entered into a treaty with Great Britain very simi- lar in its terms to the first-named treaty with the United States. It, however, gave either party the right to terminate it after the expiration of twenty years, upon giving due notice to the other, and Nicaragua exercised this right by giving such notice on the 7th day of May, 1887, in response to which Great Britain announced Terminated. tnat the treat y would expire on the 11th day of June, 1888. S D— 57-1— Vol 7 12 178 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix M. Another treaty had been made by these powers Treat, i.ehvcen Nicaragua w ith one another on the 28th day of January. and Great Britain, January, < ___ . . _ « . . . i860. 1860, which is still in force. In one or its articles Nicaragua agreed to declare the port of Grey Town a free port under its own sovereignty. It was agreed that no dues or charges should be imposed upon vessels using this port other than such as should be sufficient for the maintenance and safety of naviga- tion and providing the expense of police, and no charges or duties were to be levied upon goods in transit through this port from sea to sea. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix X. A treaty was also made by Nicaragua with an?Fr?n b ce!78T9 MCara?Uil France on the 11th day of April, 1850, and it was confirmed early in the following year. It extended to France the right of transit across the territory of the Republic by all natural or artificial routes on land or sea then existing or thereafter constructed, to be used and enjoyed in the same manner and on equal terms by both of the contracting parties and their citizens and subjects. France consented to extend protection to all such routes of communication, to guarantee .their neutrality and inoffensive use. and to use whatever influence the Government might have with other nations to persuade them also to guarantee this neutrality and pro- tection. It contains a like agreement on the part of Nicaragua to employ military force when necessary for the security and protection of persons and property passing over any such route of communication, and to permit the other contracting party to employ its own military force for such protection under certain circumstances to that found in the treaties alread} T referred to with the United States and Gnat Britain. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix O. After this treaty had been in force for twenty years, either party was by its terms authorized, by giving twelve months' notice to the other, to terminate its provisions relating to commerce and navigation; but if such action were taken, the articles concerning the relations of peace and amity were to remain binding on the two powers. Nicaragua gave such notice on the 9th day of May, 1897, and France accepted the action in the following year. Other treaties were made by Nicaragua with Other treaties made liy o • • -, otn\ 'xl t> i • • -io~o *aI it l Nicaragua. opain in 18o0, with Belgium in 18;>S, with Italy in 18(58, two with Costa Rica in L869, and one with Germany in 1896. Some of these mention the canal project and grant the privilege of transit, and the contracting parties generally treat with each other on the footing of the most favored nations. They all aid in ascertaining the views which the commercial nations REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN (ANAL COMMISSION. 179 and people of the world have hold, and .still hold, with reference to the establishment of an interoceanic waterway, and the policy that should be maintained in its management. A list of these treaties made by Nicaragua, and the publication in which each can be found, is attached to this report, marked "Appendix P." ciayton-Buhver treaty. rhe Clayton-Bulwer treaty, made between Great Britain and the United States on the 19th day of June, 1S50, also has an important bearing- upon this subject, although neither Nicaragua nor Costa Rica was a party to it; for in its preamble it is stated that it was entered into for the purpose of setting 'forth and fixing the views and intentions of the two contract- ing parties with reference to any means of communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, by the way of the river San Juan 'and either or both of the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua to the Pacific Ocean. In this treaty the two Governments declared that neither would ever obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control over the proposed communication by canal; that neither would ever erect or maintain any fortifications commanding the same or in the vicinity thereof, or occupy, fortify, or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, or any part of Central America; and that neither would use any alli- ance or influence it might possess with any state or government through whose territory the said canal might pass for the purpose of acquiring for the citizens or subjects of the one any rights or advan- tages in regard to commerce or navigation through the said canal which should not be offered on the same terms to the citizens or sub- jects of the other. In case of war between the contracting parties, it was agreed that the vessels of each country should be exempt from blockade or capture by either of the belligerents while traversing the canal or near either of its ends. The contracting parties further engaged to protect the canal when completed and guarantee its neutrality, so that it might be forever open and free and the capital invested in it be secure; and they agreed to invite every State to enter into similar stipulations, so that all might share in the honor and advantage of having contributed to a work of such general interest and importance. They also declared that they entered into this convention not only to accomplish a particular object, but also to establish a general prin ciple, and agreed that they would, by further treaty stipulations, extend their protection to any other practicable communications across the isthmus, whether by canal or railway, particularly to the interoceanic communications by the way of Tehauntepec or Panama. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked "Appen- dix Q." LF 180 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. A subsequent treaty was negotiated between the Treaty between cmted contracting parties at Washington on the 5th day States and Great Britain of . _. , ™ „ ^ ,. ,.„ . February 6, 1900. of February, 190 v 0, tor the purpose or modifying the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, which was amended by the Senate before ratification, but the amendments were not accepted by Great Britain. An examination of all these treaties shows that i.Je°ro!ea»u h eanl re,,Ce *° Nicaragua has for a long- period favored the estab- lishment of a communication for commerce and travel and governmental operations through its territory between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, with a free port at each extremity, and that the contracting Governments are in harmony upon the following points with reference to the construction and operation of any such route through Nicaraguan territory, if a maritime canal is there located. These points of agreement indicate a well-defined policy with reference to this subject, which is acceptable to the nations and people of the world that have manifested an interest in an interoceanic communi- cation. 1. The recognition of the right of sovereignty of Nicaragua over the territor}^ of the Republic to be occupied in making and maintain- ing the proposed communication between the two oceans. 2. The right of transit by this route and its innocent use to be enjoyed upon equal terms by other governments, their citizens and subjects. 3. The neutrality of the route guarantied by the contracting parties, with an agreement to use their influence to induce other nations to make a like guaranty. 4. Military force to be supplied by Nicaragua when needed for the security and protection of the canal and auxiliary works, the officers and workmen engaged in its construction and operation, and the ves- sels passing through it, with their officers, crews, passengers, and cargoes. 5. If Nicaragua fails at any time to employ a force adequate for this purpose, other contracting parties may furnish such force with the consent of Nicaragua, and, in exceptional cases of imminent danger, without such consent. 6. Grants relating to interoceanic communications are to be subject to the privileges conceded by these treaties. 7. Each contracting party in these treaties stands toward the other on the footing of the most favored nation. These treaties relate to projects to be undertaken by companies or individuals, with the exception of the Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty, negotiated between Nicaragua and the United States in December. 1884; this is the only one in which the consent of any of these Gov- ernments has been given for the construction and operation of a canal REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 181 through its territory, to be owned and operated in whole or in part by the United Slates. The withdrawal of the Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty was followed by negotiations between AnieetoG. Menocal, a member and represent- ative of the Nicaragua Canal Association of New York, and the Gov- concession to Nicaragua ernment of Nicaragua, which resulted in a certain Canal Association. concession from the Republic, granting to the association the exclusive privilege of excavating and operating a maritime canal across the territory of Nicaragua between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, with grants of lands, exemption from taxation, and other valuable rights and franchises, to aid in the construction, maintenance, and operation of the work. The concession was to be exercised by a company of execution to be called the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua, and was to con- tinue for ninety-nine years from the day the canal should be opened to universal traffic. The association was allowed two and a half years from the date of the ratification of the contract, on the 21th day of April, 1887, to make the preliminary arrangements and com- mence the work of construction, and the company of execution was required to complete the canal and open it for maritime navigation within ten years thereafter; but it was agreed that in case of unavoid- able delays impeding the progress of the work the time should be extended. In case of failure to complete the canal within the time designated in the contract or within the period of extension, if an extension should be granted, the concession was to be forfeited; and at the close of the term of ninety-nine years, or in the event of a forfeiture, the Republic was to enter upon possession of the entire work and all the establishments used in its administration in perpetuity, but the grantees were to have the right to lease the property for another period of ninety-nine years, on the condition of paying to the Republic 25 per cent of the annual net profits, in addition to the dividends due upon its shares in the capital stock. At the close of this second term the rights and privileges of the Maritime Canal Company were to expire and the canal was to belong to the Republic in perpetuit}*. In consideration of the rights, privileges, and franchises conceded to the company the Republic was to receive in shares, bonds, certifi- cates, or other securities issued to raise the corporate capital 6 percent of the total amount of the issue, such amount in no event to be less than $4,000,000— that is, 40,000 shares or obligations of $100,000 each— the same to be subject to no charges, assessments, or payments. The interest of the Republic was to be represented in the board of directors of the company by one member to be appointed by the Government with the same powers, privileges, and rights that other members might be entitled to under the act of incorporation and the rules made there- 182 REPORT OF THP: ISTHMIAN" CANAL COMMISSION. under. As a further compensation it was stipulated that no tolls or charges should be exacted from Nicaragua!) ships of war, and that merchant vessels belonging wholly to citizens of the Republic and sailing under the Nicaraguan flag should pay only one-half of the usual tolls for the use of the canal while engaged in the coasting trade or in reciprocal trade with other Republics of Central America or when beginning a foreign voyage with a cargo composed wholh T of home products. Under certain circumstances like privileges were to be extended to the other Republics of Central America. A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked "Appen- dix R." In accordance with the terms of the concession Maritime Canal Company £ >!• j £ -\ m \ i. jz /~i ± of Nicaragua incorporated. from Nicaragua and one of like terms from Costa Rica, which will be referred to more at length later on in this report, a compan} T of execution was organized under the name of "The Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua" and was incor- porated by an act of Congress approved on the 20th day of February, 1SS9. A copy of this act is attached to this report, marked "Appen- dix S." The company was required by this act to make an annual report on the rirst Monday of December to the Secretary of the Interior, giving under oath a detailed statement of its affairs, its assets and liabilities. This requirement has been- complied with, and the report has been printed as a Senate executive document each year since 1889. From these reports it appears that the surveys and plans for the canal were completed within the time required by the concession and duly approved by the Nicaraguan Government, and that the work of actual construction had been begun within this limit and officially recognized on the 8th day of October, 1889. The work proceeded under a contract with the Nicaragua Canal Construction Company, and some progress was made, but the construction company met with financial embarrassment, the work was stopped, and the company was obliged to suspend payment. This resulted in the appointment of a receiver for the companj 7 on the 30th day of August, 1893, hy the circuit court of the United States for the southern district of New York, and the work of construction has not been since resumed. The President of Nicaragua, in a message to the Concession of Maritime ° tanai Company declared Congress or tlie Republic dated on the 2. ' interoceanic communication or to a transit through the territory of the latter. The only treaty affect- ing the friendly and commercial relations between the two countries was concluded on the 10th day of July, 1851, and the ratifications were exchanged on the 26th day of May, 1852. It was agreed that there should be perpetual amity between the two Governments and their citizens and a reciprocal freedom of commerce between the territories of each. Their ships of war and post-office packets were to have liberty freely and securely to enter all harbors, rivers, and places in the country of the other to which other foreign ships of war and packets were or should be permitted to come, and to anchor, remain, and refit there subject to the laws of the country. The intention of the high contracting parties being to treat each other on the footing of the most favored nation, it was agreed that any favor, privilege, or immunity in matters of commerce and navi- gation which either party had granted or might thereafter grant to the subjects or citizens of any other state should be extended to the citizens of the other contracting party upon like terms. A copy of tiiis treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix V. In May, 1850, a treaty was entered into between Treaty between Costa /-ij.-t>' j c • • ^j_i j_-i ' j \t- ,i ■> • mi and Nicaragua, 1869. Costa Rica and Nicaragua upon the subject, as will be seen by reference to a treaty made by them in June, 1869. By the terms of this treaty Costa Rica agreed, on due notice from and in conjunction with Nicaragua, to take the neces- sary steps with the Governments of France, England, and the United States, in order that the neutrality of the proposed communication, 188 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. individually guaranteed by those powers, might become the subject of a general convention on the basis of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, in accordance with the promises made by them in the former treaties referred to. The treaty in which this agreement appears was entered into to authorize the construction of an interoceanic canal through the territory of the two Republics in accordance with a contract made on the 6th day of October, 1868, by the Government of Nicaragua with M. Michel Chevalier, a citizen of France. The project was never carried out, and the treaty failed in its purpose, but its engage- ments are important because they indicate the attitude of the two Governments with reference to the establishment of a transisthmian communication, and the policy that should be pursued with reference to its management. A copy of the articles of the treaty relating to this subject is attached to this report, marked Appendix X. Other treaties were made with the Hanse Towns Other treaties. . . _ . and 1 ranee, both in 1848, with Great Britain in 1849, with Netherlands in 1852. with Belgium in 1858, with Italy in L863, with Germany in 1875, with Guatemala in 1895, and with Hon- duras in 1896. The purpose of the contracting parties was to strengthen their friendly relations and to place their international intercourse upon a liberal basis, but they contain no direct mention of the proposed interoceanic communication. An examination and consideration of all these Policy with reference to , .• j i s>< , t>* u *.i • interoceanic canal. treaties made by Costa Kica show nothing incon- sistent with the general policy that was dc\ eloped in the case of Nicaragua, and it is manifest that Costa Rica stands fully committed to the establishment of a communication from ocean to ocean, partly or wholly through its territory, and the Republic and the Governments it has contracted with, so far as they have given expression to their views, are in harmony with the policy already outlined. A list of these treaties made by Costa Rica and the publication in rv'hich each can be found is attached to this report, marked Appendix V. On the 31st day of July, 1888, the Government Concession (o Nicaragua <• •» t-»- i i i i (anai Association. °* Costa Kica concluded an agreement and con- tract with the Nicaragua Canal Association, grant- ing to it the exclusive privilege of excavating and operating a maritime canal between the Atlantic and Paciiic oceans for a period of ninety- nine years, wholly or in part through the territory of the Republicor along the whole or a part of the border lint 1 between it and the territory of Nicaragua, and it was duly ratified by the Costa Rican Congress on ihr 9th day of August. L888. This contract was negotiated to supplement the one already obtained from Nicaragua, hereinbefore mentioned and designated as Appendix R, it being manifest that the project generally known as the Nicaragua EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 189 Canal could not be carried into execution without the consent and authority of Costa Rica, It conferred upon the association and a company to be organized to construct and operate the proposed canal substantially the same rights, privileges, and franchises in Costa Rican territory a^ had already been conferred upon them in Nicaragua. A period of two years and a half from the ratification of the con- tract was granted to make the final surveys, organize the company of execution, and begin the work of construction. A further term of ten years was granted for the construction and completion of the canal and opening it for maritime navigation. This required the work to be commenced by the 10th day of February, 1891, and to be completed by the 9th day of February, 1901. It was, however, provided that in case the company should fail to complete the work within the pre- scribed time, because of unavoidable delays or unforeseen difficulties, extensions should be granted according to the length of the necessary delays. It was agreed that the failure to begin or to complete the work within and by the time specified should each be a cause of forfeiture of the' concession and in case of such forfeiture that the Republic should take possession of the canal property within its jurisdiction and hold it in perpetuity. In consideration of the privileges granted, it was agreed that the Republic should receive in shares, certificates, or other values, repre- senting the capital stock of the company, an amount equal to 1^ per cent of such capital stock in shares or certificates of $100 each, the same to be regarded as full paid and nonassessable. The amount of such shares was in no event to be less than $1, 500,000; they entitled the Republic to all the benefits and privileges to which other share- holders should be entitled, and the same privilege of appointing a member of the board of directors that had been granted to Nicaragua. In further compensation for the privileges granted, the company consented that Costa Rican ships of war and merchant vessels under the flag of the Republic should be entitled to use the canal upon like terms as were agreed to in the contract with Nicaragua with reference to the vessels of that Republic. A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked Appen- dix Z. The time for the completion of the canal under this contract ex- pired in February, 1901, and it has not been extended, and the con tract of the Maritime Canal Company with Nicaragua having been declared forfeited by that Government, as already No obligations now in . „ , . . « force to prevent an .l^ree- stated, there are now in force no obligations of m.-nt niti. the i nite.i states e i t her Republic with anv Government, corpora- relative to a canal. . .,..,, * . . tion, or individual to prevent either of them from entering into an agreement with the United States that will authorize our Government to construct, control, and manage a maritime canal 190 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. along this route and exercise all the privileges of OAvnership over it, provided the negotiations and action proceed upon the lines indicated b}* the treaty relations by which the different Governments are bound. The contracts made by Nicaragua and Costa Rica giving special priv- ileges to individuals, associations, or companies for the use of their ter ritory and navigable waters for the construction of a canal or for other purposes contain no authority to transfer these rights to foreign Governments, and in most of them such transfer is absolutely prohib- ited. This indicates that each of these Governments at one time was unwilling to have its territory occupied by another nationality even for the purpose of promoting the commercial and industrial develop- ment of the State. The Commission has reason, however, to believe that this feeling does not now exist. The sentiment in both countries is strongly in favor of opening a navigable connection between the two oceans, and the failure of every private effort to construct such a work has brought thinking men to the conclusion that it can only be success- fully accomplished with the large resources and abundant means of a willing Government. During the visit the Commission made to Central America early in the year 1900, its members had favorable opportunities to meet and confer with the Chief Executive and other leading and influential men in public life at the capital of each of the two Republics. They received a most cordial welcome both at Managua and San Jose, and were assured at each place that the Government and people were ready to listen favorably to propositions that might be made by the United States for the arrangement of terms upon which our Government might occupy their territory for the construction of a canal along this route and control, manage, and own it when completed, with the understand- ing, however, that the rights of sovereignty of the present Government must be maintained. This sentiment has since been expressed officially by both of these Governments in agreements made with the United States in December, 1900. The protocols of these agreements provide JESS?™""*" fchat when fche President of the United States is authorized by law to acquire control of such terri- tory of these Republics as may bedesirable and necessary, on which to construct a navigable canal for vessels of the largest size from a point near San Juan del Norte or GreytoVn, by Lake Nicaragua to Brito on the Pacific, they will enter into negotiations with each other to settle the plan and the agreements in detail, which may be found necessary to accomplish the construction and to provide for the ownership and control of the proposed canal. It was also agreed that the course and terminals of such canal should be the same as those stated in the treat}* of February 5, 1900, negoti- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 191 ated between the United States and Great Britain, which has already been mentioned. The failure of this treaty terminated the negotiations for the time, but they clearly indicate the willingness of these Repub- lics to permit the United States to use their territory for canal pur- poses on such terms as may be agreed upon. A copy of the protocol entered into with Costa Rica is attached to this report marked Appen- dix AA. The one entered into with Nicaragua is substantially in the same language. The legislation and instructions under which the Treaties with Colombia Qommission is acting require also an examination or New Chrannda. , °, , _, ,,. » /-« i u* of the treaties made by the Republic of Colombia or New Grenada, as it was designated prior to 1862 with other govern- ments affecting the Panama route and any contracts made with cor- porations, associations, or individuals authorizing them to open a com- munication there for travel and commerce. The waters of the Atlantic and Pacitic oceans are only about 30 miles apart at the narrowest part of the isthmus which connects North and South America, and this advantage has naturally attracted the attention of those who have interested themselves in the subject of an interoceanic communication during the centuries that have elapsed since the first conception of such an undertaking. But no action was taken by the United States to secure any special advantages or privi- leges there until 1816, during the controversy with Great Britain over the Oregon boundary, which was settled by the Buchanan-Pake n ham treaty of that year, and while the country was engaged in the war with Mexico, when, as one of its results, an extension of our territory on the Pacific coast seemed probable. During this period a treaty was negotiated with Treatj ne ? otiate,i in 1-S46 N Granada by which, among other things, the securing transit rights. - ' . , . «■ ., United States secured the right ol way or transit across the Isthmus upon any modes of communication then existing or that might thereafter be constructed. This transit was to be open and free to the Government and its citizens, and for the transporta- tion of any articles of produce, manufactures, or merchandise of law- ful commerce, subject to no other tolls or charges than those levied or collected, under like circumstances, from citizens of New Granada. In return for the advantages and favors acquired, and in order to secure their tranquil enjoyment, the United States guaranteed to New Granada the perfect neutrality of the Isthmus, so that the free transit from the one to the other sea might not be interrupted during the existence of the treaty; the United States further guaranteed the rights of sovereignty and property which New Granada had and pos- sessed over the said territory. • In addition to these stipulations, the two Republics engaged wdth each other not to grant to other nations any particular favor in respect 192 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. to commerce and navigation which should not immediately become common to the other party and on like terms. They also agreed that whatever favors, immunities, or privileges either Republic might find it proper to give to the ministers and public agents of any other power, should by the same act be extended to those of the other contra: 'ting party. This treaty was concluded on the 12th day of Ratified in 1848. J December, 1846, but the ratifications were not exchanged until the 10th day of June, 1848, and it was proclaimed two days later. A copy of the treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix BB. During President Johnson's Administration, in 180!), and again during- the first Administration of President Grant, in 1870, other treaties were negotiated between the two Governments to promote the construction of a ship canal across the isthmus, but none of them was ever ratified, and the relations between the United States and the Kepublie of Colombia upon the subject are still defined by this con- vention. Colombia has entered into treaties with other governments 1 tearing upon this subject. One with France in 1856 per- is.-,'2, are hereto attached, marked Appendix CC. A treaty was made with Spain in 1881 providing iic.i j«i i. i>a u, . ^ a {. £ na f. Government should enjoy the canals and ports of the Republic and all advantages given to the most favored nations. A cop} 7 of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix DD. Conventions, with the Hanse Towns in ixr>4. Other trca1i*s. ... ,^ , . -, OK ^ •,! t x , T > "j • • Hon • with Portugal in 1857, with Great Britain in LSoo, with Italy in 1802, and with other governments are upon the footing of the most favored nations, but none of them contains the obligations of neutrality which were assumed by the United Slates. A list of the treaties made by New Granada or Colombia and the publication in which each can be found is attached to this report, marked Appendix EE. Before the treaty concluded in 1846 had been ratified the increasing value of the communication across the isthmus of Panama attracted the attention of enterprising men in Europe as well as in our own land. The first movement to establish such a communication was made by a number of individuals in Paris, who formed r::;::::;;;:i,:r »» ^<^o„, m ,u- r ti>, name of t i„ Panamas panv for the purpose of connecting the two oceans by a railroad across the isthmus. Through their agent and attorney. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 193 Mateo Klein, they negotiated a contract with the Government of New Granada, which secured to the company, for a period of ninety-nine years, the exclusive privilege of constructing and maintaining a rail- road at Panama, to be completed within six years, to be counted from the expiration of four months after the approval of the concession by the Congress of the Republic. The agreement was executed at Bogota on the 10th day of May, 1S47, and was approved on the 8th day of the following month. The French company was unable to control the Transferred to Panama ea pital necessary for the proposed enterprise, and Kailroad Company of New . . . L York. in June, 1848, its privileges lapsed. Subsequently, on the 28th day of December, 1848, the grant was revived in a modified form in favor of William Heniy Aspinwall, John Lloyd Stephens, Henry Chauncey, and their associates, under the name of the Panama Railroad Company, an organization which was afterwards, in 1849, incorporated by the legislature of New York. All former concessions of a like character were declared null and void and the grant as modified gave the company the same exclusive privi- lege of establishing a railroad between the two oceans across the Isth- mus of Panama as was contained in the contract with Klein, to continue for forty-nine years from the day of its completion and its being- opened to public use. Six } T ears were allowed for the construction of the road, with the assurance that an extension of two years would be granted, without the enforcement of any penalty, if it were found impracticable to finish it within the required time. Under this grant the company constructed the pirtea a in a i850. llroa(1 com " road and on the 27th da y of January, 1855, it was completed and the first passenger train passed over the track, and ever since then it has continued in operation. On the 16th day of April, 1850, the contract was put in a new form, so as to render it unnecessary to refer to the original contract with Klein in order to understand the rights of the contracting Present form of contract. ° ° parties. Subsequently there were other modifica- tions and changes. In its present amended form the company is entitled to the use and possession of the railroad, the telegraph between Colon and Panama, the buildings, warehouses, and wharves belonging to the road, and in general all the dependencies and other works now in its posses- sion necessaiy to the service and development of the enterprise for a period of ninety-nine years from the 16th day of August, 1867. At the expiration of this term the Government is to be substituted in all the rights of the company and is entitled to the immediate possession of the entire property. The Republic is bound to grant no privilege, during this term, to any other company or person to open any other railroad on the isthmus, nor without the consent of the company to open or work any maritime canal there to the west of a line drawn S D— 57-1— Vol 7 13 194 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. from Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic to Point Garachine on the Pacific, nor to establish any such communication itself. But the company can not oppose the construction of a canal except directly along the route of its road, and the consent required is onl} T to enable it to exact an equitable price for the privilege and as indemnification for the damages it may suffer by the competition of the canal. It is also stipulated that the company shall forfeit its privilege should it cede or transfer its rights to any foreign government. A copy of this agreement in its latest amended form is attached to this report, marked Appendix F F. But this communication by rail was inadequate to supply the grow- ing demands of commerce and the subject of connecting the two oceans at the isthmus by a navigable waterway still engaged the public mind. From time to time it was considered by Congress, and explorations and surveys were authorized and made under governmental authority. But the reports with reference to the routes across the Panama and Darien isthmus were unfavorable and no further concessions or grants were obtained by American companies or citizens with a view to construct a canal there. contract with Wyse for Meanwhile, in May, 1876, Lucien N. B. Wyse canal - obtained from th"e Government of Colombia a right of way for this purpose across the isthmus, south and east of an imaginary straight line drawn from Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic side to Garachine Point, on the Pacific. This restriction was to avoid Modification of Wyse con- any conflict with the privileges of the Panama tract m 1878. Railroad Company. In 1878, in behalf of the International Interoceanic Canal Association of France, he sought an enlargement of the privileges granted in 1876 and a new contract was entered into on the 20th of March, 1878, which gave the association authority to locate a canal across the territory, in which the Panama Railroad Company had exclusive privileges, provided the grantees could make some amicable arrangement with the last-named company. This new contract, with some modifications introduced by a decree of the Colombian Congress, became a law of the Republic on the 18th day of May, 1878, and in its modified form was on the same day accepted by Mr. Wyse. The amended contract thus accepted gave to the association repre- sented by the negotiator the exclusive privilege of constructing and operating a maritime canal across the territory of the United States of Colombia between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans for ninety-nine years, to be computed from the day on which it should be wholly or partly opened to public service or when the grantees should commence to collect tolls or dues on transit and navigation. The general route of the canal was to be determined by an inter- national commission of individuals and competent engineers not later REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 195 than 1881, unless unavoidable circumstances should prevent their doing so by that time. After the settlement of the route the grantees were allowed two years to organize a joint stock company to take charge of the enterprise and of the construction of the work and the company when organized was required to finish the canal and place at the public service within the subsequent twelve years after its formation. All public lands required for the route of the canal, the ports, sta- tions, wharves, moorings, and warehouses, and for its construction and service, were ceded gratis to the grantees including a belt of land 200 meters, or 656 feet, wide on each side of its banks throughout its entire length. There are other provisions and grants to aid the association in the successful prosecution of its work, and the port at each end of the canal and the waterway itself are declared neutral for all time, so that in case of war among other nations the merchant vessels and individ- uals of all countries may enjoy its use and advantages without being molested or detained. In consideration of the rights, privileges, and exemptions contained in the contract, the Government of Colombia is declared entitled to a share in the gross income of the canal from all sources on an increas- ing scale of 5 per cent at first to 8 per cent from the seventy-sixth year after its opening to the termination of the privileges. Four-fifths of these amounts are to go to the Republic and one-fifth to the State through whose territory the canal may pass, and the company control- ling the canal expressly guarantees that the share of the Republic shall in no year be less than $250,000. The right to transfer these privileges to other capitalists or financial companies is given, but there is an absolute prohibition against ceding or morgaging them to any foreign government. A copy of the grant is attached to this report, marked Appendix GG. The agreement that the route of the canal should con^sT^pfrisiriS be determined by an international commission of individuals and competent engineers was complied with by calling an " International Scientific Congress " at Paris, which met on the 15th day of May, 1879. There were 135 delegates, a ma- jority of whom were French; 11 were from the United States. Great Britain, Germany, and other European nations were also represented. The convention was called to order by Ferdinand de Lesseps, already famous by reason of his connection with the Suez Canal, and after a session of two weeks a decision was reached that the best location for the proposed waterway was from the Gulf of Limon, or Navy Bay as it was called in earlier days, to the Bay of Panama, and the construction of a sea-level canal was recommended. 196 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Subsequently a company, chartered under the Panama Canal Company j aws Q f Yvance, was organized in the early part of 1881 to construct the canal under the grant from the United States of Colombia and De Lesseps became the leading spirit in the enterprise. The company was designated in the law as the "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique de Panama," but it is more commonly known in this country as the Panama Canal Company. The location of the canal in the part of the isthmus where the Pan- ama Railroad Company had exclusive privileges in the construction of artificial waterways as well as railroads, made it necessary to enter into some arrangements with that company before the work could be commenced, and this was accomplished by obtaining the control of the railroad company through a purchase of its stock, or the larger part of it, which remained among the assets of the canal company when it subsequently went into liquidation. All obstructions being removed, the company entered upon its work; but after the expenditure of vast sums of money danoTin^sIT iUt0 m,Ui " the effort failed ' and in December, 1888, payments were suspended. The company went into liqui- dation and in February, 1889, a liquidator or receiver was appointed by the civil tribunal of the Seine and was given authority to transfer to any new company all or any portion of the company's assets. This failure and the change in the situation made it important to have a new agreement with Colombia, and New agreement with Co- M w authorized to enter into further .■in. Inn. 18J)0. _ J negotiations to obtain a modification and extension of the contract in favor of the receiver, whom he represented. ' He succeeded in his efforts, and another contract was entered into at Bogota on the 10th day of December, 1890, granting an extension of ten years within which the canal was to be finished and put in public operation by a new company to be organized with a capital sufficient for the purpose. This company was to resume the work of excavation not later than the 28th day of February, 1893. The contract was con- firmed by the Congress of the Republic, and a copy of it is attached to this report, marked Appendix HH. It being found impracticable to complete the Contract extended to 1904. . . . . , .,, , arrangements contemplated by the modified con- tract within the specified time, a further extension was applied for and obtained on the 4th day of April, 1893. This required the forma- tion of the new company and the resumption of the work in a serious and permanent manner by the 31st day of October, 1891. The time for its completion was extended for ten }^ears from that date. A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked Appen- dix LL REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 197 A further extension until the 31st day of Octo- Extenslon to 1910. . , . J ber, 1910, was granted on the 28d day or April, 1900. A cop}' of the contract granting this new extension is attached to this report, marked Appendix JJ. In October, 1894, the new company was organized under the general corporation laws of France under the name of the New Panama Canal Company. Its capital was fixed at 65,000,000 francs, divided into 650,000 shares of 100 francs each; 50,000 of these, full paid and non- assessable, were to be set apart for the Republic of Colombia. A memorandum showing the legal status of the company, including copies of the French laws and the decrees of court which govern it, and of its charter, is attached to this report, marked Appendix KK. The receiver of the old company became a party to this new organi- zation, and transferred and contributed to it all the property and assets of the Panama Canal Compaiw, real and personal, Avhether in France or Colombia, including the grants from the Colombian Govern- ment under which it had been operating, and also the rights of every nature in the Panama Railroad which had been obtained by the arrangements made and entered into w r ith the company or its stock- holders. He also subscribed, in his official capacity, for about one- fourth of the stock of the new company. This sale and transfer was made upon the express condition that the property and rights thus transferred should revert to the estate in liquidation upon default in the completion of the canal within the time fixed in the concession under which the work was to be constructed, and special conditions were made as to the Panama Railroad, which are set forth in the charter. During the progress of the work the receiver has the right under the terms of the transfer to appoint a commission of three engineers to inspect the progress that is made, the condition and maintenance of the buildings and plant, and the accounts relating to these different objects. The expense of this commission is to be borne by the new company. Under the terms of the transfer the New Panama Canal Company has a title to the whole propert} r , but the rights of those interested in the old company have not been entirely extinguished. They are under no further obligations to contribute toward the construction of the canal or the auxiliary works, but its successful completion and opera- tion will to some extent be to their pecuniary advantage, for under the terms of the sale 60 per cent of the surplus income, after paying all expenses, charges, and stipulated dividends, is to be appropriated to the liquidator, to be properly distributed. While there may be little left for the proposed distribution, the existence of this right in favor of the old company will apparently require its concurrence in case of a sale of the property and the concession and charter under which the company is acting. 198 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. no treaties exist giving Tt appears f rom the foregoing that no existing united states the right to treaties with Nicaragua, Costa Rica, or Colombia mc^OTCrtombUtoremii £ ive to the United States the right to occupy the purposes. territory of any of these Republics for the pur- pose of constructing and operating a maritime canal. The concessions and grants heretofore made by Terms must be arranged these Republics to and with corporations, associa- by diplomatic negotiations. ,. t-i-.it ,, •• , ■ ,, tions, and individuals authorizing them to estab- lish and maintain a communication across their territory from ocean to ocean, whether by land or water, in terms exclude the right of the concessionaires and grantees to transfer them to a foreign government. The purchase, therefore, by the United States of any such concession or grant would be ineffectual unless it were accomplished with the consent of the Republic by which the privileges were granted, and the terms upon which such consent will be given must be arranged by diplomatic negotiations. It also appears that the only prior obligations to concessions from Nicara- corporations, associations, or individuals, in the gua and Costa Rica declared r . _. , . . . . __ . , forfeited. way of a direct agreement, under which the United States may acquire authority from Nicaragua and Costa Rica to use their territory for the construction of a canal, to be under its control, management, and ownership, have been eliminated by the forfeiture and termination of the contracts with the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua and the Interoceanic Canal Company, and if these forfeitures are final there are no private rights in the way of continuing at an appropriate time negotiations with these two Republics to acquire the consent and authority necessary for the accomplishment of this purpose. One of the purposes of the investigation men- iegeTtolrn , si r de , red! ,riTl " tioned in the law was to determine the cost of con- structing a canal and placing the same "under the control, management, and ownership of the United States." Under this head the Commission may perhaps be expected to consider the cost of acquiring the privilege of entering and occupying the ter- ritory of the States through which the different routes extend. Preliminary to this a question arises as to the Nature of title required. J . * . nature of the title by which the United States is to hold the proposed canal, and the words of the law already quoted clearly indicate the legislative intent. Propositions Plans formerly before t i t <• r* ji i_ congress. have been before Congress in former years by which the United States was to be a part owner in such an enterprise, or a shareholder in a company organized to con- struct a maritime canal, and the projects which were considered contem- plated ownership for a term of years, after which the property was to revert to the Republic that had permitted the use of its territory. But REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 199 there is no such suggestion in the law under which this Commission is acting. The United States is to control, manage, Jimmltedcontrolnowre. ftnd Qwn ^ ^^j. the period of oWnersMp is not limited; it is to be in perpetuity. No divided control of management is proposed, whether effected by some arrange- ment between the United States and the government contracting with it, or by. the formation of a company, with stocks and shares, or by any other method. Such divided ownership would give some voice in the management of the enterprise, even to minority holders, whose interests might and probably would require a polic}' different from that deemed best by the Government and people of the United States. This right of complete ownership and control in perpetuity, which is clearly indicated, is to be exercised under the sovereignty of the State in which the canal is located, according to the view presented in the early part of this chapter. It naturally follows that the compensation to be compilation for privi- pR [^ ty tne United States in consideration of the leges should be definite in ... , ,11 111 i^-.i^ -, amount. privileges to be granted should be definitely fixed, whether included in a single amount to be agreed upon during the progress of negotiations, or in payments to be made annually or at other regular intervals, or in a combination of these two methods. A compensation to be dependent upon the earnings and profits of the enterprise would be subject to the objections which make a divided ownership undesirable. Other interests than those of the United States would be involved in the management, and account- ings would have to be made from time to time to another government. The amount of the compensation that these Amount of compensation. „,,. ., , Republics would require for the occupation and use of their territory remains to be considered, but the Commission had no power under the law to enter into negotiations with them, and the treaties and concessions relating to this question supply the only infor- mation from which an}' deductions or conclusions can be drawn. This ma}' be of little value, but what has been done in the past with refer- ence to a subject is often suggestive, and it. is presented so that it may be available for future use and reference. A treaty negotiated by Mr. Elijah Hise on the gua. Sl °" f CaFa " P ar ^ °^ the United States with Nicaragua in June, 1849, conferred upon the former, or to a compan}' of its citizens, the exclusive right to construct and build within the territories of the latter a canal or road for the purpose of opening a passage or communication between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. No pecuniary consideration was required for this privilege, but the United States, by the twelfth article of this treaty, solemnly agreed and undertook to protect and defend Nicaragua in the posses- sion of the exercise of its sovereignty and dominion over all its terri- 200 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. tory and coasts within its just and true boundaries. Mr. Hise acted without authority in negotiating- this treaty, and it was never submitted to the Senate for continuation. The purpose of Nicaragua in agree- ing to its terms was doubtless to secure a powerful ally in the dis- turbed and threatening relations which then existed between her and Great Britain. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report marked "Appendix LL." In August, 1849, Nicaragua entered into a contract for a ship canal across its territory with the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company. The company was to pay to the State $10,000 on Contract between Nicara- . , . x ' sua and American Atlantic the ratification of its charter, and the same sum and Pacific ship Canal com- eae h year thereafter during the period of con- puny, ox struction. The State was to receive stock of the company to the value of $200,000. The total amount of stock intended to be issued is not stated. After the completion of the canal the State was to receive annually, for a period of twenty years, 20 per cent of the net profits of the work after deducting interest at the rate of 7 per cent per annum on the capital invested, and after this period of twenty years its share in the net profits was to be increased to 25 per cent annually until the ter- mination of the contract, which was to be in force for eighty-five years from the day the canal was completed and put in use. The company was to present a report and account yearly to the State as a basis for these payments, which was to be subject to examination and compari- son with the company's books by commissioners to be appointed by the State. At the end of the period of eighty-five years the entire property and the rights and privileges granted were to be surrendered to the State without indemnity or compensation, but the company was to be allowed 15 per cent from the net profits of the canal for ten years after the surrender if the cost of the work should be less than $20,000,000, and for twenty years if the cost was greater than that amount. A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked "Appen- dix MM." The next contract relating to this subject was Frellnghuysen - Zavala .1 • xn t i rr 1 i j.i 1n ,. ity the fc relingnuysen - Zavala treaty between the United States and Nicaragua, signed in December, 1884, already mentioned in this chapter and designated as Appendix L. By the terms of this treaty the canal was to be built by the United States and owned by the two signatory powers, without any limitation as to time. The proceeds of the canal and its accessories were to be applied to the maintenance and necessary improvement of the works, including the salariesof the board of managers and all officers and REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN (ANAL COMMISSION. 201 others employed, and the balance remaining was to be divided between the two Governments, one-third of which was to be paid to Nicaragua and two-thirds to the United States. The United States also agreed to loan to Nicaragua $4,000,000, which was to be expended in making internal improvements and was to be repaid with interest at 3 per cent per annum out of its share in the net revenues of the canal. As stated in another part of this chapter, this treaty was rejected by the Senate, and at a subsequent session, while a motion for reconsidera- tion was still pending, it was withdrawn by the President. The contract which the Maritime Canal Com- (jontrMt between Nicwrft. p llnv f Nicaragua was incorporated to execute sua and Maritime Canal . , . , company. was made by .Nicaragua w^ith the Nicaragua Canal Association of New York in March, 1887. The pecuniary consideration promised for the privileges granted was to be received by the Republic in shares, bonds, certificates, or other securities which the company might issue to raise the corporate cap- ital, and was to be 6 per cent of the total amount of the issue, and in no event less than $4,000,000 in face value, to be represented by 40,000 shares or obligations of $100 each, full paid and nonassessable. The privileges were to last for ninety-nine years from the opening of the canal to universal traffic, at the end of which period the Repub- lic was to become the owner of the entire property in perpetuity. The company, however, was to have the privilege of renting the canal for ninety-nine years longer on condition of paying 25 per cent of the annual net profits to the Government of Nicaragua. This contract has been stated more fully in an earlier part of this chapter and is there designated as Appendix R. The latest contract made by Nicaragua for the contract between Meara- construction of a maritime canal through its terri- gua and Interoieanic Canal . " company. ritory was entered into with Messrs. Edward E\ r re and Edward F. Cragin, representing the Inter- oceanic Canal Company, in October, 1898. The terms of this contract are set forth in an earlier part of this chapter, but the part relating to the consideration promised by the company will be briefly restated in this connection for more ready comparison with the terms of the other contracts. The Republic was to be entitled to 8 per cent of the company's stock, full paid and nonassessable, not less than $8,000,000 in par value. For one hundred and ninety-nine years from the day on which the canal was opened to universal traffic the net profits were to belong to the stockholders; during a period of ninety-nine years following the stockholders were to receive a cumulative annual dividend of 10 per cent, and of any balance that remained the company was to pay half to the Republic and the other half to the stockholders; after this period the net annual profits were to be divided equally between the Government and the stockholders. While the grant was nominally 202 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. in perpetuity, it is evident that the company after the first period would not be entitled to the rights of undivided ownership. The Republic in this contract granted to the Interoceanic Canal Company some important privileges which do not appear in any of the other contracts. It conferred authority to make and modify police regulations, sub- ject to the approval of the government of the State, for guaranteeing order, safety, and health within a zone 5 miles in width on each side of the canal. A police force, to be appointed and paid by the company, was to enforce these regulations and also the general police regulations and laws of the State within this zone, with all the cor- rective powers exercised by the police force of the Republic. This provision is found in Article XVII of the contract. In another article it was provided that all contracts made by the company relating to the canal and its accessories should be governed by the principle of "lex loci contractu." In addition to the privileges contained in other contracts relating to canal construction, the Republic granted to this company man} T mer- cantile, banking, and other business prerogatives, varied in character, which would have been of great value to private owners. These are enumerated in Article XVI of the contract. In addition to liberal grants of land, such as were contained in the contract with the Nicaragua Canal Association, the company was given an option to select and purchase, within two years from the date of its organization, a million hectares (nearly 2,500,000 acres) of national land, at $1 per hectare in American gold. Taking all these privileges into consideration this is by far the most liberal contract that has been made by Nicaragua in connection with this subject, and it is of special significance, because it is the most recent in date and is the latest expression and act of the Government from which an inference can be drawn as to the value that would be set upon such a concession or grant as would authorize the United States to construct, manage, and operate a maritime canal through the territory of the Republic. A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked "Appen- dix T." contract between cost. 0nl y one of these parties that contracted with ijica and Maritime Canal Nicaragua with reference to the route known by ( "" , ' 1 " l) - the name of that State entered into a contract with Costa Rica so as to secure the consent of that Republic for the use of its territory as far as might be necessary in executing the project. This was the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua. Its contract was entered into in July, 1888, and Costa Rica granted to the company privileges as to the use of its territory similar to those it had already obtained from Nicaragua, but the amount of capital REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 203 stock in the company was to be li per cent, instead of 4, in shares or certificates of $100 each; the total value to be in no event less than $1,500,000. This contract has been referred to in an earlier part of this chapter, and is designated as "Appendix Z." While the way is open for direct negotiations with Nicaragua and Costa Rica for the occupation and use of their territory for canal pur- poses, the situation is different at Panama. The Republic of Colom- bia first granted a concession to the Panama Railroad Company, giving it exclusive privileges on the isthmus, which will Privileges of Panama continue, according to modifications afterwards Railroad Company con- i e • • j> * j. ^ h -i nr>i-r tinue to 1966. made, tor ninetj^-nine years from August lb, lboY. A later concession to the Panama Canal Company required it to enter into some amicable arrangement with the rail- road company under which the former might occupy the territory along or near its line. The canal company acquired by purchase a majority of the railroad stock, and the necessary arrangements were made. This stock is now under the control of the New Panama Canal Companv, which gives it a directing influence in v™^?^?™' both organizations. The canal concession is to continue, acccording to its latest extension, for ninety nine years from the day on which the canal shall be wholly or partially opened to public service, and the date fixed for this in the contract is October 31, 1910. Should it fail, and the concession be for- feited, the company will still have exclusive control of the territory through which its line extends till 1966, under the railroad concession. The canal company is absolutely prohibited to cede or mortgage its rights, under any consideration whatever, to any nation or foreign government, under penalty of forfeiture. The Both companies prohih- con tract with the railroad company contains a like Ited from ceding privileges ..... tit e 11 to foreign government. prohibition, and declares further that the pain of forfeiture will be incurred by the mere act of attempting to cede or transfer its privilege to a foreign government, and such an act is declared absolutely null and of no value or effect. These concessions, if acquired by the United concessions. * 8 Un " States, would not give to the Government the control and ownership evidently contemplated by the law — that is, an absolute ownership in perpetuity. The right under the contract with the railroad company is designated as "the use and possession " of the property for ninety-nine years, and it is provided that "at the expiration of the term of the privilege," and by the sole fact of the expiration, the Government of Colombia shall be substituted in all the rights of the company, and shall immediately enter into the enjoyment of the line of communication, its fixtures, dependencies, and all its products. The right of the canal company is substantially of the same character. Its concession expressly pro- vides that five years previous to the expiration of the ninety-nine 204 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 3 T ears of " the privileges," the executive power shall appoint a com- missioner to examine the condition of the canal and annexes, and make an official report describing - the condition of the property in every detail. This report is to establish the condition in which the canal and its dependencies are to be delivered to the National Government on the day of the expiration of the privilege. There is no provision for an extension of either concession beyond the period mentioned, and the entire property in each case passes from the company without compen- sation. The privileges granted by these concessions are nuai changes. 8 ™ ° an * subject to certain annual charges in the nature of rentals, and to other obligations. The railroad company is bound during the continuance of its concession to pay to the Colombian Government " an annual revenue" of $250,000 in Amer- ican gold, in quarterly payments. The failure to make any of the quarterly payments, after being one year overdue, subjects the com- pany to a forfeiture of its privilege. It is also bound to transport over its road the Colombian mails without charge, and the troops, chiefs, and officers, and their equipage, ammunition, armament, clothing, and all similar elf ects belonging to or destined for the service of the Republic, and emigrants to the country up to the number of 2,000 annually. The canal company is bound to pay to the Govern- ment, in half-yearly installments, during the first twenty-five years after the opening of the canal to the public service a share amounting to 5 per cent on its gross income from all sources, without any deduc- tions whatever. For a second period of twenty-five years the share of the Government is increased to 6 per cent; for a third to 7 per cent; and for a fourth, to the termination of its privilege, to 8 per cent. The company guarantees that this share shall in no case be less than $250,000 in any year. The Colombian Government also owns, in accordance with the extension law of December 20, 1890, and by the terms of the company's charter, 50,000 full-paid shares of its stock, of the par value of 100 francs each, the total number of shares issued by the company being 050,000. The Government of the Republic has the power under the concession to protect these interests by appoint- ing a commissioner or agent to intervene in the collection, and exam- ine the accounts of the company. This being the situation, it was manifest that, even if the privileges of the companies could be purchased by and transferred to the United States, they were encumbered with charges and conditions that would not permit this Government to exercise all the rights of complete ownership over a canal constructed by it at the Panama route. A new arrangement is necessary if the United n,« arrangement netes- States is to undertake the work. The relinquish- sary If lulled States under- . , , takes work. ment by the canal company, with the consent of Colombia, of the privileges it has under existing REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 205 concessions, for a consideration to be agreed upon with the United States, would leave the way open for treaty negotiations between the two Governments to ascertain whether Colombia will consent to the occupation of its territory by the United States for the construction of a canal to be under Government control, management, and owner- ship, and, if so, whether they can agree upon terms mutually satis- factory. The situation is peculiar, as there are three parties in interest. The United States can obtain from Colombia no concession that does not have the approval of the company, and its concessions do not per- mit the company to transfer or attempt to transfer its rights to a foreign government. As the Commission was specially authorized and instructed to ascer- tain the cost of purchasing all the rights, privileges, and franchises held and owned b}^ corporations, associations, and individuals in the different canal routes, so as to determine the cost of constructing an isthmian canal at each of them and placing it under the control, management, and ownership of the United States, it attempted at the first favorable opportunity, after its organization, to ascertain the views of the New Panama Canal Company with reference to a disposi- tion and transfer of its property and rights. While the Commission was in Paris in September, 1899, interviews were held with the president and other officers of the company, dur- ing which their attention was directed to the' scope of the investiga- tion in which it was engaged, and their views were sought upon this subject of sale and transfer. They were not prepared to make a defi- nite reply, and responded onty with some general remarks, which did not give the information that was sought. Mr. Maurice Hutin was afterwards chosen president of the New Panama Canal Company and came to the United States early in 1900, during the absence of the Commission in Central and South America. Soon after its return, on the 4th day of April, 1900, he addressed a letter to the president of the Commission, stating that the principal object of his visit was to give to the Commission any additional information it might desire with reference to the company and the canal project, and that he was ready to do so, either upon technical points or others that might be indicated to him. In response to this letter the president of the Commission reminded him of the discussions at Paris with reference to a transfer of the canal property to the United States which had then led to no result, and submitted three inquiries to which he solicited replies as full and as clear as he might find it convenient to make. They were substantially as follows: 1. Whether the company was willing to sell its rights, property, and unfinished work to the United States. 2. Whether the company had the legal power to make such sale and 206 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. give to the purchaser a perfect title, free from all incumbrances and the claims of the stockholders and creditors of the old company. 3. For what sum, in cash, would the company sell its rights, privi- leges, franchises, and its property of every description connected with the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Panama? He stated that the Commission was well aware that the concession under which the company was acting prohibited a sale or transfer of its privileges to any foreign Government, and suggested that, in the discussion of the subject, the consent of the Colombian Government might be assumed. He also called attention to the terms of the law under which the Commission was acting, which authorized it to collect information to be submitted to the President of the United States, but conferred no power to accept or reject any terms which might be offered. There was no early response to this communication. President Hutin returned to Paris, and on the 20th of July addressed a letter to the president of the Commission, in which he said that on account of the importance of the questions asked him it would be well to have inter- views with him and other members of the Commission, with a view of making the reply precise and including in it everything which might be needed. Before closing he asked to be informed by what date a reply to the letter of April 10, 1900, was desired. In acknowledging this letter, on the 13th of August, the president of the Commission stated that it was desirable to have the reply at as earlj' a date as prac- ticable, and not later than the 1st day of October following. A few weeks later, President Hutin visited Washington again, and the Commission and its committee on rights, privileges, and fran- chises held conferences with him from time to time, at which the sub- ject of these inquiries was freely discussed, but no formal reply to the letter was received until November 16, just before the Commission closed its prelim inaiy report. During these conferences the question of title was fully discussed, and the Commission was furnished with copies of the concession from Colombia to the old company; the different contracts by which it was extended; the laws under which the old and new companies were organized; the legislative acts relating to the old company and the liquidation of its affairs; the decrees of the court relating to the liquidation and to the formation of the new company; the charter of the new company, and other documents bearing upon its legal history. These have been made use of by the Commission in its investigation of the legal status of the new company, and its conclusions will be given further on in this report. No result was reached with reference to the other questions. There was no offer to dispose of the property and privileges of the company to the United States upon any terms, even with the consent of the REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 207 Colombian Government, nor was any desire expressed to enter into any negotiations with the United States with reference to such a dispo- sition of its property and rights, and it was manifest that the company preferred some other arrangement than an absolute sale. President Hutin during these conferences suggested that the United States might obtain control of the rights, privileges, and property of the canal company as a majority stockholder of a new organization, to which the company might contribute its concession, plant, unfinished work, and other property, at a valuation to be determined by arbitra- tion, and he expressed the opinion that such an arrangement could be made without violating the concessions. But this must include some plan for the protection of the minority stockholders in the financial management, for they would favor a policy that would realize liberal dividends in proportion to the commercial value of the canal, while the policy of the United States might be to reduce tolls and charges to the cost of maintenance, or even below it, if its interests would be thereby advanced. The letter contained no answers to the first and third questions of the communication of April 10, 1900, but submitted a plan substan- tially the same as that outlined in the letter of the company of Febru- ary 28, 1899, addressed to the President of the United States, which was published in Senate Doc. No. 188, Fifty-sixth Congress, first session, pages 41 and 42. This was to reincorporate under the laws of New York or some other State, and accord to the United States such representation in its board of directors and such opportunity to acquire an interest in its securities as its concessions permitted. This plan was subject to all the objections of a divided ownership, and would not give to the United States the control, management, and ownership contemplated by the law. An assurance was added to the effect that if the United States should desire to perpetuate or enlarge its existing rights and privileges acquired under the treaty of 1846, the company would conform to such supplemental treaty as might be entered into between the United States and Colombia. It was further stated in the letter of November 26, 1900, that there were other plans by which the United States could acquire a prepon- derating influence in the company without violating the spirit of the concessions, but they were not disclosed either in the letter or during the discussions. In the spring of 1901, the preliminary report of the Commission having been published during the previous winter, there were some communications between the Colombian Government and the canal company, which caused the latter to somewhat change its attitude. The Commission was informed that the company, through its presi- dent, had expressed a desire to sell and transfer its rights, property, 208 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. and interests to the United States, with the necessary authorization of the Colombian Government, that the Government -would give its con- sent to the company to make such sale and transfer, if satisfactory arrangements and conditions could be agreed upon, and that the com- pany was authorized to enter into negotiations with that end in view. This apparently removed all obstacles to a full and frank expression of the views of the company upon the subject, and in a letter, dated May 8, 1901, addressed to President Hutin, the president of the Com- mission expressed the hope that he would take up the question once more, now that he was relieved of the embarrassments under which he had formerly labored, and give such additional information as he felt at liberty to do, particularly in reply to the first and third questions contained in the former letter of April 10, 1900, so that the Commis- sion might make a full representation of the subject in its forthcoming report for the information of the President of the United States. In his reply, on the loth of the same month, President Hutin responded to the first question by stating that the company would con- sent if authorization therefor should be given by the Colombian Gov- ernment to transfer its concessions to the Government of the United States, the conditions of the transfer to be fixed independent of any particular arrangements which might be made between the Govern- ments of Colombia and the United States. A reply to the third question was deferred until his return to Paris, because, as he stated personally to the president of the Commission, no price could be fixed until he could consult with the directors of the company and have free access to its books and accounts. He referred again to the question of a divided control of the canal propert}', and the conditions under which the United States might obtain a share in it, and suggested that it might be of interest to examine it afresh. The president of the Commission acknowledged the receipt of this letter on the da}' following. He urged that the first step for the com- pany to take was to express its views as to the value of its property, and that this could be done in no better way than by a specific reply to the question asked in the letter of April 10, 1900, and expressed the hope that this would be done with the least possible loss of time. He discouraged the proposal to examine afresh the question of divided control. The law under which the Commission was appointed contemplated nothing less than a complete ownership of the propert}-, and, as the compan}' was then in a position to make :i direct sale to the United States, he said that it need no longer be considered. The summer passed without making any material progress, although letters and cablegrams upon the subject were exchanged. On the 28th of June the president of the Commission was assured that a detailed valuation of the company's property would be sent in about a fort- RETORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 209 night. On the 25th of July it was to be sent by next mail, and the statement was added that the preparation had required more time than contemplated. The formal reply, dated Paris, October 4, 1901, was finally presented in Washington by President Hutin in person, on the 17th of the same month, together with a paper containing the esti- mated values of the property of the company. These valuations are given in the following table in francs and also in dollars, the franc being valued at 19.3 cents: Stock of the Panama Railroad Company Buildings, lands, etc., on Panama isthmus, constituting the company's private estate Hospitals at Colon and at Panama Amounts expended for concessions, with interest Work done by the old company Work done by the new company to January 1, 1902 Technical surveys Total Francs. Dollars. 55, 000, 000 9,000,000 4,500,000 24,000,000 415, i in. moo, 000 18, 000, 000 10, 615, 000 1,737,000 868, 500 4,632,000 80, 095, 000 7,720,000 3, 474, 000 565, 500, 000 109,141,500 These figures were intended by the company to represent the intrinsic, or real and absolute, value of the work already done and the other property it owns upon the isthmus. In addition to this a compensation was proposed for the possible profits that might result from the operation of the canal after its completion. The plan pro- posed for estimating these profits was to allow a certain amount per ton on the actual annual tonnage that might pass through the canal whenever it amounted to 7,000,000 tons or more, at an increasing rate, without reference to the toll charge or actual receipts. The proposed rates of compensation were as follows: Francs per ton. 7,000,000 tons per annum 50 8,000,000 tons per annum 1. 00 8,000,000 to 11,000,000 tons per annum 1. 50 11,000,000 to 16,000,000 tons per annum 2. 00 16,000,000 to 19,000,000 tons per annum 2. 50 20,000,000 and more tons per annum 3. 00 It being the desire of President Hutin to enter upon a discussion of these items, so that objections might be made and considered, mem- bers of the committee on rights, privileges, and franchises met for a conference with him and his counsel, and the greater part of three days was spent in an examination of the paper containing the estimated value of the proper ty. The total valuation is largely in excess of that fixed by the Commis- sion, the greatest variance being in the amounts for the excavation and work already done that can be utilized in the completion of the canal. S D— 57-1— Vol 7 14 210 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. This resulted from different views as to prices and methods of cal- culation and partly to a difference in plans. The compan} T 's estimate also included, in addition to the work, the value of the plant upon the isthmus, consisting- of locomotives, cars, dredging and other machines, tools and implements of various kinds, stored in sheds and ware- houses, which originally cost many millions of dollars, but would be of no value to the United States; most of these machines and imple- ments are old, and even if in good order are not adapted to present methods. The members of the Commission could not agree to the proposition that the company would have any just claim to share in the profits of the canal enterprise after selling it to the United States at its real and absolute value. The element of probable future profits may fairly be considered in fixing the price, but if the United States should become a purchaser, it will be upon the condition of acquiring a complete title and the absolute control of the property. As a result of the discussion, this proposition was withdrawn, but in other respects the views and opinions of each party remained unchanged. It was then proposed by President Hutin that there should be a thorough examination of the data and estimates made by the Commis- sion and the company, so that by proper comparison the differences might be developed, and if possible, adjusted, so that a result could be reached that would be acceptable to the two interests that were repre- resented. It was further proposed that if the differences could not be thus adjusted, there should be an arbitration to settle them. As the reasons for the existing differences had been developed during the conferences already held, and as the efforts to reconcile them had been fruitless, the further examination proposed did not appear to be desirable, and besides it was then impracticable. After all the obstructions in the way of a sale had been removed, it took several months for the company to go over its books, accounts, and other data in preparation of the paper then under consideration. The Commission had devoted many months to this part of its investi- gations and studies. It was therefore manifestly impossible to go over the details of the results reached by the company and the Com- mission in the brief time that remained for the preparation and pres- entation of the report of the latter to the President of the United States. A resort to arbitration in ease of disagreement would require a pre- sentation of the two sets of details to a new body of men, who would have to examine the entire subject for themselves, and their work could not be completed for many months, perhaps years. If an adjustment by this method were practicable and desirable, it was not within the scope of the duties of the Commission. Its duty was to obtain information, and it was ready to entertain any proposi- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 211 tion or agreement that the company might offer, submit it to the presi- dent, and to continue the discussions as far as practicable during the brief time that remained; but it was clothed with no power to accept or reject, as the company had been informed at the beginning of these conferences. An arbitration under such circumstances would be a useless waste of time and effort, would lead to no practical result, and would only serve to further delay action upon the canal question. The proposition for a more extended discussion and comparison of the details of the estimates made by the company and by the Commis- sion was therefore declined, and President Hutin was informed that the Commission would be obliged to complete its report at an early day, and that any proposal from the company would be received until the 5th day of November, when the question would be considered as closed, and it was hoped that by that time he would be ready to present his final conclusions. Before that time a letter was received from President Hutin, stating that the board of directors of his company had fixed a price for the sale of the canal property and interests, according to calculations and estimates "which it considers exact and justified until the contrary is proven." This price is the aggregate of the items contained in the paper submitted with his letter of October 4, and he states that he confirms this letter and the accompanying paper or memorandum, except the part of the latter relating to a share in the profits of the canal enterprise, which claim is relinquished "as an act of conciliation. " This statement was somewhat indefinite, but in the reply to the letter the president of the Commission stated that he understood that the company withdrew the proposition with regard to sharing in the possible profits accruing from the canal, after completion, and with that exception that the company confirmed and stood upon the figures submitted with the letter of the 4th of October last, which aggregated 565,500,000 francs, or 8109,141,500, and that these figures, with his views, would be presented to the President in the report of the Com- mission. There has been no dissent to this interpretation of the mean- ing and purport of the letter. The Commission submits this as the result of its efforts to ascertain upon what terms the rights and privileges of the new Panama Canal Company can be obtained. It is proper to add that the examination of the title of the present company to the canal propertj 7 under the laws of France and Colombia has satisfied this Commission that the new Panama Canal Company has the entire control and management of the canal property. It appears, further, that the liquidator appointed by the French court to settle the affairs of the old company contributed under the charter all the privileges and property of that company to the new organiza- 212 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. tion, and in consideration of this contribution he will be entitled to receive 60 per cent of the net income after paying- all expenses, charges, and stipulated dividends, to be distributed by him among the parties in interest. This right to a share in the profits gives no right to the old stockholders to take any part in the acts or administration of the new company, but the charter recognizes a continued interest of the old company in the affairs of its successor by conferring upon the liquidator until the completion of the canal the power to appoint a commission of three members to inspect the progress of the work, the condition and maintenance of the plant and buildings, as well as the accounts relating to these different objects, th© expense of the commission to be borne b} T the new company. It will thus be mani- fest that if an agreement be made for the purchase of the company's concession and property by the United States, it must include some settlement of this right which the French court has placed under the control of the liquidator, and if a sale is effected the liquidator must unite in it under the authority of the court from which he received his appointment. The correspondence between the company and the Commission is as follows: The New Caxal Company of Panama, Washington, D. C, April 4, 1900. Admiral J. G. Walker, President of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Mr. President: In pursuance of the intentions expressed and the assurances given by the New Canal Company of Panama to the President of the United States and the committees of Congress before the creation of the Commission over which you preside, and also because of similar intentions and assurances which we had the honor of addressing to yourself, we were very glad to be able in the beginning to confer with the Commission in Paris. Indeed, that gave us the opportunity of pre- senting to you in a most complete and satisfactory manner our detailed technical plans, with all the data and documents which had been used in their formation. We have also made known to you the results of our statistical and economical investigations and have exhibited the general organization and the present situation of our company. Following your studies in Paris, we were much pleased to receive you in the Isthmus of Panama, where we submitted for your examination the entire scheme of our project and the work on the canal in process of execution. Since your departure from Paris I was elected president as well as director-general of the New Canal Company of Panama, and soon after I left France with the inten- tion of joining you on the isthmus. Upon my arrival at New York I cabled you and received from you the reply that the Commission would probably leave Colon on the 19th of .March, which left me no opportunity of an interview with the Commission during its stay in Panama. As the principal object of my visit was to give the Commission any additional information which it i i i i «_r 1 it desire, 1 have remained in the United States to await its return. It is possible that your profound study of the project of our company, made during your visit to the isthmus and illustrated by the actual condition of the work which is now in process of execution upon the line of the canal, may have suggested the desire to obtain new information; and because of that possibility I REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 213 have been desirous of holding myself at your disposition in order to supply you upon technical points, as well as upon others that you may be good enough to indicate to me, such complementary information and explanations as you may judge necessary. I shall remain in Washington or in New York as long as you consider my pres- ence useful. I beg that you will accept, Mr. President, the assurances of my high consideration and my devoted sentiments. M. Hutin. My address at Washington is Hotel Raleigh, and in New York to the care of Messrs. Sullivan & Cromwell, 45 Wall street. Department op State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, April 10, 1900. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President of New Panama Canal Company, Care of Messrs. Sullivan & Cromwell, 45 Wall street, New York, N. Y. Dear Sir : During the conferences which this Commission had the honor to hold with you in Paris, and in the sessions of September 7 and 8 last, your attention was invited to that portion of the law of Congress which created the Commission, requir- ing it "to ascertain the cost of purchasing all the rights, privileges, and franchises held and owned" by the association of which you are the head. Your attention was also invited to the scope of the investigation in which the Commission is engaged, as defined in the last sentence of section 3, which is as follows, viz : " To make such full and complete investigation as to determine the most feasible and practicable route across said Isthmus for a canal, together with the cost of constructing the same and placing the same under the control, management, and ownership of the United States." The subject was opened without any expectation that it could be fully discussed at that time, it being well understood that questions so important and so difficult must require time for consideration. You were pleased to make certain general statements, which were all that could be expected by the Commission for the moment. They did not, however, convey the information which the Commission is seeking, viz: How much will it cost the United States to acquire complete ownership and control of all the rights, privileges, franchises, and property belonging to the New Panama Canal Company ? I beg, therefore, to revert to the subject with a view to reaching, if possible, a clearer understanding upon that subject. You understand, of course, that the Commission has no authority to accept or reject any terms which may be offered, but is collecting information to be submitted to the President. I may remark at the outset that the Commission is familiar with the clause in your concession which prohibits the sale or transfer of your rights to any nation or foreign Government. In the discussion of this question it may be assumed that the consent of the Colombian Government has been obtained for a sale to the United States. It is with that assumption that the following questions are respectfully submitted, and that replies as full and as clear as you may find it convenient to make are solicited. 1. Is the New Panama Canal Company willing to sell to the United States all of the rights, privileges, and franchises, together with all the works, railways (includ- ing the Panama Railway), telegraph or telephone lines, buildings, lands, plant, material, drawings, and documents of every description which it owns or controls in connection with the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama? 2. Is the company able — that is, has it the legal power — to give a clear title to such rights, privileges, franchises, property, etc., of every description, free of all encum- fcrance or claim of any nature, from' any person whatsoever, and particularly from tne stockholders or creditors of the old Panama Canal Company? 214 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 3. For what sum of money, in cash, will the company transfer to the United States all of the rights, privileges, franchises, property, etc., of every description, which it owns or controls in connection with the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Panama? The law under which the Commission is acting contemplates only the complete "control, management, and ownership" of the canal by the United States, and not a partial or joint control with private corporations or individuals. Nevertheless, should your reply to the first or the second questions be in the negative, it would no doubt be of great interest to the President to know what degree of control could be obtained by the United States in the Panama Canal, and upon what terms. In the contingency referred to, viz, a negative reply to the first or second ques- tions, you are invited to state how far the company will be able and willing to go in the direction of yielding control to the United States, and what compensation it will expect therefor. Thanking you again, my dear Mr. Hutin, for the great assistance and many kind- nesses extended to the members of this Commission, both in Paris and upon the isthmus of Panama, I am, with great respect, > Your obedient servant, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Paris, July SO, 1900. Mr. President: Our council of administration is preparing to reply to your letter of April 11 (10) last. On account of the importance of the questions asked, we think it possible that before determining precisely the terms of our reply, and with a view of making it precise and including therein everything which you may need, it might be well that I should have at Washington interviews with yourself and with the members of the Commission. Whether you are of this same opinion or not, we would be much obliged, Mr. President, to be informed by what date you wish to have our reply to your above- mentioned letter. I beg that you will accept, Mr. President, the renewed assurance of my devoted sentiments. The president of the council of administration: M. Hutin. Rear-Admiral Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission, Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C, United States. Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, August IS, 1900. Mr. Maurice Hutin, President New Panama Canal Company, Paris, France. Mr. President: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of July 20, received during my absence from town, informing me that the council of administra- tion of your company is preparing a reply to my letter of April 10 last, and also asking to be informed by what date we desire your reply to the above-mentioned letter. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 215 In response to your inquiry I have to say that I will be glad to have your reply at as early a date as practicable, but I think it should not be later than the 1st of next October. With great respect, believe me, very sincerely, yours, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Washington, D. C, November 26, 1900. Rear-Admiral John G. Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission. Dear Sir: We have taken pleasure in being able at various times to confer with you and your associates of the Commission upon the numerous and complex questions involved in the problem of the interoceanic canal, and particularly the inquiries pre- sented by your letter of April 10 last. Referring to that communication we note your statement ' ' that the Commission has no authority to accept or reject any terms which may be offered, but is collecting information to submit to the President." It is manifest, therefore, that nothing decisive at this time could result from a categorical answer to certain of your inquiries. Nevertheless we wish now, as we have from the beginning, to manifest our sincere desire to assist you in accomplish- ing the high duties with which you have been charged by the President. We beg leave, first, to renew and confirm our proposal of February 27-28, 1899. In that proposition the company declared that if the Government of the United States adopted the Panama route it would transform its organization and reincorpo- rate under American law, and while providing for the completion of the canal with its own resources would grant to the Government (without pecuniary contribution upon the latter's part) representation in the directorate of the company; and it also thereby offered to the Government the opportunity of acquiring securities of the com- pany to the extent permitted by the concessions without being made a condition of our proposal ; and it further thereby pledged itself to conform to such supplemental treaty as might be entered into between the United States and the Republic of Colom- bia in perpetuation or enlargement of the existing rights and privileges of the United States under the treaty of 1846, and to accept such modifications of the concessions as might result therefrom. We would prefer to carry out this plan, which is embodied in the communication of February 27-28, 1899, but we recognize the present desire of the Government to acquire preponderating interest and influence in any interoceanic canal, and we are prepared to further that desire as far as lies in our power. There are several plans by which the United States could acquire such preponder- ating interest and influence without violation of the provisions of the concessions prohibiting the transfer of the concessionary rights to any foreign government. As the Commission is acquainted with the terms of such prohibition, we are quite sure that it will agree that should the arrangement arrived at (whatever it might be) take a form requiring the concurrence of Colombia, we could not in that contingency bind ourselves until such concurrence be obtained. You will surely appreciate that under no circumstances must any act be done by us which might imperil our concessionary rights. As concerns all legal questions, we reiterate our unequivocal declaration, justified by the title deeds and documents submitted to you and supported by the highest legal authorities, that our titles and concessions are absolute and indisputable, and that any agreement which might be reached between the United States and the company would be indubitably legal. 216 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. I beg leave to say, therefore, that I am prepared and fully authorized to continue the consideration of the subject and to reach a conclusion with any representatives of the Government authorized, as I am, to come to a final determination. I am, dear sir, with great respect, your obedient servant, M. Hrrix, President et Directeur- General. Legacion de Colombia, Washington, April 29, 1901. M. M. Hutln, President and General Director of the Panama Canal Company, Washington. Dear Sir: In reply to your favor of yesterday I have the honor to inform you that the honorable Secretary of State, Mr. Hay, has told me that, not being duly author- ized by the Senate, he can not for the present enter into direct negotiations in the matter of the Panama Canal. Besides, I understand that the Government of the United States wishes to come to an understanding with Great Britain on the proposed modifications of the Clayton- Bulwer treaty before entering into negotiations relative to either the Nicaragua or the Panama Canal. Under present circumstances, and pending the reunion of Congress, the labor of the Commission over which Admiral Walker presides will be merely informatory; and so I have been given to understand by the Secretary of State. The final report that the Commission is to present will be absolutely impartial, and it will coverall questions, whether technical, political, economic, or commercial, that are to be taken into account to secure a correct result, leaving no room either for undue haste or for the influence of private interests. In order to facilitate the preparation of a complete report by the Commission, I would beg of you to inform me, at least in a general way, what would be the condi- tions under which your company would be disposed to cede its franchise to the Government of the United States, of course with the necessary authorization from the Colombian Government. I believe that it is important to make this matter clear in order to dispel doubts and misunderstandings that have given rise to malignant insinuations, in spite of the prudent reserve that you have observed before being informed of the attitude of the Colombian Government in the matter. I avail myself of this opportunity to renew the assurance of my high regard. Carlos Martinez Silva. Washington, D. C, May 1, 1901. His Excellency Mr. Martinez Silva, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister PlenipoU ntiary of the Ju /-nhJic of Colombia to tfie Rejtiih/ic of (lie T'nitcd Staffs at ]Yasliington. Mr. Minister: Since your arrival in this country I have had the honor of having with you numerous conferences, in the course of which I have stated to you the pur- pose, the development, and present state of the relations established between the Government of the United States and our company since the end of the year L898. At your suggestion and in agreement with you I -have abstained from all other pro- ceedings. It was proper, in fact, to wait [until the situation of the interoceanic cana question in the United States, regarded from the double point of view — legislative and diplomatic — should be, if it were possible, better defined. The events which occurred in the course of the months of February and March last permitted me to write you my letter of March 20, in which I asked you to kindly inform me how your Government, under the present circumstances, meant to interpret and apply REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 217 the provisions of articles 21 and 22 of the law granting the concession for the Panama Canal. Yon were good enough to answer me on March 28, by a letter from which I quote the following passage: " The reserve maintained by you with regard to the propositions which have been made by the Commission appointed by the President of the United States, in con- formity with the act of Congress of March 3, 1899, with a view to obtaining a sale to the Government of the United States of the Panama Canal concession, has been pru- dent ; because any offer on your part would have been baseless without the previous knowledge and authorization of Colombia, in accordance with articles 21 and 22 of the concession law. " In order to define clearly the respective positions of Colombia and the United States on the subject of the Panama Canal, I presented yesterday to the Secretary of State, Mr. Hay, a memorandum on the general points which might serve as a basis for negotiations for the purpose of harmonizing the interests of Colombia, those of the Panama Canal Company, and those of the United States, so far as the latter are not in conflict with the traditional principles of Colombian policy which are expressed in the concession law. " In this memorandum it was stated^that the Government of Colombia would give the canal company its consent to transfer the latter' s concession to the Government of the United States, provided always that the latter would accept the conditions which have been submitted to it. " The Secretary of State told me that he would study the question with care and that he would advise me when we could discuss it at another conference. " I will give you timely advices of what may result from it." In view of the announcement of the departure and the intended long absence of the Secretary of State, referring to the foregoing letter I wrote you on April 28, to ask you to let me know whether any decision had been reached or any determi- nation arrived at. You were good enough in reply to write me on the next day as follows: "In reply to your letter of yesterday, I have the honor of informing you that the Secretary of State, Mr. Hay, has told me that not being authorized by the Senate he can not at present enter into any direct negotiations concerning the Panama Canal. "I understood also that the Government of the United States desired, before undertaking any arrangement relative to the Nicaragua or Panama Canal, to come to an understanding with the English cabinet to endeavor to modify the Clayton- Bulwer treaty. "For these reasons the Secretary of State informed me that until the meeting of the next Congress the work to be done will consist in collecting further information, with which the Commission of which Admiral Walker is president will be charged. "The final report which it is to present will be inspired by the loftiest impartiality, and will comprehend all the technical, political, economic, and commercial questions which should be taken into account to give the problem the best solution, closing the way to any hasty action and to the operation of private interests. "To facilitate this Commission in obtaining the means of presenting a complete report it would be proper that you, as representing the New Panama Canal Company, should tell me, at least in general terms, what are the bases, given the previous con- sent of the Government of Colombia, upon which the company would be disposed to transfer its concession to the Government of the United States. "I think it important to settle this point in order to avoid the doubts and misun- derstandings which have given rise to unfriendly interpretations, notwithstanding the proper reserve of the course which you have followed, so long as you were not informed of the attitude of the Government of Colombia." I hasten, Mr. Minister, to comply with your wish. I shall thus, moreover, only 218 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. be continuing to follow the invariable line of conduct adopted by the New Panama Canal Company since its organization in 1894. In fact, in each of its annual reports to the shareholders' meetings, our board of directors has shown itself disposed to grant to American interests the satisfaction which they might legitimately desire, subject to the sole condition of an understanding which should be equitable to all parties in interest. You are also aware, Mr. Minister, from the documents which I have handed you, that we have the right to express regret that the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, dated November 30, 1900, while furnishing arguments which fully justify the attitude of our company, contains conclusions which have caused our declarations and intentions to be judged incorrectly. Our company ought not and would not infringe the express requirements of its concession laws. It could not, without the previous consent of Colombia, answer the questions which were put to it, nor the propositions which were made to it. By every means in our power we have sought to bring about the necessary intervention of your Government. Your presence and your action, as authorized representative of the Colombian Government at Washington, establish the proper situation in which our company should be placed in order to discuss the questions presented by the Government of the United States. I shall not dwell further upon this subject, of which I have made a complete state- ment in the memorandum which I hand you and in which I shall note also some inaccuracies which the preliminary report contains on the subject of the situation and legal powers of our company. Nor is it my intention to discuss here the technical part of the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission. This would be premature, and I should be compelled at present to confine myself within the limits of a general discussion. It is proper to await the detailed statements which the final report of the Commission must necessarily furnish to be able to make in a complete manner a critical comparison of the two routes of Panama and Nicaragua. I will limit myself to observing that the preliminary report as it stands proves incontestably the superi- ority of the Panama project, and, furthermore, I must make all reservations as to the comparative estimates of expenses which it contains. I must further protest against the conclusions of the report which relate to the time of passage. We are ready to prove irrefutably that the difference of twenty- one hours shown in favor of Panama is much too small; that the real difference is at least three times greater, thus favoring the Panama project for each of the routes from San Francisco to New York, or to New Orleans, or to Liverpool. Now. in addition to this the Commission itself admits that the time for maritime voyages from the Atlantic ports of the United States to the west coast of South America is less by way of Panama than by Nicaragua. Having stated all this and to reply, Mr. Minister, to the request contained in your letter of April 29, quoted above, I have the honor of informing you that our com- pany will consent, if authorization therefor is given by the Colombian Government, to transfer its concession to the Government of the United States. All the conditions of this transfer will be fixed, of course, for the company outside of and independently of the particular arrangements which maybe made between the Governments of Colombia and the United States. The price of sale of the concession itself, of the works executed, material and installations, shares of the Panama Railroad Company, etc. — in short, of all the prop- erty of the New Panama Canal Company — would be fixed, so far as possible, by amicable valuations and agreement; hut it would lie understood, however, that if a considerable difference of opinion should arise, recourse would he had, as is just and equitable, to arbitration in the usual form. It will also be necessary to determine, either by amicable agreement, or, if need REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 219 be, by arbitration, the compensation which should be awarded to the company for the eventual profits which its concession would have enabled it to make; a com- pensation which may be represented either by an annuity, or by capitalized sum, to be proportioned in either case, of course, to the value of the property transferred by the company at the time when the transfer shall be made. Everybody will understand, finally, that the promise to transfer its concessions can not bind our company for an indefinite time without danger of compromising the progress of its works and its general interests. We shall, therefore, ask to limit the effect of this promise to March 1, 1902, it being understood that all preliminary agreements shall be made before December 1, 1901, in order to be submitted, after approval by the shareholders' meeting of the company, for ratification by Congress at its next session. Finally, Mr. Minister, I should remind you of the question which was also put to us by the Isthmian Canal Commission for the purpose of learning what share of control could be assigned to the Government of the United States, failing a complete transfer of the concession. Later the Commission refuses to enter into negotiation on its owm propositions. At various times I had made various suggestions which are finally summed up in a letter of November 30, 1900. We are still ready to consider combinations of this character. Kindly accept, Mr. Minister, with the assurances of my high consideration, the renewed expression of my devoted sentiments. M. Hutin. Legacio de Colombia, Washington, May 3, 1901. Rear-Admiral John G. Walker, President of the Isthmian Canal Commission. My Dear Sir: In consequence of the interview that I had the honor of having with you last month, I addressed a letter to Mr. M. Hutin, president and general director of the New Panama Canal Company, a translation of which I inclose, together with a copy of Mr. Hutin' s answer. I believe that these documents will be of importance to the Commission over which you so worthily preside. In conformity with the wishes of the honorable Secretary of State, I would inform you that I am ready to answer, on behalf of the Colombian Government, the ques- tions that the Commission may be pleased to present relative to the manner of bring- ing about an understanding between the two Governments for the construction of the Panama Canal. I trust that the steps that have been taken will render manifest to the Commission the good will that animates both the Colombian Government and the Panama Canal Company to remove obstacles in the pending negotiations, and to dissipate any doubts that may have been entertained respecting their attitude toward the Government of the United States. I remain, sir, yours, very respectfully, Carlos Martinez Silva. Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, May 8, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President of the New Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. My Dear Sir: I have to inform you that I have received a letter from Senor Don Carlos Martinez Silva, minister of foreign affairs and minister to the United States 220 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. from the Republic of Colombia, under date of May 3, inclosing for the information of this Commisson a copy of your letter to Mr. Silva of May 1, in which you state that your company will, if so authorized by the Colombian Government, sell and transfer its rights, concessions, and property to the United States, upon terms to be hereafter arranged. It appears also from this correspondence that the Colombian minister, acting for his Government, has authorized you to enter into negotiations, in behalf of your company, with this purpose in view. Under these circumstances I desire to call your attention to a letter addressed to you by myself on April 10, 1900, in which certain questions were asked with regard to the sale and transfer of the property of your company, so that the Commission might obtain information which it required, in order to discharge its duties intelli- gently. You were not then in a position to reply fully and definitely to that letter, because of the terms of your concessions; but now that you have 1 >een relieved of the embarrassments under which you then labored, I am encouraged to hope that you will take the subject up once more, and give me such additional information as you feel at liberty to do, particularly in reply to the first and third questions contained in my letter of April 10, a copy of which letter I inclose, so that the Commission may be able to make a full representation of the subject in its forthcoming report for the information of the President of the United States. I fully appreciate the courtesy that you have always manifested in your delicate and difficult position between the Colombian Government and the work of this Commission, and with an earnest hope that the way is now open to a satisfactory solution of the many perplexing problems which have been committed to you, believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, With great respect, always, your obedient servant, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Washington, D. C, May 10, 1001. Admiral John Walker. My Dear Admiral: I have never regretted so much as during these days, partic- ularly to-day, being unable to speak English, in order to be able to inform you directly concerning our business. But I wish to tell you, now, that I shall send you an answer to your letter of the 8th instant as soon as I shall have had the necessary time to con- sider it; and since you will be absent for a few days, I shall send you the answer and hold myself at your disposal upon your return. I beg that you will accept, my dear Admiral, the renewed assurance of my devoted sentiments, M. Hutin. Washington, D. C, May 15, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. My Dear Mr. President: I beg leave to acknowledge receipl of your favor of the 8th instant, by which you inform me that Senor Don Carlos Martinez Silva, minister of foreign affairs and minister to the United States from the Republic of Colombia, transmitted to you on the 3d instant a copy of the letter which I addressed to him upon his request on the 1st of the month. I am obliged to you, Mr. President, for recognizing in your above-mentioned letter of May 8 that our company has not been until the present time in a position to answer certain questions presented by the Commission over which you preside. Under the new conditions nowactnally existing it will besufficienl for the response which you desire to the first and third questions contained in your letter of April 10, KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 221 1900, to now confirm what I had the honor to write to Minister Martinez Silva on the 1st of the present month. Therefore I beg to inform you that our company will consent, if authorization therefor is given by the Colombian Government, to transfer its concession to the Gov- ernment of the United States. All the conditions of this transfer will be fixed, of course, for the company outside of and independently of the particular arrangements which may be made between the Governments of Colombia and the United States. The price of sale of the concession itself, of the works executed, material and installations, shares of the Panama Eailroad Company, etc., in short, of all the prop- erty of the New Panama Canal Company, will be fixed, so far as possible, by amicable valuation and agreement; but it will be understood, however, that if an important difference of opinion should arise recourse will be had, as is just and equitable, to arbitration in the usual form. It also will be necessary to determine, either by amicable agreement or, if need be, by arbitration, the compensation which should be awarded to the company for the eventual profits which its concession would have enabled it to make — a compensa- tion which should be represented either by an annuity or by a capitalized sum, to be proportioned in either case, of course, to the value of the property transferred by the company at the time when the transfer shall be made. This being said, I must call your attention, Mr. President, to the necessity which we jointly have (according to my understanding) of examining afresh the second question of your letter of April 10, 1900, which refers to the legal powers of our com- pany. It will be proper, in consequence, to correct certain statements on that sub- ject contained in the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission. Independent, however, of the foregoing, will you permit me, Mr. President, to say, as you have suggested in your letter of April 10, 1900, that it may be of interest to examine afresh the proposition contained in said letter, viz: " What share of control could be assigned to the Government of the United States in the New Panama Canal and under what conditions." In conclusion, I beg leave to say, Mr. President, that the promise made by the New Panama Canal Company to transfer its concession can not continue for an indefinite period of time. We shall therefore limit the effect of this promise to March 1, 1902, it being understood that all preliminary agreements shall be made before December 1, 1901, in order to be submitted, after approval by the shareholders' meeting of the company, for ratification by Congress at its next session. I have the honor, my dear Mr. President, to express my high esteem and to be, Your obedient servant, M. Hutin, President and Director-General. Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, May 16, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President of X< w Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. My Dear Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of yesterday in response to mine of the 8th instant. You inform me that your company, with the consent of the Colombian Govern- ment, will transfer its concessions and property to the Government of the United States, the conditions of this transfer to be determined by negotiations outside of and independently of the particular arrangements which may be made between the Governments of Colombia and the United States. This being the case, the next step will be to determine the price to be paid for the property of the New Panama Canal Company, which you suggest shall be fixed, so far as possible, by amicable valuation and agreement, with the understanding that 222 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. if an important difference of opinion should arise recourse should be had to a just and equitable arbitration in the usual form. As a basis for these negotiations there should be some expression of the views of the company as to the value of its property, and perhaps this can be done in no better way than by a specific reply to the questions asked you in my letter of April 10, 1900. At the informal conference of yesterday you stated that no price could be fixed by you until after your return to Paris, where you could consult with the directors of your company and have free access to its books and accounts; and I presume, there- fore, that no progress can be made in that direction until your return to Washington, which I trust may be at an early date, as it is important that this matter be fully negotiated with the least possible loss of time. With regard to the question of compensation for the possible profits from the enterprise when completed, I would suggest the extreme difficulty, if not impossi- bility, of arriving at a correct estimate of such profits, and my present opinion is that this question should be considered in fixing the price for the property when sold, as the law under which this Commission is acting contemplates absolute owner- ship on the part of the United States. Regarding the legal question — that is, of the ability of your company to give the United States a clear title to the property — I did not, in my recent letter, touch upon that matter because it is one which will in the end necessarily be determined by the law officers of the company and those of the United States, and no transfer of the property can be made until a clear title is obtainable. Your company has already given us much information upon this subject, but we shall be pleased to receive and consider any further facts or information that you may lie able to furnish us. Referring to my letter of April 10, 1900, in which I say that in the case of a nega- tive reply to the first and second questions contained in that letter, you are invited to state how far the company will be able and willing to go in the direction of yield- ing control to the United States, and what compensation it will expect therefor, I have to say that this Commission being directed to furnish the President of the United States with complete information upon the question of a canal across the American isthmus, I made this inquiry with that end in view; but the law contemplates noth- ing less than a complete ownership and control of the canal by the United States, and as the New Panama Canal Company is now in a position to make a direct sale to the United States, that question need no longer be considered. In the conclusion of your letter you state that you limit your promise to sell, etc., to March 1, 1902, it being understood that all preliminary agreements shall be made before December 1, 1901, in order to be submitted for approval at the stockholders' meeting of your company at its next session. To this I have to say that, while there is no objection to December 1, 1901, being named as the date at which all preliminary agreements shall be completed, I suggest that the promise to sell shall stand until the end of the next session of Congress, in order that that body may have its entire session for a full and careful consideration of the whole subject. Hoping that you may soon return to Washington prepared to carry this important matter to a satisfactory conclusion, believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, With great respect, your obedient servant, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Paris, June 21, 1901. Mr. President: By your letter of May 16 last you kindly asked us to extend, until the end of the next session of the Congress of the United States, the time during which would remain binding the promise made, subject to the reserves and under REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 223 the conditions mentioned in your letter of May 15th, to transfer our concession to the Government of the United States. I have the honor to inform you that after examination with my colleagues of the board of directors it has been decided to accede to your desire. Our board of directors (council of administration) is undertaking a careful study of all the questions which are brought up by the project to transfer our concession to the Government of the United States, and I will inform you, in the shortest possible time, of the resolutions (decisions) which may have been adopted. I beg that you will accept, Mr. President, the assurances of my high consideration. M. Hutin, The President of the Council of Administration. Admiral John G. Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission, Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C, United States. [Cablegram.] Paris, June S8, 1901. Admiral Walker, Corcoran Building, Washington: We confirm our letter dated June 21. We will send you in about a fortnight, in accordance with letters exchanged May 8, 15, 16, detailed valuation company prop- erty. Please advise us at what date you shall have examined results, that we shall send and gather elements of your own valuation, so that on either side we may be able to discuss contradictorily. Hutin. Department op State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, July 3, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President, New Panama Canal Company, 7 Rue Louis le Grand, Paris, France. My Dear Mr. Hutin: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt, on the 28th of June, of your cablegram of the same date confirming your letter of June 21, which reached me on July 1. I shall await the receipt of the detailed valuation of your company's property, which I shall hope to receive at an early date. Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, with great respect, Very sincerely yours, . G. Walker, President of Commission. [Cablegram.] Paris, July $5, 1901. Admiral Walker, Corcoran Building, Washington: We intend sending you by next mail detailed valuation company's property, but preparation has required much more time than contemplated. Can you tell us by cable up to what date you will remain in Washington, or whether will be absent on account of season, and whether we might examine together contradictorily our valu- ation as early as beginning September, or can you name a date at your convenience? Hutin. 224 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. [Cablegram.] Washington, July 26, 1901. Pananovo, Paris: Will give valuation prompt attention when received. Will take up discussion here upon your arrival. Walker. [Cablegram.] Paris, September 14, 1901. Admiral Walker, Corcoran Building, Washington: Under sad present circumstances, do you still think I should meet you in Wash- ington about October 1? Hutin. [Cablegram.] Washington, September 14, 1901. Pananovo, Paris: If you intend naming price for property and concessions there should be no delay. Walker. [Cablegram.] Paris, September 25, 1901. Admiral Walker, Corcoran Building, Washington: Boyard has sailed Saturday last on Champagne, carrying document which he will hand you. Myself will sail Saturday next on Savoie and join you Washington. Hutin. [Telegram.] New York, September SO, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C: Steamer delayed. Arrived only this morning. Will go Washington to-morrow afternoon, Tuesday, and call at your office Wednesday morning to deliver you documents as per cable Mr. Hutin. If not convenient to you, kindly wire my office to-morrow morniug early. X. Boyard. New York, N. Y., October 10, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: By a cable received yesterday from my company in Paris I am requested to respectfully inform you that Mr. Hutin sailed yesterday from Cherbourg on the steamer Kaiser Willnlm. I believe M r . Hutin will be in New York on or about the 15th of October, and will at once communicate with you. Yours, very respectfully, X. Boyard. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 225 Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, October 11, 1901. X. Boyard, Esq. 24 State street, Neiv York, N. Y. My Dear Mr. Boyard: Your letter of yesterday reached me this morning. I am glad to know that Mr. Hutin has sailed for New York. Trust he will have a speedy and pleasant passage. Time is becoming an important element with this Commission. Its report has been delayed pending a conference with Mr. Hutin, but it will soon be called for by the President and it is of importance that Mr. Hutin should come here as promptly as possible, that our conference with him should be expedited in every practicable way. Will you please say to him that I trust he will lose no time in coming to Wash- ington? With best wishes, believe me, my dear Mr. Boyard, Very truly, yours, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Paris, October 4, 1901. (Received in Washington October 17, 1901.) Mr. President: In the letter I had the honor to address to you from Washington on May 15 last, in answer to yours dated 8th of same month, and in consequence of the communications from Seflor Martinez Silva, I stated that this company would agree to transfer its concession and property to the United States Government if it was so authorized by the Government of Colombia, and I defined the general condi- tions under which such a transfer might be effected, as follows: " The selling price of the concession itself, work done, plant and machinery, Panama Railroad stock, etc., and all the property of the New Panama Canal Company, should be determined, wherever possible, on valuations and by an amicable understanding. It shall be understood, however, that in case a serious difference of opinion should arise, arbitration, in its customary form, as it is just and fair, should be resorted to. "It shall also be necessary to determine, either by an amicable understanding, or if needed by arbitration, what compensation shall be allowed to the company for the possible profits it would have derived from its concession, which compensation might be represented either by an installment or by a capitalized amount, the one and the other corresponding both to the value of the property transferred by the company at the time of effecting the transfer." In your letter of May 16, acknowledging receipt of my previous letter, you were kind enough to suggest that: "This being the case, the next step will be to determine the price to be paid for the property of the New Panama Canal Company, which you suggest should be fixed, so far as possible, by amicable valuation and agreement, with the understanding that if an important difference of opinion should arise recourse should be had to a just and equitable arbitration in the usual form. "As a basis for these negotiations there should be some expression of the views of the company as to the value of its property, and perhaps this can be done in no bet- ter way than by a specific reply to the questions asked you in my letter of April 10, 1900." You added, Mr. President, that, as to the question of compensation for the possible profits to be derived from the undertaking when completed, it seemed to you that there was an "extreme difficulty, if not impossibility, of arriving at a correct estimate of such profits, and my present opinion is that this question should be con- sidered in fixing the price of the property when sold, as the law under which this S D— 57-1— Vol 7 15 226 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Commission is acting contemplates absolute ownership on the part of the United States." On my return to Paris I brought to the knowledge of the board of our company the letters exchanged with your good self on May 15 and 16 last, and of which the above quotations are the essential paragraphs. I pointed out the necessity of answer- ing to our mutual views and of giving satisfaction to the ideas expressed in our above letters, by effecting, on our part, a complete work, with the object of determining the pecuniary value we thought it fair to put on the whole of rights, privileges, and property we would have to transfer to the United States Government when trans- ferring our concession. The board appointed a commission of three of its members to accomplish the said investigation, which required long and difficult researches in the engineering records of both the old and the new company. This Commission has submitted the result of its investigations and estimations both of the value it deemed fair to put on the property we should have to transfer of the kind of compensation to be applied, accounting, in the fairest way possible, for the possible profits we would have derived from our concession, in a very elaborate note, the general ideas of which were approved by the board, and which I beg to inclose herewith as a document for discussion. This note shows for every portion of our contribution the amounts which, accord- ing to the constitutive elements of property included, appear to represent a fair esti- mate of the value of each, as it would result from the actual advantages to accrue to the United States from the acquisition. You will kindly note that we have viewed these values in their intrinsic consist- ence, in what they really are in themselves, without any reference to their relation with the comparative expenses of either canal; in short, for the portion of usefulness they actually represent in the Panama Canal undertaking, supposed to be completed and regarded solely in itself. They represent what might be called the real and absolute value of our contribution. "We might have followed another course, showing the relative advantages to be derived from the completion of the Panama Canal as compared to the construction of the Nicaragua Canal. But if the latter became necessary, we think it would be useful to proceed to make such an estimation of the relative value of our contribution only when a more perfect knowledge will be reached of the conditions of a possible project of a canal through Nicaragua. I hasten to add, Mr. President, that these are but the amounts to which we have come from a personal estimation of the elements to be discussed contradictorily in our negotiations and which, as a result of such contradictory discussion, themselves might be altered to a more or less important degree. Such is therefore, properly speaking, the first expression of views of our company, to which you have referred in your letter of May 16, last, as being to form the basis of discussion on our side in the proposed negotiation, which negotiations we shall take up, as you may be sure, with the most earnest wish to reach an amicable understanding. With that object in view, we are willing to follow a sincere course of conciliation and conces- sions, with the hope that we may be met from the other side with the same spirit and the same desire to conciliate, in an equitable manner, the weighty interests which are confronted in the subject. I further beg to state, Mr. President, that, in view of the above-shown good will and in consideration of the large amount of French money invested in the Panama Canal undertaking from the beginning, we think we are justified in asking, without any purpose on our part to interfere with matters relating to the future control of the proposed isthmian waterway, that the French merchant ships may he treated on a foot of absolute equality with the merchant ships of the United States. Believe me, Mr. President, respectfully and devotedly yours, M. IllTIN, The President of the Council of Administration. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 227 A STUDY CONCERNING THE ESTIMATED VALUE OF THE FRENCH COM- PANY'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE CANAL UNDERTAKING IN CASE OF A TRANSFER OF OUR CONCESSION TO THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. From whatever standpoint, a priori, we may consider the principles which must be taken as a rule for the determination of the pecuniary compensation that would be due to the Panama Company for the transfer of its concession and property to the United States Government, whether those principles be based on the considera- tion of the commercial value of the property and the possible profits expected to be derived therefrom, or on the simple consideration of its intrinsic value, as resulting from the expenses involved in its construction, it is plain that the first and vital ele- ment to be considered and, therefore, determined in the discussion, is the actual value of the advantages represented by the cession of all that has been already accomplished in the interoceanic canal undertaking supposed to be brought to con- clusion. We think it is fair to estimate the various elements as follows: Elements Concerning the Real Value Proper of our Contribution. Our contribution consists in two portions of an essentially different character — FIRST PORTION. A first portion is represented by property having in itself an immediate marketable value independent from the possible results of operation, and not forming a necessary part of the canal undertaking itself. This property, which has properly the char- acter of private property, is as follows: First. The stock of the Panama Railroad Company, which is held by the canal company. Second. The buildings, lands, and real property, constituting the company's pri- vate estate, which by reason of their destination itself are not given an ephemeral existence only, dependent on the time of canal construction; such are the company's buildings at Panama, the various inhabitations constituting the block of houses of Christopher Columbus, the inhabitations erected along the canal line, as lodgings for the officers of the company, and which are to be maintained after the conclusion of the work. Third. The important property as represented by the Panama and Colon hospitals, and the price of which, as admitted by the isthmian Commission, is not to be included in the estimated value of the work done by the old company on the canal. We are not referring here to the landed property granted to the concessory company under article 4 of the concessions, besides the canal itself, and which there is no rea- son to transfer together with what concerns the canal itself. We will now state the values which we think must be given to these various elements: Stock of the Panama Railroad Company. — The old company had bought 68,534 shares of this stock. The new company bought 329, making a total of 68,863 shares. The amount paid for this total quantity is 93,411,834.60 francs. The Isthmian Commission found that it would be fair to pay for this stock the par value thereof, which is $100 a share, or a total amount of 36,000,000 francs. Neither of these figures do we think fair. In fact, the Panama railroad stock has an intrinsic value, to be estimated according to the chances of profits it may yield in the future and under circumstances that may be anticipated. The United States Government should pay for it to the company on same terms as it would pay for the stock to a private individual who would be holder thereof and willing to transfer, with neither gain nor loss as to profits he, expected to derive therefrom, which profit 228 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. would, after transfer, accrue to the party who would hold the stock. In short, the company by transferring the stock is entitled to claim a compensation equal to the profits it would derive from the stock if kept. Besides the results of normal operation, which it is impossible to foretell and appreciate, the Panama Railroad Company is expected to derive, during the period of canal construction and from the construction itself, in view of the large trans- portation traffic that will be occasioned thereby, very important profits, an idea of which may be formed from the experience of the past and which are such as to con- stitute for the stock a value which should fairly be accounted for when selling it, since it is sold precisely in anticipation of the canal being completed. In the years frqni 1881 to 1889, a period during which the operations of the old company gave rise for the railroad to an active local traffic, the stock of the Panama Railroad Company yielded an average dividend of 13. 75 per cent a year. It is but reasonable to expect that during the eight-year period assigned for the completion of the work to come, the Panama Railroad shall, by the sole fact of these operations, derive profits which will allow, during that period, of an average annual dividend of 13 or 14 per cent. The mere discount of such an exceptional income would justify by itself an allowance to the Panama Railroad stock, at the time of resuming work, of a selling value of about 500 francs per share. On the other hand, it is certain that after the construction of the canal the railroad will remain most valuable as a means of transportation by reason of the increase in local population and production, which shall not fail to take place on the canal territory. The Panama Railroad stock may therefore expect profits after the canal is completed, and it should also be allowed a certain selling value at that time, which value we think may be regarded as equal to a compensation of 300 francs to be paid at present. It is useful here to call attention to the improvements made from time to time on the railroad, and which help to add to its value, such as the recently constructed La Boca terminal. In this connection consideration should be given to the large interest which the constructor of the canal has in owning the bulk of the stock, which empowers him to exercise a controlling influence for the use of the railroad in the execution of the work on most favorable terms, and will enable him later on to reach an amicable understanding with the Panama Railroad as to the possible rights conferred upon it by the concession in case a canal should be constructed through the part of the isthmus crossed by the railroad. From the above considerations, which were amid the motives that have induced Count de Lesseps to put in possession of the canal company nearly the whole of the stock, we may infer, with the best chances to be on the safe side, that the selling value to be given to the Panama Railroad stock if the company chooses to dispose of it to the United States Government, which it is willing to do, without it being absolutely necessary for the completion of the canal, must not fairly be estimated below 800 francs. The number of shares owned by the company being 68,863, that would make a capital of 55,000,000 francs in round fig- ures to be allowed to the company as a consideration for this transfer. Buildings <>//. 50 3.00 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 235 Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, October IS, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President New Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: Your letter, dated Paris, October 4, 1901, with the accompanying paper relative to the value of the concessions, property, and unfinished work of the Panama Canal Company, has been received and carefully considered. I had hoped that upon your return from Paris you would be prepared to give a definite answer to the third question which was submitted to you in my letter of April 10, 1900, to wit, " For what sum of money, in cash, will the company transfer to the United States all of the rights, privileges, franchises, property, etc., of every description which it owns or controls in connection with the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama?" * No direct answer had been made to this inquiry prior to November 30, 1900, when the Commission submitted its preliminary report to the President of the United States, and it was understood in our informal conferences that this question had not been answered because your company felt embarrassed by its relations with the Republic of Colombia, for the reason that the concession under which it is authorized to construct the canal did not then permit you to enter into negotiations for a sale of its property to a foreign government. At a later date information reached me that the Colombian Government had relieved you of this embarrassment, and that you were at liberty to take up the sub- ject with the Commission, and our conferences and correspondence were renewed. On the 8th of May last I addressed a letter to you, calling your attention to the inquiries contained in my letter of April 10, 1900, and asking specifically for a reply to the first and third questions contained therein. On the 10th of May you acknowledged the receipt of my letter and promised an early reply. The answer was afterwards received, dated May 15, 1901, expressing, in reply to the first question, a willingness to sell and transfer to the United States the canal property and concessions, if authorized by the Colombian Government, but there was still no direct response to the question as to price. You stated that the value of the property would be fixed so far as possible by amicable valuation and agreement, with recourse to arbitration if an important dif- ference of opinion should arise. At our subsequent conferences, and in my answer of May 16 to this letter, without replying to the suggestion as to the manner in which you would fix the value of the property, and without inquiry as to the basis and conditions of the arbitration suggested by you, I again called attention to my letter of April 10, 1900, and stated that there should be a specified reply to this third question as a basis for future negotiations ; but your answer was deferred until your return to Paris, so that you might there consult with the directors of your company and have free access to their books and accounts. The paper you now submit does not yet give a definite answer to the question, but it contains the elements from which a final sum can be ascertained. In the confer- ences which Mr. Pasco and myself have had with you during the past two days w r e have informally discussed the views presented in this paper, and have directed your attention to such items as seem objectionable, so that you might consider the causes of objection in preparing the final and definite offer to be submitted by the Com- mission to the President of the United States in its report. It is, perhaps, well to state the most important of these objections briefly in this formal reply to your letter. 1. The value of the shares of the Panama Railroad Company is estimated by you at about $3,500,000 higher than the estimate of this Commission in its preliminary report, and we are of the opinion that this property should not be estimated at so high a value. 236 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 2. The price for the canal concession and the interest charged upon a part of the money paid for the original contract with Colombia, was objected to as excessive because this concession will not serve the purpose of the United States, if it under- takes the completion of the canal. In that event a new contract must be arranged with the Government of Colombia by treaty, displacing that which now exists between the Republic and the Panama Canal Company. 3. The amount fixed for the work already done upon the canal project is also regarded as excessive, and is far beyond the value of the work as estimated by the Commission. Some of the reasons for this excess are that the company's estimate includes a valuation of the large amount of plant, machinery, locomotives, dredges, etc., now stored upon the isthmus in sheds and warehouses, which will not, in the opinion of the Commission, be of value to the United States, should it undertake the completion of the canal. After stating the value of the work done by the old company, at a price consider- ably greater than estimated by this Commission, it is increased in your estimate by an additional charge of 3.50 francs per cubic meter, and to the increased price is added 12 per cent of the whole amount for " the general expenses of administration in Paris and on the isthmus, the general office expenses, police, sanitary, department, etc." To this sum is added 25 per cent for expenses "incurred for issuing the secu- rities and intercalary interest that would accrue on the capital during the period during which the works have been prosecuted." We have carefully considered the reasons stated for these additions, but are not convinced that they should be made. 4. The last part of the paper presents a claim for a share in the possible profits of the canal when completed. The law under which the Commission is acting con- templates the construction of a canal to be under the "control, management, and ownership of the United States." A proposition to share in the profits, upon any basis, is not likely to meet with the favorable consideration of Congress. The price ultimately fixed by the company should be for an absolute sale of the Panama canal project, without any reservation whatever. If the United States purchases the property of the Panama Canal Company and incurs all the risk of a canal enterprise we do not accept your view that the company will have any basis for a claim in the profits which may accrue from its successful operation and management. We will gladly confer with you further as to the items contained in your paper and aid you as far as we properly can in presenting any proposition you may desire to make with reference to the sale of the rights and property of your company to the United States Government. When you have fully determined upon your proposition, or agreement, with refer- ence to a sale, whether it be a definite offer of a fixed sum or of a sum to be fixed " by amicable valuation and agreement," recourse to be had to arbitration "if an important difference of opinion should arise," we will submit it in our report to the President; but we still believe that the direct offer of a fixed sum is much to be preferred. In our recent conferences you have proposed that there should be an agreement between ourselves as to the value of the rights and property of the Panama Canal Company and an arbitration to conclude the matter in case of a disagreement; but the law under which the Commission is acting confers no power on it to enter into any agreement that would bind the United States Government, and an effort to do so would be futile. From the beginning of our correspondence and conferences upon this subject we have kept you advised that the Commission was authorized to obtain information for the President, and was not empowered to bind the United States Government by any agreement. My letter of April 10, 1900, contains this statement: "You understand, of course, that the Commission is not authorized to REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 237 accept or reject any offer which it may receive, but is collecting information to be submitted to the President." We can not, therefore, consider any proposition looking to an agreement, whether reached by conference or by arbitration, but as I have already said, we are willing to continue our informal discussions if you think we can be of assistance to you in preparing your final proposition. In closing your letter you ask that if the canal should be completed and operated by the United States, " French merchant ships may be treated on a footing of abso- lute equality with the merchant ships of the United States." This subject has not been included in the duties assigned to this Commission, and therefore can not be considered by it, but is a proper matter for diplomatic action. I have tried to make my statements clear, desiring to be frank with you, that there may be no room for misunderstanding, and hope that we shall soon be able to bring this matter, which I know has at times been full of difficulty and perplexity to you, to a satisfactory conclusion. Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, with great respect, Very sincerely, yours, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, I). C, October 22, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President New Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your message, through Mr. Boyard, stating that after the receipt of my letter of the 19th instant you had cabled to Paris, asking for further instructions; that when an answer was received you would notify me, and that you w r ould not be ready to discuss further the question of a sale of the property of your company until a response was received from your board of directors. I much regret the delay and feel compelled to call your attention to the fact that Congress will convene on the 2d day of December; that the report of this Com- mission should be in the hands of the President a considerable time prior to that date; that understanding that you wished to make a proposal for a sale of the Panama Canal Company's property, and desiring to give you every opportunity for doing so, the report has been held open for that purpose. In this situation you must see the necessity for early and decisive action, and for fixing a date for closing the report of the Commission. This matter was first called to your attention at the sessions of the Commission held with you in Paris on the 7th and 8th of September, 1899. Since that time it has been the subject of frequent conferences and of a correspondence of some length, to which your attention is called, and particularly to my letter of April 10, 1900, in which the powers of the Commission were frankly stated and three definite questions asked; the substance of these questions being the willingness of the company to sell, its ability to do so, and the money, in cash, for which it would dispose of its property. These questions have been repeated at intervals since that date, and the third still remains unanswered. When you left Washington in May last, the consent of the Colombian Govern- ment to a sale having been obtained, it was understood between us that upon your return to Paris you would consult your board of directors, and a definite answer would be made at an early date. More than two years have passed since the subject was first presented to you, more than eighteen months since the specific questions were asked in my letter of April 10, 1900, and five months since your departure for Paris,, with the understand- ing above referred to. Our correspondence since that time shows frequent post- ponements, and no result has yet been reached. Under these circumstances I feel 238 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. that it is not unreasonable to suggest that the time has come when some definite and final action should be taken. I therefore think it proper to say to you that any proposal that you wish to make will be received until the 5th of November next, at which date the Commission will be compelled to consider this question closed, so that its report may be completed. This of course is not intended to prevent such conferences as you may desire in the meantime, and it is hoped that you may be able to present your final conclusions before the date mentioned. Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, with great respect, Very sincerely, yours, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Washington, D. C, November 2, 1901. Admiral John G. Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Mr. President: I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your letters dated October 18 and 22 last. They contain a certain number of remarks, and even of criticisms, upon which I will dwell, if necessary, in due time. To-day, however, having only in mind the purpose of demonstrating the correctness of the proposi- tions and conclusions of the present letter, I beg to recall to your attention but a few facts. In your letter of October 22 you alluded to our conferences held in Paris on Septem- ber 7 and 8, 1899. At those meetings you did, in fact, ask me for the first time under what conditions of price and by what means the Government of the United States could purchase the canal of Panama. In my reply I called your attention to the fact that the law of the Congress of the Republic of Colombia, under which we hold our concession, formally prohibits its sale to a foreign government, but that if we were relieved of that clause we would be willing to transfer our enterprise to the Government of the United States ujxm fair and equitable conditions. Later on you renewed your questions, stating them more definitely in a letter dated April 10, 1900, and moreover you suggested to discuss them, admitting that the consent of the Government of Colombia had been obtained for the purpose of selling the concession to the United States. In the interviews held prior to said letter, as well as in all those we had together in Washington until the end of the month of November, 1900, I wasobliged to state to you that our company, for paramount reasons, could not accept such a ground of discussion. I told you repeatedly that our company could nut afford to commit itself to any conditional agreement, even as the one proposed by you, because the company considered it indispensable to first obtain the previous authori- zation of the Colombian Government for the sale of the Panama Canal to the Govern- ment of the United States. It is, therefore (and this is the only critical remark I will venture to make in this letter), that I experienced some surprise in reading cer- tain utterances relating to this matter and contained in the preliminary report of November 30, 1900. During the month of February, 1901, an authorized representative of the Colom- bian Government, Mr. .Martinez Silva, arrived in Washington. He was aware of the proposition of the United States eventually to purchase our concession. I requested him to state to me in which manner his Government would interpret and apply the clauses of our law of concession. Mr. Martinez Silva replied, the 28th of March, 1901, that the Colomlnan Govern- ment would authorize the canal company to transfer its concession to the Govern- ment of the Onited States upon certain conditions which he had submitted to the latter Government. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 239 On April 29 following he asked me what would he the basis upon which the company would be willing to make such transfer, supposing the previous authoriza- tion to do so had been obtained from the Government of Colombia. I stated them to Mr. Martinez Silva, with my reasons, in a letter I sent to him on May 1. On the 8th of May following, you kindly informed me that Mr. Martinez Silva had forwarded to you a copy of my above-mentioned letter of May 1, and you again asked me to reply to the questions put in your letter of April 10, 1900, to which I have already referred. Consequently, I answered you on May 15: "I am indebted to you, Mr. President, for having kindly admitted, in your above-mentioned letter of May 8, that our com- pany has not, until the present, been in a position to reply to some of the questions which had been submitted to it by the Commission over which you preside. " Under the new conditions now existing, it will be sufficient for me, in order to reply as you desire me to do, to the first and third questions of your letter of April 10, 1900, to confirm what I had the honor to write to Mr. Martinez Silva the 1st of the month." I then repeated and confirmed the terms of my letter of May 1, 1901, to Mr. Mar- tinez Silva, concerning the transfer of our concession, stating clearly and precisely to you, in that manner, that our company was thus actually answering the questions of your letter of April 10, 1900,. by showing upon what basis and under what condi- tions it was willing to have the value of its concession and properties established. You acknowledged receipt the following day, May 16, reproducing nearly word for word my letter of the day before and without entering any direct or fundamen- tal objections to my propositions. My colleagues of the board of directors and myself have interpreted your answer — and I must add that. we still do so — as creat- ing an understanding between the Commission and our company, for the purpose of ascertaining together, by a practical method, the exact value of our concession and properties, so as to reach in this manner a fair and equitable basis to be used eventually in any negotiations before the Congress of the United States. Consequently we proceeded to make out our estimates. They were calculated with the utmost care, and after most detailed and complete studies they were summed up in a memorandum, approved by our board of directors, which was handed to you with a letter dated Paris, October 4, last, and in which, once more, I expressed our sincere desire for conciliation and agreement. 1 therefore could not help but experience a great surprise when I realized, during the conferences which took place after handing you said letter of October 4, that there existed now between us with regard to the method of discussion I had proposed to you on May 15, a disagreement which, heretofore, you had not made know n to me, either verbally or in writing. In your letter of October 18, 1901, you confirmed this disagreement. You call my attention to the fact that when you wrote me on May 16 you did not reply to my suggestions concerning the manner in which was to be established the value of our properties — as if such silence on your part could consti- tutes a rejection of my suggestions — and you add that you did not inquire of me which would be the basis and conditions of arbitration when I had already suggested to you that such arbitration was to be made in the usual form. The only point in your letter of October 18, 1901, upon which I wish to dwell at present, is the fact that you discuss therein for the first time the propositions of my letter of May 15 last. It is my duty to reply to your objections, which are summed up in the two following paragraphs of your letter of October 18: "In our recent conferences you have proposed that there should be an agreement between ourselves as to the value of the rights and property of the Panama Canal Company, and an arbitration to conclude the manner in case of disagreement; but the law under which the Commission is acting confers no power on it to enter into any agreement that would bind the United States Government, and an effort to do so would be futile. 240 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. From the beginning of our correspondence and conferences upon this subject we have kept you advised that the Commission was authorized to obtain information for he President, and was not empowered to bind the United States Government by any agreement. My letter of April 10, 1900, contains this statement: ' You understand, of course, that the Commission is not authorized to accept or reject any offer which it may receive, but is collecting information to be submitted to the President.' We can not, therefore, consider any proposition looking to an agreement, whether reached by conference or by arbitration, but as I have already said, we are willing to continue our informal discussions if you think we can be of assistance to you in preparing your final proposition." Allow me to say to you, Mr. President, that never did we, either by word or in writing, make propositions carrying with them such scope and consequences as you suppose in your letter of October 18. I think that the text of my letters of May 15 and October 18, 1901, as well as the verbal explanations given to you, contradict such an interpretation of our intentions. You will surely understand, Mr. President, that our board of directors can not and should not accept the estimates of the value of our concession and property, as given in the Preliminary Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission. These estimates are the result of the measurement of certain amount of work done and of the calculation of certain prices to be applied. We simply ask that, in any discussion with the Commission, as to work done and prices applied, both sides should be heard, in order mutually to agree upon them as far as possible. In case of disagreement of opinion we could, in certain instances, by mutual concessions, have reached an amicable understanding; but if our estimates had remained too far apart, we would have had recourse to technical arbitrators who would definitely have concluded the matter. Under the present circumstances, and on account of your present declarations, I do not feel warranted to judge whether or not the Commission, whose duty con- sists in gathering information for the President of the United States, possesses the power to follow the method suggested by me. However, it is my duty to state that such a method would, in no way whatever, have committed the Government or the Congress of the United States in their decisions. This method would only have led to the establishment, for the real value of the concession and property of the New Panama Canal Company, of a price which would have hound the company alone. Therefore, under the present circumstances, it is not sufficient for me to assert that the board of directors of the company has taken into account, as it should do, its duties and responsibilities. I believe, moreover, to have the right to say that the company's conduct is in accord with reason and equity. The board could not do otherwise but propose a price for the sale, which has been established according to calculations and estimates and which it considers exact and justified until the con- trary is proven. The board deeply regrets that the Commission has not the power to discuss them after both sides had been heard. This being the situation, I have the honor to confirm my above-mentioned letter of October 4, as well as the "memorandum" accompanying the same, except as regards the last part thereof, and upon which I will dwell later. Referring again to your letter of October 18, in which, in general terms, you criti- cise our estimates, I desire to repeat that, with the same spirit of conciliation we have heretofore shown and in order to arrive at a reasonable understanding, we will always remain ready to discuss, when we will have before us one or several persons clothed with official authority and qualified to establish, with us, the basis of an agreement which will determine the price of the sale of our concession and properties. A last question still remains to be examined. In your letter of October IS you say, Mr. President, that you decline to adopt our view with regard to our request to share in the future benefits of the management of the canal. We could, I believe, con- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 241 tinue to maintain that our claim is just and well founded: but, among other things, you have argued that such a combination would be prejudicial to the principle of absolute ownership of the canal by the United States. Under such conditions, and without intending to discuss: that point of law, I herewith state that we are now ready prepared to relinquish totally our claim to a share in the eventual profits of the management of the canal, having in mind that this surrender constitutes on our part an act of conciliation which must be taken into account during the discussion of our other propositions. Be pleased, Mr. President, to accept the assurance of my high consideration. M. Hutin, President and Director-General. Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C, November 5, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President and Director-General New Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. Mr. President: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2d instant and its English translation, which was received at this office after I had left last evening. I understand from this letter that you withdraw your proposition with regard to sharing in the possible profits accruing from the canal after completion, and with that exception you confirm and stand upon the figures contained in your letter of October 4 and the accompanying memorandum, being: "A study concerning the estimated value of the French company's contribution to the canal undertaking in case of a transfer of our concession to the United States Government." These figures I understand to aggregate 565,500,000 francs, or $109,141,500. Without replying to the criticisms contained in your letter of the 2d instant, I have to say that the Commission will take pleasure in presenting your figures and view r s to the President in its report, shortly to be completed. Our conference with regard to the sale by the New Panama Canal Company of its property and concessions to the United States having now been concluded, I desire to thank you for the uniform courtesy which has attended our personal intercourse and correspondence; and, with expressions of high regard, Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, very sincerely, yours, J. G. Walker, President of Commission. Washington, D. C, November 6, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker, President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Mr. President: I have duly received your letter of yesterday, the 5th of Novem- ber, and, as was subsequently verbally agreed, 1 have the honor to answer it in order to make a few concluding observations and explanations. First, it should be well understood that the English translation of my letter of the 2d of November which, in compliance with your wishes, I sent you on Monday evening, has value merely as a document drawn up for your accommodation, the French text alone being effective. Secondly, I notice that you have added, according to the paper inclosed with our letter of the 4th of October last — which letter itself contains no figures — the different amounts which, according to us, represent the value of each of the holdings or S D— 57-1— Vol 7 16 242 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. pieces of property, their total constituting the value of the property owned by our company. The total, in francs, is correct, and I presume also the rate of exchange you have adopted. But whether each of these amounts is singly considered or their total it is essential to preserve their true character. They represent, as has already been explained on different occasions, verbally and in writing, valuations that the company believes just, because it has established them with the greatest care and regard for material exactness. But the company admits that they may be criticised and that it would make reasonable concessions, if they were justifiable. You have told me that the Commission has not the power even to enter upon a discussion of this nature and I regret it very much. I there- fore rely upon the promise you were kind enough to make me to submit our figures and our views to the President of the United States in your final report. I would be grateful to you, Mr. President, if you would be kind enough to confirm your own communication by that of all the documents, letters, and papers which, I believe, permit of our intentions and our aim being accurately appreciated. I desire also, Mr. President, to confirm the fact that our company has the power, in fact as in right, to transfer to the Government of the United States its concession and its holdings by a legal and positive title, "free of all difficulties and contentions, of whatever nature, or from any person whatsoever, and particularly from the stock- holders or creditors of the old canal company." In conclusion, I consider it an agreeable duty, Mr. President, to express to you in turn my thanks for the constant courtesy that has presided over our personal relations. Have the kindness to accept, Mr. President, the assurance of my high esteem and my devoted sentiments. M. Hutin, President and Director- General. Chapter IX. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL. An investigation of the Isthmian Canal from the standpoint of its use, aside from military considerations, has two phases — one indus- trial and the other commercial. A study of the ci^^i?e i fft a he d can" , r er * resources and industries of the United States and the countries of the Pacific preceded and was made the basis of the investigation of traffic and tolls, because a knowledge of industrial conditions is essential to an understanding of the effects which the canal will have, and to an analysis of statistical data con- cerning commerce. From the nature of the subject investigated, some of the conclusions regarding the industrial effects of the canal must be based on premises concerning which differences of opinion may exist. Moreover, the presentation of the industrial data and a discussion of them can not be made as brief and concise as a mathematical demonstration. These limitations apply in less degree to the statistical material used in measuring the volume of traffic available for the use of the canal. The methods employed in the investigation, the data used, and the deductions made are presented in detail in Appendix NN. The gen- eral conclusions to which this inquiry has led are here given without claiming that they are absolutely correct in every particular, but they are close approximations to the truth attained by careful research, and furnish information necessary to a decision as to whether or not the canal should be constructed by the United States. The canal will assist a wide range of industries, iHdustr C ir landAmerICan agricultural, mineral, lumbering, and manufac- turing, and will promote the progress of all sec- tions of the countiy. The expenses and delays at present incurred in the commercial intercourse of the Central, Southern, and Eastern States with the Pacific markets of our own and foreign countries, and in the trade of our Pacific States with Europe, impose a serious limita- tion upon the progress of American industries. Cheaper and more expeditious access to Pacific markets will benefit not only the North- eastern States by giving them cheaper raw materials and larger markets for their varied manufactures., and the Southern States by increasing their exports of cotton, cotton goods, forest products, iron and steel manufactures, and fertilizers, but also the Central West. 243 244 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The Central States are now manufacturing extensively for the foreign and domestic trade; the isthmian waterway will give them a larger business with the Pacific coast and enhance their ability to meet Euro- pean competition in western South America, Australasia, and the Orient. The natural resources of the Pacific Coast States The canal and the trade of i ,1 < a a sels that might have passed through an isthmian canal had one been in existence. The cargo tonnage was found to amount to 6,702,541. This total does not include the comparatively small amount of freight that passed by water between our two sea- boards, the statistics of which are not obtainable. It comprises 277,640 tons for the commerce between the Eastern seaboard of the United States and western South and Central America, Hawaii, and British Columbia; 1,528,860 tons for the commerce of our Eastern seaboard with Australasia, Oceania, Japan, China, and Siberia; 1,629,387 tons for the trade between the West coast of the United States and Europe, and 3,266,654 tons for the commerce between Europe and western South and Central America, western Mexico, Hawaii, and British Columbia. It does not include an} 7 of Europe's trade with other parts of the Pacific. The tonnage of the vessels that might have used an isthmian canal in 1899 was ascertained by an examination of the statistics of entrances and clearances kept by the United States and European countries. The entrances and clearances for the commerce of the Eastern seaboard of the United States with Pacific America and with Australia, Oceania, the Philippines, Japan, China, and Siberia, and the vessel movements between the western coasts of the American continents and the North Atlantic American and European ports, were found to amount to 4,074.852 vessel-tons net register, including, 336,998 tons for the commerce now crossing the Isthmus of Panama. This total was compared with the results of a traffic investigation made by the New Panama Canal Company. The records of vessel movements kept by that compan} 7 show a traffic for the calendar year 1899 of 3,848,577 tons net register for the commerce between Europe and the western coast of the American continent, between the Atlantic seaboard of America and trans-Pacific countries, and between the two A.inerican seaboards. The total obtained from the records kept by the EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 247 Panama Company docs not include any vessel tonnage for the com- merce now crossing the Isthmus. The addition of that tonnage, 336,998 tons, raises the total to 4,185,575. In addition to this tonnage, which comprises only traffic originating or terminating in America, there should be included most of the com- merce of northwestern Europe with New Zealand and the other islands of the Pacific east of Australia. New Zealand will be 1,503 miles nearer Liverpool by the isthmian canal than via the Suez route, and 2,405 miles nearer than by way of the Cape of Good Hope. The dis- tances to Liverpool from the important groups of South Pacific islands north of New Zealand will be from 500 to 5,500 miles less via the isthmian canal than by way of Suez. The entrances and clearances of New Zealand's trade with northwestern Europe amounted to 481,178 tons net register in 1899, and the European commerce of the other islands east of Australia to 181,743 tons. Of this total traffic of 662,921 tons, 500,000 might have advantageously used an isthmian canal, and this amount should be added to the canal tonnage originating or termi- nating in America. This makes the total obtained by the Commission's investigation of the tonnage that might have used an isthmian canal in 1899, 4,574,852 tons net register; and the total obtained by adopt- ing the New Panama Canal Company's figures for the traffic originat- '.ng or terminating in America, 4,685,575 tons. Tables prepared by the New Panama Canal Company show that the vessel tonnage of the commerce between Europe Growth of traffic. Prob- d p ifi America and between the Atlantic sea- able tonnage, 1914. board of America and the eastern and western sides of the Pacific increased 25.1 per cent during the decade 1888- 1898, and this rate has been adopted in estimating the traffic that will be available for the isthmian canal in 1914, by which year it is assumed that the waterway will have been completed and put in operation. This rate of increase would raise the available traffic of 1899, obtained by adding to the New Panama Canal Company's figures for tonnage originating or terminating in America the present traffic across the Isthmus of Panama and 500,000 tons of the commerce of New Zealand and other South Pacific islands with Europe — 4,685,575 tons — to 5,861,654 tons in 1909 and to 6,556,260 tons in 1914. A growth of 25.1 per cent per decade would increase the total of 4,574,852 tons for 1899, obtained by the Commission's investigation of the statistics of entrances and clearances, to 5,723,140 tons in 1909 and 6,401,332 tons in 1914 — the tonnage being net register in each case. In all probability the future increase in that part of the world's commerce that would 2£ per cent during the succeeding- ten years would make the tonnage of 1924 11,375,000. The extent to which the isthmian canal is used will depend in part upon the tolls charged. The commerce of western South America with Europe will continue to pass the Straits of Magellan or to round Cape Horn, the trade of the American Atlantic seaboard with Australia will keep to the Good Hope route, and the traffic between our eastern seaboard and the Phil- ippines and southern China will remain tributary to the Suez route, if the charges for passing the American canal are made greater than the saving to be effected by using that waterway. A toll of about $1 per ton net register could profitably be paid by the commerce between Europe and western South America, and by that of our east- ern seaboard with Australia; a much higher charge would probably cause a large share of the business to continue to be done by the routes now used. For the commerce of our eastern ports with the Philippines and the mainland of Asia between Singapore and Shanghai the distances by way of the Suez and isthmian canals will be so nearly equal that the route chosen will depend largely upon tolls. Light charges at the American canal will give that waterway a large share of the tonnage; high tolls will cause the Suez route to be used. The Suez tolls at the present time are 9 francs per ton net regis- ter, "Danube" measurement, and this charge amounts to somewhat more than $2 per ton net register, British or American measurement. The Suez tolls are levied by a corporation whose object is to secure the maximum revenue obtainable. With the exception of the trade between Europe and Australia, the commerce served by the Suez Canal can be charged a high toll without much restricting the tonnage using the waterway; consequently a large reduction in charges would not be compensated for by an increase in traffic, and the revenue would be less. It is not probable that the Suez Canal Company would find it profitable to reduce its tolls largely for the purpose of competing with the American waterway. In fixing the charges for the use of an isthmian canal owned and operated by the United States Government, the principle of maximum revenue could not wisely be followed. The revenue-producing func- tion of the canal will be a minor one as compared with its services in promoting the industrial and commercial progress and general welfare of the United States. The exaction of tolls that would much restrict the benefits derivable from the canal would not be to the advantage of the American people. 250 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. An annual traffic of 7,000,000 tons, at $1 per ton, will produce a revenue of $7,000,000. The expenses of operating and maintaining the Panama Canal are estimated at about $2,000,000 per annum, and those of the Nicaragua Canal at about $3,300,000. Upon this basis the net revenue by either route would not be sufficient, at the opening of the canal, to pay a rate of interest upon the capital invested, which would compensate a corporation for the risks involved. A large increase of traffic in the future is probable, and the revenue-producing value of the canal would be proportionately greater. It is the opinion of the Commission, however, that there are considerations more impor- tant than revenue. It may even be expedient for the United States to reduce the tolls to an amount which will barely cover the expenses of operation and maintenance. With the exception of the trade between west- The relative commercial ern South America and our eastern seaboard, for advantages of 1 he Nicaragua , . , . T -, „ , , , ~ , , , and Panama routes. which the Panama Canal would afford the shorter route, the distances for American commerce, both foreign and domestic, would be less by way of Greytown and Brito than by way of Colon and Panama. Including in each instance the length of the canal expressed in nautical miles, the distance between New York and San Francisco by way of Nicaragua would be 378 nau- tical miles less than via Panama. For New Orleans and San Francisco the difference is 580 miles, and, in general, the distances between our Atlantic and Pacific ports and between our eastern seaboard and trans- Pacific countries are shorter by the Nicaragua route. The distances from Europe to western South America would be less by way of Panama. From Europe to the North Pacific the Nicaragua route would be shorter. Exclusive of the length of the canals, the sea distance between New York and San Francisco is 498 nautical miles less via Nicaragua than by way of Panama, and for New Orleans and San Francisco the differ- ence is 700 miles. A part of the saving in distance at sea effected by using a Nicaragua canal instead of one at Panama would be offset by the longer time of transit at Nicaragua. An average steamer would require twelve hours to make the passage through the Panama Canal, and thirty-three hours through one across Nicaragua. For a 10-knot steamer this difference of twenty-one hours would be equivalent to 210 knots difference in distance at sea, and for a 15-knot steamer the difference in time of transit would be equivalent to 315 knots. The Nicaragua route would be the more favorable one for sailing vessels, but this advantage is not important, because sailing vessels would probably be unable to compete with steamers to any consider- able extent by either canal. They would certainly not be able to compete with steamers, both using the Panama Canal. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 251 As compared with Europe, the United States CnifcfsL* ^"p«re Sea on the east and the waters of the Pacific, near the canal entrance, on the west. Unless the integrity of all the links can be maintained, the chain will be broken. The power hold- ing any one of the links can prevent the enemy from using the com- munication, but can itself use it only when it holds them all. The canal itself would be available to the United States, but not to its enemies, so long as its citizens remain in Canal operated by Amer- cna rge of it, filling the positions of pilots, lock lean citizens not available , to -,, , . i * - ± for the enemy. keepers, and others upon whom the safety ot a ship in transit depends. No commander would rely upon his enemies to the extent of trusting his vessel in such a position. The responsible authorities might do everything in their power to give safe passage to an enemy's vessel, as would be their duty if their Government had promised it; but among several hundred employees of every grade of character the chances are that there would be some one with the power and the will to so disable the canal that communication would be as effectually closed to the enemy as if it had never been opened. 252 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 253 The ability of the United States to hold the Caribbean Sea and the western approaches to the canal against all comers c«nai useless to the depends upon the future development of its naval United States unless It con- * , . * , trois the sea. resources, and is for the present at least question- able. There are several powers in the world any one of which might dispute the command of the approaches, and com- binations of two or more powers might effect the same object. If suc- cessful, they would render the canal useless to the United States. It would be useless also to them unless they unieThe 8 ££ S" ™ m canld occupy it and replace American citizens with citizens of their own or some friendly country. Assuming for the moment that the canal is subject to the operations of war, and that the enemy is free to attempt its occupation, it must be defended by the United States. Fortification is of the nature of insurance. In Defense by fortification. . , i • 1 • 1 its practice, then, are several maxims which may here be noted. One is that the greater the value- of the prize, the greater the temptation to the enterprise of the enemy and the greater the amount of effort to be applied to the defenses. Another is that the farther the place to be defended is from supplies and reenforcements, the stronger must be the fortifications. Still another is that the less the natural features of the ground are favorable to defense, the more must strength be supplied by works of construction. From all three of these points of view the canal would require the maximum amount of fortification. It would be a prize of extraordinary value; it would be beyond the reach of reenforcements if the enemy control the sea; and the low, flat shore on the Atlantic side, as well as the great length of the canal, are unfavorable to defense. To defend it b}^ fortifications on land would be a costly, difficult, and uncertain undertaking, and by absorbing resources which could better be employed elsewhere would be a source of weakness. If defended at all, the canal should be defended Defense by Pfayy. .. at sea by the JNavy. But that again would be a source of weakness, because it would hamper the movements of the Navy, which is essentially the arm of attack. If a large force of the Navy is to be employed in guarding the canal, its power for offensive action, which is its normal employment, is diminished. If from force of circumstances the Navy be compelled to abandon the offensive, its services will be more valuable upon our coasts than in the Carib- bean Sea. A much more certain and easy method of secur- Defense by neutrality. J . ing the use of the canal to ourselves, while closing it to our enemies, is to remove it from the operations of war by mak- ing it neutral. 254 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. It is always to be borne in mind that during the Vulnerability of canal. . » .1 i-n j.i_ £ excitements or war the canal will not be a sate place for the men-of-war of any nation, no matter who is nominally in control. A small party of resolute men, armed with a few sticks of d} r namite, could temporarily disable it without very great difficulty. What has been said of the use by her enemies canal managed by for- f a cana i operated by citizens of the United pltriiors. States would be equally applicable to the use by the United States of a canal operated by citizens of a country with which we were at war. The Panama Canal, for example, if operated by citizens of France, would not be available for the United States in a war with France, while it would be available for French vessels. While there seems no doubt that the presence canai free to enemy's f American citizens in charge of the canal would be an adequate defense, it is proper to inquire what part it would play in war if the opposite theory were adopted, and the enemy's vessels were able to pass as freely as our own. This would be possible if the canal were under the control of foreigners, as well as in the supposition that all the persons engaged in operating a canal belonging to the United States were actuated by perfect self- restraint. In this case, as before, if the United States controls the sea, the shortened communication is to her advantage, but the advan- tage is with the enemy if he controls. A highwa}^ to our Pacific States and Territories is opened for the fleets of Europe, which does not now exist. It is not probable that they would often wish to use it, because only one or two of them have coaling stations so situated as to make that possible, and they would have richer game elsewhere. Under these circumstances the canal would to some extent weaken the defense of the United States. It is the opinion of the Commission that a neu- canai managed by Amer- ^ral canal, operated and controlled bv American lean citizens a source of . . - ... , , f ... strength if neutral; a citizens, would materially add to the military source of weakness if not strength of the United States; that a canal, whether neutral or not, controlled by foreigners would be a source of weakness to the United States rather than of strength; and that a canal not neutral, to be defended by the United States, whether by fortifications on land or by the Navy at sea, would be a source of weakness. Chapter XI. COST OF MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. In order to form an estimate of the cost of main- taining and operating the Isthmian Canal, the Commission obtained data bearing on this point from the Suez, Man- chester, Kiel, and St. Marys Falls canals. There are no locks on the Suez Canal, but the channel is through drifting sand for a great part of its length. The entrance to the har- bor of Port Said on the Mediterranean intercepts the drift of sand discharged from the Nile and carried along the coast by the easterly current. The maintenance of the Suez Canal ^SiSSST - t*"*rf°™ re q™ es a lal ^ e amount of dred ^ and consists mainly of this class of work. The operating expenses are also large, the great traffic involving heavy costs for pilotage. The general expenses for administration have nec- essarily been greater for the Suez Canal than for the Kiel or Man- chester canals, on account of the distance of the work from the point of central control, a disadvantage which would also attend the opera- tion of the Isthmian Canal. The annual cost of maintenance and operation of the Suez Canal is about $1,300,000, or about $13,000 per mile. The annual cost of maintenance and operation of cost of maintenance and t he Kiel Canal is $8,600 per mile. The cost of operation of Kiel and Man- . . * . ■. • a> Chester canals. maintenance only of the Manchester Canal is $9,500 per mile. These canals have locks and other me- chanical structures, and therefore might be expected to have a higher cost of maintenance than the Suez Canal, which has none, but this appears to be more than offset by reduced cost of maintaining the prism and more economical central control. The traffic being light on these canals, the cost of pilotage and port service is small. The mechanical structures are now nearly new, and will soon require larger annual outlays for maintenance, while, with the increase of traffic, operating expenses will become larger. The St. Marys Falls Canal, when compared cost of maintenance and w j^ n t nose i us t mentioned, is remarkable by reason operation of the St. Marys ' * *> . Fans Canal. or its short length, large proportion of mechanical structures, and immense traffic. Its length is about 1£ miles. Its annual traffic, limited by the severity of the winter to a period of about eight months, is nearly three times that of 255 256 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the Suez Canal, eight times that of the Kiel Canal, and ten times that of the Manchester Canal. Both maintenance and operating- expenses are therefore very large, amounting to from $70,000 to $90,000 per year, or $46,000 to $60,000 per mile. A more detailed examination would show still more clearly why the cost of maintenance and operation varies so widely in the several canals. The differences in the waterways and in the climatic and other conditions render it extremely difficult to derive from them an esti- mate applicable to the Isthmian Canal. This method, however, has been followed by the Commission d'Etudes, appointed by the liquida- tor of the old Panama Canal Company, the study being based on the corresponding costs at the Suez Canal and consideration being given to the radical differences in the waterwa} 7 s and the climates. This Commission has approached the problem in Basis of estimate of cost a SO mewhat different way. A project has been of maintenance and opera- . . - _ _ , tiou for isthmian Canal. developed tor an organization or the force and plant required for maintaining the prism and harbors, operating the canal, and providing for sanitary and police con- trol. This has been worked out in much detail, and is intended to cover all expenses except the maintenance of masonry and metal structures, which are provided for by percentages on their cost. The damp climate of the isthmus, with its mild temperature, is very favor- able for masonry structures, but unfavorable for those of iron and steel. The allowances for the maintenance of these structures are | per cent on the first cost for masonry and 7i per cent for metal structures, including machinery. It is obvious that the cost of maintenance and operation for the Nicaragua Canal would be much greater than for the Panama Canal. The former has four times the total length of the latter, or, excluding the deep-water portions of both routes, three and one-fourth times the length of excavated channel. It has also more locks, weirs, and other .structures. In Grey Town harbor it has the most difficult harbor to maintain, and it is in the region of greatest rainfall. On the other hand, its magnitude can not be measured h} 7 length only. The total cost of construction gives a better idea of relative magnitudes. More- over, the study given to the project of organization shows that the central control and general supervision, which form a large part of the total cost of maintenance and operation, differ but little in the two cases. The resulting estimates of the annual cost of Estimates of cost of n,a.». maintenance and operation are as follows: tenauce and operation. * For the Nicaragua Canal $3, 300, 000 For the Panama Canal 2,000,000 The Commission d'Etudes, using a different method, estimated the cost for the Panama Canal at 10,000,000 francs, ($1,940,000). The agreement is as close as could bo expected in estimates of this kind. Chapter XII. CONCLUSIONS. The investigations of this Commission have shown that the selection of "the most feasible and practicable route" for an isthmian canal must be made between the Nicaragua and Panama locations. Further- more, the complete problem involves both the sea-level plan of canal and that with locks. The Panama route alone is feasible for a sea- level canal, although both are entirely practicable and feasible for a canal with locks. The time required to complete a sea-level canal on the Panama route, probably more than twice that needed to build a canal with locks, excludes it from favorable consideration aside from other serious features of its construction. It is the conclusion of this Commission, therefore, that a plan of canal with locks should be adopted. A comparison of the principal physical features, both natural and artificial, of the two routes, reveals some points of similarity. Both routes cross the continental divide less than ten miles from the Pacific Ocean, the Panama summit being about double the height of that in Nicaragua. For more than half its length the location of each route on the Atlantic side is governed by the course of a river, the flow from whose drainage basin is the only source of water supply for the pro- posed canal; and the summit levels, differing but about 20 feet in elevation, Panama being the lower, are formed by lakes, natural in the one case and artificial in the other, requiring costly dams and wasteways for their regulation and for the impounding of surplus waters to reduce the effect of floods and to meet operating demands during low- water seasons. The investigations made in connection with the regulation of Lake Nicaragua have demonstrated that that lake affords an inexhaustible water supply for the canal bj r that route. The initial proposition, on the other hand, for the Panama route is to form lake Bohio so as to yield a water supply for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons, which can be sup- plemented when needed by an amount sufficient for more than four times that traffic, by means of the Alhajuela reservoir. For all prac- tical purposes this may be considered an [unlimited supply for the Panama route. So far as the practical operation of a ship canal is concerned, therefore, the water-supply features on both lines are sat- isfactory. S D— 57-1— Vol 7 17 257 258 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The difficulties disclosed and likely to be encountered in the con- struction of the dams are less at Conchuda on the Nicaragua line than at Bohio on the Panama route. Both dams, however, are practicable, but the cost of that at Bohio is one-half more than that at Conchuda. A less expensive dam at Bohio has been proposed, but through a por- tion of its length it would be underlaid by a deposit of sand and gravel pervious to water. The seepage might not prove dangerous, but the security of the canal is directly dependent upon this dam, and the pol- icy of the Commission has been to select the more perfect structure, even at a somewhat greater cost. The wasteways at both locations present no serious difficulties. The advantages in the design and con- struction of the dams are in favor of the Nicaragua route. The system of regulation at Lake Bohio consists onty of the dis- charge of water over the crest of a weir, as the lake level rises under the influence of floods in the Chagres River. The plan of regulating the level of Lake Nicaragua is less simple, though perfectly prac- ticable. It involves, the operation of movable gates at such times and to such extent as the rainfall on the lake basin may require. The experience and judgment of the operator are essential elements in the effective regulation of this lake. The regulation of Lake Bohio is automatic. The only means of transportation now found on the Nicaragua route art 1 the narrow-gauge Silico Lake Railroad, about 6 miles in length, and the limited navigation of the San Juan River and the lake, but the Nicaraguan Government is now building a railroad along the beach from Greytown to Monkey Point, about 45 miles to the northward, where it proposes to establish a commercial port. By means of a pier, in the area protected by the point, goods and material for canal pur- poses can readily be landed and transported by rail to Greytown. Such piers are in constant use on our Pacific coast. This railroad and port would be of great value during the period of preparation and harbor construction, and should materially shorten that period. A well-equipped railroad is in operation along the entire length of the Panama route, and existing conditions there afford immediate accom- modation for a large force of laborers. The Nicaragua route has no natural harbor at either end. At both the Atlantic and Pacific termini, however, satisfactory harbors maybe created by the removal of material at low unit prices, and by the con- >t ruction of protective works of well-established design. An excellent roadstead, protected by islands, already exists at Panama, and no work need lie done there for cither harbor construction or maintenance. At Colon, the Atlantic terminus of the Panama route, a serviceable harbor already exists. It has afforded harbor accommodations for many years, hut it is open to northers, which a few times in each year tic liable to damage ships or force them to put to sea. Considerable REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 259 work must be done there to create a suitable harbor at the entrance of I he canal, which can be easily entered, and will give complete protec- tion to shipping lying within it. The completion of the harbors as planned for both routes would yield but little advantage to either, but the balance of advantages, including those of maintenance and opera- tion, is probably in favor of the Panama route. The existence of a harbor at each terminus of the Panama route, and a line of railroad across the isthmus, will make it practicable to commence work there, after the concessions are acquired, as soon as the necessary plant can be collected and put in place, and the working force organized. This period of preparation is estimated at one year. In Nicaragua this period is estimated at two years, so as to include also the construction of working harbors and terminal and railroad facilities. The work of excavation on the Nicaragua route is distributed; it is heaviest near Conchuda, at Tamborcito, and in the divide west of the lake. On the Panama route it is largely concentrated in the Culebra and Emperador cuts, which are practically one. As a rule distributed work affords a greater number of available points of attack, contribut- ing to a quicker completion; but in either of these cases such difficul- ties as may exist can be successfully met with suitable organization and efficient appliances. The time required for constructing the Nicaragua Canal will depend largely on the promptness with which the requisite force of laborers can be brought to Nicaragua, housed and organized at the locations of heaviest work along the route. The cut through the divide west of the lake probably will require the longest time of any single feature of construction. It contains about 18,000,000 cubic yards of earth and rock excavation, or a little less than 10 per cent of the total mate- rial of all classes to be removed. With adequate force and plant this Commission estimates that it can be completed in four years. This indicates, under reasonable allowance for ordinary delays, that if force and plant enough were available to secure a practically concurrent execution of all portions of work on the route, the completion of the entire work might be expected within six years after its beginning, exclusive of the two years estimated for the period of preparation. The securing and organizing of the great force of laborers needed, largely foreigners, so as to adjust the execution of the various portions of the work to such a definite programme of close-fitting parts in a practically unpopulated tropical country, involves unusual difficulties and would prolong the time required for completion. The greatest single feature of work on the Panama route is the exca- vation in the Culebra section, amounting to about 43,000,000 cubic yards of hard cla} T , much of which is classed as soft rock, or nearly 45 per cent of all classes of material to be removed. It is estimated that 260 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. this cut can be completed in eight years, with allowance for ordinary delays, but exclusive of a two-} T ear period for preparation and for unforeseen delays, and that the remainder of the work can be finished within the same period. The great concentration of work on this route and its loss amount will not require so great a force of laborers as on the Nicaragua route; hence the difficulties and delays involved in securing them will be correspondingly diminished. The total length of the Nicaragua route from sea to sea is 183.66 miles, while the total length of the Panama route is 49.09 miles. The length in standard canal section and in harbors and entrances is 73.78 miles for the Nicaragua route and 36.41 miles for the Panama route. The length of sailing line in Lake Nicaragua is 70.51 miles, while that in Lake Bohio is 12.68 miles. That portion of the Nicaragua route in the canalized San Juan is 39.37 miles. The preceding physical features of the two lines measure the mag- nitude of the work to be done in the construction of waterways along the two routes. The estimated cost of constructing the canal on the Nicaragua route is $15,630,701 more than that of completing the Panama Canal, omitting the cost of acquiring the latter property. This sum measures the difference in the magnitude of the obstacles to be overcome in the actual construction of the two canals and covers all physical considerations, such as the greater or less height of dams, the greater or less depth of cuts, the presence or absence of natural harbors, the presence or absence of a railroad, and the amount of work remaining to be done. The estimated annual cost of maintaining and operating the Nica- ragua Canal is $1,300,000 greater than the corresponding charges for the Panama Canal. The Panama route would be 131.57 miles shorter from sea to sea than the Nicaragua route. It would have less summit elevation, fewer locks, 1,568 degrees and 26.11 miles less curvature. The estimated time for a deep-draft vessel to pass through is about twelve hours for Panama and thirty-three hours for Nicaragua. These periods are prac- tically the measure of the relative advantages of the two canals as waterways connecting the two oceans, but not entirely, because the risks to vessels and the dangers of delay are greater in a canal than in the open sea. Except for the items of risks and delays, the time required to pass through the canals need be taken into account only as an element in the time required by vessels to make their voyages between terminal ports. Compared on this basis, the Nicaragua route is the more advantageous for all transisthmian commerce except that originating or ending on the west coast of South America. For the commerce in which the United States is most interested, that between our Pacific ports and Atlantic ports, European and American, the Nicaragua route is shorter by about one day. The same advantage exists REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 261 between our Atlantic ports and the Orient. For our Gulf ports the a I vantage of the Nicaragua route is nearly two days. For commerce between North Atlantic ports and the west coast of South America the Panama route is shorter by about two days. Between Gulf ports and the west coast of South America the saving is about one day. The Nicaragua route would be the more favorable one for sailing vessels because of the uncertain winds in the Bay of Panama. This is not, however, a material matter, as sailing ships are being rapidly displaced by steamships. A canal by the Panama route will be simply a means of communica- tion between the two oceans. That route has been a highway of com- merce for more than three hundred years, and a railroad has been in operation there for nearly fifty years, but this has effected industrial changes of but little consequence, and the natural features of the country through which the route passes are such that no considerable development is likely to occur as a result of the construction and opera- tion of a canal. In addition to its use as a means of communication between the two oceans, a canal by the Nicaragua route would bring Nicaragua and a large portion of Costa Rica and other Central American States into close and easy communication with the United States and with Europe. The intimate business relations that would be estab- lished with the people of the United States during the period of con- struction by the expenditure of vast sums of money in these States and the use of American products and manufactures would be likely to continue after the completion of the work, to the benefit of our manufacturing, agricultural, and other interests. The Nicaragua route lies in a region of sparse population and not in a pathway of much trade or movement of people; conditions produc- tive of much sickness do not exist. On the other hand, a considerable population has long existed on the Panama route and it lies on a path- way of comparatively large trade along which currents of moving people from infected places sometimes converge, thus creating con- ditions favorable to epidemics. Existing conditions indicate hygienic advantages for the Nicaragua route, although it is probable that no less effective sanitary measures must be taken during construction in the one case than in the other. The cost of constructing a canal by the Nicaragua route and of com- pleting the Panama Canal, without including the cost of acquiring the concessions from the different Governments, is estimated as follows: Nicaragua $189,864,062 Panama. 144,233,358 For a proper comparison there must be added to the latter the cost of acquiring the rights and property of the new Panama Canal Com- 262 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. pany. This Commission has estimated the value of these in the pro- ject recommended by it at $40,000,000. In order to exercise the rights necessary for the construction of the canal and for its management after completion, the United States should acquire control of a strip of territory from sea to sea sufficient in area for the convenient and efficient accomplishment of those pur- poses. Measures must also be taken to protect the line from unlawful acts of all kinds, to insure sanitary control, and to render police juris- diction effective. The strip should be not less than 5 miles wide on each side of the center line of the canal or 10 miles in total width. No treaties now exist with any of the states within whose territory the two routes lie authorizing the United States to occupy its terri- tory for the construction and operation of a canal. When it has been determined to undertake the work and the route has been selected, the consent of Colombia, or of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, for such occupation must be obtained before the inauguration of the enterprise, and one or more conventions must be entered into by the United States to secure the necessary privileges and authority. The Republics of Nicaragua and Costa Rica are untrammeled by any existing concessions or treaty obligations and are free to grant to the United States the rights necessaiy for the attainment of these ends; and in December, 1900, demonstrated their willingness to have their territory so occupied by the United States by executing protocols by which it was agreed that they would enter into negotiations to settle in detail the plan and agreements necessary to accomplish the con- struction and provide for the ownership of the proposed canal when- ever the President of the United States is authorized b} T law to acquire the necessary control and authority. The Government of Colombia, on the contrary, in whose territory the Panama route lies, has granted concessions which belong to or are controlled by the New Panama Canal Company and have many years to run. These concessions, limited in time and defective in other ways, would not be adequate authority for the purposes of the United St sites, but while they exist Colombia is not free to treat with this Government. If the Panama route is selected these concessions must be removed in order that the two Republics may enter into a treaty to enable the United States to acquire the control upon the isthmus that will be necessary and to fix the consideration. An agreement with the Panama Canal Company to surrender or transfer its concessions must include a sale of its canal property and unfinished work, and the Commission undertook, soon after its organi- zation, to ascertain upon what terms this could be accomplished. Much correspondence and many conferences followed, but no proposi- tion naming a price was presented until the middle of October, 1901, and after prolonged discussion it was submitted to the Commission in REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 263 a modified form, on the 4th of November, to be included in its report to the President. The itemized statement appears in an earlier chap- ter of the report, The total amount for which the company offers to sell and transfer its canal property to the United States is $109,141,500. This, added to the cost of completing- the work, makes the whole cost of a canal by the Panama route $253,374*858, while the cost by the Nicaragua route is $189,864,062, a difference of $63,510,796 in favor of the Nicaragua route. In each case there must he added the cost of obtaining the use of the territory to be occupied and such other privi- leges as may be necessary for the construction and operation of the canal in perpetuity. The compensation that the different States will ask for granting these privileges is now unknown. There are certain physical advantages, such as a shorter canal line, a more complete knowledge of the country through which it passes, and lower cost of maintenance and operation in favor of the Panama route, but the price fixed by the Panama Canal Company for a sale of its propert} 7 and franchises is so unreasonable that its acceptance can not be recommended by this Commission. After considering all the facts developed by the investigations made by the Commission and the actual situation as it now stands, and hav- ing in view the terms offered by the new Panama Canal Company, this Commission is of the opinion that "the most practicable and feasible route" for an isthmian canal, to be "under the control, management, and ownership of the United States," is that known as the Nicaragua route. We have the honor to be, sir, with great respect, your obedient servants, J. G. Walker, Rear- Admiral . United States Navy, President of Commission. Samuel Pasco. Alfred Noble. Geo. S. Morison. Peter C. Hains, Colonel, United States Corps of Engineers. Wm. H. Burr. O. H. Ernst, Lieutenant- Colonel, United States Corps of Engineers. Lewis M. Haupt. Emory R. Johnson. O 57th Congress, I SENATE. j Doc. No. 54, 1st Session. \ I Part 2. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, 1899-1901. Rear-Admiral JOHN G. WALKER, United States Navy, President. Hon. SAMUEL PASCO. ALFRED NOBLE, C. E. Mr. GEORGE S. MORISON. Col. PETER C. HAINS, Lieut. Col. OSWALD H. ERNST, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. WILLIAM H. BURR, C. E. LEWIS M. HAUPT, C. E. Prof. EMORY R. JOHNSON. Lieut. Commander SIDNEY A. STAUNTON, United States Navy, Secretary. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. In the Senate of the United States, February 18, 1902. Ordered, That the following appendixes attached to the report of the Interoceamc Canal Commission be printed: B. Historical note3 relative to the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company, 1880-1 894, prior to the organization of the new company. C. List of documents furnished to the Commission by the New Panama Canal Company. D. Report of the hydrography of the Panama Canal route, by Mr. A. P. Davis, chief hydrographer. E. Waste weir dimensions and discharges of Lake Bohio. F. Description of alternate location for canal between Gatun and Bohio. G. Discussion of the time required for transit through an isthmian canal by the two routes.- H. Discharge of the canalized San Juan River. I. Report of hydrographic investigations in Nicaragua, by Mr. A. P. Davis, chief hydrographer. J. Survey from the upper San Juan to the Indio River, by Mr. A. B. Nichols, division engineer. U. Contract between Nicaragua and the Atlas Steamship Company. CC. Treaties between France and New Granada, 1856, and France and Colombia, 1892. DD. Treaty between Spain and Colombia, 1831. FF. Amended contract between Colombia and the* Panama Railroad Company. GG. Contract between Colombia and Interoceanic Canal Association, March 20, 1878. ( Wyse concession. ) HH. Additional contract modifying that of May 20, 1878, December 10, L890. II. Contract granting extension to the Panama Canal Company in liquidation, April 4, 1893. JJ. Contract granting further extension of time to the New Panama Canal Com- pany, April 25, 1900. KK. Memorandum showing legal status of the New Panama Canal Company, with laws, decrees of court, and charter. MM. Contract between Nicaragua and the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, August 27, 1849. NN. Report on industrial and commercial value of canal, by Prof. Emory B. Johnson. Attest: Charles 0 francs, represented by 800,000 shares of 500 francs each. The public subscription was opened in Europe and America on the 6th and 7th of August, 1879. It was not a success. Only 30,000,000 were subscribed for. Bitter attacks had been made upon the enterprise. The amount of cost estimated was criticised as being too small, and the amount of the receipts estimated was criticised on the ground that it was too large. From a political point of view it was sought to arouse fears of hostil- ity on the part of the United States of America. While under prosecution Mr. Charles de Lesseps explained the causes of this violent opposition, and showed how his father had suc- ceeded in putting a stop to it. He was obliged to consent to put the financial management of the enterprise in the hands of a group of per- sons connected with journalism and finance, who undertook to render public opinion favorable to the enterprise. It is not for us to dwell upon this point. On the other band, however, in order to meet the repeated criticisms of the insufficiency and inaccuracy of the first estimates, Mr. de Lesseps decided that new surveys should be made. In a letter bearing date of August 14, 1879, in which he admitted that the issue of the 6th and 7th of that month had not been successful, he announced that those sup- plementary surveys would be made with the approval of Mr. Couvreux and his associates, and that it would not be until his return from the isthmus that he would definitel}" organize the Interoceanic Canal Company. IV. — THE INTERNATIONAL SURVEY COMMISSION. M. de Lesseps embarked December 8, 1879, at St. Nazaire for Colon, where he landed on the 30th of that month. An international technical commission accompanied him. The organ- ization of this commission had been provided for and the work to be done by it had been defined by the concession law. According to 10 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. article 1, section 3, of that law, it was to make the linal surveys on the ground, and to fix upon the route of the line of the canal. It was, moreover, charged with replying, by the results of its surve3 r s, to the criticisms of the opponents of the new enterprise, or simply to the observations of those who did not look without fear into a dark future. On the 14th of February, 1880, the International Survey Commis- sion decided upon the conclusions of its report determining the final conclusions concerning the construction of the Panama Canal. Notwithstanding our desire to state nothing but facts, we can not help here referring to the haste with which the supplemental surveys of the colossal work that was about to be undertaken were made. The estimates for the work proper, prepared by the international commission, amounted to 813,000,000 francs. The commission at the same time expressed the opinion that with a good and judicious organ- ization the work could be finished in eight years. It was, as compared with the conclusions of the congress, a reduction of 200,000,000 francs in the total cost and a saving of four years in the time to be employed in the construction. M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, however, thought that he could still further reduce the estimates of the international commission, although they were already notably lower than those of the technical commis- sion of the congress of 1879. He stated the reasons of the reductions made by him, in a note written on the 22d of February, 1880, on the steamer which took him from Colon to New York. It was necessary, according to him, to provide for an expenditure of only 658,000,000 francs; and, in his opinion, the amount that would be saved in the ex- cavation ''would fully offset the interest payable to the shareholders on the capital expended during the construction." Now, if we refer to the conclusions reached b} r the congress, we find that the estimates furnished by them, viz, 1,200,000,000 francs and twelve years, appeared insufficient to many of its members, who were experienced engineers and contractors, for the construction of a canal on a level. Nevertheless, Mr. Ferdinand de Lesseps thought that he could reduce them nearly 50 per cent. If we further observe, as we shall hereafter show, that the amount of work to be done had been inaccurately estimated, the events about to follow, together with all their consequences, can easily be forseen. V. — THE COUVREUX AND HERSENT CONTRACT — SUCCESS OF THE SECOND ISSUE OF SHARES. Let us now briefly refer to the journeys made by Mr. de Lesseps, on his return from the isthmus with a view to promoting the enter- prise, to the United States, England, Belgium, Holland, and in France. The speeches delivered in these different countries clearly show the views, or, more accurately, the state of mind of Mr. de Lesseps and his partisans whom he bad caused .to share bis faith, his enthusiasm, and his temerity. As we wish to forget and conceal nothing, we must point out, at the same time, in these public demonstrations, the part taken by self-esteem and by interests supercxcitcd by such an enter- prise. The previous successes of Mi-, de Lesseps, and his personal prestige, seemed to justify his optimism and boldness. We must cite, as an instance, a speech delivered at Brussels, May 6, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 1 1 L880, iii which Mr. A Couvreux, jr. stated that his firm would under- take the construction of the Panama Canal, the cost of which it esti- mated at only 512,000,000 franc*. This new reduction of the estimates of the international commission was the result of an estimate made upon the following basis : It had been supposed that the new surveys made, and even the results of the first preparatory work, would confirm the amount of work as estimated by the international commission. Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent likewise thought that the application of the improvements recently made in machinery for boring and digging would render it possible to reduce the unit prices fixed by the congress of Paris and accepted by the international commission. The total of 512,000,000 francs represented the cost of extraction and of the partial employment in the construction of dams, of the 75,000,000 cubic meters, which expense was estimated at 466,098,000 francs, increased by 45,902,000 francs for contingent work and acces- sories not specified. At the time to which we are now referring, viz, in 1880, no one can be accused of bad faith. It is, moreover, with a real feeling of sadness that we now read the following passage of the speech which we are considering: It is certain that these prices are still in excess of the truth, and if the future shows that the estimates now adopted have not been reached, the wisdom of those who have prepared them must not be impugned, but their wise foresight must be recognized in the performance of so gigantic a task, which is to be accomplished in such new and almost unknown regions. M. Ferdinand de Lesseps was, in fact, in full accord with Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent. These gentlemen had expressed to him their readiness to organize the enterprise and to do the work for the account of the company until the ship canal should be entirely completed. The performance of the work was divided into two parts: 1. The period of organization, which was to last about two } r ears, and during which the greater part of the material was to be prepared, as was the greater part of the installations; the work, moreover, was to be commenced at several points, so that an exact estimate of the cost would render it possible to fix the unit prices. 2. The period of enterprise proper, which was to last six years, and was to be regulated by a special agreement based upon the unit prices resulting from the work already done, and to be definitely decided upon by the company and Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent. Consequently, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent, acting w r ith the regular powers of the company, were to form, both at Paris and Panama, an organization for the direction of surveys, and afterwards for the direction of work. After having made the surveys and caused to be constructed the plant, prepared the work yards, etc., they were to decide the technical or other questions connected with the execution of the works themselves. Before the expiration of the two years fixed upon as the period of organization, installation, construction of plant and useful tests, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent were to submit to the company the unit prices that were to serve as a basis for the organization of a joint- stock enterprise. The unit prices being fixed by common consent, the w T ork was to be done by Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent for the account of the company, 12 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN" CANAL COMMISSION. and when the work should be finished the following settlement was to be made: A total and exact addition was to be made, but without interest, of all sums expended, with the exception of the expenses of the superior management of the company and those of the service of inspection. Furthermore, the general amount of all the work done was to be computed, and the unit prices fixed upon were to be applied to the quantities ascertained. The difference between the two results was to be the profit realized by the joint-stock enterprise, and that profit was to be wholly divided, according to a special agreement to be made for that purpose by the company and the contractors. In the meantime, and for the first period only, the contractors were to receive a bounty of 6 per cent on the total amount of the expenditures. In this situation the issue of the 7th, 8th, and 9th of December, 1880, took place; it was for 300,000,000 francs, represented by 600,000 shares at 500 francs each. The issue was subscribed for twice. In order to attain this end what declarations and assertions had been made to the public? It had been told that — * An international technical commission having met on the spot (at Panama), had declared that a ship canal was practicable. The contractors, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent, had presented their estimates and declared that the construction of the canal would not cost 500,000,000 francs, and would last eight years. The estimate of an annual traffic assuring a revenue of 90,000,000 francs on 6,000,000 tons was to be considered as below the reality, and the revenue would be larger than had been supposed. The Americans had recognized that the work of piercing the Isthmus of Panama would be an essentially international work, done for the benefit of all, and that its neutrality would be guaranteed by the con- cession itself, and would be absolute, which would secure the unre- stricted cooperation of the wealthy and powerful American banks. Until the close of the year 1882, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent pros- ecuted the surveys and the preliminary work of the canal. On the 31st of December, 1882, they wrote to Mr. Ferdinand de Lesseps, pro- posing to him the annulment of their contract, declaring, however, that they were prepared to inaugurate the second period, the period of construction proper, on the terms provided in the contract; that is to say, on the basis of the unit prices resulting from the work which had already been done. The} T added, however, that it was their duty to call attention to the fact that such an agreement would he onerous to the company. It had happened, as ought to have been foreseen, that during the period of preliminary organization and installation the cost price of the work performed, burdened with a large amount of general and divers expenditures, increased by groping in the dark and by special inexperience with regard to the conditions prevailing on the isthmus, was found to be very hig'h. Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent observed, moreover, that thej" had found that the system of the division of contracts would meet, better than any other, the actual requirements of the situation, in that it would permit, first, a test of the different methods, and consequently a more speedy performance of the work. It was this system of small contracts that was adopted on the terms which we will mention here- after, from 1883 up to the close of 1885. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 13 VI. THE SUPERIOR ADVISORY COMMISSION FOR THE WORK. Early in the year 1881, Mr. de Lesseps, thinking that the new and detailed surveys which had been going on since the organization of the company were sufficiently far advanced to render it possible to decide upon* definite plans for certain sections of the canal, created a superior advisory commission for the work, which was to act as a technical board, and to give its opinion with regard to all plans. This commission was composed of : Mr. Lefebure de Fourcy, inspector-general ot bridges and roads, Mr. Daubree, inspector-general of mines, director of the school of mines, member of the institute, vice-president. _ Mr. Dirks, engineer in chief of the Waterstaat in Holland, vice- president. Mr. Boutan, engineer of the corps of mines. Commander Gioia, an Italian engineer. Mr. de la Gournerie, inspector-general of bridges and roads, member of the institute. . Admiral Jurien de la Graviere, member of the institute. Mr. Lalanne, inspector-general of bridges and roads, member of the institute. Mr. Laroche, engineer in chief of bridges and roads, formerly engi- neer of the Suez Canal. t . Mr. Larousse, hydrographic engineer, formerly engineer ot the Suez Canal. Mr. Oppermann, engineer in the corps of mines. Mr. Pascal, inspector-general of bridges and roads, engineer in chief of the port of Marseilles. Mr. Ruelle, engineer in chief of bridges and roads, director ot con- struction of the railroads of P. L. M. Voisin Bey, inspector-general of bridges and roads, formerly director- general of work on the Suez Canal. 3 Mr. Dauzats, consulting engineer of the company, secretary. Subsequently, several new members were designated, and in particu- lar Mr. Jacquet, inspector-general of bridges and roads, who made, on his return from the isthmus, whither he went in 1886, contempora- neously with Mr. A. Roussau, an important report. We "desire to call to mind that the functions of the commission were of a purely advisory character. The engineers who composed it took no part whatever in the construction, that is to say, in the preparation and control of the contracts and of the works. We have thought proper to give their names and to point out the importance of their positions and functions, in order to have an oppor- tunity to show once more that Mr. de Lesseps was able to cause eminent engineers to share his views regarding the practicability of the construction of a canal on a level. His personal influence was so great that none of these men, and none among them could be sus- pected, was willing or bold enough, perhaps, to concern himself about the financial consequences of the work. VII. — PURCHASE OF THE SHARES OF THE PANAMA RAILROAD COMPANY. We must call attention to an important act of the company which took place at this time. It was the purchase of almost all the shares 14 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of the American company owning the railroad from Colon to Panama. On this subject a few retrospective explanations are necessary. An American company, organized in New York in April, 1S49, secured from the Government of the United States of Colombia, April 15, 1850, a concession for a railroad between Colon and Panama. That first concessson was modified in 1867 so as to guarantee to the Ameri- can company, with certain reservations, the exclusive monopoly of any means of communication (canals, roads, etc.) crossing the Isthmus of Panama from one ocean to the other as far as the limits of a certain determinate zone. The ship canal which was to connect the two oceans passed into the zone reserved for the railroad company; but among the reservations made by the Government of Colombia was the right to grant a concession for piercing a ship canal, the terms being specified on which that right should be exercised. In short, the railroad company could not oppose the opening of the canal, but it had a right to demand from the owners of that competing thoroughfare an indemnity which it was obliged to share with the Colombian Government. Mr. de Lesseps thought that the procedure provided for by the law governing the concession, with a view to enabling the two companies to reach an arrangement, would cause the loss of a great deal of time. Now, it was indispensable that such an arrangement should be made, for not only was the practical use of the railroad, which follows the line of the canal almost exactly, necessary to the progress of the work, but also the land, the wharves, and quays belonging to the railroad had to be utilized on the best terms by the canal company. Mr. F. de Lesseps preferred to negotiate the purchase, pure and simple, of the majority of the shares of the railroad company, as the American law gave the most ample powers to the owner of the majority of the shares of the company. He thought that he found, in this manner of proceeding, two important advantages: In the first place, no modification was made in the American constitution of the Panama Railroad Company, and in the second place, the canal company secured, in the most simple and speedy manner, the necessary influence over the railroad company. VIII. — THE SMALL CONTRACTS. (1883-1885.) We have seen how the contract of Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent came to an end. The company was obliged, in consequence, to secure some one to take charge of the direction of the work. It assigned this task to Mr. Dingier, engineer in chief of bridges and roads, who went to Panama in the month of February, 1883. This was, in reality, the second period provided for from the. outset, the period of construction, properly so called, of the canal which was then beginning to be built. Numerous work yards were opened or prepared all along the line of the canal. The highest peaks that tin 1 canal met with were attacked. Thus was to be obtained, following the route, a succession of platforms, more or less extensive, and of various heights. Thus was prepared the installation of large work REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 15 yards best suited to permitting the most active and regular operation possible. While he was organizing the work yards, Mr. Dingier examined the entire plan for a sea-level canal. His report is the only full statement of the question that has been made. It is a voluminous document, and can not be readily analyzed. It received the approval of the superior advisory commission. The general provisions of the plan were the following: The canal, which had its origin in Limon Bay, at Colon, on the Atlantic, was established as far as Obispo, for about 45 kilometers, at the very bot- tom of the Chagres Valley; it then crossed the chain of the Cordil- leras, which separates the Atlantic from the Pacific Ocean, between kilometers 45 and 56, and finally, beyond, developed itself in the valley of the Rio Grande as far as deep water in the Pacific, near the island of Naos, in the Ba} T of Panama. The length of the line was 74 kilometers. The width of the canal at bottom was to be 22 meters, and it was to be 9 meters deep. In order to moderate and regulate the floods in the Chagres, the flow of which may rise from 20 cubic meters at low water to 2,000 cubic meters when there is a high flood, a large dam had been pro- jected at Gamboa across the valley of the Chagres, creating a reservoir capable of storing a part of the water of the floods. Their flow being thus reduced, the water of the Chagres and its affluents were to be borne to the sea by deflections opened on each side of the canal. The cube of the excavations to be made was, at least, 120,000,000 meters, or 45,000,000 meters more than had been estimated by the international commission, and 75,000,000 more than the congress had indicated. Notwithstanding this enormous increase in the amount of work, M. de Lesseps adhered, in 1883 and 1884, to his assertion that the canal would be finished in 1888. It was not until the meeting of the shareholders took place, July 29, 1885, that M. de Lesseps began to modify his preceding declarations. The date of the completion of the canal was deferred until the month of July, 1889, and the estimate of the congress of 1879 was again adopted for fixing the total expense at about $1,200,000,000. Still, notwithstanding the reiterated assertions and assurances, it became evident that the organization and progress of the work would not permit the programme which had been established on the preced- ing basis to be carried out. While it was declared that the yield of the work yards was increasing progressively, it began to be realized that, notwithstanding the greatest efforts, it woulcT be impossible to finish the work within the time and with the capital reckoned upon. In the month of July, 1885, hardly one-tenth of the total cubic amount of earth had been excavated; that is to say, of 120,000,000 cubic meters, but 12,000,000 cubic meters had been excavated. We have now come to a time when the enterprise was severely criti- cised and and passionately discussed. The credit of the company began to be shaken. M. de Lesseps now thought necessary to appeal to the Government, which he did in a letter bearing date of May 27, 1885, whereby he asked for authority to issue lottery bonds. This first request (which had no result, as will be seen hereafter) was the begin- ning of an evolution in the programme for the construction of a canal on the level. 16 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. IX. — THE LARGE CONTRACTS (ENTERPRISES). (1885-1887-1889.) We have hitherto seen set on foot, under the direction of Mr. Ding- ier, a numerous series of contracts of varying importance, but none of which was charged, within its limits, with the complete construction of a canal on a level. We have likewise said that the amount yielded by the work yards of these different enterprises was too small, notwith- standing their progressive increase, to render it possible to foresee or hope for the completion of the canal at the time fixed. The company realized that it must make a great effort in order to retain the confidence of the public. On the one hand, it sought to sup- port its assertions relative to the performance of the work by engage- ments entered into by contractors. It endeavored, on the other hand, to strengthen its credit by Governmental intervention, which was manifested by the grant of a special favor which had already been extended to the Suez Canal Compan} T . Let us examine in the first place the organization adopted by the company in order to secure, as it thought, the completion of a canal on a level before the close of the year 1889. The canal was divided into five large sections, each of which was intrusted to a general enterprise, except on the first 25 kilometers on the Atlantic side, where two enterprises were working side by side. These were the American Contracting and Dredging Company and the Jacob enterprise. Messrs. Vignaud, Barbaud, Blanleuil & Co. were to do the work between kilometer 26 and kilometer 11. The Public Works and Construction Company had charge of that part of the large trench comprised between kilometer 11 and kilometer 53.60, as well as of the Chagres dam. The deepest trench, that of the Culebra (from kilometer 53.60 to kilometer 56), was conceded to an Anglo-Dutch enterprise, whose con- tract was assumed in the course of the year 1886 by the firm of Artigue, Sonderegger & Co. Finally, Messrs. Baratoux, Letellier & Co. were to dig the canal from kilometer 55.156 to its extremity in the Pacific Ocean. All these contractors had engaged to complete the work intrusted to them before the close of the year 1889. Mr. Dingier was succeeded, as director of the work, by Mr. Leon Boyer. A mission to the isthmus was, furthermore, confided by the management of the company to one of the members of the superior advisory commission, viz, Mr. Jacquet, inspector-general of bridges and roads. Finally, early in the year 1886, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps himself went to Panama, accompanied by M. Charles dc Lesseps, by some of the high officers of the company, by delegates of the chambers of commerce of Marseilles, Rouen, Bordeaux, and St. Nazaire, and by various prominent Englishmen and Americans. Wcwill also mention Mr. Pescheck, an engineer attached to the embassy of Germany at Paris, who afterwards became a member of the superior advisory commission for the work. M. Ferdinand de Lesseps returned to France at the close of the month of March, 1886, with his travelling companions. He immedi- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 17 ately announced that he felt the utmost confidence in the speedy com- pletion of the canal. At this very time two statements were made in favor of the decla- rations made and the hopes entertained by M. F. de Lesseps. The first was a report of the commission on petitions of the Chamber of Deputies. A large number of stockholders and bondholders of the Panama Canal Company had petitioned that that company should be authorized, as the Suez Canal Company had been, to issue lottery bonds. The commission was unanimously of opinion that the authority asked for should be quickly granted to M. de Lesseps, and referred the matter to the competent ministers. The-second is found among- the very favorable reports of the repre- sentatives of the chambers of commerce who had accompanied M. F. de Lesseps to the isthmus. To these were joined indorsements of those same chambers of commerce and of various general boards. During this time the great enterprises recently constituted were organized and set on foot on the isthmus. It was, a priori, certain, and it was soon but too evident that they would be powerless to meet their engagements. Three experienced engineers charged, under dif- ferent titles, with a distinct mission of examination and inspection, were then on the isthmus. Not one of them hesitated to declare that the hopes entertained by M. F. de Lesseps were without foundation. The first was Mr. Armand Rousseau, then engineer in chief of bridges and roads, ex-deputy, ex-assistant secretary of state at the ministry of public works, whom the Governmont, before formally complying with the request of M. de Lesseps, had delegated on the Isthmus to make a report to it on the situation of the case. Mr. Rousseau did not conceal the fact, in the whole course of his report, that the completion of the canal with the resources estimated and within the time announced, seemed to him to be more than prob- lematical, unless the companj^ should decide to make important reductions and simplifications in its plans, that is unless it should build the canal with locks. Although Mr. Rousseau did not formally give this advice, it was doubtless because he thought that the official char- acter of his mission did not permit him to do so. The second, Mr. Jacquet, inspector-general of bridges and roads, came to the Isthmus, having been sent by the company itself. The conclusions reached by him in his report are very clearly stated, and, it must be admitted, are very courageous if his position is considered as a representative of the company and if the state of mind is known which still prevailed at that time among the backers and friends of M. de Lesseps. Mr. Jacquet declared that, after having visited the work yards and having realized the difficulties of the enterprise, he had reached the conviction that it was necessary to renounce the completion of the canal on a level, and to adopt the plan of a canal with locks on the very line of the canal in course of construction. The third engineer whose opinion we must mention was Mr. Leon Boyer, director of works on the canal, who died a few months after his arrival in Panama. He likewise declared that the construction of a canal on a level was impossible within the time and at the cost esti- mated. He laid special stress upon the delay that would certainly result .from the excavation of the great trench* Desiring, doubtless, not to oppose too directly the very positive views expressed by M. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 2 18 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. F. de Lesseps, he recommended a method which he declared to be pro- visional, and which consisted in crossing the central mass after it had been sufficiently lowered, by the aid of hydraulic elevators. The deepening of the great trench was to be continued after the canal was in operation. But M. F. de Lesseps would not hear a word. He continued, on the contrary, earnestly to declare his intention to pursue the construc- tion of a canal on a level. The Government was disposed, at that time, to grant him its aid. On the 17th of July, 1886, the minister of public works laid before the chamber a bill to authorize the issue of lottery bonds by the Panama Company. The commission charged with the examination of the bill of the Government declined, early in the month of July, to appoint a reporter before the recess of the legislative bodies. This was postponing the vote for several months, and M. de Les- seps did not think proper to agree to this postponement. He with- drew the request which he had made to the Government, and obtained from the meeting of the stockholders permission to issue a new series of bonds, which succeeded like the others. Notwithstanding the efforts made, the true state of the case began to appear in all its gravity. In spite of the attempts made during the yeav 1886, it became impossible not to recognize the correctness of the estimates made by the engineers of the company themselves, which were at variance with the engagements made by the contractors. X. — THE TEMPORARY CANAL WITH LOCKS. (1887-1888.) A new evolution was preparing. While, in principle, the superi- ority of a canal on a level over anj^ other remained uncontested and incontestable, the financial situation of the company forced it to seek for a more speedy and less costly solution. Could a dreadful crisis be thus avoided? It was hoped so, but events showed that such a crisis was inevitable. The manifest desire of the company to seek its salvation in a new way was shown very early in 1887. It is proper to mention here a meeting of the superior advisory commission for the work, which was held in the month of January, 1887, and at which the question of a canal with locks was clearly presented. At the same time a new delegation, under the direction of M. Charles de Lesseps, was sent to the Isthmus. It recognized once more the impossibility of completing the excavation of the central mass within the short time that had been announced. Unfortunately, this opinion, although it was not new, was not imme- diately announced by the management of the company with proper clearness and with all the necessary frankness. Once more were the difficulties and dangers experienced which result from declarations which have become sincere too late, for the public was accustomed to believe assertions of a different character. Too energetic protests had been made against the opinions of the engineers, who, in L885and L886, lead pointed out the p<*rils of the situation, and proposed solutions that could be accomplished more speedily, and, what was more important, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 19 at loss expense. It was. consequently, necessary to prepare a move- ment of public opinion, such as was required by the situation. In his report to the meeting of the stockholders, which was held in July, 1887, M. F. de Lesseps gave it to be understood that the com- pany was seeking for new solutions, speedy, and such as would render it possible, without abandoning- the plan of a canal on a level, to open a temporary canal for operation at the time appointed. Time was passing, but the decisive action which the situation called for was not taken. Furthermore, considerable expense was being incurred for work of which a part would be useless. The superior advisory commission which met in the month of Jan- uary, 1887, had charged a subcommission to examine the various plans of construction or of temporary operation of the canal which were laid before it by the company. This subcommission met only in the month of September, 1887. The superior commission, at its full meeting in the month of October following, deliberated concerning the conclusions of its subcommission and replied in the affirmative, unanimously, to the following two questions of principle which were propounded to it by the management of the compan}^: Is it possible to establish in the central mass an upper level which would permit the work of a canal at the sea level to be finished by applying the method of dredg- ing to the excavation of this portion? Will it be possible, as soon as these arrangements shall have been completed and without interrupting the work of deepening, to begin the operation of a ship canal between the two oceans? In accordance with these conclusions, and with new engagements entered into at the same time by the various contractors, the engi- neers of the company were charged with preparing a plan whose cost, increased by the charges for interest and management during the periods accepted by the contractors, and at the rates of the various contracts concluded, was not to exceed 600,000,000 francs. The date for the completion of the work had been set for the close of the year 1891. It is impossible to avoid being struck with the haste and rapidity with which this new plan was prepared. The expenditures entailed by the plan to be adopted had to be low enough to leave ground for the hope that the public would lend its assistance to the last. It was necessary at the same time to reduce, as far as possible, the time for the completion of the work, so as to remain within the limit of the period allowed by the law granting the concession. The line of the new route of the canal, which was called a temporary canal with locks, did not differ from the line adopted for the canal on a level. The canal had a single track and the surface of its summit level was 19 meters above the level of the oceans. The effort had been made to reduce the depth of the trench as far as possible, for the double pur- pose of gaining time and reducing expenses. It had thus become nec- essary to admit that the summit level would have to be fed by elevating machinery. For the sake of econoury also, provision had been made for locks with a single chamber. The construction of these locks was intrusted to Mr. Eiffel, a new contractor. But it was necessary, furthermore, to create the necessary financial resources. The situation was even worse than it had been in 1885. In order to restore the damaged credit of the company recourse was had 20 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. to the same means as at that time, which means were identical with those which at a critical period had rendered the completion of the Suez Canal possible. On the 15th of November, 1887, M. de Lesseps again requested the Government to authorize him to issue lottery bonds. At the same time petitions signed b}^ the bondholders of the company were sent from all parts of France to the members of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies soliciting the same favor. On the 1st of March, 1888, M. F. de Lesseps called an extra gen- eral meeting of the stockholders and made known to them in detail the new programme for the completion of the canal. On the same day a bill due to parliamentary initiative provided that the Panama com- pany should be authorized to issue lottery bonds. This bill was taken into consideration March 26, 1888, and on the next day a special com- mission of 11 members was appointed to examine it. The report of this commission was laid before the Chamber in its session of April 23, 1888. The debates lasted three days and ended on the 28th of April by the passage of the bill by a majority of 156 votes (281 ayes and 128 noes). The bill was transmitted to the Senate on the 30th of April. The committees of the Senate appointed, on the 17th of May, the members of the commission charged with the examination of the bill passed by the Chamber. It was discussed in the sessions of June 4 and 5, and was likewise passed by the Senate. It now only remained to utilize this law. On the 9th of June M. F. de Lesseps made known the terms of the lottery bond loan, which bonds were publicly issued on the 26th of June following. Two million lottery bonds were issued, the price of each being 360 francs, bearing interest at the rate of 4 per cent per annum, all of them being payable at 400 francs each by a civil amortization association and sharing in semimonthly drawings. But only 800,000 bonds were subscribed for. This was undeniable proof of the diminution of the credit of the company and of the influence of M. de Lesseps. This partial failure rendered a new issue necessary. In order to make preparations therefor Messrs. Ferdinand and Charles de Lesseps, in the months of October and November, 1898, made visits and held conferences in different parts of France. The new issue took place on the 29th of November. It was condi- tional. The balance of the bonds, or about L,200,000 bonds, were offered to the public, but the subscription was not to become irrevoca- ble until 400,000 of the bonds should have 1 been placed. Now, less than 200,000 bonds were subscribed for. This was, for the company then existing, a demonstration of its inability, from a financial point of view, to continue the enterprise which it had begun. Consequently, M. de Lesseps and his cowork- ers resolved to withdraw, and to yield the direction of the affair to others. They stated the true situation to the Government, which, with the laudable intention of promoting the continuation of the work and of pre- venting the definitive downfall of the company, laid before the com- mittee of the Chamber December 14, 1888, a bill authorizing the postponement for three months of the payment of the amounts which the company owed, including the coupons of the shares and bonds. It REPORT OF THE [8THMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 21 was hoped that it would be possible during that time to find some combinations to set the enterprise on its feel again. But the very next day. December L5, the Chamber refused to take up the discussion of the Government's bill. M. F. do Lesseps himself caused the adoption of another measure which the situation of the cast' rendered necessary. As the Panama Company was considered as a civil association, he petitioned, on the 14th of December, the presiding judge of the civil court of the Seine to appoint temporary managers. By an order issued December 15 the civil court of the Seine appointed Messrs. Denormandie, Baudelot, and Hue as temporary managers, with the most ample powers, to manage and administer temporarily the interests of the company, and especially to secure the continuation of the work, and to take, to that effect, all necessary measures which the situation and the interests of the creditors called for. The temporary managers endeavored, but without success, to reor- ganize the enterprise with the assistance of the governor of the Credit Fonder, but their effort was unsuccessful. They then decided to call a general meeting of the shareholders on the 26th of January, 1889. They considered that the appointment of a judicial receiver of the company was necessary. They proposed to the meeting, for the dis- charge of these duties, Mr. Joseph Brunet, who had formerly been a magistrate, a senator, and a minister. On the 1th of February, 1889, the civil court of the Seine, in accordance with the desire expressed b} r the shareholders, appointed Mr. Joseph Brunet judicial receiver of the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company. Here ends the first part of the historical sketch of the creation of the Panama Canal. Chapter II. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE UNIVERSAL INTEROCEANIC CANAL COMPANY. THE WORK DONE. We think proper to give here a table of the receipts and expendi- tures at the beginning of the year 1890, that is to say, after the private cancellations and the settlement of the account of the various enterprises. RECEIPTS. The receipts of the Panama Company from the day of its organiza- tion until the 8th of March, 1890, consisted of the following elements: 1. Capital of the company and loans. Francs. 600,000 shares of 500 francs each, having produced 297, 70.5, 125. 00 250,000 obligations of 500 francs, 5 per cent, having produced 109, 263, 197. 50 600,000 obligations of 500 francs, 3 per cent, having produced 168, 251, 865. 00 495,762 obligations of 500 francs, 4 per cent, having produced 144, 331, 713. 80 458,802 new obligations, first series, 1,000 francs each, having pro- duced 205, 972, 430. 00 22 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 258,887 new obligations, second series, 1,000 francs each, having Francs, produced 112,874,830.00 89,802 new obligations, third series, 1,000 francs each, having pro- duced ----- 34,869,115.20 849,249 new obligations, lottery, having produced 185, 871, 173. 78 357,699 lottery bonds (lottery "obligations issued by the receiver), having produced 12, 543, 184. 29 Proceeds of the company's capital and of the loans 1, 271, 682, 637. 57 Various receipts and yields 39, 666, 589. 24 Expenses not yet paid 18, 343, 851. 93 Total amount of the sums collected or remaining due by the company '..... 1,329,693,078.74 EXPENDITURES. 2. Expenditures on the Isthmus. Francs. Expenditures for management and salaries on the Isthmus 82, 704, 415. 065 Rents, expenditures for keeping in order, etc 16, 505, 352. 72 Purchase of articles and material for consumption 29, 239, 602. 22 Purchase and transportation of heavy material 119, 374, 679. 14 Surveys and preparatory work 1 , 354, 733. 78 Central workshops and management 29, 947, 885. 18 Various constructions, buildings, and general installations 47, 038, 528. 74 \V< >rk of excavation and works of construction 443, 171, 124. 34 Domain: Purchase of lands 4, 753, 275. 27 Sanitary and religious service 9, 183, 841. 77 Total amount of expenditures on the Isthmus 783, 273, 438. 225 h. Expenditure* at Paris. Francs. Price of the concession paid to the International Civil Association ... 10, 000, 000. 00 Security paid to the Colombian Government 750, 000. 00 Expenses incurred before the formation of the company 23, 061, 221. 35 American committee 12, 000, 000. 00 Amount* payable by the company — Interest paid. Francs. On shares 67, 347, 494. 18 ( )n 5 per cent obligations (bonds) 37, 264, 049. 866 ( )n 3 per cent obligations 40, 623, 743. 841 On 4 per cent obligations 32, 761, 083. 596 On new obligations, first series 27, 052, is:',. ,832 < )n new obligations, second series 6, 51 7, 882. 158 ( )n new obligations, third series 1, 753, 413. 367 On lottery obligations 2, 301 , 210. 04 215,621,361. 18 Amortizations. Francs. Payment of 5 per cent obligations 965, 571. 25 Payment of 3 percent obligations 4,215,931. 15 Payment of 4 per cent obligations 1,582,078.35 Payment of new obligations, first series 12,460,167.85 Payment of new obligations, second series 3, 304, 337. 11 22, 528, 085. 71 Taxes on bonds payable by the company 3, 207, 721. 022 Sundry expenditures for the bond service 1, 904, 951. 718 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 23 ( 'ost of issue. I Kranes.] I lesignation of the loans. Costs of syn- dicate. Cost of adver- tising, etc. Commission for placing. Signatures, bonds, sup- plementary work, print- ing, and sun- dry outlays. Total. 5, 000, 000. 00 ft, 950, 000. 00 4, 735, 200. 47 5, 336, 412. 50 3, 250, 354. 54 1, 175, 166. 45 11,000,000.00 1,365,847.04 2, 249, 994. 75 ] , 088, 520. 85 2, 992, 616. 40 2, 359, 806. 31 2,474,637.25 7,301,131.55 1,148,575.13 2, 005, 230. 60 1,926,552.18 2, 750, 188. 23 315, 232. 98 502, 848. 24 562,181.56 684.915.35 7,829,665.15 :: per cenl bonds 10, 708, 073. 59 8,912, 155.06 11,764,132.48 New bonds, second series — New l iniids, third series 1,527,946.90 487,286.98 639,374.46 | 704,533.35 10, 900, 832. 84 | 2, 048, 816. 16 7,625,394.75 4,993,711.51 31,250,780.55 36, 447, 133. 96 20, 432, 554. 15 20, 898, 700. 34 5, 305, 814. 62 83, 084, 203. 07 Francs. Agents of the Colombian Government __ 213, 800. 00 Cost of management in France: Boards of management and direction 6, 212, 291 . 97 Salaries of employees in all branches of the service 5, 117, 221. 51 Sundries 3, 713, 393. 81 Building of the company and furniture 2, 087, 397. 58 Compensation paid to Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent on the can- cellation of their contract 1, 200, 000. 00 Total 18, 544, 104. 87 Total amount of expenditures at Paris 390, 701, 648. 925 The general expenditures may be summed up as follows: Francs. Total amount of expenditures at Panama 783, 273j.438. 225 Total amount of expenditures at Paris 390, 701, 648. 925 Purchase of the shares of the Panama Railroad 93, 268, 186. 73 Payment for the formation of the civil associations of lottery obligations 32, 264, 680. 71 Advance to the Colombian Government 2, 455, 075. 00 Amount of the sums paid, but in litigation or advanced and left for the account of sundry debtors 11, 455, 801 . 59 Assets of the company March 8, 1890, consisting- of: Francs. Cash in safe at Panama 2, 200, 941 . 21 Cash in safe at Paris 3, 823, 266. 03 Notes and acceptances at Paris 10, 250, 031. 33 16, 274, 238. 57 Total equal to the receipts 1, 329, 693, 078. 75 The amount of work done is furnished by the tables showing the situation of the various enterprises. The cube of the excavations is as follows: By the small enterprises, during the period from 1883 to 1885 through- Cubic meters. out the whole extent of the canal 11, 729, 787. 013 By the small enterprises which existed until' 1888 1, 893, 576. 968 By the large enterprises: From Colon to kilometer 25 — Enterprise American Contracting and Dredging Company.. 16, 991, 797. 158 The Jacob Enterprise '. . . 2, 324, 095. 402 From kilometer 25 to kilometer 44 — Enterprise Vignaud, Barbaud, Blanleuil & Co 3, 642, 986. 660 From kilometer 44 to kilometer 53.60 — Enterprise of the Public Works and Construction Companv 3, 421, 870. 590 24 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. By the large enterprises — Continued. From kilometer 53.60 to kilometer 55.486— Cubic meters. Anglo-Dutch Enterprise 846, 824. 810 Enterprise Artigue, Sonderegger & Co 2, 255, 401. 650 From kilometer 55.486 to the extremity of the canal in the bay of Panama — Enterprise Baratoux, Letellier & Co 6, 691, 724. 870 Excavations for the Eiffel Enterprise locks 843, 004. 740 Total 50, 641, 079. 861 It would be proper to add to this total cube the excavations made by hired labor either in the canal or at its approaches for the installa- tions, and whose cube amounts to about 5,000,000 meters. The metallic parts of the locks which were supplied by the Eiffel Enterprise at the time when the work was suspended, comprised, on the spot, at the Isthmus, 4,710 tons of iron and 11,430 tons of cast iron, and in France, stored at various factories, 5,755 tons of cast iron, manufactured or unmanufactured. The delegation of the survey commission created by the receiver, which went to the Isthmus in 1890, declared that the amount of work done was very considerable. It recognized that the plant provided by the old company, whose purchase, transportation, and putting- into place had cost 150,0<>0,000, was in a good state of preservation, and that, with the exception of some special machinery, it seemed likely to be sufficient, in great part, for the completion of the work. This machinery has been kept in good condition, having been affected only by normal wear and tear and deterioration. Its preservation has been comparatively easy, for everything, that could be, was housed or sheltered, that is to say. machines used in dry excavation and tools used in the shops. The floating plant, however, has suffered more, especially that which, being made fast in the channels at the two extrem- ities of the canal, has been exposed to the action of the salt water. The commission declared, furthermore, that the outfit of the shops was more than sufficient for the repairs of the plant, and that the number of dwelling houses for the employees and the workmen was enormous, and even seemed excessive, since there were accommodations for from 20,000 to 27,000 workmen. Finally, the commission thought that leaving out of consideration the work and the installations which had been rendered useless by the abandonment of (ho project of a canal on a level, the value of the useful work done and of the machinery on the Isthmus was to be esti- mated at 450,000,000 francs. Chapter 111. THE LIQUIDATION. (1889-1894.) We have already said that, by an order of the civil court of the Seine, bearing date of February 4, 1889, Mr. Joseph Brunei was appointed receiver of the Universal Interoceanie Canal Company, with the most ample powers, "especialty to cede or transfer to any new company the whole or a part of the assets of the company, in order to conclude or REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 25 ratify with the contractors of the Panama Canal any agreements hav- ing for their object the securing of the continuation of the work, and to conclude, for this purpose, all loans and to furnish all security." The condition of the enterprise was then highly critical on the Isth- mus. It was impossible to stop work immediately in the work yards, where several thousand men were employed, without danger of giving rise to serious disturbances. The contractors were likewise obliged to discharge their employees, to turn their machinery over to the com- pany, and to settle their accounts with it. Notwithstanding the dangers and difficulties then existing, Mr. Brunet thought that a new company might be organized for the com- pletion of the canal. The course which he proposed to pursue was outlined at once. With a view to preventing an} r sudden interruption of the work, he ratified an agreement which had been concluded between the temporary man- agers and the contractors, whereby the latter engaged to continue the work, although reducing its amount as far as possible. In conse- quence of these agreements the work was continued on the Isthmus up to various dates, running from March 15 to May 15, 1889. Mr. Brunet likewise thought that it was very highly important, whether he could resume the work directly or could succeed in organ- izing a company to complete the canal, to release the liquidation from the onerous contracts made by the old company. The cancellation of these various contracts took place in the course of the year 1889. In order to procure the necessary capital to preserve the work done, to keep the plant in proper condition, and to provide for the expenses of a survey commission which he proposed to organize in order to examine the condition of the canal as regarded its completion, the receiver secured from the Chambers the passage of the law of July 15, 1889, which authorized him to negotiate, without restriction as to price and without interest, the lottery obligations not placed in the issue of 1889. These new bonds were termed lottery bonds. The law declared at the same time that sums accruing from the sale of these bonds were undistrainable to the amount of 31,000,000. During the same period final judgments had recognized the civil character of the old company and consolidated the powers of the receiver. They had, moreover, recognized that the holders of encum- bered lottery bonds had a right to stop payments due to the old com- pany, which would have been a serious matter for the liquidation and would have deprived it of all its resources, if it had not secured from the legislative branch of the Government the passage of the law of July 15, 1889. Mr. Brunet organized without delay, under the presidency of Mr. Guillemain, inspector-general, director of the National School of Bridges and Roads, the survey commission, composed of French and foreign engineers, whose dut}^ it was to proceed to a careful examina- tion of the exact condition of the work. To this end a delegation of live members, presided over by Mr. Germain, hydrographic engineer of the navy, sailed for the Isthmus December 10, 1889. A few days afterwards Mr. Brunet contracted the germs of the disease which was soon to carry him off. On the 13th clay of February, 1890, he secured the appointment of Mr. Achille Monchicourt by the civil court as coreceiver. As he con- stantly grew worse, Mr. Brunet was obliged to hand in his resigna- 26 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. tion, and on the 8th of March, 1890, Mr. Monchicourt was appointed sole receiver, with the powers previously conferred upon Mr. Brunet. Mr. Monchicourt received on the 5th of May, 1890, the full report of the survey commission, completed b} 7 seven appendices, That report declared, with the necessary reservations, that in the opinion of the commission — 1. It was possible to complete the canal in eight years, with a system of locks having a lift of from 8 to 11 meters united in groups on each slope. 2. That the plant on the Isthmus was in a satisfactory condition, and might suffice for the completion of the canal. 3. That, as the work to be done might be estimated at 580,000,000 francs, the amount to be asked of the public was to be placed at 900,000,000. The cost of the work already done and the value of the plant on the Isthmus were estimated by the commission at 150,000,000 francs. Struck by this report, and resting upon its conclusions, the receiver designated, without delay, Mr. I/ucien Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse to go to Bogota and negotiate with the Colombian Government an extension of the time granted for the completion of the maritime canal by the law governing its concession. After conferences which lasted from July 25 to December 10, 1S90, Mr. L. N. B. Wyse signed a treaty providing for an extension of ten years. Thus reassured on the essential point, viz, the extension of the time necessary for the resumption and completion of the interrupted work, the receiver devoted himself to the organization of a new company. He had, in fact, realized, like Mr. Brunet, the disastrous character of an actual liquidation, the difficulty and the dangers of realizing the assets, the difficulty and even the impossibility of distributing them when realized, the legal formalities being duly observed. He had understood that all the interests involved, both material and moral, called for a reorganization of the enterprise. The Colombian Government, by a contract signed April 14,1893, granted a new extension until October 31, 1891, to organize a new company which should have, from the date of its organization, ten years in which to complete the ship canal. During these years, viz, 1891, 1892, and early in 1S93, the receiver had, by a scries of compromises confirmed by the civil court, settled most of the lawsuits then existing with the enterprises of the old com- pany. He had resisted, amid the most serious legal mfficulties, the attempts of some creditor* and some bondholders, who did not hesitate, for badly understood individual interests, to disturb a work that was carried on in the general interest. He had, moreover, to struggle during the same period for the reorganization of the work against grave judicial events that were determined or complicated by press polemics and parliamentary discussions on which we do not consider it necessary to dwell here. The receiver, after these judicial debates, instituted the civil proa < d- ingswbich were called for by the facts revealed by the two examinations. He had, in the couse of the same year, L893, settled by compromises the greater part of the suits in which the liquidation was interested. He found himself early in that year (January 2(5, 1893) in presence of a series of judgments pronounced by the civil court of the Seine, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 27 complying with the individual petitions of bondholders for the pay- ment of the sums paid in by them, for that of all damages, of unpaid coupons, of legal interest, and, after these judgments, pronounced notwithstanding appeal, the interested parties had made a series of seizures bearing upon the lottery bonds that had not been placed and upon other property belonging to the liquidation. Early in 1892 Mr. Monchicourt had foreseen these difficulties which, in the name of private interests, seemed likely to baffle all his efforts and to imperil forever the reorganization of the work by rendering its vast assets and resources unavailable, He had called the attention of the governmental authorities to the peril of the legal situation as regarded such suits, and had proposed, with a view to the transfer of the assets to a company organized for the completion of the canal, or at least with a view to an equitable division among all the bondholders, a special legislative modification of the case of the interoceanic canal. He actively resumed his efforts after the judgment of January 26, 1893, and soon won his case. The very important law of July 1, 1893 (article 2), provided that "actions of any kind which the bondholders of the Universal Inter- oceanic Canal Company had, whether against the legally appointed receiver or against the managers as being responsible, or for restitu- tion for an} T other cause, should be brought by an attorney appointed at the request of the procurator of the Republic practicing before the civil court of the Seine b}^ a judgment rendered in the council chamber. " The court of the Seine thus appointed, July 4, 1893, Mr. Lemarquis attorney for the Panama bondholders. According to this law (article 1) all similar proceedings then before the courts were suspended. By securing, April 4, 1893, at Bogota the contract authorising a second extension, and, July 1, 1893, by the agreement of the govern- mental authorities in France, the special law for the liquidation of the Interoceanic Canal Company, Mr. Monchicourt had, notwithstanding the extreme difficulties of that time, prepared the way for the reor- ganization of the work. Illness did not long permit him to enjoy the success of his efforts. - On the 21st of July, 1893, the state of his health compelled him to secure from the court of the Seine the appointment of Mr. Gautron as coreceiver. Messrs. Monchicourt and Gautron worked together until March 14, 1891, on which day Mr. Monchicourt died. There remained but a short time to effect, before October 31, 1894, the actual reorganization of the enterprise. To this end, Mr. Gautron, the receiver, and Mr. Lemarquis, the attorney for the bondholders, secured, by a series of compromises, from the managers of the old company, from the credit companies, from the contractors, and from a certain number of persons to whom various securities had been assigned, their cooperation in the new work, in the form of a sul)xerip>tion to shares of the company for the completion of the canal; the amount necessary to complete the full sum was to be asked of the bondholders and shareholders of the old company. The by-laws of the New Panama Canal Company were regularly filed on the 26th of June, 1894. The capital of the companj' was divided into 650,000 shares of 100 28 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. francs each, 000,000 of which were to be subscribed for; 50,000, wholly unincumbered, were to be sent to the Colombian Government in pur- suance of the laws and contracts authorizing 1 the extensions. The assets of the old company were transferred by the receiver to the new company, with precise enumerations and on terms which were clearly defined by the by-laws. These arrangements relative to the transfer of the assets were confirmed by the civil court. The court set aside objections of third parties which had been presented either with a view to protecting the general interest, by Mr. Lemarquis, or in behalf of private interests. The new company was thus definitely established. Appendix C. LIST OF DOCUMENTS RECEIVED BY THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION FROM THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. Fifteen copies Dossier C, containing 27 subdossiers, in 8 volumes; total number of maps and documents in one dossier, 157. (Litho- graphed.) Fifteen copies Dossier D, containing 10 subdossiers, in 6 volumes; total number of maps and documents in one dossier, 65. (Litho- graphed.) Ten tiles, each containing 1 lithographed documents treating of the method to be followed in making excavation at Culebra. Fifteen copies "Notes techniques." (Printed.) Fifteen copies atlas to accompany foregoing, each containing 17 lithographed plates. Ten copies note by General Abbot on the Regime of the Chagres. (Lithographed.) Ten copies note by General Abbot on the Feeding of the Canal. (Lithographed.) Ten copies note b}*- General Abbot on the Ratios of the Discharges of the Chagres at Gamboaand Bohio, and the Ratio of these Discharges to the Rainfall in the Drainage Areas above these points. (Litho- graphed.) Ten copies pamphlet containing: I. " Geological investigation on the Isthmus," by Marcel Bertrand and Philippe Zurcher. II. "Volcanic phenomena and earthquakes of Central America," by Marcel Ber- trand. (Printed.) Eleven copies report of 1898 of the "Comite technique," in French. (Printed.) Eleven copies English translation of the report of 1898 of the " Comite technique." (Printed.) Fourteen copies of the charter of the New Panama Canal Company, in French. (Printed.) Ten copies English translation of the charter of the New Panama Canal Company. (Printed.) Fourteen copies treaty of 1816 between the United States and the Republic of Colombia. (Printed.) Eleven copies "Aetes de concession." (Printed.) Twelve copies English translation of the concessions granted to the canal company. (Printed.) Fourteen copies Political Relations of the United States and the Republic of Colombia to the Panama Canal. (Printed.) Fourteen copies International Convention for Securing the Free Navigation of the Suez Canal. (Printed.) 29 30 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Ten copies of the forty-ninth annual report of the board of directors of the Panama Railroad Company. (Printed.) Thirteen copies general map of the Isthmus of Panama, scale 1 : 96000, by Colonel Totten. (Lithographed.) Three copies of the harbor of La Boca, scale 1:5000. (Litho- graphed.) Twelve copies, on parchment paper, of the general topographic map, scale 1 : 5000. (Lithographed. ) Ten copies of the above map, on linen, in detached sheets. (Litho- graphed.) Ten files, each containing the following documents relative to the constitution of the New Panama Canal Company: Reports of the board of directors and of the commissioners, and balance sheets for the vears 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899 (printed); charter (printed); judgment of the civil court of the Seine, rendered February 4, 1889 (manuscript); law of the 1st of July, 1893 (printed); judgment of the civil court of the Seine, of the 29th of June, 1891, confirming the charter of the company (manuscript). Six manuscript copies, in French, of the proces-verbal of the meet- ings of the commission at Paris. 1 copy hydrographic map of Colon Harbor, scale 1:5000, made by the old company in 1883. (Tracing.) 1 copy hydrographic map of Colon Harbor, scale 1:5000, made by the new company in 1895. (Tracing.) 1 copy geological profile of the Panama Canal, made b} r the old com- pany. Scales: Horizontal, 1:5000; vertical, 1:500. (Lithographed.) 1 copy plan showing the location of the test pits sunk at Culebra. Scale if 2000. (Tracing.) 1 cop3 r drawing showing the geological sections of the test pits sunk at Culebra. Scales: Vertical, 0.005 to 1 meter; horizontal, 0.01 to 1 meter. (Tracing.) One copy plan showing the location of the test pits at Emperador. Scale 1 : 5000. (Tracing. ) One cop3 r drawing showing the geological sections of the test pits sunk at Emperador. Scales: Vertical, 0.005 to 1 meter; horizontal, 0.04 to 1 meter. (Tracing.) One copy drawing showing the profile of the preparatory cunette at the Emperador. Culebra cut on 1st of Jul v, 1899. Scales: Vertical, 1:500; horizontal, 1:5000. (Black print.) One copy drawing showing the cross sections of the preparatory cunette at the Emperador. Culebra cut on the 1st of .July, 1899. Scales: Vertical, 1:500; horizontal, 1:5000. (Black print.) One copy profile on the center line of the canal, La Boca section, showing the various surveys made since the suspension of work by the oldcompany (1889), L895, L897, and 1S98. Scales: Horizontal, 1:5000; vertical, 1:1000. (Tracing.) One copy plan of the harbor of La Boca, scale 1:1000, showing the soundings made l>y the new company in conjunction with the Panama Railroad Company. (Tracing.) One copy drawing showing the locks at Bohio; genera! plan and geological profile, showing borings. Scales: Vertical, I :."><»<>; hori- zontal, L:1000. (Tracing.) One copy plan of the borings at Bohio, scale 1:1000, made on the sites of the dam across the valley of the Chagres, of the spillway, and of the discharge channel leading from the spillway. (Tracing.) REPORT OP THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 31 One copy drawing showing the geological section across the valley of the Cnagres, following the center line of a dam at Bohio. Scales: Horizontal, 1:1000; vertical, 1:500. (Tracing.) One copy plan showing the location of the borings at Obispo, and geological profiles of the dams. Scales: Plan, 1:5000; profiles, hori- zontal 1:2000, vertical 1:500. (Tracing.) One copy plan and geological sections showing the borings for the locks at Paraiso, Pedro-Miguel, and Miraflores. Scales: Plan, 1:5000; general profile, horizontal 1:5000, vertical 1:500. (Tracing.) One copy plan and geological sections from the borings at Gamboa, made by the old company and by the new company in 1896. Scales: Plan, 1:2000; geological sections," 1:500 and 1:200. * (Tracing.) One manuscript copy of the curve, showing the discharge of the Chagres. One manuscript cop} 7 of the inventory of the new Panama Canal Company's property on the Isthmus. Two manuscript copies of the June report of the engineer in charge at Culebra. One copy tabular statement of expenses at Emperador section, from July 1, 1897, to June 30, 1898. _ (Manuscript.) C*ne copy tabular statement of the expenses at Culebra section, from July 1, 1897, to June 30, 1898. (Manuscript.) One copy tabular statement of expenses at Emperador section, from July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899. (Manuscript.) One copy tabular statement of expenses at Culebra section, from July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899. (Manuscript.) One manuscript copy of Mr. Choron's analysis of the cost per cubic meter of concrete. One manuscript copy note giving the areas of Lake Bohio at eleva- tions 17 and 20. One manuscript copy note giving the areas of Lake Alhajuela at elevations 55, 61, and 68. One file containing the following documents relative to the study of the probable traffic of an interoceanic canal: (1) Note on the above stud}^ with nine appendices (manuscripts); (2) dictionary of the ports of the Pacific (manuscript); (3) results of the years 1888, 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898 (manuscript); (1) resume of the report of Mr. Michel, Chevalier — 1814 (manuscript); (5) resume of the report of Mr. Napo- leon Garella — 1815 (manuscript); (6) resume of the report of Prince Napoleon — 1816 (manuscript); (7) resume of the report of Mr. F. Belly — 1858 (manuscript); (8) resume of the report of Mr. Kelly and of Admiral Davis — 1876 (manuscript); (9) resume of the report of Mr. Joseph Nimmo — 1880 (manuscript); (10) text and resume of the report of Mr. Levasseur — Congress of 1879 (text in print, resume in manu- script); (11) resume of the report of the second and third commissions of the international congress (manuscript); (12) resume of the report of the "Commission d'Etudes" — Mr. Dajmiard, 1890 (manuscript); (13) resume of the report of Mr. P. Bunau-Varilla — 1892 (manuscript); (14) resume of the report of Mr. Keasby (manuscript); (15) Note on the tonnage of ships (manuscript); (16) two numbers of the Shipping and Mercantile Gazette (specimens) (printed); (17) one number Lloyd's Weekly Shipping Index (specimen) (printed). One copy Instructions and Regulations Relating to the Measurement of Ships and Tonnage under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1891. (In print.) 32 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. One copy manuscript note (attached to the above) giving references to be consulted for the method of obtaining American tonnage. One copy index map showing the canal company's original arrange- ment of sheets for the large topographic map, scale 1:5000. (Litho- graphed and mounted on linen.) File containing manuscript copies of the following communications addressed by the representatives of the New Panama Canal Company to the representatives of the United States Government: The compan}^ to President McKinley, November 18, 1898; Mr. Cromwell to Secretary Hay, December 2, 1898; Mr. Cromwell to Secretary Ha} r , December 3, 1898; Mr. Cromwell to Secretary Hay, December 21, 1898; the company, by Director-General Hutin and General Counsel Cromwell, to the President, February 28, 1899; the company, by the same, to Chairman Burton, of the Rivers and Harbors Committee, February 27, 1899; the company, by the same, to the President, March 11, 1899. Records of tide observations at Colon. Records of tide observations at Panama. Tabular statement of freight rates, prepared by Mr. Maurel in his investigations of savings to shippers. General statement by Mr. Hutin, giving past history of canal, a statement of the amounts of money raised and expended, and the results accomplished b} r both the old and the new companies. Plan of borings at site of diversion, Upper Gigante. (Tracing.) Longitudinal section of same. (Tracing.) Port de la Boca, soundings, September, 1899, and February, 1900. (Tracing.) Port de la Boca, port and maritime channel, scale 1:2000. (Trac- ing.) Port de la Boca, longitudinal profile. (Tracing.) Sketch and description of the Transporteurs de Deblais a lame d'acier, inspected b}^ the Commission near Tavernilla. (Manuscript.) Proceedings and report of the International Consultative Commis- sion upon the Suez Canal, 1884, 1885, in French. (Printed.) (Returned by request): Extracts from the report of the Commission d 1 Etudes, giving estimates of cost of maintenance of Panama Canal; cost of maintenance of the Manchester Ship Canal, 1895-1899; regulations for the navigation of the Suez Canal. Longitudinal profile, Atlantic maritime section, showing rock. Cross sections, Atlantic maritime section, showing rock. Recapitulation of quantities of rock to be excavated in Atlantic maritime section. Tabular statement showing operating expenses of the Kiel ('anal for the years 1897, 1898, 1899. Appendix *D. REPORT ON HYDROGRAPHY OF PANAMA CANAL ROUTE, MADE FOR THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION BY ARTHUR P. DAVIS, CHIEF HYDROGRAPHER. CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal '33 Hydrography of Panama 34 The Chagres River 34 Alhajuela station on Chagres River 36 Gamboa station on Chagres River 37 Bohio station on Chagres River 40 Minor streams on the isthmus 43 The floods of the Chagres River 43 Low water of the Chagres River , 45 Rainfall of the Isthmus of Panama 48 Report of W. W. Schlecht 52 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 1. Scene on Upper Chagres River. 2. Fluviograph at Bohio. 3. Overhanging ledge on Chagres River. 4. Cristobal Colon. 5. Alhajuela. 6. Comparison of gauging curves. 7. Hydrographs of Chagres River at Gamboa. 8. Comparative hydrographs of Chagres River. 9. Rating curves of floods. 10. Obispo lock site. 11. Fluviograph at Alhajuela. 12. Fluviograph at Gamboa. Washington, D. C. March IS, 1901. Rear- Admiral J. G. Walker, President Tsthmda/n Canal Commission. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the hydrog- raphy of the Panama Canal route. It includes a full account of the work prosecuted by me under your authority, and also the most impor- tant portions of the results obtained by the Panama Canal Company, together with a discussion of the same and the conclusions derivable from all the information at hand. Yours, with respect, Arthur P. Davis, Chief Ilydi'ixj /'if pla r. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 3 33 34 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. THE HYDROGRAPHY OF PANAMA. The hydrographic problem of the Panama Canal project requires a knowledge of the magnitude and habit of the flood discharge of the Chagres River and also in a minor degree of the tributaries of the Chagres and of the Rio Grande on the southern end of the line. It also requires a knowledge of the minimum flow of the Chagres River considered as a feeder to the summit level and the locks of the canal. Incidental to these matters the determination of rainfall is important, considered both as a source of water supply and as a hindrance to construction. Some observations upon these points were taken by the old Panama Canal Company, and since the organization of the new company the records have been much more thorough and complete of the discharge of the Chagres at Gamboa and Bohio. Since April, 1899, measure- ments have also been made at Alhajuela, where it is proposed by the canal company to construct a reservoir to serve as a regulator of the floods of the river and to store water for the use of the canal. The measurements of rainfall taken by the company were made at points where stream measurements were being made, and at La Boca, the southern end of the canal line, this record, however, being very short. These data are supplemented by rainfall records kept at Colon by the Panama Railway Company. This is the oldest record of rainfall in the vicinity of the Panama Canal, and is of great value in the study of hydrographic problems connected therewith. The work undertaken by this Commission consists mainly in an examination of the observations and results already obtained by the company, of a verification of their methods by actual held observations, and of an extension of the rainfall information, as far as possible, over the basin of the Chagres River. These operations were undertaken in November, 1899, and placed in charge of Mr. W. W. Schlecht, whose description of methods is appended to this report. In July and August, 1900, the writer made a personal inspection of the records of the old and new companies at the office of the Panama Canal Company in Paris, obtaining many details of value regarding the methods and data employed in arriving at the conclusions published by the company. It was found that the data obtained by the old company prior to the organization of the new was very fragmentary and incomplete, considerable periods being entirely skipped. The most serious lack of information was with respect to the magnitude of the great floods that have been observed upon the Isthmus, especially the maximum flood of 1879. The obser- vations taken by the new company are far more complete and satisfac- tory, but, unfortunately, they do not include any flood discharge as great as those that occurred under the regime of the old company. Every facility for the investigation of these records was extended by tin 1 Panama Company, and every possible assistance in the investi- gation uas courteously rendered by Gen. Henry L. Abbot, of the comite technique. THE CHAGRES RIVER. The main trunk of the Chagres is formed by two principal branches. The Pequeni rises near the Caribbean coast. Hows nearly south until it meets the Chagres proper a short distance above Alhajuela. The gen- eral course <>f the Upper Chagres from its source is southwest, and it continues in the same general direction after receiving the waters of FIG. 2.— FLUVlOGRAPH AT BOHIO. FIG. 3.— OVERHANGING LEDGE ON UPPER CHAGRES RIVER. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 35 the Pequeni to the mouth of the Obispo, where the proposed canal line leaves its valley. Its course is then westward to Tavernilla and from that point to its mouth its course is nearly northwesterly. Its total length is over 120 miles without including minor bends, although the width of the Isthmus at its mouth is less than 50 miles. The vari- ous drainage areas are about as follows: Sq. miles. Total area of Chagres drainage basin 1, 400 Upper Chagres (above Pequeni ) 300 Rio Pequeni 175 Above Alhajuela 505 Between Alhajuela and Gamboa 130 Above Gamboa 635 Rio Obispo 38 Between Gamboa and Bohio 245 Above Bohio 880 Between Alhajuela and Bohio 375 Below Bohio 520 Lower Gatun 145 The district below Bohio, drained by the Chagres and its tributaries, consists mainly of low hills and swamps. The river is sluggish, the effect of the tide being plainly perceptible at Bohio at low water, although the tidal fluctuations of the Caribbean are very slight. Above this point there are some modifications, the declivit} r being greater and the country higher and less swampy. Several rapids occur in this portion of the river, and above Obispo rapids are fre- quent and the river swift. The Upper Chagres is flanked by steep, rocky hills clothed with luxuriant vegetation, rapids are frequent, the water is everywhere swift and is very clear except in times of freshet. The stream is sinuous in many parts and bordered frequently by rock cliffs, lending variety to the scene, which is everywhere one of sur- passing beaut} 7 . In some cases the convex curve of the stream with its swift current has undermined the limestone cliffs, leaving over- hanging ledges and producing caverns of considerable extent. A photograph of one of these is shown in fig. 3. Measurements of discharge of the Chagres were made during 1900 at all three of the stations maintained by the company, namely, Alha- juela, Gamboa, and Bohio, to check the methods and results for the information of the Isthmian Canal Commission. A comparison of these results with those submitted by the company may be made from the following tables. It will be seen that the company's results are much the smaller. This is partly accounted for by the disagree- ment in gauging results, as obtained by current meters, and by taking 80 per cent of the velocity of surface floats; but this explanation does not apply to Bohio, where the gauging results are practically in agree- ment. The principal reason may be formed by an examination of the rating curves as plotted in fig. 6. It will be seen that the "general" curve, which is the one used for most of the computations made by the company, gives much lower values for all gauge heights than indicated by the measurements of dis- charge, and, in addition to this, the measurements themselves are too small, at least for Alhajuela and Gamboa. The fact that the results obtained by the float method were too small was pointed out by General Abbot in his note u Sur le regime du Chagres," page 6, where he remarked that — In these calculations the velocities measured are to be multiplied by 0.8. This is too great a reduction if we take account of the fact that the floats are to be liberated 36 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. on all the river, and not limited to the center, cient of 0.9 would be sufficient. According to my opinion, a coeffi- If the factor 0.9 were used in reducing the float measurements, as suggested by General Abbot, they would very nearly agree at Alha- juela and Gam boa with the current meter measurements, but at Bohio the agreement would not be so close. It is important to note, however, that the results obtained and put forth by the company are very conservative, the error being on the side of safety when considering the low water flow, and as a different formula, called the "special' 1 formula, is used for floods at Gamboa and Bohio, this error does not enter into them, and, as will be seen by the diagram, the special formulae agree closely with the observations. Detailed descriptions of the stations and a discussion of methods will be found in Mr. Schlecht's report, appended hereto, page 52. ALHAJUELA STATION ON Cn AGUES RIVER. This is the point on the Chagres, about 11 miles above Gamboa, where the Panama Canal Company proposes to build a high masonry dam to impound water for the use of the canal and to assist in the storage of floods. The dam site is about 7 miles, by the course of the river, below "Dos Bocas," the junction of the two main branches of the Chagres; the gauging station being about half a mile below the dam site. The company established the station on the loth day of April, 1S!>9, and still maintains it. The results given by the company are sum- marized as follows: Estimated mordhlg discharge of Chagres River at Alhqjuela. [Drainage area, 505 square miles.] OBSERVATIONS OP THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. Month. 1899. April 15-30 May June July August September October November December The year. Discharge in second-feet. Maximum. 1,024 2S, I'M I 1,200 15,640 27, 430 11,100 9, 990 28,660 11, 160 Minimum. 600 494 1,165 1,235 1,660 I, 150 I,. Mil > 1,520 1,580 28.660 706 1,590 2, 150 2,220 8,280 2, 100 2,660 2,930 2, 260 Total in acre-feet. 22, 400 97,700 127,930 136,600 201,680 I 12, SOU 1.62,940 1.74,350 L38.960 2,430 1,205,320 Run-oft. Second- feet per square mile. 3.15 4. 2fi 4.40 6.50 4.75 5. i r > 5.80 1. 17 Depth in inches. 8. 63 4.75 5.07 7. 19 5. 80 6.05 ('.. 17 5.15 13.91 Rainfall in basin. Inches. OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. 1900. M, L50 1,130 777 2,050 13,77(1 7,730 18, 180 20, 100 11,650 24,780 I 1,680 20,540 ■ 1,020 fit;.") 125 318 3SS 880 1,230 L.520 1,270 1,730 1,020 1,130 1,580 812 530 665 L,340 1,650 2, I '.«i 2, 820 2,160 8,210 2, 966 2,290 97,760 i:., loo 32,590 33,620 82, ion 92, 230 L84.660 173,400 127,930 L97.380 176, ISO 1 Id, SOI) 3. 15 1.60 1.06 1.12 2.65 3.07 1.88 6. 68 4.26 6.36 5. 87 4.68 8.68 1.67 1.21 1 . 25 8.06 8. 12 1.99 6. 18 4.75 7.88 6. 55 5. 22 Inches. 2. 27 .38 .82 4.06 1 1 . 88 10.57 .lulv 11.01 13.0J 15.00 16.39 1 1.92 8.76 The year 21,780 318 1,840 1,334,300 8.64 49. 51 113.80 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 37 Estimated monthly discharge of Chagrea River at Alhajuela— Continued. PROM OBSERVATIONS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Discharge in second-feet. Total in acre-feet. Run-off. Month. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Second feet per square mile. Depth in inches. 4. 13 t.88 1.88 1.39 :;. 62 1.27 7.18 9.35 6. 85 11.16 9. 95 7.49 Rainfall in hasin. 1900. 14,535 1,365 849 2,032 17, 460 10, 395 21,950 27, 400 17, 065 31,740 20, 670 28,020 1,230 652 497 395 176 1,025 1,814 2,157 1,720 2,710 2,223 1,396 1,941 916 608 631 1,588 1,934 3, 1 IS 4,094 3,101 4,889 4,504 3,286 119, 350 50, 870 37, 380 37, 550 97, 640 115, 080 193, 560 251,730 184, 520 300, 010 268, 010 202,050 3.84 1.81 1.20 1.25 3.14 3.83 6.23 8.11 6.14 9. 68 S. 92 6.50 Inches. 2.27 .38 .32 4.06 May 11.88 16. 57 July 14.64 13.01 15.60 16.39 14.92 3.76 31, 740 395 2, 567 1,858,350 6.i. 95 113. 80 Ratio of run-off to rainfall = 60 per cent. COMPUTED FROM RATING TABLE OF ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, USING THE GAUGE HEIGHTS OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY AS THE ARGUMENT. 1901. January February March April May June 5,070 3,630 2,290 3,040 85,460 21,280 850 560 415 265 815 990 1,165 766 541 509 2,050 2,360 71,630 42, 640 33,260 30, 290 126,050 140, 430 2.31 2. 66 1.52 1.58 1.07 1.23 1.01 1.13 4.06 4.68 4.67 5.21 GAMBOA STATION ON CHAGEES RIVER. This is the station of longest record of any on the isthmus. It is near the point where the canal line leaves the valley of the Ohagres; the river valley ascending- from this point to the northeast, while the canal line proceeds to the southeast to cut through the continental divide to the Pacific. It was at one time proposed to construct a dam at this point, and the canal company began observations here, but a careful examination of the records in Paris failed to bring to light any con- tinuous record of river stages prior to 1892, but a number of discharge measurements for 1889-1891 were obtained, and are given herewith. A graphic exhibit of the flow from 1893 to 1898 is shown in figure 7, and a comparison with Alhajuela and Bohio for 1899 and 1900 is shown in figure 8. Amwal summary of discharge measurements made by the Panama Canal Company at Gamboa. Discharge in second-feet. Total in acre-feet. Run-off. Year. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Second- feet per square mile. Depth in inches. Rainfall at Colon. 42, 000 51,100 26,190 27,990 1893 759 530 565 3,610 3,770 2,880 2, 880 3,880 3, 000 2.580 2, 360 2, 612, 607 2, 732, 284 2,083,740 2, 093, 910 2, 806, 070 2, 169, 630 1,870,500 1,705,100 5. 69 5.94 4.53 4.53 6.11 4.72 4.06 3.72 77.14 80.68 61.55 61.83 82.84 64. 05 55. 23 50.35 131.89 1894... 153. 69 1895 151.54 1896 131. 51 1897 12. 191 1 28, 770 26, 190 23, 720 138. 03 1898... 777 706 388 115. 55 1899.... 133. 02 1900 ., »108. 01 >Mean rainfall on basin. 38 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Estimated monthly discharge of Chagrea Hirer at Gamboa. [Drainage area, 635 square miles.] OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. Month. May June July August September. October . . . November . December . The year . 1893. January . . February . . March April May June July August September. October ... November . December The vear January . . . February . . March, April May June July August September. October ... November . December . The vear January . February . . March April May June July August September. October November. December . 1895. The vear. January . . . February. . March April May June July August September. October ... November. Decern tier . The year Discharge in second-feet. Maximum. 28, 770 17,930 27, 320 25, 910 7, 275 19, 840 •12, 000 25, 200 Minimum. •12, 000 2, 892 3,563 6,512 23, 102 26, 620 6,039 17, 300 21, 140 10, 389 9,535 19, 840 51,100 51,100 26, 189 2,260 1,225 2,317 13, 278 7,190 18, 222 14, 804 18, 462 6,039 21,780 32, 510 32, 510 14,610 3,350 3,210 14, 120 12, 430 25, 560 21,000 19, 340 12, 140 27, 990 27, 990 2,345 2, 260 2, 232 3,531 3,178 3, 284 3,990 2, 860 Mean. Total in acre-feet. 1,865 1,423 759 1,201 1,497 2, 147 2,034 3,146 2,430 2, 260 3,249 3,178 759 2,175 1,201 742 572 530 798 1,349 2,670 2,486 2, 860 1,910 1,160 850 565 1,760 1, 690 1,410 2, 050 600 1,690 5,311 3,590 7,114 5, 950 4,476 5,848 6,715 5,968 2,293 1,993 1,134 3,190 3, 045 3,200 3,472 4, 538 3,813 3,733 4,494 8,252 3,610 3,858 1,633 948 760 1,358 2, 180 4,199 3,864 4,402 "4,690 » 6, 530 '10, 620 3,770 3,530 1,480 1,200 1,130 3, 210 2, 930 2, 860 3,740 3,140 4,590 3, 280 3, 2.S0 2,880 2, 220 1,130 »630 3,070 3, 280 3,810 2,720 2, 580 3, 420 3, ISO 4,980 3, 600 326, 561 213, 620 437, 423 363, 084 266,341 359, 580 399, 570 366,958 Run-off. Second- feet per square mile. 2, 733, 137 140, 991 110,686 69, 727 189, 818 187, 229 190, 410 213, 484 279, 031 226, 890 229, 533 267, 412 507, 396 2, 612, 607 237, 219 90, 692 58, 290 45, 223 83, 500 129,719 258, 186 237, 588 261,937 288, 370 388, 560 653, 000 2, 732, 284 217, 050 82, 200 73, 790 67, 240 197, 380 174, 350 175,850 229,960 186,840 282, 230 195, 170 201,680 2, 083, 740 2, 880 136,500 05,000 :;s, 7io 182,680 201, 6so 226, 710 167,250 158,640 203, 500 195,530 296, 33C 221,350 2,093,910 8.36 5.65 11.20 9.37 7.05 9.21 10. 57 9.40 3.61 3.13 1.79 5. 02 4. 80 5.04 5.47 7.15 6.00 5.88 7.08 13.00 6.08 2. 57 1.50 1.20 2.14 3.43 6.61 6.09 6.93 7.38 10. 28 16.72 5. 56 2.33 1.89 1.78 5.06 1.61 4.50 5. 89 4. 95 7.23 5.17 5.17 4.53 3. 50 1.78 .99 4.84 5.17 6 4.28 4.06 5.39 6 7.84 5.67 4.63 Depth in inches 9.64 6.30 12. 91 10.80 7.87 10.62 11.80 10.84 4.16 3.26 2.06 5.60 5.53 5. 62 6.31 S.21 6. 69 6.78 7.90 14.99 77.14 7.01 2. 68 1.73 1.84 2. -17 3.82 7.62 7.02 7.73 8.51 11.47 19.28 SO. 68 6.41 2.43 2.18 1.99 5. S3 5. I I 5. 19 6.79 5. 52 8.34 5.77 5.96 61.55 4.04 1.92 1.11 5. 10 5.96 6. 69 4.94 4.6° 6.01 5.76 8.75 6.54 61.83 Colon rainfall (inches). 'These means are obtained by averaging the discharge measurements. A _H/i JU IU V _-■ --- ^ — -- ~-~~ 1 „-' .-!- """■" „„* .*■'■ .- A *£ o .<•" ^,.»- .-^' GA MB OA ..> ^,- *»" & ^ V"' J ^^ ^ •" .^ * J* .* y ,■«' • s , f / / B DH o ^« &** ^r ,«-«* -•' ^ .*> ^-"" ^f#* <^ ■*** ^ _,*» S a / * /' S^ / # rS & a * V 'r V s ft OBSERVATIONS MADE Br' ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION O RATING CURVE* ISTHMIAN CANAL COM-MISSION ■ * . OBSERVATIONS MADE BY PANAMA CANAL COMPANY A RATING CURVES PANAMA CANAL COMPANY ^"V^lar"— — ~— FIG. 6.— COMPARISON OF GAGING CURVES, SHOWING THE REASON FOR THE DISCREPANCY IN THE RESULTS OBTAINED BY THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY AND THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 39 Estimated monthly discharge of ' kagres River ai Gamboa — Continued. OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY— Continued. Monti). Discharge in second-feet. Maximum Minimum. Total In acre-feet. Run-oir. Second- feet per square mile. Depth in inches. Colon rainfall (inches). January . . . February .. March .."... April May June July August September. October November. December . The year January . . . February . . March April May June July A ugust September. October November . December . The year . 1899. January . February . . March April May June July August September. October November . December . The vear 42, 190 12, 110 13, 480 13, 870 IS, 250 20, 020 42,190 27, 710 2,930 2,540 28,770 9,920 11,650 18, 900 14, 510 7,270 20, 470 27, 600 5,790 28, 770 22, 060 6,740 20, 470 14, 120 14, 120 26, 190 11,750 13, 730 23, 890 13,200 26, 190 2,050 3,920 4,270 2, 050 3,070 1,450 5,120 1,130 777 670 6,710 6, 570 5,360 »4,090 »3,850 3, 560 4,130 4,270 3,880 2,010 1,130 777 777 1,340 1,380 2,330 2,470 1, 660 1,340 1,020 1,690 4,310 1,480 1,020 1,840 2,470 2,860 4, 240 4,130 2,540 3,460 5,190 2,290 3,000 1,730 706 706 1,310 1,340 1,870 1,660 1,840 1,870 1,620 3,490 950 950 1,060 1,910 2,470 2, 820 4,240 3,180 3,390 3,740 2, 650 701 ; 2,580 314, 800 62, 760 47, 780 39, 870 412, 580 390, 940 329, 570 251,480 229, 090 218, 900 245, 750 262, 550 8.06 1.78 1.22 1.06 10. 57 10. 35 8.44 6.44 6.06 5.60 6.50 6.72 , 806, 070 6.11 265, 010 82, 200 62, 720 109, 490 151,870 170, 180 260, 700 253, 940 151,140 212, 750 308, 830 140, 800 6.80 2.33 1.60 2.90 3.89 4.50 6.68 6.50 4 5.45 8.17 3.60 2, 169, 630 4.72 214, 600 52, 760 58,410 63, 070 117,440 146, 970 173, 400 260, 700 189, 220 208, 440 222,550 162,940 1,870,500 5.50 1.50 1.50 1.67 3 3.89 4.41 6.68 5 5.34 5. 89 4.17 4.06 9.29 1.85 1.41 1.18 12. 19 11.55 9. 73 7.42 6.76 6.46 7. 25 7.75 82. 84 7.84 2.43 1.84 3.24 4.48 5.02 7.70 7.49 4.46 6. 28 9.12 4.15 64. 05 6.34 1.56 1.73 1.86 3.46 4.34 5.12 7.70 5.58 6.16 6.57 4.81 55. 23 3.42 .04 .28 3.74 16.34 18.82 11.06 17.24 17. 20 5.83 22. 16 18.90 138. 03 5.04 .35 1.58 4.72 12.83 16. 38 21.89 10.91 10.24 11.38 12. 28 7.95 115. 55 6.93 6.49 1.26 .43 13.90 6. 41 27.68 14.80 16. 55 15. 04 14.49 9.04 133. 02 OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. 1900 January February March April May June July August September October November December The year 23. 720 1,060 1,690 600 810 424 530 388 565 424 1,340 918 1,940 1,480 3,350 1,620 3, 565 1,450 3,070 2, 050 4,520 1,910 4,060 1,160 2,680 388 2,360 103,910 44,980 32, 590 33, 620 82, 400 115,440 205, 980 219, 200 182, 680 277, 920 241,590 164,790 2.66 1.28 .83 .89 2.11 3.06 5.27 5.61 4.83 7.12 6.40 4. 22 1,705,100 3.72 3.07 1.33 .96 .99 2.43 3.41 6.08 6.47 5. 39 8.21 7.14 4.87 50. 35 2.09 .35 .29 3.94 11.15 15.94 14. 47 12.43 14.69 15.78 13.86 3.02 108. 01 "These means are obtained by averaging the discharge measurements. 40 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Estimated monthly discharge of Chagres River at Gamboa — Continued. FROM OBSERVATIONS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Discharge in second-feet. Total in acre-feet. Run-off. Month. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Second- feet per square mile. Depth in inches. Rainfall at Colon. 1900. 14,030 1,420 805 1,745 15, 900 ' 12, 550 21,980 26, 300 20, 060 29, 900 22, 760 27, 900 889 726 509 443 492 1,205 2,058 2,222 1,899 2,795 2,461 1,509 2,026 970 641 637 1,615 2, 426 1, 104 4,692 3, 750 5, 846 5,415 3,380 124, 570 53, 870 39, 410 37,900 99, 300 144, 360 252, 350 288, 500 223, 140 359, 460 322, 220 207, 830 3.19 1.53 1.01 1 2.54 3.82 6.62 7.39 5.91 9.21 8.53 5.32 3. 66 1.59 1.16 1.11 2.91 4.25 7.62 8.51 6.59 10.61 9.52 6.13 I?iches. 2.09 .35 .29 3.94 11.15 15. 94 July 14.47 12.43 14.69 15.78 13.86 3.02 29, 900 443 2,974 2,152,910 63.66 108. 01 Ratio of run off to rainfall = 59 per cent. COMPUTED FROM RATING TABLE OF ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, USING THE GAUGE HEIGHTS OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY AS THE ARGUMENT. 1901. January February March April May June 4, 020 2, 960 1,480 2, 760 26, 300 18, 310 911 1,236 560 817 395 541 278 498 955 2, 190 1,205 2,500 76,000 1.94 2.24 45, 370 1.27 1.32 33,450 .86 .99 29, 630 .78 .87 134.660 3.45 3.98 148, 760 3.94 4.40 BOHIO STATION, ON CHAGRES RIVER. The present plans of both the isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Canal Company provide for a dam at Bohio. The company established a fluviograph here in 1895, and a record of discharge has been kept ever since. Annual summary of discharge measurements made by the Panama ('anal Company at Bohio. Discharge in second-feet. Total in acre-feet. Run-off. Year. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Second- feet per square mile. Depth in inches. Rainfall at Colon (inches). 27, 7n0 28,960 38, 790 27, Mill 25,870 23,860 710 600 495 780 600 490 4,510 1,220 4, 850 3,960 3, 100 3, 520 8,263,810 3, 062, 960 3,514,390 2, 865, 730 2, 458, 420 2,561,810 6. 12 69.52 151.54 1897 4.80 65.28 5. 51 74. 88 181.51 188.03 L898 4.50 3.86 4 61.07 52. 10 64. 88 L15.55 L899... 133. 02 l'JOO • 108.67 •Mean rainfall on basin. '■""* JAN FEB MAR o PR 'MAY JUNE JULY $H§ SEPT. To 20 SSi- NOV DE IO 1 J ,m •ss MAR. APR MAY K) 20 IO ZO IO 20 jyNE JULY AUG. SEPT OCT. NOV DEC. l X 18 9: 18 9" 1 1 ll X ill lii lI l ■WIPIIIIIIIIITW'rT ' ' '"W "' ^ . *m\ 1 IPirt IIIHIII 6.000 4.000 iftOOO IO.OOO eooo 4.000 *.O0O JAN FEB MAR 10 20 APR IO 20 MAY 10 20 JUNE 10 20 JULY I0 20 AUG. ■o eo SEPT. IO 20 OCT lO£0 NOV. 10 20 DEC. IO 20 #&■ Wg- MAR. APR MAY IO 20 JUNE o eo JULY 10 20 AUG SEPT 10 20 OCT. NOV. IO SO DEX. seooo leooo 18 3: 8 96 14.000 12 000 1 eooo | i. | 1 is i % 1 ,1 i , L J k 1 1 « „ y 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 ""■ i: 2 g.000 0.000 d 8.00O z o o 6.000 £ 4.00O K U Q. 2.000 h o.ooo u L. aooo o 020 JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT NOV DEC toao loao toao ioeo ioeo tozo 'ozo JAN. 020 rce. MAR toeo APR t 10 20 /AY JUNL JULV AUG 20 10 30 10 20 I0 25 St FT.' OCT NOV 10 ^O OK) 10 20 osx 10 20 ' .ulha. ue: L/ ^ 1 2 8 OOO 26.O00 aooo 8 9l> '9 0O £6000 24000 22.000 20000 1*000 tQ 8 6 l00O ° lit 1 OOO Aooo L 1 111 III ft OOO , r w Villi ' 1 L il |i il iU 'H OOO o — — — ■ GA M E iO> l\ O UN0-4- 89 J 9O9 Jl Q - n O tf) -1 - 6 OOO 5 Q. r___ i 1 hi i i^ m f Ml If IP f m m "W| ■ 2O00 £ L. n^ui mii> « •«" ' ^ V W :.*" 1 - .• ' [ E 10 k (O U ■89) 9 Op 3 - 22.O0O U 1 ,i h i ki i v i i 1 ii i 1 IP 1 111 ji • , |; ■ >, i 4 A G \( iE H E G ■r S ( )F F L O DC S J ^ ' \ — / V 8 9 J /' 8< >0 \ > > f ^ **» > i l . > !l D/ vs O 400 800 1200 1600 2000 24-' METERS' 2800 3200 3600 4000 FIG. 9.— RATING CURVE FOR FLOODS OF THE CHAGRES RiVER AT BOHIO. Constructed by the Isthmian Canal Commission from observations of the Panama Canal Company, 1890-1899 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION 45 The waste weir provided is to be at elevation 85 feet above sea level or slightly less than 26 meters, and is to have a length of 2,000 feet. This flow continued for f ortj'-eight hours would result in a total dis- charge of 444,300 acre-feet, or about 9,300 acre-feet per hour. A sus- tained discharge of this amount would raise the lake to a head of about 6.6 feet over sill of the weir. This, however, may be taken as the extreme condition, which will never be exceeded. LOW WATER OF THE CHAORES RIVER. The Chagres River being the one feeder to the summit level of the proposed canal, its mean and minimum flow is very important as indicating the amount of storage that must be provided for the opera- tion of the canal during the dry season. The mean flow for the various months of the year as determined by averaging all the monthly records at Gamboa in our possession since 1892, are as follows: Cubic feet per second. January 3, 310 February 1, 330 March 900 April 1, 530 May 3, 180 June 3,280 Cubic feet per second. July 4,010 August 4, 080 September 3, 540 October 4, 110 November 4, 790 December 4, 850 Averaging these quantities, we find the mean annual discharge is about 3,200 cubic feet per second. As the maximum consumption and loss by leakage and evaporation is but little over 1,000 cubic feet per second, we find that the month of March is the only month having a shortage in average years, and as this is the record for Gamboa, and the discharge at Bohio, where the dam is to be constructed, is some- what greater, we may say that the requirements of the canal are less than the average discharge for any month in the year, and if one- third of the mean annual flow can be saved, there will be ample for canal purposes. But some years furnish less water than others, and to correctly solve the problem of the water supply for the canal we must consider the yield in the minimum year. In all the observations at Bohio the lowest monthly means are for the months of March and April, 1891, as shown by the mean of eight measurements made in each of those months. More records, however, are at hand for Gamboa than for Bohio, and the lowest reading at the Gamboa fluviograph occurred in the spring of 1901, when for a period of about two and one-half months the fluviograph at Gamboa indicated a stage of less than 14 meters almost continuously, the lowest point reached being 13.72. This corresponds to a discharge of from 7 to 8 cubic meters per second. In the examination of the records in Paris an elevation at Gamboa was found for the last three days of March, 1896, giving the stage as 13.1 meters. The rest of the month of March and the first half of April are entirely blank, no record having been kept. It is impossible that this could have been a fluviograph record, since the river would be diy before reaching so low an elevation at the location of the fluvio- graph, and the only plausible explanation is that given by the officers of the company that this record was on a rod a considerable distance below the fluviograph, and this statement is confirmed by the reports 46 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of discharge on these dates, which are 16.8, 16.8, and 16.9 cubic motors, respectively, leaving no doubt that "at this time the river was above the stage reached in 1900. No other record gives a stage of river as low as that reached in 1900. The year 1891, however, seems to have had a still lower dry-season flow. No fluviograph records were obtainable, except such as were given with the measurements of discharge, and these do not show any stage as low as that of 1900, but in so long a time the bed of the river would be likely to change, and the measurements show that it has done so. Of actual gaugings we have (p. 18) 8 for February, 8 for March, and 8 for April. The measurement on the 1st of May shows low water, while that of May 4 exhibits a freshet. The indications of the gaugings are that up to February 14 the dis- charge of the river was above the requirements of the canal, while from February 15 to May 3 they were below. This is the same period for which 8 measurements per month were made at Bohio. The means are 39 cubic meters per second for Februaiy, 17 for March, and 17 for April. This is the lowest discharge at Bohio of which we have record. It is, of course, not certain that a drier year has not occurred or will not occur, and in making the estimates it will be assumed that the mean of 17 cubic meters or 600 cubic feet per second is continuous for ninety days, from February 1 to May 1. The requirements and losses of the canal in operation, as estimated by this Commission, are as follows: Cubic feet per second. Lockage 406 Power 200 Leakage 257 Evaporation 207 Total : 1,070 Applying this quantity, we have for the ninety days, from Feb- ruary 1 to May 1: Acre-feet. Total leakage, lockage, and evaporation, 1,070 cubic feet per second 191,000 Less inflow - 107, 000 Deficit 84,000 Taking 24,000 acres as the area of the lake, this will lower the lake about 3.5 feet. An allowance of this amount is therefore ample for the most extreme case. This brings the elevation of the lake to 81.5 foot, which maybe regarded as the elevation reached in (ho minimum year of a long scries, and would occur perhaps only once in a generation. If the consump- tion and loss should bo loss than 1,070 cubic feet per second the deficit would, of course, be diminished. The dry season of L900 would have brought the lake level to an ele- vation of about 82.5. The possibility always remains of constructing a large reservoir at Alhajuela, which will not only guard against all possibility of annoy- ing currents in Lake Bohio, but will store sufficient water for use in the dry season so that the lake need never decline below the sill of the waste weir. It is indeed true, as stated by General Abbot, that the Chagres is a river well adapted to the service of the proposed Panama CanaL REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 47 Discharge measurements math- m> C'liagres River at Gamboa. [Made by Panama Canal Company.] Date. September 27 . September 30 . October 2.. October 5. . October 9.. October 12. October 15. October 19. October 23. October 26. October 30. Mean . November 2 . . November 6 . November 9 . . November 14 November 16 . November 20 November 22 November 30 . Mean. . January 13 February 11 February 21 February 27 Mean . March 1.. March 6.. March 11 . March 19. March 27. Aprils.. April 10. April 14. April 17. April 19. April 22. April 25. April 29. Mean May 3 . May 6 . May 9 . May 12 May 16 Mav 20 May 23 Mav 27 May 30 June 3 .. June 6 .. June 7 . . June 10. June 13. June 17. June 20. June 24 . June 27 . Height, jjjjjge 15. 4 15.7 15.8 15.1 15.4 15.0 15. 9 15.4 15.1 15. 2 15.4 15.2 15.4 15.0 15.4 15.2 17.1 15. 1 16.8 14.5 14.4 14.3 14.3 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.4 14.2 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.4 17. 14.8 14.4 15.8 16.1 15. 2 14.8 15.2 14.8 15.4 15. 6 16.8 16.4 14.8 16.8 15.5 15.1 15. 2 1, lis 4,977 5,154 5,613 3,951 5, 330 3, 459 6, 107 4,977 3, 600 4,165 4,707 5,366 4, 236 4, 942 3,812 4,765 4,660 11,614 3,600 5,374 9,531 9, 531 1,412 1,412 1,236 1,353 1,270 1,094 882 882 1,341 1,094 812 600 600 565 600 586 777 1,306 731 14,470 3,530 1,165 6,707 8,013 3,990 2, 824 3, 990 2, 753 5,271 4,483 4,518 10, 307 8,472 2,471 11, 120 4,730 3,636 3,777 5, 946 Date. July 1 . July 7 . July 8 . July 8 . July 16 July 18 Julv 22 July 25 Julv 29 1890. Mean . August 1 . . August 5.. August8.. August 12. August 14. August 19. August 22. August 26. August 29. August 31. Mean . September 5 . . September 9 . . September 12 . September 13 . September 16 . September 19 . September 21 . September 26 . September 30 . Mean . . . October 3 . . October 7 . . October 10 . October 14 . October 17 . October 21 . October 24 . October 25 . October 31 . Mean. November 4 . November 7 . November 11 November 14 November 18 November 22 November 25 November 29 Mean. .. December 2.. December 5. . December 9. . December 12. December 16. December 19. December 23. December 26. December 30. Mean.. January 2 . January 6 . January 9 . January 13 January 16 January 20 1891. Height. 15.4 15.2 15.2 17.2 15.6 15.4 15. 2 16.6 15.0 14.8 15.4 15.3 15.8 16.2 15.3 15.2 15.9 15.3 17.1 15.4 15.2 15.6 17.7 16.0 15.5 16.3 15.4 15.9 15.4 15.4 15.9 15.3 15.2 15.1 17.1 18.4 15.3 15.2 15.1 15.4 15.2 15.0 15.6 15.4 15.1 18.0 15.6 15.6 15.2 15.4 15.5 15.4 15.4 15.2 15.1 14.9 15.1 14.7 14.7 14.6 Dis- charge. 4,483 3,954 3, 636 11,331 5, 013 4, 518 3,777 8,930 3,000 5,404 2,400 4,624 4,377 5, 720 7,554 4,306 4,060 6,954 4,448 12, 320 5,676 4, 977 4,130 5,330 15, 890 6,920 5,083 8,225 4,342 6,460 6,817 4, 518 4,660 5,825 3,742 4,024 3,600 10, 307 17,900 3,777 6, 483 3,777 3, 565 4,412 3,990 3,018 5, 048 4, 589 3,248 3, 956 14,296 5,471 6,178 3,600 4,554 5,295 4,836 5,013 3,990 5,915 3,353 2,612 3,177 1,836 1,765 1,482 48 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Discharge measurements made on Chagres River at Gamboa — Continued. Day. January 23 . January 27 . January 30 . Mean February 3 . . February 6 . . February 10 . February 13 . February 17 . Februa ry 20 . February 24 . February 27 . Mean . March 3 . . March 6 . . March 10 . March 13 . March 17 . March 20 . March 24 . March 27 . March 31 Mean . April 3.. April 7.. April 10. April 14. April 17. April 21. April 24. April 28. Mayl.. May i.. Mays.. May 12. May 15. May 19. Mav22. May 26. May 29. Mean June 2 . . June 5.. June 9 . . June 12 . June 16 . June 19 . June 23. June 26 . June 30 . Me; July 3. July 7. July8. „ . , , Dis- Hel Sht. charge 14.6 14.6 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.4 14.5 14.4 14.4 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.2 14.1 14.1 1,553 1,341 1,341 2,051 1,236 988 1,130 1,024 847 928 709 709 946 720 681 745 582 540 551 600 434 515 14.2 IS. 2 14. 5 14.1 11.1 15.0 14.4 14.7 14.8 14.7 14.7 14.7 14.3 14.5 15.8 14.7 11.4 14. S 14.5 14.6 17.5 572 568 547 441 614 522 544 473 535 512 18,285 1,701 618 512 3, 036 1 , 423 2, 40 1 2, 580 4,524 2, 051 2, 365 2, 230 1,097 1,750 6, 080 1,860 1 , 377 2, 602 2,379 1,518 1,871 11,967 Date. July 13. July 17. Jul v 21. Jul v 24. July 28. Julv 31. 1891. Mean . August i . . August 7. . August 11. August 14. August 18. August 21. August 25. August 28. Mean . September 1 . . September 4 .. Septembers .. September 11 . September 15. September 18 . September 21 . September 29 . Mean October 2.. October 6.. October 9.. October 13. October 16. October 20. October 23. October 27. October 30. October 31. Mean November 3 . . November (i . . November 10 . No vein tier 13 November 17 . November 19 November 24 . November 27 . Mean December l . . December i. . December 8. . December 11 . December 15. December is. December 22. December 27. December 29. Mean Height. 16.0 14.7 15.0 14.7 15.5 14.7 14.9 15.2 14.9 14.7 15.0 14.8 15.0 14.7 15.4 15.1 15.3 14.8 14.7 14.7 15.7 14.8 14.9 14.7 14.6 15.1 16.4 15.4 15.6 16.5 15.4 17.0 15.1 15.5 15.4 15. 2 14.9 19.2 15. 3 17.5 16.9 15.6 17.5 15.1 15.0 14.8 14.8 14.7 14.6 Dis. charge. 5,825 1,977 3,000 1, 588 4,483 1,906 3,793 2,683 3,777 2,577 2, 259 3, 142 2,330 3,354 2,120 2, 780 4,130 3,000 4,312 2,259 2, 083 1,518 4,590 2,330 3,032 "2,316 2, 120 1,870 3, 390 6, sis 4,095 4,886 4,695 3,954 10, 555 1. 16S 3, 142 4,377 8, 636 3, 565 2, 294 26, 475 3, 8 is 12,637 7, 497 9, 955 4, 907 12,885 2,930 2,790 2, 153 3,083 1.730 1,590 4,670 K UNFALL. Notwithstanding the fact that the isthmus is narrow and the Cordil- lera low in the vicinity of Panama, there is a striking difference of rainfall between the Caribbean or northern and the Pacific or .southern coast of the isthmus in this region. The contrast is similar, though not so striking as that between the east and west coasts of Nicaragua. The mean rainfall at Colon as shown by a record of nearly thirty years is 130 inches, while that at Panama, though not so well determined, is only 66.8. The precipitation at Panama and vicinity is confined REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 49 almost entirely to the months from May to November, inclusive, the rest of the 3^ear being the dry season. At Colon, though the rainfall is less during the dry season, there is still quite a precipitation, the mean for April being 4.54 and for January 3.73, while these two months are dry on the Panama side. February and March arc less likely to yield any considerable precipitation, but no month is exempt from rainfall on the coast of the Caribbean. The upper portion of the Chagres drainage basin represents the mean between these extremes. (See map.) The longest record of rainfall in the vicinity is that of Colon, which continues from March, 1881, to date, with the exception of a period of twent}^-one months in 1888-89. This station, however, is not on the Chagres drainage, and the records which are in that basin are not so long. They are mainly at Gamboa and Obispo, with very short records at Bohio, Gorgona, and Alhajuela. Short records also exist at Panama, at La Boca, the south end of the canal, and at Naos, an island in the Bay of Panama. The long records of stream flow at Gamboa and Bohio, together with an approximate knowledge of the area of the drainage basin, and the observations of rainfall, constitute a valuable contribution to the knowledge of the ratio of rainfall to run off in the Tropics, the weakest point being the information on rainfall, the only records in the basin being confined to the lower valley, and being, moreover, very short. If a definite relation could be established between the long Colon record and the mean of the Chagres basin, it would increase the value of these data to an important extent. For this purpose, five stations above Alhajuela were established in 1899, two at different points on Rio Pequeni at Salamanca and Las Minas, one on the Upper Chagres at Santa Barbara, and two at high elevations above the river valley. Of the latter, one is on a hill between the Chagres and Pequeni, 700 feet above the nearest point of the Chagres, and the other is between the Chagres and Puente, about 500 feet above the river. Salamanca and Las Minas were discontinued at the end of 1900. The others were dis- continued October 30, 1900. Their relative location is shown on the map. These stations, considered with those lower in the basin, are taken as the mean for the basin, and compared with observations at Colon as follows: Rainfall at Colon compared with the mean rainfall in the l>asin of the Chagres River. January . . . February . . March April May June July August September. October November . December . Total Colon. 1872 (maxi- mum). Inches. 3.57 .75 .83 1.30 21.43 22 19. 90 19.97 16.20 30. 32 19.11 13. 12 1884 (mini- mum). Inches. 3.39 .39 . 39 4.33 10. 16 10.32 15.59 13.27 9.37 8.66 7.05 3.62 168. 50 86.54 Inches. 6.06 .33 1.06 .75 12.25 11.65 16.81 17.04 9.37 16.33 20.28 "9.04 120. 97 Mean for 30 years. Inches. 3.56 1.52 1 . 55 4.42 12.27 13.46 16.92 15.53 12.77 11.20 20.56 12.49 129. 25 Basin. Inches. 2.44 .33 .32 3.78 10. 45 15.67 15. 28 12. 36 14.33 15.48 15. 10 "3.59 109. 13 Mean rainfall on basin: 129.25, 109.13, 120.97, or 116.00 inches. a To obtain a comparison for a complete year, the rainfall for December, 1899, is included, because during December, 1900, many stations in the basin were discontinued. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 4 50 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Monthly rainfalls. [1862-1874, by Drs. White and Kluge, surgeons Panama Railroad Company; 1881-1S98, by Panama Canal Company; 1898-1900, by Panama Railroad Company.] COLON. Year. .Tan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. L862 13.10 11.22 12.83 9.69 15.04 20.50 13.13 14.82 11.21 12.58 30.32 14.30 16.65 12. 91 14.96 16.77 8.66 7.99 14.33 19.61 43.01 17.59 17.90 22.16 21.72 16.83 15.21 16.40 5.58 8.42 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1.75 1.90 1.10 3.99 1.56 1.17 .83 4.30 15.42 3.57 6.33 5.33 2.94 .77 1.08 1.07 .80 2.77 .77 3.33 .53 .75 .25 1.34 .85 .78 .02 .21 .48 2.18 .49 4.95 .05 .83 .13 3.94 1.08 1.69 .55 .39 .55 9.17 .47 1.26 4.70 .44 3.89 4.07 1.20 .87 5.04 6.46 1.52 1.30 2.18 18.02 2.52 1.73 1.77 4.33 1.34 1.58 10.63 13.09 15.87 9.22 14.76 11.88 7.24 6.72 20.95 1.63 21.43 3.92 8.92 10.04 13.23 11.85 10.16 7.91 13.15 10.28 15.32 8.78 16. 85 12.17 8.85 18.11 10.66 12. 48 7.70 22 13.20 15. 87 15.28 18.90 10.08 10. 32 16.61 16.38 16.50 25. 76 16.54 9.61 16.72 16.03 20.60 18.22 15. 60 23. 27 19.90 12.50 13.62 12.24 19.10 13.39 15.59 22. 99 11.10 17.05 10.34 13.37 18.39 12. 72 19. 82 12.50 14. 02 16.35 11.56 19.97 10.69 17.28 6.46 13.94 25.43 13.27 20. 32 12.20 16.89 15.54 17.85 8.55 18. 82 5.35 16.16 8.98 6.74 8 16.20 10.91 8.22 6.30 10.63 11.14 9.37 17.44 7.52 15.63 134. 31 123. 43 106. 14 129. 71 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1881 21.58 24.13 32. 42 12.38 19.11 11.77 20. 62 22.13 22.09 11.10 7.05 24. 17 21.89 31.81 3.72 10.10 14.85 4.94 13. 12 .94 7.89 10.35 5.08 10.91 3. 62 25. 51 22. 72 13.33 120. 03 114.78 149. 64 99.58 168.50 87.12 137.70 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1.65 1.85 3.39 .87 2.13 2.01 .63 1.10 .47 .39 .59 5 .67 1.58 124. 10 115. 34 86.54 146.29 137. 17 154.88 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 7.24 2.52 .98 1.73 5.35 3.86 4. 02 3.42 5.04 6.93 6.06 1.02 .51 2.01 3.82 1.65 1.89 1.30 .04 .35 6.49 .33 2.01 1.50 3.98 1.81 .35 2.09 2.01 .28 1.58 1.26 1.06 2.99 .51 5 8.07 2.16 21.73 9.02 3.74 4.72 .43 .75 9.76 23 18.03 6.58 9.85 16.77 16.46 16.34 12.83 13.90 12. 25 17. 24 7.99 16.97 12.32 12.24 9.25 8.50 18.82 16.38 6.41 11. 65 10.24 14.02 21.77 11.50 19.10 17.09 13.58 14.06 21.89 27.68 16.81 20. 51 15.98 15. 98 15.12 23.03 14.13 15. 51 17. 24 10.91 14.80 17.04 22.99 17.48 16.26 9.92 18.78 12. 09 12.84 17.20 10.24 16.55 9.37 21.77 17.48 6.69 12.28 12. 40 16.46 13.98 5.83 11.38 15.04 16.33 19.49 19.49 26.30 17.80 23.66 20.47 15.63 22.16 12. 28 14.49 20.28 19. 06 4.25 11.30 30.94 25. 12 15.71 18. 66 18.90 7.95 9.01 4.13 154.32 124. 73 145.27 131. 89 153. 69 151. 54 131.51 138.03 115. 55 133. 02 116.06 Mean . 3.56 1.52 1.55 4.42 12. 27 13. 46 16.92 15.53 12.77 14.20 20.56 1 12.49 129. 25 BOHIO. 1896 1 15.63 18.54 14.61 10.35 7.42 8.54 14.10 19.76 14.80 18.40 5.65 15. 83 34.96 17.76 17.79 25. 20 38.31 12. 99 14.02 25.51 17. 4S 13.31 8.90 15.40 13.35 26. 02 28. 23 19.33 18.43 17. 05 19. 57 21.81 10.43 24.98 1897 ! 3.07 s.ll 10. 59 1.10 2.89 22. 05 6.38 6.18 4.02 1898 1899 1900 12. 36 9.37 7.06 1.26 ' 3.03 4.49 I 3.28 .48 1.04 201.61 118. 98 131.93 Mean . 9.60 2.08 | 2.60 5.67 13.31 15. 12 18.38 22. 63 16. 12 21.07 18.77 9.66 155. 01 GORGONA. 1896 9.02 25.12 5.04 6.81 13.54 1.37 5.16 9.65 IS. 50 8.98 16.93 19.88 13. 35 15.98 10.94 11. 11 7.72 14.37 7.16 9.61 1897 .08 .20 2.01 .13 .00 3.31 .20 2. 60 1.38 7.91 :;.'.u 4.58 1898 1899 3. 42 3.78 2.63 1900 3.15 7.07 12.48 j 19.72 11.04 11.25 11.93 Mean . 3.28 .60 1.17 2.38 11.56 9.30 13.26 14. 21 13.53 11.25 | 10.38 5.48 | 96.40 1 CAMBOA. 1 KM . 10. 63 6. 26 12.40 10. 12 9.17 '.i. 88 10.39 11. si 11.06 8. 15 L2.95 1 1 . si 4.76 1.38 1.50 15. 17 1883 2.60 ti. 46 L.38 o. 68 6. is 1 1 . or, 11.02 L8 85 10. 35 6. 5 1 o. 62 9.06 15.94 16.50 15.51 1. 13 10.55 Hi. 10 10.01 22. 36 9. 3:; 7.01 6.18 13.23 6.80 2.20 1 1 . 06 1884 .71 .20 .28 .00 1885 .20 97. IS 1886 . 55 1.06 .71 2. 76 15. 71 10.55 11.69 16.38 9. 13 13.62 16.10 1.61 102.87 1887 2.20 .OS . 28 6.85 1 1 . 02 19. 15 14.02 19.17 11.50 1 l.ss 24.06 16.28 136. 19 1888 .12 .»;;; . 35 1.26 20. 17 1 1 . 93 3.27 10.21 12.28 'J... 7 16. IS 16.84 102.61 L889 1.97 4.51! 1. 1" .00 4.87 9. 10 7.28 10.51 11. 12 13.07 s. 7o ;;.;;5 75. 72 1890 L06 .35 2.36 3 03 L3.27 11.65 lo. 13 15.36 S. 'JO 21. 11 9.92 1.29 105.03 1891 .63 .00 . 35 2.1:; 7. IS '.I.2H 6.06 8.50 10.47 15.71 10.67 6. 38 77. 67 1892 1.10 .67 2. 56 1.72 16.81 8.54 13.98 I 1.:;:: 13. 74 11.10 10.21 6.58 101.. '.7 1893 .67 1.06 .71 7.44 11.89 10.71 15.87 7. 95 10.21 16.50 13.90 20. 87 117.81 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 51 Monthly rainfalls — Con tin ued . GAMBOA— Continued. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. 1894 1895 1.46 .16 .04 1.34 10.94 8.78 10.08 8.42 16.16 15.28 10.67 8.27 90.60 1896 3.35 17.44 5.32 8.54 6.76 3.31 12. 64 4.65 8.78 12.15 5.79 9.10 18.43 9.45 13.45 1897 .20 .12 1.73 .16 .28 .00 1.34 .13 3.23 1.42 1.42 3.21 17.20 20.16 10. 95 8.92 18. 82 4.10 13.46 9.24 12.80 8.70 7.95 12.11 5.91 14. 57 8.70 10.67 8.62 2.40 2.68 .79 1898 1899 1900 2.76 5 1.01 82.60 80.00 78.60' Mean. 1.67 .78 .71 2.99 10.88 10.17 10.35 13.06 11.19 12.98 11.74 7.06 93.58 BAS OBISPO. 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1.10 .24 .83 2.28 .16 .79 4.53 6.10 .79 .55 1.97 .35 .12 .87 .00 .51 .32 .12 .00 .63 1.34 .32 .35 .00 .87 .12 .32 1.10 2.56 .35 2.56 .71 .20 2.16 1.14 1.69 3.19 .91 6.50 2.56 2.16 4.76 3.19 1.38 3.86 7.36 17.44 10.16 11.58 4.57 13.07 5.83 15.16 19.57 11.89 11.97 8.74 12. 91 15.43 11.93 9.84 14.96 11.54 10.51 10.75 10 8.46 6.34 9.02 10.87 1.93 6.42 9.88 6.10 13.10 14.37 10.59 10.51 12.84 8.27 8.03 7.76 8.98 12.16 7.76 11.93 9.57 13.98 12.87 10.20 10.98 7.13 13.46 13.03 12.32 17.36 10.63 12.40 8.94 9.37 7.36 3.82 13.23 4.80 14.49 10.28 19.84 6.93 11.10 15.63 14.06 10.59 8.54 6.54 8.35 11.02 13.35 2.64 11.50 3.90 15.79 10.08 3.78 7.95 8.72 6.97 19.13 74.71 81.23 91.00 98.27 66.72 77.53 92.16 83.82 105. 07 123 Mean. 1.76 .42 .83 2.69 10.95 11.69 8.83 9.78 12.20 10.45 10.61 9.05 89.26 1883» 1.26 3.78 1.61 1.18 3.50 .35 11.50 10.32 10.24 4.29 14.33 6.10 2.91 10.71 13.62 5.35 8.19 8.74 6.54 5.47 8.70 11.38 7.36 7.64 11.26 12.13 5.04 1.46 1884 .20 .28 .43 3.15 .24 .04 .00 .55 .00 .04 .67 .00 .16 .04 .51 10.12 10.63 20.63 9.65 5.75 13. 50 11.18 7.20 14.29 12.13 9.53 13.23 1885 15.39 13.78 7.91 11.42 12. 64 9.96 7.99 1886 1887 1888 1894 5.43 7.95 7.72 98.97 76.77 64.25 1895 .75 Mean. .86 .23 .28 1.95 12 10.23 7.57 8.86 9.13 11.71 11.26 5.52 79.60 1 Observations at Emperador. PANAMA. 1879 1880 1881 1882 1894* .04 1.89 .16 .00 2.52 .12 .16 .12 5.71 .16 .35 .00 5.55 1.61 3.23 .98 10.28 4.45 10. 35 5.24 6.46 5 13.78 6.18 7.48 7.91 9.88 7.20 5.35 12.72 7.24 11.46 4.49 4.05 6.42 9.02 7.91 8.94 4.05 7.32 9.80 11.81 9.68 6.69 10.51 19.21 6.46 9.72 10.91 6.73 .98 5.51 2.48 2.01 8.27 • 84. 73 66.26 70.55 45.60 1895" 1.38 .08 1899» 6.14 11.98 8.92 4.35 1900" .76 .00 .00 2. 24 11.21 8.91 15. 81 5.99 Mean. .70 .60 1.24 2.72 8.31 7.97 9.81 6.61 7.23 10.08 10.32 3.93 69. 52 1 Observations at La Boca. NAOS. 1881 7.48 5.04 7.24 8.62 4.37 4.49 8.82 4.02 2.87 2.84 3.11 1.34 4.92 3.74 5.59 , 1.30 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 .00 .59 2.01 .55 .00 .79 .08 .00 .04 .00 .04 .20 .28 .04 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .00 1.81 .04 .04 .91 .94 1.93 .94 .91 1.92 2.36 .28 4.41 4.53 4.45 4.84 2.56 5.20 5.24 5. 55 5.79 5.08 2.56 4.17 5.63 6.26 9.88 4.88 5.43 1.61 5.47 4.65 2.64 9.61 4.06 2.01 1.14 5.51 2.99 5. 51 5.91 6.69 5.71 1.14 4.64 5.71 4.17 20. 75 6.97 8.58 2.72 4.25 8.31 9.96 6.10 7.05 8.11 25.12 39.76 43.62 41.42 66.06 57.52 40.55 Mean. .50 1 .08 .35 | 1.71 4.77 5.49 4.29 4.78 7.42 6.64 6.26 3.21 45.50 52 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. TEMPERATURE. Monthly temperature observed by the Panama Canal Company in degrees Fahrenheit. July August September . October November . December . January February . March April May June July August September . October November . December. Month. 1900. The year. La Boca. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum. 91 Mean. 78.8 75 77 76.4 76.8 77.9 77.7 77.5 79.7 80 80.9 80.4 79.3 80.3 80.6 79.4 78.8 80.2 79.6 Alhajuela. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum. Mean. 79.7 80 80.6 78.8 79.5 78.9 76.8 79.5 79.7 80.9 78 78.9 77.3 78.4 76.4 77.7 77.3 78.1 78.3 REPORT OF W. W. SCHLECHT, HYDROGRAPHER FOR PANAMA. Washington, D. C, February 87 n 1901. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report of my work on the Isthmus of Panama, performed under your direction: Although during former years hydrographic records were collected by the Panama Canal Company on several streams, at present all investigations are confined to the Chagres River, which really presents the only important hydrographic problems relative to an intcroccanic canal across the Isthmus of Panama, and as Alhajuela, Gamboa, and Bohio have at different times been considered as probable dam sites, these places have been selected as hydrographic stations. In order to obtain the daily mean gauge height and a record of the rapid fluctua- tions of the river, the canal company has installed continuous self- registering river gauges, or "fluviographs" at these points with an observer at each. The scale of the fluviograph record is 1 millimeter (vertical) = 2 centimeters of rise; and 5 millimeters (horizontal) = 1 hour, 80 that each centimeter of rise and each ten minutes of time may be easily read. It was at once apparent that no improvement on this means of obtaining the desired information could be introduced so the records were simply checked each day at ♦ > a. m. and (5 p. m., and with very few exceptions no material error was ever found. The measurements for the discharge are made by means of floats of 1 to 3 feet immersion, and 2 to ."> inches diameter, the latter size being used only at times of flood, so all may be considered as surface floats, and a length of course of 60 meters at Alhajuela, and Gamboa, and 80 meters at Bohio. Cross-sections of the courses are taken 10 meters apart; and from these a table of mean sectional areas for different stage of the river is computed for each station. Following are the FIG. 1 1.— FLUVIOGRAPH AT ALHAJUELA. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 53 instructions to the observers, concerning the method of obtaining the discharge which arc carefully followed: The observations should be made in calm weather. The floats should have but a small portion exposed above the surface of the water. The float should he liberated a short distance above the first profile, bo that at the moment it crosses that section, it will have attained the velocity of the water; the observer will note the moment of passage at the first section, and then go to the lower section and note its passage at that section. The discharge is then obtained by means of the formula D = 0.80 A V; D — discharge; A = mean sectional area; V = the velocity as obtained by the observations on the floats. It is possible to materially improve on this means of obtaining the discharge, especially as the coefficient 0.80 is arbitrary. Accordingly, permanent hydrographic stations were established at Alhajuela, Gam- boa, and Bohio, with an observer and current meter equipment at each. ALHAJUELA. The canal company's gauging station at Alhajuela is but a short dis- tance below the proposed dam site. It has high, steep banks to each side and a width of about 250 feet, and at normal stage a mean depth of 1 or 5 feet. But it is on a slight bend, and the cross sections along the course differ considerably in area and conformation. Thus, at gauge height, 29 meters, we have 145, 135, and 133 square meters as the area at the upper end, middle, and lower end of the course. About 60 feet above the upper range a three-fourths inch cable is stretched across the river, with marks giving at normal stage the one-fourth, one-half, and three-fourths points of the width of the river. These marks are used to show the points at which to release the floats. The fluviograph is 200 yards below, and a secondary rod divided into centi- meters is firmly set in the bank at the gauging station. The reading of this rod is used as the argument in the table giving the mean area. On October 31, 1899, a No. 8 telegraph wire .was stretched across the river about 60 feet above the canal company's cable. This was divided into 10-foot lengths, and was used to hold a boat in a fixed position while the velocity was being measured. This wire could be readily raised or lowered. While in use it was lowered so that a man in the bow could seize it and hold the boat in the desired position. While not in use it was raised 20 or 25 feet above the surface of the river — that is, beyond the reach of floods. A crutch, with a pulley, was fastened to the bow of the boat, over which the current meter was lowered. The crutch was fastened so that the pulley was at least 3 feet in front and 1 foot to one side of the cutwater. Thus the dis- placement of the boat could not affect the measured velocity. The first current meter measurement was made on October 31, 1899, with new small Price electric meter No. 35, which had been rated at Chevey Chase in July. Two simultaneous determinations of the dis- charge were made, the first by measuring the velocity at 0.6 depth below the surface at each station, and the second by measuring the •velocity at each 1 foot of depth at the same stations and then taking the mean as the mean velocity at that station. The river was divided into twelve sections, varying from 10 feet wide near the banks where the velocity across the stream changes rapidly, to 30 feet near the cen- ter where it is more uniform. 54 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Following are the results: Fluviograph =28. 565 meters. First method. — Mean velocity = 1.92 feet per second; discharge = 2.280 second-feet. Second method. — Mean velocity = 1.90 feet per second; discharge= 2,257 second feet. From the above we see that at Alhajuela the velocity at 0.6 depth below the surface gives practically the mean velocity in a section. Following are specimen computations for discharge to show in detail the method used by the hydrographic office, Isthmian Canal Commis- sion, and by the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama: Gauging made August 18, 1900, on Chagres River, at Alhajuela, by the Isthmian Canal Commission. [Time, 8.40 to 9.30 a. m. Current meter=large Price electric No. 94. Fluviograph, 28.51 meters.] Distance from initial point. Depth. Depth of ob- serva- tions. Time sec- onds. Revo- lu- tions. Revo- lu- tions per second. Velocity. Section width. Mean depth. Area. Dis- charge. 68 feet Feet. R B. Feet. Feet. Sq./eet. Sec. feet. 71 feet. . . 2 4.1 3.7 4.7 4.2 4.4 4.7 6 5.4 5.7 5.8 5.2 4.2 3.8 3.3 3 2 L B *.35 .80 .86 1.08 .96 1.18 1.35 1.97 2.38 2.56 2.53 2.47 2.26 2.00 1.66 .67 ".30 6 11 10 15 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 15 10 10 10 5 2 4.1 3.7 4.7 4.2 4.4 4.7 5 5.4 5.7 5.8 5.2 4.2 3.8 3.3 3 2 12 45 37 70 84 88 94 100 108 114 116 104 63 38 33 30 10 4 80 feet 2.5 2.2 2.8 2.5 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.1 2.5 2.3 2 1.8 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 23 25 32 28 35 40 58 71 77 76 74 67 59 49 19 .23 .26 .32 .28 .35 .40 .58 .71 .77 .76 .74 .67 .59 .49 .19 36 90 feet 32 100 feet 76 120 feet 81 140 feet 104 160 feet 127 180 feet 197 200 feet 257 220 feet 292 240 feet 293 260 feet 257 280 feet 142 290 feet 76 300 feet 65 310 feet 20 318 feet. . 3 ■ Total 1 252 1,146 2,051 1 2051-^1146=1. 79 feet per second=mean velocity. 'Estimated. Gauging made August 18, 1900, on Chagres River, at Alhajuela, by canal company, by means of floats. [Floats were 2 feet sticks, U inches in diameter, weighted at one end so as to float vertically. Time, 8 a.m. Fluviograph, 28.50 meters. Length of course=60 meters.] No. of float. Distance from right bank. Time. Computations. Upper range. Lower range. Elapsed. 1 2 3 4 5 6 One-fourth width of river do /(. m. s. 7 55 6 7 55 14 8 4 4 8 4 11 8 11 17 8 11 25 h. m. x. 7 57 15 7 57 26 8 5 23 8 5 32 8 12 66 8 12 58 ,s'i minis. 129 132 79 81 99 93 Area=101.4f> in-. I ^- 2 =.472=velo,ily. One-half width of river do Three-fourths width of river .. do 613 6 = then 101.45 x .472 x0.80 = 47.ns| hi 1 |mt second, or 1,690 sece =102.2=mean time, nd-feet. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 55 The company's result was 1,690 cubic feet per second, being only 82 per cent that of this Commission, which was 2,051. Since the gaug- ings were made at almost the same time and gauge height, the above discrepancies are greater than they should be. The ratio \v;is almost constant in all the simultaneous observations at Alhajuela, and is explainable as follows: The coefficient of 0.80 is too small, considering that Moats are released at three sections. Owing to the curvature of the channel, the currents are not parallel to the bank and floats Nos. 1 and 2 always approach the right bank and at times cross the lower range within 10 feet of the bank. The second float at times passes the first float, although liberated about ten seconds later. Generally a dis- tance between ranges of 60 meters is too long, as the error introduced by the more erratic drift of the float is not balanced by the greater accuracy in the time, unless the channel is straight and the cross section exceptionally uniform. Although it is useless to introduce an}^ degree of refinement in the computation of float measurements unless the course is exceptionally good, still the above method of obtaining the mean velocity is errone- ous, as it is obtained by dividing the length of the course by the mean time. The true mean velocity is the mean of the velocities of the fila- ments which constitute the stream. It may be mathematically shown that unless the observed time of all the floats is the same the result obtained by the above method is always too small and that the error increases as the differences in the observed times increase. The method as employed introduces an error varying from 3 to 5 per cent. The balance of the discrepancy is mainly accounted for by the coefficient 0.80 being too small. On December 26 Mr. R. G. DuBoulay was put in charge of all the hydrographic observations at Alhajuela, which included measuring the Chagres at Alhajuela and at Santa Barbara, the Gatuncillo, and the Chilibre rivers. In all 71 measurements of the Chagres River at Alhajuela were made, varying in gauge height from 28. 12 meters to 31.39 meters. The first high flood of the year, that of July 3 and 4, cut into the crest of the rapids just below the fluviograph, thus changing the relation between gauge height and the discharge, so that two rating tables are necessary. RATING TABLE FOR STATION OX CHAGRES RIVER AT ALHAJUELA. This table is applicable only from October 1, 1899, to July 3, 1900: Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- [Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. Meters. See. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. 28 28.75 3,440 3,775 29.50 9,105 9,530 30. 25 15, 985 16, 475 28.05 355 28.80 29. 55 30.30 28.10 455 28.85 4, 120 29.60 9,960 30. 35 16, 965 28.15 560 28.90 4,470 29. 65 10, 395 30.40 17, 460 28.20 675 28.95 4,825 29.70 10, 835 30. 45 17,955 28.25 815 29 6,185 29.75 11,280 30.50 18, 455 28.30 985 29.05 5,550 29.80 11, 730 30. 55 18, 950 28. 35 1,185 29.10 6,920 29.85 12, 185 30.60 19, 450 28.40 1,410 29.15 6,300 29.90 12, 645 30.65 19, 950 28. 45 1,655 29.20 6,685 29.95 13,110 30.70 20, 450 28.50 1,920 29.25 7,075 30 13, 580 30.75 20, 950 28.55 2, 200 29.30 7,470 30. 05 14, 055 30.80 21,450 28.60 2,495 29. 35 7,870 30.10 14, 535 30.85 21,950 28.65 2, 800 29. 40 8, 275 30.15 15, 015 28.70 3,115 29.45 8,685 30.20 15,500 56 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. This table is applicable only from July 4, 1900, to date: Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. M< tt rs. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. .1/- ti rs. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. 28 28. 05 28.90 28.95 4,990 5,380 29. 80 29.85 13,090 13, 630 30.70 30.75 23, 710 24, 320 355 28.10 455 29 5,775 29.90 14, 180 30.80 24, 935 28. 15 560 29.05 6,175 29.95 14, 740 30.85 25,550 28.20 075 29.10 6,575 30 15,310 ! 30.90 26,165 28. 25 815 29.15 6, 980 30.05 15,890 30.95 26, 780 28.30 990 29.20 7,390 30.10 16, 475 31 27, 400 28.36 1,200 29.25 7,810 30.15 17, 065 31.05 28,020 28.40 1,145 29.30 8,240 30.20 17, 660 31.10 28, 640 28.45 1 , 720 29.35 8,680 30.25 18,260 31.15 29,260 28.50 2, 025 29.40 9,130 30.30 18, 860 31.20 29,880 28.55 2, 355 29.45 9,590 30.35 19, 460 31.25 30,500 28.60 2,710 29.50 10, 060 30.40 20, 065 31.30 31, 120 28. 65 3, 080 29.55 10, 540 30.45 20, 670 31. 35 31, 740 28.70 3,455 29.00 11,030 30. 50 21, 275 31.40 32,360 28.75 3,835 29.65 11,530 30.55 21, 880 31.45 32, 980 28.80 4,215 29.70 12, 040 30.60 22, 490 31.60 33,600 28.85 4,600 29.75 12, 560 30.65 23,100 The table of "Monthly discharge" was then computed, using these rating tables with the daily mean gauge height, as given by the fluvio- graph, as the argument; but on days of flood — that is, days in which the river rises over gauge height, 29 — the daily mean discharge is obtained b} T taking the mean of the discharge corresponding to the bihourly height. This is necessaiy, as the increment increases rapidly with equal increases of gauge height, This table will be found on page 55. TRIBUTARIES BETWEEN ALHAJUELA AND GAMBOA. The mean monthly discharge of all the tributaries between Alhajuela and Gamboa was obtained by subtracting the discharge at the former station from the discharge at the latter, month by month. Estimated monthly discharge of tributaries to the Chagres River between Alhajuela and Gamboa. [Drainage area, 130 square miles.] Mean dis- charge. Total. Run-off. Month. Per square mile. Depth. Rainfall.* 1900. Sec. feet. 85 54 33 6 27 492 956 598 649 957 911 '.•1 Acre-feet. 5,226 ■_'. 999 2,029 867 1 . 660 29, 270 58, 782 36, 769 88, 020 58,840 54,210 &7780 Sec. feet. ' . 65 .42 Inches. .75 .44 .29 Inches. 1.41 .10 .08 .05 .06 .21 .24 3. 00 May 8. 10 :;. 78 7. 35 4.60 1.99 7. 30 7.01 .72 4.20 8.46 5.30 6.74 8.47 7.82 .83 14.97 July 16.58 9.74 13. 22 12.68 12.01 .97 407 294, 518 42. 00 93.88 ■> Mean of observations at Alhajuela ami Gamboa. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 57 Ratio of run -off to rainfall = 45 per cent. The chief tributaries between Alhajuela and Gamboa are the Chili- bre and the Gatuneillo. Weekly gaugings of these were made, and their gauge height was read three times per week. These observations in a general way furnished the relation of the discharge of each one to the total increase of discharge between the stations, which is as follows: Per eent. Chilibre 36 Gatuneillo 26 Other sources 38 Total 100 The highest observed gauge height on the Chilibre was 22 feet, giving a computed discharge of 3,700 second-feet. On the Gatuneillo the highest observed gauge height was 16 feet, giving a computed dis- charge of 2,500 second-feet. The following experiments with rod floats were made at Alhajuela to find the relation between the surface velocities and the mean velocity in a vertical section: Float experiments made August 22, 1900 (fluviograph = 2S.Sl). I. PULL-DEPTH ROD FLOATS OF 2 TO 3 INCHES UNIFORM DIAMETER. Distance from right bank .feet.. Length of floats do. . . Elapsed time seconds. . Velocity feet per second.. 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 7.5 5 5 5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 87 78 78 77 75 57 55 55 59 64 2.27 2.53 2.53 2.56 2.63 3.46 3.58 3.58 3.34 3.08 220 2 93 2.12 Mean = 2.88 feet per second. II. FLOATS OF li FEET LENGTH, 2 INCHES UNIFORM DIAMETER. Distance from right bank .feet. . Elapsed time seconds. . Velocity feet per second . . 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 72 75 70 68 63 53 50 46 51 58 2.74 2.63 2.81 2.90 3.13 3.72 3.94 4.38 3.86 3.40 220 71 2.77 Mean = 3.30 feet per second. Ratio = 2.88^-3.30 = 0.87. The discharge obtained by using 2.88 as the mean velocity is 4,040 second-feet, which compares favorably with discharges obtained by means of current meters. CHAGRES RIVER AT SANTA BARBARA'. The gauge height of the Chagres River at Santa Barbara was read by C. Clauzel at 6 a. m. and 6 p. m. and at times of important fluctua- tions. The discharge measurements were made with current meters and surface floats. After comparing several float measurements with simultaneous current-meter measurements a coefficient of 0.85 was adopted to reduce the observed velocity of the floats to the mean velocity of the cross section. Thirty-five current-meter and 110 float 58 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. measurements were made, from which the following rating table was computed: Haling table, Chagres River, at Santa Barbara. Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. Feet. Sec.ft. Feet. Sec.ft. Feet. Sec.ft. Feet. Sec.ft. 1.0 3.4 1,790 1,915 5.8 5, 520 5,715 5,910 6,110 8.2 10 500 1.1 3.5 5.9 8.3 10, 720 10, 945 1.2 3.6 2,040 2,170 2,300 2,430 2,565 2, 700 6.0 8.4 1.3 3.7 6.1 8.5 11,170 1.4 3.8 6.2 6,310 6,510 8.6 11,400 1.5 3.9 6.3 8.7 11,640 1.6 4.0 6.4 6,710 6,915 8.8 11,890 1.7 300 4.1 6.5 8.9 12, 155 1.8 320 4.2 2,840 6.6 7,120 9.0 12, 445 1.9 350 4.3 2,980 6.7 7, 325 9.1 12, 745 2.0 390 4.4 3,125 6.8 7,530 9.2 13, 055 2.1 440 4.5 3,270 6.9 7,735 9.3 13, 375 2.2 500 4.6 3,420 7.0 7,940 9.4 13, 700 2.3 570 4.7 3,575 7.1 8,150 9.5 14, 025 2.4 650 4.8 3,730 7.2 8,360 9.6 14,350 2.5 750 4.9 3,890 7.3 8,570 9.7 14,675 2.6 855 5.0 4,055 7.4 8,780 9.8 15, 000 2.7 965 6.1 4,225 7.5 8,990 9.9 15, 325 2.8 1,075 5.2 4,400 7.6 9,200 10.0 15, 650 2.9 1,190 5.3 4,580 7.7 9,415 11.0 18, 900 3.0 1,305 5.4 4,765 7.8 9,630 12.0 22, 150 3.1 1,425 5.5 4,950 7.9 9,845 13.0 25, 400 3.2 1,545 5.6 5,140 8.0 10, 060 3.3 1,665 5.7 5,330 8.1 10, 280 Remarks. — The zero of the gauge rod is at elevation 170.8 feet. Estimated monthly discharge of Chagres River at Santa Barbara. [Drainage area, 300 square miles.] Month. 1900 January February March April May June July August September October Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean .Sec. feet. 8,360 1,020 415 8,570 16, 625 6,510 19, 875 18,250 13,055 33, 600 Sec. feet. 700 390 320 300 310 610 802 1,020 965 1,365 Src.fnl 1,205 542 369 430 1,003 i,:;:;s 1,900 2, 348 1,717 3,601 Run-off. Total. Square mile. Depth. I'-;', -/'< t< rs. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. f'(t. 0.1 1.6 3,610 3.1 9,305 4.6 17, 150 .2 330 1.7 3,930 3.2 9, 760 4.7 17,730 .3 490 1.8 4, 200 3.3 10, 225 4.8 18,^10 .4 650 1.9 4,600 3.4 10, 700 4.9 18, 890 .5 820 2.0 4,950 3.5 11,185 6.0 19, 170 .6 1,015 2.1 5,310 3.6 11,680 5.1 20, 060 .7 1,230 2. 2 5,680 3.7 12, 185 5.2 20,650 .8 1,465 2.3 6,060 3.8 12, 700 5.3 21,240 .9 1,715 2.4 6,440 3.9 13, 225 5.4 21,830 1.0 1,975 2.5 6,830 4.0 13, 765 5.5 22, 120 1.1 2,235 2.6 7,220 4.1 14,315 5.6 23, 020 1.2 2,495 2.7 7,620 4.2 14,870,. 5.7 23, 620 1.3 2,755 2.8 8,025 4.3 15,430 5.8 24, 220 1.4 3,020 2.9 8,440 4.4 16,000 5.9 24,820 j 1.5 3,305 3.0 8,865 4.5 16,570 6.0 25, 1-0 The following current meter observations were made on July 31 at Buena Vista to test the assumption that the velocity at 0.0 depth below the surface is the mean of the velocities in a vertical section: Distance from right bank. 50 feet. 110 feet. 160 feet. Depth of Depth of Depth of observa- Velocity. observa- Velocity. observa- Velocity. tion. tion. tion. Feet. Ft. /» r xi C. /;«/. Ft. pi r xi C. Feet. FY. pi r sec. 1.0 3. 7.". 1.0 3.86 0.5 3.69 2.0 3.75 2.0 :;. 72 1.5 8.63 3.0 3. 72 3.0 3.66 2. 5 8.63 L0 :;.•;:; 4.0 3. 59 3. 5 3. 53 5.0 8. 56 6.0 ::.:.:; 1.5 3. 50 6.0 3. 52 6. 3. i:: .;. 13 7.0 8.43 7.0 3. 10 6.6 3.24 8.0 3.21 8.0 3.24 7.5 3.08 '.Ml 2. 91 9. 3.05 8. 5 2.61 9.7 2.35 9.5 2.84 Mean 3.44 3.44 3.37 0.6 depth 3.52 3. 13 3. 45 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 61 The width of the river at the time of the observations was 214 feet, the gauge height 2.26 meters, and the total depth at the stations in order from the right bank was 9.9, 9.9, and 9.1 feet As there is less than one-half foot below the last measurement, one-half weight is given to these in obtaining the mean, except in the last case, where there is also but one-half foot above the first measurement. These observations were made from a boat. The meter was lowered to the specified depth, and the revolutions for two consecutive fifty seconds were noted; if these did not agree, the revolutions for fifty additional seconds were noted, and the mean of these was then used as an argu- ment in the rating table to obtain the velocity. TRIBUTARIES BETWEEN BOHIO AND GAMBOA. The largest tributary between Bohio and Gamboa is the Cana Que- brada; minor tributaries in order of their size are the Obispo, Gigante, Frijoles and Frijolitos, and Agua Salud. By subtracting the mean monthly discharge of the Chagres at Gamboa from the discharge at Bohio the discharge of all the tributaries was obtained. Estimated monthly discharge of tributaries to the Chagres River between Gamboa and Bohio. [Drainage area, 245 square miles.] Months. Mean dis- charge Total. Run-off. Per square mile. Depth. Rainfall. 1 1900 January February March April May June July August September October November December The year Sec. feet. 177 82 40 15 55 759 1,856 1,188 1,440 2; 374 2, 125 720 Acre-feet. 10, 890 4, 550 2, 460 900 3,380 45, 160 114,120 73, 050 85, 690 145, 970 126,440 44,270 Sec. feet. 0.72 .33 .17 .06 .22 3.10 7.57 4.85 5.88 9.69 8.68 2.94 Inches. 0.83 .34 .20 .07 .25 3.46 8.73 5.59 6.56 11.17 9.68 3.39 Inches. 3.57 .26 .46 3.08 7.08 11.01 16.99 11.33 11.96 15. 27 17.82 2.40 656, 880 50.27 101.23 "Mean of observations at Bohio, Gorgona, and Gamboa. Ratio of run-off to rainfall = 50 per cent. The tributaries named were gauged on an average of once per week, and the following table depends upon these data: Rivers. Cano Quebrada Obispo Gigante Frijoles and Frijolitos Agua Salud Other sources Total. Maximum measured discharge. Sec. fill. 1,640 1,177 281 219 90 Minimum measured discharge. Sec. feet. 17 1 5 3 Sec. feet. 335 90 65 55 33 330 '.HIS Per cent of total dis- charge. a » Per cent of the total inflow between Gamboa and Bohio contributed by each stream. 62 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. DRAINAGE AREA OF THE CHAGRES RIVER. The drainage area of the Chagres River above Bohio is only approxi- mately known and depends upon the following data: Totten's Map of the Isthmus of Panama gives that portion of the divide lying between latitude 9° 0' and 9° 20' N., longitude 80° 30' and 80° 50' W. It also gives the divide of the Rio Boqueron, i. e., the northwestern extremity of the drainage area. The survey of the Man- dinga River bv this Commission gives the eastern divide at longitude 79'15'W. The survey of the Chagres River above Santa Barbara gives the northeastern extremity of the drainage basin at latitude 9° 25' N., longitude 79° 15' W. It also gives an idea of the size and general direction of the tributaries. The northern and southern portions of the divide, not included in Totten's map, have been approximately determined from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and in these parts the greatest probable error exists. SEDIMENT OBSERVATIONS. Observations to determine the amount of sediment carried by the Chagres River were made at Alhajuela and Bohio, by means of water samples representing the mean condition of the river. Months. June July August September October . . . Alhejuela. Bohio. Mud. Cu. yds. 75,900 406, 100 208, 300 485, 040 Solid matter. Cu. yds. 15, 180 81,230 41, 660 97,000 Mud. ( hi. i/ 3 4 5 6 7.... 1.03 8.... .01 .00 .00 .00 .37 .04 .00 1 . 12 .10 .03 9 .03 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .56 1.71 .91 .12 .04 .13 .02 .18 .17 .27 .02 1.13 .83 .05 .63 .36 .00 .02 .02 .00 .03 .90 3.21 1.61 1.41 1.52 .02 .05 .03 1.64 .05 .14 .17 .05 2.10 1.90 10 11 12 13 14.... .50 15 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .42 .03 .07 3.20 .10 .00 .00 .60 .95 .30 .25 16.... .05 17 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .20 .90 .70 1.03 .04 .93 .94 .99 1.05 .43 .00 .00 1.15 .00 .60 1.40 .90 ■ >•) .15 .05 .75 .50 is 19... 20.... .00 21.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 1.30 1.56 .25 2.05 ■ >•) .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .18 .99 .06 1.42 .12 23.... .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .08 .60 .23 .38 .08 21.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .65 .04 .10 .55 .00 25. . . . .00 .13 .00 .00 .00 .10 3.16 .11 1.35 .04 .40 26.... .08 .15 .00 .00 1.05 .38 .46 .75 .10 .40 .60 27.... .10 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .70 .00 .15 1 . 32 .70 28.... .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .74 .05 .72 .11 1.02 29. . . . .03 .00 .00 .37 .60 .98 1.08 .03 .00 .00 30.... .00 .00 .00 .02 .87 .74 1.20 .76 .00 31.... Total .00 .06 .00 .83 .03 .08 1.81 1.02 .12 .08 1.61 10.11 19.35 18.14 20. 09 15.50 15.15 SALAMANCA, ON PEQUENI RIVER. Day. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.02 0.14 0.35 0.96 1.80 0.00 0.55 0.34 1.10 0.15 2.... 1.10 .10 .21 .01 .01 .04 .47 .00 .69 .00 1.50 1.31 1.18 3.... .00 .11 .01 .00 .26 .00 .06 .72 .50 1.35 .42 .04 .33 4.... 1.50 .02 .00 .05 .02 .00 .42 .37 1.21 .00 .23 .47 .19 5.... .09 .30 .00 .00 .00 .97 1.43 .08 .06 .42 .00 .56 .00 6.... .02 1.09 .10 .03 .00 . 22 .07 .39 .10 .51 1.01 2.09 .00 7.... .20 .04 .02 .02 .00 .09 .12 .10 .00 .00 . 24 1. 13 .00 8.... .01 .01 .00 .00 .00 .67 .00 .01 .00 1.85 .01 .OS .00 9.... .02 .05 .00 .05 .00 2.59 .45 1.27 .07 3.32 .15 .27 .00 10.... .00 .04 .00 .04 .00 .06 .67 .67 .10 .00 .03 .00 .00 11.... .08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .36 .00 .35 .00 1.22 .77 .02 .27 12.... .02 .00 .00 .01 .00 .37 .00 .01 .02 .00 .11 1.57 .00 13.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .14 .20 .04 .43 .73 1.56 .43 .00 14.... .20 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .00 1.16 .01 1.84 .40 .00 .02 15.... .03 .07 .00 .00 .00 .04 .02 .17 .00 .86 .38 .00 .18 16.... .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 . 33 .00 .00 .40 .62 .03 .00 17.... .10 .02 .00 .01 .12 .00 .89 .00 .00 .00 .07 1.28 .22 18.... .02 .00 .00 .06 .on .97 .00 .03 .00 .00 1.56 .00 .00 19.... .00 .00 . 11 .05 .00 . 60 .00 .21 .30 .73 1.19 .00 .00 20. . . . .05 .00 .02 .00 .00 .04 .00 1.11 1.85 .47 2.27 .00 .07 21.... .07 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .45 .27 .OS .35 .02 1.53 .27 22.... .00 .07 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .09 .19 .13 .30 .41 .00 23. . . . .00 .09 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .14 .so .00 .06 .00 24.... .02 .01 .00 .00 .00 .37 .00 .10 1.71 .31 .02 .00 .00 25.... .05 .60 .00 .00 .87 . 38 .00 .01 1.01 1.84 1.00 .00 .00 26.... .23 .28 .0(1 .00 1.10 .00 .09 .18 .00 .13 .00 .20 .03 27.... .49 .03 .00 .00 .01 .06 .11 1.09 .00 .38 .10 .01 28.... .05 .03 .00 .00 .00 .70 .67 .07 1 . 21 .00 2.00 .88 .00 29...: .20 .00 .00 .27 .ill .87 .07 .20 .02 .77 .00 30.... .04 .08 .00 .39 .47 .00 .00 .01'. .00 .11 .00 31.... Total. .00 .00 .00 1.99 .01 .00 .00 4.59 3.20 .50 .38 3.22 12.15 8.37 10. 46 9.97 18.81 10.20 14.77 2.92 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall for 1899-1900— Continued. PEDRO MIGUEL. 69 Day. Dec. Jan. 1.... 4... 5... 6... 7... 8... 9... 10... 11... 12... 13... 14... 15... 16... 17... 18... 19... 20... 21... 22... 23... 24... 25... 26... 27... 28... 29... 30... 31... Total 0.00 .00 .17 .os .00 .55 .00 .51 ..SO .00 .00 .11(1 .12 .06 .00 .0"> .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .15 .00 .00 .00 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .10 .12 .00 .00 .00 .09 .00 Feb. Mar. 2.34 .56 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .09 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Apr. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .12 .00 .00 .00 .00 .89 .65 .00 .00 .10 .48 .00 .20 .00 .25 0.25 .00 .00 .00 .00 .65 1.52 .49 1.22 .45 .00 .00 .00 .00 .73 .00 .00 .22 .25 .95 .00 .06 .49 .00 .27 .28 .21 .00 .97 .64 1.01 June. July .(Ml 2.73 I 10.66 0.22 .10 .17 .30 1.21 1.30 1.45 .00 .00 .20 .00 .07 .00 .16 .00 .00 .04 1.57 .05 1.69 .15 .00 .14 .04 .23 .02 .82 .00 .26 .11 Aug. 0.00 0.00 .00 .00 .35 .43 .60 .44 .00 .10 .05 .10 .03 .40 .20 .00 .78 .00 .61 .00 .62 .00 1.10 .20 .02 1.50 .00 .00 3.00 .15 .00 .00 1.31 .00 1.10 .10 1.00 .45 1.20 .00 1.35 .00 1.10 .00 2.50 .00 .25 .00 .57 .00 2.10 .50 .70 .50 .00 1.50 1.40 .15 2.00 .00 .10 .00 Sept. 6.52 0.79 .00 .02 .51 .02 .00 1.12 .01 .00 .00 .05 .02 .15 .67 .19 .09 .04 .22 .80 .16 .08 .71 .08 .20 .25 .25 .30 .02 Oct. 6.75 1.23 .45. .53 .78 .45 .02 .21 .01 .02 .00 .02 .45 .39 .87 .27 .78 .02 .05 .03 .03 .51 .01 .42 .00 .15 .09 .35 .01 .00 .28 .25 Rainfall for 1900. ISTHMUS OF PANAMA. Stations. Jan. Colon Bohio Gorgona Gamboa Pedro Miguel Alhajuela Campanas Santa Barbara... RioFea Rio Puente Salmanca Las Minas 6.06 7.06 2.63 1.01 .56 1.82 1.54 1.41 1.26 1.02 3.20 4.90 Feb. (i.:;:: .is .13 .16 .09 .04 .05 .16 .26 .12 .50 1.17 Mar. 1.06 1.04 .20 .13 .00 .03 .11 .09 .11 .08 .38 1.21 Apr. 0.75 2.89 3.15 3.21 2.73 4.10 2.66 5.43 5.60 1.61 3.22 4.39 May. 12.25 7.42 7.07 6.76 10.66 10.16 8.57 13.67 12.64 10.11 12.15 12.53 11.65 18.40 12.48 12.15 10.30 17.79 22. 12 22. 54 20.48 19.35 8.37 10.91 July. 16.81 17.79 19. 72 13.45 25.04 19.73 12. 78 13.65 13.41 18.14 10.46 12. 43 Aug. 17.04 14. 02 11.04 8.92 6.52 10.56 12. 49 12.65 9.79 20.09 9.97 15.01 Sept. Oct. 9.37 16.33 15.40 118.43 11.25 11.93 9.24 6.75 17.20 12.11 8.68 13. 26 13.55 15.34 15.66 11.80 16.51 21.98 15. 50 15. 15 18.81 16.20 9.90 19.91 Nov. 20. 28 24. 98 10.67 "8.67 13.36 '■13. 50 14.77 16.63 4.13 4.02 .79 »2.34 1.14 "2. 62 "2.06 1.81 2.92 7.23 Total. 116.06 131. 93 78.60 82.34 109. 19 113.18 100.95 116.22 » For 1899. * Estimated. Appendix E. WASTE-WEIR DIMENSIONS AND DISCHARGE FOR LAKE BOHIO. The determination of the dimensions of the waste weir for Lake Bohio involves the simultaneous discharge of the Chagres River into the lake and the outflow from the latter through the weir during floods. It becomes necessary, therefore, to establish formulas, or curves, exhibiting certain results arising from the conditions which would attend the concurrent flood flow into and out of Lake Bohio. These formulas, or curves, necessarily do not represent the actual conditions with mathematical exactness, but they approximate the natural conditions of the lake closety enough to determine with confi- dence the dimensions of the waste weir and the variation of the head of water on it during a given period of variation of flood in the Chagres River. The discharge of the waste way will not be through a thin edge weir, but over a rounded masonry lip or crest, for which the coefficient is not precisely known. A careful consideration of the results of experi- ments with rounded crests, including those of Bazin, appears to indi- cate that the value of 3.5 for the weir coefficient is, on the whole, justifiable for the present case, and it will be used in the following investigations. It may be a little too large for small heads or a little too small for the greater heads used. In deducing fhe following formulas it will be assumed that during the period of flood considered the discharge of the river per unit of time (per second) increases at a uniform rate until the maximum stage is reached; then that it remains at that stage for a definite time, and subsequently decreases at a uniform rate generally not the same as the rate of rise. As a matter of fact, the uniform rate of increase is the only one of the two of practical importance in this investigation, and it is to be determined from data supplied by observation of actual floods. Obviously, water may begin to flow over the crest of the waste way at any stage of the river at its point of entrance into the lake, depend- ing on the proximity of prior floods and the draft recently made on the waters of the lake. The stage of the river, therefore, taken to coincide in time with the beginning of flow over the rounded crest of the waste weir, must be a matter of judgment in view of known data. The notation to be used is the following: ^=time in seconds measured from beginning of flow over weir. T 1 =value of ty at instant the river reaches its greatest elevation. ^!=discharge of the river in cubic feet per second at any time t v "V^discharge of the river in cubic feet per se'cond at the time T^ r=rate (uniform) of variation of discharge of river per unit of time. b— length of weir in feet. 71 72 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. /<=head of water on weir in feet; and H=greatest value of h. a=uniform rate of variation of /; per unit of time, so that h=at, and H=aT; T>T X . V=greatest discharge over weir in cubic feet per second; V may or may not be equal to Vj. e=discharge of river per unit (second) of time when lake is at elevation of crest of weir. Q=general value of discharge over weir in cubic feet per second. V is the greatest value of Q. c=weir coefficient, taken equal to 3.5. D=total discharge of weir in cubic feet in time T (seconds). A=area in square feet of surface of the lake. L=total storage in cubic feet in reservoir or lake above the elevation of the crest when head on the weir is H feet. Zero discharge Fig. 1. The full line of figure 1 represents the fluviograph record of the rise of the Chagres River during a flood at Rohio. Inasmuch as this discussion must cover all the water flowing into Lake Bohio, this flu- viograph record will be treated in the application of the formulae as if it belonged to the river at its point of entrance into the lake. The datum line BC indicates the stage of the river at the beginning of flow over the crest of the waste weir. Hence the point m is the zero or origin of the time t h which is measured horizontally along mp and toward the latter point. The ordinates above BC represent heights of rise above that datum at any time t x in seconds measured from ///. The trapezoid mnqp is the equivalent of the actual record area above BC. The line qq' is midway between nn' and oo'. It is evident that the horizontal line no indicates the maximum stage of the river remain- ing constant during the period no. The discharge of the river in cubic feet per second corresponding to any height of rise ss' is v h which becomes Vi when the greatest rise nn' is reached. The time in seconds represented by ms' and corre- sponding to .%•' is t x . For the greatest rise nn f , ti=Ti=mn'. The dis- tance e is the height of the datum BC above the base line of no discharge in the river; this distance is used to represent the unit discharge of the river when t\ is zero. By means of the notation taken there may be written: v^e-j-rti and V 1 = e-jrrT l The mean discharge per unit of time is: (1) (2) REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 73 The discharge in cubic feet per second over the weir for any head h is given by the formula: Q=3.5M*'« (3) The rate of inflow into the reservoir per unit of time is given by equation (1). In the time dt x the discharge of the river is edt 1 -\-dt 1 dt v During the same time the volume of water in the reservoir increases by the amount Adh and the discharge over the weir is 3.5 hh? 1 * dt v The sum of the second and third of these quantities must be equal to the first. Consequently, the differential equation sought will be: {e+rt l )dt l = A.dh+S.bbh z bdt l (4) Hence: ^i^+a^-T* / 4 *^ • • • • (5) If this equation were integrated, the desired relation between A and t x would at once be found, but the resulting equation would be too complicated to be easily worked in the final computations. The main features of the curve expressing the relation between h and t x can be discovered by means of equation (2). That equation gives: dh _ e + rt 1 -3.5bh 3 i* (6) dt~ A Therefore: d fdh\ \dtj dt x r+3.5 h d (h'i») dt x CO When h is small the second number of equation (5) is positive, and negative when h is large. This shows that the curve, of which h is the ordinate and t x the abscissa, is convex toward t x in the vicinity of and concave in the upper part of the curve, as indicated in figure 2. 1 C/ — Fig. 2. If the flood remains at its maximum stage a sufficient length of time the curve will become horizontal at same point P and remain so, or 74 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the curve ma}' become horizontal after the maximum stage has passed, but in the latter case it will not remain horizontal. After the flood reaches its maximum stage the unit discharge V 1 =6+rT 1 may remain constant for a definite length of time. In that case the rise of the lake surface, i. e., the increase of A, will fol- low a different law from that shown by equation (5). By writing Y 1 for (e + rtj) in equation (4) : dh_V 1 -S 1 5bh^ , R * dt~ A K) or dt,= A y _ 35U3k (9) This equation may readily be integrated. If ^'=( — tjt Y 3 the integral will take the form: t,_ 1_ tfkk^+h 2 Y M l i*-k \ .... A-~S(S.5b)k [0 % (k+h^)2 v/3(3.5^ tan_ \ %/3/fc J ' (10) By giving known values to t x and h the value of the constant of integration, C, can be determined for any given case. Equation (6) will enable that portion of the curved line to be con- structed showing the relation between h and t x during the rising stage of the river, since -y~ is the tangent of the inclination of the curve to the coordinate t v Similarly, equation (8) by the same method of tangents will enable that portion of the curved line to be constructed belonging to the highest stage of the river where that stage holds constant for a suitable length of time. These investigations are subject to one source of criticism when applied to so large a reservoir as Lake Bohio, because it is implicitly assumed that the surface of the lake remains horizontal at all times, whatever may be the rate of inflow or outflow. In this case the point of inflow may be fifteen or more miles from the discharging weir, giving a sensible slope to the lake surface and causing the head on the weir to increase for a considerable time after the river ceases to rise, or possibly after the river begins to fall. In the application of the preceding analysis to the computations for the Bohio weir the curves OMKS and O'M'K'S' in figure 3 have been constructed, OM and O'M' belonging to the rising stage of the river, and MK and M'K' to the constant maximum stage. S and S' are the highest points of the curves and show the greatest heads on the weir. The rising curves KS and K'S' show that the head on the weir may continue to increase for sonic time after the river begins to fall. The complete consideration of the Lake Bohio problem requires the determination of the discharge over the w T eir during the entire time of the increase of head on the latter. This requires the integral 1*3.5 lh*Wt x =Z.Z hf/^dt, to be made. Tin 1 complicated forms of equations (5) and (10) show that that integral is practically unworkable. By referring to figure 3 it will he observed that straight lines may REPORT OF THE ISTIIMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 75 bo drawn from O to either K or S, or from O' to either K' or S', which will have nearly equal portions of the true curves on either side. of them, making it permissible to use these straight lines for a first approximation. If, then, a be some suitable constant coefficient, under this approxi- mate law there will result: li-at x (11) The same result can be shown by a purely analytic method to be a reasonable first approximation, and equation (11) will be used in the investigations which follow. In consequence of the great length of the waste weir and the prac- tical suppression of end contractions it must be assumed that there will be no end contraction. Hence the general expression of the weir discharge will be: Q=cbh 3 i°-=ca 3 i*bt l 3 i°- (12) At the maximum height to which the water will rise on the weir: /^W» 1 Q= V=«*»T^«=( A ) ^ • • • • (13) The total discharge over the weir, while the head increases uniformly from o to H=& T, is: D= / Qdt=ca 2 '*b / t*i*dt=^ca*i*b¥i* . . . (11) J * Jo 5 Since W*=c?l* T*; D=£jfffe (15) Substituting a from equation (13) in equation (15): t _2 (<&)'/', '5 V*/» (16) The volume L impounded in the lake above the elevation of the crest of the weir added to the discharge over the weir during the time T is equal to the discharge of the river during the same time T. If T 1 represents the time during which the flood discharge of the river rises from v 1 to V n the following equation will hold true: |^TH 6 ' 2 +L=(^±Ii)t i +(T-T 1 )V 1 . . . (17) Hence — (18) 7(3 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. If it is desired that the head on the weir shall not exceed H, then from equation (12) the length of the weir must be at least: i= ^m < 19 > The most simple expression for the time T is given by equation (16): r _5 D V 2/:i T= 2lPpp (20) In equation (20), however, the discharge D is not generally known, and it will be necessary to use equation (18) in order to determine T. In the following computations it will be assumed that the unit dis- charge v x of the river is 17,657 cubic feet (500 cubic meters) per sec- ond at the beginning of discharge over the weir, i. e., '\~e. In making the application of the preceding formulae to the problem presented at Lake Bohio, it will be necessary to consider first a head of water of 5 feet on a waste weir 2,000 feet long, in connection with a flood discharge in the Chagres River increasing uniformly from 17,657 cubic feet (500 cubic meters) per second to 112,000 cubic feet (3,170 cubic meters) per second during a period of 26.13 hours, or 95,145 seconds, and remaining at that maximum stage for 11.25 hours, or 51,300 seconds, the sum of the two periods being 116,115 seconds. The rate of discharge after the maximum period has passed is not needed. The surface area of Lake Bohio at the elevation of the crest of the waste weir is about 38.5 square miles, or 1,073,318,100 square feet. At an elevation of 5 feet higher that surface area becomes about 43 square miles, or 1,198,771,200 square feet. The product of half the sum of these two areas by 5 gives the volume of water impounded in the lake with a 5-foot head on the weir as L= 5,680,224,000 cubic feet. The other data required are: -y x = 17,657 cubic feel per second = ^. V x = 112,000 cubic feet per second. T^ 95,145 seconds. c=3.5and 5=2,000 feet. Hence, by equation (12): Q=V = 3.5 X 2,000 X (5)''/; =78,262 cubic feet. Introducing these various quantities in equation (18) there w ill result: T=126,009 seconds. =35 hours. As this period is 5.68 hours less than 40.68 hours, the total time of rising and remaining at the maximum height, it is probable that under the conditions of the flood assumed, the head of water on the weir would rise a little above 5 feet, but a little only. The total amount discharged over the weir while the head increases to 5 feet is bv equation (16): D= 3, 944, 7 11, 745 cubic feet. If a flood discharge of 110,000 cubic feet be assumed in the river it is interesting to determine approximately how long it would have to continue in order to raise the head on tin- weir to 7 feet. By equation REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 77 (12) the discharge over the weir (2,000 feet long) with a head of 7 feet is: Q=V=129,642 cubic feet per second. As before, v t = 17,657 cubic feet per second. Also, V x = 140,000 cubic feet per second. Again, assume T t = 95,145 seconds. At an elevation of 7 feet above the crest the area of the lake surface is 1,249,394,752 square feet, while at the elevation of the crest the area, as before, is 1,073,318,400 square feet. The half sum of these areas multiplied by 7 gives the volume stored in the lake above the crest as: L= 8,129,496,032 cubic feet. These quantities inserted in equation (18) will give: T= 158,307 seconds. = 43.98 hours. As the period of increasing discharge has been taken at 26.43 hours (95,145 seconds), it is thus seen that the maximum discharge of 140,000 cubic feet per second would have to be maintained for probably eight- een hours or more in order to produce the head of 7 feet on the weir crest. This is a contingency so excessively remote as to be practically impossible. The total discharge over the weir while the head rises from to 7 feet is, by equation (16): D=8,007,498,655 cubic feet. The general conditions assumed in the preceding applications of the formulae established are, in the main, essentially the same as those taken by M. Choron in his fifth hypothesis, on page 54 of his Notes Techniques. The curve OMKS of figure 3 shows the relation between the head on the weir and the time from the beginning of flow over the weir for the first of the preceding set of computations. It indicates that the greatest head on the weir would be 5.8 feet. This is a little too high on account of the neglect of the actual slope of the surface of the lake, as has already been observed. The approximate computations show that the greatest head would be a little over 5 feet. It is probable that 5.5 feet is about right. The curve and computations practically confirm each other. The O'M'K'S' exhibits the relation between head on the weir and time, and the assumption that there is a discharge over the weir of 17,657 cubic feet per second, when there is an equal discharge of the river, followed by the same flood as before. The greatest head on the weir is but one-tenth of a foot greater than in the previous case, show- ing that the difference in assumptions has no material effect on the maximum head, either as to amount or time. The volume of water discharged during the period of increasing head would be materially greater in the latter case than in the former. APPENDIX E, FIG. 3 SDoc^£^57 1 Appendix F DESCRIPTION OF ALTERNATIVE LOCATION FOR CANAL BETWEEN GATUN AND BOHIO. Between Gatun and Bohio the French location of the canal follows the low part of the valle}' of the Chagres. The location of the Panama Railroad is more direct, but passes over a little higher ground. This portion of the canal crosses the old bed of the Chagres six times, and the Chagres has abandoned its old bed and now flows through the canal for a distance of 4 miles. The estimates of the Commission include a channel between the Pefia Blanca and Agua Clara swamps and a levee which will keep the Chagres out of the canal through which it now flows. A study has been made of another location (practically that of the Lull survey of 1875), which, if adopted, would allow the river to flow in its present course, would make the channel between the two swamps unnecessary, and would shorten the canal. A survey was run on a direct line between Gatun and Bohio, a location made, and estimates prepared. This is shown on plate 21 b} r a broken line. This cut-off line leaves the French location at mile 7.39, and connects with it at mile 16.81. It is 8.18 miles long or 1.25 miles shorter than the distance by the canal line between these two points. It is a single straight line 4.92 miles long, connected with the canal at the east end by a curve 1.105 miles long with a radius of 13,230 feet, and at the west end by a curve 2.16 miles long with a radius of 13,720 feet. This line crosses the Panama Railroad twice, the location of which will have to be changed for about a mile. For the first 2.17 miles it lies in a low, flat country; it then strikes what is known as Tiger Hill, involving some heavy work for nearly a mile; it then again enters a low, swampy country, broken by occasional small, low hills, which continues the rest of the distance. All the hills consist largely of rock; between the hills the material is earth, the portion of which north of Tiger Hill would be excavated with dredges, and that south of Tiger Hill treated as dry-earth excavation. ' The hard material in the hills w^ild be wasted on the west side of the canal so as to form a levee, bacK of which the earth would subsequently be placed, forming an embankment of indefinite width. The estimated cost of 8.18 miles of the cut-off line (including $75,000 for change in Panama Railroad) is $9,938,601. The estimated cost of the corresponding portion of the canal on the old location is $8,093,414, to which must be added the channel between the two swamps, $2,448,076, making a total of $10,541,590, a difference of $602,989 in favor of the cut-off line, which in view of the less perfect knowledge of the ground is of no practical importance. The cut-off line represents a saving in distance of 1.25 miles, and eliminates, three curves and 73 degrees of curvature, and is worthy of further study, but for purposes of estimate the old location is retained. 79 AprENDix G. TIME REQUIRED FOR TRANSIT THROUGH AN ISTHMIAN CANAL. The time required for the passage of a ship through the p **fiS?iJ5?2 proposed isthmian canal will depend upon the speed speed. attainable and permissible in the various sections and the delays occasioned by lockages and by meeting other ships. Attainable speed here means the speed limited by the power of the ship. From this deductions are to be made in some cases to give the permissible speed. This discussion will embrace four type ships, as follows: Type ships. Type A Tvpe B Tvpe ( ' Type D Length. Feet. 400 400 540 650 Feel. 50 50 60 70 Draft. Ft. in. 24 6 32 32 32 I.H.P. 1,900 2,300 3,300 4,500 Coefficients. Available data. The draft given refers to fresh water. The power is sufficient to give the ship a speed of 12i miles per hour in open sea. The miles referred to in this discussion are statute miles. The area of the midship section of each ship is assumed to be 96 per cent of the inclosing rectangle. The block coefficient is taken as 0.8. This expresses the ratio of dis- placement to the product of length of keel, beam and draft. The mean cross section is therefore 0.8 X beamX draft. No experiments on the comparative speeds attainable by large seagoing ships in open sea and in restricted water- ways, carried on in a scientific and comprehensive manner, are known to have been made. The movement of _ small boats in small canals at low speeds has been the subject of extended experiment and careful study. The most nota- ble of these have been made recently in France and Ger- many. They have been summarized and discussed by Mr. Elnathan Sweet in a paper accompanying the report of the engineer and surveyor of New York on the proposed G erm anv Ce sum- barge canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson River. These ^ b >' Mr - experiments were carried out in great number and detail, but on boats of such different model, of so much smaller dimensions, and at such moderate speeds that they can not be applied directly to the problem of speeds of large sea- going ships through an isthmian canal. However, the analysis of the problem by Herr R. Haack, who conducted the experiments in Germany, is suggestive and useful in the present discussion. Experiments S. Doc. 54, pt 2 6 81 82 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Back current. While a ship moves forward its length in a canal, a vol- ume of water equal to its displacement must move back past the ship. Let A = wet cross section of canal, square feet. a = mean cross section of ship, square feet. !■ = — a V = speed of ship past a fixed land point, in miles per hour. v — velocity of backward current past the moving ship in miles per hour; approximately it may be thus expressed: Approximate (I V formula for i) =. -j V backward cur- A. — (I V — I rent. This is the expression ordinarily used. He it Haack points out the important fact that it is not the correct measure of v. The passage of a boat through a canal is accompanied by a depression of the water surface which begins at or a little ahead of the bow and continues past the boat some distance astern. The water which moves past the boat while the latter passes a fixed point is not only the boat's displacement, but also the volume meas- ured by this depression into the length of the boat and width of the canal. Taking this movement also into con- sideration, Haack proceeds to deduce an expression for the relation between V, v and the resistance of the boat. Let AA = reduction of wet cross section of canal caused by sinking of water surface during passage of boat. R= resistance of boat. L= length of boat in feet. w— weight of 1 cubic foot of water. C= coefficient to be determined by experiment. Then A— A A— «=area of cross section of water remaining between the boat and the bottom and sides of the canal. (aA+«) V = volume of water displaced in a unit of time. (A — A— a) v— volume flowing in the section A-aA-« past a given point in a unit of time. These volumes are identical, hence {A-AA-a)v={AA+a) V and Correct formula A A -4-^/ for backward V z= ^ ~ y (\) current. \ — A A — . 78 0. 00 s. 2 1 10.07 o.7l 7. 28 7. 20 8.66 7. 12 6.81 s. II 8. 13 7. 00 7. 95 8.28 7. 77 s. 62 7.40 7.88 0. 31 o.:;:, 7.01 Miles. 0.31 . 13 82 New York W.H.Sawyer 1. 17 . is . 79 .71 1.00 Erontenac Philip Mincli .71 .00 1. 12 .SI . 89 Lmhgstone T.W. Palmer 1.07 .00 .so .79 America . 75 .74 s. K. Kirby Presque Isle . 82 1.15 11.06 .62 . 10 7.52 - REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN OANAL COMMISSION. Iii observations on ships of such different typos as those in the preceding list, moving at such different rates of spaed, groat apparent eccentricity in result should be expected. Much of this, however, will disappear if the ships are classified with respect to r, and averages taken as in the next table. 85 Table II. Value of t\. Number of ships ave- raged. Mean value of ft. Mean de- pression of water. sur- face. Mean speed of ship (V) per hour. 7.5 9-10 10-11 11-12 14-20 1 6 8 4 3 7.5 9.59 10.32 1 1 . 58 10.47 Foot. 0.68 .51 .46 .56 .17 Milt g. 7.04 7.25 7.56 8.83 6.72 These results are plotted in figure 1, attached hereto, with r x as abscissas and depressions (d) as ordinates. A line to represent the relations is shown, which passes reason- ably near all the points. The point 1\ = 11.58, d=0.5G, should lie considerably below the line, because it corre- sponds to the largest value of V; and the point ?\ = 16.17, d=0.17, should lie above the line, because it corresponds to the smallest value of v. The same figure shows the depressions which have been used for this discussion for the isthmian canal. They exceed those given by the observations as far as the latter extend, and should do so, because the calculated speeds in the discussion for the large channels, where i\ is large, exceed those observed in the St. Clair Flats Canal. For values of i\ less than 7.50 the assumed depressions have for basis only the writer's judgment in interpreting the experiments. For i\ — 1 it is obvious the depression would equal, theoretically, the normal depth of water in the canal. Between the point and the point corresponding to 7^=7.50 there may be material difference of opinion as to the location of the depression curve. The backward current is only one of the new conditions set up when a ship passes from open sea into a restricted channel. The depression of the water surface must increase the head resistance to the ship's motion observations at the St. Clair Flats Canal the measurements of depression were made, as before stated, at the side of the channel where the depression occurred in advance of the ship, which passed at a distance of 100 to 175 feet from the observing station. As far as could be judged by watching the movement of the ship, without actual meas- urement, this depression does not occur immediately in front of the ship. It appears probable that the excess in height of w T ater against the bow over the height against the stern may be taken as safely equal to the mean depres- sion of the water's surface, or d. The pressure and horse- Increased head 111 tne resistance. 86 "REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. power required to overcome it may be calculated as fol- lows: Let h = excess of elevation of water against bow, com- pared with elevation at stern, in feet. This is taken equal to the mean depression d. 3 There was a tide of half a knot per hour in her favor in the canal. The speed of 11 knots per hour is almost identical with that assumed for the type ships. Deduct- ing from the observed speed for the tidal current, the corrected speed in the canal would be 4.5 knots or 5.17 statute miles per hour. If this speed was observed be- tween Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes, the value of r x would be 2.95. The point thus determined is platted atP in figure 2. If the speed was noted on the larger section between the Bitter Lakes and Suez, ?\ would be 3.25, and the point thus determined is platted at Q. The clearance under the keel of the Austral was less than assumed for the type ships in the isthmian canal. The reduction of speed was therefore somewhat greater than would be sus- tained by the latter. The second observation at Suez is reported by Mr. Lionel B. Wells (M. P. I. C. E., vol. 141, p. 208) as follows: In 1898 he had visited the Suez and traveled along the canal thence to Imailia. The passage occupied from 5.80 p. m. until 11.15 p. m., the average speed, irrespective of stoppages, being therefore more than 6 knots per hour. The steamship w T as 320 feet long, 39 feet wide, and drew about 21 feet, her gross tonnage being 2,260 tons; he was told that 11 knots was good speed at sea. In the canal 8 knots per hour were made at times, for the regulation as to maximum speed (5.33 knots per hour) was disregarded. The tide was against the ship, but the velocity of current is not stated. There is the same uncertainty here as in Hartley's observations as to the section of the canal where the speed of 8 knots was observed. The enlargement of the canal to the dimensions reported in 1899 is supposed to have been completed. The points for the two sections are platted at R and S in figure 2 without allowance for the opposing current. The ship had nearly the same clearance under the keel as type A will have in the isthmian canal. The observation is there- fore applicable to that type, and the points are found to fall near its attainable speed curve. Referring to the Kaiser Wilhelm (Kiel) Canal, the chief f ( ^. s ^* i ? n8 ,' • -\r v\..t i .i j ' /■» ^-r* -r s* i-i at Kiel Canal. constructing engineer, Mr. l ... [Tangents . . ■(Curves a ... [Curves b . .. /Tangents . . (Curves [Tangents . . \Curves /Tangents. . (Curves (Tangents I 10.0 (Curves 9.0 (Tangents | 10.0 i Curves 8.5 L2.5 6. 5 8.5 7.0 6. 5 9.5 s. 5 9.5 8.0 LO.O 9, o Tvpe B. (Tangents .. (Curves 10.0 8. r> 0.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 6.5 5.5 7.0 6.0 5.5 7.5 6. 5 6.0 8. - r . 8.0 8. 5 7.5 9.0 8.0 LO.O 9.0 9.5 8.0 12.5 9.0 Type C. 5.0 4.0 5.5 5.0 5. 5 4.5 6.0 5.0 4.5 7.0 6.0 8. •". 7.5 8.5 7.0 8. 5 7.5 10.0 9.0 9.0 7.5 12.5 9.0 Type D. ■l.. r > 3.5 4.5 4.0 5.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 6.0 5. o 5.0 8.0 7.5 8.0 7.0 8.5 7.5 9. 5 8. 5 9. 7.5 12.5 S.5 7.0 ' Nicaragua. The foregoing schedule applied to the two routes gives the times of transit across the Isthmus shown in Tables V and VI, but without allowance for delays at meeting points and at locks. Table V. — Tifne of transit through the Panama ('nun/ without allowance for meetings or lockages. .Tangents or curves. Dis- tance. Type A. Type Type Type D. Canal section: Stat. miles. L0.76 6.85 :;. is 2.50 3.00 8. 02 3.90 .51 . 39 2. 00 6. is 6.50 Hours. 1.35 . 98 .11 ,36 .37 . 16 .11 .06 .04 . 24 .62 .72 Hour*. 1.54 1.11 .46 .38 . 1. . 46 .07 .04 .27 . 62 .72 limns. 1.80 1.37 .50 . (2 .55 .67 . 46 .07 .04 .27 . 62 .72 Hourt. 2. 39 [Tangents .58 Culebra cut .60 75 Channel in Panama Bay . 19 07 Colon Harbor and entrance ... .05 . 29 Lake Bohio [Tangents (Curves . 65 .76 49. 09 6. 02 6.71 f.49 8. 8 1 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 97 Table VI. — Time of tr ansit through the Nicaragua Canal without allow- ance for meetings or lockages. Canal section: Firm earth . Sand or silt. Rock, West divide Rock, exclusive of West divide San Juan River: Where deepened N< >t deepened Lake Nicaragua: Where deepened Not deepened Harbors and entrances Total Tangents or curves. Dis- tance. (Tangents . iCurves ... (Tangents . (Curves ... (Tangents. (Curves . . . (Tangents . ICurves ... (Tangents . \Curves . . . (Tangents . \Curves ... (Tangents . iCurves . .. (Tangents . (Curves ... Stat. mih a. 17.99 10. 45 19.93 8. 39 4.79 3.89 2.94 2.32 12. 58 13.77 5.15 7.86 26.69 1.56 42. 27 2.04 1.04 183. 66 Type A. Hours. 2. 25 1.61 2.34 1.29 .64 .65 .39 .39 1.32 1.72 .52 . 92 2.67 .17 3.38 .20 .12 20. 58 Type 1$. Hours. 2.57 1.90 2.66 1.40 .80 .78 .49 .46 1. 18 1.84 .54 .98 2.97 .19 3.38 .23 .14 22. 81 Type C. Hours. 3.00 2. 32 2.85 1.53 .87 .78 .59 1.48 1.97 .57 1.05 3.14 .21 3.38 .23 .14 24. 69 Type D. Hours. 4.00 2.99 3.32 1.68 1.06 .97 .65 .66 1.57 1.97 .57 1.05 3.14 .21 3.38 .24 .15 27.61 To obtain the full time of transit the time consumed by lockage and the dela} r s at meeting points are to be added. The time required for lockage is here taken to be the delay caused b} T a lockage. It is the period beginning by\™c 9 kage. ume when the ship begins to slacken speed on approaching a lock and ending when it has acquired full speed after leav- ing it, less the time that is required to pass over the same distance at full canal speed. The delay while waiting for the locking of another ship will be considered further on. The channel in the vicinity of the lock is taken to be of standard canal section in firm earth. While this is not true in every case, the resulting error is not material. The approaching ship must reduce speed and be under per- fect control while yet at a considerable distance from the lock. Its movements while approaching, passing, and leaving the lock are supposed to be as follows: 1. The speed of the approaching ship is to be reduced to 1.7 miles per hour (150 feet per minute) at a point 700 feet distant from the lock-gate quoin. This reduction of speed is to be made at the rate of 1 mile per hour while moving 500 feet. Observations on a large number of lake freight ships show that when the engines are stopped the speed is re- duced at an average rate of 1 mile per hour while moving less than 100 feet. (See report U. S. Board of Engineers on Deep Waterwa^ys.) A like increase of speed occurs when the engines are again started. 3. The ship is to continue at the speed of 1.7 miles per hour until its stern is within 150 feet of the lock-gate quoin (200 feet, if moving down stream) and then is to come to a stop in the next 200 feet and during two and two-thirds minutes, backing the wheel if necessary. Observations on 35 ships entering the lock of the St. Marys Falls Canal show that a stop from a speed of 125 feet per minute is made in 100 feet and in 1.1 minutes. S. Doc. 51, pt 2 7 98 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 3. The time required to open or close a pair of lock gates is taken at two minutes. At the Ymuiden lock, on the Amsterdam Canal, the ob- served time was one and one-third minutes. 4. The time required for tilling and emptying the sev- eral locks is given in the following table, VII. (See Ap- pendix A for details of calculation.) Table VII. — Time required for filling and emptying larks. FilliiiL Panama route. Mia. Sec. Lower lock at Bohio 13 Upper lock at Bohio I 1(5 Upper lock at Pedro Miguel 13 Lower lock at Pedro Miguel 10 Miraflores lock 13 Lock No. 1 Lock No. 2 Lock No. 3 Lock No. 4 Lock No. 5 Lock No. 6 Lock No. 7 Lock No. 8 A. "■((," (/./a route. 14 56 10 42 10 42 14 43 12 49 13 17 13 17 12 18 5. A ship leaving the lock is to acquire a speed of 1.7 miles per hour while moving 300 feet, requiring four minutes, and is then to gain speed at the rate of 1 mile per hour while moving 500 feet, until full canal speed is attained. Observations of 30 ships leaving the lock of the St. Marys Falls Canal gave as mean results an acquired speed of 1.7 miles per hour while moving 200 feet in two and one-third minutes, and then an increase of speed of 1 mile per hour while moving 3(30 feet. The observations ex- tended only until a speed of 3 miles per hour was attained. These rules applied to the Bohio locks result in the time interval given in the next table: Table VIII. — Time required to pass Bohio Jocks. [In minutes.] Reducing speed to 1.7 miles per hour Moving at 1.7 miles per hour until stern is 175 feet from lock Kate quoin Coming to full stop in first lock Closing lock gates Pilling (or emptying) first lock Opening second gates Moving into second lock: At la mini,' speed (if 1.7 miles per hour Proceeding at this speed 300 feet Coming to full slop in second lock Closing second gates Filling (or emptying) second lock Opening third gates Moving out of lock and attaining full speed: Attaining speed of 1.7 miles per hour Increasing to full canal speed Time required to traverse this distance at full canal speed minutes. Time lost at locks do... Distance traversed feet . Type Type Type Type A. B. c. D. 8.8 8.0 7.2 5.5 6.2 6. 2 7.1 7.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.0 •J. ii 2.0 2.0 13.1 L3. 1 13.1 13.1 2.0 2. 2.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 l.o 4.0 2.0 2.0 2. 2.0 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2. 2.0 2.0 2. L6.3 16.:; L6.8 16.3 •J.ti 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 l.o 4.0 4.0 s.s 8.0 7.2 5.5 76.6 75.0 74.3 71.6 12.6 12.8 18.0 13.6 61.0 62. 2 61.3 58.0 S..SSC, 7,886 r>,ssr, 5, 386 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 99 Those arc the net delays if all movements are made without loss of time. In practice this would not be possi- ble. In 1894 the lock at the St. Marys Falls Canal was worked nearly to its full capacity, and the tonnage through it was about 0.62 of the theoretical capacity of the lock. Probably ships were awaiting- lockage 90 to 95 per cent of the time. If this is correct, about 50 per cent should be added to the calculated time of lockage to obtain the time used in actual work. This allowance is adopted for the present discussion. The resulting time lost by lockages is given for the two routes in Tables IX and X. Tablk IX. — Time lost by lockages on the Panama route. Bohio locks minutes. . Pedro Miguel locks do Miraflores lock do Total. {minutes. h Type A. 64.0 58. 5 36.4 (hours i 2.65 Add 50 per cent for sundry delays 1. 32 Total delays for lockages hours.. 3.97 Type B. 62.2 56.7 34. S Type C. 153.7 161.2 61.3 55. 8 34. 1 2.56 1.28 2.52 1.26 3.78 Table X.— Time lost l»j lockages on the Nicaragua mute. Atlantic slope: Lock No. 1 minutes.. Lock No. 2 do Lock No. 3 ."'.'.'.'.do'.'.'.'. Lock No. 4 do'.'.'.'. Pacific slope: Lock No. 5 do Lock No. 6 do. . '.'. Lock No. 7 do. '. '.' Lock No. 8 do. '. '. '. {minutes., hours Ana w per cent tor sundry delays Total delay for lockages hours.. Type A. 37.9 33.7 33.7 37.7 35.8 36.3 36.3 35.3 286. 7 4.78 2.39 Tvpi' B. 36.3 32.1 32.1 36.1 34.2 34.7 34.7 33.7 273. 9 4.57 2. 28 6.85 Type C. 35.6 31.4 31.4 35.4 33.5 34.0 34.0 33.0 268.3 4.47 2.23 Type D. 58.0 52. 5 31.3 2.36 1.18 Type D. 32.8 28.6 2S.6 32.6 30.7 31.2 31.2 30.2 245. 9 4.10 2. 05 Meetings occurring in the excavated channels will cause. Delays at meet delay. No allowance need be made for meetings in deep mgP ° m ' water in Lake Nicaragua, Lake Bohio, or the San Juan River. Meetings may also occur at locks. It is obvious that "if two ships of type D meet in the Meetings in regular canal section one must tie up while the other channtls passes at reduced speed. Ships of type A could meet any- where, but one would probably tie up while the speed of the other would be reduced. In channels 200 to 300 feet wide it is not likely that either ship would tie up, but both would reduce speed. Since a ship of any type may meet another of any type, a vast number of possible cases will arise. IMs not practicable to investigate each on a different basis, and the 100 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. same rules will be assumed to appl} 7 to all. These rules are as follows: 1. In the section of 150 feet bottom width, passing- places are assumed to be 5 miles apart where all meet- ings must occur. One of the two ships about to meet will tie up at the passing place and await the other. As an average, the waiting ship will arrive at the passing place, while the other is 2£ miles distant. It will be assumed that the moving ship passes the waiting ship at half speed, maintaining the minimum speed for an average distance of 2,000 feet. The rates of reduction and increase of speed are taken the same as for the calculations of delays at locks. The delay to each of the two ships is calculated and the mean taken. In order to simplify the calculations it is assumed that the approaching ships are moving before reducing speed at the rates scheduled in Table IV for canal section in firm earth on tangents. 2. In the channels 200 to 300 feet wide neither ship will stop, but both will reduce speed to 4 miles per hour, maintaining this rate for an average distance of 2,000 feet. In order to simplify the problem the reductions will be calculated from the speeds scheduled in Table IV for tangents in the San Juan River where deepened. Meetings in The delay caused by a meeting in the canal section is narrow sections. can al sb.0wn in Table XL Table XI. — Delay >ii meeting points in canal section InO feet wi approach, the average delay when one occurred would be one-half the time required for a lockage (not the time lost by lockage). Only one of two meeting ships would suffer this delay and the average loss of time to each ship would be one-fourth the time required for a lockage. In prac- tice, however, the delay would probably be a little less because, after the first ship has been tied up in the lock, a part of the force could be spared to begin operating the duplicate lock. The time thus saved would provide for all delays to ships following each other. The full allowance will therefore be made here for meeting ships and none for following ships. The Dumber of meetings is the total delay for Lockages as obtained from Tables IX and X. by applying formula (7). Thetime required for passing the locks is the calculated time plus thealfowance of 50 per cent for sundry delays. The time lost by a meeting at the Bohio locks is estimated as shown in Table XVII. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Table XVII. — Delay caused by a meeting at Bohio lucks. 103 [Interval between arrival of ship at a point 700 feet from the lock-gate quoin and the point when in leaving the lock it lias attained a speed of 1.7 miles per hour. This is taken to he the maximum delay which a second ship would meet. Data from Table VOL] [In minutes.] Type A. Type B. Type C. Type L>. Moving at 1.7 miles per hour until stern is 175 feet from lock-gate quoin ('(iming to full stop in lock Closing lock gates Filling (or emptying) first lock Opening se» ind gates Moving into second lock ( 'li ising second gates Filling (or emptying) lock Opening third gates. . Attaining speed ot 1.7 miles per hour Maximum delay to waiting ships Average delay to waiting ships Average delay to both meeting ships Average delay with 50 per cent added 6.2 2.7 2.0 13.1 2.0 8.7 2.0 16.3 2.0 4.0 6.2 2.7 2.0 13.1 2.0 8.7 2.0 16.3 2.0 4.0 7.1 2.7 2.0 13.1 2.0 8.7 2.0 16.3 2.0 4.0 59. 59. 59. 9 30. 30. 30. 15.0 I 15.0 I 15.0 22. 22. 23. 7.8 2.7 2.0 13.1 2.0 8.7 2.0 16.3 2.0 4.0 60.6 30.0 15.0 23. From the foregoing- table the average delay to all ships at the Bohio flight of two locks would be fifteen minutes. In a similar way the average delay at other locks is calcu- lated, with the following results: Table XVIII. — Delays caused by meetings at each of the locks or flights of the Panama route. [In minutes.] Type A. Type B. Type C Type D. At Bohio locks At I'edro Miguel locks At Miraflores lock Total „ (minutes. . Mean {hours.... Mean, with 50 per cent added hours.. 15.0 13.0 8.0 36.0 12.0 .2 .3 15.0 13.0 8.0 15.0 14.0 8.0 36.0 12.0 .2 .3 37.0 12.0 .2 .3 15.0 14.0 8.0 37.0 12.0 .2 .3 Table XIX. — Delays at meetings at each of the locks of the Nicaragua route. [In minutes.] Type A. Type B. Type C. Type D. 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 7.0 8.0 8.0 7.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 7.0 8.0 8.0 7.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 8 8.0 8.0 At Lock No. 8 8.0 Totals 60.0 7.5 .12 .18 60.0 7.5 .12 .18 62.0 7.8 .13 .19 62.0 Mean Mean with 50 per cent added [minutes . . hours.. 7.8 .13 .19 104 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. These delays for each meeting multiplied by the number of meetings give the following tables, XX and XXI: Table XX. — Number of delays while awaiting lockage on the Panama route and delays therefrom. Number of delays per transit Time of each delay hours. . Total delay Type A. Type B. Type C. 1.89 .30 .57 1.83 .30 .55 1.80 .30 .54 1 Type b. 1.69 .30 .51 Table XXI. — Number of delays while awaiting lockage on the Nicaragua route, and delays therefrom. Number of delays per transit Time of each delay hours. . Total delay Type Tvpe Type A. B. C. 3.23 3. 09 3. 02 .18 .18 .19 .58 .56 .57 Type D. 2.78 .19 .53 The several time intervals are summed up in the follow- ing table, giving the total time of transit by each route: Table XXII. — Time of transit across isthmus. [In hours.] Panama route. Time without allowance for lockage or meetings Lockages Meetings in canal section Meetings in channel in Panama Bay Meetings at locks Total time of transit Nicaragua route. Time without allowance for lockage or meetings Lockages Meetings in canal sections Meetings in channels in San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua Meetings at locks Total time of transit Tvpe Tvpe Tvpe Type A. B. C. D. 6. 02 3. 97 .65 .02 .57 11.23 7. 17 L.58 .20 .58 6.71 3. 8 1 .77 .02 7. I '.I 3.78 .97 .01 .64 11.89 12.79 22. SI 6. 85 1 . 89 .19 ,56 32. 30 21.69 6. 7(1 2. 28 8. SO 3. 54 1.42 .00 .51 14.27 27. 61 6.16 3.35 .03 .. r .;; 34.35 37.67 These estimates are for ships having a sea speed of 12A statute miles per hour. It is assumed that passing places. where ships can tie up, will be provided at intervals of 5 miles in all canal sections, and that the route will he so efficiently lighted, either by fixed lights along the route or by lights carried by the ships, or by both, as experience may indicate that navigation may he continued by night as well as by day. Should the ships be powered for a less sea speed the time of transit will not he increased iti sim- ple inverse proportion, nor could the time of transit he much reduced if the sea speed were considerably greater. If no provisions he made for passing places, or if the lighting be inadequate, the estimates do not apply. APPENDIX G, FIG. S Doc-'V' 3 57 1 APPENDIX G. FI6 2 Appendix H. DISCHARGE OF THE CANALIZED SAN JUAN RIVER. The San Juan River flows with very little fall through a flat, swampy valley until the tributary, Rio Sabalos, is reached, about 26 miles from' the lake. Within "the next IS miles, to the mouth of the Rio Machuca, the river descends the Toro, Castillo, and Machuca rapids, as well as several smaller ones. In the first 26 miles of its course the fall, at mean stages, is only about 4 feet, but in the next IS miles the fall is about 45 feet. From the Rio Machuca to the mouth of the San Carlos, a distance of about 13 miles, the fall is very slight. If the dam is built at Conchuda the water will be raised over the whole length of the river from that point to the lake, entirely drown- ing all the rapids and adding about 50 feet to the depth of the lower portion of the river, but only 4 oi 5 to the upper portion. Therefore, when the canalized river is discharging, the condition of nature will be reversed and nearly all the slope will be found in the upper portion, where the cross section is changed but little. In the lower portion, where the cross section is increased from ten to twenty times, the slope will be very slight. It is known from actual observations what the concurrent elevations of lake surface and discharges have been during the season of obser- vation. It is also approximately known from rainfall and other observations in the drainage basin of the lake what discharges must be expected if the variation of the lake surface is to be regulated within the desired limits. In this investigation of the discharge of the San Juan River the problem has been so treated as to determine the hydraulic mean radius, the coefficient of roughness, and the slope for assumed discharges of 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, and 70,000 cubic feet per second for each elevation of lake surface 104, 106, 108, 110, and 112. In order to attain these ends the well-known Chezy's form of formula for mean velocity of discharge, with Kutter's coeffi- cient, has been used. The following is its form: n s i — -7=( 41.65 -f- in which yV v * J 8 — the sine of the inclination of the water surface to a horizontal. r = the hydraulic radius = area of the normal water section di- vided by the wetted perimeter. n — coefficient of roughness. v — mean velocity in river. 105 106 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In the present case, 0.024 was taken as the coefficient of roughness, n. The significance of this value will be discussed later. To obtain r and v, 20 sections of the river valley were taken at various points between the lake and the site of the dam. The position of these sections is shown in figure 1. Table 1 gives the distances of each section in feet from Fort San Carlos, measured along the present river channel. Table 1. Number of section. Distance from lake. Number of section. Distance from lake. Number of section. Distance from lake. 1 Feet. 23, 500 42, 500 65, 000 70, 500 8G, 000 137,000 8 Feet. 153,000 177,000 183, 000 191,000 193, 500 206, 000 212, 000 15 Feet. 228, 000 ■> 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 239, 000 3 .. 17 259,000 4... 18 269, 000 5 19 283,000 6... 20 300,500 7 326,500 These sections were all platted to a scale of 40 feet to an inch. In those sections in which excavation is required to give 35 feet draft with water at elevation + 104 the line of excavation was platted on the section. The wetted perimeters were then measured by a chartometer for elevations of water surface of 104, 106, 108, 110, and 112. Corre- sponding areas were then taken off by a planimeter. These areas, wetted perimeters, and the resulting hvdraulic radii are given in Table 2. > There is considerable distance between sections Nos. 6 and 7. This portion of the river was studied some time ago quite thoroughly by Mr. A. P. Davis. He found that the river had a nearly uniform sec- tion, and as the average was almost exactly the same as at No. 4 that section was used for the length E, figure 1. From the lake down to Rio Sabalos, where the river flows through extensive swamps, a rise of the water surface to elevation 104 will flood considerable area on both sides of the river and thereby add greatly to the cross section. This increased area will, however, be in swamps with dense vegetation, and in order that the capacity of the river may not be overestimated this overflow has not been considered. The cross section has been taken as though the banks were vertical at the side of the present river bed; but as the banks above the original sur- face under such a supposition are composed of water, those portions have not been added to the wetted perimeter, which, as will be seen in Table 2, has been taken as constant in sections Nos. 1, 2. 4, and 5 and equal to the actual earth perimeter between the present banks. In figure 1 it is seen that there are three cut-off lines — San Fran- cisco, Palo de Arco. and Santa Cruz. The combined discharge of a cut-off and the river bend or curve which is cut off will evidently be the total discharge of the river. The canal sections at these points are all alike and are called section No. 21, for which the areas for normal sections, wetted perimeters, and hydraulic radii are given in Table 2. The river from the lake to the dam was divided into 10 short lengths, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 107 A, B, C, etc., as shown in figure L. It was assumed that each of these Lengths had a uniform section throughout, and that — Section No. 1 is typical of length A. Section No. -' is typical of length B. Section No. 4 is typical of length C. Section No. 5 is typical of length D. Section No. 6 is typical of length E. Section No. 7 is typical of length F. Section No. 9 is typical of length G. Section No. 10 is typical of length H. Section No. 14 is typical of length I. Section No. 18 is typical of length K. The next step was to find by Kutter's formula the slopes required at each section to give discharges of 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, and 70,000 second-feet, or cubic feet per second, for each of the following elevations of water surface at the sections 102, 104, 106, 108, 110, and 112. These slopes are given in Table 3. Having de- termined the slopes of Table 3, the curves of water surface of the San Juan River were plotted in figure 3 in the following manner: The lengths A, B, C, etc., on that plate correspond to the divisions of the river in figure 1. The ordinates are elevations in feet above mean sea level. The abscissas of the curves of water surface are dis- tances in feet from the lake, measured along the course of the river. The slopes given in Table 3 are for elevations of water surface 104, 106, etc., only, but the water surface may be at any elevation. In order to obtain the slopes at any elevation, the curves j^i^ PsPin e ^c, were constructed. To illustrate the manner of obtaining all of these curves, the process will be followed through for the curves p 1 p h and p 6 p n . If the fourth slope, 0.0000195, Table 3, be multiplied by 10,000, the result, 0.195 feet, will be the amount that the river will fall in 10,000 feet of length A, if the mean elevation of water surface — i. e., the ele- vation of the midpoint of that length — is 112. The fall, 0.195 feet, is plotted as an abscissa from a b, the beginning of length A, at elevation 112 and the pointy, obtained. In the same way the slope for section No. 1, elevation 110, and a dis- charge of 70,000 second-feet, was multiplied by 10,000 and plotted at elevation 110 in the point je> 2 . Points p 3 , 2 ) *-> andy> 5 were obtained in a similar manner. The curve P\ P fi , figure 3. In the same way^> 7 ,^> 8 , etc., were obtained and the cure p c p n drawn. The abscissas measured from cd to this curve give the fall in half the length of either of the two channels of the San Francisco cut-off when the combined discharge is 70,000 second-feet and the elevation of the water surface at the midpoint of length of channel is that at which the abscissa was measured. Curves for discharges of 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, and 60,000 cubic feet per second were obtained in a similar manner. A set of curves for each of lengths C, E, F, H, I, and K were plotted in the same way as were those for length A. Curves for lengths I) andG, the Palo de Arco and Santa Cruz cut-off lines, were obtained in the same manner as those for Length B. The method of obtaining the curves of water surface in figure 3 may be illustrated by taking curve X as an example. Remembering that the abscissas to the line p^p^p b are the falls of water surface for a Length of L0,000 feet, while the latter is also the distance between two consecutive vertical lines on the diagram, a point o 1 was found with the dividers on the lineal such that <> x ,, is equal to the abscissa <>., x v The distance a 2 .,. the same elevation as "., on c, d s , which is halfway between c a and ^/'and the point r s located, it being remembered that the abscissas of the curve p t j> n are the falls of water surface for half the length B. The line ./., r s was then drawn and extended to i\. In the same manner the line was extended from length to length. And in the same way all the lines of watei surface shown in figure 3 were constructed. All of this was done to a vertical scale on which hundredths of a foot could be easily read. At the end of # length K, at the extreme right-hand side of figure 3, are drawn curves, beginning on the vertical line drawn through the extremity of that length, representing the location of the Conchuda Dam. These curves are so drawn as to make their horizontal ordinates or abscissas represent the various discharges in cubic feet per second used in the preceding investigations. There is one such curve for each of the elevations of lake surface, represented by even numbers, from 106 to 112, both inclusive. The abscissas of each of these curves, therefore, represent the different discharges for the varying elevations (at which they are drawn) of the water surface at the dam, and corre- sponding to the elevation of water surface shown at the left side of the plate, there being one such elevation for each curve. There is thus given in this figure 3 all the information which is really required to determine the discharge of the canalized river for any elevation of lake surface or any elevation of water surface at the dam within the prescribed limits. It is convenient, however, to place this information regarding the discharges in a separate figure, and this is done in fig- ure 4. The latter plate contains curves which show the elevation of water surface at the dam corresponding to any assumed discharge at a given elevation of water surface at the lake. The vertical ordinates of the curves are elevations of lake surface, while the abscissas of the same curves are the discharges in cubic feet per second, each curve corresponding to one of the given elevations at the dam, 102, 104, 106, and 108 feet. These two figures (3 and 4) exhibit complete informa- tion regarding discharges of the canalized river corresponding to ele- vations of surface either at the lake or at the dam. It is evident that the minimum elevation of the water at the dam will be fixed by the elevation of the sills of Lock No. 4, and that at the time when the discharging capacity of the river is most desired, viz, at the time of flood, the water at the dam will always be held at the minimum elevation. As low water in the summit level has been fixed by the Commission at elevation 104, the curve marked "elevation of water surface at dam 104," is of the greatest practical use. The other curves were developed to cover the field and show what might be accomplished in the way of increasing the discharge bv depressing the summit level. A set of curves, XX. XXI. XXII, XXIII, XXIV, XXV, figure 3, were constructed in the same manner as curves I, II, III, etc., except that the} T were drawn from right to left and starting from the dam at elevation 104. 110 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The ordinate.-; at the left-hand end of these curves should check with those of curve III, figure 4, which they do. For any elevation of the lake the maximum discharge of the river may be read from curve III, figure 4. A description of the use to which this curve was put will be found in Mr. Davis's report to the Commission. The question now arises as to whether or not the velocities in the river at times of maximum discharge will be dangerous to navigation. To be on the safe side a discharge of 70,000 second-feet is assumed. It is evident from line XXII, tigure 3, that the maximum velocity will occur in length F. The average elevation of water surface in the last 20,000 feet of this length at time of 70,000 second-feet discharge (see line XXII, tigure 3) is about 106 and in table 3 it is seen that for that discharge at section No. 7 and an elevation of water surface of 106 the velocity is 4.2 feet per second. There is an apparent possibility that higher velocities might occur in one of three cut-oft ^nes, but exami- nation shows that they will not. Many } T ears of use has demonstrated that Kutter's formula expresses faily well the relation between the velocity, area of cross section, wet- ted perimeter, slope, and frictional resistance of a stream. The only point needing discussion is the value which was used for the coefficient of roughness n. To test the correctness of 0.024 as a value of n the same process which has been described as applied to the canalized river was applied to the natural river and the results compared with known discharges and known elevations of water surface. Table 4 shows the properties of the sections Nos. l a and 4 a , which are exactly the same as sections Nos. 1 and 4 of Table 2, except that they are sections of the natural instead of the canalized river. Sections Nos. 2 and 5 of Table 2, being at the cut-off lines, are already of the nat- ural river. Table 5 gives the slopes for sections Nos. l a and 4.,. obtained by Kutter's formula, using 0.024 as the value of n. From slopes for the natural river sections, Nos. l a , 3, 4 a , and 5, the curves of water surface shown in figure 5 were obtained in exactly the same manner as those of figure 3. In 1898 a gauging station was established near the mouth of the Rio Sabalos, and in 1899 another was established at Isla Grande. Daily readings of these gauges were made and a large number of current- meter observations of the discharge of the river were taken. As the curves of figure 5 were constructed for the same discharges and eleva- tions of lake as those observed, they furnish a means of checking the accuracy of the method of investigation by observing the agreement of the elevation of water surface at the gauging stations given by the theoretical curves, based on Kutter's formula, with the actual observed elevation of water surface. As an example, the mean elevation of lake from December 11 to 20, 1898, was 106.46 (see Report of Nicaragua Canal Commission, pp. 212, 219, 220), and the mean discharge of the river at that time was 26,230 second-feet. Curve 1, figure 5, was constructed for the above dis- charge, starting with elevation 106.46 at the lake, in the same way that the similar curves of figure 3 were constructed. At the Sabalos gauge the curve shows an elevation of water surface of 101.96. The mean of the actual observed elevations for that time was L01.88. In the same wa} r the other curves were constructed and the comparisons made. REPORT OF TILE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Ill The agreement of the elevations given by the theoretical curves of water surface and the observed elevations is quite as close as could be expected, and it would seem that confidence can be placed in the accu- racy of the curves of figures 8 and 4, although figure 5 does not cover quite so large a range as figure 3, either in length of river or in the elevation of water surface. There will be practically no fall between Rio Sabalos and the dam, so that figure 5 covers all that part of the river that has much influ- ence on the problem. It is necessary, however, to make the assumption that the method of investigation applies with equal truth to the natural river and to the deeper canalized river. This assumption involves the general correct- ness of Kutter's formula, which is fairly well established. The value which has been used for the coefficient of roughness, n, has been referred to as possibly needing some discussion. The value of the same coefficient for such rivers as the Mississippi, as well as some others of large mean radii, will be found given as about 0.032, although in other similar cases, like the Missouri River, values nearly or quite as low as 0.02 will be found. In the former of these sets of cases, however, there are some if not many instances where the slope or some other element of Kutter's formula is of uncertain value, involving a corresponding uncertainty in that of n. The hydraulic mean radius of the San Juan, used in the preceding computations, is generally large, running from 9 or 10 feet to more than 50 feet. Finally, it is a river, on the whole, with not a very rough bed, although there are stretches where thick water grasses or other vegetation encroach upon its borders. The means taken to secure a correct value of n have already been described in this Appendix, and it will there be seen that the value used gives results when applied to the natural river which are closely confirmed by actual discharge gaugings. It may still be thought that the value of n used, i. e., 0.024, is too small, and that it satisfies the conditions and checks with observations on the natural river so well in the foregoing investigation, because the sections used as typical may be smaller than the average section of the length for which the}' were assumed to be typical. The question now arises: Has any material error been introduced into the results by the possible choice of too small sections for the computations? As an illustration, let a rectangular section be taken 1,000 feet wide by 12 feet deep. With a slope of 0.00002 and a coefficient of rough- ness of 0.024, this section, by Kutter's formula, will discharge 20,750 second-feet. If this section were taken too small, and if it should be enough broader to have the same discharge (20,750 second-feet), with the same slope (0.00002), and a coefficient of roughness (/? = 0.032), then such a section would be 1,255 feet wide by 12 feet deep. The problem is: What will be the error in using the smaller section with the smaller coefficient (n= 0.024) instead of the larger section with the larger coefficient (n— 0.032) when the depth of water is, say, 20 feet instead of 12 feet? With 20 feet depth of water in the smaller section, the sectional area is 2,000 square feet, the hydraulic radius is 19.23, and, by Kutter's formula, if n =0.024 and the slope is 0.00002 the discharge will be 50,400 second-feet. 112 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. With 20 feet depth of water in the larger section, the sectional area will be 25,100 square feet, the hydraulic radius will be 10.39, and, by Kutter's formula, if n=0.032 and the slope is 0.00002 the discharge will be 50,950 second-feet, or an error of less than 1 per cent on the sate side. These hypothetical sections have about the same dimensions as the sections of the upper part of the river, and from this example it would seem that there can be no appreciable error in the final results, even if too small sections were taken, which is not probable. Table 2. Num- ber of Eleva- tion of Sectional Wetted Hydrau- lic radius. Num- ber of Eleva- tion of Sectional Wetted Hydrau- sec- tion. \V. S. at section. area. perim- eter. sec- tion. W.S.at section. area. perim- eter. lic radius. 1 112 24,540 1,060 23.15 9 106 15, 790 504 21.22 1 no 22, 480 1,060 21.19 9 104 14,790 504 39. 30 1 108 20, 120 1,060 19.25 9 102 13,790 504 27. 30 1 106 18, 360 16, 300 1,060 17.31 10 112 1 104 1,060 15.37 10 no 20, 790 604 31. 36 2 112 14,540 645 22. 50 10 108 19.670 596 33.00 2 110 13,280 645 20. 59 10 106 IS, r,50 588 31.50 2 108 12,02(1 645 18.64 10 104 17, 130 580 30.06 2 106 10, 760 645 16.68 14.72 10 102 16,360 576 2.s. 36 2 104 9, 400 645 12 110 37,260 1 , 341 27. 77 2 102 8, 230 645 12.75 12 108 34,700 1,314 26. 52 2 100 7.110 605 11.76 12 106 32,180 1 , 287 25. oo 3 110 12,840 780 16.46 12 104 29,700 1 , 260 23. 55 3 108 LI, 320 770 14.70 13 110 40, 350 1,470 27.42 3 106 9,800 760 12.00 13 108 37, 17ii 1. 117 25. 91 3 104 8, 280 710 11.66 13 106 34,590 1, 117 21. Id 4 112 20, 060 720 27. 80 13 104 31,710 1,400 22. 65 4 110 18,540 720 25. 75 11 112 29, ISO 848 34. 70 4 108 17,020 720 23. 62 14 110 27, 930 828 33. 75 4 106 15,500 720 21. 55 14 108 26, 370 sos 32.60 4 104 13, 980 720 19. 42 14 106 24,810 TVs 31.50 4 102 12, 620 720 17.50 14 104 23, 250 70S 30. 30 5 112 16,230 820 19.90 11 102 21 . 790 744 29. 25 5 lid 14, 610 820 17.81 15 no 51,240 1,399 36. 60 5 108 12,990 820 15. 85 15 104 43. 260 1,360 31.80 5 106 11 370 820 L3.86 16 110 10,560 1,083 37.40 5 KH 9, 750 820 1 1 . SO 16 104 34,380 1 , 032 33.30 5 102 8,650 815 10. 62 17 110 14,880 779 :>7.50 5 100 7,050 811 8. 70 17 104 10,260 752 53. 60 6 llii 1.5,370 801 19.20 18 112 32,980 090 17. 10 6 108 L3.830 794 17.41 is 110 31,720 688 46.48 6 106 12, 290 787 15.61 18 108 30, 160 670 45.50 6 104 10, 750 780 13.79 is 106 29, lso 667 11.35 7 112 110 18 is 101 102 27, 930 20.750 011 630 43. 36 12. 15 19,380 710 26. 20 7 L08 L7.960 736 24.41 19 no 82,610 630 51.75 7 106 16.540 732 22.55 19 104 89,260 600 48. 7^ 7 nil 15.120 728 20.76 20 no 17.310 925 51. 16 7 102 1 1. 100 721 19. 15 20 101 42, 150 880 17. 85 8 110 27,560 943 20.71 21 112 9, 106 316 29. SO 8 108 25,730 93 1 27. 70 21 110 8,840 310 28. 66 8 106 2:;, 0211 925 25. 68 21 108 8, 282 304 27. 25 8 llll 22,130 916 23. 75 21 106 7. 732 298 25.91 9 112 18,880 504 37, in 21 104 7. 190 292 21.03 9 lid 17, MO 104 ■ 21 102 6,656 286 23. 26 9 1II.S 16,800 604 . 33.30 Table 3. 3ei tion null'.- ber. tion W.S.at section. Dis- charge, cubic teel per Bec- ond. Velocity, feel per second. Slope ii .024. Sec- tion num- ber. Eleva- tion W.S.al section. i'i- charge, cubic feel per sec- ond. Velocity, feel per second. Slope n = .021. 1 112 10, 1.6030 0. 00000325 l 110 .5II.IIOU 2. 22 1 1 .0000108 50,0(11) 2.0376 .OOOOOOs 60, 2.6690 .00110192 60,000 2.4400 . 000012 70.000 :;. 1137 .0000305 70,000 2. 8526 .0000195 l ins 20,000 .9795 .00 L66 1 110 20.HII0 . 8899 .1 Oil 30,000 1. 1092 IK 0103, 30,000 1.8346 0276 40, 000 1.9580 . 0000092 in. iioo 1.7792 .0000055 50,000 2. 1 ISO .0000185 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 113 T \ i; lie :!---( 'ontinued. Sec- tion num- ber. Eleva- tion W.S.at section Dis- charge, cubic tee per sor- dini. Velocity feel per a ml. Slope 11— (121. Sec Eleva lion lion imiii- \V. S. ol ber. section charge Velocity, cubic feel feel per per so second, olid. Slopr n=.024. 1 108 60, 2.9382 0.000802 5 108 10, 000 3.0794 0.000049 70,000 3.4280 .0000465 5 106 !0, 1.7 5! in .0000151 l 106 20,000 l.iiv.il .01100027 30,000 2.6385 .0000125 30,000 1.6340 .0000072 hi, 3.5178 .0000865 40, 000 2.1786 .0000168 5 mi 20,000 2. 0514 .0001 31 50,000 2.7234 .0000818 30,000 3. 0770 .OOOOS mi. onn 3.2680 . 000049 10. (100 1. 1026 . 00015 I 70,000 3.8128 . 000074 5 102 20,000 2. 3122 .000010 l KM 20,000 1 . 2270 .0000044 30,1 :;. ins:; .000125 L.8405 .000014 III. 000 1.6212 .0002:15 to, 000 2. 1510 . 0000292 5 100 20, 000 2. 8370 .00011 50, 000 3.0675 . 000051 30,000 1.2.551 . 000257 60, 000 3.6810 . 000083 10,000 5.6737 . 00045 Tll.OOO 1.2945 .000118 7 112 10,000 1 . 9230 .00.10031; 2 111' 20, 000 1.3756 .0000026 50,000 2. 1040 .01 101 I06S 30, 000 2. 0633 . 0000074 60, 000 2.8846 .000013 40, 000 2.7510 . 0000185 70, 000 3.3652 .000021 2 110 20, 000 1.506)1 . 00000308 7 110 20, 000 L.0526 . 000001 30,000 2.2501 . 00000875 30, 000 1 . 5788 . 0000026 10,000 3.0121 . 0000235 40, 000 2. 1050 .0000053 50, 000 3. 7650 .0000135 50, 000 2. 6314 . 0000108 2 L08 20,000 1. 6639 . 0000063 60, 000 ■1.1577 || N 11 12 30,000 2. 4957 . 0000215 70, 000 3.6840 . 0000318 to.ooo 3. 3277 . 0000158 7 108 20,000 1.1136 .0000011 50,000 4. 1596 .0000812 30,000 1.6703 .0000035 2 106 20, 000 1. 8587 .0000113 40,000 2.2271 . 0000066 30,000 2. 7880 . 000035 50,000 2.7839 . 000016 40, 000 3.7174 . 0000725 60, 000 3. 340S .0000270 50, 000 4.6468 . 000125 70,000 3. 8975 . 0000425 2 KM 20, 000 2. 1075 . 000022 7 106 20, 000 1.2092 .0100010.5 30, 000 3. 1612 . 000065 30, 000 1. 813S .001,00.5 40, 000 4.2148 . 000122 40, 000 2.4184 10122 50,000 5.2688 .0002 50, 000 3.0230 .00002.5 1 102 20, 000 2. 1302 .0000IO5 60, 000 3. 6277 -.000011 30, 000 3.6452 . 0001075 70, 000 1. 2320 .0000015 40, 000 1.8602 .000225 7 101 20, 000 1.3227 .0000027 2 100 20, 000 2. 8128 . 000067 30, 000 1. 9840 .0000071 30, 000 4.2192 .0001660 40, 000 2.6454 .000017(1 40, 000 5. 6255 . 00031 50, 000 3.3067 .0000315 4 112 40, 000 1.9940 . 00000399 60,000 3.9681 . 0000555 50, 000 2. 1022 . 0000077 70, 000 1.6205 .0000825 60, 000 2.0010 . 0000149 7 102 20, 000 1.4185 .0000038 70,000 :;. isoo .000024 30, 000 2.1276 . 0000125 4 110 20, 000 1.0787 .000001 is 40,000 2.8368 30, 001) 1.6181 . 0000025 50.000 3.5460 .0000502 40, 000 2. 1575 . 000006 00, 000 1.2555 . 000081 50. 000 2.6968 .0000120 70, 000 1.0613 .0001175 60, 000 3. 2362 .0000227 i 9 112 40, 00() 2. 11S6 . 000002 1 70, 000 3. 7750 .0000359 50, 000 2.6482 . 0000013 4 108 20, 000 1. 1751 .0000016 60.000 :;. 1780 . 000008 30, 000 1.7025 .00000404 70, 000 : 1.7075 .0000142 40, 000 2. 3501 .00000985 9 110 •JO. 000 1.1210 . 00000062 50, 000 2.9376 .0000204 30, 000 1 . 6S16 .00000156 60, 000 3.5251 . 000035 40, 000 2. 2420 . 00000325 70, 000 4. 1130 . 0000525 50, 000 2.S025 . 0000061 4 10G 20,000 1.2903 . 0000025 60, 000 3. 3630 . 0000118 30, 000 1.0350 . 00000675 70, 000 3.9235 . 0000196 40, 000 2. 5806 . 000017 9 108 20, 000 1.1005 .00000070 50,000 3.2258 . 0000327 30, 000 1.7860 . 000002 60, 000 3.8710 I . 0000526 10.000 2.3810 . 0000041 70, 000 1.510,0 . 000070 50, 000 2. 9760 . 0000087 4 104 20, 000 1.4306 . 0000039 110,000 3.5715 . 00001 6.s 30, 000 2. 1 160 .0000125 70,000 4.1665 . 0000275 40,000 2.8612 .000020 9 106 20, 000 L. 2667 .O0000107 50, 000 3.5766 ..1 30, 000 1.0000 . 00000277 60, 000 1.2020 .0000? 10,000 2. 5330 . 00000605 70, 000 5.0071 .000119 50.000 ::. moo .000013 4 102 20, 000 1 . 5.S is . 0000063 60,000 3. 8000 .0000212 30,000 2. 377 .0000212 70, 000 1. 1330 .0000: is 40, 000 . 000045 9 104 20, 000 1 . 3522 . 00000142 50, 000 3.9618 .0(10070 30, 000 2. 0285 . 00000375 5 112 4(1,000 2, 1644 .0000175 40, 000 2.7010 . 0000089 50,000 1.0806 .000033 50, 000 3.3806 . 000019 00.1. 3.6970 : .0000..:; 60, 000 4.0570 . 0000385 70, 000 4.3130 1 .0001 IS 70, 000 4. 7330 .0000520 5 111) 20, 000 1.4511 .0000048 9 102 20,000 1. 1502 . 00000195 30, 000 2.1767 .000016 30,000 2. 1756 . 0000053 40, 000 2. 9021 .000035:: 40, 000 '.'.0000 .00001 1 5 108 , 20, 000 1.5396 . 0000074 50. 1 3. 6258 .0000276 30, 000 2. 3095 . 000024 60,000 4.2511 . 0000475 3. Do a. 54. r t 2 -S 114 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Table 3 — Continued. Sec- tion num- ber. Eleva- tion W. S. at section. Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond. Velocity, feet per second. Slope n=.024. Sec- tion num- ber. Eleva- tion W. S. at section. Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond. Velocity, feet per second. Slope n=.024. 9 102 70, 000 5. 0762 0. 000072 14 104 70,000 3. 0108 0. 000012 10 112 40, 000 1. 8256 . 00000185 14 102 20, 000 .9179 . 0000005 50, 000 2. 2820 . 00000325 30, 000 1. 3768 . 000001 15 60,000 2. 7385 . 0000055 40, 000 1.8357 .1111011113 70, 000 3. 1950 . 0000092 50, 000 2. 2946 . 0000052 10 110 20,000 .9620 . 00000046 60, 000 2. 7536 . 0000095 SO, 000 1.4429 . 00000125 70,000 3. 2125 . 0000168 40,000 1. 9239 . 0000023 18 110 20, 000 . 6305 . 00000011 50,000 2.4050 . 000004 30, 000 .9458 . 0000002 60, 000 2. 8860 .0000072 40, 000 1. 2609 . 00000039 70, 000 3. 3670 . 0000125 50, 000 1. 5762 . 00000075 10 108 20, 000 1.0168 . 0000006 60, 000 1.8915 . 0000011 30, 000 1. 5252 . 00000145 70, 000 2. 2067 . 0000016 40, 000 2. 0335 . 00000295 18 108 20, 000 . 6566 .00000012 50, 000 2. 5420 . 00000535 30, 000 . 9849 . 00000025 60, 000 3. 0504 . 0000095 40, 000 1.3132 . 0000005 70, 000 3. 5586 . 0000172 50, 000 1.6415 . 0000009 10 106 20, 000 1. 4782 . 00000074 60, 000 1.9698 . 0000014 30, 000 1.6173 . 00000178 70, 000 2. 2981 . 0000019 40, 000 2. 1563 . 0000037 18 106 20, 000 .6854 .00000011 50, 000 2. 6955 . 00000725 30, 000 1.0281 . 0000002S 60, 000 3. 2347 . 000014 40, 000 1. 3707 . 00000055 70, 000 3. 7737 . 000023 50, 000 1.7134 . 000001 10 104 20, 000 1.1175 . 0000009 60, 000 2. 0562 .0000015 30, 000 1. 7212 . 00000245 70, 000 2. 3988 . 0000025 40,000 2. 2949 . 00000492 18 104 20, 000 .7161 .000000 IS 10 104 50,000 2.8686 . 00001 30, 000 1. 0741 . 00000038 60, 000 3. 4424 . 000019 40, 000 1. 4321 . 00000065 70, 000 4.0160 . 0000308 50, 000 1. 7902 .00000102 10 102 20, 000 1.2225 . 00000122 60, 000 2. 1482 . 0000016 30,000 1.8336 . 0000032 70,000 2. 5061 . 0000026 40,000 2.4449 . 000007 18 102 20, 000 .7477 . 0000002 50, 000 3. 0561 . 000015 30, 000 1. 1217 .00000045 60, 000 3. 6675 . 0000262 40, 000 1. 4953 . 0000007S 70, 000 4.2786 . 0000418 50, 000 1.8692 .0000014 14 112 40, 000 1. 3568 . 000001 60,000 2. 2431 . 000002 50, 000 1. 6960 . 0000016 70, 000 2. 6170 . 0000032 60. 000 2. 0352 . 0000025 21 112 20,000 2.1266 . 000004 70, 000 2. 3745 . 00000375 30, 000 3. 1895 . 000015 14 110 20, 000 .7161 . 00000023 40, 000 4. 2525 . 0000375 30, 000 1.0741 . 0000006 50, 000 5.3160 . 000072 40, 000 1.4321 . 00000122 21 110 20, 000 2. 2625 . 00000525 50, 000 1. 7902 .00000198 30, 000 3. 3937 . 0000202 60,000 2. 1482 . 00000322 40, 000 4.6248 .0000480 70, 000 2. 5061 . 00000 195 50, 000 5. 6560 .OOOOS'.I 14 108 20, 000 . 7585 . 0000002S 21 ins 20, 000 2. H60 . 000007 1 30, 000 1.1376 .00000075 30, 000 3. 6224 . 000028 40, 000 1.5168 .00000119 40, 000 4.8295 .ooooi;;. ■ 50, 000 1.8961 . 0000025 50, 000 6.0370 .000113.5 60, 000 2. 2764 . 0000038 21 lor, 20, 000 2. 5868 .0000105 70, 000 2. 6545 . 00000635 30, 000 3. SS00 . 0000378 14 106 20, 000 .8062 . 00000039 40, 000 5. 1731 ,000086 30,000 1.2092 . 0000009 1 50, 000 6, 1670 . 0001 135 10,000 1.6122 ,0000017s 21 104 20, 000 2. 78 IS .0000158 50, 000 2.0152 . 0000032 30, 000 4.1725 .0000515 60, 000 2.4184 . 00000508 40,000 5.5631 . 000106s 70,000 2.4214 .000O0S5 50,000 6.9640 . 0001SJJ 14 L04 20,000 .8603 .000000 IS 21 102 'JO, 000 3.0049 . 0000225 :;o,ooo 1.2903 . 0000012 30, 000 4.5074 . 0000686 40, 000 1.7201 .0000028 lo.ooo 6.0094 .000112 50,000 2. 1606 . 0000039 50,000 7. 5120 . 0002325 60,000 2. 5806 1007 Table 4. Num- ber of sec t ion. Eleva- tion of W.S.at section. Sectional area. Wetted perim eter. Hydrau- lic ra- dius. Num- ber of sec Hon, Eleva- tion of W.S.at section. Sectional area. Wetted perim- eter, Hydrau- lic ra- dius. 18.87 17.95 16.10 14.20 12.36 la la l a 1 a la 107 106 104 102 100 13,060 12, 040 10,000 7, 960 5, 720 1,060 1,000 1,060 1,032 800 12.30 11.35 9. 1 1 7.73 7. 15 •la •la 4a 'a •la 107 106 101 102 100 18,250 12,680 11,230 9,880 8,630 700 700 700 696 690 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Table 5. 115 Num- ber of sec- tion. Eleva- tion W.S.at section. Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond. Velocity, feet per second. Slope » = .024. Num- ber of sec- tion. t, Eleva- li.in W.S.at si'd lull. Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond. Velocity, feet per second. Slope n=.024. la 107 10,000 0.765 0.0000025 107 30,000 2.267 0. 0000158 20,000 1.630 . 000014 la 106 10, 000 . 795 . 00000125 30,000 2. 295 .000037 20, 000 1.590 . 00000605 la lOti 10,000 .830 .0000035 30, 000 2. 385 .00002 20,000 1.661 . 00002 40, 000 3. 020 . 000038 30,000 2.490 . 0000525 la lui 10, 000 . 890 . 00000195 40, 000 3. 320 . 000138 20, 000 1.770 . 0000108 la 101 10, 000 1.000 . 0000082 30, 000 2. 670 . 000034 20, 000 2.000 . 0000425 40, 000 3.590 . 000071 30, 000 3.000 .00011 4 a 102 10, 000 1.010 . 0000034 10,000 4.000 . 000225 20, 000 2.030 . 000021 la 102 10,000 1.256 .000024 30,000 3.030 0000575 20, 000 2.513 . 000125 40, 000 4.050 . 0001175 30,000 3.770 . 000237 'a 100 10, 000 1.172 . 0000065 la 100 10,000 1.750 . 000052 20, 000 2.315 . 000039 20, 000 3.500 . 0002225 30, 000 3.520 . 00014 la 107 10, 000 20, 000 .756 1.511 . 000001 . 00000485 APPENDIX H. FIG. 1 Lake Nicaragua S Doc^Y;*/' 2 57 1 APPENDIX H, F1G.3 Distance in feet from Lake S Doc^^/^57 1 APPENDIX H, FIG. 4 S Doo^»a.57 1 APPENDIX H, FIG. 5 1 - 106 K 105 S 1 ^104 *§ £103 e ft 101 100 hw. _#»* — 3s >~y ^fe " ^^ ^S^?7 ^" L - ^fe?> ^L/i > ^£» ^Nc -^J^ s> s*. ..... T3< 2toSn ^»». C*t>z* " -s ~*%& ^o» ^t ^*», *^> j ^O"- , Yx S»_JS_ *_*"■•«•. ^>p ^s^ "*-».. ^s T*"5 ~%Q J — -v N ^ '^tV^s*""" »%^ » JV^ ^^*^Vv vN»£? *T&Ci rPV"- \& *^t!>* ^^ ^^v — X 1 — :5 *& i .. .. ^5 S£> "*-^*»« ^ V N \ •"■■■., < ?\ *\ Si*^*^- ^^^^ ■** ^^*- ^£sJ ^§^%_ ■ *^*^i__ "v. ^Lu* ^o> \ "^5*i" fefe- '*Z*^s, ~-~«_ ^4££ %L s ^S Sy \ " *" ^"^^J ^ ^ I s * ^ >^ x ^5«^9 ""*•« ~"*1 s&>_ "*V^W - * "•V^ <9 v ^^ r ^>^ », V N. ~ ^L*?- - ^ *^N& ^V*j "^^^c/ 7 "> N^X^ V ^ - N V »^v V\ *•*<_ * W i v X.^. Ot> <*3 > * % ^>Gi \ ^ "^^ s ^5 tn N \ X ^- y^so ^ °liv *"« *S '*« kg * % ~Gpr1M £ "^^ rh £*7/?y OT Ubserx ecieLevt icons DecMt ?20,f89 9 _ w ££*■ Sapfflt oZO. i •> e •«. ^^* sx ?: "*■ ->^ 8 at? S» rvfi/ns to "*j!L - 4 F»G rS > s tg s vj 1 V. -, ' 50,000 i6o,oo6 Distance irh feet from Lake S Doc^V^57 l APPENDIX H, FIG. 6 Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar April Map June July Aug. Sept, Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar April May J S Doc/ 4 oi 1 Appendix T. REPORT OF HYDROGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS IN NICARAGUA MADE FOR THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. By Arthur P. Davis, Chief Sydrographer. CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal 118 Stream measurements 119 Pacific slope - 120 Grande River 120 Tola River 120 Lake Nicaragua 124 Viejo River - 125 Nueva River 126 Quebrada Honda 126 Station at Tipitapa 127 Station at Fort San Carlos 133 Frio River 136 Dry season inflow 136 San Juan River 140 Station above Savalos 142 Station at Castillo 144 Tributaries of San Juan above Boca San Carlos 147 Ochoa Station on San Juan River 153 Machado River 163 San Francisco River 164 Sarapiqui River 164 San Juanillo River 166 Miscellaneous tributaries to San Juan River 168 Indio River 171 Negro branch 171 Rainfall 172 Daily rainfall on Lake Nicaragua r 174 Daily rainfall at Ochoa 180 Daily rainfall at Greytown 181 Monthly rainfall at all stations 182 Evaporation 186 Observations on evaporation pans 186 Dry season evaporation from Lake Nicaragua 186 Control of Lake Nicaragua 187 Season of maximum supply 191 Season of minimum supply 192 Temperature and relative humidity 195 Sediment 197 Wind movement 200 117 118 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 1. Momotombo from the west. 2. San Juan River above Toro Rapids. 3. Elevation of Lake Nicaragua. 4. Elevation of Lake Nicaragua if all water bad been held. 5. Mica Island, San Juan River. 6. Sediment trap. 7. Gauging San Juan River at Ochoa. 8. Fluctuations of San Juan and San Carlos rivers. 9. Hill on left bank of San Juan River. 10. Head of San Juanillo, on San Juan River. 11. Castrilo Rapids. 12. Surf at Grey town. 13. Monthly rainfall at Masaya and Granada. 14. Comparative rainfall at Greytown, Fort San Carlos, and Granada. 15. Comparative rainfall at all stations. 16. Lowering sediment trap on Sarapiqui. 17. Diagram of wharf at Granada. 18. Rise of lake, with no outflow or evaporation, compared with rainfall at Granada. 19. Rise of lake, with no outflow or evaporation, compared with rainfall at Masaya. 20. Discharge capacity of canalized San Juan River. 21. Estimated inflow to lake during 1897. 22. Fluctuation of lake during driest and wettest years. Washington, D. C, March 25, 1901. Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the hydrog- raphy of the Nicaragua Canal route. It includes a full account of the work prosecuted by me under your authority, and also the more important of the results of the hydraulic investigations made for the Nicaragua Canal Commission. During a portion of the time covered by these investigations I was absent from Nicaragua on duties requiring my presence in Panama, Washington, and Paris. At such times the work was in the immedi- ate charge of Mr. H. C. Hurd, until he was required for office work in Washington in November, 1900, since which date Mr. Fred Davis has had charge of fieldwork in Nicaragua. Acknowledgments are due to these gentlemen for their care and fidelity in the discharge of their duties. Yours, with respect, Arthur P. Davis, Chief /I yd i ■< >r 1899. Day. 1 Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.55 1 . 52 I. •! 1.5] 1.64 1 . 7'.) L.59 1.63 L. 54 1 ,. 1 . 52 1.6] 1.50 1 . 52 1.68 1.45 l.. r >0 1.50 1.50 I. 16 1 . 19 1.52 1 . 83 1 . 59 l . :. i l . 52 l . :. I L.55 1.76 L. 63 1.70 2. 42 2. 29 2. 2] 2. 16 •_>. 15 ■ L3 2. i;: 2. in 2. 20 2. Ill •J. IIS 2.08 2.06 2. 06 .Mil 2.46 2.34 2.30 2. 25 2. 14 2. 14 2.11 2. 11 2. 10 •J. IIS 2.11 2.08 'J. OS •J. OS 2.07 2, oi 17 . 1.60 1 . 52 1 . . r ).S 1 . . r >2 1 . 52 1.51 1.50 1 . 53 I 60 1 . 88 L.65 1.57 1 . 56 2. 1 1 2.06 1.51 1 . 52 1.64 1 . 55 L.68 1.51 1.50 L.61 L.5] 1 . 52 1.49 1.50 1.47 1.46 •J. OS 1.69 1.55 1.60 1.60 1.86 i.'.u 1 . 97 2. 70 1.60 7. 65 4.42 3.38 2. 77 2.60 2. 02 2.0-2 2.02 2.01 2.00 2. OH 2.01 2. 02 2.03 2.02 2.00 2. 10 8.10 3.30 2.02 2.01 2.00 2.00 1 . 07 1 . 96 1 . 99 1 . 99 1 . 98 1 . 07 1.97 1.95 1 . 95 1.95 1.94 2 is.. ;; 19 20... A... 21 22 6 28 9 24. 25.. 10... 26.. 11... 27 .-... 28.. 12... 13 1.60 L. 51 1 . 52 L.50 '.".I 30 11 15 1G 11. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Daih/ (/inn/,' bright iif llritnilf Hirer at Tola Gauge Station for 1900. 121 Day. .Inn. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Bept. Oct. Nov. Dec. l 1.96 1.95 1.95 1.93 1 . 93 1.93 1.93 1 . 92 1.92 1.92 1.92 1.92 1.95 1.94 1.91 1.93 1.92 1.92 1.91 1.89 1.89 1.88 1.88 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.86 1.86 1.S6 1.85 1.84 l.si l.si 1 . 82 L. 82 1.81 1.81 1.80 l.si 1.80 1.78 1.78 1.79 1.78 1.78 1.76 1.75 1.75 1.74 1.73 1.73 1.72 1.72 1.71 1.71 1.71 1.71 1.71 1.71 1.71 1.71 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.69 1.68 1.68 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.66 1.65 1.65 1.64 1.63 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1 . 62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.61 1.61 1.61 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.59 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.57 1.57 1.56 1.56 1.56 1 . 55 1.54 1.54 1.67 1.63 1.77 1.67 1 . 68 1.63 2.23 1.87 3.02 1.89 1.79 2. 04 2.12 2.04 2.15 1.95 1.98 1.90 2.59 1 . 91 1 . 79 1.75 1.92 1 . Si 2.09 4.32 3.61 2. 62 2. 5 1 2.34 2.09 2.05 2.14 2. 01 2.112 2. 13 2.0(1 1.96 2. 05 2.51 2.15 2.12 2.63 2.07 2.04 2.01 2.49 2.13 2.47 2.65 2. 80 2. 99 2.51 2. 61 4.87 2. 5s 2. 15 2. 16 ;;. 75 4.S4 :;. 95 3. 13 2. 76 2. 63 2.60 2. 12 2. 49 2. i:: 2.39 2.34 2.51 2. 15 2.38 2.35 2.31 2.29 2.30 2.29 2.27 2.33 2.27 2.2^ 2. 22 2.19 2. IS 2. IS 2.16 2. 13 2. 1 1 2. 12 2. 10 2.11 2. 14 2.14 2.12 2.10 2.07 2.05 2.05 2.11 2.10 2. 12 2.11 2.15 2.12 2.14 2.13 2.09 2.08 2.07 2.08 2.09 2. 05 2.U1 2.08 2. 16 2.11 4.87 3. 87 3.07 2. S3 2.67 2. 58 2. 51 2. 15 2.39 2. SO 3.32 2.81 1.1)5 3.28 3.02 3. 52 4.52 4.35 3.47 3.77 3.24 3.09 5.45 6.00 6.00 4.20 1. 35 L30 4. 05 5.07 3. 95 3. ss 5.67 3.80 3.77 3.74 3.62 3.63 3.47 3.50 3.55 3.50 3.65 4.64 8.00 8.90 7.15 6.12 5.90 4.S9 4.64 4.32 4.20 3.99 3.81 3.76 3. 67 ;; 60 3. 57 3.52 3.46 3.37 3.34 3.32 3.30 3.27' 3.21 3.19 3.17 3.13 3.13 3.11 3.08 3.08 3.07 3.07 3.06 3.04 3.03 3.01 2. 99 2.96 2.94 2.94 2.94 2.93 2. 91 2.90 2.88 2.85' 2. 84 2. 82 2.80 2 7S 2. 77 2.75 2. 75 2.75 2. 72 2^70 2. 70 2. 70 2.69 2.68 2. 68 2.67 2.66 2.64 2.63 2.60 2.59 2.58 2. 57 2.57 2.54 2.53 2 4 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Rating table for Grande River at Tola Gauge Station. [This table is applicable only from August 13, to December 31, 1899, and May 19, 1900, to March 29, 1901.] Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. 1.3 3.3 212 5.3 781 7.3 1,484 1.4 4 3.4 236 5.4 816 7.4 1,519 1.5 7 3.5 260 5.5 851 7.5 1,554 1.6 11 3.6 284 5.6 886 7. 6 1,589 1.7 14 3.7 308 5.7 921 7.7 1,624 1.8 18 3.8 332 5.8 956 7.S 1,659 1.9 21 3.9 356 5.9 991 7.9 1,694 2.0 25 4.0 380 6.0 1,027 8.0 1,730 2.1 34 4.1 409 6.1 1,062 8.1 1,764 2.2 42 4.2 438 6.2 1,097 S.2 1,800 2.3 51 4.3 467 6.3 1,132 8.3 1,835 2.4 60 4.4 496 6.4 1,167 8.4 1,870 2.5 73 4.5 524 6.5 1,202 8.5 1,905 2.6 87 4.6 553 6.6 1,238 8.6 1,941 2.7 100 4.7 582 6.7 1,273 8.7 1,976 2.8 118 4.8 611 6.8 1,308 8.8 2,011 2.9 136 4.9 640 6.9 1,343 8.9 2,046 3.0 155 5.0 675 7.0 1,378 9.0 2,081 3.1 173 5.1 710 7.1 1,413 9.1 2,116 3.2 191 5.2 745 7.2 1,448 9.2 2,151 Estimated monthly discharge of Grande River below month oftJie Tola, 1898. Discharge. Total. Months. Discbarge. Months. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Mean. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. j Total. Mean. January (6-31). February Sec.feet. 75 55 40 35 85 1,990 2,030 Sec.feet. 60 41 25 17 17 17 55 Sir. fnt. 69 19 35 26 28 110 121 Acre-feet. 3,340 2,720 2,150 1. 190 1,720 6, 550 7,440 August September October November December Total Si eject. '115 2, 975 2,065 1,028 190 Sec.feet. 45 55 260 190 97 Secjeet. A eve-feet. 67 4, 120 253 15,050 596 36,650 282 16,780 May 130 7,990 July . , 106, 000 122 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Estimated monthly discharge of Grande River at Tola gauge station. Month. 1899. August 13-31.. September October November December Total 1900. January February March Discharge. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum. See. feet. 37 18 2,081 385 Sec. feet. 7 6 5 26 19 2,081 Mean. Sec. feet, 11 8 113 14 32 Total. Acre-feet. 401 496 6,954 2,646 1,954 12, 451 762 482 343 Month. 1900. April May June July , August September October November December The year . . Discharge. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Sec. feet. Sec. feet. 2 2 16 48 29 26 260 144 69 5 216 i 953 1,272 5'.; 5,400 5, 450 382 142 5, 450 Sir. fat. 3 19 63 123 36 238 603 197 105 119 Total. Acrt -frit. 182 1,196 3,745 7,569 2,225 14, 166 37, 008 11,746 6,434 85,918 Daily gauge height of Tola, River, 1 mile above its mouth, for 1899. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 2.06 2.05 2.04 2.04 2.06 2.15 2.09 2.05 2.03 2.03 2.03 2.03 2.03 2.02 2.04 2.05 1.98 2.01 2.00 2.01 1.99 2.02 2.04 2.23 2.09 2.02 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.03 2.03 2.11 2.40 2.38 2.32 2.28 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.25 2.29 2.31 2.21 2.20 2.19 2.18 2.17 2.13 2.41 2.34 2.28 2.26 2.22 2.20 2.17 2.16 2.15 2.14 2.16 2.14 2.15 2.14 2.13 2.13 17 2.00 2.02 2.02 2.00 2.02 2.00 2.00 2.01 2.06 2.14 2.08 2.06 2.04 1.98 1.64 2.02 2.03 2.07 2.04 2.03 2.02 2. 02 2.00 2.01 2.03 2.00 2.01 2.00 1.99 2.12 2.03 2.00 2.03 2.02 2.15 2.21 2.18 2.23 2.97 5.32 4.70 3.30 2.75 2.50 2.11 2.10 2.10 2.11 2.16 2.14 2.16 2.15 2.16 2.15 2. 21 2.26 2. 82 2.97 2.10 2.08 2.07 2.07 2.05 2.04 2. 08 2.08 2.07 2.07 2. 07 2.07 2.06 2.05 2.05 2 18 3 .. 19 4 20 6... 21 6.. 22 7... 23 8 24*. 9... 25 10 I 26 11 27 12... 28..... 13. 2.00 2.02 2.05 2.02 29 14 30 15. 31 16 Daily gauge height of Tola, River, 1 mile above its mouth, for 1900. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.03 2.03 2. 02 2. 02 2.02 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.03 2.03 2.1)2 2.03 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.00 1.99 1 . 98 1.98 1 . 98 1.98 1.98 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.96 1.96 1.95 1.95 1.94 1.93 1.93 1.91 1.91 1.91 1.91 1.91 1.91 1.91 1.91 1.90 1.90 l.'.m 1.90 1 . 90 1.90 l.'.KI 1.90 1.90 1.89 1.89 1 . 89 1.89 1 89 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.79 1.79 1.79 1.79 1.79 1.79 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.75 1.75 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.73 1.82 1.82 1.96 1 . S3 1.84 1.80 2. 02 1.93 2.00 1.83 1.81 2.67 2.18 1.99 1.96 1 . 92 1.91 1.89 1.95 1.84 1.86 1.83 2. 02 1.95 2.20 2.19 3.18 2.39 2.17 2. 21 2.10 2.05 2. 12 2.02 2.00 2.07 2.02 1.99 2.11 2.40 2.21 2.14 2.35 2.11 2.08 2.08 2.51 2.11 2. 60 2.75 2.31 2.29 2. 42 2.55 2.48 2. 36 2.30 2.30 2.52 2.66 2.27 2.55 2.53 2.60 2.47 2.39 2.46 2.43 2. 12 2.39 2.58 2.50 2.44 2.40 2.35 2.31 2. 31 2. 30 2.29 2. 31 2.26 2.19 2.21 2. 20 2.18 2.19 2.21 2.16 2.14 2.09 2.10 2.07 2.07 2.22 2.08 2.03 2. 02 2.00 1.99 2.08 2.06 2.11 2.09 2.26 2.12 2.16 2. 14 2.07 2.07 2. ot; 2.08 2.07 2. 06 2. 01 2.08 2.15 2.09 2.80 2.55 2.35 2. 30 2.33 2.30 2.28 2.25 2. 20 2.72 2.88 2.64 3.47 3.07 2.91 3.01 3.62 3.57 3.20 3. 13 3. ()•"> 2. 95 1.92 5.00 5. 00 4.42 3.67 4.30 3.90 4.42 4.20 3.78 3.65 3.61 3.54 3.49 3.46 3. 44 3.24 3.09 3. 31 3.22 3.62 3.60 5.53 10.82 6.09 6.24 4. 72 4.30 1.06 3.85 3.70 3. 55 3. 50 3.31 3.24 3.17 3.05 2.99 2.91 2.85 2.77 2.70 2.70 2. 66 2.61 2.55 2.54 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.47 2. 17 2.41 2.40 2.37 2.32 2. 29 2. 28 2. 24 2. 22 2.20 2.19 2. IS 2.16 2. 13 2. 12 2. 09 2.08 2. ot; 2. 01 2.01 2.03 2.03 2. 02 2.01 2.00 1.99 l . 98 1.98 1 . 97 1.96 1.95 1.95 1.93 1.93 1.91 1.88 1.87 1.81 1.84 1.83 l.Sl 1.78 1.78 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 89 89 89 88 88 88 SS 87 87 87 87 87 86 86 st; 86 st; 86 86 86 86 86 85 s", s. r . SI 84 88 82 SI 3 4 6 8 9 10 11... 12 13 14 ir> 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29... 30 31 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rating table for Tula River, 1 mile above its mouth. [This table is applicable only from August 13, 1899, to April 30, 1900.] 123 Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Feet. 1.0 M 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.5 i.e. 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 Sec. ft. Feet. 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Sec. ft. 24 30 40 50 60 70 80 93 106 119 132 145 Feet. 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Sec. ft. 158 171 184 197 210 223 236 249 262 275 288 301 Feet. 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Sec. ft. 314 327 340 353 366 379 392 405 418 431 1 3 5 7 12 18 Rating table for Tola River. [This table is applicable only from May 1, 1900, to October 20, 1900.] Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Fed. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 Second-feet. Feet. 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Second-feet. 49 59 70 81 93 105 118 131 145 161 177 193 209 Feet. 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Second-feet. 225 241 257 273 289 305 321 337 353 369 385 401 417 Feet. 4.9 5.0 5.1 6.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 Second-feet. 433 449 465 481 497 513 529 545 561 577 593 609 10 14 19 25 32 40 Rating table for Tola River. [This table is applicable only from October 21, 1900, to March 29, 1901.] Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. 1.0 10 2.4 145 3.8 369 5.2 593 1.1 14 2.5 161 3.9 385 5.3 609 1.2 19 2.6 177 4.0 401 5.4 625 1.3 25 2.7 193 4.1 417 5.5 641 1.4 32 2.8 209 4.2 433 5.6 657 1.5 40 2.9 225 4.3 449 5.7 673 1.6 49 3.0 241 4.4 465 5.8 689 1.7 59 3.1 257 4.5 481 5.9 705 1.8 70 3.2 273 4.6 497 6.0 721 1.9 81 3.3 289 4.7 513 6.1 737 2.0 2.1 2.2 93 105 118 3.4 3.5 3.6 305 321 337 4.8 4.9 5.0 529 545 561 6.2 6.3 6.4 2. 3 1 131 3.7 353 5.1 577 10.82 1,651 124 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Estimated monthly discharge of Tola River 1 mile above its mouth, 1898. Discharge. Total. Months. Discharge. Months. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Mean. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Mean. Total. June (9-30).... Julv Si C. ft 1 1. 355 163 57 364 452 Sec. feet. 12 21 20 39 130 Sec. feet. 53 46 30 112 246 Acre-feet. 2,310 2, 830 1,840 6, 660 15, 125 November December Total.... Sec. feet. 270 100 Sec. feet. 100 65 Sec. feet. 160 79 Acre-feel. 9, 520 4,860 August September October 452 12 106 43, 145 Estimated monthly discharge of Tola River at 1 mile above its mouth. Discharge. Total. Months. Discharge. Months. Maxi- mum. M illi- nium. Mean. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Mean. Total. 1899. August (13-31). September, October Si c. feet. 26 17 408 173 41 Sec. feet. 2 8.5 8 18 15 Sec. feet. 13 14 49 30 20 Acre-feet. 490 841 2,993 1,759 1, 256 1900. Sec. feet. 5.3 89 187.3 99 47 Sec.fect. 4 11 15 28 24 28 145 111 66 Sec. feet. 5 19 40 62 34 120 370 179 89 Acre-feet. 276 1,182 2,384 3,840 June Julv December , August 2,023 7 154 Total 408 2 26 7,345 October November December The year. 3,047 291 113 22, 765 10, 679 5,496 1900. January February 15.3 11.7 9.5 10 7 5 13 8 6 770 428 381 3,047 4 ' 79 57, 378 LAKE NICARAGUA. Lake Nicaragua is one of the notable fresh-water lakes of the world. It has an area of 2,975 square miles. It greatest length is from north- west to southeast, and is about 100 miles. Its extreme width is about 45 miles. West of the center is an island occupied by the volcanoes Ometepe and Madera, which stand about 5,000 feet above the lake level, adding greatly to the scenic beauty. Madera is the most southern of a line of volcanoes of comparatively recent origin, which extends in a northwesterly direction nearly to the Bay of Fonseca, including Ometepe, Zapatero, Mombacho, Chiltepe, Momotombo, and many others. The prevailing easterly trade winds cause a moderately heavy surf to beat almost constantly on the western shore, causing the formation of a decided beach on that side, while on the eastern shore aquatic vege- tation grows far out into the water. This shore is flat and muddy, with no well-marked beach. Except in the southeastern portion the lake is deep, reaching at one point near the southern foot of Madera to a depth of 200 feet. Lake Nicaragua receives the waters of a large number of tributaries, the most important being Rio Frio and Rio Pisoteon the southern end, which rise in the high mountains of Costa Rica and maintain some How throughout the dry season, and Malacatolla and Tipitapaon the north- ern end, the latter bringing the waters of Lake Managua. The drain- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 125 age area, as estimated from the best information obtainable, is as follows: Square miles. Area of land surface draining directly to Lake Nicaragua 6, 640 Area of Lake Nicaragua 2, 975 Lake Managua and tributary basin 3, 035 Total 12, 450 VIEJO RIVER. This stream rises in the neighborhood of Jinotega, and flows in a southerly direction to Lake Managua, being therefore in the basin of Lake Nicaragua. The station on this river is about 500 yards above the ford known as Pasa Real, where the Matagalpa-Leon road crosses the stream. A record was kept for the Nicaragua Canal Commission irom February 1, 1898, to Januaiy 22, 1899. The station was reestablished in August, 1899, and a record kept till the end of the year. The observer at this station also made some observations of the dis- charge of the Nueva River, which approaches very near the Viejo at this point, but flows into the Atlantic. Rating table for Viejo River, near crossing of Matagalpa-Leon road. This table is applicable only from August 18. 1899, to January 22, 1900: Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. 2.0 15 3.4 165 4.8 516 6.2 1,034 2.1 21 3.5 183 4.9 548 6.3 1,073 2.2 27 3.6 202 5.0 581 6.4 1,112 2.3 33 3.7 220 5.1 615 6.5 1,151 2.4 10 3.8 241 5.2 650 6.6 1,190 2.5 18 3.9 263 5.3 686 6.7 1,230 2.6 57 4.0 286 5.4 723 6.8 1,270 2.7 67 4.1 310 5.5 761 6.9 1,310 2.8 78 4.2 335 5.6 800 7.0 1,350 2.9 90 4.3 361 5.7 839 7.1 1,401 3.0 103 4.4 398 5.8 878 7.2 1,452 3.1 117 4.5 426 5.9 917 7.3 1,503 3.2 132 4.6 455 6.0 956 7.4 1,554 3.3 148 4.7 485 6 1 995 7.5 1,605 Estimated monthly discharge of Viejo River at crossing <>f Matagalpa-Leon road, 1898. Months. 1898. February . March April May June July August . . . September Discharge. Total. Maxi- Mini- mum. mum. Sec. feet. Sec. feet. Sec. feet. Acre-feet. 35 15 24.0 1, 332 25 5 13.0 800 5 3 3.6 214 5, 520 2 324.0 19, 920 15,600 50 2, 170. 129, 120 2,400 155 613.0 37, 680 2,750 125 330.0 20, 290 9,745 220 1,765.0 105, 025 Months. 1898. October November December 1899. January The year . Discharge. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum. Sec. feet. 3,830 253 92 94 15, 600 Sec. feet. 23C 74 39 35 Mean. Total. Sec. feet. Acre-feet. 965.0 ! 59,340 130. 7, 735 59. 3, 630 3,013 536.0 388,099 126 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Estimated monthly discharge of Viejo River at crossing of Matagalpa-Leon Road. Months. Discharge. Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. August 18 31 1899. Sec. feet. 110 93 9,014 322 681 Sec. feet. 24 18 18 100 40 Sec. feet. 't,.k 40.4 863.7 159.7 98.6 Acre-feet. 1,327 2,406 53, 110 9,505 6, 066 9,014 18 268. 72, 414 1900. 40 33 35.3 1,541 NUEVA RIVER. This station is at the bend of the Nueva River, where it approaches nearest the Viejo, in the neighborhood of Paso Real, and was intended to throw light on the quantity of water that might be added to the supply for Lake Managua by diverting this river into it. Measurements were made by wading at low water and by means of floats at high water. The stage of the river was ascertained by meas- uring downward with a tapeline from a nail driven in an overhanging trunk of a tree. These measurements were carried on by the same observer who had charge of the station on the Viejo. Estimated monthly discharge of Nueva River near Viejo River. Months. Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Total. 1899 August 19-31 September October November December Total 1900. January 1-22 Sec. feet. 242 64 2,602 402 820 2.602 Sec. fni. 52.0 8.4 L8.0 62.0 27.0 Sec. feet. 79. 6 21.1 177.1 170. 3 155.6 8.4 196. o Acre-feet. 2,053 1,303 29, 886 10, 136 9,568 52, 396 QUEliRADA HONDA. This stream is tributary to the Viejo River about 2 miles below the station on the latter. A gauge was placed one-half mile above the wagon ford on the road from Leon to Matagalpa, and graduated to feet and tenths. At low water measurements were made by wading; at high water, by means of floats. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 127 Di&chargt mxis/ir,',, huts made on (Jiu'hmda Honda ahonernssi ,,,/ .Wafiirja/jHt-Lron road. [Hydrographer, Fred Davis. No flow from August 18 to October 10.] October 10 . . . October 15 . . . October 17... October 20 . . . Octobers;... October 29 . . . November 8 . November 16 November 23 December 3. . December 16. December 30. January ' Date. 1899. Meter number. Gauge height. Fnt. 3.78 3.72 4.40 4.20 13.30 7.30 4.70 4.56 4.50 4.60 4.45 4.28 Area of section. Sijimri ft. 3.70 2.15 28 19.50 535. 60 169. 50 24.50 4.80 3.90 12.80 1.50 (") Mean velocitv. Ft. per nee. 0.62 .43 1.70 1.14 4.28 3.01 .85 .52 .61 7.43 1.50 Discharge. Square feet. 1.92 .92 47.72 22.20 2, 293. 4 510. 7 20.82 2.49 2.37 9.51 2.25 * Floats. t> No flow. Note. — Seventy per cent of maximum surface velocity used in calculations. TIPITAPA. The gauge in this river is about 100 yards above Tipitapa Falls, and serves both to register the stage of the river and the height of Lake Managua, upon which the stage of the river depends. During low water the river was too sluggish above the falls for accurate measure- ments with current meter, and gaugings were made from the bridge below the falls. As the river rose it became very turbulent and swift at the bridge, but at the same time the velocity in the upper river increased and good measurements were made above the falls. Obser- vations of rainfall and evaporation were also made at this point. Lake Managua lies to the northwest of Lake Nicaragua and drains into the latter through Rio Tipitapa. Its area is about 438 square miles. Reports of the discharge of Tipitapa River are conflicting. All agree that the stream goes dry in the latter part of every dry season. Some authorities assert that it has been dry for several years in suc- cession, the inflow during the rainy season being insufficient to com- pensate for evaporation, while others maintain that there is more or less outflow every year in the rainy season. Investigations were there- fore made to determine roughly the feasibility of diverting the Rio Nueva, which now drains into the Rio Grande into the Rio Viejo, and finally into Lake Managua. Near the station on Rio Viejo the two rivers approach within about a mile of each other and the intervening country is low and flat. The river channels are 30 to 40 feet deep, and a cut of this depth connecting the two could be made to conduct the waters of Rio Nueva into Rio Viejo, if a dam were built in Rio Nueva below the point of connection. There is rock on the bottom of Rio Nueva showing fairly good foundation for such a structure, but the excavation of the canal would be almost entirely alluvial earth. 128 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Daily gauge height of Tipitapa River at Tipitapa, 1899. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. 1 2. 95 2. 98 3.01 3.01 3.06 3.02 2. 96 3.02 3.07 3.00 2. 99 2. '.17 2.99 2. 96 2. 96 2. 98 2.80 2. 75 2.82 2.80 2. 7.") 2.80 2. 85 2. 92 2.90 2.88 3.08 3.10 3. 28 3.31 3. 42 3. 43 5. 55 5.51 5. 51 5. It; 5.49 5.48 5. 16 5.54 5.63 5.62 5.56 6. 62 5.62 5.52 5.51 5. 19 5. 77 5.74 5. 69 5.68 6. 66 5.62 5.65 5.61 5.61 5.59 5. 57 5. 51 5. 58 5.56 5.53 5.51 17 2.87 2.92 ::. 63 3. 60 3 55 3.53 3.46 3.65 3.80 4.10 4.32 5. 1 1 5. 16 5. 16 5. 42 5.44 5.47 5. IT 5. 16 5. 19 5.1» 5. 55 5. 62 5. 65 5.77 5.37 5.33 5.31 5.32 5. 28 5. 23 5.25 5. 20 5. 19 5. 15 5.16 5. 1 1 5.16 5.13 5.07 2 18 3 19 2. >s 4 20 2.87 ■2. 83 2.S7 2. 85 2. 85 2. 90 •2. 92 2.97 2. 95 2.97 2.93 2.92 ■2. 82 2.81 2. 86 2.73 2.73 2. 73 5 6 7 8 21 22 23 L'4 •25 9 10 26 2.84 1.61 11 •27 '2. 72 2.73 2.69 2.75 1.92 5.39 5.53 5.53 12 13 28 ■29 14 30 15 31 16 Daily gauge height of r ri/>it:; 1.90 4. 91 4.93 4.89 4.86 4.84 4.90 4.88 4.90 4.80 1. 85 1.69 1.74 4. 74 1. 72 1.72 1.78 1.65 1.68 4.72 1.61 1.58 L59 4. 53 4.47 1. 11 4.48 4. Id 4.44 4.46 1.35 4. 40 4.40 4. 17 4. 12 4.43 4.35 4.32 1.34 4.33 1.27 4.17 4.14 4.16 1. 15 4.15 4.17 4.09 4. 08 1.15 L09 4.06 3.91 3. 94 3.82 3.73 3.78 3.84 3.78 3. 72 3.78 3.75. 3.73 3. 72 3.68 3.74 3.77 3.75 3.65 3.66 3.64 3. 53 3.37 3.48 3.52 3.52 3.54 3.49 :;. 19 3.50 3.50 3.42 3.33 3.33 3.31 3.33 3.25 3.21 3.21 3. 28 3.25 3.28 3.22 3.16 3.14 3.12 3.07 3.01 2. 97 3. 02 •2.96 2. HI 2.93 2. 92 2.96 2. 96 3.01 3.01 2. '.1 1 2. 96 2. 92 2.96 2. 94 2.88 2.77 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.62 2. 63 2.64 2.67 2.63 2.71 2.77 2. SI 2. SI 2.82 2.81 2.90 2. 96 2. 99 2.98 3.03 3.06 3.06 3.23 :•>. 26 3. 51 3.6] 3.51 3. 12 3.56 3.61 3.81 4.07 4.13 4.63 4.57 1.57 4.65 4.80 1.77 1. 64 4.72 4. 75 1.71 4.77 4.80 1.80 1.80 1.78 4.80 5. 17 1.99 l.'.ts 1.98 1.95 1.90 1.95 5.01 5.07 5. 15 5.2:; 5.26 5. 20 5.11 5. 27 5. 41) 5. 07 5.86 5.99 5.90 6.07 o. i;; 0. 1 1 6.20 0. 25 6.22 0. 20. 6.26 6. 22 6. 21 0..2I 0. 22 0.21 6.20 0,. 10 6. 21 0,. 22 6. 15 6. 14 6.17 6. 1 1 6.12 6.09 6.09 6.09 6.08 0,. 1 1 6.10 0. 07 6.03 i.93 5.91 5. 92 5.91 ' 5. 91 5. 90 5.84 5.82 5.83 5. S3 5.83 5.85 5.85 5. S7 5. 82 5. 78 5.71 5.75 5. 72 5. 72 5.73 5. 73 5. 75 5.73 5.75 5. 70. 5.77 5.78 ;.. 7s 5.75 5. 70, 5.71 5. 73 5. 73 5. 70, 5. 75 5.73 5.72 5. 72 5. 70 5.73 5. 73 5.77 5. 75 5.75 5. 7 1 5.75 6.75 5.78 5.78 5.86 5. 95 6.10 6.17 6. is 6.18 6.17 6. 15 6.16 6.37 6.48 0. 10 6. 4S 6.50 6.48 6.52 6.50 6.51 6.50 6.74 6.90 6.96 7.30 7.20 7.18 7.19 7.19 7. 19 7.20 7.2:; •> 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 •21 •22 23 24... 25 26 27 28 29 30 31... Rating table for Tipitapa River ilN, Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at Fori San Carlos for the year 1900. Dav. Jan. Feb. 10. 11. 12. 13. II. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. •J'.). 30. 31. 104.68 104. 49 104.55 104. 51 104.45 104.41 104. 34 104. 34 104. 47 104. 37 1C4. 51 104.39 104. 49 104. 13 104.40 104.35 104.30 104. 38 104.29 104. 15 104.15 104.17 104.20 104.14 104.24 104.18 101. 14 104. 18 104.01 104. 07 104.08 Mar. Apr. 103.. SI 103. 831 103. 76 103. 93 103.87; 103. 73 103. 77 103. 89 103.84 103. 79 103. 64 103. 78 103. 62 103. 61 103. 61 103.64 103. 55 103. 54 103. 23 103.41 103.55 103. 35 103. 39 103.78 103. 50 103. 42 103.25 103. 17 103.22 103.07| 103. 13 102. 99 | 102. si 102.91 1(12. ss 102. 99 102. 96 102. 96 102. 85 102. 89. 102. 87: 102. 86 102. 94 102. 89! 102.85; 102. 56 1 102. 58, 102. 75i 102. 36 1 102. 49 1 102. 46 102. 52i 102.53 102. 53 102. 57 102.5;, 102. 52 102. 53 102. 42 102. 38 102. 15 102. 22 102. 08 102. 15 102. 19 102. 08 102. 26 102. 10 102. 10 102. 10 102. 17 101. 99 102. 04 101.94 101.95 101.55 101.83 101. 89 101. 87 101. 94 101. 86 101.93 101.90 101.97 101.91 101.94 101.94 101.85 101.74 May. 101.88 101.82 101.66 101.46 101. 34 101.51 101.19 101.25 101.40 101.61 101.50 101. 10 101. 52 101. 50 101.67 101. 38 101.58 101.33 101.34 101.90 101. 43 101. 52 101. 51 101.43 101.67 101.66 101.93 101.82 102. 12 102. 12 102.04 June. July Aug. Sept Oct. 102.02 102. 06 102. 17 102. 28 102. 23 102. 36 102. 25 102, 102. 66 102.61 102.55 102. 55 102. 45 102. 43 102. 36 102. 38 102. 4 102. 56 102. 63 102. 49 102. 62 102. OS 102. 6' 102.70 102. 54 102. 63 102. 56 102. 63 102. 63 102. 66 102. 54 102. 72 102. 95 102.90 102. 44 102. 96 103. 11 102. 92 103. 08 103.38 103. 47 103. 51 103. 47 103. 65 103. 72 103. 55 103. 87 103. 72 103. 84 103. S3 103. 95 103. 85 104. 13 104. 05 103. 98 104. 08 104. 02 104.14 104.02 104.05 104. 08 104.07 103. 97 104.06 103. 91 104. 18 104.36 104. 32 104. 23 104. 26 104. 20 104.29 104.41 104. 25 104.45 104.20 104. 28 i 104. 44 104. 28 104. 24 104. 50 104. 52 104.54 104. 58 104. 54' 104. 29 104. 58: 104.53 104.58 104. 62 104. 68 104. 72 104.70 104.65 104. 79' 104.9! 104. 96 104. 91 104. 88 104.92 104. 92 104. 96 104. 82 104.1 88 104. 85 104. 72 104. 99 104. 90 104. 86 104. 90 104. 76 105. 10 105. 13 105. 04 105. 09 105. 10 105. 18 105. 23 105. 10 105. 21 105. 43 105. 50 Nov. 105. 51 105. 78 105. 89 100. 09 106. 00 106. 02 100. 41 100. 25 106. 24 106. 17 106. 43 106. 43 106.49 106. 53 100. 49 106. 48 106. 58, 100. 52' 100. 65 106. 69 107. 05 107. 08 107. 25 107. 30 107. 40 107. 40 107. 46 107. 50 107. 39 107. 37 107. 41 107. 35 107. 42 107. 37 107.33 107 107. 36 in; 1(17 107 1H7 107 107.20 107.1 107.09 107. IS 107. 19 107.2 107.2 107. 13 107.13 107. 02 107. 10 107. 06 107.10 107. 04 100. 90 100. 99 107.01 106.98 Dec. 100. 95 ioo. si; KH'i. 78 106. 85 106.82 106. 70 106. 81 106. 78 106. 59 106. 67 100. 78 106. 70 106.78 100. 70 106. 74 106. 77 106. 66 106. 55 106. 69 106. 73 106. 64 106. 73 106. 07 100. 05 106. 65 106. 59 106. 53 100. 59 100. 50 106. 49 106.54 Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua, 1898. [Computed from gauge-rod readings at Fort San Carlos, Jan. 4, 1898, to Dec. 31, 1898; LasLajas, Feb. s, 1898, to Dec. 31, 1898; Morrito, Apr. 9, 1898, to Sept. 21, 1898.] Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1... 104.49 KM. 42 104. 52 104.48 103. 80 103.89 103. 82 103. 86 103. 02 103.02 102. 98 102. 96 102. 29 102.21 102. 23 102. 21 102. 48 102.49 102. 44 102. 39 103. 50 103. 47 103. 55 103. 70 104. 50 104. 51 104. 51 104.58 104.90 104.97 104.95 104.94 105. 66 105. 74 105. 70 105. 74 100. 41 L06.87 100.31 100.2(1 100.04 lOO.C,:; 100.59 106.65 2... 3... 4... 11)1.92 5... 104.90 104.51 103. 78 102. 92 102. 20 102. 42 103. 62 104.61 104. 97 105. 75 100.22 100.07 6... 1115.02 1(14.43 103. 75 102. 90 102. 20 102. 45 103. 78 104.57 105. 05 105. 73 100.2i; 100.02 7.. . 104.93 101.43 103. 76 102. 92 102. 14 102. 52 103. 79 104. 60 105.02 105. 75 100.22 106.64 s... 101.94 104.43 103. 73 102.86 102. 12 102. 49 103. N2 104.70 105. 05 105.79 100. 19 106. 50 9... L04.88 10-1. 42 103. 72 102. 83 102.11 102. 48 103. 90 104.07 105. 05 105.73 106.22 100.55 10... 104. 79 104. 32 103. 02 102.77 102. 09 102. 48 103. 89 104. 05 105.11 105. 73 100.21 100.5S 11... 104.85 104.30 103. 6-1 102. SI 102. 08 102. 48 103. % 104. 65 105. 19 105.71 10c. 20 100.57 12... L04.87 104.31 103. 62 102. 81 102. 04 102. 54 103. 99 104. 59 106.29 105.75 100.34 100.55 13... 104.80 1(11.41 103. 61 102. 76 101.96 102. 51 108. 98 104.74 105. 44 105. 75 100. 10 100. 19 14... 104.76 1(14.32 103. 52 102. 74 102. 03 102.47 103. 98 104.73 105.45 105.84 106.42 100.49 15... Oil.;:. 1(11.29 103. 57 102. 09 101.97 102.48 104. 03 104. 78 105. 48 105. 88 100.47 100. 17 10... 104.79 104.23 102. 68 102.05 102. 44 104. 07 104. SO 105. 53 105. si; LO6.50 100.50 17... 104.78 1(11.21 102.0s 102. 01 102.47 104.04 104. 83 105.58 105. 92 100.50 100. II is... 104.83 101.21 102.05 102.13 •102.47 104.07 104.78 105.57 100. 08 106. 57 106. II 19... 1111. si KM. 10 108.26 102.01 102.10 102.59 101.10 104.78 105.57 106. 14 100.51 L06.89 20... mi. '.17 101.11 103. 30 102.55 102. 11 102.05 104.25 104. 78 105. 58 106.15 100. 41 106.41 21... 101.90 101. OS 103. 33 102.59 102.15 102.70 101.17 104.82 105.65 100. 13 100. 02 106.37 22... L04.82 101.01 103. 14 102.56 102.43 102.91 104.25 104.88 105. 71 100.21 100.50 106.82 23... 104.73 101.00 103.27 102.5;', 102.-10 102.97 104.23 104.77 105.60 106.28 100. 37 •J 1 . . . KlI.C! 101.0s 103. 29 102.45 102.51 103.01 104.32 101. so 105.74 100.30, L06.89 25. . . 26... 101.71 104.70 101.01 104.06 103. 30 102.99 102.43 lo'j. U 102.57 103.09 102.55 10:!. 01 101.33 104.35 101. SI 101.7s 105.72 1O5.0S 106 :;•", 106.85 100. 38 106.86 100. 51 27... L04.69 Hi:;. 91 103. 19 102.42 L02.59 103. 10 L04.89 104.88 105.0,:: 100.3s 100.59 100.29 28... 1(11.07 108.98 103. 12 102.37 L02 56 103.SC loi. 16 104.82 105.71 106.84 10i;. 02 106.27 29... 104.52 103. 09 102.33 in-. :.. 103.42 104.38 101.91 105.70 100.41 100.03 106.88 30... 101.64 103.10 102. 32 102..... 103.47 L04.54 104.95 105. 75 106.41 100.70 106.87 31... 104.57 102.97 102.50 104.51 104.90 106. 38 106. 44 JANUARY ■O SO FEBRUARY 'O 20 MARCH 10 SO APRIL IO 20 MAV JUNE IO 20 JULY 1 august IO 20 10 20 SEPTEMBER OCTOBER IO 20 NOVEMBER DECEMBER 10 20 IS op \ 1 r \y in 9D 1 19 DO 1 FIG. 3— ELEVATION OF LAKE NICARAGUA. REPORT OK THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 135 Daily elevations of Lake Nicaragua, obtained l>// averaging the daily elevation as indicated by gauges at San Carlos, Granada, San Ubaldo, ana Sapoafor the year 1899. a Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1... 106.23 105.73 105.01 104.10 L03.25 102.41 102.35 102. 69 103.35 103. 16 L04.37 105.02 ■>... 106.08 10.V 70 104. ss 104.03 103.29. 102.45 102.35 102. 69 103.33 103.41 101.35 105. 05 L06. L9 105.69 104.85 104.02 103.31 102.43 102.38 102. 70 103.33 103.46 104.33 105.09 1... 105.97 105.68 101.90 103.93 103.19 102.35 102.44 102.66 103.31 103. 44 104.33 105.01 106.10 105.61 104.85 103.95 103.24 102.38 102. 11 102.68 103. 32 103. 44 104.38 105.03 6... 106.15 105.68 104.79 104.01 103.02, 102.48 102.37 102.69 103.32 103.46 104.37 101.99 106.00 105.68 101.92 103.99 103.09 102.45 102.35 102.71 103.31 103. 48 104.36 104.92 8... 106.05 105.66 104.73 103.94 103.06 102.53 102.36; 102. OS 103. 32 103. 47 104.41 104.91 9... 106.09 105.56 104.65' 103.78 102.97 102.46 102.27 102.61 103.32 103. 47 104.58 104.96 10... loo. or, 105.58 104.661 103.86 102.89! 102.48 102.31 102.64 103.29 103. 48 104.57 101.96 11... 106. OS 105.55 104.58! 103.82 102.89 102.68 102.28 102.71 103. 29 103. 52 104.59 104.94 12... 106.04 105.61 104.541 103.69 102.88 102.47 102.21 102.67 103. 26 103. 55 104.58 104.90 13... 106,. 02 105.39 104. 55 103. 62 102.761 102.64 102.24 102.65 103.24 103. 57 104.58 104.89 14... 1116.00 105.25 101.57 103. 70 102.74 102.52 102.36 102.6: 103. 25 103. 73 104. .54 104.91 15... 106.01 105.30 104. 58 103. 62 102.72 102.53 102.3s 102.62 103. 21 103.89 101.. 54 104.90 16... 105.92 105.40 104.49 103.59 102.72 102.56 102.381 102.6c 103.15 103. 88 104.49! 104.91 17... 105.98 105.40 104.45 103.63 102. 73 102.46 102.33, 102. 58 103. 14 103. 86 104.53 104.89 18... 106.09 105.30 104. 53 103. 63 102.72; 102.56 102.36 102. 63 103. 17 103. 80 104. 54 104. 86 19... 105.99i 105.26 104.47 103. 60 102. 70| 102.50 102.44 102. 67 103. 18 103.81 104. 58 104. 78 20... 106.04! 105.32 104. 50 103.57 102.61 102.75 102.41 102. Si 103. 36 103. 84 104. 58 104. 82 21... 105.92 105.20 104.44 103. 48 102.64, 102.57! 102.54 102.67 103. 31 103. 86 104. 57 104. 75 22... 105. 93 105. 17 104.34 103. 46 102.61 102.501 102.53 102. 69 103. 33 103. 95 104. 60 104. 72 23... 105. 89 105. 14 104.38 103. 47 102. 60 102.42; 102.58 102. 73 103. 37 104. 01 104. 64 104. 73 24... 105. 78 105. 18 191.32 103. 40 102. 56 102.49! 102.56 102. 80 103.38 104.07 104. 65 104.71 25... 105. 76 105. 11 104. 29 103.37 102. 52 102.49! 102.58 102.86 103.39 104. 10 104.70 104. 63 26... 105. 74 105.19 104. 23 103. 33 102. 56 102. 46 102.60 103.07 103. 45 104.14 104. 67 104. 65 27... 105. 74 105. 02 104. 15 103. 37 Estimated monthly flow into Lake Nicaragua in excess of evaporation. Month-; Stored in lake. outflow. Net inflow. is'.is. Acre-feet. January 4-31, inclusive 666, ioo February 1,218,600 March .'. 1,827,800 April 1,237,600 Mav I 342.700 June 1-1,840,900 July H.980,200 A UgUSt + s " ; - sl "' 3eptember " ■■•"' Act I i. + + + + + I, • I. i i -I'nt. 082, 100 928,800 863,600 724, nut 723, 300 841,600 190,900 202,200 313,600 + l.( ' 2, I 8, ' I + ■1 -flit. Sec. feet. 366,1 294,800 5,310 964,200 15,680 513,500 8,680 066,000 I 17,310 688,500 I 15,200 171, 100 1 51,570 059,000 ! 33, 190 817,800 f 17,850 JA MUA pry 3 •Z 3RUARY O 20 M ARCH o 20 1 kPRIL O 20 MAY 10 ao JUNE 10 20 JULY 10 20 AUGUST IO 20 SEPTEMBER IO 2® OCTOBER 10 2o MOVEMBER XCEMBCR •1 8 98 ■ 15 " «' P*, 9> P ^ 11 ^ r/ j£ £S < ■r £ ^ t^ ^ 10 K l( ' l( l( 18 99 ' 1 OS 1 r^ 1 ^ 1 ri 605 •,?>/ < £ f>r^ 3^ 55 J^l 19 00 $? 3^ #; ■^0 kW" g>>» ^1 - /~ FIG. 4.— ELEVATION OF LAKE NICARAGUA IF ALL WATER HAD BEEN HELD BY A DAM. KKl'ORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 139 Estimated monthly flow into Lake Nicaragua in excess of evaporation — Continued. Month. October... November December. 1898. Total for 1898 January February . March April May June July August September . October November . December.. The year . January... February.. March April May June July August September October . . . November December. The year +3, 922, 240 i +13, 404, 271 Stored in lake. Acre-feet. + 1,199,500 + 009, 300 - 495, 000 -2,894,200 313,760 637, 440 332, 800 808, 800 094, 560 171,360 552, 160 000, 240 247, 520 S40, 880 123, 360 856, 800 -3,636,640 -1, -1, -1, -1, + + +2, +1, +1, +3, 028, 160 351,840 580, 320 332,800 704, 480 780, 640 970, 240 256, 640 294, 720 731,840 761,600 761,000 Outflow. Net inflow, Acre-feet. + 1,440,000 + 1,512,000 f 1,540,000 Acre-fret. + 2,040,100 + 2,121,300 + 1,045,000 Sec. feet. + 42,900 + 35,050. + 16,990 + 13,308,100 i +16,202,300 + 1,443,254 + 1,154,774 + 1,103,500 890, 008 788, 584 + 765, 329 + 881,716 + 944, 403 + 1,021,693 + 1,115,681 + 1,211,088 + 1,250,254 + 129, 494 482, 666 - 229, 300 - 912, 792 - 905, 976 + 930, 089 + 1,433,870 + 2,010,703 + 1,209,213 + 2,902,501 + 2,334,448 + 393, 454 + 12, 570, 344 + 1,083,292 830, 958 755, .503 062, 205 071,212 + 741,117 + 1,073,149 + 1,288,735 + 1,206,473 + 1,752,367 + 1,679,231 + 1,653,969 8, 939, 704 + 55, 132 - 514, 882 - 824, 817 - 670, 535 + 1,375,092 + 1,521,757 + 4,043,389 + 2,545,375 + 2,501,193 f 5,484,207 + 917, 631 + 892, 369 + 17,386,511 + 2,100 - 8,091 - 3,729 -15,341 -14,735 + 15,743 + 23,319 + 32,537 + 21,331 + 48, 179 4 39,234 + 6,399 + 897 - 9,270 -13,413 - 1,295 + 22,372 +25,575 +65,756 +41,395 + 43,045 + 89,189 + 15,422 + 14,512 Elevation of Lake Nicaragua if all water had been held by a dam at Sabalos, 1899. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1... 106. 26 106. 51 106. 39 106. 05 105. 67 105. 25 105. 59 106. 36 107. 55 108. 19 109. 69 110.98 2. 106. 13 106. 50 106. 28 100. 00 105. 73 105. 30 105. 61 106. 38 107. 55 108. 16 109. 69 111.03 3... 100. 26 106. 51 106. 27 106.01 105. 76 105. 29 105. 65 106.41 107. 57 108. 23 109. 69 111.09 4... 100.07 106. 52 106. 34 105. 93 105. 65 105. 22 105. 72 106.39 107. 57 108. 23 109.71 111.03 5... 100.22 106.51 106. 31 105. 97 105. 72 105. 27 105. 71 106. 43 107. 00 108. 25 109. 78 111.08 6... 100.29 106. 57 106. 27 106. 05 105. 51 105. 38 105. 68 106. 40 107.01 108.28 109. 79 111.06 i . . . 100. 18 106. 59 106. 42 100. 05 105. 60 105. 36 105. 67 106. 48 107. 61 108. 32 109. 80 111.01 8... 100. 25 106.60 106. 25 106. 01 105. 59 105.45 105. 69 106.43 107. 63 108. 33 109. 87 111.02 9... 106. 31 106. 52 106.19 105. 87 105. 51 105. 40 105. 61 106. 40 107. 64 108. 34 110.06 111.09 10... 106.31 106.56 106. 22 105. 96 105.44 105. 43 105.67 100. 47 107. 63 108. 37 110.08 111.11 11... 106. 35 100. 55 106. 16 105. 94 105. 46 105.64 105. 66 106. 56 107. 65 108. 43 110.12 111.11 12... 106. 34 106.63 106. 14 105. 83 105. 46 105. 45 105. 61 106. 53 107. 64 108.48 110.13 111.10 13... 100.34 106. 44 106. 17 105. 77 105.35 105. 64 105. 65 106. 52 107.64 108. 51 110. 15 111.11 14... 100.35 106. 32 106. 21 105. 87 105. 34 105. 53 105. 78 106. 52 107. 67 108. 69 110.13 111.15 15... 100. 3.S 106. 39 106. 24 105. 80 105.34 105.65 105. 81 100. 52 107. 65 108. 87 110.15 111.16 16... 100.32 106.51 106. 17 105. 79 105. 35 105. 60 105. 83 106.54 107. 60 108. 88 110.13 111.19 17... 100.41 106. 53 106. 14 105. 84 105. 37 105. 51 105. 79 106. 51 107. 60 108.88 110.19 111.19 18... 100.55 106. 45 106. 24 105. 86 105. 38 105. 62 105. 83 106. 57 107. 65 108. 84 110 22 111.18 19... 100.47 106. 43 106. 20 105. 85 105. 37 105. 58 105. 93 106. 63 107. 68 108. 87 110.28 111.12 20. . . 100. 54 106. 61 106. 25 105.84 105. 29 105. 85 105. 92 100. 06 107. 88 108. 92 110.30 111.19 21. . . 100.44 106. 42 106. 21 105. 77 105. 33 105. 68 106. 06 105. 66 107. 85 108. 96 110.31 111.14 22... 100.48 106.41 106. 12 105. 76 105. 31 105. 62 106. 07 106. 70 107. 89 109. 07 110.30 111.13 23... 100. 47 106. 40 106. 18 105. 78 105. 32 105. 55 106.14 106. 76 107. 96 109. 15 110.42 111.16 24... 106. 38 106. 46 106. 14 105. 72 105. 29 105. 63 106. 13 106.85 107.99 109. 23 110.40 111.16 25... 106. 38 106. 41 106.13 105.70 105. 27 105. 65 106. 16 106.93 108. 02 109. 29 110.53 111.10 26... 106. 38 106. 51 106.08 105.68 105. 32 105. 63 106.20 107. 16 108. 10 109. 34 110.52 111.14 27... 100. 40 106. 37 106. 02 105. 71 105. 31 105. 63 106. 29 107. 33 108. 09 109. 40 110. 59 111.13 28... 106. 44 106. 25 106. 09 105. 70 105. 36 105.56 106. 33 107.35 108. 09 109. 61 110. 68 111.12 29... 106.43 106.09 105. 71 105.22 105. 65 106. 33 107. 42 108. 11 109. 62 110.71 111.12 30... 106. 44 106. 09 105. 65 105. 24 105. 67 106. 38 107.48 108.13 109. 60 110.91 111.09 31... 106.51 100. 13 105. 18 106.41 107. 47 109. 09 111.12 140 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Elevation of Lake Nicaragua if all water had been held by a dam at Sabalox, 1900. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec 1... 101.57 101.5fi 104.33 103. 83 103. 52 104. 25 105.16 107.19 108.48 109. 90 112.70 113.16 2... 104. 64 104.50 101.28 103.79 103. 51 104. 28 105.22 107.19 108.48 109. 89 112.79 113.15 3... 104.52 104.51 104.30 103. 76 103.49 104. 30 105.31 107.22 108.54 110.14 112.7s 113.15 4... 104.51 104.57 104.25 103. 73 103. 44 104.31 105.34 107.25 1OS.00 110. 39 112.79 113.20 r>.. . 104. 54 104.59 104.18 103. 73 103. 41 104. 32 105.29 107.39 108.66 110.44 112. 82 113.23 6... 104.56 101.50 104.24 103.77 103. 49 104. 38 105.44 107.51 108.67 110.54 112.82 113,. 17 7. . . 101.51 104.55 104.23 103. 75 103. 10 104. 38 105. .54 107 55 108.06 110.79 112.84 113.22 s... 104. 54 104.58 lol. 25 103. 79 103.37 104. 51 105.5*' 107.57 108.70 110. 80 112.89 113.21 9... 104. CO 104.52 101.22 103. 76 103.42 104. 61 105.65 107.63 108. 76 110. 83 112.90 113.19 10... 104.57 104.52 104.21 103. 73 103. 40 104. 70 105.85 107.67 108. 77 110. 88 112. 91 113.26 11... 104. Gl 104.50 101.20 103. 70 103. 38 104.71 105.99 107.74 108. 78 111.02 112.99 113.30 VI... 101.01 104.52 101.19 103. 70 103. 31 104. 72 106.11 107.78 I OS. 82 111.11 113. 02 113.32 13... 104.65 101.50 1(11.21 103. 64 103. 37 104. 70 106.12 107. si 108. 83 111.20 113. 03 113.37 14... L04.57 104.50 104.20 103. 67 103. 39 104. 74 100. .19 107.88 108. 82 111.23 113.07 113.37 1.-,... 104.01 104.43 104.19 103. 68 103. 35 104.72 100.43 107.87 108. 84 111.28 113.08 113.39 16... 104.01 104.42 104.15 103. 68 103. 30 104. 70 106.42 107.88 108.94 111.34 113.09 113. 12 17... 101.00 101. 37 104.13 103.54 103. 32 104. 81 106.56 107.95 108. 98 111.50 113.11 113.40 IS... 104.63 L04.38 101.07 103. 59 103.28 104.87 106. 58 107. 96 109. 04 111.56 113.15 113.40 19... 104.61 104.31 104.03 103. 59 103. 31 104. 91 106. 71 107. 95 109. 07 111.62 113.15 113.50 20... 104. 58 104.35i 104.05 103. 57 103. 48 104. 92 106. 73 108.06 109. 19 111.71 113.13 113.54 21... 104. 59 104.37 103.98 103. 58 103. 39 104. 98 106. 83 108. 07 109. 24 111.95 113.16 113.53 ■22... 104.59 104. 36 103. 97 103.56 103. 48 105. 02 106. 83 108. 15 109.25 112. 11 113.14 113.55 23... 104.60 104. 38 103. 98 103. 56 103. 46 105. 03 106. 92 108. 20 109.31 112.31 113.16 113.56 24. . . 104.61 104. 48 103. 94 103. 54 103. 49 105. 09 106. 91 108. 23 109. 38 112.12 113.14 113.57 ■J.".... 104. 65 104.39 103.95 103. 53 103. 60 105. 04 107. 03 108. 21 109. 44 112.50 113.17 113.59 26... 101.04 104.28 104.00 103. 56 103. 76 105.07 107. 01 1 OS. 3,2 109.48 112. 53 113.19 113.60 27... 104.63 104.35 103.97 103. 57 103. 92 105. 05 107. 01 L08.34 109. 49 112.61 113.16 113.57 28... 104. 63 104.29 104.10 103. 53 103. 93 105. 11 107. 04 108.36 109. 53 112. 63 113.19 113.62 29... 104.55 103.89 103. 19 104. 06 105. 11 107. 05 108. 40 109. 68 112. 66 113.19 113.65 30... 104. 46 103.91 103. 50 104. 17 105. 02 107. 12 108. 11 109.82 112.67 113. 18 113.69 31... 104.56 103.85 104.22 107. 14 108.48 112. 70 113.65 SAN JUAN RIVER. The San Juan River is the sole outlet of Lake Nicaragua and its tributary drainage basin. Its total length from the lake to the sea is 122 miles and it is usually navigable for light-draft river steamers. It leaves the lake at Fort San Carlos at an altitude varying from about 1*7 feet to about 110. Its course for a distance of 27 miles is through a low swampy country, relieved by occasional hills. Through this course the river is sluggish and receives several tributaries of small discharge, which, in the dry season, are practically still water. The principal of these are the Melchora, Medio Queso, Palo de Arco, and Negro. The first tributary of importance to the San Juan River is tin- Sabalos, which enters from the north and empties 27 miles east of Fort San Carlos. About half a mile below the mouth of the Sabalos are the first rapids, called "Toro Rapids/ 1 These rapids are caused by bowlders and gravel, probably brought into the river by the Sabalos in former times, but do not seriously obstruct navigation except in times of extremely low water. Below this point the San Juan receives the waters of a few streams, the principal of which are the Poco Sol and the Santa Cruz. Ten miles below Toro Rapids occur the largest rapids on the river, at Castillo Viejo. At this point the river falls about .) feet in a few hundred feet, and steamers are seldom taken over the rapids except in high water. A railroad about 2,000 feet long is provided for the portage of freight and passengers on the right bank of the river. Below Castillo are the Diamond, Balas, and Machuca rapids, the latter being 12 miles from Castillo. All of these rapids admit the pas- sage of river steamers except at extreme low water. Below Machuca there are no more rapids. The river is deep and sluggish for a dis- tance of about 15 miles to the point where it receives the waters and KKl'ORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 141 sediment of the San Carlos. This river is the largest tributary of the San Juan, rising far to the southward in the mountains of Costa Mica, and bearing such a volume of sediment that a delta has been built up at its mouth and from this point to the sea the San Juan is a shallow stream with sandy shifting bed. Twent} r -tive miles farther down the Sarapiqui empties into the San Juan from Costa Rica, being the tribu- tary next in size to the San Carlos, and, like the latter, bearing large quantities of sediment in times of Hood. Eight miles below the mouth of the Sarapiqui the San Juan assumes decidedly the character of a deltaic stream and sends out a small tributary known as the San Juanillo, which meanders through the swamps to the northward, and, after receiving the drainage of the Deseado, reenters the San Juan 1 miles above its mouth. Five miles below the exit of the San Juanillo, or 103 miles from Lake Nicaragua, the main stream of the San Juan separates into two large distributaries, the larger, called the Colorado, flowing eastward directly to the Caribbean, and the smaller, or lower San Juan, meandering to the northeast and finding its exit into the ocean at Grey town. Between the mouth of the Colorado and the lower San Juan another distributary, called the Taura, finds its way from the lower San Juan to the sea. The principal obstructions to free navigation of light-draft river craft from Greytown to Fort San Carlos consist of the shoal character of the lower San Juan, especially in times of low water, and of the rapids lying between Machuca and the mouth of the Sabalos. For purposes of a ship canal the river also requires deepening below the mouth of the San Carlos and between the Sabalos and Fort San Carlos. The only portion of the river which is suitable in its present state for a ship canal is the part from Machuca to a point a short distance above Boca San Carlos, or about 15 miles out of 122, and even here some dredging must be done and two sharp bends eliminated to permit the safe passage of the largest ships. Rating table for San Juan River at Fori San Curios. Lake ! Dis- height. charge. Fnl. 9ti.il 9li.l 96. 2 96. :i 96.4 96. 5 9(1. 6 96. 7 96.8 96. 9 97.0 97. 1 97. 2 97.:: 97. 1 97.5 97.6 97.7 97.8 97.9 98.0 98.1 98.2 98.3 98.4 98.5 98.6 98.7 Sec. feet. 3,000 3,115 3,230 3, 345 3, 400 3, 575 3, 690 3,810 3,930 4,050 4,170 1,290 I. Ill) 4,535 4.660 1,785 4,910 5,035 5,160 5,290 5, 120 5, 550 5,680 5, 810 5,945 6,080 6,215 6, 350 6,490 Lake Dis- height. charge. Feet. 98.9 99.0 99.1 99.2 99.3 99.4 99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100.0 100.1 100.2 100.3 100.4 100. 5 100.6 100.7 100.8 100.9 101.0 101.1 101.2 101.3 101.4 101.5 101. (1 101.7 Sec. feet. 6,630 6,770 6,910 7,050 7,190 7,330 7, 475 7,620 7,770 7, 920 8,070 8,220 8, 375 8,530 8.6S5 8,840 8, 995 9, 155 9,315 9, 475 9,635 9, 795 9, 958 10,115 10,280 10, 450 10. 625 10,800 10,975 Lake Dis- '• Lake Dis. height. charge. height. charge. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feel. 101.8 11,150 104.7 18, 350 101.9 11,325 101. s 18, 675 102.0 11,500 104.9 19, 000 102. 1 11, 675 105. 19, 325 102. 2 11,850 105. 1 19,650 102. 3 12, 025 105.2 19, 980 102. 1 12, 215 105.3 20, 310 102. 5 12, 400 105. 4 20, 680 102. 6 12,590 105. 5 21,055 102. 7 12, 780 105. 6 21.435 102.S 13, 000 105. 7 21,815 102. 9 13, 220 105. 8 22, 195 103.0 13, 450 105. 9 22, 595 103.1 13, 680 106.0 22, 995 103.2 13, 910 106.1 23, 395 103.3 14, 140 106.2 23, 795 103.4 14,410 106.3 24, 195 103.5 14, 680 106.4 24, 790 103.6 14, 950 106.5 25, 490 103.7 15, 220 106.6 26, 290 103.8 15,490 10C. 7 27, 600 103.9 15, 760 106.8 27, 920 104.0 16,080 106. 9 28,240 104.1 16, 400 107.0 28, 560 104. 2 16, 725 106.1 28,880 104.3 17,050 107.2 29, 200 104.4 17, 375 io7.:; 29,550 104.5 17,700 107.4 29, 900 104.6 18, 025 107. 5 30,250 142 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. SAN JUAN RIVER ABOVE LOS SABALOS. A record has been kept of the discharge of the river at this point ever since January, 1898. The station used during 1898 and a portion of 1899 was found objectionable in some respects, especially showing evidence at times of being affected by high water in the Sabalos River, which enters the San Juan half a mile below. In October, 18!)! t, a gauge was placed farther up the river at the mouth of an insignificant tributary called Farina. The discharge at this point is the same as at that previously occupied, there being no tributaries between. This gauge was connected with the bench mark of the precise levels show- ing the zero of the rod to be at elevation 90.794 feet above sea level.. In October, 1899, a gauge rod was placed on the right bank of the San Juan one-half mile below the east end of Isla Grande, near station 121 of the river survey. The zero of this is 95.29 feet above sea level. Occasional readings were taken of this gauge when convenient to compare with those observed at Los Sabalos for determining the slope of the river between the gauges. Eight cross sections were measured between these points at known gauge heights, by Mr. H. C. Hurd, showing the average cross section of 8,714 square feet with the Isla Grande gauge rod at 4.9. Cross section No. 3, which occurs just above Isla Chica, a mile below the upper slope rod, gives an area of 8,799 square feet. Daily gauge height of San Juan River, Isla Grande, 1900. Month. Day. Feet. Month. Day. Feet. Month. Day. Feet. 11 20 4 13 3 4 7 10 14 16 17 18 2 10 11 12 II 15 it; 18 19 6.37 6.20 5.99 5.06 4.60 4.65 4.55 4.50 4.50 4.41 4. 26 4.20 4.28 4.15 4.05 4.07 4.15 1.07 4.12 4.10 4.05 21 22 23 25 26 28 29 31 1 •j i .> 6 7 8 9 12 13 11 15 4.12 4.05 4.02 4. 22 4.28 4.72 4.90 1.72 4.60 4.71 4.74 4.90 4.87 4.90 5. 12 5.09 4.95 4.98 4.93 4.92 21 22 3 8 13 14 19 20 21 27 31 3 8 13 Hi 24 31 1 1 3 5.07 Do. . Do Do 5.15 Do July 5.30 March Do Do 6.02 Do Do 6.61 Do... Do Do 6.32 Do... Do Do 6.65 Do.. Do... Do 6.44 Do... Do 6.41 Do. Do Do 6.21 Do... Do Do 6. 52 Do... Do 6.95 Do... Do 7.06 Do Do Do 6.65 Do Do... Do 6.61 Do... Do... Do 6. 76 Do Do... Do September October December (i. ST Do Do... C. 85 Do... Do... 8. •_'■'< Do Do s. |f> Ho REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 143 Daily gauge height of San ■hunt River at Los Sabaloe Station, 1899. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. i Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 10.82 10. 32 9. 90 3.36 8.88 8.43 8.81 8.80 9.41 9. 12 9.76 10. 31 i — 10.79 10. 31 9.90 9. 30 s. ss 8.45 8. 98 9.00 9.37 9.58 9.77 10.27 10.70 10.29 9. 85 9. 25 8. 87 8. 43 8. 89 S.89 9.37 9.47 9.79 10.14 J l 10.71 10. 26 9. 85 9.17 8.90 8.43 8.90 8.85 9.33 9.51 9. 84 10. 20 10.76 10. 22 9. 85 9.19 8.86 8.41 8.63 S.90 9. 25 9. 11 9.95 10.16 6 10.75 10. 27 9.80 9. 22 8.78 8.46 8. 53 8.90 9.22 9. 37 10.16 10. 15 / 10.71 10.27 9.75 9.20 8. 72 8 53 8. 55 S. S I 9.19 9. 10 10.11 10.16 10.71 10. 25 9.70 9.17 8. 72 8.56 8. 51 s. 93 9.19 9. 32 10. OS 10.14 10.73 10.21 9.70 9.14 8. 62 8.65 8.53 9. 05 9. 21 9.33 10.19 10.17 in 10. 79 10.21 9. 65 9.12 8.62 8.78 8.61 8.91 9.24 9.35 10. 13 10.19 n 10.77 10. 22 9. 65 9.13 8.62 8.79 8.78 8.S7 9. 28 9.42 10.11 10.19 12 10.83 10. 26 9. 65 9.11 8.60 8.78 8.83 8. 83 9.30 9.56 10.16 10. 15 13 10.84 10. 20 9.65 9.10 8.54 8.78 8.78 8. S3 9.19 9. 53 10. 15 10.14 11 10.76 10.07 9. 66 9.11 8. 57 8.69 9.10 8.85 9.15 9.75 10.07 10. 12 15 10. 96 10. 09 9.60 9.10 8.54 8.71 9.00 8.82 9.14 10.00 10.35 10. OS 16 10.78 10.09 9.60 9.07 8.54 8.68 8.77 8. 91 9.08 9.75 10.13 10. 01 17 10.75 10. 12 9. 55 9.08 8.53 8.64 8.70 9.00 9. 22 9.95 10.08 10.04 18 10.71 10.19 9.55 9.09 8.55 8.65 8.70 9.40 9.39 9.72 10.06 10.04 19 10.64 10.11 9.60 9.09 8.52 8.70 8.73 9.34 9.50 9. 52 10. 03 10.04 20 10. 59 10.11 9.60 9.04 8. 52 8.81 8.76 9. (Hi 9. 70 9.49 10.08 10.05 21 10. 57 10.08 9. 55 9.04 8.52 8.72 9.53 9.00 10. 26 9.56 9.98 10.03 22 10.58 10.04 9. 55 8.98 8.45 8.63 9.42 9.10 10. 85 9.65 10.08 9.99 10. 56 10.01 9. 50 8.91 8.49 8.55 8.97 9.22 11.00 10. 10 10. 01 9.98 24 10. 54 10.00 9. 15 8. 85 8.51 8.55 9.05 9.49 9.69 10.11 10. 05 9.98 10.50 9.97 9. 45 8.83 8.50 8.56 9.24 9.86 9.50 9.86 10. 05 9.93 26 10. 45 9.98 9.45 8.88 8.48 8.55 9.46 9.98 9.49 9.79 10.07 9.87 ■-'7 10.47 9.95 9.40 8.88 8.46 8.54 9. 24 9.54 9.37 9.79 10.15 9.87 28 .... 10. 43 9.90 9.40 8.87 8. 45 8.68 9.03 9.49 9.34 9.84 10.11 9.88 29 10.41 9.40 8.85 8.47 8.69 8.87 9.40 9.37 9.86 10.17 9.88 30 10.39 9.35 8.82 8.44 8.58 8.89 9.35 9.35 9.84 10. 24 9.85 «.... 10.34 9.40 8.53 8.82 9.35 9.79 9.85 Daily gauge height of San Juan River at Los Sabalos Station, 1900. Day. Jan. 1 Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 9.88 9.45 8.97 8.47 8.16 8.41 S.72 9.88 10. 21 11.11 11. 72 11.51 2 9. 85 9.43 8.90 8.40 8.18 8.46 8.81 9.85 ! 10.20 11.68 11.71 11.45 3 9. S3 9.39 8.93 8.40 8.11 8.46 9.17 10. 45 ! 10. 18 11.40 11.74 11.45 4 9.84 9.43 8.84 8.37 7.99 8.51 9.07 10.78 10.16 11.39 11.71 11.48 5 9.84 9.41 8.77 8.34 7.87 8.60 9.29 11. 53 10.18 11. 28 11.67 11.41 6 9.80 9.35 8.76 8.31 7.86 8.61 8.99 10.87 10.20 i 11.20 11.68 11.37 7 9. 7S 9.32 8.74 8.35 7.81 8.61 9.16 10.70 10.18 i 11.40 11.70 11.41 8 9.78 9.32 s. 77 8.37 7.86 8.81 9.71 10.46 10.15 1 11.76 11.72 11.40 9 9.74 9.35 8.77 8.34 7.85 8.77 9.40 10. 20 10.12 11.50 11.68 11.45 10 9.72 9.25 8.80 8.27 7.95 8.76 9.65 10. 20 10.14 i 11.44 11.69 11.39 11 9.78 9.25 8.79 8.32 7.92 8.75 9.57 10. 15 10.20 : 11.31 11.75 11.41 12 9. 78 9.26 8.77 8.33 7.93 8.72 9.60 10.10 10.19 11.27 11.67 11.65 13 9.74 9.29 8.71 8.26 7.95 8.80 10.21 10.03 10. 14 11. 23 11.60 11.62 14 9.70 9.24 8.75 8.24 8.02 8.66 9.81 10.26 10.11 11.21 11.56 11.51 15 9.70 9.21 s.71 8.18 8.08 8.63 9.66 10.20 10.14 11.26 11.52 11.42 16 9.6S 9.24 8.73 8.19 8.00 8.66 10.61 10.03 10.35 11.28 11.52 11. 38 17 9.71 9.23 8.68 8.10 8.02 9.13 10.18 9.9. 10.26 1 11.29 11.53 11.36 IS 9.07 9.19 8.63 8.09 7.96 9.31 10.07 9.97 10.22 1 11.32 11.52 11.35 19 9. 68 9.10 8. 59 8.14 7.97 8.94 10.07 10.01 10.43 1 11.42 11.53 11 38 20 9.64 9.12 8.68 8.15 7.97 8.82 9.88 10.02 10.39 ' 11.58 11.53 11.36 21 9.60 9.12 8.52 8.20 8.00 8.77 9.78 10.10 10.32 12.66 11.54 11.32 22 9.61 9.10 S.51 8.13 8.00 8.77 9.79 10. 24 10 52 12. 75 11.58 11.29 9.59 9.05 8.52 8.15 7.95 8.78 9.S7 10.14 10. 52 12. 41 11.51 11. 25 24 9.60 9.13 8.60 8.11 8.01 8.75 9.85 10.14 10.51 12. 21 11.48 11. 22 9.58 9.06 8.58 S. 14 8.06 8.64 9.73 10.16 10.60 12. 09 11.48 11.20 1 26 9.58 9.01 8. 58 8.23 8.16 8.63 9.71 10.36 10.59 11.96 11.44 11.14 ' 2/ 9. 55 9.00 8.57 8.27 8.30 8.67 9.68 10.57 10. 54 11.87 11.39 11.12 28 9.57 8.95 8.53 8.17 8.44 8.68 9.72 10. 45 10.50 | 11.81 11.36 11.10 29 9.53 8.54 8.18 8.49 8.74 9.74 10.30 10.70 t 11.79 11.33 11.09 30 9.50 8.52 8.08 8.47 8.73 9.72 10. 29 11.14 11.77 11.36 11. 05 3] 9.50 s.40 8.47 9.97 10.20 1 11.73 1 11.03 144 REPORT <>K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rating table for San Juan River at Los Sabalos. [This table is applicable only from January 1, 1898, to December 31, 1899, and from March l, 1901, to April 30, 1901.] Gauge height. /•; - t. Discharge. ScCOTld fit 1. Gauge height. Discharge, i Gauge height. Discharge. Gauge height. Discharge. Ft ■ l. Second-feet. Feet. Second feet. Feet. Second-feet. 8.0 11,130 9.0 11,710 10.0 20, 010 11.0 25, 310 8.1 11,320 9.1 15,240 10.1 20,540 11.1 25, 840 8.2 11,530 9. 2 16, 770 10.2 21,(170 11.2 26, 370 8.3" 1 1 , 760 9. 3 16, 300 10.3 21,600 11.3 26, 900 8.4 12,040 9.4 16, 830 10.4 22,130 11.4 27, 430 8.5 12,380 9. 5 17, 360 | 10.5 22, 660 11.5 27, 960 8.6 12,760 9. 6 17,890 10.6 23, 190 11.6 28, 490 8.7 13,200 9.7 18, 420 10.7 23, 720 11.7 29, 020 8.8 13,680 9.8 18, 950 ' 10.8 24, 250 11.8 29,550 8.9 L4,180 9.9 19, 480 10.9 24, 780 11.9 30, 080 : [This table is applicable only from January 1, 1900, to February 28, 1901.] 7.7 10,400 8.8 12, 720 9.9 18, 840 11.0 25, 000 7.8 in. 190 8.9 13,250 10.0 19, 400 11.1 25, 560 7.9 10, 600 9.0 13,800 10.1 19,960 11.2 26, 120 8.0 10, 740 9.1 14, 360 10.2 20, 520 11.3 26, 680 8.1 10, 890 9.2 14, 920 10.3 21,080 11.4 27, 240 8.2 11,050 9.3 15, 480 10.4 21, 640 11.5 27, 800 8.3 11,220 9.4 16, 040 10.5 22.200 11.6 28, 360 8.4 11,400 9.5 16,600 10.6 22. 760 11.7 28, 920 8.5 11,600 9.6 17, 160 10.7 23, 320 11.8 29,480 ■ 8.6 11,900 9.7 17,720 10.8 23, 880 11.9 30, 040 s.7 12,280 9. 8 18,280 10.9 24,440 12.0 30, 600 Estimated monthly discharge of San Juan River at Station Sabalos. Monl hs. 1899. January February March April May June ■idly August September i (ctober November i December The year Discharge. Maxi- mum. Sec. ft. 25, 100 21.720 19. ISO 16,618 I I, 121 13,730 17,519 19,904 25,310 20,593 21,865 21,653 Mini- mum. 25, 310 Sec. ft 21,810 19,480 16,560 13, 780 12, 176 11,942 12,418 13, 680 15,134 I.'), 169 111, 135 17,21:; Total. Sec. ft. 23, 472 20, 792 17,946 15, 658 12,825 12, 862 14, 193 15, 360 17, 170 18,144 20, 353 20, 333 11,942 17,37012,576,344 Acre-feet. 1, 443, 254 1,154,774 1,103,500 896, 008 788, 584 765, 329 881,716 944,463 1,021,693 1,115,681 1,211, OSS 1,250,254 Months. 1900. January February March April May June July August September. . . October November . . . December . . . The year Discharge. Maxi- mum, mum. Sec. ft 18,943 16,320 13,635 11,540 12, 588 15,536 22,816 27, 968 25, 784 34,800 29, 200 28,640 34,800 Mini- Sec.ft. 16,600 13, 800 1 1 , 520 10,407 10,263 1 1 . 420 12,368 17,649 19,338 23,466 25, 345 25, 168 10, 263 Total. Sec. ft. 17,618 15,070 12,287, 11,128 10,916 12,455 17,453, 20,959 21,283 28, 199 28,220 26,915, Acre feet. 1,083,292 836,958 755, 503 662,265 671,212 711,117 1,073, 119 1 . 2SS, 735 1 , 266, 473 1,752,367 1,679,231 1 . 653, 969 18,60013,461.271 CASTILLO STATION ON SAN JUAN RIVER. Twogauges were placed in the San Juan River at Castillo, one above the falls and one below. The upper gauge was fastened to the down- stream support of the first building below the steamboat wharf above the rapids. The lower gauge was fastened to the northeast corner of the wharf at the lower Bodega below the rapids. The zero of the upper gauge is 5.65 feet above the zero of the lower. Mr. John S. Augustine, the agent at Castillo, was employed to read the gauges, daily readings being taken of both. He also kept a record of rainfall. Old residents testify that on August 30, 1892, the water reached an elevation which would correspond to a reading on the lower gauge of 11.1. This is marked on custom-house Bodega, with date. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 145 One year later, November 20, 1893, the water came still higher, being about 4 inches over the floor of custom-house. This would make a rod reading of 12.3. These rod readings correspond to the lower gauge at the custom-house. Daily gauge height of San Juan Hirer at Castillo above falls, 1899. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. 3.10 3.10 3.10 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 3.80 3.80 3.80 3.80 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.80 2.80 2. 80 2.80 2.80 2.80 Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. 3. 10 3.00 3.00 2.90 2.80 2.70 2.70 2.35 2.30 2.30 2. 45 2.90 2.80 2.80 2.60 2.60 2.70 3.20 3.20 3.50 4.50 5.70 5.55 3.80 3.50 3.40 3.35 3.30 3.30 3.30 Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 3.80 3.80 3. 80 3.90 4.00 4.20 4.20 4.90 4.30 4.10 5.00 5.00 4.80 4.20 4.00 4.10 4.00 3.80 3.80 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.80 3.80 3.80 3.80 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.40 3.40 3.40 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.40 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.00 2.80 2.80 2.70 2.70 2.65 2.70 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.70 2.80 2.70 2.70 2.60 2.55 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2. 20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.00 2.00 2. 20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2. 20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2. 20 2.20 2.20 2. 20 2.20 2.20 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.50 2.50 3.00 2. 50 3.00 2.60 2.10 2.10 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.50 2.40 2.60 2.40 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.60 2.50 2.00 2.10 2.15 2.70 3.40 3.00 2.80 3.70 2.30 2. 30 2.30 2. 75 2.75 2.75 4.00 3.80 3.50 2.50 2.70 4.00 3.35 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.45 2. 50 2.90 2.85 2.85 2.90 2.75 2.80 2.70 2.70 2.90 2.60 2. 55 2.50 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.80 3.30 3.60 2.95 2.90 3.20 3.10 3.50 4.00 3.60 3.60 3.30 3.20 3.10 3.50 3.05 3.00 3.00 3.30 3. 10 2.95 2. 90 2. 90 2. 90 2. 90 2. 90 3.10 3.00 3.55 3.80 3.30 3.30 3.20 3.00 2.95 3.00 3.00 3.90 3.80 3.25 3.10 3.10 3.05 3.05 3.05 3.05 3. 00 3. 00 3.00 3.10 3. 40 3.70 3. (10 3.60 3.60 3.80 3. 80 3.30 3.80 3. 80 3. Ml 3.70 3.70 3.65 3.65 3.60 3.60 3.55 3.45 2.40 3.40 3.35 3.30 3.30 3.40 3.40 3. 50 3.50 3. 55 3.40 3.40 3.30 3.35 3.40 3. 45 3.50 3.50 3.45 3.40 3.35 3.30 3.20 3.20 3.20 3. 00 3.50 3.40 3.40 3. 35 3.30 3.25 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.00 3.00 3 4 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 Daily gauge height of San Juan River at Castillo, above falls, 1900. Dav. 2.70 2.70 2. 75 2. 75 2.80 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60 2. 50 2.50 2. 50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2. 50 2.40 2.45 2.40 Mar. 2.40 2.50 2. 50 2. 45 2. 45 2.40 2.40 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.20 2. 15 2. 15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.20 2. 20 2. 20 2. 20 2.00 1.80 1.75 1.50 1.30 .80 Apr. 1.00 1.00 1.80 1.80 1.80 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.90 1.70 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 2.00 2.00 1.80 1.80 1.70 May. 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.50 1.50 1.30 1.30 -.40 .40 .40 .60 .50 .50 .50 .55 .55 .55 .50 .50 .45 .45 .45 .45 .45 .50 .70 .70 1.30 1.00 1.00 1.00 June. 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.10 2.30 1.40 1.40 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .95 .95 .95 1.00 1.00 July. 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.40 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.80 2.30 1.70 2.80 2.80 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.10 2.10 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 Aug. 2.70 2.70 3.85 5.15 5.00 4.85 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.10 3.80 5. 50 3.40 2.40 2. 25 2.65 2.65 2.60 2.80 2.70 2.30 2. 35 2.40 2. 45 4.25 2.70 3.85 2.70 2. 60 Sept. 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.95 2. 20 2.30 2.35 2. 35 2.30 2. 35 2.65 3.00 3.10 3.00 3.00 3.05 3.05 3.15 3. 25 3. 35 3.35 3. 55 4.55 5. 55 Oct. 3.60 3.85 3.90 3.85 3.40 3.23 3. 20 3.60 3.30 3.30 3.20 3.10 3.10 3.00 2. 85 3.00 3.00 2.90 3.00 4.85 5.10 4.10 4.00 3.90 4.00 4.00 4.00 3. 50 3.50 3.20 3.30 Nov. Dec. 3.20 2. 80 3.20 2.85 3.25 2.80 3.20 2. 70 3.20 2.70 3.10 2.70 3.15 2.80 3.15 2.90 3.10 2.90 3.10 2.95 3.10 3.15 3.10 3. 85 3.10 3.90 3.00 3.70 3.10 3.55 3.10 3.60 ' 3.10 3. 50 3.10 3.40 3.10 3. 10 3.10 3.10 3.10 3.00 3.10 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.90 3.00 2.90 3.00 2.80 3.00 2.80 3.00 3.00 »New rod; elevation of zero = S. Doc. 54, pt 2 10 :.63 or 0.90 higher than old rod. 14(5 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Daily gaugi height of San Juan River at Castillo, below falls, 1899. Dnih/ i/iiiii/r height of Sun Juan River at Castillo below falls, 1900. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Auk. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 5.00 1.50 4.50 1.50 1. 50 1. 40 1. 10 1.40 4.35 4. 35 4.32 4.32 4.42 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.40 4.35 4.30 4. 25 1.20 1.20 4.20 4.20 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.25 4.00 3.90 3.90 3.90 3.80 3.80 3.80 3.80 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.60 3.52 3.50 3.50 3. 50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.40 3.40 3.40 3.45 3.40 3.40 3.40 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.27 3.25 3.30 3.32 3.35 3.40 3.40 3.30 3. 35 3. 30 3.30 3. 30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.40 3.40 3.40 3.50 3.55 3.50 3. 50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2. 80 2.80 2.80 2.50 2. 50 2.70 2.70 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60 2. 60 2. 60 2.60 2.60 2.60 2. 60 2. 60 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60 3.05 3.00 3.00 2. 95 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.90 2.90 3.55 3. 20 3.60 3.35 3.30 3.15 2.80 2. 80 2. 90 2.55 2. 15 2. .50 2.50 2.50 2. 50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2. 85 2.80 3.00 2. 85 3.30 :;. 75 3.50 3.40 3.30 2.60 2. 52 2. 65 3.02 3.78 3.90 ;;. 80 4.45 2.90 2.85 3.00 3.30 3.30 3.35 4.25 3.90 3. 35 3.62 4.65 4.20 3. 60 3. 10 3.40 3.30 3. 15 3.50 3. 52 3.50 3.60 :;. 52 3. 55 3.70 3. 98 3.40 3.18 3.02 3.00 3.50 3.00 3.05 3. 50 5.10 5. 12 3.50 3.60 4.20 4.05 4.60 5.25 5. 05 4.72 4. 25 4.00 3.85 3.82 3.90 3. 60 3.00 3.50 3.50 3. 40 3.40 3. 42 3.40 3. 40 3.50 3.50 3.40 3.40 3.20 3.20 3.50 4.15 4. 00 4.50 6.15 7.30 6. 55 I. 70 4.48 4.40 1.20 4.20 4. 20 4. 20 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.20 3.90 3.50 3.55 3.45 :;. id :;. in 3.50 3.90 3.70 1.75 4.98 1.00 1.00 3.90 3. 75 3.70 3. 60 3. 72 ... in 4.95 1.35 4.00 1.00 4.00 3.90 3.90 3.90 3.80 3.95 3. 75 3.90 1.3S 4. 95 4.90 4.80 4.80 5.00 5.30 5. 92 5.02 5.00 5.00 4.95 4. 95 4.90 I.SO 4.70 1. 65 4.60 1. 45 4.30 4.30 4.30 1.20 4.20 4.10 4.10 1.50 4.50 4.50 1.38 4.40 1.30 1.38 1. 40 4.40 4.50 4.50 4.42 4.40 4. 3s 4.20 4.25 4. 22 4.20 4. 50 4.62 4.40 1. 42 4.30 1.30 4.30 1.20 4.20 4. 20 1.20 4.05 1.05 2 3 5.00 5.00 5.15 5 6 5. 25 5.45 5.30 9 10 5.60 5.50 12 13 5. 85 6.30 6.20 5. 85 6.00 14 15 16 21... 4.20 4.20 4.80 t.80 1.80 4.80 4. 75 4.75 4.70 4.50 22 24... 25 26 27... 28 29 30 31 Day. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. A (IK. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. 1 • > 3 4 5 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3 30 3. 25 2. Ml 2. 60 2. 60 2 60 2. 20 2. 10 2. 05 2.05 '' III! 1 . 85 1.80 1.80 1.60 1 . 10 1.3(1 1.30 1.30 •1.65 1.95 1.75 1.70 1.70 1.80 1 . 85 1 . 85 1.80 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1 . 75 1.80 2.00 2.20 2. 9(1 2.70 2.70 2. 70 2.70 2. 70 2.70 2.70 2. 70 2. 70 2.70 2. 70 2. 70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2. 70 2. 70 3.00 1.70 3.00 3.00 2. 70 2.70 2.70 2. 70 2. 70 ■1. 65 2. 65 2. 70 2.70 2. 70 2. 70 2. 70 2.70 3.20 3.20 3. 20 1.20 4.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 5. .50 4.60 4.00 5.50 5. 50 4.60 1.60 4.60 4.40 4.40 4.60 1.20 1.20 1.20 3.95 3. 05 3. 05 8.95 3.96 3.05 3.85 3.85 5.60 6. (HI 5. 75 5. 35 1.85 4.70 4.70 1.70 l.so 1.80 5.10 6. 75 4.36 1. 45 1.50 4.90 4.60 4.40 1. ."HI 4.65 4.65 4.65 4.60 1.80 ."». 15 :.. 36 I.oo 4.80 1.70 1.70 1.55 1.20 4.20 4.15 4.15 4.10 4.10 1. 10 4.00 4.30 1. 30 1.35 1.35 I. in 1. 15 1.60 1.00 1.05 5. 05 l.so 1.80 5.00 5. 02 5.35 5.45 5. 15 5.70 7. 00 7.00 6.00 6. 45 6. 45 6.30 6.00 5.90 6. 15 6. 70 6. 30 6.30 6.15 ..so 5.80 ;>. .v. 5. 70 5.00 5.60 5. 50 5. 60 o. 35 7.00 0.70 6. 40 6.30 0.50 6.60 6. 50 6. lo o. lo 0.2O 6.20 6.10 6. 10 6. 20 6.20 (i. 20 6.10 6.10 6. 10 6.10 6.10 6.10 6.10 6. 10 6.00 6.10 6.10 (',. 10 6.10 5. 00 5. SO 5.80 6.00 6.80 5.80 ...Ml 5.60 5. 60 5. .50 5.60 5. .50 5. 60 5. .50 5.50 5. 45 5. 40 5. 40 5.50 5.50 5. 70 5. 70 5. 83 6.30 6. 70 6.60 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.30 6.20 6.20 <;. oo 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 5.90 5.90 5.90 6.90 6 7 8 9 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 2. 60 2. 00 2.00 2.10 2. 60 2. 10 2. 50 2. 20 2. 50 2. 20 2.50 2.10 2. 50 2. 00 2. 15 1. 90 2. 40 1. 90 2.40 1.90 2.40 1.90 2.40 1.80 2.30 1.80 2.40 1.70 2. 10 1.70 2.10 1.70 2.30 1.90 2.30 1.90 2.30 1.90 2.30 1.90 2.30 2. (HI 2. 30 2. (HI 2.20 1.80 2.20 1.80 2.10 1.70 2.10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17.. 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3 30 is Ill 20 3.30 3.20 ;; 20 21 22 23 3. 20 3.30 :; 30 21 25 3.30 26 3.25 28 29 3.25 30 31 "New rod; elevation of zero = 81.59. REPORT OK THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 147 List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan Rwer above Bora San Carlos. MELCHORA KIVER. Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge height. Area of section. Mean velocity. Dis- charge. 1899. Oct. 3 H. W. Durham Feet. Sq. feet. 126 166 270 172 374 380 236 265 Fl.persec. 0.55 .00 .16 .17 .76 .26 .35 .64 .Sec. feet. 68 1900. Jan. 19 H.S.Reed Price No. 63 H. G. Heisler B. & B. No. 1 . . . 43 June 22 ...do do 28 July U ...do do 287 July 30 do do... 96 Auk. 13 do do 83 do do 172 Sept. 8 Sept. 21 do do do do MEDIO QUESO RIVER. 1899. Oct. 3 H.W.Durham Price No. 34 1,114 765 1,066 1,292 0.77 .27 .42 .18 (») C) .80 .67 1.01 .68 .41 .46 856 Nov. 2 do do 206 Nov. 14 do do 455 1900. Jan. 19 H. S. Reed Price No. 63 231 June 1 H.G. Heisler B. &B. No. 1 June 22 do July 14 do do 1,017 1,087 1,147 1,160 1,173 1,192 816 July 30 do do ... 733 Aug. 13 do do do 1 160 Aug. 27 do 800 Sept. 8 do do.... 487 Sept. 21 do do 554 PALO DE ARCO RIVER. 1899. Oct. 3 1900. June 1 June 22 Julv 14 July 30 Aug. 13 Aug. 27 Sept. 8 Sept. 21 H. W. Durham Price No. 34 H.G. Heisler ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do B.&B.No.l do do do do do do do 220 107 103 395 405 362 534 .26 .31 .54 .56 .23 .40 ( a ) . 29 32 214 227 86 214 CANO CHICO. 1899. Oct. 4 H. W. Durham Price No. 34 500 460 0.38 .22 (») .65 .71 .65 (') .33 Nov. 23 do do. 1900. Jan. 19 H.S. Reed Price No. 63" July 14 H.G. Heisler B.& B. No 1 735 587 829 478 Julv 30 do do 422 Aug. 13 do do... 540 Sept. 8 do Sept, 21 do 619 206 "No current. 148 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc. — Continued. NEGRO RIVER (ABOVE LOS SABALOS). Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge height. Area of section. Mean velocity. Dis- charge. 1899. Sept, 13 Oct. 5 Oct. 12 Oct. 27 Nov. 8 Nov. 16 Nov. 27 1900. Jan. 16 Feb. 4 Mar. 5 Mar. 12 Mar. 19 Mar. 26 Apr. 2 Apr. 8 Apr. 17 Apr. 23 Apr. 30 Mav 14 May 28 June 17 June 26 July 2 July 9 July 16 July 23 July 29 Aug. 6 Aug. 12 Aug. 21 Aug. 27 Sept. 3 Sept. 11 Sept. 26 Oct. 1 Oct. 8 Oct. 15 Oct. 23 Oct. 29 Dec. 1 Dec. 9 Dec. 16 Dec. 23 1901. Jan. 6 R. H. Morrin Stackpole No. 1 . H. W. Durham Price No. 31 do do do do do do do do do do H.W.Durham T.F. Boltz do. do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. B. & B. No. 1 . . ....do Haskell No. 2. .do .do. .do. .do, .do. .do, .do, .do. .do. .do, .do, .do. .do, .do. .do, .do, .do, .do. .do, .do. .do. .do, .do. .do. .do, .do. .do. .do, .do. .do Price No. 68. .do do .do. .do. .do. .do, .do, .do Feet. 3.61 3.54 3.72 3.03 1.97 3.15 4.05 3.98 3.10 3.05 3.00 2. ss 2.78 2.71 2. 50 2.55 2.46 2.60 5.92 4.40 3.15 5.09 4.95 6.24 4.55 6.70 6.00 8.33 4.90 4.67 5.27 6.32 7.70 5.85 6.42 6.61 6.88 6.09 5.98 Sq.feet. 90 437 139 130 163 189 146 64 186 38 35 22 31 25 Ft.per see. 1.05 .41 .80 .39 .91 1.20 .65 .30 .21 .19 .15 •.18 .15 27 179 131 145 150 144 605 IKS 134 592 219 IKK 270 186 87 155 188 231 211 733 123 195 214 175 172 15K .54 1.38 .98 .25 1.21 .98 2.11 1.34 .66 1.26 1.45 1.21 1.88 .49 .37 .49 .94 1.28 . 25 .95 .48 .90 1.11 .14 .52 Sec. feet. 95 178 110 50 157 227 96 SABALOS RIVER. 1899 Jan. 3 Jan. 19 Feb. l Feb. 1 1 Feb. 2] Feb. 25 Mar. 6 Mar. 21 Mar. 31 Apr. L5 Do... Apr. 21 Apr. 29 Do... Do... Do... May 12 May 17 May 23 June 7 June 16 June 23 Do... R. H. Morrin ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do S.Wilson ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do do do do do Stackpole No. 1. do do do do do do do do do do do do Stackpole No. 7. Stackpole No. 1 . Stackpole No. 7. Stackpole No. l. do do do do do Stackpole No. 7. 5. 69 510 1.05 5. 51 167 .85 4.98 336 . 28 4.81 354 .36 4.85 340 .53 4.68 320 .21 1.55 811 .24 1.30 110 .90 ■1.13 17:1 . 12 :;. 87 140 .63 3.87 101 .80 3,81 134 .49 3.65 94 .40 3. 65 94 .84 3. 66 112 .37 3. 66 112 .31 8. 65 105 .65 3.41 95 .46 3.30 86 . 17 8.81 83 .83 3.70 316 .60 8. 17 299 .25 :>. 17 299 .30 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 149 List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc. — Continued. SABALOS RIVER— Continued. Date. Hydrographer. 1 v.i July Aug. Aug. Sept. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oet. Oct. (let. Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. 1900. Jan Jan. 3 Jan. 14 Jan. 21 Feb. 6 Feb. 9 Mar. 4 Mar. 10 Mar. 17 Mar. 24 Mar. 31 Apr. 7 Apr. 14 Apr. 21 Apr. 28 May 5 May 12 May 27 June 2 June 11 June 16 June 19 June 23 July 16 Julv 18 July 21 July 25 July 28 Aug. 7 Aug. 7 Aug. 11 Aug. 15 Aug. 19 Aug. 22 Aug. 25 Aug. 29 Sept. 1 Sept. 5 Sept. 8 Sept. 12 Sept. 15 Sept, 19 Sept. 26 Sept. 29 Oct. 2 Oct. 6 Oct. 9 Oct. 13 Oct. 17 Oct. 20 Oct. 23 Oct. 27 S.Wilson do do it. II. Morrin .. do do do do do do do ....do ....do ....do ....do do ....do ....do ....do ....do H. W. Durham ....do ....do ....do H. W. Durham do H.G.Heisler .. H.S.Reed..... T.F. Boltz ....do ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. .do. ..do. ..do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Meter No. Stackpole No. 7. Stackpole N'n. ) . do do do ... do do do do do do do do do do do ....do ....do ....do ....do B.and B.No. 1 .. ....do ....do ....do B.and B. No. 1. do do do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do Haskell No. 2 . do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Gauge height. Feet. 4.74 6.02 3.68 4.25 3.97 4.95 4.72 4.16 4.24 4.52 8.41 4.69 3.40 5.55 4.82 5.23 5.13 5.29 4.89 4.78 4.75 4.70 4.50 4.50 4.45 4.35 Area of section, 3.90 3.95 3.61 3.60 6.57 6.48 6.38 6.29 6.20 6.14 6.11 5.94 5.99 6.30 6.50 6.63 6.84 7.89 6.99 8.85 8.29 8.12 8.50 8.96 11.72 8.64 9.85 8.54 9.08 8.99 8.88 8.30 8.10 8.05 8.08 8.17 9.11 9.49 8.82 10.27 9.26 9.46 9.10 9.34 14.20 11.20 9.80 Sq. feet. 422 581 376 423 412 2,618 498 459 387 404 451 874 427 402 569 457 482 494 514 475 517 510 490 451 453 441 129 437 126 126 114 111 110 106 103 100 99 98 97 85 101 112 116 104 147 584 488 1,913 687 618 609 652 720 2,034 721 864 699 760 752 722 641 139 136 141 625 761 795 706 867 742 752 711 747 2,145 2,082 790 Mean velocity. Ft. persec 1.31 2. 32 .65 .93 .02 4.63 1.23 1.05 .64 .71 .78 2.80 .73 .38 1.49 .70 1.24 1.04 1.28 . 72 ^54 .57 .63 .36 .33 .29 1.19 .26 .90 .92 .81 .60 .54 .47 .37 .37 .33 .30 .23 .27 .40 .97 .79 .56 1.48 .99 .46 1.54 1.22 .85 .74 .99 1.36 1.36 .90 1.54 .88 1.12 1.10 1.02 .54 1.54 1.39 1.39 .45 1.10 1.27 .63 1.29 .67 .61 .38 .64 1.89 .78 .57 * Heavy flood. Gauging made one-half mile above mouth. River too swift to reach gauge rod. 150 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc. — Continued. SABALOS RIVER— Continued. Date. 1900. Oct. 31 Nov. 3 Nov. 11 Nov. 14 Nov. 17 Nov. 22 Nov. 24 Nov. 28 Dec. 1 Dec. 5 Dec. 8 Dec. 12 Dec. 15 Dec. 19 Dec. 22 Dec. 26 Hydrographer. T. F. Boltz Haskell No. 2. do do do do do do do i do .do ' Price No. 68.. . .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do, .do, Gauge height. Feet. 9.49 9.58 10.54 9.39 9.46 9.92 9.34 9.12 11.41 9.63 9.63 10. 22 9.32 9.74 9.18 9.00 Area of section. Sq.feet. 477 543 890 747 752 812 739 165 1,020 770 773 847 730 789 717 697 Mean velocity. Ft.pt rsec .49 .07 1.37 .39 .51 1.15 .53 1.17 2. 00 .97 .1.03 1.30 .66 1.12 .53 .35 Dis- charge. »<•. feet. 333 366 1 , 222 290 387 936 395 194 2, 102 747 796 1,091 480 886 381 244 POCO SOL RIVER. 1899. Oct. 5 Nov. 2 Nov. 25 1900. Jan. 22 Feb. 13 Mar. 14 Apr. 6 Apr. 20 May 6 June 2 June 25 July 15 July 26 Aug. 14 Aug. 28 Sept. 8 Sept. 22 H.W.Durham ....do ....do Price No. 34. do do H.S. Reed Price No. 63 H. C. Hurd Price No. 34 do I do do ' Price No. 35 — do ! do C. Havinan I Price No. 63 H. G. Heisler B. and B. No. 1 . .do. .do.. .do.. .do., .do.. .do.. .do.. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. 1.08 .85 1.42 .40 - .10 - .07 -1.20 1.35 -1.61 - .03 - .50 2.15 1.97 3.90 3.00 1.25 981 919 1,007 1,030 945 570 336 281 1,358 751 1,000 1,110 1,212 1,181 846 1,082 1.54 .00 1.29 .55 .20 .15 .29 .10 .35 .92 .52 2. 65 2.11 1.89 2. 03 1.04 1.96 1,513 (ill 1 , 204 556 204 142 167 34 99 1 , 258 391 »2,651 >> 2, 442 2,303 2, 399 886 2, 123 SANTA CRUZ RIVER. 1899. Oct. 5 Price No. 34 do u. 85 .80 1.23 .10 .50 - .92 1 , 035 1,359 781 65 163 97 98 165 131 382 329 488 533 2,415 1,132 886 989 0. 62 . 26 .30 1.31 1. 11 .37 .17 . 56 .31 .33 .36 . 12 .04 1.20 1 . 26 . 12 .48 638 ...do... 347 Nov. 25 ...do... do 237 1900. Feb 13 H.C. Hurd Price No. 34 do 86 do 68 Apr. 6 Apr. 20 May 7 May 20 ...do Price No. 35 do 36 do. . 47 Price No. 03 B.and B. No.l.... do 1.34 -1.20 - .04 - .35 1.02 1.12 12.00 2.45 1.20 2.10 93 H.G. Heisler 41 ...do 130 do do 121 July 15 July 26 Aug. 14 Aug. 28 Sept. 8 Sept. 22 ...do do 207 .do do 342 ...do do ■ 10,30] .do do 1 , 137 do do 379 ...do do 182 » Gauging made below gauge. >> Gauging made above gauge. 'Flood. Impossible to go to ^hiilm-. branches of trees. Elevation determined approximately August 28 by drift in KKl'OKT OF T1IK ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 151 List of discharge measurement* made on tributaries of Son .hum River, etc. — Continued. SANTA CRUZITA RIVER. Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge height. 1900. Aug. II Aug. 28 1899. Oct 6 Nov. 6 Nov. 25 Jan. 23 Feb. 14 Men. 14 Apr. 24 May 21 June 3 June 20 Julv 17 July 31 Aug. 15 Aug. 29 Sept. 10 Sept. 23 H.G.Heisler. do Rand B.,No. 1. do Area of section. Mean velocity. Sq. feet. Fl.persec. ' 345 1.80 331 ! .71 BARTOLA RIVER. H. W. Durham Price, Ni ». 34. . . do do do do H.s. Reed Price, No. 63... H.C.Hurd Price, No. 34... do do do Price, No.' 35. . . H. G. Heisler B. and B., No. 1 .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do . .do. .do. .do. .do .do .do 0.95 2.1 2 1.48 .83 - .30 - .30 -1.00 - .00 - .03 .20 -3.20 1.63 2.99 4.50 1.45 2. 35 412 499 457 471 99 101 88 145 lis 217 507 483 640 860 162 316 Dis charge. Sec. feet. 623 0. 59 . 57 . 39 .45 .25 .91 .45 .50 . 43 .31 1.39 .01 .81 2. 83 .37 .04 245 280 179 214 00 00 40 03 09 792 293 521 ,437 170 204 INFIERNITO RIVER. 1899. , Oct. H.W.Durham Nov. 6 do Nov. 20 : do 1900. Jan. 23 Feb. 14 Mch. 15 Apr. 24 May 31 June 3 June 20 July 17 do. July 31 do. Aug. 15 do. H.S. Reed.... H.C.Hurd... do do H.G.Heisler. .do do Aug. 29 Sept. 10 Sept. 23 .do. .do. .do. Price, No. 34. ....do ....do Price, No. 03... Price, No. 34... ....do ....do B.and B.,No. 1 ....do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. 0.84 3.68 1.25 .55 - .10 - .00 -1.20 -1.03 - .03 - .40 3.50 1.35 3.73 3.80 1.60 2.70 1.547 1,283 940 1,137 550 074 392 929 788 781 1,025 958 1,229 1,440 1,088 900 .00 .63 . 25 .20 .36 .07 .29 1.19 .00 1.47 1.17 .80 1.50 1 . 0S4 2,449 753 683 347 170 80 293 528 227 1 , 226 037 1,815 1 , 089 .X73 1,513 MACHUCA RIVER. 1899. Oct. Nov. 6 Nov. 20 1900. Jan. 23 Feb. 14 Mar. 15 A ]ir. 24 May 21 June 3 June 20 Julv 17 July 31 Aug. 15 Aug. 29 Sept. 10 Sept. 23 Dec. 14 H.W.Durham ....do ....do H.S. Reed.... H.C.Hurd ... ....do ....do H.G.Heisler. do do do do do do do do E. W. F. Reed Price, No. 34. ....do ....do Price, No. 63 Price, No. 34 ....do Price, No. 35 B. and B., No. 1 ....do ....do po do do do do do Price, No. 65 220 0. 58 128 316 .44 140 253 .38 97 107 1.17 197 94 .54 54 79 .03 50 40 .06 27 54 .52 28 109 .31 34 103 .47 48 :;i I .71 225 ISC, . 52 97 51 1 .06 339 551 1.03 573 255 .49 126 170 .73 128 511 .80 M41 ■ Flood — falling rapidly from 5 feet to 4 feet while gauging one-half hour. *> Mad. 2 miles above mouth. 152 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San .Juan River, etc. — Continued. CRUCITA DEL NORTE RIVER. Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge height. Area of section. Mean velocity. Dis- charge. 1899. Oct. 7 Price, No. 34.. Feet. Sq. feet. 200 Ft. per sec. 0.13 (») .21 .29 C) n e. /< a. 1900. June 3 H.G.Heisler do B. and B., No. 1... do 276 367 54 Aug. 29 do do 108 Sept. 10 do do Dec. n E. W. F. Reed Price, No. 65 LA CRUCITA DEL SUR RIVER. 1900. Aug. 15 H.G.Heisler B. and B., No. 1... 209 307 310 0.40 .47 .52 85 Aug. 29 do do 144 Dec. 14 E. W. F. Reed 152 LA CRUZ DEL NORTE RIVER. 1899. Oct. 7 H. W. Durham ■Ml 202 124 73 188 115 335 311 548 721 224 324 0. 42 .16 .53 .39 .24 .24 .28 .35 .50 .38 .37 .29 ( b ) 84 1900. Jan. 23 H.S.Reed Price, No 63 . 32 Feb. 14 H.C.Hurd Price, No. 34... 66 Mar. 15 do ...do.. 28 June 3 H. G. Heisler B. and B., No. 1... 47 June 26 do 29 Julv 17 do ....do... 96 July 31 do do ... 111 Aug. 15 do do ... 293 Aug. 29 do ...do... 280 Sept. 10 do do... 86 Sept. 23 do do 97 Dec. 14 E.W.F.Reed Price, No. 65 | LA CRUZ DEL SUR RIVER. 1899. Nov. 6 H. W. Durham Price, No. 34 276 0. 28 77 1900. Aug. 15 H.G. Heisler B.and B.,No. 1 .. EL JARDIN RIVER (NEAR CONCHUCA). 1900. May 2 H.S.Reed Price, No. 65 . . . 41 100 49 59 105 100 86 123 167 294 222 309 297 278 178 241 399 346 287 297 248 469 192 0.61 1.16 .85 1.39 .97 .52 . 66 . 62 .55 . 39 .59 1.50 2.50 .86 .77 .78 .70 .39 .11 .30 .36 .77 . 52 25 May 9 do do 116 May 16 do ...do ... 42 May 22 do ...do ... 83 May 30 do ...do. 103 June 12 do ..do. 53 Juno 28 do ...do... 57 June 30 do ...do 76 Julv 11 do ...do... 86 July 19 do ...do ... 115 July 25 do ...do. . 131 Aug. 9 do ...do 463 Aug. 25 do do 742 Aug. 31 do do . 237 Sept. 7 do do... 137 Sept. 20 do do... 188 Oct. 1 do do ... 277 Oct. 9 do do... 131 Oct. 13 do do ... 117 Oct. 30 do ...do 88 Nov. 27 E. W. F. Reed do 90 Dec. 13 do do ... 359 Dec. 31 do do... 100 ''Buck water; no current. REFORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 153 List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc, — Continued LA TIGRE RIVER (NEAR OONCHUCA). Gauge height. Area of Mean section. velocity. Sq. feet. Ft.persec. 89 0.44 34 1.22 50 .74 60 .37 115 .53 101 .32 143 .29 191 .22 239 .30 166 .42 357 .70 319 1.76 226 .50 177 .31 259 .33 269 .30 232 .22 182 .21 183 .22 142 .31 334 .44 131 .34 Dis- charge. Sec. fnl. ■ 17 41 37 22 61 33 42 43 73 70 249 560 113 55 85 81 53 38 40 44 146 44 OCHOA STATION ON SAN JUAN RIVER. A camp was continued at this point under charge of Mr. H. S. Reed, keeping rainfall and temperature records and rod readings on the river. Measurements of discharge were made from a boat, its position at each observation being determined by stadia from shore. Records were also kept of gauge height, discharge, and rainfall at the station on San Carlos River. From the time when the camp on the San Carlos was removed — August 31, 1898 — to the present writing, daily trips were made to the San Carlos station, never omitting a day. Therefore, we have over three years' 1 complete record of discharge for both the San Carlos near its mouth and the San Juan at Ochoa. By taking the difference between them we obtain the discharge of the San Juan above Boca San Carlos, and by deducting from this the discharge measured at Sabalos we obtain the discharge of the tributaries between Sabalos and Boca San Carlos. The comparative flow of the San Carlos and the San Juan at Ochoa and at Sabalos is shown in figure 8. The bench mark at Ochoa is a standard United States Geological Survey copper tablet bench mark planted horizontally on top of a scarf cut into the inside larger root of a tree situated at the mouth of the first creek just above the camp, about 250 feet above the gauge. It is 28.10 above zero of rod and 71.33 feet above sea level. The bench mark on San Carlos River is a large wrought-iron nail driven into the top of a scarf cut into the root on the river face of tree that acts as cable support. It is 31.67 above zero of rod and 81.13 feet above sea level. At the Ochoa station two extra rods were placed in the river, one above and the other below the regular station, and were carefully connected by level lines, so that from synchroneous readings the slope of the surface of the river could be obtained. The indicated slope at each gauging taken is given in the table of discharge measurements on page 156. 154 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The bench mark established for the upper-slope rod is one spike driven in center of a triangle of 40-penny nails midway of bottom of scarf made in root of large tree situated 80.4 feet south from gauge rod and is 22.42 above zero of that rod. The bench mark established for the lower slope rod is one rod nail driven in advance of four 10-penny galvanized nails at point of scarf cut in root of large tree first on point of knoll bearing southwest 71 feet from rod and is 22. -12 above zero of rod. Upper rod is 2,273.4 feet above the regular rod at Ochoa and lower rod is 505.0 feet below, so that 2,839 feet is the total distance between rods. For purposes of current meter measurements it was not permissible to extend a cable over the river at Ochoa on account of navigation. It was first intended to make measurements by means of a boat anchored to a small cable stretched across the river which should carry tags indi- cating distances from the initial point and which, when not in use, was to be held against the bottom of the river by means of sinkers. Experi- ence on this line, however, soon demonstrated that it would be diffi- cult, if not impracticable, to maintain a small cable in the position proposed on account of the large quantities of driftwood, leaves, and brush passing down the river, especially in times of flood, when the gauging apparatus would be most in demand. Another project was therefore inaugurated, which was the anchorage of a number of buoys at known distances from the initial point, said buoys to be constructed of "balsa,' 1 a very light, bulky, endogenous wood much used in the construction of rafts, etc. This method of marking distances from the initial point was successfully employed for several months during the season of low water, but as the rains increased and freshets began to. come down the river the great quantity of leaves and brush carried by the water attached themselves to the buoys and their anchorages until they were either carried beneath the surface of the river or washed away entirely. The method permanently adopted required the employment of an additional instrument man to manipulate a telescope on shore and measure the distance of the boat during the process of gauging by means of a stadia rod. The highest measurement of discharge yet made at this point was on November 17, 1S98, at a gauge height of 17.43 feet, when the river was discharging 1()4,!>28 cubic feet per second. At this stage the river was about 8.5 feet below the flood plain at Ochoa, the formation of which indicates that it is sometimes overflowed. Dr. C. W. Hayes, geologist, expresses the opinion that this Hood plain is at intervals of ten to thirty years covered by the floods of San Juan River to a depth of more than inches, but less than 3 feet. In other words, maximum gauge readings of 20.5 to 29 may be expected with moderate frequency at Ochoa station. Plotting all observations of discharge, so far taken as abscissas, with corresponding gauge heights as ordinates, we obtain a curve indicating the relation of gauge height to discharge, showing that the ratio of discharge to increase of gauge height is not constant. The curve is concave downward, tending toward a horizontal position, showing that the increase of discharge for increase of gauge height is greater at high stages than at low stages, but above a medium stage of the river the. line curves but slightly, and though the concavity is still down- ward the curve approaches a straight line, or, in other words, the ratio REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 155 between gauge height and discharge approaches constancy. If we assume as constant the direction given to the line by the higher meas- urements, and continue it as a straight line, we obtain as the discharge corresponding to a gauge height of 28 feet about 200,000 cubic feet per second. If any curvature be given the extrapolated portion of the curve it will increase this amount. If the same course of reasoning be applied to the flood-plain on the San Carlos River, we find that its maximum discharge must be about 100,000 cubic feet per second. Similarly it may be shown by extrapolating the curve discharge of the San Juan River at Fort San Carlos that at the stage of 111 feet above sea level the lake must have discharged nearly 45,000 cubic feet per second. When the measurement of November IT, 1898, that gave a discharge at Ochoa of 104,928 second-feet was made, the San Carlos River was discharging onl} r 32,265, leaving 72,663 as the amount coming down the San Juan proper, of which probably not more than 28,663 were flow- ing from the lake, leaving 44,000 to be supplied b} r the small tribu- taries between the lake and Boca San Carlos. With such an indicated discharge it would not be excessive to assume a maximum for these tributaries of 55,000 cubic feet per second, and we have the maximum flood at Ochoa made up as follows : Second-feet. Maximum, San Carlos River 100, 000 Maximum discharge from lake 45, 000 Maximum, small tributaries 55, 000 Maximum at Ochoa 200, 000 The highest observed discharge of the Sarapiqui is 62,000 cubic feet per second. It is probable that the extreme maximum is not less than 80,000 cubic feet per second. The Machado, San Francisco, Tambor- cito, and San Juanillo, and a large number of lesser creeks contribute a large aggregate in time of flood, so that it is probable that at rare intervals the increment to the waters of the San Juan below Ochoa may amount to over 100,000 cubic feet per second. Such an occur- rence coincident with extreme flood conditions above Ochoa would make a total of over 300,000 cubic feet per second discharging into the Caribbean through the various mouths of the San Juan. 156 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Fio. 7. — Gauging San Juan River at Ochoa. List of discharge measurements made on San Juan River at Ochoa by II S. Heed with Price meter No. 65. Date. Gauge height. Area of Mean , Dis- section. | velocity, charge. 1899. ( ictober 5 October 6 ... October 10 .. October 28 .., -November 5. November \ ember 24 November 30 December 9 - I December in December 12 December 21 Feet. 7.90 7.31 C.84 7.21 11.21 13.38 10.49 14.31 8.51 10.97 l'J.14 9.24 8. 31 8.63 11.28 7.01 7.17 C..S9 Sq.feet. Ft.persec 9,204 3.55 8,713 3.41 8,079 3.40 8,554 3.46 12, 617 4.16 15, 301 4.63 12, 147 3.94 16,678 4.50 10, 373 3. 52 12,96-1 3.86 13,864 4.33 1 1 , 006 3.64 10,099 3.54 10,289 12,742 8,621 8, 721 8, 366 7,219 7, 223 6, 926 6,467 6,317 6,116 5, 930 5,980 5,622 5, 453 5,048 6,280 10,000 8, 305 7,872 10,503 7, 991 7.316 8,629 9,497 10,473 11,804 13,923 13,223 12, 142 12,698 10,169 11,582 10, 175 13,287 16,501 15,395 1 1,333 17,952 14,884 12,592 1 1 , 926 13,610 20,111 17,110 16,723 11,211 3.73 4.10 3.29 3. 42 3.37 3.15 3.03 2.98 2.90 2. 86 2. 84 •I 79 2. 77 2. 77 2.69 3.04 3. 59 3. 21 3.16 3.66 3.16 3.10 3.41 3.66 3.90 4.28 4.38 4.09 4.11 4 22 3! 55 3. 7.s 3.00 4.29 4.69 4.72 4.35 I.S9 4.31 3.99 3.69 1.17 6, 02 1. 19 1.48 .;. 7:; Sec. feet. 32, 693 29, 731 27,453 29, 633 52, 476 70, S70 47,868 74, 882 36, 500 50, 057 60, 105 40, 020 35, 735 38,346 52, 194 28, 396 29, 824 28, 164 22, 746 21,913 20, 647 18,711 18, 085 17,358 16, 551 16, 694 15, 550 15, 079 13, 560 19,101 35, 880 26, 685 24, 843 38, 405 25, 272 22, 702 29, 407 34, 758 40, 800 50, 513 61, 026 54, 128 49, 880 53, 523 36, 064 43, 791 37, 709 57, 035 77, 429 72,721 62, 427 87, 696 61,212 50, 329 44,038 56, 696 101,135 77,012 70, 442 41,869 Wetted perim- eter. Hydraulic 1 radius. I Slope, 866 865 864 S65 878 880 875 896 868 875 877 863 867 800 876 863 863 862 862 861 857 857 855 855 853 850 851 850 847 859 860 865 863 862 864 863 867 867 865 874 879 877 875 876 860 869 862 878 897 893 S84 876 870 10.63 10.07 9.35 9.89 14.37 17.27 13.88 18. (13 11.96 14.82 15.81 12. 74 11.65 11.97 14.55 9.99 10.11 9.71 8. 37 8. 39 8.08 7.55 7.39 7.16 6.95 7.03 6.61 6. 12 5.06 7.31 11.64 9.60 9.12 12.18 9.24 8.48 9.96 10.95 12.11 13.51 15.84 15.08 13.87 14.50 11. 82 13.33 12. 15 15.13 18.40 17.24 16.21 14.37 13.71 15. 47 880 874 17.87 12.83 0. 000187 .000190 .000107 . 000206 . 000190 .000192 . 000185 .000160 .000180 .000183 . 000180 .000178 . 000176 . 000180 . 000173 . 000173 . 000180 .000176 .000183 .000180 .000182 .000176 . 000166 .000173 .000173 .000173 .000169 .00016'.! .000176 .00017,8 .000173 .000187 .000187 . 000176 .000183 .000187 .000187 .000182 .000173 . 000189 .000190 .000173 .000190 .000180 .00018:; .000178 .00018.-, . 000180 .000169 . 000107 .00018:; .000107 .000185 .000190 .000101 . 000176 0.029 . 029 .028 . 029 .030 .031 .031 .031 .031 .033 .030 .031 .030 . 029 .030 .029 .028 . 028 .027 .028 . 028 . 027 .026 .026 .027 .027 . 025 . 025 .025 . 025 . 020 . 030 .020 .030 . 020 .028 .029 .028 . 027 . 028 .031 . 030 .030 . 029 .031 .031 .031 .030 .030 .028 .031 . 033 .033 .032 . 030 .031 ,1 KKI'OKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rating table for San Juan River at Ochoa. [This table is applicable from April i. 1899, to December 1, 1900.] 157 Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. Sec. feet. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. Feet. Secfeet. Feet. Feet. Secfeet. Feet. Sir. fa t. Feet. Sec. feet. 3.0 12,000 6.0 23, 550 9.0 38, 300 12.0 55,200 15.0 77, '100 3.1 12, 200 6.1 24,000 9.1 38,800 12.1 55, 800 15.1 78, 000 3.2 12, 400 6.2 24,450 9.2 39, 300 12.2 56, 400 15.2 78,900 3.3 12,700 6.3 24, 900 9.3 39, 800 12.3 57,000 15.3 79,800 3.4 13,000 6.4 25, 350 9.4 40, 300 12.4 57, 600 15.4 80, 700 3.5 13,350 6.5 25, 800 9.5 40, 800 12.5 58, 200 15.5 81,600 3.6 13,700 6.6 26, 300 9.6 41,300 12.6 58, 800 15.6 82,500 3.7 14,050 6.7 26, 800 9.7 41,800 12.7 59, 500 15.7 83, 400 3.8 14,400 6.8 27,300 9.8 42, 300 12. 8 60, 200 15. 8 84,300 3.9 14, 750 6.9 27, 800 9.9 42,800 12.9 60,900 15.9 s :>,;;{ in 4.0 15, 100 7.0 28, 300 10.0 43, 350 13.0 61,600 16.0 86, 300 4.1 15,500 7.1 28, 800 10.1 43,900 13.1 62, 300 16.1 87,300 . 4.2 15,900 7 2 29, 300 10.2 44,450 13.2 63, 000 16.2 88, 300 4.3 16, 300 7.3 29, 800 10.3 45,000 13.3 63, 700 16.3 89,300 , 4.4 16,700 7.4 30, 300 10.4 45, 600 13.4 64, 400 16.4 90, 300 4.5 17, 100 7.5 30, 800 10.5 46,200 13.5 65, 100 16.5 91,300 L6 17, 500 7.6 31,300 10.6 46, 800 13.6 65, 800 16.6 92, 300 1.7 17,900 7.7 31,800 10.7 47, 400 13.7 66, 500 16.7 93, 300 4.8 18,300 7.8 32, 300 10.8 48,000 13.8 67, 200 16.8 94,300 4.9 18, 700 7.9 32, 800 10.9 48, 600 13.9 67, 900 16.9 95, 300 5.0 19,100 8.0 33, 300 11.0 49,200 14.0 68, 600 17.0 96, 300 5.1 19, 500 8.1 33, 800 11.1 49, 800 14.1 69, 400 17.1 97, 300 5.2 19, 950 8.2 34,300 11.2 50, 400 14.2 70, 200 17.2 98, 300 5.3 20,400 8.3 34,800 11.3 51,000 14.3 71,000 17.3 99, 300 5.4 20, 850 8.4 35,300 11.4 51,600 14.4 71,800 17.4 100, 400 5.5 21,300 8.5 35, 800 11.5 52,200 14.5 72, 600 17.5 101,500 5.6 21,750 8.6 36, 300 11.6 52, 800 14.6 73, 500 17.6 102, 600 5.7 22, 200 8.7 36,800 11.7 53,400 14.7 74, 400 17.7 103, 700 5.8 22,650 8.8 37,300 11.8 54,000 14.8 75, 300 17.8 104, 800 5.9 23,100 8.9 37,800 11.9 54,600 14.9 76, 200 17.9 105, 900 [This table is applicable only after December 1, 1900.] 7.0 28,300 9.8 42,300 12.6 57, 650 15.4 73,600 18.2 91,900 7.1 28,800 9.9 42,800 12.7 58,200 15.5 74,250 18.3 92, 600 7.2 29,300 10.0 43, 350 12.8 58, 750 15.6 74,900 18.4 93, 300 7.3 29,800 10.1 43, 900 12.9 59, 300 15.7 75, 550 18.5 94, 000 7.4 30,300 10.2 44, 450 13.0 59, 850 15.8 76, 200 18.6 94, 700 7.5 30,800 10.3 45, 000 13.1 60, 400 15.9 76, 850 18.7 95, 400 7.6 31,300 10.4 45, 550 13.2 60, 950 16.0 77, 500 18.8 96, 100 7.7 31,800 10.5 46, 100 13.3 61,. 500 16.1 78, 150 18.9 96, 800 7.8 32,300 10.6 46, 6-50 13.4 62, 050 16.2 78, 800 19.0 97, 500 7.9 32,800 10.7 47, 200 13.5 62, 600 16.3 79, 450 19.1 98, 200 8.0 33,300 10.8 47, 750 13.6 63, 150 16.4 80, 100 19.? 98, 900 8.1 33,800 10.9 48, 300 13.7 63, 700 16.5 80, 750 19.3 99, 600 8.2 34,300 11.0 48, 850 13.S 64, 250 16.6 81,400 19.4 100, 300 8.3 34,800 11.1 49, 400 13.9 64,800 16.7 82, 050 19.5 101,000 8.4 35,300 11.2 49, 950 14.0 65, 350 16.8 82, 700 19.6 101,700 8.5 35,800 11.3 50, 500 14.1 65, 900 16.9 83,350 19.7 102, 400 8.6 36,300 11.4 51,050 14.2 66,450 17.0 84, 000 19.8 103, 100 8.7 36,800 11.5 51,600 14.3 67, 000 17.1 84, 650 19.9 103,800 8.8 37,300 11.6 52, 150 14.4 67, 550 17.2 85, 300 20.0 104,500 8. '.) 37,800 11.7 52, 700 14.5 68, 100 17.3 85, 950 20.1 105,250 9.0 38,300 11.8 53, 250 14.6 68, 650 17.4 86, 600 20.2 106,000 9.1 38,800 11.9 53, 800 14.7 69, 200 17.5 87, 250 20.3 IOC. 7511 9.2 39,300 12.0 54,350 14.8 69, 800 17.6 87, 900 20.4 107,500 9.3 39, 800 12.1 54,900 14.9 70, 400 17.7 88,550 20.5 ION, 250 9.4 40,300 12.2 55,450 15.0 71,000 17. s 89, 200 20.6 109,000 9. 5 40,800 12.3 56, 000 15.1 71,650 17.9 S9,S5I.I 20.7 109, 750 'J. 6 41,300 12.4 56, 550 15.2 72, 300 18.0 90, 500 20.8 110,500 9.7 41,800 12.5 57, 100 15.3 72, 950 18.1 91,200 1 20. 9 111,250 158 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Daily gauge height of San Juan River at Ochou for 18l>9. Day. 1.... Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. 8.60 7.60 7.22 5.85 4.80 5.45 6.95 9.12 8.00 8.30 7.01 11.29 2.... 9.32 7.58 7.12 5.82 4.80 5.18 7.25 8.75 7.82 8. 30 6.90 9.80 3.... 9.85 7.47 7.02 5.75 4.80 5.02 7.80 8.48 7.67 7.85 6.92 9.41 4.... 9.30 7.38 6.92 5.75 4.82 4.85 7.45 10. 52 7. 65 7. 85 7.22 8. 99 5.... 9.55 7.30 6.88 5.55 4.88 4.75 7.30 10. 02 7. 30 7.45 11.26 9. 58 6.... 9.28 7.30 6.78 5.90 4.82 4.70 7.40 9.12 7.17 7.42 11.95 11.93 8.92 7.50 6.78 5.95 5.15 5.10 7.28 8.65 7. 05 7.35 12. 05 13.37 8.... 9.07 7.45 7.28 6.05 4.88 6.85 7.30 9.42 7. 25 7.14 10.61 12.29 9.... 8.92 7.30 7.40 6.48 4.70 6.92 9. 15 10. 12 7.10 6.89 11.35 11.48 10.... 9.07 7.25 6.98 6.35 4.58 8.45 12. 60 9.05 7.15 6.86 11.50 10. 13 11... 8.97 7. 25 6. 75 6.90 4.50 7.42 15. 25 8.22 7. 52 6.81 11.76 9, 69 VI.... 9.85 7.45 6.65 6.70 4.52 7.28 12. 45 7.72 8.00 7.36 13.87 9. 26 13.... 10. 37 8. 38 6.60 6.30 4.58 7.02 11.65 7.78 7.57 7. 58 13. 41 9.02 14.... 9.90 8.98 6.55 6.10 4.60 6.32 14. 85 7. 85 7.37 8.54 12. 93 s. 49 15.... 9.97 8.15 6.52 5.88 4.50 6.40 12. 68 7.90 7.17 9.14 14.30 8.56 16.... 10. 55 7.98 6.48 5.70 4.42 6.20 10. 85 7.90 7. 35 8.23 12.95 8. 33 17.... 9.95 7.90 6.35 5.58 4.42 6.15 9. 85 8. 25 7.60 8.12 11.90 8.61 18.... 9.42 8.25 6.30 5.48 4.45 6.22 9.00 8.82 8.10 8.07 11.28 10.21 10.... 9.17 8.20 6.28 5.48 4.62 6.25 9.10 9.58 8. 20 7.57 10. 65 10. 37 20. . . . 9.02 8.00 6.25 5.42 5.15 6.92 8.52 8.05 8.60 7.30 10.19 9. 92 21 ... . 8.75 8.22 6.22 5.32 4.80 6.75 9.62 8.65 9.87 7. 21 9.80 9. 93 22.... 8. 52 7.80 6.12 5.25 4.78 6.25 10.80 9.20 13.57 7.76 9.39 -.). 60 23.... s. 45 8.10 6.02 5.15 5.10 6.00 8.55 8.88 14.05 9.04 9.02 9.06 24.... 8.35 7.90 6.00 5.05 5.28 5.98 8.35 9.98 11.00 8.80 8.75 9.26 25. . . . 8. 35 7.70 5.98 5.00 5.55 6.02 9.35 10.42 9.47 8.03 8.50 9. 22 26.... 8.15 7.42 5.90 4.95 6.35 5.78 10. 35 10.30 8.97 7.50 8.34 9.37 27.... 8.02 7.50 5.82 4.95 6.60 5.82 11.32 10.05 8.82 7.24 8.55 9.44 28.... 7.97 7.40 5.80 4.95 6.08 6.68 10.38 9.00 9.20 7.19 9.44 9. 11 29.... 7.82 5.80 4.92 6.42 6.92 9.52 8.42 8.85 7.26 9.08 9.20 30.... 7.72 6.78 4.85 6.50 6.68 8.55 8.20 8.42 7.19 9.07 9.04 31.... 7.65 5.70 5.90 9.30 8.05 7.17 9.83 Daily gauge height of San Juan Hirer at Ochoa for 1900. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 9.48 6.61 5.67 4.55 3.83 7.60 7.13 8.58 lu.00 12. 95 10.91 12.97 2.... 8.99 6.56 5.58 4.73 3.89 7.51 6.85 8.68 9.63 14.43 10.87 11.86 3.... 8. 54 6.69 5.55 5.15 3.77 6.72 6.77 9.61 9.03 13.79 11.14 11.06 4.... 8.54 6.58 6.52 4.72 3.64 6.76 ■ 7.85 12.15 8.63 12.79 11.67 11.09 11.68 6.41 5.64 4.53 3.47 7.06 7.37 14.93 8.39 12. 38 11.63 11.23 6.... 11.60 6.33 5.66 4.40 3.57 6.83 7.18 12.54 8.13 11.97 11.30 11.69 7.... 10. 27 6.20 5.37 4.37 4.04 6.35 7.43 11.73 8.38 12. 21 10.84 13.82 8.... 9.62 6.14 5.25 4.35 3.89 7.04 9.51 10.87 8.59 12. 62 11.07 20.28 9.... 9.13 6.15 5.18 4.33 3.83 6.76 8.91 10. 52 8.58 11.87 13.99 19.15 10.... 8. 60 6.17 5.21 4.30 3.76 6.27 9.00 11.83 8. 28 12.60 14. 51 16.52 11.... s. 32 6.02 5.17 4.30 4.44 6.09 8.83 11.67 8.55 11.84 14.41 14.74 12.... 8.08 5.93 5.13 4.60 4.09 6.33 8.29 11.50 8.31 10.97 13.31 1 1.97 13.... 8.00 5.90 5.15 4.92 4.11 6.45 9.79 10.91 8.19 10. 55 12.25 13. 79 14.... 7.88 5.84 5.05 4.58 4.42 6.08 9. 55 10. 75 8. 45 10. 29 12.94 12. 59 7.70 5.81 5. 01 4.35 4.36 5.70 8.56 11.02 8.35 10.20 12.88 11.76 16.... 7.57 5.83 4.99 4.18 4.35 6.84 10. 53 9.50 8. 53 10.02 11.97 11.15 17.... 7.38 5. 83 4.92 4.17 4.10 8.22 11.65 9.36 9.45 9.93 11.33 10.83 18.... 7.26 5. 83 L92 4.18 3.90 9.22 10.64 9.60 9.95 10.04 L0.82 10.52 19.... 7.12 5.75 1.82 4.31 3.80 7.52 11.66 10.16 9.97 10.36 10.54 10. 69 20.... 7.05 7.04 4.79 4.45 3.84 6.89 10. 56 9.07 9.66 11.05 10. 40 10.31 21 ... . 6.95 7. 20 l.M 4.34 4.61 6.51 9.79 9.13 9.05 13.95 10.84 10.00 22.... 6. 98 6.36 6. 07 4.23 4.91 6.05 9.85 9.51 9.03 L5.88 10.53 9. 69 23.... 7.01 6.04 5.19 4.10 4.45 5.96 10. 63 9.24 9.79 13.76 10.80 9.50 24.... 7.02 5.81 6. 35 4.02 4.64 5.72 10.10 9.43 9.62 12.63 10.18 9. 26 6.91 5. 76 5.24 3.96 4.73 5.66 9.13 10.34 9.88 12.76 9.85 9.12 26 . . . 6.77 5. 60 5.05 4.09 6.79 5.57 8. 59 10.21 11. is 12.08 9.70 8. 96 27... 7.12 5. 85 4 90 4.07 8.19 5.40 8.57 10.78 11.37 1 1 . 86 9. 60 8.83 28... 7. 32 5.95 4.81 4.03 8. 55 5. .50 8.71 10. 82 10.76 11. 17 9. 78 8. 69 29... 7.68 4.69 4.05 7.18 6. 17 8.65 11.95 11.95 1 1 . 09 10.52 8.6] 30... 6.90 4.62 3.88 6.55 6.92 8.44 11.30 14.60 10.79 1 1 . 63 8. 50 :;i . . . 6.70 J. 53 7.29 8.64 10.45 10.89 8. lo REPORT <)K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 159 Estimated monthly discharge of San Juan River at Ochoa. L898. January February March April May June July August September OctoDer November December The year 1899. January February Ma reh April May June July August September October November December The year 1900. January February March April May June July August September October November December The vear Daily gauge height of San Carlos R iver at station 3 miles above mouth, for 1899. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 11.90 11.85 12.40 11.15 10. 80 12.35 113.30 5.25 13. 15 13.10 12.50 17.40 2.... 12.75 11.85 12. 20 11.45 10.80 12.10 13.30 14.70 13.05 13.35 12. 35 15.50 3.... 14. 35 11.80 12. 15 11.45 10.75 11.90 13. 50 14. 35 13.00 13.05 12.40 15.25 4.... 12.80 11.70 12. 05 11.40 10.80 11.65 13. 50 17.90 13.00 13.10 12. 55 14.75 5.... 12. 60 11. 65 12.00 10. 20 10.80 11.55 13. 80 15.60 12.85 13.15 17. 95 15. 90 6.... 12.40 11.60 11.85 12. 05 10.85 11.50 14.70 15. 30 12.70 12.80 19.10 19.15 7.... 12.15 12. 05 11.85 11.75 11.55 11.90 14.70 14.85 12.60 12. 90 16. 75 19.40 8.... 12.55 12.00 12. 70 11.60 11.20 12.20 14.20 14.65 12.80 12.60 15. 50 18.70 9.... 12.50 11.70 12.80 12. 75 10.90 12.80 15.10 15. 70 12.45 12.40 17.15 17.30 10.... 12.35 11.70 12.20 12. 20 10.90 13. 95 19.00 14.75 12.65 12.40 16.70 16.10 11.... 12.20 11.70 11.95 12. 60 10.80 13. 50 22.95 14.10 13.10 12.40 18. 20 15.30 12.... 12.35 11.70 11.80 12. 50 10.80 13.45 17.50 13.70 14.05 12. 55 19. 45 14.90 13.... 13.00 12.70 1 1 . ?:. 12.00 11.05 12. 95 18.80 13.50 13.50 13.15 18. 25 14.65 14.... 13. 25 14.70 11. HO 12. 00 11.20 12.75 20.60 14.30 13. 35 13.60 17. 95 14.30 15.... 12.90 13. 45 11.70 11.80 10.90 12.90 17.50 14.20 13.00 13. 65 18. 95 14. 05 16.... 15. 00 13.25 11.65 11.65 10. 85 12. 75 16.80 14.30 13.00 13.10 17.60 13. 95 17.... 13.60 12. 70 11.55 11. 50 10.80 12. 90 15. 60 14.05 13.30 13.45 16.90 13.90 18.... 13. 25 12. 85 11.50 11.40 10.70 12.80 14.90 13.90 13.00 13.40 16. 25 16.20 19.... 13. 20 12.95 11.50 11.30 10.80 12.70 15.50 13.70 13.00 13. 15 15. 75 15. 00 20.... 13.20 12. 85 11.40 11.30 11.20 13.90 14.40 13.50 12. 75 12.85 15.45 14.70 21.... 12. 85 13.30 11.40 11.20 11.35 13. 25 15.60 14.25 12.85 12. 70 15. 05 14. 50 22.... 12. 65 12. 85 11.30 11.15 11. 35 12. 70 14.90 14.75 14.15 13.30 14. 65 14. 95 23.... 12. 55 13.70 11.25 11.10 12. 20 12. 75 14. as 13. 65 14.50 13.40 14.30 14.45 24.... 12. 50 13.20 11.20 11.05 12.60 12. 55 14.55 13.80 14.25 13.30 14.35 15. 30 25.... 12.60 12.90 11.15 11.00 12. 00 13. 00 14.30 13.70 13.20 13.05 14.00 15.20 26.... 12.35 12.55 11.10 10. 95 12. 65 12. 50 14. 35 13.90 13. 05 12. 70 13.75 15.80 27.... 12.20 12.80 11.10 10.90 13. 80 12. 35 16.90 14.00 12.85 12.50 13.50 15.68 28.... 12.50 12.60 11.05 10.90 13.00 14.00 16.40 13.65 13.75 12.50 16. 25 15.45 29. . . . 12. 05 11.10 10. 95 13. 30 13. 70 15. 45 13.30 13.85 12.60 15. 30 15. 03 30.... 12.00 11.10 10.90 13. 60 13. 55 14. 65 13. 15 13.20 12. 65 15.55 15.09 31 ... . 11.90 11.05 12.95 16.40 13. 20 12.70 16.57 160 REPORT OB" THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Daily gauge height of San Carlvs River at station 3 miles above mouth, far 1900. Day. .l.-i n . Fed. Mar. Apr. 11.18 May. June. 14. 12 July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 16.09 12.. "'7 11.98 10.97 14.17 14.56 15. 26 17.70 15.70 is. 12 2.... 15.16 12.65 11.92 11. 92 10. 92 11. 12 13.70 14.17 14.75 19. 20 15. 39 16.44 3.... 14.63 12. 47 11.78 12.53 10.84 14.23 13.62 14. i 14.30 17.35 15.55 15. 50 1.... 14.91 12.37 11. 82 11.60 10.84 14.27 13.91 15. 97 13.98 16.76 16.31 15.11 20.00 12. 23 12. 07 11.18 10.74 14.39 13.90 16.13 13.72 16.50 16.35 16.19 6.... 18.26 12. 15 12. 15 11.34 10. 73 14. 11 14.19 15.25 13. 50 16.83 16.14 14.90 7.... 16.80 12.08 11.76 11.21 11.15 13.64 14.11 15. 50 13.73 17.83 15. 48 17.77 8.... 16.06 12. 00 11. 62 11.19 11.36 14.80 16.45 14.73 14.24 17.75 16.40 27. 70 9.... 15.30 il.94 11.55 11.16 11.17 | 13.76 14.40 14.65 13. 93 16. 32 21. 58 22. 48 10.... 14.76 12.00 11.61 11.18 11.16 1 13.16 14.62 15. 63 13.79 18.95 19.77 20.53 11.... 14.40 11.90 11.48 11.19 10.97 ; 13.41 14.93 15. 20 14. 03 16.60 19. 25 17.93 12.... 14. 12 11.79 11.54 12.23 11.20 13.41 14.61 15.67 13.62 15.82 18.23 17.69 13.... 14.06 11.72 11.65 12.21 11.24 13.39 15. 71 15.41 13.38 15.66 17.50 16.77 14.... 13.84 11.70 11.41 11.73 11.85 13.12 15.00 14.57 13.65 15.00 18.60 15.98 15 ... 13.58 11.60 11.36 11.42 11.54 12. 87 14. 29 14.60 13.97 14.87 18.48 15. 68 16.... 13. 13 11.62 11.29 11.26 11.65 13.63 14. 35 14.11 13.75 14. 65 16.96 15. 25 17.... 13. 22 11.72 11. 25 11.40 11.35 15.28 17.80 13.91 15.00 14. 57 16.19 14.90 18.... 13.09 11.70 11.22 11.48 11.23 13.97 16. 53 13.90 15. 58 15.07 15. 57 14.68 19.... 12. 94 11.90 11.20 11.89 11.22 13. 35 17.85 13. 95 15. 04 15.38 15.25 14. 52 20.... 12. 86 14.00 11.15 11.92 11.44 13.41 16. 27 13.59 14.62 17. 03 15.04 14. 38 21 ... . 12. 78 13.70 11.10 11.69 12.78 13.22 15.73 13.69 14.16 16.75 14.95 14.20 22.... 12. 70 12. 60 11.21 11.46 12. 58 12. 92 15. 29 13.95 14.10 18.23 15. 20 14. 02 23.... 12. 70 12.21 12.10 11.34 11.98 12. 96 16.54 14.27 14.79 16.70 15.97 13.90 24.... 12.80 12.00 12.15 11.25 12.24 12. 65 15.44 14.43 14.48 16.44 14.75 13. 70 25.... 12.72 11. 85 12. 03 11.12 12. 78 12.65 14.70 14. 62 15.59 16.85 14.49 13.58 26.... 12.54 11.75 11.71 11.24 14.73 12. 70 14.23 14.27 17.07 16. 23 14.28 13. 46 27.... 13.43 12.30 11.50 11.05 16. 30 12. 45 14.05 14.25 17.76 16.98 14.30 13. 32 28.... 13.63 12. 52 11.36 11. 16 14.90 13.82 14.57 14.81 16.46 15.87 14.68 13. 2:? 29.... 13.20 11.29 11.12 13.78 13. 54 15.00 16.77 1 17.04 15.16 15.82 13.05 30.... 13.00 11.20 11.00 13.18 14.10 14.20 16.85 20.72 14. 95 17. 95 L3.02 31.... 12.70 11.19 14.34 14. 25 15.80 15.56 12. 95 Rating table for San Carlos River at station S miles above mouth. [This table is applicable only from April 1, 1899, to September 14, 1900.] Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge I lis height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. Feet. .Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. .See. feet. Feet. Si,-, flit. Feet. Sec. feet. 1 10.7 2. Slid 13.1 8,160 15. 5 15, 200 17.9 24, 360 20.3 36,160* 10.8 2, 960 13.2 8,420 15.6 15, 520 18.0 24, 800 20. 1 36, 680 10.9 3, 1211 13.3 8,700 15.7 15.S40 18.1 25, 240 20. 6 37, 200 11.0 3,320 13.4 8, 980 : 15.8 16, 200 18.2 25, 680 20. 6 : '.7.720 11.1 3, 520 13.5 9, 260 15.9 16, 560 IS. 3 26, 160 20. 7 38,240 11.2 3, 720 13.6 9,540 16.0 16,920 18.4 26, 640 20.8 38,760 11.3 3, 920 13.7 9, 820 16.1 17, 280 18.5 27, 120 20.9 39,28(1 11. 1 4,140 13.8 10,100 16.2 17, 640 is. 6 27,600 21.0 39, Slid 11.5 1,360 13.9 10, 380 I 16.3 18,000 is. 7 28,080 21.1 40, 320 11.6 1,580 11.11 10, 660 16.4 18,860 18.8 28,560 21.2 lo. sin 11.7 1,800 11. 1 10, 940 16.5 18, 720 18.9 29, 040 21.3 41,360 LI. 8 5, 020 11.2 11,220 16.6 19,120 19.0 29, 520 21.4 41,880 11.9 5,240 11.3 11,500 16.7 19, 520 1 19.1 30,000 21.5 42, 400 12.0 5, 180 11. 1 11,800 16.8 19, 920 19.2 30, ISO 21.6 42, 920 12.1 .'..7211 14.5 12, 100 16.9 20, 320 : 19.3 30. '.160 21.7 43, 440 12.2 6,960 11.6 12. 100 17.0 20, 720 i'.i. 1 3,1, ISO 21.8 18,960 12.3 6,200 14.7 12,700 17.1 21,120 19.5 32.000 21.9 11, ISO 12. 1 6, mi 1 1.8 13,000 17.2 21,520 19.6 32,520 22. 15,000 12.5 6,680 14.9 13,300 17.3 21.920 19.7 33,, OKI 22. 1 15,510 12.6 6,920 16.0 13.6(H) 17. 1 22.320 19. S 83,560 22. 2 16,080 12.7 7.160 15.1 13,920 17.5 22, 720 19.9 31. (ISO 22.3 16,620 12. S 7. 100 16. 2 14,240 17.6 23,120 20.0 3,1.660 22. 1 17.160 12. '.1 7.6111 15. 3 1 1,560 17.7 23,520 20. 1 35, 120 22.5 17.7(H) 13.0 7,900 L6. 1 14,880 17.8 2:;. 920 20. 2 36, 6 10 22. 6 18,240 SQOOO ^ — ; to,ooo FIG. 8.— FLUCTUATIONS OF SAN JUAN RIVER AT SABALOS AND OCHOA AND OF THE SAN CARLOS NEAR ITS MOUTH. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 161 Rating table for San Carlos River at station S miles above month — Continued. [This table is applicable only from September 14, 1900, to December 31, 1900.] Gauge Dis- i rauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. F, 1 1. .-v r. ft 1 1. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. S <■■ n 1 1. Feet. Sec. feet. 12.7 li.s 11,920 16.9 18, 520 19.0 26, 960 21.1 36, 460 12.8 1 1 . '.i 12,200 17.0 18, 880 19. 1 27, 400 21.2 36, 920 12. 9 7, 200 15.0 12, iso 17.1 19, 240 19.2 27,840 21.3 37, 380 13.0 7, tld 16. 1 12, 760 17.2 19, 600 19.3 28, 280 21.4 37, M0 13.1 7, est) 15.2 13,040 17.3 19, 960 19.4 28, 720 21.5 38, 300 13.2 7, "120 15. 3 13,320 17.4 20, 320 19.5 29, 160 21.6 38, 760 13.3 8,160 15.4 13,600 17.5 20, 680 19.6 29, 600 21.7 39, 220 13.4 8,400 15. 5 13, 920 17.6 21,040 19.7 30, 040 21.8 39, 680 13.5 8,640 15.6 14,240 17.7 21, 440 19.8 30,480 21.9 40, 140 13.6 8,880 15.7 14, 560 17.8 21,840 19.9 30, 940 22.0 40,600 13.7 9,120 15.8 14, 880 17.9 22, 240 20. 31,400 22. 1 41, 060 13.8 9,360 15.9 15,200 18.0 22, 640 20.1 31,860 22.2 41,520 13.9 9,600 16.0 15, 520 18.1 23, 040 20.2 32, 320 22.3 41,980 14.0 9,840 16.1 15, 840 18.2 23, 440 20.3 32, 780 22.4 42, 440 14.1 10, OSO 16.2 16, 160 18.3 23, 880 20.4 33, 240 22.5 42, 900 14.2 10, 320 16.3 16, 480 18.4 24, 320 20.5 33,700 22.6 43, 360 14.3 10, 560 16.4 16, 800 18.5 24, 760 20.6 34. 160 22.7 43, 820 14.4 10,800 16.5 17, 120 18.6 25, 200 20.7 34, 620 22.8 44, 280 14.5 11,080 16.6 17,440 18.7 25,640 20.8 35, 080 22.9 44, 740 14.6 11,360 16.7 17, 800 18.8 26,080 20.9 35,540 23.0 45, 200 14.7 11,640 16.8 18,160 18.9 26, 520 21.0 36,000 Estimated monthly discharge of San Carlos River 3 miles above its mouth. [Drainage area 1,450 square miles, approximately.] Month. Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean Total. Per square mile. Depth. Rainfall. 1898. January 10-31 . February March April May June July August September October November December The year .. 1899. January February March April May June July August September October November December The year 1900. January February March April May June July August September October , November , December , The year , Sec. feet. 28, 000 34,300 11,341 10, 080 11, 880 32,250 41,600 15, 730 14, 200 32, 500 32, 260 19, 920 Sec. feet. 10, 560 7.400 5,140 4,220 4,100 5,200 8,400 S.800 7,420 8,180 9,680 5,850 Sec. feet 16, 055 13, 530 7,030 6,038 5,560 10, 720 14, 094 10, 990 10, 319 12, 880 15, 440 9,290 Acre-feet. 700, 582 751, 380 432, 260 359, 285 341,870 637, 880 866, 605 675, 750 614,023 791,960 918, 750 571, 220 Sec. feet. 11.10 9.30 4.80 4.20 3.80 7.40 9.70 7.60 7.10 8.90 10.60 6.40 Inches. 9.09 9.68 5.53 4.69 4.38 8.26 11.18 8.76 7.92 10.26 11.88 7.38 Inches. 7.52 11.66 20.12 20.79 18.26 11.68 41,600 4,100 10, 996 7,661,565 14, 200 17, 340 8,060 7,280 10, 100 12, 314 50, 130 24,360 12, 100 9,757 34, 737 31,480 5, 720 4,940 4,300 3,120 2,800 4,360 8,700 8, 290 6,560 6,440 6,320 10,380 7,865 7,360 5,400 4,410 4,559 7,381 16, 909 11,678 8,467 7,808 17, 106 16, 057 483, 600 408, 750 332, 030 262, 457 280, 308 439, 206 1,039,701 718,067 500, 829 480, 701 1,027,893 991,347 5.42 5.08 3.72 3.04 3.14 5.09 11.66 8.05 5.84 5.38 11.79 11.07 6.25 5.29 4.29 3.39 3.62 5.68 13.44 9.28 6.52 6.20 13.15 12. 76 "6.03 20. 32 16.03 50, 130 2,800 I 9,583 6,967,889 35, 457 10, 783 5,840 6,752 18, 000 14,496 26, 074 20, 120 34, 608 27, 840 38, 432 66, 820 6,776 4, 5S0 3,520 3, 320 2,848 6,560 9, 596 9,512 8,924 11,276 10,524 7, 320 66, 820 2, 848 11,670 5,946 4,525 4,316 5,844 9,530 13, 665 13, 187 12, 936 17,202 17, 380 16,256 717,543 330, 249 278, 257 256, 835 369, 353 567, 079 840,358 817, 815 769, 784 1,057,745 1,034,237 999, 545 8.05 4.10 3.05 2.98 4.03 6.57 9.42 9.10 8.92 11.86 11.98 11.21 9.28 4.27 • 3.52 3.32 4.65 7.33 10.86 10.49 9.95 13.67 13.36 13. 02 8.79 4.96 6.56 3.00 15.42 11.26 15.53 22.72 21.36 6.45 16. 56 24.69 11,038 8, 038, 800 S. Doc. 54, pt 2 11 From Oct. 12 to 31. 162 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Estimated monthly discharge of San Juan River above the mouth of the San Carlos. [This is obtained by subtracting the discharge of the San Carlos from that of the San Juan at Oehoa.] Month. Discharge. Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Sec. feet. Sec. feet. Sec. feet. Acre-feet. 23, 270 19, 500 21, 030 917, 650 34,900 18,500 22, 080 1, 226, 260 22,000 14,600 16,850 1, 036, 070 25,800 12, 900 15, 120 899, 700 19, 200 11,700 14, 130 868, 820 39,200 13,000 22, 410 1, 333, 500 43,100 26, 200 32, 720 2,011,870 38,400 23, 000 26, 170 1, 609, 130 41,300 22, 800 29, 210 1, 738, 120 37,600 24,700 29, 320 1, 802, 820 70,500 26,800 36, 460 2, 169, 520 41,800 26, 300 31,570 1, 941, 160 70,500 11,700 24, 756 17, 554, 620 38,900 26,300 31,800 1, 955, 300 28, 200 23, 100 25, 180 1, 398, 430 23,100 19, 600 21, 540 1,324,450 20, 880 15, 388 17, 575 1, 045, 777 16, 740 13, 390 14, 981 920, 979 30,580 13,540 17, 229 1, 025, 231 38,030 17, 000 25, 777 1,586,005 35,900 21, 050 26, 253 1, 614, 281 56,900 21,250 27, 472 1, 634, 741 29, 320 20, 910 25,548 1, 471, 747 41, 720 21, 460 28, 959 1, 723, 175 32, 710 23, 450 26, 706 1, 642, 110 56,900 13, 540 24,085 17, 342, 226 26,854 19, 640 21,994 1, 352, 370 19, 832 16, 597 18, 292 1,025,925 16, 633 13, 520 15, 133 930, 495 13, 620 11,122 12, 186 725, 127 22, 750 10, 188 12, 569 772, S60 22, 060 11,144 16, 524 983, 237 34, 730 17, 5.54 24, 496 1,406,242 59, 082 23, 770 33, 946 2, 0S7, 339 38, 892 24, 628 28, 156 1, 675, 415 61,528 30, 512 37, 999 2, 336, 492 43, 820 30, 098 34, 277 2, 039, 662 55, 742 27, 980 36, 633 2, 252, 502 61,528 10, 18S 24. 3S0 17, 587, 656 1898 January, 10-31 February , March April May June July August September October November December The year 1899. January February March April May June July August September October November December The year 1900, January February March , April May June July August September October November December The year Estimated monthly discharge of tributaries to San Juan River between Boca San Carlos and Los Sabalos Station. Drainage area, 750 square miles (approximately). [This is the difference between the discharge of the San Juan above Boca Sun Carlos and at Sabalos Station.] Months. 1898. January (10-31) February March April May Jane July August September October November December The year Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean Sec. feet. 5, 101) 17,61)0 Cjilll) 12,700 7.000 21,000 21,600 16, 100 15, 900 11,900 16, > 15, 600 46,000 Sec. feet. '..III! 'J. Voo 1,300 1, 100 500 1,000 7, soo ;;, loo •j, 600 •j, ooo •j, son 2, 900 500 S,v feet. 6",ll I. ,11 820 960 380 270 350 680 140 ii. ,n 080 640 6,270 Total. Icre-feet. 111,770 802,680 17;;, ion L76, L30 1 16,340 192, loo 820,860 404,590 121. Mil) 878,000 669,360 102, 150 I, 190,210 Run-olT. Per square mile. Sec. feet. 3.51 7. 27 s! 76 :;. 96 3.17 LI. 08 17. so 8.77 9. 52 8. 04 14.76 8, 72 Depth, / riches. 2. 87 7. 57 4.31 4.40 8 in; 12.31 20.52 in. 11 10.62 9.30 16. 17 10. 05 .a IP '- . : - «6? J - - ' \- * mm" m % REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 163 Estimated monthly discharge of tributaries to San Juan River between Boca San Carlos and Los Sabalos Station. Drainage area, 750 square miles (approximately) — Cont'd. Months. [Maximum. Minimum 1899. January February March April May June July August September October November December The year 1900. January February March April May June July August September October November December The vear Discharge. Sec feet. 14,400 7,100 4,400 5,481 5,773 11,446 22, 970 15, 833 31,590 9,704 19, 855 11,853 31,590 8, 574 5,008 4,010 2,258 11,270 8,884 11,914 31,114 14, 574 26,728 14, 620 28, 222 31,114 Sec. feet. 4,300 3,200 2,800 1,600 972 1, 296 4,430 7,067 5, 795 3,048 2,008 3,604 972 2,977 2,517 2,000 446 90 2,124 2,802 5,042 4,170 2,320 3, 524 2,712 90 Mean. Total. Sec. feet. 8,330 4,390 3, 590 2, 517 2,156 4,367 11,585 10, 892 10, 362 5,790 8,604 6,373 6,580 4,574 3,186 2,845 1,124 1,886 4,214 7,365 12,983 6,922 9,559 6,234 9, 715 5, 884 Acre-feet. 512, 190 243, 810 220, 750 149, 772 132, 573 259, 862 712, 309 669, 818 616, 619 356, 056 511, 967 391,649 4, 777, 375 281,262 176, 984 164, 965 66, 877 116,025 250, 778 452,885 798, 317 411,870 587, 739 370, 954 597,335 Run-off. Per square mile. Sec. feet. 11.10 5.85 4.80 3.36 2.87 5.82 15.45 14.52 13.82 7.72 11.47 8.50 4, 275, 991 6.10 4.25 3.79 1.50 2.51 5.62 9.82 17.31 9.23 12. 75 8.31 12.96 Depth. Inches. 12. 80 6.09 5.53 3.75 3.31 6.49 17.81 16.74 15.42 8.90 12.80 9.80 7.03 4.43 4.37 1.67 2.89 6.26 11. 32 19.96 10.30 14.70 9.27 14.83 Estimated monthly discharge of Machado River. Months. 1899. January February March April May June July August September October November December The year 1900. January February March April May June July August September October November December The year Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean Sec. feet. 339 1.50 300 213 424 251 1,035 930 1,158 225 1,252 1,464 1,464 258 311 105 83 221 196 472 989 648 355 375 2, 602 2,602 Sec. feet. 56 60 53 95 170 198 180 100 79 110 Sec. feet. 214 97 118 101 160 159 335 337 302 154 309 338 Total. Acre-feet. 13, 178 5,405 7,252 6,030 9,854 9,471 20,570 20, 747 17, 994 9,471 18, 373 20, 797 219 95 146 9,011 73 120 6,665 62 / / 4,740 37 55 3,255 30 94 5,796 79 112 6,653 101 258 15, 862 209 528 32, 490 170 337 20, 025 80 169 10, 378 113 267 12, 327 168 600 36, 538 159, 142 163, 740 164 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. SAN FRANCISCO RIVER. The most important stream that will be intersected by a canal line from Boca San Carlos to Grey town, on the left bank of the San Juan, is the San Francisco. Its principal branch is the Chanchos. Above their junction measurements were made throughout 1898. The sum- mary of monthly discharges of the river near its mouth is given in the table following. In 1899 and 1900 fifteen current meter measurements were made, which are also given below. Estimated monthly discharge of San Francisco River at Us month. [Obtained by combining observations taken on the Upper San Francisco and Chanchos rivers and Nicholson Creek.] Months. Discharge. Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 1898. Sec. feet. 1,270 1,360 390 1,260 560 1,100 1,890 800 1,280 510 1, 520 1,090 Sec. feet. 230 170 120 no 125 115 270 185 150 130 100 160 Sec. feet. 583 489 199 254 232 373 684 364 382 274 502 398 Acre-feet. 35, 850 27, 160 12, 240 15, 110 14,260 22,200 42, 060 22,380 22, 730 16, 850 29, 870 24, 470 1,890 100 394 285, 180 Discharge measurements made on Sun Francisco River,, Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Area of section. Mean velocity. Dis- charge. 1899. H \V. Durham Price No. 34 do Sq.feet. 491 1,083 834 662 503 415 270 848 508 417 810 842 978 626 751 Ft.perscc. 0.52 1.12 .30 .64 .26 .36 .10 .36 .64 .42 .57 1.16 1.21 .54 .73 Sec. feet. 256 Nov 7 do 1,212 Nov 28 do do 247 1900. H.G Heisler... Price No. 63 Price No. 34 do 129 Feb 16 H.C Hurd 131 Mar 18 do 148 Apr. 29 May 21 do... Price No. 35 B. & B.No.l do 27 H. G. Heisler 126 do 326 .do... do 176 Aug. 1 Aug. 16 Aug. 30 Sept. 11 Sept. 24 do. do 465 do. do 968 ...do... do 1,187 ...do... do 340 ...do do 554 SARAPIQUI RIVER. A station for the measurement of rainfall and discharge on the Sara- piqui was maintained about 6 miles above the mouth of that river from August, L898, to the end of the year 1899, and the record is complete for that period. A native observer took rainfall and gauge-height observations throughout 1900, and approximate results for that year also are given. REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 165 Daily gauge height of Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth, for 1899. Day. Jan. Pebi Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 7.30 7.33 8.53 6.90 6.27 9.20 9.13 11.28 9.74 9. 7 1 8. 82 12.60 2.... 12.14 7. 41' 8.32 6.98 6. 15 8.95 10. 24 11.06 9.19 9.37 8.60 10.77 3.... 10.00 7. 26 8.15 8.63 6.11 8.49 9.73 10. 75 9.11 10.04 8. 42 10.76 4.... 8.41 7. IS 8.26 7.10 5.98 8.05 9.77 13. 85 8.81 9.64 9.80 10. 30 5.... 9.60 7.08 7.90 7.56 6.00 8. 37 14.23 11'. 81 8.61 9.79 13.62 15. 63 6.... 8.30 7.74 7.56 8.84 6.80 8.70 12.23 12. 29 8.72 8.97 17.10 20. 15 / 8.55 7.90 7. 52 7.80 6.72 9.83 14.25 11.42 8.73 9.26 13.61 IS. Ill 8.... 8.61 7.43- 10.10 8.66 6. 25 10.50 13.74 11.48 9.83 8. 54 12. 64 18.75 9.... 8.66 7.14 8.86 9.37 6.02 10. 75 15. 86 13.51 9.02 8.50 16.80 15. 17, 10.... 8.34 7.09 7.96 8.63 5.96 13.72 25. 17 11.14 11.41 8. 28 13.34 13.29 11.... 8.08 7.06 7.55 9.58 6.10 11.68 24. 80 10.61 12. 66 8.07 16. 58 12.17 12.... 9.01 7.19 7.33 7.15 6. 28 13.84 17. 55 10. 05 11. 92 12. 42 15. 28 11.46 13.... 11.63 14.40 7. 41 7.97 7.20 10.87 19.40 9.63 10.46 9.55 14.67 10. 92 14.... 9.98 13.80 7.62 7.98 6.71 10.08 18. 02 10.22 9.46 10.04 17.23 10.39 15.... 9.88 9.58 7.84 7.37 6.26 10.61 14.68 10. 58 10.00 10.40 17.03 10.27 16.... 13.10 8.77 7.71 7.31 6.21 10.38 13.30 10.10 9.56 9.19 15.10 10.14 17.... 10.70 8.18 7.32 7.03 6.09 9.68 12. 12 9.97 9.42 9.81 13.75 11. 12 18.... 9.76 8.46 7.30 6.93 6.35 9.94 11. 59 9.74 9.75 10.41 12.72 14.69 19.... 10.16 8.30 7.15 7.04 9.37 9.15 12. 04 9.47 9.31 9.05 12. 52 11.93 20.... 9.48 9.71 7.14 8.75 7.79 10.65 10.88 9.00 9.35 8.55 11.36 10.89 21 ... . 8.98 8.71 6.93 7.01 8.10 9.82 10.94 9.87 9.47 8.39 10.80 12.07 22.... 8.65 9.50 6.82 6.83 9.56 9.27 10.98 10.76 9.98 8.96 10.29 10.71 23.... 8.39 9.84 6.75 6.65 11.24 9.16 10. 75 9.47 11.65 10.29 9.92 10.66 24.... 8.46 10. 92 6.72 6.47 10.76 8.80 10. 21 10. 24 11.15 11.39 10.10 11. 28 25.... 8.72 9.76 6.75 6.38 9.30 8.79 10. 20 10. 15 10.33 9.85 9.79 11.56 26.... 8.30 9.64 6.72 6.28 12. 00 8.80 10.65 10.35 9.73 10.64 9.49 12.09 27.... 8.10 9.64 7.05 6.28 14.09 8.72 14.70 14.50 9.37 9.00 10. 08 11.11 28.... 7.86 9.36 7.14 6.78 11.86 10.27 12. 67 11.09 9.37 8.56 11.96 10. 59 29.... 7.65 9.27 7.00 11.83 9.94 11.00 10.13 9.78 9.74 10.34 10. 55 30.... 7.50 6.92 6.61 10. 75 9.33 10. 22 10.40 9.16 8.97 11.06 10.40 31 ... . 7.35 6. 75 9.82 14. 59 9.71 9.81 Daily guage height of Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth, for 1900. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1.... 10.65 9.90 4.95 7.50 7.15 10.06 11.15 10.20 9.90 16.05 12.95 16. 55 2.... 9.90 9.75 4.90 14.00 6.80 11.74 9.95 10.00 9.55 17.45 11.20 13.15 3.... 9.45 9.50 4.85 9.50 6.65 12.50 11.65 12.20 9.05 13.80 14. 05 11.80 4.... 13. 25 9.50 4.95 7.95 6.45 11. 15 11.40 16.65 8.75 13.20 12.90 11.70 5.... 20.80 9.35 7.65 7.70 6.35 12. 95 10.60 14.45 8.45 13.80 13. 25 11. 55 6.... 15.50 9.20 5.25 7.20 6.30 12.50 11.40 12. 65 8.35 13.00 12.05 12.35 7.... 13.70 9.15 4.75 6.95 7.60 11.75 12.90 12. 65 8.55 16.65 10.95 14.75 8.... 13.30 9.05 4.50 7.35 7.40 10.65 13.20 11.35 8.95 13.15 13.10 30. 25 9.... 11.85 9.10 4.40 7.30 7.75 11.75 11.85 14.50 8.40 12.15 23.50 28.75 10.... 10. 95 9.35 5.00 6.90 7.15 9.80 12.65 16.15 8.05 15.35 18.25 21.65 11.... 10.45 9.05 4.65 6.90 7.10 9.30 11.70 14.55 8.25 12.20 18.30 17.00 12.... 9.95 6.85 4.60 12. 65 7.25 9.40 11.00 16.60 9.30 11.45 16.30 15.75 13.... 9.95 6.80 4.90 8.85 8.55 10. 65 11.20 14.10 8.15 10. 65 17.40 14. 40 14.... 9.80 6.85 4.60 7.80 9.75 9.60 11.10 12.40 8.25 10.20 17.20 13.00 15.... 9.30 6.90 4.50 7.30 10.60 9.25 10. 35 12.05 8.05 9.95 17.00 12. 75 16.... 9.00 6.90 4.45 7.15 9.30 9.00 11.15 11.00 9.65 9.60 14.45 12. 05 17.... 8.80 6.78 4.40 7.70 8.00 9.25 13.90 10.75 12.40 9.50 13.20 11.30 18.... 8.55 6.90 4.40 8.10 7.60 11.10 12.30 10.10 12. 45 9.60 12. 10 10.85 19.... 8.40 6.85 4.00 8.70 7.25 9.20 16.60 10.60 10.05 9.90 11.45 10.55 20.... S.30 10.55 4.00 9.20 9.85 8.90 14.60 10.10 9.50 10.70 11.10 10.15 21.... 8.15 7.35 4.00 8.40 9.65 9.65 13.15 9.90 9.05 14.15 11.00 9.95 22.... 8.00 5.75 4.75 8.88 8.70 9.90 12.30 9.75 9.20 13.60 10.90 9.70 23.... 8.00 5.50 9.90 7.30 8. 55 9.25 12.66 9.35 11.25 11.80 12.15 9.45 24.... 8.20 4.85 7.75 8.65 9.50 8.80 12.70 10.45 9.65 11. 25 10. 65 9.35 25.... 8.20 4.75 6.45 7.60 11.45 8.35 11.40 10.05 10.10 12.00 10.05 9.15 26.... 7.95 4.75 8.45 7.15 14.20 8.90 10. 65 10.05 14.10 12.00 9.80 8.90 27.... 9.65 6.25 7.05 6.95 14.30 9.35 10.55 10.10 13.45 12. 50 11.95 8.75 28.... 9.00 5.50 6.80 7.35 13.20 8.65 10.15 10.95 13.55 11.80 13. 15 8.70 29.... 8.30 6.60 6.90 11.30 10.60 10. 45 11.30 15.75 10.30 13.25 8.55 30.... 8.00 6.50 6.95 10. 15 11.60 10. 65 11. 75 19.25 9.95 15. 00 8.45 31.... 9.85 6.40 12.20 10.00 11.00 13.50 8.40 166 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Eating table for Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth. [This table is applicable only from Apr. 1, 1899, to Dec. 31, 1900.] Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. 1 height. charge. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. 4.0 800 6.4 2,022 11.5 9, 290 19.0 28, 000 4.2 860 6.6 2, 200 12.0 10, 190 20.0 31,000 4.4 920 6.8 2,400 12.5 11,100 21.0 34, 000 4.6 980 7.0 2, 600 13.0 12, 090 22.0 37,000 4.8 1,040 7.5 3,100 13.5 13,110 23.0 40,000 5.0 1,100 8.0 3,690 14.0 14,180 ! 24.0 43, 000 5.2 1,188 8.5 4,320 14.5 15, 300 25.0 46,000 5.4 1,276 9.0 5,020 15.0 16, 500 26.0 49, 000 5.6 1,398 9.5 5,800 15.5 17, 800 27.0 52, 000 5.8 1,554 10.0 6,630 16.0 19, 200 ! 28.0 55,000 6.o 1,710 10.5 7,510 17.0 22,000 ; 29.0 58,000 6.2 1,866 11.0 8,390 18.0 25, 000 30.0 61,000 Estimated monthly discharge of Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth. [Drainage area, 1,100 square miles, approximately.] Month. Discharge. Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 1899. Sec. feet. 22, 077 27, 100 8,972 6,481 18,054 16, 766 61,479 23, 347 15,076 15,670 26, 678 42, 110 Sec. feet. 3,000 2,710 2,240 1,928 1,694 3,753 5,223 5,020 4,474 3,778 4,219 6,876 Sec. feet. 5,420 5,200 3,350 3,173 4,357 6,553 14,173 8,094 6,418 5,920 11,605 11,512 Acre-feet. 333, 260 288,800 205, 980 188, S35 267,905 399, 916 871,488 497.708 381, 931 363,982 691,724 685,012 61,479 1,694 7,150 5,176,541 1900. 33, 637 7,598 6,464 14,180 14, 852 11,991 27,038 21,077 28,946 23,498 11, SOS 62,236 3,631 1 , 025 800 2,500 1,944 4,530 6,547 5,566 3,753 :>,soo 6,298 1, 194 7,458 3, 598 1, 726 4,055 5,472 7,041 '.'. s.s(l 10,257 7,652 .11,094 1 1,258 13, (121 458, 575 199,828 106, 119 241,065 336, 441 418,997 607, 532 630,690 155,340 682,211 848, 106 837,718 62, 236 800 8,043 5, 822. 917 SAN JUANILLO RIVER. Lull route, variants I, II, and III, all require that the San Juanillo River be diverted below the mouth of the Deseado River and conducted to the sea north of the canal line. To obtain data on this problem, a gauge was established on that river January 1, 1900. Daily readings REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 167 of the gauge and occasional measurements of discharge were made, the results of which are as follows: Daily gaugt hi ighi of San Juanillo River below the mouth of Deseado, for 1900. Day. 8 9 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17 . 18 . 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 . 24. 25. 26 . 27. 28. 29. 30 . 33 . Jan. 8.82 8.82 8.57 8.41 9.14 9.56 9. 71 9.67 9.40 9.09 8.79 8.45 8.10 7.79 7.60 7.42 7.08 6.74 6.39 6.17 5.89 6.16 6.92 7.45 7.31 6.95 7.65 7.70 7.81 7.60 7.24 6.87 6.51 6.41 6.36 6.10 5.93 5.62 5.32 5.22 5.11 5.30 5.20 4.75 4.44 4.29 4.23 4.50 4.51 4.32 5.69 5.60 7.92 7.68 7.22 7.00 6.30 6.00 5.66 Mar. 5.40 5.90 6.00 6.25 6.20 6.25 5.90 5.90 5.58 5.50 4.90 4.90 4.90 4.80 4.50 4.50 3.50 3.20 3.55 3.40 3.80 3.93 4.55 4.68 4.49 4.15 4.00 3.60 3.39 3.25 3.15 Apr. 3.15 3.12 3.20 3.22 3.00 2.90 2.81 2.75 2.70 2.65 2.60 2.70 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.45 3.10 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.80 2.70 2.60 2.45 2.40 2.40 2.40 May. 2.35 2.32 2.30 2.20 2.15 2.10 5.65 6.00 6.40 6.20 6.70 6.80 6.75 6.70 6.60 7.30 7.00 6.30 5.90 5.10 5.00 4.95 4.70 4.55 4.15 3.90 3.90 4.20 4.50 4.65 4.80 June. 4.80 5.20 5.00 4.85 4.75 4.60 4.45 4.30 4.40 4.80 5.00 4.90 4.90 4.80 4.75 4.40 3.90 4.20 4.00 July. 5.92 6.75 7.50 7.00 7.15 7.10 7.10 7.05 7.00 6.95 6.70 6.50 6.35 6.20 6.20 6.40 6.70 7.30 7.25 7.40 7.75 8.35 8.60 8.43 8.10 8.10 8.05 8.20 8.50 8.65 8.70 Aug. 7.35 9.00 9.40 9.90 10.10 10. 50 10.30 10.00 9.70 9.67 9.90 10.05 10.30 10.25 10.00 9.X0 9.67 9.50 9.40 9.55 9.40 9.10 9.00 8.90 9.25 9.35 9.40 9.40 9.60 9.60 9.45 Sept. 9.30 8.50 8.50 8.45 8.30 8.20 7.95 7.80 7.55 7.25 7.05 6.90 6.75 6.80 7.70 7.80 7.90 8.20 8.60 9.05 9.50 9.00 9.70 9.60 9.50 Rating table for San Juanillo River, below the mouth of the Deseado. [This table is applicable only from January 1, 1900, to December 31, 1900.] Oct. 9.20 9.45 9.40 9.60 9.80 9.00 8.80 8. 55 8.20 7.90 7.70 7.55 7.40 7.35 7.35 7.20 7.05 7.00 6.90 7.50 9.20 9.45 9.60 8.32 Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. 2.0 240 4.2 501 6.4 1,097 8.6 1,849 2.1 245 4.3 522 6.5 1,131 8.7 1,883 2.2 250 4.4 544 6.6 1,165 8.8 1,918 2.3 255 4.5 566 6.7 1,199 8.9 1,952 2.4 260 4.6 588 6.8 1,234 9.0 1,986 2.5 265 4.7 611 6.9 1,268 9.1 2,020 2.6 270 4.8 634 7.0 1,302 9.2 2,054 2.7 280 4.9 657 7.1 1,336 9.3 2,089 2.8 290 5.0 680 7.2 1,370 9.4 2,123 2.9 300 5.1 704 7.3 1,405 9.5 2,157 3.0 310 5.2 729 7.4 1,439 9.6 2,191 3.1 320 5.3 755 7.5 1 473 9.7 2,225 3.2 330 5.4 782 7.6 1,507 9.8 2,260 3.3 340 5.5 810 7.7 1,541 9.9 2,294 3.4 355 5.6 838 7.8 1,576 10.0 2,328 3.5 370 5.7 867 7.9 1,610 10.1 2,362 3.6 385 5.8 897 8.0 1,644 10.2 2,396 3.7 400 5.9 928 8.1 1,678 10.3 2,431 3.8 420 6.0 960 8.2 1,712 10.4 2,465 3.9 440 6.1 994 8.3 1,747 10.5 2,500 4.0 4.1 460 480 6.2 6.3 1,028 1,062 8.4 8.5 1,781 1,815 10.6 10.7 168 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Estimated monthly discharg< of San Juanillo River below tin mouth of the Deseado. Month. Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 1900 January February March April May June July August September October Ten months Second-feet. 2,520 1,616 1,044 460 1,405 729 1,883 2,500 2, 225 2, 260 Second-feet. 925 507 325 260 245 440 934 1,489 1,215 1,268 2, 520 245 Si cond-ft. 1,603 904 626 311 744 619 1.421 2,184 1,786 1,794 icrs .' 98. 50 38 is 45 36 8' 134 106 110 1,211 .< 181 508 534 76."> sj- . 458 , 305 292 ,330 Discharge measurements of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River below Boca San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapiqui. River. Date. Hydrographer. Meter. Gauge height. Area of sec- tion. Mean veloc- ity. Dis- charge. 1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28 1900. Jan. 24 Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 May 21 June 4 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Aug. 10 Aug. 30 Sept. 10 Sept. 24 1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28 1900. Jan. 24 Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 May 21 June ! June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Auk. 16 Aug, 30 Sept. li Sept. 24 1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 1900. Jan. 21 .Mine 1 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 An- u; Aug. 30 Sept. 21 H.W.Durham do Feet. Sq.ft. 369 739 548 425 312 279 190 264 455 349 644 470 571 734 526 590 168 137 284 206 119 61 38 74 166 96 319 224 847 430 235 318 115 256 125 90 52 132 177 152 177 136 Ft.p.sec. 0.41 1.09 .75 .67 .30 .28 .23 .36 .71 .32 .82 .85 2.00 1.02 .91 1.01 .41 .81 .24 .70 .24 .47 .31 .32 .82 .54 .61 .49 .96 .81 .61 .58 .24 .44 .23 .15 .17 .21 .22 .33 . is .25 Sec. ft. 153 Do do 808 Do do do 413 Do H.G.Heisler H.C. Hurd Price No. 63 do Do 93 Do do do 78 Do B. and B. No. 1.. 43 Do H.G.Heisler do 95 Do... do 322 Do... do... ...do 114 Do... do do 539 Do... do ...do 403 Do... do ...do 1,145 Do... ...do 735 Do... do do 482 Do do do .'.H. H.W.Durham.... do do 69 Do do 355 Do... ...do 69 Do H. G. Heisler H.C Hurd do 145 Do... 28 Do do 28 Do do Price No. 85 B. andB. No. 1.. 12 Do II. G. Heisler do 24 Do do 137 Do do... ...do ... 52 Do do... ...do... 197 Do do... do 111 Do do... ...do... 335 Do do ... ...do... 348 Do do ... ...do ... 142 Do do ... ...do ... 186 II. W. Durham .... do Price No. 34 27 Do do 111 Do II. G. Heisler do Price No. 63 30 Do... B. andB. No. 1.. 13 Do do do 9 Do... do do 29 Do. do do... 40 Do . do do ... 51 Do do do ... 85 Do do do 31 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 169 Discharge measurements of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River below San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapiqui— Continued. Boca River. San DiTouimo . Do Do Taniborcito. Do Do Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Copalchi Do... Do... Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Gausimo. Do... Do... Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Cafio de las Ceibas (near San Juan on Sarapiqui). Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Date. 1900. Mar. is May 22 June 4 1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28 1900. Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Aug. 16 Aug. 30 Sept. 11 Sept. 24 1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28 Hydrograplier. H.C.Hurd... H.G.Heisler. ....do H.W. Durham. ....do ....do H.C.Hurd... ....do ....do H. G. Heisler. ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do H. W. Durham do do Meter. B.and B.No.l. ....do ....do Price, No. 34 . ....do ....do ....do ....do Price, No. 35... B.and B.,No. 1 ....do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Gauge height F< et. do H.G.Heisler. do do do do do do do 1900. Jan. 24 H. G. Heisler. Feb. 16 ! H.C.Hurd... Mar. 18 | do Apr. 29 June 4 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Aug. 16 Aug. 30 Sept. 11 Sept. 24 1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28 1900. Jan. 24 Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 May 22 June 4 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 H.W.Durham.. ....do ....do H.G.Heisler. do H.C.Hurd... ....do H.G.Heisler. ....do ....do ....do ....do Price, No. 34 ....do ....do Price, No. 63 . . . Price, No. 34 . . . do Price, No. 35 . . . B.andB.,No. 1 do. .do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Price, No. 34 . ....do ....do Aug. 16 ; do. Aug. 30 ' do. Sept. 11 ! do. Sept. 24 do. 1899. Sept. 21 T. F. Boltz Sept. 27 do. Oct. Oct. 17 Oct. 27 Nov. 7 Nov. 19 Nov. 27 Dec. 10 Dec. 16 Dec. 26 .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Price, No. 63 . . . Price, No. 34 . . . ....do Price, No. 35 . . . B.and B.,No. 1 ....do .do .do. .do. .do. ■.do. .do. .do. Price, No. 68 1900. July 19 I H.G.Heisler. Aug. 2 do Aug. 17 I do Aug. 31 do Sept. 12 I do .do. .do. -do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. B.and B.No.l. do do do do 5.60 10.00 6.39 7.79 Area of sec- tion. Sq.ft. 16 12 409 797 177 364 270 205 290 660 445 576 723 480 553 143 455 224 145 91 50 46 178 79 278 206 292 425 210 271 121 431 117 92 49 27 115 49 74 38 89 97 177 230 139 201 318 165 288 241 592 468 261 534 307 177 832 295 325 420 297 Mean *$£■ charge. Ft.p.sec. Sea ft. 1.04 i 17 .99 11 .15 I 3 .66 .S3 .61 .13 .08 .32 .55 .59 1.08 . 77 .62 .51 1.40 1.69 .88 1.13 .62 1.31 .37 .65 1.16 1.08 .91 1.82 .97 .66 .79 .67 1.22 1.23 .26 .35 .37 .39 .48 .62 1.01 .40 .31 1.65 .91 .92 .86 2.22 1.02 .45 .98 .60 1.48 1.21 .87 1.13 .33 272 661 295 170 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Discharge measurements of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River below Boca San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapigui — Continued. River. Date. Hydrographer. Meter. Gauge height. Area of sec- tion. Mean veloc- ity. Dis- charge. 1899. Sept. 21 Sept. 27 Oct. 7 Oct. 17 Oct 27 T.F.Boltz do Price, No. 68 ... . Feet. Sq.fL 133 123 79 109 83 250 238 96 225 184 177 233 287 238 412 Ft.p.sec. 1.25 .89 .53 .81 .40 .99 .55 .27 .60 1.87 1.48 .58 1.96 .69 .51 (*) 1.34 .81 .27 .21 .23 .31 .46 .18 1.08 1.17 .44 .27 . 72 !63 .56 1.49 .93 .53 .99 1.43 .78 .96 .40 .98 .46 1.02 .45 .40 .32 .47 .59 1.13 1.07 .70 .18 .71 . 17 1.11 .82 .Ml .98 .82 .82 .26 .03 Sec. ft. 167 Do do 110 Do do do 42 Do do do 88 Do ...do... do 33 Do Nov. 7 Nov. 17 Nov. 27 Dec. 10 Dec. 17 Dec. 27 Oct. 14 ...do do 248 Do ...do do 131 Do. do do 5.37 8.73 7.88 7.79 26 Do ...do... do 135 Do. do 313 Do ...do... do 261 H.W. Durham ... do 134 Do .. do 565 Do 1900. Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 1899. Oct. 14 1900. Apr. 30 May 23 June 5 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12 1899. Oct. 14 Nov. 8 Dec. 2 1900. Jan. 25 Feb. 18 Mar. 19 Apr. 30 May 23 June 5 June 28 Julv 19 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12 Sept. 24 1900. Feb. 18 Feb. 25 .Mar. 19 Apr. 30 May 24 June 5 1899. Oct. 11 Nov. 8 Dec. 2 1900. Jan. 25 Feb. 18 June 6 June 28 July 19 Aug. 2 Aug. IT Aug. ;;i Sept. 12 Sept. 25 1900. Jan. 14 Feb. 11 H. G. Heisler do B.and B.,No.l. do 164 Do... 212 Do. ...do... do H.W.Durham.... H.C.Hurd H.G. Heisler ...do... 74 8 14 53 91 102 126 80 363 767 676 381 96 174 74 209 428 280 798 385 518 678 425 565 75 112 95 58 65 87 68 184 91 63 28 59 25 196 55 1(15 153 80 115 408 254 100 Do Price, No. 34 7 Do B.and B., No.l. do 4 Do 11 Do ......do... do 22 Do do do 32 Do do do 59 Do... do do 14 H.W.Durham do Price, No. 34 392 Do . do 894 Do do do 300 Do . H.G. Heisler do 105 Do H.C.Hurd do 69 Do do Price, No. 35 110 Do ...do... do 41 Do H.G. Heisler ...do B.and B.,No.l. do 313 Do 396 Do ....do... do 149 Do ...do... ...do 790 Do ...do do 545 Do ...do... do 406 Do . ...do do 652 Do . ....do do 172 Do... do do 554 H.C.Hurd do 75 Do... ...do Price, No. 34 119 Do... ...do... do 43 Do... ..do... ...do 24 Do H.G. Heislet do B.and B.,No. 1. 21 Do... do 41 H.W. Durham.... do Price, No. 34 41 tributary. Do do 151 Do ...do... do 97 Do H.G. Heisler 11. C. Hunl H.G. Heisler do Price, No. 68 46 Do... 4 Do 1', and H., No. 1.. 42 Do do 12 Do... do ...do 199 Do. do ...do 45 I>o do ... ...do ... S5 Ho do ...do... 151 Do . do do 66 Do... do do 95 T.F.Boltz Price, No. 34 .... do 6. 12 4.00 102 Do H.G.Heisler 78 >No current. >■ Below Sarapiqui. FIG. 11— CASTILLO RAPIDS. FIG 12.— SURF AT GREYTOWN. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 171 Discharge measurement* of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River, beloiv Boca San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapiqui — Continued. River. Date. 1900. Colorado (below San May 24 Juan). Do June 6 1900. San Juan (below Mar. 21 Colorado junction) ; Do Apr. 30 Do May 24 June 6 June 28 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Sept. 21 Sept. 25 1899. The Parado Oct. 14 Distributary Nov. 8 Do Dec. 2 Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. The Taura.. Distributary Do Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. San Juanillo Tributary to Lower San Juan. 1900. Jan. 25 June 6 July 19 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12 Sept. 25 1899. Oct. 14 Nov. 8 Dec. 2 1900. Jan. 25 Mar. 19 Apr. 30 June 6 July 19 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12 Sept. 25 1899. Dec. 2 May 4 Hydrographer. Heisler & Reed... ....do H.C.Hurd. ....do H.G. Heisler. ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do H. W. Durham . ....do ....do H. G. Heisler. ....do ....do ... do ....do ....do ....do ....do H.W.Durham... ....do ....do H.G. Heisler. H.C.Hurd... ....do H.G. Heisler. ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do H.W.Durham.... H.C.Hurd B.andB.,No. 1. do Price, No. 34 Price, No. 35 . . . B.andB.,No.l. do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Price No. 63. do do B.and B. No.l. do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do, Price No. 34. ....do ....do Price No. 63... Price No. 34... Price No. 35... B.andB.No. 1 do do do. do do do Price No. 34. Price No. 35. Gauge height. Feet. Area of sec- tion. Sq.ft. 9,030 961 761 944 2,356 1,225 2,402 2,948 2, 201 2,744 74 154 105 76 90 170 85 94 152 76 97 333 740 632 256 64 4 285 803 428 521 727 339 451 1,393 746 Mean veloc- ity. Ft.p.st <■ ■1. 17 1.06 .73 1.84 2.32 1.77 2.62 2.25 2.13 2. 29 .72 1.40 1.53 .44 .60 1.56 .81 .98 1.36 .97 1.41 1.53 2.26 1.92 1.52 .13 .68 1.20 2.05 1.26 1.12 1.76 1.01 1.78 .42 .51 Dis- charge. Sec. ft, 22, 336 39, 034 1,021 559 »1,741 »5,473 »2,168 >>6,310 »> 6, 637 * 4, 695 b 6, 273 54 215 162 34 55 265 71 93 208 74 137 509 1,669 1,218 391 "3 344 1,284 343 815 4 587 d380 » One mile below Boca Colorado. b One-fourth mile below Taura. c Discharging into San Juan d These gaugings made short distance above mouth, and the discharge includes the discharge of Deseado and Silico Lagoon. STATION ON NEGRO RIVER TRIBUTARY TO INDIO RIVER. Surveys were made in 1899 to test the feasibility of the canal route from Machuca to the Caribbean by way of the Indio River. In this connection it was desirable to know something of the volume of the streams to be intercepted, and it was also desired to secure data as to the position and extent of the Greytown district of heavy rainfall. To attain these ends it was decided to establish a station on the Indio in October, 1899. In November the station was removed to the Negro River as being the branch most likely to be followed by a canal loca- tion. The station was discontinued September 26, 1900. A vertical pine rod, marked in feet and tenths, was fastened to a tree on the right bank and observations taken twice daily of the height thereon, gaugings being made near the same point by means of a Price 172 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. meter. As the supply of water became lower the stream at this point became too sluggish for accurate measurement and in April the station was moved to a point about 4 miles up, just below the entrance of a small tributary. Here the discharge was practically the same as at the first station, there being no tributaries between; but, the velocity being higher, neasurements could be made with greater accuracy. List of discharge measurements mail on Negro Hirer. [12 miles above Indio River. S. H. Harris, hydrographer.] Date. Meter (Price) No. Gauge height. Area of section. Mean velocity. Dis- charge. Remarks December 19 December 27 . January 1... January 4... January 13.. January 16. . January 19.. January 23.. January 26.. January 29.. February 9.. February 10. February 12. February 14. February 17. March 24 March 27 March 28.... April 12 April 13 April 16 April 17 April 20 April 24 April 25 April 28 Mav8 May 9 May 12 May 15 May 17 MavlS May 28 May 29 June 9 June 15 Julvl3 Jul v 14 July 17 July 18 Jul v 20 July 24 July 25 July 28 August 13 . .. August 15... August 20... 68 F, ( /. 11. 35 8.85 8.47 8.67 8.07 8.37 7.55 9.05 7.55 7.92 8.32 7.92 8.25 7.40 7.52 8.00 7.15 7.25 7.07 6.90 6.60 6.45 7.10 6.80 6.25 6.40 9.05 8.60 8.60 11. 25 8.07 6.67 6. 55 8.65 7.55 8.10 8.72 6.55 13. 75 9.12 8.82 7.82 9. 35 8.27 15.5 15.6 13. 37 Sg. fa i. 2,175 1,830 1,795 1,838 1, 920 1,975 1,885 2, 100 1,890 1,923 1,965 1,940 1,970 1,873 1, 880 1,193 304 1,135 1,116 280 1, 072 257 1,106 1,087 245 1, 054 1, 336 386 1,300 1, 553 376 1,069 1,049 392 323 350 399 1, 082 983 1, 350 1,284 1,200 419 1,245 990 2,190 1,863 Ft. per zee, 2. 58 .86 .67 .41 .41 .48 .47 1.24 .55 .32 .38 .37 .35 .20 .32 .34 .50 .23 .22 .49 .17 .36 .12 .09 .39 .10 .58 .70 .35 1.30 .65 .30 .34 .77 .59 .59 .87 .42 1.81 .86 .96 .61 .81 .51 2. 12 1.77 1.47 .Sec. feet. 6,074 1,791 1,370 876 929 1, 124 1,038 3,094 1,233 701 912 889 797 473 761 451 174 316 308 160 227 108 162 113 114 117 832 305 491 2, 224 272 410 430 333 221 235 386 535 1,999 1 , 250 1,355 821 869 704 2,105 3,896 2, 736 At new camp. Upper rod. New camp. Bo. Upper rod. New camp. Upper rod. New camp. Do. Upper rod. New camp. Do. Upper rod. New camp. Do. Upper rod. New camp. Do. Upper rod. Do. Do. Do. New camp. Upper rod. New camp. Do. Do. Upper rod. New camp. Upper rod. New camp. Do. RAINFALL. Observations of rainfall were made at each river station, the form of gauge used at most of the stations being a metal funnel which caught the rain and discharged it into a bottle, from which it was measured in a graduate bearing a known relation to the diameter of the funnel. The gauge was always placed in a position as exposed as possible, but nearly always this was a small clearing in the forest which was still well sheltered from the wind. One of the most remarkable characteristics of Nicaragua is its rain- fall, and the radical and striking differences in the climate of the east and west coasts with reference thereto. MASAVA GRANADA FIG. 13.-M0NTHLY RAfNFALL AT MASAYA AND GRANADA. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 173 From the records it will be seen that there is no definite dry season on the eastern coast, but that rain may be expected any day in the year and the expectation will seldom be disappointed. On the Pacific coast, on the contrary, there is little rain from the beginning' of January till the middle of May, when the rainy season begins, but the region is subject to violent downpours during the rainy season, the precipitation for a single day being often several inches: Mr. William Climie reports a rainfall of 9 inches in 9 hours at Nan- daime, a small town south of Granada. No less remarkable is the excessive aggregate of rainfall in a limited district of which the nucleus seems to be in the vicinity of Greytown. The annual rainfall at this point, as deduced from the mean of six years' observation, is about 260 inches, while that at Bluefields is only about 105, at Fort Limon somewhat less, and at San Jose de Costa Rica, about 70. While there is a slight increase of rainfall with altitude on the headwaters of the Deseado and Limpio, yet in general it may be said that the rainfall decreases as we pass up the San Juan. So far as known no satisfactory theory has yet been advanced to account for this local phenomenon. The heaviest fall of rain observed in Nicaragua was, on the" report of Mr. Howard Scharschmidt, at Silico Station, on Lake Silico, Novem- ber 4, 1899, 10.5 inches in six hours, or an average of 1$ inches per hour. On the same date Mr. Charles D. Scott, at Greytown, observed 12.48 inches in twenty-four hours, of which 8 inches fell in about six hours. These are the heaviest falls for a single day yet observed. The heaviest monthly rainfall observed by this Commission was at Greytown for November, 1900, 55.39 inches. The following records of heavy rainfall were compiled by the Nica- ragua canal board of 1895, and are published in Appendix E of its report: Large monthly rainfalls at Greytown. Month. November, 1889 (in 24 days) December, 1889 June, 1890 July, 1890 August, 1890 Inches. 50.70 64.39 41.56 52. 59 36.61 December, 1890 December, 1891 May, 1892 July, 1892 November, 1892 Inches. 41. 65 32.74 50. 88 38.96 36.93 Large daily rainfalls at Greytown. July 1.1890 July 2, 1890 July 11,1890 July 12,1890 Julv 13, 1890 July 14,1890 July 15,1890 September 7, 1«90 October 9, 1890 November 5,1890 December 27, 1890 January 20, 1891 April 28.1891 June 5, 1891 June6,1891 Total for 2 davs June 22, 1891 (9 hours) July 18, 1891 (9 hours) December 8, 1891 4.20 4.31 4.18 2.19 5.02 4.66 2.57 4.05 4.00 4.10 7.65 4.35 5.75 3.83 4.95 8.78 4.51 8.17 4.05 May 1,1892. May 2, 1892. May 3, 1892. May 4, 1892. May 5, 1892. May 6,1892. May 7,1892. May 8, 1892. 5.08 4.95 4.57 1.62 5.10 5.80 4.10 4.20 Total for 8 days July 23,1892 October 29, 1892 October 30, 1892 October 31, 1892 35. 42 5.30 5.78 3.50 8.02 Total for 3 days. November 20, 1892 December 5, 1892 June 3, 1893 June 19,1893 17.30 5.12 8.95 4.00 5.00 174 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Large daily rainfalls at Camp No. 4- Month. July— ,1890. July 5, 1891 . . Inches, 5.25 7.70 Month. July 6, 1891. Inches. 6.70 Large daily rainfalls at Camp Carazo. June 27, 1888 December 4, 1888 May 21, 1889 October 20, 1889.. December 19, 1889 December 28, 1889 January 22, 1890.. 2.90 3.50 3.00 Large daily rainfall at Silico Lake. April — , 1890 Rainfall observations at Sapoa, Nicaragua, 1899. Day. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 0.10 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .19 .04 .02 .45 1.52 .00 .00 .00 .03 .28 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .43 .10 .05 .10 .01 .23 1.67 .02 .10 .02 0.00 .21 .04 .35 .24 .15 .33 .03 1.63 .16 .13 .00 .02 .11 .23 .00 .00 0.05 .42 .01 .07 .00 .00 .19 .02 .49 .08 .02 .01 .04 .01 .04 .00 .00 18 19 20. . 21 22 23 24 25 26 .... 27 28 29 30 31 Total . 0.00 .56 .57 1.84 .17 .24 .22 .40 .49 .62 . 22 !oo .00 .07 1.38 .14 .95 .47 .06 .31 .18 .26 1.15 .37 .06 .16 .35 .04 0.25 .31 .81 .01 .44 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .42 .48 .06 0.00 .17 .86 .00 .10 .14 .00 .39 .24 .99 .71 .09 .00 .00 0.09 .96 .08 .40 .11 .01 .19 .09 .00 .52 .70 .62 1.19 0.05 .34 .01 .03 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .03 .04 .00 2 .07 1.41 .09 .35 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .02 .03 .09 .51 .00 .07 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 11 16 17 6.66 .02 5.42 8.74 5.34 6.45 8.59 1.98 Total, July 16 to December 31, 1899, - 36.52. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, Rainfall observations at Sapoa and Tortuga, Nicaragua, 1900. 175 [July 16 to July 19 estimated. January 1 to July 15, Sapoa. July 20 to December 31, Tortuga.— H. C. Hogan, observer.] Day. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31 . Total. 0.00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .03 .02 .02 .00 .04 .24 .04 .09 .11 .00 .03 .06 .01 .01 .00 .05 .01 .00 .00 .05 .00 .01 .00 .00 .02 .25 Feb. I Mar. 1.11 0.00 .00 .03 .07 .01 .01 .17 .01 .14 .01 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .02 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .57 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .18 .02 .00 .02 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .11 .01 .05 .04 .01 .06 .01 .00 .02 .00 .00 .06 .00 .00 Apr. . tr,\ 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .00 .12 .04 .00 .02 .20 .09 .01 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 May. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .07 .15 .02 .12 .54 .55 .22 .04 .01 .00 .00 .00 .09 .92 .09 .02 .16 .08 .60 1.34 .03 1.02 1.17 1.55 1.42 June. 0.01 .54 .42 .11 .11 1.80 .10 1.09 .05 .72 .02 .00 .98 1.36 .32 .57 .76 .02 .00 .00 .11 .01 .07 .42 .76 .01 .00 .31 .78 1.40 July. . 54 10. 21 12. 85 0.53 .04 1.94 .22 1.23 2.65 .16 .53 .56 .15 .30 .31 .43 .21 .39 .40 .10 1.80 .25 .00 .00 .34 .22 .12 .12 .19 .00 1.03 .27 .35 .10 Aug. 0.87 .04 .57 .49 .06 .24 .05 .20 .22 .37 .04 .24 .19 .18 .35 .03 .22 .00 .27 .39 2.39 .02 .09 .84 .99 .62 .46 .15 .02 .10 .00 Sept. 0.49 .00 .00 1.64 .03 .04 .20 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .92 .70 1.64 1.85 .98 1.54 .91 .30 .05 2.11 2.69 .96 2.03 1.09 .13 .30 .78 2.37 Oct. 0.00 2.43 .06 .52 .72 6.43 .02 .11 .86 .41 .16 .04 .04 .00 1.20 .18 .63 .82 1.12 .85 1.54 2.65 .03 .73 .09 .20 .04 .00 .00 .00 .40 14.74 Nov. 0.78 .00 .20 .26 .20 .13 .17 .13 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .43 .53 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .35 .00 .00 .35 .11 .03 .00 .00 .17 10.70 23.75 22.28 3.51 Dec. Total from January 1 to December 31, 1900=103.60 inches. Rainfall observations at Rivas, Nicaragua, 1899. [Dr. Earl Flint, observer.] Day. 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17 . 18. 19. 20. 21 . 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31 . Jan. 0.10 .00 .00 .12 .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .16 .00 .43 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Total. .85 1.70 Feb. 0.00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .52 .00 .00 .33 .00 .00 .00 .00 .69 .02 .12 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Mar. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .09 .51 Apr. .65 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 May. .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .90 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .58 .00 .00 .10 .00 .00 June. 1.62 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .99 .00 1.15 .62 2.76 .00 .45 .13 .00 .00 .00 .00 .34 .31 .35 .00 .00 .00 .00 .32 .00 .00 .06 .00 .00 July. 0.00 .93 .08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .11 .00 .16 .20 .70 .00 .00 .00 .20 2.09 2.32 .00 .40 .83 1.80 .71 .00 .00 .10 .02 Aug. 7.53 10.69 0.00 .00 .01 .19 .02 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .00 .17 .58 .03 .04 .01 1.20 .20 .46 .06 .00 .95 .34 2.22 1.04 .00 .07 1.40 .22 Sept. Oct. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .93 1.93 .00 .00 .00 .06 .05 .00 .00 .00 .08 .21 .00 .00 .57 .04 .51 .00 .08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .69 .00 9.26 I 5.15 0.00 .00 .00 .84 .00 .65 .20 .95 .07 .00 .10 .36 1.99 .65 .07 .50 .22 .01 .09 .00 1.07 .40 .01 .10 1.01 2.84 4.21 1.70 .80 .00 1.55 Nov. 20.39 0.00 .00 .00 .32 .00 .00 .00 .30 1.07 .10 .00 .00 .00 .31 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .26 .10 .36 .00 .38 .00 .44 .53 3.15 1.70 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .07 .00 .00 .00 .08 .03 .00 .12 .00 .30 .17 .17 .41 .19 .04 .04 .20 .00 .06 .38 .02 .03 .00 .00 2.31 Dec. 0.06 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .04 .24 .00 .00 .02 .00 .01 .00 .00 .20 .00 .00 .06 .23 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .III! . 92 Total January 1 to December 31, 1899=66.35 inches. 176 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall at Masaya, Nicaragua. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. 1886.... 1887.... (») 0.30 8.23 7.39 15.26 5.74 15. 34 9.15 11.19 23.56 0.69 .94 0.02 .99 72. 70 61.22 0.00 0. 00 0.00 2.42 10.73 L888-... .05 .14 .00 .00 7.09 12. 09 4.95 9.50 17.21 7.67 .00 .00 58.70 1889.... .00 .00 2.39 1.18 6.43 17.00 7.87 13.43 14.53 13.36 2. 34 .25 78. 78 1890.... .14 .00 .00 .60 1.82 3.00 2.86 2. 66 2.95 5.89 .42 .18 20. 52 1891.... .19 .00 .00 1.02 .48 20. 94 4.52 4.20 10.40 6. 45 2.78 .00 49.98 1892.... .00 .00 .00 .00 7.36 14.42 8.70 6. 75 9.64 15. 71 1.66 .30 64. 54 1893.... .00 1.15 .00 .00 9.26 11.78 11.47 15.82 12.67 6.51 2.70 1.50 72. 86 1894.... .32 .50 .00 .00 7.87 4.77 3.32 4.00 7.49 13. 42 1.08 .11 42.88 .00 .00 .00 .41 4.57 4.71 5.22 2.90 8.36 14.46 .57 .06 41.26 1896.... 1897 .. .23 .00 .00 .09 5.62 7.90 7.13 2.98 6.62 4. 22 4.85 .00 39. 64 1898 .28 .00 5.30 2.02 9.36 8.62 7.06 4.19 3.27 9.47 9.03 2.80 13.71 10.35 2.19 5.54 .53 1.20 50.73 45.24 1899.... .50 .48 .07 1900.... Mean. .00 .00 .00 .00 8.66 15.52 10.27 4.70 7.23 11.24 1.91 .22 59.75 .14 .19 .20 .28 5.30 10.83 6.66 7.19 9.53 11.17 1.98 .38 54.20 'Estimated rainfall January to June, 1886, inclusive, is 21.97 inches. Rainfall observations at Granada, Nicaragua, 1899. [Observer, S. Vargas.] Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June. July. Aug. Sept, Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 0.00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .43 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .07 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 ..00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 2. 23 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .07 .04 .00 .01 .08 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .01 .00 1.64 .35 1.84 .78 .76 .39 .22 .00 .26 .04 .00 .00 .17 .50 .32 .22 .00 . .05 .00 .48 .17 .58 .00 .00 .00 0.01 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .62 .00 .00 .14 .00 .00 .00 .00 .51 2.34 .00 .00 .00 1.30 .87 .06 .53 .00 .00 .06 0.31 .00 .02 .20 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .40 .30 .02 1.21 1.51 .11 .03 .39 .39 .25 .51 8. 25 1.50 .02 .00 .20 .00 0.06 .00 .00 .00 .13 .00 .28 .52 .73 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .17 .12 .00 .00 .00 .07 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .31 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.66 .15 .00 .00 .00 .111 1.56 .31 .02 .00 .65 .00 .46 . - 51 1.48 1.07 .00 .00 .00 .16 .39 1.80 .07 .78 .07 .36 .60 2.03 .00 .00 1.56 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .10 .03 . 75 .06 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 1.00 .00 .04 .08 .00 .00 .18 .15 .00 .00 .00 .19 .38 .39 L.83 0.00 .36 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .08 .13 .00 .00 .00 . 00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 2 3 ...... i 5 6 7 ,s 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 is 19 20 21 22 23 21 •J."> 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 26 27 28 •j'.i 30 31 Total... .00 . 52 .11 .02 2.43 8.78 6.64 15. 44 2.39 14. 79 5.24 . 57 Total from January 25 to December 31, 1899=56.93 inches. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall observations at Granada, 1000. [Stephen Vargas, observer.] 177 Hay. Jan. Fob. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .23 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 '.00 .00 0. 00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0. 00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .40 .00 .00 .00 .09 .02 .00 .68 3.55 .00 1.79 2.89 .90 .00 .54 1.14 0.00 .42 .12 .OS .00 2. 85 . 06 3.62 .70 .25 .21 .117 1.4& .75 .00 .00 .25 2. 05 .10 .00 .12 .00 .90 2.47 .00 .11 .00 1.05 .00 .00 0. 22 .60 .35 .10 .36 .45 48 .42 .37 .80 .00 2.47 .00 .00 .00 2.15 .23 .03 .00 .80 .00 1.29 .00 .25 .00 .00 .00 .00 .30 .38 .35 0.10 .00 .12 .00 .18 .00 .00 .00 .00 .20 .00 .00 .00 .00 .15 .00 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 2. 75 .00 .33 .33 .00 0.00 .00 .14 .00 .00 .00 1.45 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.88 .15 .00 .00 .00 .00 .87 1.35 .80 .00 .00 .56 .00 .21 .00 .00 .00 .19 .00 2.25 .00 .55 .00 .00 1.95 .00 1.73 .00 .00 1.04 .54 1.97 .00 .00 1.68 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.73 .00 2.73 .00 .34 .00 .00 .00 .00 .19 .00 0.00 .14 .00 .00 .00 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.05 .13 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12... 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Total. .26 .00 .03 .02 12. 06 17.63 12.40 3.93 7.60 16.70 1.42 .05 Total for the vear, 72.10. Rainfall at Granada, Nicaragua. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. 1876 5.77 11.57 13.65 10.24 26.61 10.12 4.96 5.32 1877 0.00 0.00 0.00 .00 17.36 5. 27 0.87 0.59 6L34 1883 .35 .00 .00 .18 .28 5.20 2.66 5.47 9.74 19.91 3.64 .00 47.43 1884 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 8.25 3. 99 1 3. 75 8.82 8.63 2.28 .26 35.98 1897 .00 .00 .97 1.77 16.63 30.79 8.88 10.87 10.21 11.97 1.25 .28 93.62 1898 1.07 .00 .02 .00 12.82 10.44 6.09 7.30 5.25 10. 49 1.87 .24 55. 59 1899 .00 .52 .11 .02 2.43 8.78 6.64 15.44 2.39 14.79 5.24 .57 56. 93 1900 Mean . .26 .00 .03 .02 12.06 17.43 12. 40 3.93 7.60 16.70 1.42 .22 72.10 .24 .07 .16 .28 7.70 13.10 9.67 7.13 , 8.77 12. 54 2.37 .31 60. 42 1876, Ramon Espinola; 1877, Dr. Earl Flint; 1883-4, National Institute; 1897-98, William Climie; 1899-1900, Stephen Vargas. S. Doc. 54, pt 2- -12 178 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall observation* at San Ubaldo, Nicaragua, 1S99. June. Total 0.01 .00 .00 .05 .00 .10 .60 .01 .17 .86. Jnlv. 0.01 .30 .76 .35 .02 .00 .00 .00 .06 .02 .00 .23 .01 .31 •«* .11 .00 .10 .17 .12 .04 .05 .30 .27 .00 .22 !oi .00 .05 .00 Aul<. Sept. 0.31 0.00 .30 .04 .12 .10 .01 1.53 .84 .00 .00 .23 .00 .11 .00 1.18 .00 .93 .00 .17 .07 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .20 .00 .30 .00 .49 .36 .30 9.45 .00 .00 .25 .00 .05 .18 .02 .49 .12 .53 .09 1.52 .03 2. 27 .00 .03 .00 .16 .35 .21 .04 .19 .04 .45 Oct. Nov. Dec. 0.56 .00 . 36 .10 .29 .00 .02 .20 .05 .07 .09 .54 .01 .77 1.79 .08 .07 .38 .05 .32 .16 .21 1.22 .04 ..50 .96 1.58 .63 .00 .03 .02 11.10 0.00 .00 .00 .10 .00 .03 .04 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .10 .83 .02 .00 .00 .01 .39 .33 .00 .00 .10 .91 .93 1.31 .09 3.49 .60 0.01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .12 1.22 !oi .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .01 .00 .00 .06 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .11 .00 1.87 Total, June 21 to December 31, 1899, 44.05. Rainfall observations at San Ubaldo, 1900. [G. C. W. Magruder, observer.] Day. 1 2 3 1 5 (i 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 II 15 L6 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 21 25 26 27 28 29 30 ::l Total. Jan. 0.00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .07 .(U .00 . 65 .or, Jil .00 .03 .00 .00 . 15 .00 .01 .(10 .00 .mi .no .00 .00 .00 .00 .11 .01 Feb. 1.22 0.00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .00 .07 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 Mar. Apr. May. June. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 .02 .00 .00 . 17 .03 .00 .00 .97 .00 .00 .00 .28 .02 .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .14 .00 .00 .03 .09 .06 .00 .00 2. 27 .07 .00 .01 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .69 .0(1 .00 .00 .20 .00 .00 .07 1.72 .00 .00 .02 .22 .00 .00 .73 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 1.01 .01 .00 .01 .46 .00 .00 .98 .62 .01 .00 2. OS .05 .00 .07 .01 .12 .01 .00 .01 . 05 .no .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 . 26 .00 .00 .00 .60 .07 .00 .00 .36 .00 .Oil .00 .28 .07 .00 .00 .15 .2:! .00 .00 .01 .05 .00 .02 1 . (10 .01 .00 .09 .27 .09 7. 11 9. 85 July. 2. 53 .75 .24 2.40 1.60 .36 .00 3.17 1.65 3. 53 1.34 .12 2. 88 . 12 .00 .72 .28 .02 .01 1.75 .53 .10 .03 .06 .(Hi .00 .00 .00 . 59 .01 .00 21.91 Aug. 0.43 .00 .06 .39 .11 .02 .08 .15 . 22 .00 .00 .00 .00 .i:; .21 .01 .00 .00 .00 .20 .12 .31 .29 .75 . 10 .88 .OS .12 .00 .01 . 29 5. 32 Sept. 0.07 .00 .01 2. 52 . 56 .13 .01 .00 .00 .23 .01 .23 .00 .oo .87 1 . 99 .19 . 1 I .32 . 69 .00 1. r, .09 . 17 .19 .00 2. 69 .63 .07 . 12 Oct. 0.20 .90 .81 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .16 .03 .00 .11 .00 . 13 . 00 .31 .00 .20 . 12 2. 95 . is 1.70 .01 .35 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 II. os s.-.n Nov. 0.23 .17 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .01 .02 .00 .00 . 25 .00 .00 .01 .11 .02 .01 .17 .01 .0(1 .00 . 12 .09 .0(1 .00 .00 .00 .00 .11 1. i:; Dec. o.os .00 .02 .09 .16 .00 . 00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 . 05 ,o| .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 IMI .no .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Total for the year, 74.26. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 17V> Daily rainfall at Solentiname Island, Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua, woo. Pay. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 0.04 .00 .04 .00 .03 .17 .07 .18 .01 .31 .00 .02 .13 .05 .05 .01 .05 .03 .04 .00 .03 .05 .05 .00 .00 .00 .18 .00 .08 .04 .00 0.00 .48 .64 .00 .10 .01 .00 .00 .22 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .02 .06 .00 .20 .04 .02 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .09 .02 0.06 .02 .32 .15 .02 .12 .05 .00 .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .03 .01 .04 .19 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .08 .17 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.03 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .12 .08 .16 .00 .00 .04 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.00 .30 2. 40 .04 .10 .05 .99 2.00 .15 .70 .71 3.34 .25 0.13 .25 .25 .07 .00 .00 .06 .16 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 1.05 .15 .24 1.52 .02 .00 .10 .51 .02 .00 .00 .00 .12 .21 .43 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .22 .13 .58 .04 .79 .36 .11 .38 .72 .11 .24 .50 .02 .10 .94 .40 .46 .37 .00 .05 .15 .06 .05 .21 .00 .19 .06 .36 .70 .33 1.30 .17 1.60 1.67 .19 .45 .25 .02 .50 .10 .47 .50 .06 1.05 .45 .08 .33 .46 .00 1.30 .00 .18 .12 .25 .32 .83 .42 .72 .10 .02 .30 0.11 .00 .00 .00 1.10 .43 .10 .13 .14 .36 .56 .17 .30 .20 .30 .50 .10 .11 1.12 .88 .10 .11 .40 .42 1.62 .60 1.06 1.50 .71 2.30 0.02 .05 .70 .42 .90 .40 .60 .45 .50 .00 .00 .00 1.02 .00 .51 .05 .32 .60 .40 .32 .09 3.00 3.85 .15 .30 .08 .03 .04 .01 .00 .08 0.13 .22 .07 .10 .09 .12 .04 .56 .23 .12 .08 .17 .03 .05 .66 .31 .04 .02 .00 .05 .10 .13 .19 .11 .00 .05 .00 .01 .06 .30 0.14 .23 .20 ' .10 .11 .09 .12 .07 .10 .23 .31 .12 .06 .10 .22 .18 .10 .14 .05 .06 .10 .11 .18 .00 .00 .02 .45 .00 .00 .00 .00 2 3 4 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Total. 1.66 1.95 1.10 1.40 12.47 5.31 8.63 14.21 15.43 14.89 4.04 3.59 Total for the year, 84.68 inches. Rainfall observations at Fort San Carlos, Nicaragua, 1899. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 1 0.35 2 .00 3 .74 4 5 .17 6 .00 .03 8 .06 9 .38 10 .17 11 .05 12 .47 13 .05 14 .58 15 16 .53 17 18 .26 19 .05 20 .00 21 .22 ■22 .08 23 .05 24 .25 25 .05 26 .10 27 .05 28 .00 29 .10 30 .00 31 .20 Total. 0.00 .15 .00 .10 .00 .24 .00 .00 .00 .00 .54 .08 .00 .13 .11 .59 .08 .32 .00 .05 .00 .05 .00 .00 .10 .25 .00 .00 0.06 .00 .06 .00 .00 .12 .04 .21 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .42 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .32 .04 .09 .29 .40 .22 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .67 .00 .00 .00 .10 .00 .15 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .05 .22 .05 .03 .02 .05 .00 .20 .30 .00 .50 .76 .04 .02 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .28 .95 1.20 2.10 1.06 .31 .00 .51 .03 .35 .81 .18 .54 .21 .02 .04 .00 .32 .01 .17 1.42 .14 .15 .44 0.21 .71 .54 .07 .01 .00 .04 .33 .00 .08 .76 .07 .86 .43 .00 .00 .00 .00 .52 .06 1.19 .00 1.08 .44 .26 .72 .15 .36 .37 .02 .00 0.10 .00 .00 .18 .02 .00 .12 .42 .02 .00 .00 .00 .59 .16 .18 .01 .62 .93 .08 .33 .20 .41 .71 .69 .92 .88 .60 .10 .09 .03 .84 0.01 .00 .00 .20 .07 .12 .07 .16 .12 .06 .03 .06 .00 .21 .92 1.44 .05 .21 .41 2.33 1.00 1.39 .03 .08 .12 .00 .15 .80 .07 .56 2.74 .00 .09 .12 1.09 .22 .10 .01 .17 .40 .12 .92 .00 3.88 .07 .05 .05 .04 .03 .29 .00 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .13 .09 .00 .00 0.00 .03 .81 .41 .72 1.11 .28 .19 .48 .06 .00 .14 .01 .06 .70 .06 .81 .29 .12 .00 .01 .07 .72 .13 .07 .06 .34 .09 .32 .73 4.99 2.79 1.05 1.48 3.18 9.28 9.23 I 10.67 10.66 i 9.43 01 .40 .02 .10 .11 .01 .07 .00 .95 .02 .11 .06 .12 .31 .02 .06 .02 .15 .22 .12 .03 .00 .08 .10 .03 .01 .05 .02 .00 .00 3.20 Total, January 1 to December 31, 1899, 77.20. 180 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall observations at Fort San Carlos, Nicaragua, 1900. [Fred Davis, observer.] Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Doc. 1 0.00 .00 .02 .00 .03 .61 .06 .23 .00 .01 .00 .64 .22 .01 .29 .03 .OS .00 .00 .00 .02 .03 .08 .00 .06 .00 .21 .00 .18 .22 .03 0. 09 .54 .54 .00 .08 .03 .00 .00 .62 .01 .00 .00 .00 .09 .13 .16 .01 .00 .10 .14 .01 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .09 .00 0.00 .01 .31 .02 .05 .06 .00 .01 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .08 .06 .19 .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.02 .07 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .01 .00 .03 .09 .04 .04 .00 .00 .00 .06 .01 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .07 .58 .10 .26 .00 .52 .19 .00 .01 .01 .00 .00 .15 1.80 1.62 .64 .45 .00 .08 .68 2.02 .36 .94 .95 2.08 .68 0.02 .21 .15 .27 .11 .01 .13 .06 .00 .00 .06 .00 .07 .30 .15 .45 1.25 .86 .09 .01 .00 .01 .00 .00 .28 .03 .00 1.03 .32 .18 0.96 .01 .51 .59 .53 .40 .00 .17 .79 .70 .10 .27 1.51 .27 .05 2.92 .49 2.14 .09 .31 .01 .26 .22 .10 .04 .01 .41 .36 .48 .66 .08 0.96 .38 1.19 1.20 .37 2.59 .47 .77 .01 .19 .14 .05 .02 1.08 .39 .12 .20 .46 .03 .71 .12 .23 .32 .52 .41 .50 .85 .13 .24 .59 .05 0.61 .01 .00 .00 1.14 .00 .08 .00 .00 .30 .87 .46 .18 .12 .00 .94 .60 .19 1.34 .07 .08 .02 2.33 .72 .05 .03 1.80 .62 1. 02 1.51 2.28 .48 .74 .46 .17 . 59 .75 .00 .35 .00 .06 .00 .29 .06 .21 .68 .18 .95 .15 1.45 .03 1.96 .40 .81 .12 .21 .00 .00 .05 .00 .16 0.26 .11 .05 .06 .20 .00 .62 .78 .50 .00 .00 .08 .00 .00 .31 .16 .00 .00 .09 .20 .34 .17 .10 .39 .07 .25 .01 .00 .01 .66 0.23 .07 .57 JIN .03 .44 . 23 .53 .16 .21 .90 .37 .20 .20 .17 .38 .11 .52 .07 .07 .39 .03 .06 .01 .00 .00 .25 .05 .(12 .00 .03 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ... 14 15 lti 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Total. 3.09 2.66 .81 .41 14.19 6.04 15.44 15. 29 15. 02 13. 59 5.42 6. 38 Total for the year, 98.34. Rainfall observations at Ochoa, San Juan River, 1899. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 1.17 1.83 .58 .84 1.31 .05 .67 .25 .17 . 22 .51 1 . 28 .24 .21 1. 19 .80 .01 . i:; .16 .22 .51 .44 .01 .31 .03 .04 .01 .00 .02 .00 .05 0.37 .11 .08 .01 .18 .22 .00 .00 .11 .17 .08 .99 .49 .01 .13 .58 .33 .95 1.45 .27 .33 .09 .16 .06 .05 .or, .33 . 35 0.Z5 .01 .14 .05 .00 .02 1.36 2. 51 .06 .00 .05 .03 .35 .26 .24 .09 .09 .01 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .02 .00 .01 . 22 0.37 .09 .35 .17 .65 .71 .01 1.60 1.17 .43 .51 .47 .27 .08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .(H) .15 .(1(1 .00 .on .(Ml 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .17 .07 .00 .00 .00 .24 .31 .15 .00 .19 .32 .01 .11 . 69 .31 1.57 . 39 .13 .01 .is 2. 11 2.03 1.75 .10 . 85 .21 .(11 0.26 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.26 3.24 .20 2. 51 .21 .19 .02 .is .41 .09 .65 1. 11 .26 .33 .00 . 29 .00 2.41 .04 .03 .72 .79 .24 . 19 0. 24 1.03 .11 .69 .03 1.10 .93 1.16 6.90 2.81 .67 .43 :;.::i 1.07 .04 .19 .15 .41 .07 .53 1.00 .70 .08 .01 1.49 2.18 . 17 .78 .20 .00 1.09 0.23 .66 .03 2.36 .08 .06 .79 2.21 .07 .00 .00 .00 1.18 .01 .74 .05 .90 .31 .05 .71 2.20 .20 . 16 1.75 1.02 .62 .11 .13 .05 .38 .12 0.20 .00 .55 .00 .00 .26 .09 .55 .06 .79 .31 .00 .00 . 05 .(H) l.:;i .02 .11 .01 1 . 52 1.3s 1.21 1.72 .19 .57 .00 .M .31 .03 .00 0.43 .01 .33 .93 .03 .17 .01 .55 .02 T. " . 19 .01 .02 . 90 .11 . 69 .36 .00 .11 . 35 .01 .89 .48 . 21 .60 .01 .00 .00 .00 .(H) .10 0. 02 .16 .S3 3.29 .51 . 98 .30 . is .77 .SI 1.97 2. 04 2.00 1 . 15 .94 .30 .36 .47 .52 .02 .00 .00 .00 .05 . 12 .00 .20 .04 .26 .76 .00 0. 02 .19 .16 .42 .83 .85 1.94 1.54 .28 .01 .31 .19 .31 .16 .21 .13 3. 20 1. II . 91 2.69 .83 .09 . 58 .15 .04 .88 1.30 .66 . 50 .SO . 09 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 . . . 11 15 ... 16 17 . . 18 ... 19 •JO 21 22 23 21 25 26 27 28 29 3D :-,l Total. 14.02 7.96 5.80 7.09 12. 60 15.69 30. 20 17.50 15. 49 7. 85 20. 58 22. 13 Total, from January 1 to December 81, 1899, 176.91. » Trace. J> \N. F EB. M AR A PR. Ms \y JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. O CT. N ov. D EC. J/ VN. FEB. MAR. APR. MA Y JUI >4E JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT NOV. DEC. — 18 99 / \ / \ 1 \ \ \ 19 00 / \ I I \ \ / \ 1- X X X 1 \ j i / ; • 1 / V f— _J — 1 v ^ \ \l \ ,i \J A ' / y Y** \ ,' \ O /•., \ \ ; ', ,* i. / > % w — 1— * I s \ ^ _/_ ^ '■ X V I 1 \ * V \ J / / 1 • — \ ( / : , : \ * / A 1 1 . ** \ : \ \ \ f 7 / / ■->*, -«* 1 1 * A — - \ - v V • y s'" 1 : 1/ • \ \ ~- -" U * >. X, S3 ? // .7 y / ' ' \ =3 _J ^ 1 _ ' G RA \ / '■■• FIG. 14.— COMPARATIVE MONTHLY RAINFALL AT GREYTOWN, SAN CARLOS, AND GRANADA. 8 9 10. 11 12. 13. 11 . 15. 16. 17 . 18. 19 . 20 . 21. 2LJ . 23. 24 . 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31 . REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Kit in foil observations at Ochoa, 1900. [H. S. Reed, observer.] 181 PllV. Total. 0.00 .06 . 23 .34 1.10 .40 .30 .10 .00 .37 .00 .13 .23 .09 .45 .05 .02 .01 .60 .09 .50 1.34 .68 .01 .02 .00 .87 .35 .38 .31 .09 y.12 Feb. Mar. 0.15 .13 .54 .02 .12 .13 .28 .02 .56 .00 .02 .02 T. .06 .28 .05 .13 .33 1.29 .11 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .19 .06 .00 4.49 0.00 .78 .54 .73 .49 .02 .00 .00 .17 .42 .38 .16 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .94 .00 .43 .43 1.68 .12 .16 .08 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 Apr. 0.51 .12 .01 .14 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .10 .79 1.33 .20 .01 .00 .05 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 .19 .00 .00 .00 .68 .00 .10 .00 .01 May. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .04 1.52 1.92 .19 1.62 .01 .55 .07 .87 .33 .20 .00 .00 .00 .19 .24 .39 .10 .34 .30 .08 1.11 1.09 1.35 .02 .50 .33 7.58 13.36 June. 0.04 .22 .97 .61 .10 .02 .23 .00 .00 .00 .14 1.52 .73 .23 .05 2.75 1.45 .09 .03 .42 .01 .00 .00 .09 .06 .05 .00 .27 .14 1.02 11.24 July. 0.37 .01 .03 1.74 .04 .53 .23 .65 2. 55 .13 .21 .08 .52 .49 .01 2.16 .06 .53 .54 .13 .10 2.40 .14 .08 .12 .00 1.67 .51 .14 .28 .00 16.45 Aug. 0.28 1.40 .30 2.56 .61 .31 .83 .46 1.66 1.68 1.48 2.75 .01 .32 .62 .11 .83 1.38 1.24 .07 .04 .02 .18 .18 3.23 .89 .60 .57 1.54 .03 .28 Sept. 26. 46 1.06 .01 .00 .00 .00 .70 1.60 .04 .03 .00 .71 .00 .31 3.20 .01 .21 .26 2.20 .53 .35 .07 .19 .23 .16 .14 .77 .16 .16 .82 2.75 16.66 Oct. 0.27 .07 .02 .47 .03 .00 .06 .01 .01 .06 .00 .01 .06 .59 .02 .00 .12 .00 .15 .08 2.52 .17 .36 .89 .66 .76 .36 .01 .14 .60 .03 Nov. 8.53 0.06 .67 .25 1.65 .14 .03 .16 .47 1.61 .27 1.03 .02 .20 1.46 .56 .26 .25 .01 .13 .33 .19 1.23 .09 .15 .07 .54 .28 .02 1.59 2.07 15.69 Total, from January 1 to December 31, 1900, 158.83. Rainfall observations at Oreytown, Nicaragua, 1899. Dec. 0.23 .03 .65 .68 1.94 2.68 4.87 5.96 1.23 .31 .92 2.22 .09 .29 .11 .19 .33 .19 .13 1.03 .01 .30 .00 .02 .34 .02 .10 .00 .09 .00 .00 24.96 Day. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Total. Jan. 1.44 .80 .92 .27 .50 .59 1.61 .67 1.17 1.91 2.08 2.46 .49 .46 2.50 1.32 .01 2.21 .19 .29 .49 .19 .12 .56 .00 .11 .00 .00 .05 .02 .06 Feb. 23.49 0.08 1.00 .00 .47 .25 .02 .45 .00 .00 .02 .30 2.45 .10 .04 1.51 .45 1.06 1.23 .87 .45 .13 .00 .00 .38 .01 .00 .23 .19 .00 0.52 .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 1.00 .45 .00 .03 .01 .06 .02 .55 .30 .05 2.19 .03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .04 .25 .02 .09 .08 .25 .00 .00 1.36 Apr. 0.27 .03 .28 .40 .30 .12 .00 2.35 1.57 1.36 .48 1.36 .37 .00 .08 .00 .00 .00 .05 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 May. 8.33 9.09 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 4.43 .30 .00 .00 .69 .57 .03 .00 .00 .11 .00 1.46 1.00 1.02 .40 .20 .27 .00 .28 1.23 4.00 .52 .35 2.85 1.16 .37 21.24 June. 0.35 .00 .00 2.15 .11 .46 .00 .16 .00 .06 .00 .06 .47 .22 .00 1.12 2.40 3.07 .14 .00 .30 .00 5.25 .21 .22 .67 1.85 20. 97 July. 2.46 2.14 1.05 .40 .10 .45 2.14 .46 3.05 3.08 4.89 .06 3.63 .67 .36 .28 .34 .71 .06 1.92 1.90 .49 1.02 1.03 1.07 2.24 2.17 .00 .00 .12 1.33 39; 62 Aug, 0.30 .67 .00 5.70 .07 .70 .36 1.40 .09 .00 .00 .00 1.06 .28 4. 23 .23 ■1.01 1.36 .86 .08 .80 .27 .60 1.97 .20 1.75 .16 .68 .00 1.58 .06 29. 50 Sept. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .30 .85 .98 .00 1.73 5.60 1.26 .53 1.05 .06 3.23 .00 1.25 .15 6.10 .65 3.52 .71 1.20 3.15 .00 2.23 2.40 .00 .00 Oct. 36.95 0.10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.21 .00 .00 .00 .26 .00 1.76 .00 .00 .97 .00 1.12 4.69 .00 .88 .00 .00 .60 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .85 Nov. 12.44 0.41 .00 .18 12. 48 .78 .00 .00 .14 3.24 4.90 4.35 2.40 .70 .38 1.84 1.09 .59 1.38 1.25 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .65 2.20 .00 .00 1.40 Dec. 10. 36 0.00 .49 .40 2.60 1.23 .70 1.58 .35 .38 .00 .00 .00 1.30 2.33 .00 1.10 2.12 2.82 .93 2.03 .93 .87 2.10 .67 .97 1.83 1.04 .62 .15 2.53 .38 32.25 Total, January 1 to December 31, 1899, 285.93. 182 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall observations at Greytown, Nicaragua, 1900. [Charles I). Scott, observer.] Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 1.05 .75 .10 3.15 0.00 .54 1.04 .10 0.20 2.25 1.25 .22 0.00 .27 .00 .24 0.00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 1.40 .00 1.45 .00 .64 2.07 1.68 1.30 .41 4.40 0.30 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 1.00 .22 2.43 7.40 8. 76 5.70 0.16 1.63 .91 .63 2 3 4 5 4.16 .00 .65 .00 .30 .68 1.74 3.10 .00 1.77 .42 1.60 6 1.40 .58 .11 .00 5.60 .18 .64 .92 .00 .00 1.81 1.47 7 .86 .05 .00 .44 2.79 .48 .64 .98 .71 .00 1.34 2.60 8 .73 .00 .00 .11 .42 .00 .00 1.50 .00 .21 4.83 .00 9 .12 .63 .00 .00 .60 .00 .00 .53 .00 1.13 1.83 .82 10 .00 .00 .24 .00 5.08 .00 .00 3.68 .00 2.30 .54 .32 11 .00 .00 1.23 .30 2.10 .28 .22 3.29 .16 .00 .83 1.10 12 .80 .08 .00 .22 .00 .32 .12 .58 .00 .00 .98 .53 13 .57 .00 .00 .00 .00 .40 .18 1.18 2.06 .00 .32 .58 11 .00 .18 .00 .00 .18 .52 .00 3.68 6.29 .00 .32 .00 15 .80 .15 .00 .00 1.38 1.28 .13 .24 .00 2.03 1.43 .00 16 .25 1.23 .00 .00 .00 .29 1.58 .30 .00 .00 .00 .76 17 .00 .50 .00 .00 .00 .13 1.98 .20 .00 .00 .10 .75 18 .00 .00 .18 .59 .00 .00 1.69 1.26 .68 1.30 .06 1.46 19 .32 .18 .49 1.00 .95 2.58 .00 .00 .00 .00 .75 .00 .00 .00 .00 .23 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .13 .00 .00 1.08 .48 1.08 3.20 .90 1.36 .56 .91 1.41 .00 .28 1.86 1.28 4.97 1.45 .00 .15 .67 1.60 .57 .42 .00 .32 .92 20 21 22 23 1.38 .00 .00 .18 1.42 .86 .10 .19 .34 .00 .00 .00 .48 1.15 .48 .39 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.81 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .41 .58 .00 .00 .00 .00 .86 .29 .76 1.12 .20 .00 2.28 .10 .00 .10 2.42 .24 .00 .10 .20 .29 3.95 .41 .10 3.26 .00 .46 .56 1.40 1.46 .56 .12 1.18 .26 .00 .98 2.12 2.43 1.40 .58 3.41 .58 1.20 .39 1.30 .80 .42 .00 .00 .00 .93 .94 .00 .00 .53 3.32 2.68 3.03 2.20 1.53 .12 .00 .38 .68 .00 .00 .00 .18 .00 21 25 26 27 28 29 . . . 30 31 Total. 21.20 10. 72 7.47 4.62 22. 06 11.43 27.13 38.96 26. 45 22. 44 55. 38 18.24 Total, from January 1 to December 31, 1900, 266.10. Rainfall at Greytown, Nicaragua. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1890 1891 1892 1893 1*98 1899 1900 Mean . . 26.80 20.80 28. 57 17.70 0.36 2. 57 11.38 7. 53 5.93 1 . 95 4.98 3.93 L0.16 s. 33 7.47 18. 11 10. 10 18.38 9.99 7.82 9.09 4.62 4.93 13. 78 50. 88 2.77 9.37 21.24 22. 06 46.84 26. 95 13.42 52.55 23.57 38.96 35.72 19. 49 23.63 8.14 14.16 11.47 24.36 20.21 27.95 25.55 28. 15 36.93 41.65 32. 74 24.65 296. 94 214. 27 291.20 19.44 2:.. 17 23.49 11.69 21.20 jlO.72 19. 52 20.97 11.43 24.63 39.62 27. 13 16. 38 29. 50 38. 96 7. 24 36.95 26.45 12. 50 12. 44 22.44 32.35 40.36 55.38 17. 06 32. 25 18. 24 201.64 285.93 266. Id 22. 50 10.77 6.11 11.20 17.86 23. 19 34.41 27.28 17.40 19. 98 36. 45 27. 76 259. 35 Monthly rainfall of Nicaragua, 1898. Station. BritO and Tola . Etivas Las I a jus Rio Vk'jo Tipitaj a Morrili i Fori San Carlos. Sabalos Castillo Machuca Kin San Carlos . Ochoa San Francisco *. Sarapiqui Deseado b Greytown Jan. 0. 25 1.07 . 25 Feb. 0.00 .12 .(15 .01 .00 Mar. 0.08 .10 i.::i .66 .26 1.21 2.10 13.07 11. us 1:..:::: Is, i:; 7. 52 8.04 8. 72 21.92 26.98 19.44 25.17 11.76 10.16 Apr. May. (i. us ii.;;n .00 16.17 .28 Ki.oo .on L3.78 . 00 S. 56 .(17 S. 92 :s. (id 8.22 ('..(III II. 69 June. July. 11.66 L2.23 11.25 s. 88 7. 82 2(1. 12 15.25 18.87 I I. sr, 15. 95 13.511 13.45 16. SS 11.115 15.56 L7.13 11.42 13. 65 10.64 4.01 6.24 13.84 13.35 20. 69 18.92 20. 79 21. 17 1S.S7 I I.M IS.CC, 9.37 19.52 18. 26 21.60 19. 22 26. 86 24.63 Aug. 6.17 11.85 s. II 11.66 7.82 10.20 8.00 11.33 11.46 6. 52 11.68 12.08 13.45 13.31 16.38 Sept. 10. 60 13.99 6.79 7.28 11.25 10.56 11.42 16.22 12. 86 15. 12 10.95 II. 19 5.23 7.24 Oct. 25. 70 20. S3 16. 19 8.99 7.12 8.93 I I.. si 1.61 9.83 8. (12 9.09 11.35 11.92 12. 50 6.01 8.19 1.41 .61 .93 9.86 12.17 14.04 15.65 2.41 3. 11 2. 26 .17 . 17 5. 62 1(1.20 11.61 6. 75 21.59 8.88 22.28 10.61 18.68 7. 12 29.25 21.07 32.35 117.06 Dec. Total. 94.88 108.06 71.75 611.62 59. 23 84.81 111.51 L70.84 172. 17 210.63 201.61 » Record incomplete from January 1-6, inclusive, and from December 29-81, inclusive; so the rainfall at Ochoa for those days is added. b Rainfall not observed from December 25-31, 1898; so the record was completed by Including the corresi • "irling days of 1897. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall iii Sicaraijna ami < usla Rica durini/ 1SU9, in inches. 183 Location. 1 >li server. Total. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Bluefields Castillo 114.60 58. 20 10.82 .00 6.47 .00 10.72 .52 .43 11.69 2. 02 .00 11.83 .11 .00 8. 33 2, 21 .60 13.17 56. 93 GO. 33 285. 93 .(II) .30 23. -19 .02 DO Nicaragua Sugar Estates ('has. D.Scott .00 9.09 S. H. Harris . . W. H. S. Grigs) >v 93.08 12.96 4.61 i.65 5. 61 T. Bird . . . J. Weist ■15. 24 .50 .48 .07 .00 W. K. Henlev . H.S. Reed 176.91 14.02 7. 96 5.80 7.09 T. W White Earl Flint 67.82 .85 1.70 .65 .00 Do H. S. Reed 98.55 67. 22 77.20 9.82 .00 4.99 4.33 .44 2.79 2.73 .00 1.05 2.65 San Antonio plantation ... Nicaragua Sugar Estates E. Humphreys .00 1.48 San Miguelito S. F. Cuadra M. C. Hogan T. F. Boltz et al 190.40 16.57 7. 77 5.67 9.13 T. Montiel .26 Do * May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Estab- lished. Acoyapa Basillas Bluefields Castillo Chichigalpa Colorado Granada Do Greytown Indio ( Negro ) , Javali mine , Juigalpa La Libertad Machuca Managua Masaya Matagalpa Momob mibo Moyogalpa Ochoa , Penon Rama Rivas Do Rio Frio Rio San Carlos , Sabalas San Antonio plantation . San Carlos San Francisco , San Miguelito San Ubaldo Sapoa Sarapiqui Sardinas 9.60 5.90 .88 19.11 2.43 2.48 21. 24 7.08 '2*02' 5.50 2. 12 3.18 9.29 4. 56 8.78 10.19 20.97 is. 11 5.13 43.99 6.64 7.47 39.62 2.18 17.73 6.88 29. 78 15. 44 14.77 29. 50 3.30 .49 29.11 12.01 4.06 2.39 3.78 36.95 S.58 18.33 4.25 7.05 18.79 4.19 9.47 15.69 1 30.20 17.50 7. 53 10. 69 2.65 9.26 11.31 15.87 9. 82 8. 08 11.24 9.28 12,15 9.60 9.23 4.30 5.42 24.89 9.45 8.74 21. 05 5.60 .83 2.85 5.69 2.21 2.80 1.43 .97 3.08 15.49 4.94 11.58 5.15 15.32 5.95 8.10 8.21 32. 29 11. 92 14.79 15.13 12.44 .25 8.81 12. 97 8.33 1.91 18. 59 10. 35 15.88 26. 55 18.32 7.85 9.11 10.90 20.39 8.95 9.22 9.55 15.33 3.80 1.20 1.96 9.75 6.90 .00 14.70 5.50 10.67 .82 6.22 5.34 17.05 .90 6.03 6.67 26.85 10.66 1.60 8.13 11.10 6.45 10. .".5 5.24 4.85 40.36 18.55 7.65 10.26 9.12 4.09 2.79 5.54 6.29 5.30 5.99 20. 58 5. 24 13.42 9.06 5.91 8.36 20.32 8.09 4.81 9.43 6.82 6.95 9.31 8. 59 29. 29 11.59 .57 .87 32.25 18.65 4.78 .60 5.46 3.78 .11 1.20 1.18 .62 7.03 22. 13 2.02 8.33 .92 .57 3.53 18.03 4.73 .00 3.20 3.00 2.78 1.87 1.98 20.75 1.71 Aug. 10 Sept. 26 Aug. 26 Jan. 25 Oct. 27 Sept. 17 Aug. 19 Aug. 16 Sept. 16 Sept. 12 Sept. 16 Sept. 1 Sept. 13 Aug. 18 Nov. 7 Oct. 21 Oct. 12 Sept. 23 Oct. 5 June 21 July 16 Nov. 1 184 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Rainfall in Nicaragua and Costa Rica during 1899, in inches — Continued. Location. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Estab- lished. 13. 72 2.57 3.35 2.04 2.27 9.45 13.95 11.69 29. 49 15.95 16.91 8.04 10.57 30.32 5.42 5.48 6.11 19.88 .44 .52 .00 Sept. 17 (») Aug. 13 2.22 4.81 Sept. 2 Aug. is 1.39 11.63 2.29 .08 16.23 6.18 14.78 i 7.09 12.33 July 3 Do Oct. 3 » Discontinued January 24; reestablished August 20. Rainfall in Nicaragua and Costa Rica daring the year 1900, in inches. Location. Observer. Total. Jan. Feb. Mar. Acoyapa, Nicaragua Arena], Costa Rica a Basillas Island, Nicaragua. . , Boca Sucia, Costa Rica Bluetields, Nicaragua , Castillo, Nicaragua Frio (5 miles up), Costa Rica. Granada Wharf, Nicaragua. . Granada City, Nicaragua Greytown, Nicaragua Juigalpa, Nicaragua Las Haciendas, Nicaragua . . Machuca, Nicaragua Managua, Nicaragua Masaya, Nicaragua Matagalpa, Nicaragua Momotombo, Nicaragua Moyogalpa, Nicaragua Negro (Indio), Nicaragua . . . Ochoa, Costa Rica Palo Seco, Costa Rica b Rama. Nicaragua Kivas, Nicaragua Bivas, Nicaragua c , Sabalos, Nicaragua San Antonio plantation, Nic- aragua. San Carle is River, Costa Rica San Carlos, Nicaragua San Juanillo, Nicaragua San Migueli to, Nicaragua .., San Ubaldo, Nicaragua Sapoa, Nicaragua d Sihco, Nicaragua ■ , Sarapiqui, I losta Rica Sardiuas, Nicaragua Solentiname, Nicaragua f ... Tipitapa, Nicaragua s Tola gauge station, Nicara- gua. Valle Menier, Nicaragua Zapote (Upper), Costa Rica. Modesto Cuadra Godfrey Hahn .. S. Wilson et al .. 65.04 121.70 77.10 Thomas W. Waters John Augustine Fred Davis Stephen Vargas Nicaragua Sugar Estates. Charles D.Scott J.Jesus Sequeira R. de Hennin J. S. Martinez et al T.Bird J.Wiest W. K. Henley et al A. Peterson K. B. Luna S.H.Harris H.S.Reed A. Quintania .• G.W.White etal Earl Flint Charles Havman Thomas F. Boltz 127.63 0.58 4.45 1.78 9.65 5.70 10-.'. 66 72.10 82.46 266. 10 37.73 3.17 .26 .45 21.20 .05 0.21 2.73 1.04 .80 6.95 4.37 2.31 .00 .00 10.72 .12 0.22 3.18 .52 3. 55 2. 22 .92 .03 .00 7.47 .18 JL S. Reed Fred Davis et al... Fred Appleby J. F. Cuadra G. 0. W. Magruder. M.C. Hogan E. A. Keys Paulino Gonzalez. Tomas Montiel .1. M. Boniche L. Roy Cannon J. O.Jones V.Gavinet (Nandaime (i. B. Zampierl 137. 88 53.55 59.70 85.68 55.21 71.70 158.83 1.37 .00 .00 .24 .00 .13 12.32 9.12 110. 35 94.68 2.52 .19 1.67 .00 .00 .36 .00 .03 12.69 4.49 4.37 3.31 .02 2.05 .00 .00 .87 .00 .22 6." 60 7.58 5.47 3.20 .11 107. 34 95.68 157. 30 98.34 249. 20 81.11 74. 26 103. 60 3.19 .00 8.79 3.09 18.79 1.38 1.22 1.11 3.84 .00 4.96 2.66 11.79 1.02 .19 .57 151.48 84. 68 96f6i" 9.65 1.89 1.66 .00 .17 .00 1.09 5. 00 2.73 1.95 .02 .00 .00 2.62 1.69 .55 6.56 .81 7.18 .49 .27 .63 1,08 10.76 .61 1.10 .00 .01 .00 2. 29 Location. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 11.31 17.: v. . 9.54 10.19 7.11 1. 19 12.91 L6.95 10.67 4.76 13. 71 14.05 9.36 15.42 12.48 12.96 11.61 14.45 1.12 13.61 2.97 1.26 12. 30 Ha si lias [aland, Nicaragua ... 4.77 Bluetields, Nicaragua 10.40 IS. Ill 13.61 L2.06 it;, in 22. 06 6. I-.I 8.90 9.82 11.68 L7.63 19.71 11.43 2.05 11.60 18.42 13. 29 12.40 18. Iti 27. 13 3.42 23.55 33.83 12. 21 3.93 5. 58 38. 96 3.77 11.20 15. 24 11.76 7.60 9.46 26. If. 9. 79 12.32 21.38 20. 15 16.70 15.90 22. 1 1 10. .56 14.90 6.86 6.19 1.42 1.60 56. 88 .63 1 1. 61 16.93 Frio 1 •"> miles u|i 1, < losta Rica . 1 . ranada Wharf, Nicaragua . . Granada City, Nicaragua Greytown, Nicaragua Juigalpa, Nicaragua 6. 62 .05 .22 18. 24 .45 » Upper San Carlos River. b Established February 7. Established June 15. 1 Removed to Tortuga July 16. - Established March 22. Discontinued July 6- r lsla Venado, Lake Nicaragua. I Discontinued October 30. LOCATION RAINFALL INCHES 1899 3 29 40 60 80 IOO 120 140 160 ISO 200 220 240 260 280 SOO CASTI CHICHlGALPA GRANADA i»t-»^ SAN ANTONIO PLANT'S! FORT SAN CARLOS.. J. LOCATION RAINFALL INCHES 1900 BO 41 M no IOO 120 140 ICO 180 200 220 £40 St K5 280 JOC FRIO 5 MILES UP-- .- GRANADA (/JrKtr1)_ ^^_ _ GRANADA (Ci'y) .-,---- SREYTOWN. j—e T™ ™ MANAGUA _ .,- MATAGALPA , MOMOTOU BO.-_-_ MOV0GALPA-__ rvun* | _ U . M ,, RIVAS-~r^_ „.-„». I..II ' "' ' SAN ANTONIO PLANT'N SAN CARLOS RIVER FORT SAN CARLOS— -- SAN JUANILLO- __.-. SAN MIGUELITO-,.-- . - SAN U8ALDO -„s.-_ - . _ SAPOA m^-rn^^ SARAPIQUI ^-■■-•-■- SOLENTINAME.- - • - TOLA GAGE STATION ZAPOTE (Upper) III "j 1 | 1 | | FIG. 15 —COMPARATIVE RAINFALL AT ALL STATIONS. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 185 Rainfall in Nicaragua and Costa Rica during the year 1900, in inches — Continued. Location: Las Haciendas, Nicaragua . . . Machuea, Nicaragua Managua, Nicaragua Masaya, Nicaragua Matagalpa, Nicaragua Momotombo, Nicaragua Moyogalpa, Nicaragua Negro ( Indio) , Nicaragua Ochoa, Costa Rica Palo Seco, Costa Rica b Rama, Nicaragua Rivas, Nicaragua Rivas, Nicaragua • Sabalos, Nicaragua San Antonio Plantation, Nicaragua San Carlos River, Costa Rica. San Carlos, Nicaragua San Juanillo, Nicaragua San Mignelito, Nicaragua San Ubaldo, Nicaragua Sapoa, Nicaragua d Silico, Nicaragua « Sarapiqui, Costa Rica Sardinas, Nicaragua Solentiname, Nicaragua f Tipitapa, Nicaragua e TolaGaugeStatlon, Nicaragua Valle Menier, Nicaragua Zapote (Upper), Costa Rica .. May. June. 8.95 17.70 6.62 8.66 16.06 6.67 13. 59 18. 13 13. 30 16.01 12.70 11.19 8.57 6.05 15.42 14.19 17.18 13.58 7.44 10.21 15. 81 10.54 12. 47 13. 53 12.91 10. 36 12. 13 7.58 7.46 8.54 15. 52 14.49 13.48 11.46 10. 41 11.24 13.98 6.73 16.38 5.07 8.37 22.46 11.26 6.04 6.53 10. 19 9.85 12. 85 8.72 9.84 July. 16.45 22. 65 7.97 10.27 13. 13 6.96 8.28 12.67 16.45 15. 15 16.30 10.61 6.93 16.89 18.81 15.53 15. 44 22. 66 15.83 24. 91 14.74 6.28 22. 24 5.31 12. 60 12.29 11.00 7.11 8.63 12.58 15.67 9.94 17. 55 Aug. 12.05 25.80 3.83 4.70 5.12 .90 7.95 40. 15 26. 46 24. 96 19. 56 9.16 6.82 20. 40 6.80 22. 72 15. 29 41.01 8.46 6.32 10.70 23. 48 14.21 6.04 4.53 4.64 14.50 Sept. 20. 61 18. 20 7.57 7. 23 10.40 5.63 12.44 12.85 16.66 18.34 19. 58 22.58 16.86 11.24 13.69 21. 36 15. 02 28.18 7.20 14.08 23.75 6.99 15.43 8.32 24.15 11.54 23. 93 Oct. 22. 14 10.68 17.48 11.24 17.35 18.78 15.63 8.53 11.18 10.97 21. 93 18.12 16. 34 24.45 6.45 13.59 24.84 13.41 8.91 22. 28 ll.i 14.89 15.00 18.46 17.46 18.22 Nov. 5.58 12.35 1.37 1.91 4.27 2.06 1.58 15.69 18.12 7.61 1.18 • .87 6.72 1.85 16.56 5.42 43.34 4.71 1.43 3.91 24. 86 "i"ei' .87 "i3.43 Dec. 15.56 .tl (17) 2.30 .73 .34 24.96 25.80 6.39 1.31 .62 9.45 .00 24.69 6.38 25. 42 3.44 .55 2.31 24.86 3.59 '"."65 11." 33 Rainfall. SAN ANTONIO PLANTATION. [Latitude, 12° 32' N.; longitude, 86° 59' W.; elevation, 66 feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. 1896.... 1897.... 1898.... 1899.... 1900. . . . 0.00 .00 .00 .24 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .44 .00 0.00 .00 1.26 .00 .00 .55 .20 .59 .00 .00 1.02 7.98 12. 20 18.23 16.00 2.12 6.05 6.29 10.50 14.53 11.60 9.82 22.46 3.36 7.54 6.81 8.37 8.08 18.81 5.07 4.71 13.86 14.85 9.60 6.80 21.68 13.39 10.94 16.71 5.50 13.69 21.71 11.22 31.06 7.60 26.85 24.45 3.42 4.76 .98 5.64 4.81 1.85 0.32 .98 .00 .04 .00 .00 69.83 65.50 98.26 81.05 67. 22 95.68 VALLE MENIER. [Latitude, 11° 46' N.; longitude, 85° 57' W.; elevation, 492 feet.] 1880.... 1881.... 1882.... 1883.... 1899.... 1900.... 0.00 . 55 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 0o .00 .00 0.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .31 13.48 9.94 1.93 1.35 9.92 12.88 12. 7.44 2.24 7.52 S7 3.94 9.96 8.86 6.30 6.77 9.10 4. 92 13.46 22.68 19.13 2.72 9.33 2.76 0.00 .98 .00 58.55 81.84 47.91 2.04 11.54 15. 95 17.46 6.11 .00 10.36 11.00 9.94 4.64 MANAGUA. ; Latitude, 12° 7' N.: longitude, 86° 16' W.; elevation, 148 feet.] 1891.... 1892.... 1899.... 0.00 .00 0.00 .00 0.00 .00 0.00 .00 1.08 8.58 14.00 11.34 5. 04 6.35 3.04 7.98 8.43 9.24 2.21 7.57 9.64 20.55 18.59 17.48 7.24 3.09 2.79 1.37 0.43 .11 .17 48.90 67.13 53.55 1900. . . . .00 .00 .00 .00 0.62 8.54 7.97 3.83 186 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. EVAPORATION. The observation of evaporation b}* means of pans floating in the water was carried on under both the Nicaragua and Isthmian Canal commissions. The inherent obstacles to accurate work by this method are great at all times, and. as might be expected, results are rather discordant. They are summarized in the tables following: Monthly evaporation of Lake. Nicaragua. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1898. 6.42 8.13 4.92 6.26 5.98 4.56 5.19 4.35 4. 20 5.08 3.38 3.84 4.87 3.41 3.69 6.77 4.74 2. 73 3.51 2.73 4.09 3.00 3.39 3.01 4.03 i 5.25 6.49 5.60 4.58 4.10 3.99 3. IS 3.41 3.20 3.52 1899. 3.40 3.72 3.39 3.28 4.25 4.34 Fort San Carlos 5.01 4.65 3.60 2. 02 3.78 2.85 4.40 3.56 5.42 2.23 3.72 3.24 3.97 2.70 3.87 3.87 3.71 3.91 Tipitapa 5.58 5.79 3.79 4.06 3.29 4.03 1900. 2.89 4.57 4.36 3.28 3.16 4.24 5.40 4.02 4.36 5.47 6. 33 5.89 4. 62 5.79 6.41 6.66 4.34 7.59 5.12 7.28 3.93 4.95 3.19 5.16 2.63 5.46 2.54 4.49 2. 24 5. 05 2.30 4. 25 3.24 1.71 3.36 4.89 2.35 4.64 3.39 3. 90 3.04 4.03 5.18 3.78 4.21 5.61 5.87 6.08 4.31 3.78 3.46 4.06 4.06 3. 64 3. 53 Allowance must be made in the use of these results for the fact that the conditions prevalent on the lake can not be duplicated in the evapo- rating pan. During the greater part of the year the trade winds blow strongly from the eastern side of the lake to the western. Except along the eastern shore the surface of the lake is blown into billows, the waves often attaining a considerable height and being crowned with whitecaps, and the total water surface in contact with the wind is much greater than the level surface of the lake. Most of the lake surface must therefore lose by evaporation a greater depth of water than the pan. The rate of evaporation during the dry season was obtainable by another method. The fluctuations of the lake were observed, and by appl}'ing to this the observations of rainfall upon the lake, the inflow from streams, and the discharge of San Juan River we obtain the evaporation actually taking place upon the lake. During April, 1898, the evaporation was found by this method to be 6.12 inches. The results for 1900 are given in the following table: Evaporation from Lah Nicaragua — Dry season of 1900. [Evaporation = fall of lake + rainfall + inflow outflow.] February March ... April May 1-15 Rainfall Fall of lake. Oil sur- face of lake. Inflow. Total. Outflow. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 0.71 0.08 0.14 0.93 0. ii .83 .04 .10 .97 . in .70 04 .1)7 81 . 85 .32 .08 .03 . 13 .17 Evaporation /■'/. In. 0. 19 5.88 .57 li S| . 46=5. 52 .26=3.12 inches per day. 0.21 . 22 .18 .21 Area of lake, 1, '.tin, niiii .mii-. Rainfall "ii surface of lake is an average of (lie rainfall at Basillas, Granada, Moyogalpa, San Carlos, Ban Mlguelito, San Ubaldo, Sapoa, and Soleutiuanie. FIG. 16.— LOWERING SEDIMENT TRAP ON SARAPIQUI. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 187 REGULATION OF LAKE NICARAGUA. Lake Nicaragua being the summit level upon which the water .supply for the canal depends, and from which the surplus water must be dis- charged, its history, and especially the extreme variations of its supply, are important. Its fluctuation depends upon four factors: 1. The inflow, which is a function of the amount and character of rainfall in the basin. '2. The storage capacit3 T of the lake. 3. The evaporation, which varies with the seasons. 4. The outflow, which varies with the elevation of the lake. The problem of the storage capacity is simple, and its solution is known with all desirable accuracy. The area of the lake is 2,975 square miles, or 1,904,000 acres. The evaporation from the lake has been fairl} r well determined and can be allowed for without important error. It is given in the table, page 1S6. The outflow was observed during 1898, 1899, and 1900 at Camp Farina, above Rio Sabalos, which is the first important tributary to the river. The inflow has been observed by noting the fluctuation of the lake surface at four stations — San Carlos, San Ubaldo, Granada, and Sapoa. This, after allowing for evaporation and outflow, gives the inflow. It has not been possible to fix with certainty the limits of the natural fluctuation of Lake Nicaragua, but the best information obtainable indicates that the range is about 14 feet, from 97 as the minimum to 111 as the maximum. The maximum stage was estimated as follows: All the oldest inhabitants in the vicinity of the lake agree that a stage attained in 1861 was higher than any since reached. No more definite statement could be established than that it was "nearly up to the top of the wharf at Granada." The top of the wharf, in the lowest place, is at an elevation of 111.24 feet above sea level. If the mean lake level was within half a foot of the top of the wharf during the customary breeze in that region, it is probable that the waves would wash over the wharf, and the report would be that the water was over the top of the wharf. It is thought that the facts indicate 111 as about the elevation of the stage reported, as nearly as it can be determined. The low-water limit of 97 feet is taken on the information of Mr. William Climie, who testifies that the lake was lower in 1886 than it has been since, and all obtainable evidence on the subject is to the effect that no lower stage has occmred within the memory of persons now living. All available testimony, and especially that of the engineman on the steamer Victoria, who has been in continuous service for sixteen years, is to the effect that the steamer Victoria has in that period always been able to discharge her cargo directly upon the wharf, but at times of extreme low water, occurring at very rare intervals, she could not come alongside, but had to lie off the end of the wharf. touching only her bow. This was the condition in May, 1897. A dia- gram of the wharf is shown in the sketch, figure 17. At the time it was made the water stood at 5.8 reading on the gauge-rod, or 104.24 feet above sea level. It shows the bottom of the lake to be at an elevation of about 93 feet near the end of the wharf, and somewhat lower, say 188 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 92 feet, off the end, where the .steamer la} T at low water. The boat draws from 4 feet of water, when empty, to 7 feet when fully loaded. Allowing her 6 feet of water in May, 1897, the stage of the lake was about 98 feet above sea level, or at least it could not have been lower than this. If the lake were 1 foot lower than this in 1886, it would give a stage of 97, and this is probably near the true minimum. These data hx the natural limit of fluctuation at 11 feet, though no fluctuation approaching this amount occurs in any one year, nor even in any two. The low water of 1886 was preceded by three successive years of low rainfall, as shown by the Granada record for 1883 and 1881, and by the Rivas record for 1885, the latter being the lowest in the Rivas record of twenty years, with one exception. A study of the rainfall tables indicates another stage of extremely low lake just before the rainy season of 1897; this being preceded by three years of less than normal rainfall. This indication is confirmed by popular reports of an extremely low lake level at that time, and accounts for the fact that the heaviest rainfall of the record, 1897, did not produce as high a lake as had occurred in other years. Though no observa- tions of the lake were made in 1897, those of 1898, considered with the rainfall record of 1897, indicate that the lake did not reach stage 107. (See diagram, figure 21.) Its stage at the end of 1897 is known to have been about 105, by observations of the Nicaragua Canal Com- mission. Judging from the table of rainfall, considered in the light of known facts, the lake has passed through minimum stages in May of the years 1886, 1891, and 1897; and maximum in the autumns of 1889, 1893, 1900. None of these stages is exactly known except that of 1900, in which year the lake reached a maximum stage of 107.12 feet on the 27th day of October, and maintained about the same elevation for one week. In this discussion we are concerned mainly with the years of maxi- mum and minimum rainfall, as giving the extreme conditions under which Lake Nicaragua must be controlled. All the records and tradi- tions at hand indicate that the year 1897 was the year of greatest precipi- tation in this vicinity ever recorded. Dr. Flint gives for Rivas a total for that year of 123.13 inches, a rainfall over 15 inches greater than any other in his record, while the report of Mr. Climie, for Granada, sub- stantially confirmed by that of the sugar company, gives 93.62 inches for that year, being greater than any other year in either Granada or Masaya records. It may therefore be taken as the year of maximum rainfall within the range of the records. It is fortunate that this is the case, for we then have direct comparison by the same observer of the rainfall for L897 with that for the three years covered by the observations of the fluctuations of Lake Nicaragua by this Commission. The year of minimum rainfall occurs in the Masaya record for* L890, being only 20.52 inches, and being but little more than half of that for 1896, which is the next driest year in the Masaya record. The year is also the year of smallest precipitation in Dr. Flint's record at Rivas, and gives very much less rainfall than he gives for any other year covered by the Masaya record. It seems safe to conclude, therefore, that 1890 was actually the year of smallest precipitation within the records. The Rivas record is the longest and most continuous, and is nearly REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 189 on the canal line and nearly on the lake shore. In all these respects it promises very desirable and valuable information, completely cover- ing the period from 1880 to date. An examination of this record, however, ia somewhat disappointing. During the year 1S98 Mr. J. A. Bull, an observer of the Nicaragua Canal Commission, was stationed at Las Lajas, near the point where the canal leaves the shore of the lake. This point is only about 5 miles from Kivas, not greatly differ-* ent in elevation or surrounding conditions that might affect the rain- fall, and yet the precipitation recorded at Rivas exceeded that observed at Las Lajas by the percentages shown in the following table: Las Lajas. Rivas. Excess. Las Lajas. Rivas. Excess. May Inches. 10.60 13.50 10.64 8.44 6.79 Inches. 16.17 18.95 13.65 11.85 13.99 Per rent. 52.5 40.4 28.3 40.4 106. 03 Inches. 16.19 4.41 2.26 Inches. 20. 83 8.19 3.14 Per cent. 28.7 June July November 85.7 38.9 August September Total * 72.83 106. 77 46.6 This table indicates that the Rivas record is too large. Comparing it year by year with the recent records at Granada and Masaya also tends to confirm the result indicated above. Granada. Masaya. Rivas. Excess. Granada. Masaya. Rivas. Excess. 1890 Inches. Inches. 20.50 49.98 64.54 72.86 42.88 41.26 Inches. 31.81 66.03 78.27 106. 13 47.32 47.68 Per cent. 50.3 32.1 21.3 45.7 10.3 15.56 1896 Inches. Inches. 39.64 Inches. 47.80 123. 43 108. 06 67.82 94.68 Per cent. 20.6 1891 1897 1898 1899 1900 93.62 55.59 56.93 72.10 31.8 1892 94.4 1893 .. 19.10 1894 31.3 1895 While Granada and Masaya are at considerable distance from Rivas and under somewhat different topographic conditions, there is no obvi- ous reason wiry they should have less rainfall; and this evidence, so far as it goes, tends to confirm the indication of the Las Lajas record, that the record at Rivas is too large. A similar result is obtained by a comparison of the Rivas record with the movements of Lake Nicaragua. Many months occur in which the rise of the lake, if all water had been held by a dam on the Rio San Juan and evaporation eliminated, would have been much less than the reported rainfall at Rivas, proving that the rainfall on the surface of Lake Nicaragua is less than recorded at Rivas. These facts, coupled with the great importance of the accuracy of any record on which estimates are to depend, led to the establishment, in June, 11*00, of a rainfall observer in Rivas, whose gauge is located not more than 300 yards from that upon which the long record has been taken. The observer employed by the Commission was Mr. Charles Hayman, who thoroughly understood the work and who was cautioned to be extremely careful. The comparison of the observa- tions is given below. It shows that the record of Dr. Flint exceeded that taken by Mr. Haynian in every month, and seems to establish the fact that the results reported by Dr. Flint are too large. 190 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Comparison of rainfall observations made at Rivas, Nicaragua, by Dr. Earl Flint and the observer of the Isthmian Canal Commission, June 15 to November 30, 1900. Day. June. July. August. September. October. November. Dr. Flint. Com- mis- sion. Dr. Flint. Com- mis- sion. Dr. Flint, Com- mis- sion. Dr. Flint. Com- mis- sion. Dr. Flint. Com- mis- sion. Dr- Flint. Com- mis- sion. 1 0.99 .00 .20 1.55 .85 .55 .20 0.79 .00 1.01 .15 .38 .35 .15 0.18 .00 .60 .40 .14 .46 .07 .00 .48 .00 .02 .30 .00 1.60 .13 .03 .00 .00 .00 .10 .49 1.61 .50 .90 .02 .43 .70 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.04 .00 .47 .24 .35 .10 .02 T. .35 .02 .20 T. .00 1.10 .02 .01 T. .00 .15 .20 .02 .34 1.35 .59 .01 .70 .13 .00 .00 .00 .43 0.75 .00 .00 .71 .14 .00 2. 70 .63 .16 .40 .09 .74 .20 .06 .00 1.70 .40 .07 1.97 .50 .00 0.01 .00 .00 .52 .21 .03 2.53 0.17 1.30 1.50 1.30 .92 1.29 2.00 0.10 .98 1.26 1.20 .27 1.43 .98 .07 .00 .02 .01 .39 .11 .11 .04 .17 .60 .44 .33 1.95 3.50 2.71 .19 .65 .61 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .06 .08 .08 .00 .00 .02 .08 .00 .00 .30 .28 .04 .00 .08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .11 .00 .00 .00 0.00 .03 .09 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .06 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .04 .39 .00 .01 .01 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .00 .00 .07 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 . 26 . 35 .37 .13 T. .00 9 .66 .21 .87 .30 1.49 .07 .00 .40 .20 .80 .30 .05 .00 .10 .07 .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .37 .08 .00 .36 .28 .45 1.07 .04 .06 .17 .16 .16 .44 .10 .01 .02 .00 .00 .10 .00 .00 .00 .18 .02 .06 .07 10 .17 .00 .69 .03 .00 .98 .44 .13 .00 1.95 .00 .00 .00 .00 .50 .11 .33 .02 .31 .80 .30 .79 .01 3.15 4.80 .31 .90 .99 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 11 12 13 14 15 0.00 .70 .60 .60 .00 1.26 1.50 .00 .30 1.48 .00 .00 .00 .07 .00 .75 0.01 .04 .99 .01 .00 .92 1.18 .18 T. 1.19 .01 .00 .00 .03 .00 .51 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 1.70 1.42 1.42 1.07 23 24 .57 .00 .08 .00 .00 4.18 3.41 .37 .01 .05 .00 .00 3.40 2.48 26 27 29 30 31 Excess . . 7.26 5.07 10.61 6.93 9.16 6.84 22. 58 16.86 21. 93 18.12 1.19 .87 iSP.ct. 53 P. ct. 34 P. ct. 34 P. ct. 21 P. ct. 37 P. ct. These comparisons show that the record of Dr. Flint exceeded that taken for the Commission in every month, the average excess being about 37 per cent, confirming the indications previously referred to. For these reasons it is deemed safer at present to eliminate the Rivas records from consideration in estimating the probable relation between the recorded rainfall and the action of Lake Nicaragua. We have then left available for comparison only those records for Masaya and Gra- nada. Some of these arc published in the report of the Nicaragua Canal Commission, pages 280 and 281, and comprise a complete record at Granada for 1 S77 taken by Dr. Flint, and complete records for 1883- L884 observed by the National Institute at Granada. From the end of L884 to the beginningof 1897 we have no records for Granada, but for L887 to 18H*i, mclusive, we have a complete record for the town of Masaya, taken by Mr. William Climie. This record is believed to be entirely reliable, but is not coincident with any observations of Lake Nicaragua. Early in 1M>7 Mr. Climie removed his gauge to Granada, and gives the record for LS'»7and ISDN at that place. The rainfall was also observed in 1897 by the officials of the Nicaragua sugar estates in the city of Granada, and their record continues up to the present time. It gives about 2 per cent less rainfall for 1897 than that of Mr. Climie, but the results are sufficiently accordant to confirm the substantial accuracy of both. During 1899 and 1900 a guage was maintained by this Commission at Granada, and these observations also serve to con- RAINFALL AT GRANADA. INCHES cooooooo Vj 1 I ! ! ! i 1 !| 1 1 I "N^H L ' I ! M i kl> f x _±T j i TT'**- U _ "Tl ^O " 1 ' u -T ^K " H c S XI b x ! : i 1 i » Ti "LA N ." LL-L X s x x\ i v 4 i n Xu ' ^ v - 1 1 i i -J -L r o X T i^ s, i _i v X V X it "-- "" " \ /- \'n» \ I I C o " \ \ \\\ "" ' \ p * T'J 11 ■ & . .. 1 _._ . \ *■ \ i \ * o x "'"' " \ ''^-L - ■ ■ ----- i , i X Je- Xt^ - -- y-, is \ . .. __ a - \ $ \ < o - - \ ■] 1 > ._ \ Si » X i IS J? X \ t^st^ rtl . L . !.. vf i ... ° I ±31 _u W| | |-\ vs. Ii\. ! "* i ft- 1 v. xit XI X ° ax 4 a ' -t Tl \ > ' i-fe. 'io, '• a_ . \b rp '■» \P !«? f ,___ ° ! \ \* 'I X Xv-XI X -h VI ^ '& I X X SITE ..X X »-. - -ft 5U2 o ±±1: ^x ""X \T yx -+_ I ; \ r 1 ! \ v| ' ' H V 5 of i x -t-t i^x \ it 1 1 tt vC ^ - - II V \ Mi \ X- = _±DL X V o it i X. X X -5 V S-Hr- t A^t ii X T^ it . u- o X T\ X " X X V 3 1- £ X * X 5 XI o — - -J--J- \ X 8 xx ^ £ 8-1- j: I £ o — ! XX V- X -5 X L. o A X o - - - X ^ \ ~~II~~I ~s y- O _^_ —i— -->, I X 'l_ A X _. ,. 1 -II - — * REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 191 firm the substantial accuracy of those furnished by the Sugar com- pany. We therefore have a continuous record from 1887 to date, the worst feature of which is that during the first ten years it was taken at Masaya and the last four years at Granada. Masayais at an elevation of nearly 600 feet above Granada and is not on the drainage of Lake Nicaragua, but lies in a small basin which drains into Lake Masaya. Observations taken under the direction of Mr. Jacob Wiest in Masa} 7 a are at hand covering the period from June 11, 1898, to November 30, 1900, which includes the major portion of three rainy seasons coinci- dent with observations taken in Granada. The distance from Masaya to Granada is about 10 miles, which precludes comparison day by day, but a monthly comparison is shown below, which shows considerable difference from the precipitation observed at Granada, that at Masaya being less. Comparison of Granada and Masaya rainfall records, 1S99 and 1900. Months. 1899. January 25-31 February March April May June July August September... October November ... December ... Total .. Granada, 0.00 .52 .11 .02 2.43 8.78 6.64 15.54 2.39 14.79 5.24 .57 56.93 Masaya. 0.50 .48 .07 .00 2.02 8.62 4.19 9.47 2.80 10. 35 6.54 1.20 45. 24 Differ- ences. 0.50 .04 .04 .02 .41 .16 2.45 5.97 .41 4.44 .30 .63 Months. 11.69 1900. January . . . February .. March ..... April May June Juiy August September October . . . November. December . Total Granada. 0.26 .00 .03 .02 12.06 17.63 12.40 3.93 7.60 16.70 1.42 .05 Masaya. 0.00 .00 .00 .00 8.66 15. 52 10.27 4.70 7.23 11.24 1.91 72. 10 59.53 Differ- ences. 0.26 .00 .03 .02 3.40 2.11 2.13 .77 .37 5.46 .49 >No record. MAXIMUM SUPPLY TO LAKE NICARAGUA. To obtain the probable inflow to the lake during the season of great- est rainfall, 1897, we compare the rainfall at Granada for that year with the rainfall at the same place for some year during which the behavior of Lake Nicaragua was observed. For the purpose of this comparison the diagram, figure 18, has been prepared. It shows three lines, each of which represents the relation of Granada rainfall to the run -off from the basin for one rainy season, the lines being plotted with the Granada rainfull as ordinates and the fluctuation of Lake Nicaragua that would have occurred if there had been neither outflow nor evaporation as abscissae. This diagram is essentially accu- rate, involving no errors excepting those of observation. Apparently the two years of observation most suitable for comparing with 1897 are the years of 1898 and 1900, these being the years of greatest rain- fall of the three observed. A diagram was plotted in which the line for 1898 was used as the basis for estimating the run-off correspond- ing to rainfalls observed in 1897. On this basis the fluctuation of the lake in 1897 would, if all water had been held, have amounted to nearly 14 feet, bringing the elevation of the lake in the spring of 1897 below 92 feet. There is abundant evidence that this stage of lake did not occur, and that the indication of the observations of 1898 is there- fore erroneous, giving a much greater fluctuation than really occurred. 192 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. This could only be the case if the rainfall for 1898 was lower in propor- tion to the run-off of the basin than that of 1897. That this was really the case is indicated by an examination of the annual total rainfalls for Granada and Rivas on page 189. These show that whereas the rec- ord for Granada exceeded that for Rivas by 32 per cent in 1897, 19 per cent in 1899, and 31 per cent in 1900, in 1898 the excess was 94.4 per cent. Though the rainfall record of Rivas is rejected as inaccu- rate, the above indication is significant when taken in connection with the known facts of the fluctuation of Lake Nicaragua. The estimate of run-off for 1897 was next made, using the observations of 1900 as the basis. The results were obtained by months, taking the run-off indicated by the given rainfall from the 1900 line on the diagram (fig. 18), and adding thereto the evaporation correspond- ing to the period covered. The result is taken as the fluctuation of the lake due to the rainfall and considered with evaporation in full play and with a dam in the river preventing outflow. This result is shown by the continuous line in the diagram (fig. 21). The dotted line in the same diagram shows the fluctuation of the lake on the assumption that the outflow to the San Juan River was that occurring in the state of nature due to the altitude of the lake. It therefore represents the actual changes that took place in the lake surface dur- ing 1897 as inferred from the observations of 1898 and 1900. The rainfall in 1897 was greater than that for 1900, and it was necessary to extrapolate the line indicated in figure 18 for 1900. This is shown by the discontinuous line on the diagram for 1900. The fluctuation of the lake as indicated by this method is about 10 feet in the aggregate, or a little over 8 feet net. The stage of January 4, 1898, having been observed by the Nicaragua Canal Commission, it is known that the lake stood at about 105 at the end of December, 1897. The elevation indicated for May, 1897, 96.7, is somewhat lower than that indicated by the estimate on page 187 and by reports of peo- ple who were in Nicaragua at that time, notably Mr. William Climie. But if this is the case, the errors are on the side of safety and the indications of the diagram may safely be taken as correct. THE SEASON OF MINIMUM SUPPLY. To obtain the probable fluctuation of the lake during nineteen months ending May, 1891, which, as has been shown, includes two dry seasons, and the driest rainy season in all the records at hand, comparison is made between the rainfall for that period at Masaya and the rainfall for 1900 at the same place when the behavior of the lake was observed. The only two years available for this comparison are 1899 and 1900, the former being not quite complete. The relation of rainfall at Masaya and the fluctuation of the lake is shown in fig. 19, page 193, two lines being plotted, for L899 and L900 respectively, as indicated, on the same basis as figure 18, already described. It will be seen from the diagram that by taking 1900 as the basis of comparison we obtain more conservative results than if 1899 were used; that is, a given rainfall at Masaya corresponds to less inflow to the lake than in 1899, this difference being for a dry season on the side of safety. On both diagrams it will be noticed that in the latter part of the year the line tends to approach a horizontal position, there being a RAINFALL AT MASAYA, I N CH ES \T\ | ! II I ' i vivt 1 1 zS&~ ' ' t\ 1 1 1 X- -- 1 ! z H s \J . . m i i Uy,j ! ;. i ! tn V. XV ; IV O V I 1 \i V 1 \ ' V 1 i 01 \c MM j | o ^ 1 IN 1 \>i i \ 1 \ ii \ 1 T 1 \ ' \a £ 1 \i i X > i o 7j i '\i \ 1 ! \y |\l i 1 l"! | 1 X 4_ II 1 U \ \ 1 01 1 ! ff \ i o ! IT > 1 i 1 1 1 \ | "cl 1 ' i ! \ 1 H 1 II 1 1 i Si M 1 1 G Zt \ 1 Ma H U ! ■ & \. , 1 1 - ! v-i \ ! i III \ i : ' 1 1 ; , Kl i ii 1 ^1 ii i \\ n ! i i ° "M : i : ,\ ! \ ' II i i i i \\ i ! 1 i M \\ i ' i 1 i V,va I ' cd ~r U\\ " ^ i 1 o I 1 ! i g» ! ' ' ' ' 1 ' \fl\ r i | ! ; V»\ft i 1 W i (0 1 \ i ! I * \ qz : mi \* \ 1 i m\ i 1 1 ! Bi > i I 1 *' 3 \ i o _t ' 1 i it ZtXIql T 1 ' ^ III i° 1 i Mill 1 Y!l i i - jj , ii_ i y X _j_ _ o \ \ i \ i ' 1 it z}zz|z ■■ _i_ o i i \ 1,1 \ III ! \ 1 1 ' 'i!i i- 1 it 1 \? X ±±: o 1 Vi, ill 14 1 HI? ! i 1 oV o \ o [ III [I 1 I'll 1 II 1 ii 1 1 1 . o ~h i " "1 1 ! 1 ! ^ ~^ T & ~ 1 o "~f . - ; ' _L -X -- X 1 . | J L 1 ! ^_ i i i 1 1 — T o ! t 1 ! II 1 _j REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 193 considerable run-off during the months of November and December with little or no rainfall, this, of course, being- due to the rainfall of previous months. During- 1890 there were only 20.52 inches of rain- fall at Masaya, and this quantity corresponds to the rainfall plotted in the diagram before the end of June at a time when the rainy season had only endured a little over a month and when considerable rain had fallen that had not yet reached the lake, but which did so later on. ' This introduces an actual error into the assumption which may be important, but the magnitude of which can not be accurately estimated. Against this error must be placed the well-known fact that for a large rainfall the percentage of run-off is greater than for a small one on an average, or, in other words, the ratio of run-off to rainfall in 1900 was in the aggregate greater than in 1890. How far these two errors balance each other can not, of course, be known, but it is practically certain that their resultant is to an important degree an error on the side of safety. The result is shown in figure 22, and indicates the fall of the lake from the 1st of November, 1889, to the end of May, 1891, the driest consecutive period of nineteen months of which we have record. It indicates that if all water had been held by a dam at the outlet of the lake, and 1,000 cubic feet per second had been used for canal purposes throughout that period, the surface of the lake would have declined 6.2 feet. No resistance can be offered to the decline of the lake dur- ing a dry period, except to keep all sluices closed, and therefore we ma} 7 expect an unavoidable decline under extreme conditions of 6.2 feet in nineteen months. The rise of the lake in seasons of excessive rainfall can be combated b} T the discharge of water through the dam at Boca San Carlos and into the valle} 7 of Grande River on the west side. It is not permissible to use the latter outlet extensively, owing to the danger of carrying to the sea an excessive quantity of detritus and thereby obstructing the harbor at JBrito. It is necessary, therefore, that the surplus waters be discharged to the eastward through the San Juan River. If adjustable sluices be provided at Boca San Carlos, to discharge any desired quantity of water, the problem resolves itself into the estimation of the capacity of the canalized San Juan River. This is a function of the cross section, roughness, and slope, the latter depending upon the stage of the lake. To determine the coefficient of roughness, computations were made of the value of the factor il n" in Kutter's formula, using measured slope, velocity, cross section, and discharge of the San Juan River. These computations, which were exceedingly laborious, were made by Mr. S. H. Woodard, and the resulting mean values of "«," varied from 0.022 to 0.024. Applying the latter value to the canalized river, its discharging capacity was computed for the various elevations at the lake and at Boca San Carlos. The accompanying diagram (fig. 20) has been constructed by Mr. Woodard, showing his results. It shows that with water at the dam held at 104 the discharging capacity varies from zero to 63,000 cubic feet per second, while the lake level rises from 104 to 110. Applying these facts to the lake supply shown in figures 18 and 19, we obtain results shown in figure 22. That is, if the canal had been constructed and the lake surface at S. Doc. 54, pt 2 13 11)4 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 1 < ) 7 . 3 on the 1st of June, 1897, the lake would have risen to 110.6 by the end of June, in spite of the discharge through the river with sluices left open, holding the water level at 104 at the dam. During July and August the discharge would have been greater than the inflow, and the lake might have been drawn down to 109.8. It would have risen slightly in September, and receded again in October. But after June the discharge would have been checked, because it is necessary to hold the lake at 110.2 at the end of October to provide against exceptional drought. The aim would have been, therefore, for obvious reasons, to hold the lake as nearly as possidle to the line ABC, and after the end of June this could have been accomplished. If, instead of the very wet year 1897, the driest year in the record, 1890, had occurred, the sluices would have remained closed, and the lake surface would have declined 3.3 feet under the combined influence of inflow, evaporation, and the consumption of 1,000 cubic feet per second, from 107.3 to 101, by the opening of the following rainy sea- son, when the lake may be expected to rise. If the elevation of 101 feet be adopted as the minimum summit level to be permitted, the lake must be at a stage not lower than 107.3 feet at the beginning of the rainy season, as it may be a season of minimum precipitation, so that the lake will decline 3.3 feet in the ensuing twelve months. To do this, each rainy season must be closed with the lake at 110.2 as the unavoidable loss during the dry season is 2.9 feet, as shown by figure 22. Should the following wet season be one of heavy rainfall like 1897, the lake will rise to about 110.6 in spite of all the discharge of which the river is capable. If, instead of a very wet season, the rainfall should be slight, like that of 1890, the lake would decline to 104 by the opening of the next rainy season, with all the sluices closed. Our present information indicates, therefore, that the lake can be kept within limits of 6.6 feet, provided two minimum years do not occur in succession, which seems to be a safe assumption. As neither the maximum nor minimum years have been actually observed, there is necessarily some uncertainty in any estimates that can be made for such years. It has been the effort to make the esti- mates conservative, as indicated in the discussion. If actual condi- tions should occur which are more extreme than those we have con- sidered, it might be necessary to allow a greater fluctuation than 6.6 feet. If a season of greater inflow than that estimated for L897 should occur, it would be necessary to allow the lake to stand temporarily at a higher level than 110.6. If experience should show a season of less inflow than that estimated for 1890, it would be necessary to begin each rainy season with the lake surface higher than 107.3 and to close it with the lake above 1 10.2 in order to prevent its decline below 104. A very slight increase in the upper limit allowed is a great relief to the conditions, since this not only increases the allowable fluctuations, but also increases the discharge capacity of the river. If the lake should reach a height of 1 1 1 feet, it would only be repeating the con- ditions that have probably occurred in its natural state. The water might rise to a height of I 1 -1 feet, or even higher, without doing any great amount of damage, and il is probable that permission to allow this could without difficulty he included in the concession. We could then begin each month of June with the lake at elevation LOS; if the rainy season should furnish 20 per cent more water than that estimated for 1897. we could still control the lake within the 112-foot ELEVATION OF WATER SURFACE AT LAKE oooooooooo — row>tn(j)via>(x>0 — N u — ' 1 — 1 — X X III 1 1 1 X ~j ' 1 i T " T 1 "■- ' -' — TT" \ I 1 T - T ' i ! 1 ! V zp x £ ' T • ! : \ ° — 1 IT U _:: 1 T i—- iJ-J O In 1 1 X£\ '" ' 25 ° \S> i K - _{ ' 1 X 1 'if Vk, ! ! U l — r^l Yr" ' ' V \r \r 1 ! I 1 Kf°> I \vf\ P Ir ^ ^V^T \< KM : i TO -\X 1 \P. i-r |i ' \-> V H a -1- i 1 \f) i \0 \- \^r ! 8 M \4 V VO 1 X ' 6 1 ! \J i V' \x \ 1 i \d> \-> \i_ 10 - \*\ W* V-n V en ! |\ 1, ! M Yr ' 1^ ' 2 -- - \ \w \ ¥?- yL l-p 1 -■ 1 : iV'i ' \y \ft AH >r T ■- ^'J \V Y^ i : \n ^ - ■■ ! ' tt^l ' V L -^-llLT- ! 4& ' p§ -.._.. I Wj \ Q \5J| X n - i \io U «l ' \^ 6 _l- J .. \C Ki P^ {£ 1 In -t- t -(- ■ ! >U V ^ Vq \X -? 1 X* ~N^ V"^ -i-\' , -t! V X-. ^~ £L 1 rl ■ X XSx C X y ti ir"* I wK ij* I 0±. ■■ -- - . X-A*- V 1 \ 1 1 i \n I £$ - -X* ^ w y, \?i ^S_ _____ __±_ --- ■ tf> \r 1 \o [ ! ' ' \b' ' ' ' ' -no T sd \u 1 V^ i$t m n [ T 1 \ V ' V \ H X \£> ^ :\> j \c ! ■ i -n "1" ! v v ! \J ' ' \ ' \ \ 1 1 \ ' \ 3o \ \ \ 1" J S \ \ 1 i" j _- X \ i vl 1 \ \i ' \ *\ \ n ~ 1 \l F\ \ \ T x \ \ \ \| 9 _ : ±± N \ v 1 \ s — — — X v 1 V j 1 \ u ! \ > \ 1 i\ \ \ \ \ \ 1 1 1 p r ' ^ \ ^ \ - r 1 \ \ \ -+. S \ \ 1 ± \ \ \ ^ \ ^r V" V \ \ \ \ \ \ n. \ ^ \ \ \ * X - - X x \ \ \ \ \ \ \ n. *k n 1 JV^ \ 1 \ O \ \ 1 > ±x -3i_s:: X T ^r S- 1 X t 1 S c ^v ± :: s - tit x __ _ __ __ __X _j REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 195 limit. If, instead, the rainy season should furnish only one-half the supply estimated for 1890, the lake would fall to just 104 by the open- ing oi the next rainy season. This is certainly a very wide margin of safety. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY. The temperature of Nicaragua is remarkably uniform. While some' of the higher mountain regions have a rather cool climate, there is never any frost, and in general it may be said that in the inhabited portion of the country the temperature seldom exceeds 95° or falls belows 70°, and in any given locality the annual fluctuation is usually still less. The relative humidity is high, except during the dry season on the west side of the isthmus. Temperature and relative humidity at Tola gauge station, Nicaragua. Temperature. Mean rel- ative hu- midity. Months. Temperature. Mean rel- Months. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Mean. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Mean. ative hu- midity. 1900. January February 86.0 86.5 91.5 94.0 93.0 86.5 74.0 73.0 73.0 75.5 73.5 72.0 79.0 81.0 82.5 84.8 82.0 80.5 81.0 79.6 78.2 79.0 88.2 86.2 1900. July 87.0 88.0 90.0 88.0 87.0 88.0 73.0 75.5 72.5 72.0 72.0 74.0 78.9 80.6 80.6 79.0 79.6 79.8 89.4 August September October November December 93.2 94.0 95.2 88.6 88.6 Temperature and relative humidity. SAPOA, NICARAGUA. Months. Temperature. Maximum. Minimum Mean. Mean relative humidity. 1899 August September October November December 1900. January February March April May June July August September October November December 87.0 96.0 94.0 •86.0 84.0 84.5 86.0 89.0 94.0 93.5 91.5 89.5 87.5 88.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 72.0 70.0 71.0 70.0 72.0 73.0 73.0 73.0 75.0 75.0 72.0 74.0 74.0 74.0 71.0 71.0 72.0 79.6 80.5 78.9 78.5 80.3 77.9 79.0 80.3 80.4 82.8 81.3 79.9 80.8 79.8 78.9 78.9 79.1 87.8 89.0 89.4 89.8 87.0 88.6 87.8 85.0 82.6 84.6 88.4 89.8 90.0 92.0 94.0 91.8 91.4 RIVAS, NICARAGUA. 1900. January February March April May June July August September October November December 75.0 76.2 73.0 77.4 74.0 78.5 79.0 81.0 77.0 80.0 75.0 78.6 75.0 77.8 76.0 79.0 76.0 77.8 74.0 77.0 73. 77.4 72.0 77.7 86.2 80.8 78.6 80.8 85.4 89.8 89.4 86.2 90.2 91.0 89.0 82.6 196 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Temperature and relative humidity — Continued. SAN UBALDO, NICARAGUA. September October . . . November. December . January... February.. March April May June July August September October November. December . Months. 1900. Temperature. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 95.0 91.0 91.0 88.0 92.0 93.0 99.0 98.0 101.0 94.0 92.0 93.0 93.0 91.0 90.0 91.0 72.0 72.0 72.0 67.0 69.0 69.0 68.0 72.0 75.0 75.0 71.0 73.0 73.0 70.0 71.0 70.0 81.7 79.8 80.0 78.5 79.6 80.7 82.9 86.3 85.8 82.9 81.4 83.0 83.1 80.6 80.3 81.2 Mean relative humidity FORT SAN CARLOS, NICARAGUA. January February . March April May June July August September October . . . November December 84.0 85.0 90.0 93.0 93.0 69.0 75.9 66. 76.9 70.0 77.6 69.0 79.6 71.0 80.4 73.0 78.6 72.0 78.0 73.0 79.1 73.0 79.2 72.0 77.7 69.0 76.5 72.0 77.6 70.5 76.9 January.. February 1900. 86.0 87.5 89.0 86.5 84.0 84.0 85.0 85.5 CAMP SABALOS, NICARAGUA. January February .. March April May June July August September . October. . . . November . December.. 1899. 86.0 86.0 90.0 91.0 92.0 66.0 75.2 64.0 76.0 68.0 77.1 67. 5 78. 2 70.0 79.4 71.0 78.8 71.5 77.8 71.5 78. 1 71.0 Vs. 9 71.0 77.2 66.0 75.1 66. 6 75.3 68.0 76. 67.0 76.8 67.5 79.5 72.0 80.4 71.0 79.0 72. 77.0 72. 5 77.0 72.0 78.7 71.0 77.8 68. 5 74.6 68. 5 76. 4 January February . March April , May June July August September . October November December.. 88.0 92.0 91.0 91.0 87.0 81.0 85.0 87.0 89.0 96. 95.5 90.0 87.0 86. 5 92.0 89.0 86.0 85.0 O CO t~ (D ifl o o o o o o O z / 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CC Id O OQ Of o So o \ { \ \ \ \ \ \ \ c hi CD o bl u (0 \ \ \ \ \ , o 3 O < " \ \ \ \ \ \ ... \ V ° D -> O \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ "8 D ") o \N ^^c^ „ ^v; v ^^ < 2 o n \ i V V \ REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Temperature and relative humidity — Continued. OCHOA, COSTA RICA. 197 Months. Temperature. Mean relative humidity. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 1899. 84.5 86.0 91.0 88.5 89.5 86.0 85.5 86.0 90.0 88.5 87.0 84.5 83.6 87.0 87.0 93.5 92.5 91.0 87.0 86.0 92.5 87.5 86.0 85.0 07.0 68.0 67. 68.0 70.0 72.0 72.5 71.5 72.0 72.5 72.0 68.0 70.0 70.0 69.0 69.0 74.0 73.0 71.5 73.5 73.0 72.5 70.5 70.5 74.8 75.3 75.6 76.6 77.9 77.7 77.3 77.5 78.4 79.0 77.4 75.1 75.7 76.6 77.1 79.8 80.4 79.6 78.0 77.9 80.0 78.6 77.0 76.8 93.2 91.9 89.7 87.0 90.6 90.2 July. 92.6 92.2 89.8 89.0 91.4 92.6 1900. 90.6 87.8 87.0 85.4 87.0 88.6 Julv 90.6 92.6 87.0 89.8 91.0 90.6 GREYTOWN, NICARAGUA. 1899. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1900. January February March April May June July August September October November December 87.0 89.0 89.0 94.0 93.0 92.0 91.0 89.0 92.0 91.0 88.0 86.0 69.0 77.8 66.0 77.2 72.0 79.7 70.0 80.6 72.0 81.0 74.0 79.5 73.0 78.7 72.0 78.0 73. 79.3 72.0 80.3 73.0 78.2 70.0 76.0 71.0 77.4 71.0 78.6 71.0 78.3 70.0 81.7 74.0 81.2 75.0 81.1 73.0 78.6 75. 80.0 74.0 80.9 73. 79.3 72.0 77.2 71.0 78.6 87.3 87.7 80.9 78.0 84.0 85.4 86.2 87.4 86.6 84.2 88.6 88.2 87.0 85.0 83.0 80.8 85.6 83.2 87.8 86.2 84.8 87.8 89.8 84.2 SEDIMENT OBSERVATIONS. An}^ proposition for a ship canal which involves the use of the San Juan River below the mouth of the San Carlos requires for its intelli- gent consideration some idea of the quantity of sediment carried by that stream, and if the San Juan is to be used below the mouth of the Sarapiqui the sediment carried by that stream becomes also an impor- tant factor. To determine these quantities samples of water were taken daily, allowed to settle, and the sediment measured. The sam- 198 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. pies were taken at not less than a dozen places in the river, the water taken aggregating several gallons, and representing approximately the average of the various parts of the current. The samples were thor- oughly mixed, and one sample of 100 cubic centimeters taken from the mixture and the rest rejected. The sample taken was allowed to settle for twenty-four hours, the clear water poured off, and another sample added to the remainder, the clear water was decanted, the next day another sample added, and so on. accumulating any sediment that remained until it became a measurable quantity, when its depth was read on the graduated glass in which the settlement was made. This reading gives, of course, only the bulk of the loose mud, and not the dry solid matter. The relation between the mud and dry matter as determined by a series of experiments for a similar purpose made on sediment from the Gila River, Arizona, was live parts of mud to one of dry material. This factor has, therefore, been used in reducing the results. The taking of water samples and measurement of sediment therein would not furnish all the required data, as these streams roll large quantities of sand and gravel along their beds, which could not be taken in water samples. So far as could be learned, no attempt at such measurements had ever been made, and it was recognized as a task of difficulty. The method devised was as follows: A galvanized sheet-iron pan was provided (tig. 6, p. 155), 1 meter square and 8 inches deep, with one side hinged so that it could be opened to lie in the same plane as the bottom of the pan, and a weight and stays were provided to hold it in this horizontal position. Four chains, attached one to each corner of the top of the pan, met about 4 feet above the pan and united in a ring, and the whole was sus- pended from a cable stretched across the river, with the door open upstream. An anchor was thrown about 100 feet upstream to hold the pan firmly in position, while it was gently lowered from the cable by means of a rope from shore working in tackle blocks. The pan was allowed to settle firmly on the bottom and to remain for a limited time, usually one hour. The attempt is to cause the minimum dis- turbance of natural conditions in the stream, and to intercept and hold in the pan the sediment traveling along the bottom in the section it occupies. When it is desired to close the observation, a small cop- per wire which has been fastened to the open door and passed through the ring above the pan is stoutly pulled until it raises the lid from the bottom of the stream, whereupon the current catches and slams the lid shut, where it is automatically fastened by a latch on each side. Then, by means of a windlass on shore, the pan is hoisted and brought to land and the entrapped sediment measured. There is nothing about this operation to increase the motion of sediment along the oottom into the pan, so it is thought that results can never be too large. On the other hand, some sand may pass under the edge of the lid when the bottom of the river at this point is marred with local inequalities. This is supposed to be one cause of the small results on certain days, when other observations immediately before or after give large results. Another persistent source of error of unknown magnitude is the washing out of the sediment by the current over the weir formed by the back of the pan. To test the importance of this theoretical possibility a temporary partition was placed in the pan perpendicular to the current, and nearly as high as the sides of the c ? g g g g o o 3: (f a QTo 5S 0) / U.0 / / 28 1* / / <->2 QS / / / >o ZQ / // / / *-8 u OS si / / 1 d8 Do <*■/ •J*/ 2(1 u IT. *v °! 1 eg u o Z~ D 2 ^ N h cr'o (To / . '8 z - REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 199 pan, the theory being that if all sediment were stopped by the parti- tion and deposited in front of it that would be good evidence that in the absence of the partition all would be stopped by the back of the pan and none lost. In the first experiment more sediment was deposited behind than in front of the partition, and the quantity that passed out of the pan is unknown. This result was essentially re- peated for most of the experiments, showing conclusively that more- or less sediment is carried out over the back of the pan by the scour which it occasions. It is important to bear this fact in mind when studying the results, for it is certain that the results are quantitatively too small, and should be regarded as showing that large quantities of sediment are traveling on the bed of the stream, and as roughly indi- cating the relative amount. Sediment by water samples from San Juan River at Sabalos Station. [Five cubic yards of mud are assumed equal to 1 cubic yard of solid matter.] Months. 1900 January February March April May June Mud. Cubic yds. 1.224J 120 677, 936 609, 691 641, 073 758, 470 717, 401 Solid matter. Cubic yds. 244, 824 135, 587 121, 938 128, 215 151, 694 143, 480 Months. 1900. July August September... October November December Mud. Cubic yds. 1, 038, 808 831, 234 612,973 566, 014 542, 392 534, 232 Solid matter. Cubic yds. 207, 762 166, 247 122, 595 113,203 108, 478 106, 846 Sediment, by water samples, from San Juan River at Ochoa. 1899. 1900. Months. Mud. Solid mat- ter. Mud. Solid mat- ter. Cubic yards. 1, 139, 623 860, 125 765, 275 1, 055, 212 1, 162, 524 709, 230 2,969,998 2,257,480 3, 107, 248 1,260,497 2, 658, 002 1,696,789 Cubicyard;-. 227, 925 172, 025 153, 055 211,042 232, 505 141,846 594,000 451,496 621,450 252, 099 531,600 339, 358 Cubic yards. 1,348,513 651,461 585, 215 474, 309 913, 695 1,26V, 086 1, 526, 670 1,869,237 2,759,489 3, 727, 661 2,498,526 2,097,570 Cubicyards. 269, 703 130,292 117,043 94, 862 May 182, 739 253, 417 July 305, 334 373,847 551, 898 745,532 499, 705 419,514 Note.— Five cubic yards of mud are assumed equal to 1 cubic yard of solid matter. Sediment rolled on bottom of San Carlos River. COSTA RICA. Date. 1899. April 18 April 24 April 29 Mavll May 22 May 26 June5 June 13 June 27 Gauge height. 11.40 11. 05 10. 95 10.80 11.40 12.80 11.55 12.90 12 75 Amount collected per hour. Cubic cen- timeters. 27, 124 950 9,954 53, 088 31,400 44,993 28, 203 34,839 94, 563 Total for river. Cu. yards per hour. 7.10 .25 2.60 13.89 9 11.17 7.38 9.11 24.74 Mean for month. Cu. yards per hour. 3.32 11.55 "41.23 Total for month. Cubic yards. 2, 390 8,593 '•29 ](\SG Remarks. Gravel and sand. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. 200 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Sediment rolled on bottom of San Carlos River — Continued. COSTA RICA— Continued. Date. Gauge height. Amount collected per hour. Total for river. Mean for mouth. Total for mouth. Cu. yards per hour. 26. 47 Cubic yards. ' 19, 694 •J). M3 15, 498 15. 13 10.80 3.01 11,257 7,776 2,239 2. 80 9.65 2, 083 7,180 6. 23 1,34 4,486 997 16. 97 12, 218 Remarks. 1899. July 19 August 2 August 12 August 18 August 25 August 28 October 7 October 30 October 31 November 4 December 4 1900. March 15 March 21 March 23 May 14 June 27 June 29 August 29 September 6 Septembers 15.40 14.80 13.70 13.86 14.45 13.60 13.00 12.70 12.80 12.50 14.72 11.36 11.10 12. 13 11.70 12.41 14.16 14.37 13.50 14.50 Cubic cen- timeters. 101, 200 115,530 46, 752 105, 660 78, 555 61, 615 102, 465 29, 100 41,940 41,300 11,500 6,300 4,400 21,350 36,900 31,080 16, 537 5,124 64, 075 65, 700 Cu. yardi per hour. 26.47 30.22 12. 23 27.64 20. 55 13.50 26.80 7.61 10.97 10.80 3.01 1.65 1.15 5.69 9.65 8.13 4.33 1.34 16.76 17.19 Gravel and sand. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. . Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. D.». Do. Sediment rolled on bottom ofSarapiqui River. COSTA RICA. Date. 1899 March 2 March 9 March 14 April 5 April 7 April 12 April 22 May5 May 15 May 24 May 29 June 7 June 15 June 20 June 27 July 2 July 8 July 20 July 29 August 1 August 10 August 23 August 26 Gauge height. 8.3 8.9 7.6 7.6 7.8 Amount collected per hour. Cubic cen- ti mi d rs. 6,500 10,000 1,500 15,500 40, 000 41,000 4,000 1,000 2,060 7,400 5,000 7,000 31,. 500 32, 500 3,200 10,600 29, 500 36, 000 4,000 60,000 118,500 71,000 20, 000 Total for river. Cu. yards per hour. 0.84 1.30 .20 2.01 5.20 5.33 .52 .13 .27 .96 .65 .91 4.09 4.22 .42 1.38 3.83 4.68 .52 7.80 15. lo 9. 23 2.60 Mean for ; Total for month. ' month. Cu. yards per hour. ,.~>o I 'libit- yards. Remarks. 2. 3-17 L.735 Sand and gravel. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. WIND MOVEMENT. One point of interest in the consideration of the isthmian canal is the strength and persistence of winds, considered as motive force for sailing vessels and as annoyance to the navigation of the canal and to ships entering and leaving port. The persistence of the trade winds lias frequently been mentioned in discussions of the Nicaragua Canal route. In 1898, it being neces- sary to take gauge readings at Las Lajas, on the western margin of the lake, for transferring the level line across the lake, a camp with an observer was established here, who observed the gauge height of the REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 201 lake at the hours of 6 and !> a. in., 12 noon, 3 and 6 p. m. Note of the condition of the lake surface was made at each observation, and from January L9, 1898, when the observations began, until the 1st of May a heavy surf w as beating on the beach at this point at every obser- vation, due to the persistence of the trade winds. A few days of calm occurred in May and at later periods during the rainy season. On May 16, 1900, an anemometer was installed at Greytown and' observed at 8 a. m., 12 noon, and 6 p. m. each day, and the record was kept practically continuous to the end of the year. In all this time not a single day occurred without wind movement. The highest veloc- ity recorded was something over 40 miles per hour, and this only occurred on one day, November 13, the mean for that day being 24.5. The results of the observations are shown in the following table: Anemometer record, Greytmim, Nicaragua. Anemometer readings. Miles. Day. Anemometer readings. Miles. Day. 8 a.m. 12 m. 6 p.m. Per day. Per hour. 8 a.m. 12 m. 6 p.m. Per day. Per hour. May 16 78.0 93.6 117. 2 68.7 2.9 July 14... 310.1 349.2 395.0 153.9 6.5 May 17 ... . 146.7 178.0 212. 1 99.4 4.1 July 15... 464.0 478.0 502.5 108.2 4.5 May 18 ... . 246.1 271.0 313.6 127. 1 5.3 July 16... 572. 2 590.0 664.5 145.8 6.1 May 19 ... . 373.2 399.0 403.3 62.3 2.6 July 17... 718.0 733.0 761.5 102. 2 4.3 May 20 435.5 450.3 497.5 97.6 4.1 July 18... 820.2 860.1 895.0 142.8 5.9 May 21 533.1 553.4 589.0 85.2 3.6 July 19... 963.0 991.5 47.0 121.6 5.1 May 22 ... . 618.3 639.3 688.6 105.0 4.4 July 20 . . . 84.6 91.2 116.0 62.5 2.6 May 23 ... . 723.3 755.5 801.2 99.9 4.2 July 21... 147.1 166.5 182.3 84.4 3.5 May 24 ... . 823. 2 869.0 916.1 119.8 6.0 July 22... 231.5 246.2 276.0 73.6 3.1 May 25 943.0 984.1 41.7 139.5 5.8 July 23 . . . 305.1 330.0 363.2 83.4 3.5 May 26 82.5 95.5 130.9 91.1 3.8 July 24... 388.5 406.5 438.0 83.5 3.5 May 27 ... . 173.6 195.2 226.0 115.2 4.8 July 25... 472.0 490.1 543.2 107.0 4.4 May 28 288.8 317.8 353.5 129.8 5.8 July 26 . . . 579.0 602. 1 650.8 134.0 5.6 May 29 ... . 418.6 438.8 467.7 84.7 3.5 July 27... 713.0 725.8 758.0 81.0 3.4 May 30 ... . 503.3 521. 1 549.1 101.7 4.2 July 28... 794.0 836.0 889.2 135.0 5.6 May 31 ... . 605.0 626.2 652.1 72.4 3.0 July 29... 929.0 941.3 994.0 84.5 3.5 June 1 677.4 786.1 754.5 127.4 5.3 July 30... 13.5 24.1 55.2 76.0 3.2 June 2 804.5 922. 9 980.9 121.8 5.1 July 31 . . . 89.5 102.3 156.2 110.5 4.0 June 3 926. 3 950.8 3.2 118.8 4.5 Aug. 1.... 200.0 215.8 250.0 127.2 5.3 June 4 45.1 81.5 100.4 164.9 6.5 Aug. 2.... 327.2 339.3 381.2 93.8 3.9 June 5 200. 222. 8 278.9 195.7 8.2 Aug. 3.... 421.0 433.6 552. 7 230.5 9.6 June 6 395.7 413.5 431.0 94.5 3.5 Aug. 4 651.5 663.7 700.0 71.6 3.0 June 7 490.2 525. 562.4 133.5 5.6 Aug. 5 723.1 732. 4 778.3 85.9 3.6 June 8 623. 7 659.1 694.0 106.3 4.4 Aug. 6 809.0 838.7 874.0 104.2 4.4 June 9 730.0 754.0 801.0 102.1 4.3 Aug. 7 913. 2 924.2 950. 86.8 3.6 June 10 832. 1 835.0 842.5 99.4 4.2 Aug. 8.... 1,000.0 9.2 29.0 120.7 5.0 June 11 931.5 973.1 19.0 123.8 5.1 Aug. 9.... 120. 7 141.9 196.0 119.5 5.0 June 12 55.3 111.0 133.0 114.7 4.9 Aug. 10... 240.2 252. 1 284.8 148.8 6.2 June 13 170.0 193. 2 221. 5 81.0 3.4 Aug. 11... 389.0 415.0 487.6 215.5 8.9 June 14 251. 283.0 315.2 101.1 4.2 Aug. 12... 604.5 612.0 625. 2 74.2 3.1 June 15 352. 1 370.7 416.3 97.7 4.1 Aug. 13... 678.7 700.2 734.5 48.0 2.0 June 16 449.8 473.1 499.0 75.8 3.2 Aug. 14... 726.7 820. 867.5 216.7 9.0 June 17 525.6 554.1 569. 78.4 3.3 Aug. 15... 943.4 975.0 32.5 118.9 4.9 June 18 604.0 620.2 653. 6 128.0 5.3 Aug. 16... 62.3 79.6 116.1 93.3 3.9 June 19 732.0 751.6 784.1 93.7 3.9 Aug. 17... 155.6 182.3 246.8 141.4 5.9 June 20 825.7 837.2 855. 2 79.3 3.3 Aug. 18... 297.0 312.4 349.5 101.1 4.2 June 21 905.0 832.0 953.2 82.1 3.4 Aug. 19... 398.1 416.2 446.7 97.1 4.0 June 22.... 987.1 10.7 45.2 78.7 3.3 Aug. 20... 495.2 506.4 549.0 102.1 4.3 June 23 65.8 81.2 186.7 146.3 6.1 Aug. 21... 597.3 646.6 680.0 102.0 4.2 June 24 212. 1 237.3 307.2 117.0 4.8 Aug. 22... 699.3 718.7 743.2 75.8 3.2 June 25 329.1 343.3 378.8 72.5 3.0 Aug. 23... 775.1 787.4 818.1 78.6 3.3 June 26... 401.6 419.1 470.0 98.4 4.1 Aug. 24... 853.7 877.4 944.2 138.6 5.8 June, 27 600.0 615. 5 567.2 103.0 4.3 Aug. 25... 992.3 18.7 65.5 114.3 4.3 June 28.... 603.0 624.2 664.0 129.0 5.4 Aug. 26... 106.6 117.8 141. 2 84.2 3.5 June 29 732.0 744.2 822.5 147.0 6.1 Aug. 27... 190.8 214.6 261. 137.2 5.7 June 30.... 879.0 897.6 967.0 155.1 6.5 Aug. 28... 328.0 346.2 409.0 138.1 5.8 July 1 34.1 50.0 69.1 77.8 3.2 Aug. 29... 466.1 424.5 511.9 74.9 3.2 July 2 111.9 152.2 172.4 97.1 4.1 Aug. 30... 541.0 552.7 536.2 140.0 5.8 Jnly3 209.0 219.1 235.8 54.2 2.3 Aug. 31... 681.0 698.3 739.6 87.4 3.6 July 4 263.2 281.0 328. 4 113.9 4.7 Sept.l.... 768.4 782.0 799.3 70.7 2.9 July 5 . . . 377.1 397.4 463.5 140.9 5.9 Sept. 2 839.1 848.3 890.1 81.4 3.4 July 6 . 518.0 532.1 568.9 99.0 4.2 Sept. 3.... 920.5 947.2 999.0 79.5 3.3 July 7 . 617.0 625.1 683.1 167.8 7.0 Sept. 4 1,000.0 19.9 76.5 102. 4.3 July 8 784.8 806.1 843.2 88.4 3.7 Sept. 5.... 102. 120.2 163.8 97.2 4.1 July 9 . . 873.2 890. 5 920.1 94.8 3.9 Sept. 6.... 199.2 211.1 250.4 108.2 4.5 July 10.... 968.0 995. 2 62. 5 102.0 4.3 Sept.7.... 307.4 326.4 369.0 89.6 3.7 July 11.... 70.0 83.2 105. 2 58.1 2.4 Sept. 8.... 397.0 411.5 461.0 89.7 3.8 July 12.... 128.1 140. 2 169.7 85.7 3.0 Sept. 9.... 486.7 507. 2 553. 6 114.7 4.8 July 13 ... . 213.8 230.0 276. 5 96.3 4.1 Sept. 10... 601.4 621.0 673.1 99.9 4.2 202 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION Anemometer record, Greytown, Nicaragua — Continued. Hay. Sept, 11.... Sept. 12.... Sept. 13.... Sept, 14.... Sept. 15.... Sept. 16.... Sept. 17.... Sept. 18.... Sept. 19.... Sept. 20 Sept. 21.... Sept. 22.... Sept, 23.... Sept. 24.... Sept. 26.... Sept. 26.... Sept. 27.... Sept. 28.... Sept. 29.... Sept, 30.... Oct.l Oct.2 Oct. 3 Anemometer readings. a. m. 12 m. 6 p. m Oct. 4 Oct. 5 Oct. 6 Oct. 7 Oct.8 Oct. 9 Oct, 10.... Oct. 11. ... Oct. 12.... Oct. 13.... Oct. 14.... Oct. 15.... Oct. 16.... Oct. 17.... Oct. 18.... Oct. 19.... Oct, 20.... Oct. 21.... Oct. 22.... Oct. 23.... Oct. 24.... Oct. 25.... Oct. 26"... Nov. 1 . . . . Nov. 2.... Nov.3.... Nov. 4 Nov. 5 Nov. 6 Xov.7.... Nov.8.... 701.3 803.1 860.7 941.7 37.2 146.7 292. 2 452.0 523. 614. 2 765.1 884.7 996.0 82.3 231. 5 337.4 534.7 675.5 801.3 986.0 127.8 236.3 333.0 447.2 598.1 729. 3 831.1 901.2 31.3 117.1 229. 298. 4 386.0 438. 6 591.1 679.0 797.3 902. 17.3 109.3 217.1 321.1 443.3 194. 7 612. 769.4 319. 5 574.5 693.7 siiT.:; 8.7 92. 9 453. 719.5 815. 7 873.4 953.1 52.1 160.5 321.6 472.1 540.8 632.4 783.9 899.0 15.6 100.2 243.6 361.2 553.1 693.3 824.4 20.1 162.2 251.2 347.1 472.3 623.0 747.8 846.2 923. 6 57.6 122. 5 246. 4 316. 2 399.4 463.1 608.7 699.3 812.5 912. 3 38.2 125. 2 232. 339. 2 477.0 516. 2 650. 805. 1 326. 1 593. 716.5 912.0 25.8 74.5 763.3 845.0 911.6 1,000.0 102. 3 223.2 401.3 501.3 601.2 681.1 830.5 948.9 49.5 161.1 299.4 433.1 612.2 759.1 900.0 97.3 203. 7 300.0 406.4 557.9 693.2 795.9 880.0 1,000.0 111.1 202. 6 273. 1 359. 6 427.1 556. 9 648.6 753.2 860. 995.1 76.1 198.6 275.4 381.2 488.2 578.3 700.3 867.4 515.2 631.9 694. 980.9 125.6 118.2 Miles. Per Per day. hour. 403. 480. 5 210. 6 101.8 57.6 81.0 95.5 109.5 145.5 159.8 71.0 91.2 150. 9 119.6 111.3 86.3 149.2 105.9 197.3 140.8 125.8 184.7 141.8 108. 5 96.7 114.2 150.9 131.2 101.8 70.1 130.1 85.8 111.9 69.4 87.6 52.6 152. 5 87.9 118.3 104.7 115.3 92.0 107.8 104.0 122.2 51.4 117.3 157.4 255. 119.2 113.6 201.4 84.2 4.2 2.4 3.4 4.0 4.5 6.1 6.6 3.0 3.8 6.3 5.0 4.6 3.6 6.2 4.4 8.2 5.9 5.2 7.7 6.9 4.6 4.0 4.3 6.3 5.4 4.2 2.9 5.4 3.6 4.7 2.9 3.6 2.2 6.4 3.6 4.9 4.4 4.8 3.8 4.5 4.3 5.1 2.1 4.9 6.6 10.6 5.0 4.7 8.4 3.5 Day. Nov. 9 . . Nov. 10 . Nov. 11. Nov. 12. Nov. 13 . Nov. 14 . Nov. 15 . Nov. 16 . Nov. 17. Nov. 18. Nov. 19. Nov. 20 . Nov. 21. Nov. 22 . Nov. 23. Nov. 24 . Nov. 25. Nov. 26 . Nov. 27 . Nov. 28 . Nov. 29 . Nov. 30. Dec.l .. Dec. 2 .. Dec. 3 .. Dec. 4 .. Dec. 5 .. Dec. 6 .. Dec. 7 . . Dec. 8 .. Dec. 9 .. Dec. 10 . Dec. 11 . Dec. 12 . Dec. 13 . Dec. 14 . Dec. 15. Dec. 16 . Dec, 17 . Dec. 18 . Dec. 19 . Dec. 20 . Dec. 21 . Dec. 22 . Dec. 23 . Dec. 24 . Dec. 25 . Dec 26 Dec. 27 Dec. 28 . Dec. 29 . Dec. 3d Dec. 31 . Anemometer readings. 8 a. m. 663.6 860.7 97.1 246.0 424.2 12.8 84.3 294.7 358. 6 437.9 563.0 702.5 860.1 938.9 994.2 191.0 504. 2 620. 9 820. 4 936.2 992.0 458.6 610.5 835.1 963.4 106.8 261.0 510.0 798. 4 894.0 92.3 209. 5 294.7 401.2 16C. I 536. 1 631.5 761.8 894.0 997.1 142.9 296. 3 480.2 598. 6 693. 860.1 694.0 907.1 145.3 234.6 608.5 81.1 94.7 213.6 411.0 490.4 592.8 740.6 878.0 963.4 14.8 214.6 524.0 769.8 846.2 958.7 210. 5 521.4 674.2 92.8 168.2 22] . I 289.6 338. 2 866.4 21.0 150.1 296.5 646.3 824.0 976.5 141.6 261.2 312.1 419.5 484.6 581.2 649.0 794.0 931.4 12. 1 186.1 361.2 511.2 623. 9 768. 2 978. 111.4 179.0 236. 302.5 356.4 6 p. m. 747.8 955.2 136.6 227.9 870.0 87.4 135.7 355. 2 428.2 499.0 640.7 794.3 921.6 986.0 132.5 384.0 657.7 798.3 910.1 971.6 401.6 539.0 760.1 902. 8 49.2 187.6 330.0 741.0 866.2 997.0 188.9 278.6 329. 6 439.2 504.9 001.4 684.0 822. 6 962.0 87.6 241.0 398. 531.4 641.7 802.0 Miles. Per da v. Per hour. 197.1 236.4 148.9 178.2 588. 6 71.5 210.4 63.9 79.3 125. 1 139.5 157.6 78.8 55.3 196.8 313.2 116.7 199.5 115.8 55.8 466.6 151.9 61.7 137. 5 194.7 252.3 319.8 879. 6 128.3 143.4 155. 2 249. 288.4 95.6 198.3 117.2 85.2 106.5 64.9 70.0 95.4 130.3 132.2 103.1 145.8 15;',. 4 1S3.9 118.4 91. 1 167.1 8.2 9.9 6.2 7.4 24.5 3.0 8.8 2.7 3.3 5.3 6.8 6.6 3.3 2.3 8.3 13.0 4.9 8.3 4.8 2.3 19.4 6.3 75.4 53.2 68.2 48. 6 74.2 5.3 6.0 6.5 10.4 12.0 4.0 8.3 4.9 3.6 4.4 2.7 2.9 4.0 6.4 5.5 4.3 6.1 6.4 7.7 1.9 3.9 7.0 3.1 2.2 2.8 2.0 3.1 •No record for Oct. 27-31. REPORT <>K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Observations of wind velocity at Ochoa station. I Representing estimated mean velocity of wind, in miles per hour, for daytime only. 203 1899. Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 7 16 11 7 5 5 8 3 3 3 3 7 3 8 5 4 3 8 8 5 7 5 7 3 5 8 8 3 3 8 5 13 8 7 7 8 8 3 3 5 13 5 3 3 5 3 8 5 11 11 5 4 7 6 8 8 5 3 3 5 5 5 13 13 13 13 11 5 8 7 3 11 13 8 8 5 3 5 5 5 8 8 5 4 5 8 5 8 13 7 7 8 6 5 1 3 5 5 3 3 5 5 7 8 5 5 8 8 8 8 13 8 8 8 8 8 5 3 5 3 3 5 3 5 8 ir n 5 5 13 23 5 13 3 22 6 3 10 13 13 22 4 3 5 3 4 3 5 5 3 8 5 3 2 1 1 3 3 5 5 8 3 3 7 8 8 3 5 5 8 5 8 5 5 8 8 3 8 3 3 3 5 8 3 4 7 2 3 13 3 3 8 7 5 7 o 7 3 3 4 6 5 4 4 4 3 5 7 5 3 5 4 5 8 3 1 4 3 1 3 4 3 3 4 4 5 5 7 5 3 3 4 4 5 8 3 7 1 3 3 5 3 3 4 3 5 4 4 3 7 5 3 5 3 5 7 4 3 5 5 8 3 3 7 13 3 13 7 7 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 3 8 18 13 3 3 4 4 5 4 3 1 5 5 3 3 3 ""6" 5 4 3 8 7 8 11 5 8 8 7 9 18 7 38 18 7 4 7 2 3 4 8 9 . 10 11 12 13 . 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 11 7 3 8 7 7 18 7 4 3 11 18 4 7 3 4 7 7 4 4 4 7 3 3 8 8 7 5 7 5 13 3 13 5 7 18 13 is 13 3 11 11 8 3 8 8 5 6 8 8 8 8 18 4 18 13 13 3 3 5 7 5 3 13 18 18 18 18 18 8 3 8 7 5 8 8 5 13 13 5 13 13 3 8 8 5 13 13 18 16 18 11 22 5 13 8 4 8 5 3 8 8 7 13 8 8 3 7 3 5 8 8 8 8 5 13 7 15 1 4 2 2 5 8 6 8 5 5 4 4 3 8 5 7 4 •0 3 1 5 5 7 8 5 8 4 9 4 4 8 4 8 4 4 4 3 3 3 8 7 3 4 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 8 5 4 3 5 7 6 8 7 3 8 7 3 1 3 4 3 5 3 5 4 5 5 3 4 7 3 7 4 7 7 4 8 4 7 15 7 7 6 8 13 7 5 5 2 3 4 3 4 6 2 2 7 11 8 28 5 4 6 4 5 11 3 4 7 5 11 . 7 8 7 7 4 5 3 3 i 7 4 7 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 1 1 5 1 3 5 8 11 5 7 3 5 7 7 5 11 5 7 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Appendix J. SURVEYS OF UPPER SAN JUAN TO HEADWATERS OF THE INDIO. By A. B. Nichols, Division Engineer. Concerning the surveys made to determine the practicability of a route for the Nicaragua Canal from some point on the upper portion of the Rio San Juan to the Caribbean Sea b}*- way of the Rio Indio or its tributaries, I have the honor to report: That, for the purpose above mentioned, examinations were made of Rios Bartola, Machuca, and La Cruz del Norte, tributaries of the San Juan, and of the Rio Negro, one of the two streams which unite to form the Indio proper, and of a portion of the Rio Salvador, a branch of the Negro. The waters flowing into Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan from the northeast are separated from those flowing eastwardly into the Carib- bean Sea by the Chontales, a ridge which rises from the swamps back of Grey town, runs nearly due west to a point in the vicinity of Con- chuda and about 4 miles directly east from the mouth of La Cruz del Norte, and thence strikes nearly northwest, rising gradually with more or less uniformity. The surveys were made to determine whether there is in this ridge a place low enough, and where the headwaters of the streams on each side are sufficiently near together, to afford a more desirable route for the canal than that projected by way of the lower San Juan. RIO BARTOLA SURVEY. This survey was made by Mr. M. W. Tenny , assistant engineer. The stream rises in the Chontales and flows into the San Juan about 5 miles below Castillo. It consists of two main branches which come together 7.3 miles (by the stream) from the San Juan. The general direction of flow of the North Branch, so far as it was traced, is about 30 degrees west of south; that of the South Branch for about 2 miles close to its head, nearly southwest, thence nearly west to its junction with the North Branch; and that of the main stream below the junction about 18 degrees south of west. A stadia line, carrying elevations, was run from the mouth of the river 15.4 miles to near the head of the South Branch to an elevation of 478.6 above mean sea level, and thence leav- ing the river, a few hundred feet farther and part way up the ridge, to an elevation of + 636.8. An observation taken during the Machuca survey indicates that the main ridge rises near here to an elevation of + 1,500 or over, although at the heads of the streams there may be places somewhat lower. 205 206 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. A stadia line was also run up the North Branch to a point 13 miles (by the line) from the San Juan to an elevation, on the stream, of +224.8. The region between the two branches is occupied by a high spur of the Chontales, which attains an elevation of +1,500 or more. It was deemed unnecessary to carry the line farther up this branch, because both the nature of the country and the distance involved would preclude its use for canal purposes. The valley of the Bartola is gen- erally narrow, its bottom of rock, and the hills abrupt. The height of the main ridge renders a canal by this route impracticable. MACHUCA-NEGRO SURVEY. This survey was made by the writer. The Machuca (called by the natives Sarnoso) rises in the Chontales southeast of the sources of the Bartola, and flows into the San Juan near the foot of Machuca Rapids. Like the Bartola, it consists of two main branches, which come together 5.7 miles (b} r the river) from the San Juan. The North Branch comes in from a little east of north. The general direction from the head of the East Branch to the mouth of the main stream is about 19° 22' south of west, making, however, in the lower two-thirds of its course quite a detour to the south of this line. The distance from the mouth to the summit of the survey (Ity the line) is 15.2 miles. The Rio Negro heads in the Chontales eight-tenths mile nearly south from the head of the East Branch of Machuca, and flows a little east of north until it approaches the latter within 400 feet, at the place where the survey line crosses the ridge. From this point to the foot of the Great Falls of Negro, where the survey ended, a distance of 13 miles (by the line), the bearing is about 17° 36' north of east, the river, however, making a long detour to the north. It receives three large branches between its source and Great Falls. Only one of them is of interest in this connection, as the other two come in from the left. This branch enters from the southwest about 1.8 miles (by the line) above the foot of Great Falls. It is 60 to 70 feet wide at its mouth, and appears to carry about one-half as much water as the Negro immediately above their junction. A reconnaissance was made of it for about 2 miles from its mouth, to a point where it forks, one branch coming in from the southwest and the other from the south. Each of these branches is nearly as wide as the main stream. This river, for convenience of reference, I have called the Salvador. The branch from the southwest is apparently the same stream whose headwaters were examined by Mr. Tenny during the La Cruz del Norte survey, and will be noticed under that head. The survey along these streams was made by stadia, and the eleva- tions determined partly by stadia and partly by Y level. The crest line south of the Machuca was developed to a point above the forks, and reconnoissanccs made between that point and the main ridge to determine the approximate course and relative elevation of the crest. The valley of the Machuca is narrow and the slopes abrupt in most places. The bottom of the stream is largely of rock, which causes numerous rapids and occasional falls. The ridge to the south dividing it from La Cruzita del Norte and La Cruz del Norte is generally very narrow at its crest, especially in the Saddles, where it is not unusual REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 207 to find the top not more than 15 or 20 feet wide, the ground dropping sharply, and with practically the same slope on each side. The eleva- tions in the Saddles for 5 miles from the mouth of the river range from +235 to +345 above mean sea level, and then the ridge rises with more or less uniformity until it reaches +723, where it joins the main ridge at the point where the waters of the Machuca, Negro, and La , Cruz del Norte have their common source. At the summit the line passes from the Machuca to the Negro through a gap in the ridge not over 100 feet wide, the ground rising rapidly on each side on a slope of perhaps 15 to 20 degrees. The distance from water to water in the two streams is about -100 feet, the relative elevations being as follows: Surface of water in Machuca + 539. 1 Surface of ground at summit + 544.2 Surface of water in Negro +520.8 The valle} r of the Negro is narrow, the slopes of the hills are steep. Falls and rapids are numerous and the country more rugged than along the Machuca. From a point a short distance below the mouth of the Salvador to below the foot of Great Falls the river runs through a gorge, over rock bottom, forming a favorable place for damming the stream. The line having been run as much as possible along the streams, the survey shows nearly the minimum possible profile. A profile along a projected canal line would necessarily be much heavier, both streams being tortuous, with narrow valle} r s. With the bottom at +69, a canal by this route would have a cut- ting about 24£ miles long, with a depth at the summit of 475 feet. LA CRUZ DEL NORTE SURVEY. This survey was made by Mr. M. W. Tenny, assistant engineer. A reconnoissance was first made, by means of pocket compass and ane- roid barometer, of the main stream and all the larger branches, espe- cially those putting into it from the east, with the result that the first one above the mouth was found to have the lowest summit and the desired general direction. A stadia line, carrying elevations, was run up this branch, begin- ning at the mouth of the main stream at the San Juan, to a point eight-tenths mile beyond the summit, and 6.4 miles (by the line) from the San Juan. Beyond this point a reconnoissance was made with pocket compass for nearly 2£ miles. The La Cruz del Norte flows into the San Juan about 7 miles below the mouth of the Machuca. It occupies a somewhat oval-shaped vallley, the major axis of which is a line from the head of Rio Negro (as deter- mined by the Machuca-Negro survey) to the point where the stream flows into the San Juan, about 5.4 miles in length. The declivities are therefore necessarily steep, as the water has to descend nearly 700 feet in this distance. The surve} 7 shows that the valley of the East Branch is comparatively straight and the rise to the top of the ridge rapid. Beyond the sum- mit, where the line strikes the headwaters of the Salvador, the fall is very gradual for about 1^ miles, where the stream plunges over a 30-foot fall, and from this point to the end of the reconnoissance drops over a succession of falls and rapids, a portion of the way through a narrow gorge so rough as to be difficult of passage. Coi- 208 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. lating the information obtained by this and the Machuca-Negro survey, we have: Surface of water in San Juan at month of La Cruz del Norte + 56 Elevation of summit, 5.6 miles from mouth of La Cruz -j- 468. 7 Elevation at top of 30-foot falls of Salvador, 6.9 miles from mouth of the La Cruz, about +394 Surface of water in Rio Negro at mouth of Salvador, about 14.3 miles from mouth of La Cruz + 68 Surface of water in Negro at foot of "Great Falls," 15.8 miles from mouth of La Cruz + 41 With bottom at +69, a canal by this route would involve a cutting about 15^ miles long, with a depth at the summit of 400 feet, but with a heavier profile than is shown by the survey, the latter having fol- lowed the stream very closely, whereas a projected canal line would, on account of the crookedness of the streams, cut into the hills more or less. Bearing upon a supply of stone for use in the construction of a canal, these surveys show that along the streams falls occur at elevations at or near +200, +300, and +400 with great uniformit3 T , indicating .that at these elevations there is rock capable of withstanding the elements. In the valley of La Cruz del Norte these formations may prove to be useful, no part of the valley being more than 5^ miles in a straight line from the projected service railroad, and, owing to the abruptness with which the hills rise, available outcrops are likel}^ to be found. Profiles of the Machuca-Negro and the La Cruz del Norte lines are submitted herewith, marked plates 61 and 62. Appendix U. TRANSLATION OF THE CONTRACT ENTERED INTO BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT OF NICARAGUA AND THE ATLAS STEAMSHIP COMPANY, LIMITED, DATED AT THE CITY OF MANAGUA, ON THE 30th DAY OF SEPTEMBER, 1897. The National Legislative Assembly decrees: Only article. The contract entered into between the minister of public instruction, provisionally in charge of the portfolio of public works, on behalf of the Government, and Louis Wichman, represent- ative of the Atlas Steamship Company, Limited, is, with the modifi- cations subsequently agreed upon by both parties and the modifications introduced by the House, approved in the following terms: Manuel Coronel Matus, minister Of public instruction, provisionally in charge of the portfolio of public works, representing the Govern- ment of the State, and Louis Wichman, representing the Atlas Steam- ship Company, Limited, in accordance with the power of attorney exhibited, have agreed on the following contracts, with the object of expediting steam navigation on Lake Nicaragua and the river San Juan del Norte, which each da} r offers greater difficulties; of facilitating communication with the Atlantic coast, on which great interests depend, and in the hope of commercial and agricultural development that shall improve the condition of the country. I. In consideration of the great expenses that the Atlas Steamship Compan} r , Limited, hereinafter called "the company," shall incur for the aforesaid object, the Government grants it the exclusive right during thirty years to navigate by steam the Silico Lagoon, counting from the final ratification of this agreement, and the exclusive right during the same period to construct tramways and railways at con- venient places along the line of the river San Juan to avoid obstacles therein. II. The company binds itself to construct on its own account a narrow-gauge railway that shall put the place known as Colorado Junction, or another suitable point, in communication with the Silico Lagoon, so as to avoid the navigation of the diy and most difficult part of the river San Juan and effect more rapid transit to the port of San Juan del Norte during the summer. The length of this line shall be 5 miles, more or less, and at its terminals the company shall erect houses and piers that shall combine the requisites for passenger traffic, the transportation of merchandise, and for other services. III. The Government shall subsidize the company to the extent of $5,000 for each mile of the said railway, payable in successive monthly installments of $1,000 from the time the governor of San Juan del Norte advises that the construction works of the railway have com- S. Doc. 54, pt 2 U 209 210 EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. inenced, and providing- the works are not interrupted. In case the works are interrupted, payments shall be suspended until the works are reeontinued. IV. The Government declares this work to be of public utility, so that the company may expropriate lands of private property required for right of way in accordance with the laws in the matter. The com- pany shall have for the same purpose the right to occupy, free of all charge, such national lands as the line may cross, together with a strip of land luO yards wide along the entire length of the line. V. The Government also grants the company the right to cut in the national forests adjacent to Lake Nicaragua and the river San Juan, free of all charge, all the wood it may require for the use of the steam- ers, tramways, railways, piers, houses, and workshops, and for other purposes of the traffic. VI. The Government concedes the right of occupying, in the ports and places of transit, such lots of national land as may be necessary for the establishment of stores, tramways, offices, workshops, stations, etc. It is understood that such lots shall be selected b} T agreement with the Government, and that in case any of them should be private property, the Government shall authorize their expropriation, in ac- cordance with which the company shall pay the just price as fixed by experts, unless the price shall have been agreed upon between the own- ers and the company. VII. The company's employees and laborers shall be exempt from civil and military service, and to this effect the respective authorities shall issue such exemptions as may be necessary to insure the good service of the company. VIII. The steamers, railways, tramways, stations, service houses, and other indispensable things for the purposes of the company shall, during the term of this contract, be exempt from national and municipal contributions. IX. The company shall import, free of local and customs dues, the machinery, tools, materials, coal, provisions, and other articles neces- sary for its service, excepting strong liquors, but with strict observance of fiscal regulations and the requirements of the ministry of finance for due control and statistical purpose. X. The company in the service of- its enterprise shall have, subject to the laws of Nicaragua, the free use of the national telegraph lines, but this concession shall not prevent the Government from selling the said lines unconditionally. XI. When the railway from the Silico Lagoon shall be finished, should the Government consider it convenient to its interests and those of the company, it shall remove the custom-house from Castillo to a point that will hinder as little as possible the rapid transportation of merchandise. XII. The company is obliged to make at least three trips a month with its steamers from Granada to San Juan del Norte, and vice versa, and to call at least once a month at all the established ports of the lake which the steamer Victoria^ or another of her size, can reach. The company shall carry the mails of the State on all trips free of charge. The aforesaid trips shall be subject to an itinerary of which the Gov- ernment and public shall be notified and which can not be altered with- out three months previous notification to them. For each unjustified infraction of the itinerary the company shall pay a fine of from $25 to $100, which shall be collected by the Government. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 211 XIII. Passengers and freight tariffs shall be in the money of the country and as moderate as the company can make them. The Gov- ernment shall enjoy a rebate of 30 per cent on the transportation of its employees, other persons who travel for its account, its troops, and cargo. XIV. In case of war, the company's steamers shall be placed at the order of the Government, which shall take them for its own account,' acknowledging, upon returning them, the losses and damages their use may have occasioned. These losses and damages shall be appraised by an engineer, chosen by mutual agreement, or by two experts, one for each part} 7 , providing the parties hereto can not agree on the nomination of the former. Should the experts fail to agree on the estimate of losses and damages, the decision of an umpire appointed by the experts prior to their disagreement shall be final, and his decision can not be appealed from. XV. The compan} T binds itself to undertake as soon as possible such works along the river San Juan as may be necessary to facilitate the uninterrupted transportation of passengers and merchandise during the whole year by means of vessels and railways between San Juan del Norte and Lake Nicaragua. Should the company, after careful study of the obstacles to naviga- tion, wish to undertake works of greater magnitude, so as to secure a depth of water of 6 feet in the river San Juan at all seasons, and to deepen the bar of the port so that vessels of large tonnage can cross it, the Government shall give the company permission so to do. XVI. This contract may be transferred to any foreign person or compan}', but in no case, neither in whole nor in part, neither directly nor indirectly, to' any government. Should the contract be trans- ferred to a company whose domicile is abroad, it shall constitute a representative in Nicaragua fully authorized and instructed for all affairs, judicial or otherwise. The said company shall be subject to the laws of Nicaragua. XVII. For the purposes of the preceding article the company shall have an agent in Nicaragua. Any difference that may occur in regard to the meaning and appli- cation of this contract shall be decided by one arbitrator chosen by mutual consent, or by two arbitrators, one for each party. In this case, should the arbitrators not agree as to the amount of losses and damage, the matter shall be decided by an umpire appointed before proceeding to the arbitration, and his decision shall be final. The tribunal of arbitrators shall be established at the latest within fifteen days from the time one party has notified the other of any difference that may occur, and it shall give its decision within six months, at the latest. Such decision can not be appealed. XVIII. Should the railway from the Silico Lagoon to the river San Juan be not finished within three years from this date, this concession shall for that reason be forfeited. The works of construction of the said railway shall commence at the latest within one year from the date upon which this agreement is signed, and should the company not do so it shall lose the deposit of $5,000 gold which it binds itself to make in the general treasury of the State within six months under penalty of the forfeiture of this con- tract. The said deposit shall be returned to the company when the works of the railway referred to are finished. 212 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. XIX. This concession shall never be an obstacle to the carrying out of any contracts the Government may decide to make in regard to the opening of an interoceanic canal over the same route, nor shall it affect in the least those it may have alread}^ made. XX. It is understood that during the term of this agreement the Government can not subsidize any other company of steamers on Lake Nicaragua. XXI. In case of expropriation owing to the opening of the inter- oceanic canal, and considering the expenses the company may have incurred, it shall be indemnified by whom it may concern for the value of the materials of the enterprise, according to such title as the com- pany may be able to show, it being understood that the Government of Nicaragua shall not pay in any case any indemnity whatever. XXII. To determine the indemnity mentioned in the preceding article the procedure stipulated in Article XIV shall be followed in its entirety. XXIII. Should either party not appoint its arbitrator within fifteen days after having been notified of any difference arising, or should the party appointed not accept, or should he be absent, the president of the supreme court of justice shall, within three days, and upon the petition of the other party, appoint an arbitrator. XXIV. In no case and for no reason shall the company or whoever may represent it have the right of appealing to diplomatic intervention. In proof of which arc signed two of same tenor at Managua on the 5th day of June, 1897. M. C. Matus, Louis Wichman, JFbr the Atlas Steamship Company, Limited. Given in the hall of sessions, Managua, September 28, 1897. M. Morales, D. P. Santiago Lopez. Leandro Garcia. Approved. National palace, Managua, September 30, 1897. J. S. Zelaya. J. C. Munoz, Acting Minister of Public Wo?'ks. This conforms to the contract published in the official daily. Department of public works, Managua, October 31, 1898. Munoz. The undersigned, minister of interior relations of the State of Nic- aragua, certifies that the signature of the minister of public works by the law which precedes this, reading ""Munoz," is authentic. Managua, November 2, 1898. Erasmo Calderon. I, the undersigned, consul of the United States, do hereby certify that the above signature of Erasmo Calderon is true and genuine. Managua, November 2, 1898. Chester Donaldson, United States Consul. Appendix C C 1. TREATY OF AMITY, COMMERCE, AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN FRANCE AND NEW GRANADA. SIGNED AT BOGOTA, MAY 15, 1856. RATIFICATIONS EXCHANGED AT BOGOTA, JULY 24, 1857. Numerous commercial relations having for a long time been estab- lished between the French Empire and the Republic of New Granada, it was deemed expedient to regulate their existence and to promote their extension by means of a treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation. For that purpose, full powers have been conferred, to w T it: By His Majesty, the Emperor of the French, upon Baron Celean Goury du Roslan, commander of the Imperial Order of the Legion of i Honor, Grand Cross of the Pontifical Order of St. Gregory the Great, etc. By the Vice-President of New Granada, in charge of the executive power, upon Mr. Lino de Pombo, secretary of state for foreign rela- tions. Who, after exchanging the said full powers, and finding them in good form, have agreed upon the following articles: Article I. There shall be constant peace and sincere and perpetual friendship between His Majesty the Emperor of the French, his heirs and successors, of the one part, and the Republic of New Granada, of the other part, and between the subjects and citizens of either State, without distinction of persons or places. II. Frenchmen in New Granada and Granadians in France shall recip- rocally enjoy the same liberty and security as the nationals in entering with their ships and cargoes, all places, harbors, and rivers that are or may hereafter be opened to foreign commerce. They shall, whether touching at several ports in succession or engaging in the coasting trade, be respectively treated in the same manner as the subjects or citizens of the most favored nation. HI. The subjects and citizens of either of the two contracting parties, shall be permitted, on the respective territories, freely to travel, sojourn, engage in trade, wholesale or retail, hire and occupy such dwellings, warehouses, and shops as they may need, effect ship- ments of merchandise and money, and receive consignments from the interior or from abroad and in all or any of these operations the said subjects or citizens shall not be subjected to any obligations other than those borne by the nationals. In all their purchases and sales they shall be free to determine and establish the price of the effects, merchandise, or other articles,whether imported or domestic, whether sold in the interior or intended for export, provided they shall expressly comply with the laws and regu- lations of the country. They shall enjoy like liberty for attending in person to their busi- 213 214 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. ness, making their own entries in the custom-house, or having them- selves represented by whomever they may see tit, attorneys, in fact, factors, agents, consignees, or interpreters, either for the sale or pur- chase of their property, effects, or merchandise, or for the lading, unlading, and clearing of their vessels. They shall likewise have the right to discharge all the duties with which they may be intrusted by their fellow-countrymen, by aliens, or by nationals in the capacity of attorneys in fact, factors, agents, consignees, or interpreters; and in no event shall they be subjected to charges, taxes, or imposts other than those to which are subjected the nationals or the citizens or sub- jects of the most favored nation. IV. The subjects and citizens of either contracting party shall enjoy, in both States, the most complete and constant protection for their persons and property. They shall, in consequence, have free and easy access to the tribunals of justice for the prosecution and defense of their rights in every stage of proceedings and at every degree of juris- diction established by law. They shall be free to employ, under all circumstances, such lawyers, attorne} T s, or agents of all classes as they may deem expedient to cause to act in their names. In line, they shall, in this respect, enjoy the same rights and privileges as may be accorded to the nationals and shall be subject to the same conditions as are imposed on these latter. V. Frenchmen in New Granada, and Granadians in France, shall be exempted from all personal services, in the land or sea forces, either in the national guard or militia, as well as from all war taxes, forced loans, military requisitions or services, of whatever nature. In all other cases they shall not be subjected, on account of their property, real or personal, to charges, demands, and imposts other than those to which the nationals themselves or the citizens or subjects of the most favored nation, without exception, may be subjected; it is well under- stood that whoever may claim the application of the latter part of this article will be at liberty to select that of the two treatments which will seem to him more advantageous. VI. The subjects and citizens of either State shall not, respectively, be subjected to any embargo, nor be detained with their vessels, car- goes, and effects for any military expedition whatsoever nor for any public use of any kind, without an indemnity previously agreed to and determined by the parties interested and adequate to the use to be made and to the injuries, losses, dela} r s, and damages occasioned by or likely to result from the use to which they may have been put. VII. Frenchmen in N.ew Granada, and Granadians in France, shall enjoy the most complete and unlimited freedom of conscience; they shall be permitted to practice their religion, publicly or privately, in temples or chapels, where religious functions are celebrated, or within their dwellings, in accordance with the system of toleration prevailing in both countries; they shall also be at liberty to bury their dead in the cemeteries of their religious communities, or in such others as they may designate and establish with the assent of the local authorities. The graves shall not be disturbed, nor the the ceremonies of interment and disinterment interrupted, in any way nor or any pretense. VIII. The subjects and citizens of either contracting party shall have the right to own real estate within their respective territories and to dispose of said real estate and of all other property held by them by means of sale, donation, barter, testament, or an}- other method REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 215 that may best suit them. In like manner, the subjects and citizens of either State who should fall heirs, under a will or ab intestate, to prop- erty situate in their respective territories shall succeed to the said property without hindrance, and dispose of the same at will, without paying inheritance taxes other than or different from those that should be paid by the nationals of the country in which the property may be.. IX. If, which God forbid, the peace between the tw r o countries should, under circumstances that can not be foreseen, happen to be broken, there shall be granted on either side a term of not less than six months to traders on the coast and of one year to those in the interior of the country in which to wind up their affairs, dispose of their property and move it wherever they shall see fit; in addition, the} T shall be given a safe-conduct with which to embark at such port as they will designate of their own accord, unless such port be occu- pied or beleagured by the enemy, and their own safety or that of the State should stand in the way of their departing from that port, in which event they shall make their departure in such manner and by such route as may be practicable. All the other subjects or citizens having a fixed and permanent establishment in the respective States for the practice of some profession or industry of any kind, shall be permitted to hold said establishment and continue in the practice of their profession or industry without being in anyway molested, and they shall be left in full and complete possession of their liberty and property, so long as they shall commit no offense under the laws of the country. X. In no case of war or conflict between the two nations shall the property or estates, of whatever nature, belonging to their respective subjects or citizens be subjected to any seizure, sequestration, or charges and imposts other than are demanded of the nationals. Fur- thermore, under the circumstances herein supposed, moneys due b}^ private persons, as well as public funds, or bank or corporation stock, shall never be seized, sequestered, or confiscated to the detriment of the respective subjects and citizens. XI. In no event shall the impost duties imposed in France on prod- ucts of any kind whatever, of the growth or manufacture of New Granada, be other or higher than those to which are or will be sub- jected like products of the most favored nations. The same principle shall be observed in regard to exports. No prohibition of or restric- tion on the importation or exportation of anj 7 article whatsoever shall take place in the reciprocal trade of the two countries, unless it be equally applied to all other nations, and such formalities as may be required to prove that the merchandise respective^ imported in either State was produced in or came from the other, shall also be common to all other nations. In brief, French commerce in New Granada and Granadian commerce in France shall be treated in all cases and in every respect like that of the most favored nation. XII. All the products of the growth or manufacture of either coun- try, the exportation of which is not expressly prohibited, shall pay in the port of the other the same import duties whether laden in French or Granadian vessels. In like manner, exported products shall pay the same duties and enjoy the same exemptions, allowances, and draw- backs as are now or may hereafter be reserved for exports shipped in national vessels. XIII. French vessels entering ports in New Granada or clearing 216 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. therefrom, and Granadian vessels entering or clearing from ports in France, shall not be subjected to tonnage, light-house, harbor, pilotage, quarantine, or other dues, dues charged to the vessel itself, different from or higher than those to which national vessels are or may be subjected. XIV. French vessels in New Granada and Granadian vessels in France .shall have power to discharge part of their cargoes in the port of their iirst arrival, and thence proceed with the remainder of their cargoes to other ports in the same State, either to finish discharging their cargoes or to complete their outward cargo at such ports, and shall not pay in each port dues other or higher than those paid by national vessels under similar circumstances. XV. When vessels owned by subjects or citizens of either of the two contracting parties shall be wrecked or stranded on the coasts of the other, or when, in consequence of stress of weather or positive damage, the} 7 shall enter the ports or anchor on the coasts of the other, they shall not be subjected to any navigation dues, under what- ever denomination such dues may be established, except pilotage and other dues representing compensation for services rendered b} 7 private concerns, provided that such vessels shall not discharge goods intended for consumption nor take a cargo for export. They shall, however, be permitted to land in storage and to warehouse a part or the whole of their cargoes, to prevent the perishing of merchandise, and no other dues shall be demanded of them than such as ma} 7 pertain to the hire of warehouses and public } T ards that they may need for the stor- ing of the goods or the repairing of the damage to the vessels. XVI. All vessels shall be considered as French in New Granada and as Granadian in France that shall navigate under the respective flags and carry the license and other documents required by the legislation of the two States as evidence of the nationality of merchant vessels. XVII. The vessels, merchandise, and effects belonging to the respec- tive subjects and citizens that may have been captured by pirates within the jurisdiction of either contracting party or on the high seas and brought into or found in the harbors, rivers, roadsteads, and bays controlled by the other, shall be turned over to the owners upon pay- ment, if any, of the cost of recapture as determined by the proper tribunals, after giving evidence of ownership to the said tribunals. It is well understood that the claim for restitution must be presented within a year bj 7 the party in interest, its attorneys, or by the agents of the respective Governments. XVIII. The war vessels of either power shall be permitted to enter, sojourn in, and go into the gearing docks of the ports of the other which are opened to the most favored nation. They shall be subject to the same regulations and enjoy the same advantages. XIX. If one of the contracting parties should happen to be at war with a third power, the other power shall not under any circumstance authorize its nationals to take or accept commissions or letters of marque for hostile operations against the former, or for the purpose of molesting the commerce and property of its subjects or citizens. XX. Both contracting parties adopt, in their nautical relations, the principle that free ships make free goods. In consequence, should one of the parties remain neutral while the other is at war with another power, merchandise protected by the neutral Hag shall also be deemed to be neutral, even though it should be the property of the enemy of the REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 217 oilier contracting party. It is likewise agreed that a free flag also insures the freedom of persons, and that individuals belonging to a hostile power who might be found on board a neutral vessel shall not betaken as prisoners unless they be soldiers and for the time being in the service of the enemy. As a consequence of the same principle under which the flag and the cargo are assimilated neutral property found on board, a vessel of the enemy shall be considered as enemy's property unless it .should have been shipped on said vessel prior to the declaration of war or before it was known at the port whence the vessel may have saiiedt The two contracting powers shall apply this principle as regards other powers to those only which also recognize it. XXI. Should one of the two contracting parties be at war with another power, and its vessels have occasion to exercise the right of visitation at sea, it is agreed that, if they come across a vessel belong- ing to the other party, the latter having remained neutral, they shall send in a boat two examiners charged with the dut} T of examining the papers relative to the nationality or the cargo. The commanders shall be responsible, personally and pecuniarily, for any vexation, insult, or act of violence that may be committed on the occasion. Visitation will be allowed on board such vessels only as may navigate without a convoy. In regard to convoyed vessels, it will be sufficient for the commanding officer of the convoy to declare, orally and upon his word of honor, that the vessels placed under his protection and escort belong to the State whose flag he flies, and to declare, when the vessels shall be bound for a port of the enemy, that they do not carry contraband of war. XXII. In the event of war between either party and another power, nation, or State, the subjects or citizens of the other party will be permitted to continue trade and navigation with the said States, except- ing the cities or ports that may be actually blockaded or beleaguered. It is, however, well understood that this freedom of trade and navi- gation shall not extend to articles deemed to be contraband of war, such as cannon and firearms, side arms, projectiles, powder, saltpeter, articles of military equipment, and all implements whatsoever made for warlike purposes. In no event shall a merchant vessel owned b} T subjects or citizens of either country, bound for a port blockaded by the forces of the other, be seized, captured, or condemned, unless it shall have received previ- ous notice or warning of the existence of the blockade from some vessel belonging to the blockading squadron or division. And in order that ignorance of the circumstances ma} T not be alleged, and that such vessel as may have been duly warned shall be liable to capture if it should again repair to the same port during the blockade, the commanding officer of the war ship that shall have met it for the first time shall enter on the papers of the said vessel the da} 7 , place, and distance of his visit, and aforesaid notification made by him with the requisite formalities. XXIII. Consuls of each one of the two countries may be established for the protection of commerce; but these officers shall not enter upon their duties or enjoy the rights, privileges, or immunities to which they may be entitled until they shall have obtained the authorization of the Government of the country. The latter will, moreover, retain the right of determining the residences at which it shall see fit to receive consuls. It is well understood that, in this respect, neither Government shall 218 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. oppose to the other any restriction that does not apply in its country to all nations in common. XXIV. The two contracting parties engage to negotiate, as soon as practicable, a consular convention which will determine in a clear, final, and reciprocal manner the rights, privileges, and immunities that the respective consuls, their chancellors and clerks, shall enjoy in the respective countries as well as the duties they shall have to dis- charge and the obligations to which they shall be held. In the mean- while French consuls and vice-consuls in New Granada and Grana- dian consuls and vice-consuls in France shall, respectively, receive the same treatment and consideration as those of the most favored nation. XXV. The Republic of New Granada shall enjoy, in all the French possessions and colonies, the same rights, privileges, and the same freedom of commerce and navigation as is now or shall hereafter be enjoyed by the most favored nation, and, reciprocally, the inhabitants of the French possessions and colonies shall enjoy, to this full extent, the same rights and privileges and the same freedom of commerce and navigation as are, under this treaty, granted in New Granada to the French, their commerce and their navigation. XXVI. It is formally agreed between the two contracting parties that, independently of the foregoing stipulations, the diplomatic agents, the subjects of all classes, the vessels and merchandise of either State shall, as of right, enjoy in the other the exemptions, privileges, and immunities whatsoever conceded to the most favored nation, and this gratuitously, if the concessions be gratuitous, and for the same con- sideration if it should be conditional. XXVII. The present treaty shall remain in force for a period of ten years counted from the day of the exchange of ratifications, but if, one year before the expiration of that term, neither contracting party should announce, by an official declaration, its intention to terminate or revise it, it shall continue binding on both parties for five years longer, and so on, from five to five years, so long as the official notice herein- above mentioned shall not have been made at least twelve months in advance. In the event of one of the contracting parties deeming that some of the stipulations of the present treaty may have been infringed to its detriment, it shall first lay before the other, together with its demand for redress, a statement of the facts, accompanied by such documents and evidence as may be necessary to show that its complaint is well founded, and it shall not, in any way, authorize reprisals or declare war unless the redress demanded by it shall have been denied or unfa- vorably received. XXVIII. The present treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, in twenty-eight articles, shall be ratified by His Majesty the Kniperor of the French and by the President or the person in charge of the execu- tive power in New Granada, with the approval of the Congress, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Bogota within a term of eighteen months or sooner if possible. During that time and pending the exchange of ratifications the treaty of October 28, 1844, shall continue in force and effect. In witness whereof the plenipotentiaries have signed the said treaty and hereunto affixed their private seals at Bogota, on the 15th day of May of the year of the Lord 1856. [seal.] Baron Goury du Roslan. [seal.] Lino de Pombo. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMTSSION. 219 ADDITIONAL ACT. The undersigned, plenipotentiaries of His Majesty the Emperor of the French and of the Republic of New Granada, signers of the treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation concluded on May 15, 1856, recognizing the necessity and expediency of elucidating the sense and. purport of some of the stipulations embodied in the said treaty, while the exchange of ratifications is still in abeyance, and with a view of removing for the future all grounds of doubt or controvers}^ on the subject, by virtue of the full powers with which they are vested, have agreed upon the two following articles: Article I. The reciprocitj r of rights, exemptions, and allowances regarding the importation and exportation of natural products, estab- lished, in favor of the flags of both countries, by Article XII of the treaty of Ma} r 15, 185G, does not include that which relates to special advantages or encouragements that may now or hereafter be conferred upon the national fisheries in either country. II. It is stipulated that the freedom of commerce and navigation in all the French possessions and colonies, on the footing of the most favored nation, granted to New Granada by Article XXV of the said treaty, is and must be understood to be a compensation for the con- cessions, made by New Granada to France, in matters of commerce and navigation, and specially those in Article II relative to the coast- ing trade. These two articles, additional to the above-mentioned treaty of May 15, 1856, shall be included in the instruments of ratification of the said treaty, and shall have the same force and validity as if they had been therein inserted word for word. In witness whereof the two plenipotentiaries have signed and affixed their private seals unto the present article, done in duplicate, at Bogota, the 27th day of January of the year 1857. [seal.] Baron Goury du Roslan. [seal.] Lino de Pombo. Appendix C C 2. CONVENTION OF ALIENAGE, COMMERCE, AND NAVIGATION BE- TWEEN THE REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA AND THE FRENCH RE- PUBLIC. [Translation.] The President of the Republic of Colombia and the President of the French Republic, being- equally animated by the desire of drawing closer the bonds of friendship which united the two States, and desir- ing to establish definite rules for the government of the commercial and maritime relations between Colombia and France, have determined to conclude an arrangement for that purpose, and have named as pleni- potentiaries: The President of the Republic of Colombia, Senor Marco Fidel Suarez, under secretary of state, acting minister for foreign affairs; and The President of the French Republic, M. Alexander Napoleon Mancini, charge d'affaires of the French Republic at Bogota, Knight of the Legion of Honor; Who, after having exchanged their respective full powers, found to be in due and proper form, have agreed upon the following articles: Article I. The two high contracting parties reciprocally guarantee, each to the other, the treatment of the most favored nation in what- ever relates to the settling of their respective citizens [in the territory of the other], and in whatever relates to commerce and navigation, as well as in respect to importation, exportation and transit, and generally all matters connected with custom-house duties and commercial opera- tions, as also in respect to the carrying on of trade or manufactures, and in respect to the payment of the taxes pertaining thereto. Article II. The present arrangement shall be ratified and the rati- fications shall be exchanged in Paris as soon as possible, and shall go into effect eight days after the exchange of ratifications, and shall remain in force until the expiration of one year after the day on which one of the high contracting parties shall have denounced the same. In faith whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have signed the present arrangement and affixed their seals thereto. Done in Bogota, in duplicate, the 30th day of May, 1S92. [seal] Marco F. SuArez. [seal] A. Mancini. 221 Appendix D I). TREATY OF PEACE AND FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN SPAIN AND COLOMBIA SIGNED AT PARIS, JANUARY 30, 1881. [Ratifications exchanged at Paris, August 12, 1881.] The Republic of the United States of Colombia, of the one part, and His Majesty Don Alfonso XII, Constitutional King of Spain, of the other, desiring to put an end to the disunion which has unhappily existed between the two States, have resolved to enter into a treaty of peace and friendship, which may perpetuate the alliance that ought naturally to unite the citizens of Colombia and the subjects of Spain, and to that end have named and appointed for their pienipotentaries, to wit: His Excellency the President of the United States of Colombia, Don Luis Carlos Rico, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of that Republic to the French Republic; and His Majesty the King of Spain, Don Mariano Roca de Tagores, Marquis de Molins, Viscount de Rocamoza, Grandee of Spain of the first class, Knight of the famous Order of the Golden Fleece, Knight of the Order of Calatrava, Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Order of Charles II, Grand Cordon of the Order of the Legion of Honor of France, of Pius IX, of the Rose of Brazil, etc., and his ambassador to the French Republic; Who, after exchanging their full powers, and having found them in due order, have agreed on the following articles: Article I. There shall be total oblivion of all that is past; and there shall be a solid and inviolable peace between the Republic of the United States of Colombia and His Majesty the King of Spain. II. As soon as this compact comes into force each of the high con- tracting parties shall send a diplomatic representative to the other, as well as such consuls, vice-consuls, or consular agents as it may be judged convenient to establish in their respective ports, cities, or pos- sessions; and both shall enjoy reciprocally all the privileges, exemp- tions, and immunities that are enjoyed by similar agents of the most favored nation. III. The citizens of Colombia in Spain and the subjects of His Catholic Majesty in the Republic of Colombia shall be exempt from all compulsory service in the army, navy, and national guards, and from every contribution and impost not paid by the citizens or subjects of the country in which they may be residing. With regard to the distribution of taxes, imposts, and other general burdens, to libertj^ and protection in the exercise of their calling, and to the other rights relative to property and the security of person, and with regard to the administration of justice they shall be held to be on the same footing 223 224 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. as the natives of the respective countries, subject in all cases to the laws and regulations of the one in which they may be residing. IV. Until such time as the high contracting parties may have con- cluded a treaty of commerce and navigation, thej^ agree that the citi- zens of the United States of Colombia, their ships and merchandise, shall enjoy within the territory of Spain, its canals and ports, all the advantages and exemptions accorded to the most favored American nation, gratuitously if the concession be gratuitous, and with one and the same compensation if it be conditional; and that the subjects of his Catholic Majesty, their ships and merchandise, shall enjoy in the United States of Colombia, its canals and ports, all the advantages and exemp- tions accorded to the most favored European nation, gratuitously if the concession be gratuitous, and with one and the same compensation if it be conditional. V. The present treaty shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged in Paris, as soon as may be possible. In witness whereof the undersigned plenipotentiaries of the Republic of the United States of Colombia and of His Majesty the King of Spain, have hereunto set their names and seal in Paris, on the 30th January, 1881. [seal.] Luis Carlos Rico. [seal.] Marquis de Molins. Appendix F F. CONTRACT BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA AND THE PANAMA RAILROAD COMPANY, MADE IN 1867, AS MODI- FIED BY THE CONTRACTS MADE IN 1876 AND 1880. CONTRACT REFORMATIVE OF THAT OF APRIL 15, 1850, CONCERNING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A RAILROAD, FROM ONE OCEAN TO THE OTHER, ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA. The secretary of finance and public improvements of the United States of Colombia, duly authorized by the executive power, on the one part, and on the other George M. Totten, engineer in chief and general igent of the Panama Railroad Company, with full power and authority from the directors of said company, having in consideration the stipulation in Article II of the contract made with said company and approved by the legislative decree of the 4th of June, 1850, and desiring to provide whatever may be needful for the perfection of the work of the said railroad, in order that it may better answer the neces- sities of the commerce of the world, and at the same time furnish a sure and permanent revenue to the treasury of the Republic, have agreed to modify and reform the said contract in the terms set forth in the following stipulations: Article I. The Government of the United States of Colombia con- cedes to the Panama Railroad Company the use and possession, for ninety-nine 3 T ears, of the railroad constructed by it, and which actu- ally exists, between the cities of Colon and Panama. This concession comprises not only the road, but also the buildings, warehouses, wharves, dockyards, telegraph between Colon and Panama belonging to the road, and, in general, all the dependencies and other works of which the said company is now in possession necessary to the service and development of the enterprise, and those which in the future it may establish with the same purpose. Article II. The Government of the Republic binds itself, during the time that the exclusive privilege which is conceded to the company for the working of the railroad remains in force, not to construct for itself nor to concede to an} 7 person or company, by any title what- ever, the power to establish any other railroad on the Isthmus of Panama; and it also stipulates that while the said privilege continues in force the Government shall not have the power of undertaking for itself nor permitting any person to undertake, without the concurrence and consent of said company, the opening or working of an} 7 maritime canal which may unite the two oceans across the said Isthmus of Pan- ama to the west of the line of Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic and Point Garachine on the Pacific; but it remains stipulated that the right which is conceded to the company to give its consent does not extend to its S. Doc. 54, pt 2 15 225 226 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. opposing the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama (except on the actual route of the railroad itself), but only to its exact- ing an equitable price for such privilege and as indemnification for the damages which the railroad company may suffer by the rivalry or com- petition of the canal. If the sum which may be demanded by the company shall not appear equitable to the Government of the United States of Colombia, then it shall be fixed by arbitrators in New York or Panama, one to be named by the Government and the other by the company, and in case of their not agreeing the two shall name a third, whose decision shall be without appeal. In pronouncing their decision the arbitrators shall take into consid- eration the grounds upon which the company rests and the informa- tion which the Government shall give upon the matter, and in view thereof they shall decide without appeal as they may deem most just and equitable. The sum, whatever it may be, which shall be finally designated, shall belong one-half to the railroad company and one-half to the Government of Colombia. Article III. In compensation of and as a price for these concessions the railroad company binds itself to pay to the Government of the United States of Colombia $1,000,000 in American gold, or in bills on New York payable in the same kind, as the Government may elect, on the day on which this contract shall be approved Irv Congress, and to pay from the present time, and until the expiration of the present privilege, an annual revenue of $250,000 a in American gold. The company will make the payments quarterly in New York to the agent designated by the Government of the United States of Colombia, or if the Govern- ment should desire, the company will place the money in London or Panama, the Government giving the necessary notice to the company in New York. These quarterly payments shall commence to count from the date of the approval of this contract by Congress. From the revenue which the Government acquires by this contract there shall be set apart annually during twenty years $25,000, which the company shall deliver to the Government of the State of Panama. Article IV. The company hinds itself to extend the railroad on the Pacific side to the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco, or other place in the bay where there may exist a permanent depth of water for large vessels. Whereas a certain contract was made between the Government of the United States of Colombia and the Panama Railroad Company, dated the fifth day of July, one thousand eighl hundred and sixty-seven, in abrogation of and to take the place of another contract between the same parties of the fifteenth day of April, one thousand eight hundred and fifty, which first-mentioned contract was afterwards approved by the said < iovernment, by legislative decree, on the sixteenth day of August, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, with certain modifications, which modifications were accepted by the said railroad company; and whereas it was stipulated by the said new contract, by Article 1 V of the same, that the said railroad company should extend its railway to the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco, or any other place in the Bay of Panama where a permanent anchor- age may he found for huge vessels, as by reference to said contract will more fully and precisely appear; And whereas the said railroad company has not yet completed the said work, and denies any present obligation to proceed with the same; and whereas the Congress "$225,000 of this annual subsidy was advanced and paid by the company to the Colombian (iovernment in November, 1880, for the full period intervening up to March 27, 1908. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 227 of the United States of Colombia, on the twenty-sixth day of July, one thousand eight hundred and eighty, by an act passed on that day, authorized the executive power of the said United States of Colombia to enter into negotiations with the Pan- ama Railroad Company, in order to declare it li Iterated from the obligations it assumed by the aforesaid Article IV of the contract made on the sixteenth day of August, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, for the extension of the said railway in the harbor of Panama as aforesaid, by which act a sum of money was to be paid to the said Republic of the United States of Colombia sufficient, in the judgment of the executive power of the said Government, to compensate for the release from the said article as aforesaid ; And whereas the national executive power of the said Government has appointed Mr. Solomon Koppel as its agent and attorney for the purpose of negotiating with the said railroad company for the abrogation of the said Article IV, and has given to him full, complete, and absolute power to enter into, carry out, and conclude, in the name of the Government of the United States of Colombia, the negotiations for the purpose of abrogating the aforesaid Article IV of the said contract; And whereas the chief executive of the said Republic of the United States of Colombia has exercised the discretion conferred upon him by the aforesaid act of Congress, by the issue to the said Solomon Koppel of instructions by which the said Solomon Koppel, as such agent and attorney of the Government of the United States of Colombia as aforesaid, is directed to negotiate only for an exemption or abrogation of the aforesaid Article IV for a period of not exceeding thirty consecutive years, and has further exercised the aforesaid discretion and authority conferred by the said act of Congress by fixing the amount to be paid by the said Panama Railroad Company for the abrogation of the said Article IV, and which, by the aforesaid written instruc- tions, is limited to the sum of ten thousand dollars per annum for each of the years during which the said Article IV is suspended or abrogated; And whereas the said Solomon Koppel is now in the city of New York, and has had a negotiation with the Panama Railroad Company touching the matters afore- said, and has agreed with the said company to the suspension of the said Article IV for the full period of thirty years from the first day of November, one thousand eight hundred and eighty, upon condition that the said company should pay to the said Government of the United States o f Colombia the full sum of ten thousand dollars per annum for each of the said thirty years, making an aggregate payment to the said Government for the suspension and abrogation aforesaid of three hundred thousand dollars in American gold; in all of which actings and doings the said Solomon Koppel has complied exactly with the written instructions of the said chief executive of the United States of Colombia as the same were communicated to him, and as the same have been handed by him to the Panama Railroad Company: Now, therefore, this agreement witnesseth that, in consideration of the premises and for the aforesaid sum of three hundred thousand dollars in gold coin, payable at the rate of ten thousand dollars in each year from the execution hereof by the Pan- ama Railroad Company to the United States of Colombia, the said Government has fully exonerated, released, and discharged, and does hereby fully exonerate, release, and discharge, the said Panama Railroad Company from all its obligations of every nature whatsoever arising upon or growing out of the aforesaid Article IV of the contract of the fifth day of July, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, by which article the said company was bound to extend its railroad on the Pacific side, as is provided in and by the said contract, to which special reference is hereby made, and the said contract, in so far as concerns the extension of the said railroad into the bay of Panama aforesaid, is hereby, in accordance with the full power granted to the chief executive of the said Government by the Congress of the United States of Colombia, abrogated and annulled. But this abrogation, suspension, and annulment of the said Article IV shall continue only for the period of thirty years from and after the first day of November in the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty, and at the expiration of the said term of thirty years the said Article IV of the said original contract of the fifth day of July, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, shall again be revived, and shall be and remain thereafter in force and effect as the same now exists. And the said Panama Railroad Company, in con- sideration of the aforesaid suspension, release, and abrogation of the said Article IV for the term and period as aforesaid, hereby agrees to pay to the said Government of the United States of Colombia the just and full sum of three hundred thousand dollars in gold coin, as follows, viz: The sum of ten thousand dollars on the first day of November in each and every year, payable in the city of New York, during the S£.id term of thirty years, the first of said annual installments to be payable on the first day of November, which will be in the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-one, and on each first day of November thereafter until the whole sum of 228 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. three hundred thousand dollars shall have heen paid. And it is further provided and agreed that in case the said Panama Railroad Company, or its successors, shall determine to extend its said line of railway to the islands in the bay of Panama, or to deep water in accordance with the terms of said Article IV as originally agreed, and shall actually construct the same, that then and from thenceforward the annual payment of ten thousand dollars for each of said thirty years shall cease for the remainder of said term then unexpired, anything herein contained to the contrary in anywise notwithstanding; but this termination of said annual payments shall not take effect until the expiration of six months after said Panama Railroad Company shall have given notice to the Government of the United States of Colombia of the actual completion of said extended line in the bay of Panama as aforesaid. — Contract of 1880. Article V. During the whole term of this privilege the company shall have exclusive right to establish across the Isthmus of Panama, within the zone indicated in Article II, any class of carriage roads whatever, from one ocean to the other. The Colombian Government binds itself not to undertake for itself, nor to permit any other com- pany or person to undertake within said zone, any other carriage road, either macadamized or of plank, or of any other class suitable for the use of wheeled vehicles, between the two oceans across the Isthmus of Panama. It being, nevertheless, well understood that the privilege of which this article treats can not and must not, in any manner, prevent the construction of any kind of roads in a direction distinct from that expressed, nor the completing, preserving, and improving of roads already existing, or which are actually being constructed on said isthmus. Article VI. The eompan} r shall have the right for the whole term of this privilege: First. To regulate and direct the use of the ports, embarking and disembarking places, wharves, anchorage grounds, etc., at the termini of the railroad, and to establish agents with powers to carry into effect the regulations that it ma} r make in this particular in conformity with the laws of the Republic. These regulations shall be submitted to the approval of the executive power, without which they can not take effect. The executive power may refuse its approbation, alter and revoke them, as it ma}^ deem convenient. Second. To use the embarking and disembarking places, wharves, etc. , that it has constructed or may construct in the ports situated at the two extremes of the road. Third. To use the landings necessary, and especiall3 T those designated for the storage and free deposit of all goods and merchandise admitted for transit over the isthmus on the railroad constructed by the com- pany. By virtue of this privilege the company may collect as compen- sation for the use of the line of communication, means of transportation, landings, warehouses, and establishments of all kinds belonging to it such tolls lor transporting, wharfage, storage, and labor as it may deem proper to establish. The company continues in the exercise of all the rights conceded to it in the sixth article of the contract of - r >th of July, 1867. Consequently it may regulate and direct the use of the ports, embarking and disembarking places, wharves, anchorage grounds, etc., at the termini of tin; railroad, and establish agents witli powers to carry into effect the regulations that it may nuke in this particular in conformity with the laws of the Republic. These regulations shall be submitted to the approval of the executive power, without which they can not take effect; but the executive power, after having once approved them, can not change them nor revoke them without the consent of the company. — Article I of contraci of 1876. Article VII. — The executive power shall determine the forms to be observed in the landing of goods on either ocean, and theinterven- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 229 tion therein of the officers of the Republic to prevent the effects destined for transit From one ocean to the other from being left on the way or fraudentlv introduced for internal consumption. Said pre- cautions shall be such as may tend to prevent all frauds to the injury of the public revenue, without delaying or embarrassing the rapid dispatch and transit of passengers and packages of merchandise, lug- gage, and goods of all kinds which may be subjects of lawful commerce. Article VIII. — The company may give to the actual railroad a different direction from that which it now has, and which it may deem most favorable to the enterprise, it being free to choose the points of departure and arrival which may appear to it most advantageous and most convenient for the entrance and anchorage of vessels, or for ports properly so called, and for embarking places, dry docks, places for lighterage, landings, warehouses, stations, hotels, and establish- ments of all kinds, and this without prejudice to what is stipulated in Article IV of this contract. Article IX. The Government of the United States of Colombia ratifies the concession made to the Panama Railroad Company by the contract of the 15th of April, 1850: First. Of the lands that it has required and that it may require for the establishment of the line of railway in its whole extent, provided such lands belong to the Government; Second. Of the lands which were necessary for seaports, dry docks, river ports, landings, embarking places, places for lighterage, ware- houses, stations, hotels, and generally for all the necessities of the service of the railroad, always provided that such lands shall be the property of the Republic; Third. Of the concession made by gratuitous title and in perpetuity of 64,000 hectares of vacant lands in the territory of the State of Panama, with exception of the islands in both oceans and of the districts which formed on the 1st of January, 1849, the territories of Bocas del Toro and of Darien, limits of which were fixed by the law of the 9th of January, 1855. This concession may be extended to 96,000 hec- tares, if there shall be that number disposable within the limits of the ancient provinces of Panama and Veraguas in such manner that the Government can adjudicate them as vacant lands; and the company shall have the right to select them in the continental part of said provinces as they may deem most convenient. But it is stipulated that in the lands which the company ma} T select on the line of road, and its vicinity, there shall positively be left regular intervals equiv- alent in extent to those (tracts) which shall be given to the company in order that the Government may be enabled to make grants or sales of land for other establishments which may desire to locate themselves on the line and in the neighborhood of the road. Paragraph. — The lands granted to the company by sections first and second of this article shall be returned to the Republic at the expira- tion of the present privilege in the terms and with the formalties pre- scribed in this contract. Article X. In the grant of vacant lands in perpetuity made to the company by the contract of 1850 and ratified in section third of Arti- cle IX of this contract, there is not included the number of hectares contained in the island of Manzanillo in the bay of Limon, but they are included in the grants treated of in the first and second sections of the article cited, with the exception of 4 hectares which the Govern- 2J3U REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. ment reserves as an area for the construction of buildings for public offices, schoolhouses, prison, and other objects of public use, which shall be delivered by the company properly graded and in condition for building upon them. But it is understood that in the designation by the Government of the place or places in which it desires to take the 4 hectares reserved to it by this article, it shall not choose those which may be necessary for the«construction and service of the railway and its dependencies, nor those which may be already occupied b}' buildings now standing or which are to be reconstructed. This selection may be made by the Government in anticipation, as it may see fit, in accordance with the plan of the city, in order that the lands may be delivered to it so soon as the nature of the ground per- mits of the grading being carried on. Article XL The lands conceded to the company by Article IX, section third, shall be delivered as may be requested on compliance with the legal formalities established for such cases, and it being incum- bent on the company to prove their character as vacant lands, to meas- ure them, and to make the respective plans. The adjudication of said lands shall be made by the executive power, and from the time the declaration is made in the premises they shall be considered definite^ adjudicated to the company; but the provisional adjudication shall be made by the president of the State of Panama, submitted always to the examination and approval of the national executive power, and while not disapproved it will only produce the effect of preventing any ulte- rior grant of the same lands in favor of a third party. The Republic is not bound in any case to the vacating and guaranteeing the title of the vacant lands which may be adjudicated to the company. The executive power will fix a time in agreement with the compan} T within which the latter shall be bound to designate the vacant lands to which it has the right. Article XII. When the lands which may be required for the exten- sion of the line of the railroad, as referred to in Article IV of this con- tract, or for changes of direction of the line, or for the establishment of a second line of rails, shall be the property of private individuals, the company shall have the right to obtain them on an official appraise- ment and the just indemnification of the proprietor, in conformity with the dispositions of the law of the 22d of Miiy, 1866, "concerning the mode of proceeding in those civil cases, the cognizance of w T hich apper- tains to the tribunals of the Union." Article XIII. The railroad enterprise is esteemed of public utility. Article XIV. The company is authorized to propose to the execu- tive power the regulations which it may judge proper for the police, security, and preservation of its ways of communication, ports, works, and establishments of all kinds; but such regulations shall not be put in force without the express approval of the executive power, which, even after having approved them, may amend or annul them as it may deem proper, proceeding always in conformity with the laws of the Republic. The company continues authorized to propose to the executive power the regula- tions which it may judge proper for the police, security, and preservation of its ways of communication, ports, works, and establishments of all kinds. Such regulations shall not be carried into effect without the express approval of the executive power; but the latter, after having approved them, can not change them nor annul them without the consent of the company. — Article II of contract of 1S7G. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION 231 Article XV. The tariff of charges and freights on money, carriage of merchandise, and transport of travelers over the railroad, board and storage in the depots and establishments of the company, shall be fixed by it, and modified as it may deem best for its interests, but it shall be bound to inform the local authorities of said tariffs and modi- ficationa with at least thirty days' previous notice. Article XVI. Tin' company binds itself to transport gratis over the railroad the national and state mails that may have to be carried from ocean to ocean or to any intermediate point; and it may make such pecuniary arrangements as it thinks proper for the transportation of foreign mails, the passage of which over the isthmus is declared free to all nations; but the Government of the Republic may prohibit the passage by the railroad of the mails of those nations that may be at war with it, in which case the company shall refuse to carry them over the railroad. Article XVII. The compan} 7 may freely introduce into the isthmus without payment of duties or imposts of any kind all the implements, machines, tools, materials, provisions, and manufactured articles intended for the construction, working, and preservation of the rail- road, and the provisioning of the workmen employed on it. Article XVIII. The eompan} T is exempt from paying taxes or contributions, national, municipal, of the State, or of any other kind, upon the railroau, its warehouses, wharves, machines or other works, things and effects of any kind belonging to it, and which in the judg- ment of the executive power are necessary for the service of the said railroad and its dependencies. Article XIX. In compensation for these exemptions the company binds itself to transport gratuitously, and without the Government having to pa} T anything either for freight or for any other cause, the troops, chiefs, and officers, and their equipage, ammunition, armament, clothing, and all similar effects that may belong to, are or may be destined for the immediate service of the Government of the Republic, or of the State of Panama, as also their officials in service or in com- mission, and those individuals who, with their families and baggage, may come to the country in the character of emigrants, and of new settlers, with the permanent character of such, for account of the Government, up to the number of 2,000 annually. The executive power shall dictate the provisions as it may deem proper in such cases, in order to prevent those passengers whose entry into Colombian ter- ritory may be purely accidental from availing themselves of this con- cession. The executive power of the Union shall dictate the provisions which may be nec- essary, at the request of the company, to prevent abuses in the gratuitous passage which Article XIX of the aforesaid contract concedes to national employees and those of the State of Panama. — Article IV of contract of 1876. Article XX. Colombian productions shall be transported b} T the railroad during the first twenty years of this contract, paving only one-half the rates of freight or transportation previously fixed by the company for foreign products of the same class, but, this term being concluded, they shall pay a charge or freight not exceeding two-thirds of that previously fixed in the tariff of the company — tariff rates which the company can not increase in future in regard to Colombian pro- ductions. In order that Colombian products may be transported by the railroad under the conditions of Article XX of the same contract, there must" precede a declaration of 232 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the shipper, duly attested by the bill of lading of shipment, with a certificate of the administrator of the national treasury at the port of shipment, or other similar docu- ment, at the time of offering them, that such products are really Colombian; a nec- essary condition, without Which there shall be no ground for any claim. — Article V of contract of 1876. Article XXI. — Passengers, money, merchandise, objects, and effects of all kinds, destined for interoceanic transit over the railroad, while they remain in the warehouses and depots of the company, or in its possession, are exempt from dues and taxes, national, municipal, of the State, or of any other description. In like manner the vessels which may enter the ports at the termini of the railroad, as well as their officers, crews, and their agents, shall be exempt from the pay- ment of tonnage dues, or of any other tax or contribution whatever on account of service applied directty to the interoceanic transit. Article XXII. — Travelers passing from one sea to the other over the railroad shall not require any passports to pass over it, excepting in cases of foreign war or internal commotion, when the Government may deem the presentation of passports expedient for the security of the country or the preservation of public order. Nevertheless, per- sons who have been expelled from the territory of the Republic, or other individuals whom the laws forbid an entrance into the country, shall not pass over the railroad. Article XXIII. In case the present privilege conceded to the com- pany shall be declared forfeited by the competent tribunal, it shall return to the Republic such lands granted in ownership, and by gra- tuitous title, as may not be alread}- transferred in fee to a third party, and it shall have no right to exact any indemnification for improve- ments nor for any other cause. Article XXIV. It is obligatory upon the compan} T to make a sur- vey of the lands, with notice to the owners of adjoining lands, and to make a topographical plan of the road, with all its dependencies, such as bridges, aqueducts, viaducts, and other works which it may have constructed for the service of the railroad, in order that by means of such plan it may be clearly known what the companj T holds in owner- ship and to what purpose the exemptions provided for are destined. Article XXV. The company binds itself to execute constantly, with all care, punctuality, and celerity, the transportation of the trav- elers, cattle, merchandise, goods, and materials of all kinds that may be confided to it, payment being made of the charges and prices of transportation that may be fixed in the respective tariff. The dispo- sition of this article is, nevertheless, no obstacle to the company's entering into special contracts for the transportation of articles whose bulk, weight, or exceptional nature do not allow of their freights being fixed beforehand. The provision of the final part of Article XXV of the aforesaid contract of 1867, by which the company was permitted to enter into special contracts for the trans- portation of articles whose bulk, weight, or exceptional nature would not allow of their freights being fixed beforehand, is made applicable to all kinds of articles of commerce. — Article III of contract of 1876. Article XXVI. Vessels of nations which may be at war with the United States of Colombia shall not be admitted to the ports situated at either extremity of the railroad, nor shall the productions, effects, and property of such nations enjoy the free transit of the isthmus over the said road. Article XXVII. It is obligatory upon the conipanv to maintain REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 233 constantly in Panama or Colon a representative with sufficient power and authority to treat, whenever it may be necessary, personally with the Government on matters having relation to the enterprise. Article XXVI 1 1. The present privilege can not be ceded or trans- ferred to any foreign Government; that is to say, to any Government existing outside of Colombian territory, under pain of forfeiture of the said privilege by the mere act of attempting or verifying such ces- sion or transfer, which act, from the present time, is declared abso- lutely null and of no value or effect. This privilege shall also be for- feited in case the railroad company shall not execute the transporta- tion during a period exceeding four consecutive months (fortuitous cases excepted). This privilege will also be forfeited by the failure of payment, after being one year overdue, of any of the quarterly payments. Delay in the payments for a less period subjects the company to the payment of interest at the rate of 7 per cent per annum. None of the cases of forfeiture of the privilege fixed in Article XXVIII shall go into effect until the resolution of the Government in which the declaration of for- feiture is made is served in due form, and at least three months in advance, on the company and on the agents of the persons to whom the Government may transfer or hypothecate the revenue to which it is entitled by Article III, if said transfer or hypothecation shall have taken place; it being understood that if, after the notifica- tion has been given, and during the aforesaid three months, the company, or the interested persons of whom mention has been made, shall satisfy the Government, causing the reason for complaint or forfeiture to disappear, the said declaration shall not be carried into effect. — Article VI of contract of 1876. The Government reserves to itself the right to hypothecate, in whole or in part, the revenue, of which mention has been made in Article VI of this contract (except the right of the State of Panama to the annual proportion of $25,000), before the time at which said revenue is to be paid, and whatever may be hypothecated shall be payable in such a manner as the Government may direct; and the railroad com- pany binds itself, on being notified of any transfer or hypothecation, to accept it and to make payment at the maturity of the installments to the persons or parties in whose favor the transfer or hypothecation may have been made. — Article VIII of contract of 1876. Article XXIX. — In case of the forfeiture of this privilege from any cause, the ownership and full possession of the railroad, with all its dependencies, appurtenances, and accessories, shall pass to the Republic without the company's having thereby any right to indem- nification or remuneration of any kind. Article XXX. — The Government of the Republic binds itself to protect and maintain in all their integrity the rights of the company resulting from the present contract; provided the company complies punctually on its part with the duties and obligations which it under- takes, and that the privilege continues in force. Article XXXI. The rights which said Republic reserved to itself by the contract of the 15th of April, 1850, to redeem the privilege of the company, being especially lrypothecated as an additional security for the loan contracted by the said Republic in London under date of the 1st of October, 1863, it is stipulated that the products from the railroad, which by this contract belong to the Government, remain subsidiarily applicable to the payment of the obligations of the Govern- ment of the Republic, in regard to that loan, whether it be to complete the annual installments which the Government is obliged to pay in London on account of the interest and amortization of the capital, or to redeem the bonds of the loan at par, if in 1874 their redemption shall not have been completed. 234 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Article XXXII. In consequence of the stipulation in Article III, the Government renounces the benefit or participation of 3 per cent which by Article LV of the primitive contract it had in the net prod- ucts of the enterprise, and the quota of 5 per cent which had also been reserved in its favor by Article XXX of said contract in the transpor- tation of correspondence, and which quota it was stipulated should not be less than $10,000 annually. The account of these profits shall be liquidated immediately in the terms fixed by Article LV, up to the da} 7 on which the present contract begins to rule and have effect, and the payment of the balance which may result in favor of the Republic shall be made by the company in New York to the order of the Gov- ernment. Article XXXIII. Questions which may arise between the Govern- ment of the Republic and the railroad compan} 7 concerning- the under- standing or the fulfillment of this contract, shall be decided by the courts and tribunals of the Colombian Union according- to the consti- tution and laws of the Republic. Questions that may arise between the Government of the Republic and the rail- road company as to the understanding or the execution of this contract, and of those of 1850 and 1867, to which this one refers, shall be decided without appeal by the federal supreme court of the Colombian Union without the intervention of any other tribunal. — Article VII of contract of 1876. Article XXXV. The ninety-nine years of the duration of the privi- lege conceded by this contract shall be counted from the date on which it may be approved by the Congress. a Article XXXVI. At the expiration of the term of the privilege, and by the sole fact of its expiration, the Government of the Colombian Union shall be substituted in all the rights of the company, and shall enter immediately into the enjoyment of the line of communication, of all its fixtures, of all its dependencies, and of all its products. The company shall be bound to deliver to the Government, in good order, the roads, the works which compose them, and their dependencies, such as landing and discharging places, offices, machines, and in gen- eral whatever movable or immovable objects, whether destined for the especial service of transportation or applicable to an} f other object connected with the enterprise. Article XXXVII. The present contract contains all the conces- sions and privileges which the existing Panama Railroad Company has acquired for the future. In virtue of which it is declared, and the parties hereby expressly agree, that at no time can the company claim rights or privileges which are clearly not contained in this contract, unless they may be granted by subsequent acts. Article XXXVIII. The contract of the 15th of April, 1850, approved by the Legislative decree of the 4th of June of the same year, is hereby re-formed by the terms of the present contract; and extended as it is in thirty-eight articles, it shall be submitted to the approval of the executive power of the Republic, and, when obtained, it shall be pre- sented to Congress, the consent of which is required in order that, being enacted into a law, it may be carried into effect. 1 ' » Which was August L6, L867. b Congress approved August 16, 1867. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 235 AMENDMENTS AGREED UPON BETWEEN THE PANAMA RAILROAD COMPANY AND THE REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA, AUGUST 18, 1891. Article I. Article XX of the contract of July 5, 1867, approved by law No. 16 of the same year, shall read as follows: From and after Jul}' 1, 1892, Colombian products passing over the Panama Railroad shall pay onl} r half of the rate of freight established' by the company for foreign products of the same class. Article II. Salt from the Colombian salt pits of the Atlantic coast intended for the national ports of the Pacific shall be transported by the same railroad company at the following- rates: A quantity not exceeding 6,000,000 of kilograms each year, and which shall in no case exceed 1,000 tons per month, at the rate of $2 gold per ton without any deduction. Shipments of the salt referred to that may exceed the quantity above stated shall pay the rate that is established for the other Colombian products in the previous article. Appendix G G. WYSE CONCESSION, MARCH 20, 1878. R CONTRACT FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN INTEROCEANIC CANAL ACROSS COLUMBIAN TERRITORY. Eustorgio Salgar, secretary of the interior and of foreign relations of the United States of Colombia, duly authorized of the one part, and of the other part Lucien N. B. Wyse, chief of the Isthmus Scien- tific Surveying Expedition in 1876, 1877, and 1878, member and dele- gate of the board of directors of the International Interoceanic Canal Association, presided by General Etienne Tiirr, in conformity with powers bestowed at Paris, from the 27th to the 29th of October, 1877, have celebrated the following contract: Article I. The Government of the United States of Colombia grants to Mr. Lucien N. B. Wyse, who accepts it in the name of the civil International Interoceanic Canal Association, represented by their board of directors, the exclusive privilege for the construction across its territory and for the operating of a canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Said canal may be constructed without restrictive stipulations of any kind. This concession is made under the following conditions: First. The duration of the privilege shall be for ninety-nine years from the day on which the canal shall be wholly or partially opened to public service, or when the grantees or their representatives com- mence to collect the dues on transit and navigation. Second. From the date of approbation by the Colombia Congress for the opening of the interoceanic canal, the Government of the Republic can not construct, nor concede to any company or individual, under any consideration whatever, the right to construct another canal across Colombian territory which shall communicate the two oceans. Should the grantees wish to construct a railroad as an auxiliary to the canal, the Government (with the exception of existing rights) can not grant to any other company or individual the right to build another interoceanic railroad, nor do so itself, during the time allowed for the construction and use of the canal. Third. The necessary studies of the ground and the route for the line of the canal shall be made at the expense of the grantees by an international commission of individuals and competent engineers in which two Colombian engineers shall take part. The commission shall determine the general route of the canal and report to the Colombian a Translation from the Diario Official of Bogota, Wednesday, May 22, 1878. 237 238 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Government directly, or to its diplomatic agents in the United States or Europe, upon the results obtained, at the latest in 1881, unless una- voidable circumstances, clearly proven, should prevent their so doing - . The report shall comprise in duplicate the scientific labors performed and an estimate of the projected work. Fourth. The grantees shall then have a period of two years to organ- ize a universal joint stock company, which shall take charge of the enterprise and of the construction of the canal. This term shall com- mence from the date mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Fifth. The canal shall 'be finished and placed at the public service within the subsequent twelve years after the formation of the com- pany which will undertake its construction, but the executive power is authorized to grant a further maximum term of six years in the case of encountering superhuman obstacles beyond the power of the com- pany, and, if after one- third of the canal is built, the company should acknowledge the impossibility of concluding the work in the said twelve years. Sixth. The canal shall have the length, depth, and all other condi- tions requisite in order that sailing vessels and steamships measuring up to 140 meters long, 16 meters in width, and 8 meters in draft shall, with lowered topmast, be able to pass the canal. Seventh. All public lands which may be required for the route of the canal, the ports, stations, wharves, moorings, warehouses, and in general for the construction and service of the canal as well as for the railway, should it be convenient to build it, shall be ceded gratis to the grantees. Eighth. These unoccupied public lands shall revert to the Govern- ment of the Republic with the railroad and canal at the termination of this privilege; there is also granted for the use of the canal a belt of land, 200 meters wide, on each side of its banks throughout all the dis- tance which it may run, but the owners of lands on its banks shall have free access to the canal and its ports as well as to the right of use of any roads which the grantees may open there; and this without paying any dues to the company. Ninth. If the lands through which the canal shall pass or upon which the railroad may be built should in whole or in part be private property the grantee shall have the right to demand their expropria- tion by the Government according to all the legal formalities in such cases. The indemnity which shall be made to the landowners, and which shall be based on their actual value, shall be at the expense of the company. The grantees shall enjoy in this case, and in those of temporary occupation of private property, all the rights and privileges which the existing legislation confers. Tenth. The grantees may establish and operate at their cost the telegraph lines which they may consider useful as auxiliaries in the building and management of the canal. Eleventh. It is, however, stipulated and agreed, that if, before the payment of the security determined upon in Article II, the Colombian Government should receive any formal proposal, sufficiently guaran- teed in the opinion of the said Government, to construct the canal in less time and under more advantageous conditions for the United States of Colombia, said proposal shall be communicated to the grantees or their representatives that they may be substituted therein, in which ease they shall be preferred; but if they do not accept such substitu- tion the Colombian Government, in the new contract which they may REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 230 celebrate, shall exact, besides the guarantee mentioned in Article II, the sum of $300,000 in coin, which shall be given as indemnity to the grantees. Article II. Within the term of twelve months from the date at which the international commission shall have presented the definite results of their studies, the grantees shall deposit in the bank or banks of London, to be designated by the national executive power, the sum' of 750,000 francs, to the exclusion of all paper money, as security for the execution of the work. The receipt of said banks shall be a voucher for the fulfillment of said deposit. It is understood that if the grantees should lose that deposit by virtue of the stipulations con- tained in clauses 2 and 3 of Article XXII of the present contract, the sum referred to, with interest accrued, shall become in toto the property of the Colombian Government. After the conclusion of the canal, said sum, without interest, which latter will in this case belong to grantees, shall lemain for benefit of the treasury, for the outlays which it may have incurred or may incur in the construction of build- ings for the service of the public officers. Article III. If the line of the canal to be constructed from sea to sea should pass to the west and to the north of the imaginary straight line which joins Cape Tiburon with Garachine Point, the grantees must enter into some amicable arrangement with the Panama Railroad Company, or pay an indemnity, which shall be established in accord- ance with the provisions of law 46, of August 16, 1867, "approving the contract celebrated on July 5, 1867, reformatory of the contract of April 15, 1850, for the construction of an iron railroad from one ocean to the other through the Isthmus of Panama." In case the international commission should choose the Atrato, or some other stream alread}^ navigable, as one of the entrances to the canal, the ingress and egress by such stream, and the navigation of its waters, so long as it is not intended to cross the canal, shall be open to commerce and free from all imposts. Article IV. Besides the lands granted in paragraphs 7 and 8 of Article I, there shall be awarded to the grantees, as an aid for the accomplishment of the work, and not otherwise, 500,000 hectares of public lands, with the mines they may comprise, in the localities which the company may select. This award shall be made directly by the national executive power. The public lands situated on the seacoast, on the borders of the canal or of the rivers, shall be divided in alternate lots between the Government and the company, forming areas of from one to two thousand hectares. The measurements for the allotment or locating shall be made at the expense of the grantees and with the intervention of Government commissioners. The public lands thus granted, with the mines they may hold, shall be awarded to the grantees as fast as the work of construction of the canal progresses, and in accordance with rules to be laid down by the executive power. Within a belt of 2 myriameters on each side of the canal, and dur- ing five years after the termination of the work, the Government shall not.have the right to grant other lands beyond the said lots until the company shall have called for the whole number of lots granted by this article. Article V. The Government of the Republic hereby declares the ports at each end of the canal, and the waters of the latter from sea to sea, to be neutral for all time; and, consequently, in case of war among 240 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. other nations, the transit through the canal shall not be interrupted by such event, and the merchant vessels and individuals of all nations of the world may enter into said ports and travel on the canal without being molested or detained. In general, any vessel may pass freely without any discrimination, exclusion, or preference of nationalities or persons, on payment of the dues and the observance of the rules established by the company for the use of the canal and its depend- encies. Exception is to be made of foreign troops, which shall not have the right to pass without permission from Congress, and of the vessels of nations which, being at war with the United States of Colom- bia, may not have obtained the right to pass through the canal at all times, by public treaties wherein is guaranteed the sovereignty of Colombia over the Isthmus of Panama and over the territory whereon the canal is to be cut, besides immunity and neutrality of the said canal, its ports, bays, and dependencies and the adjacent seas. Article VI. The United States of Colombia reserves to them- selves the right to pass their vessels, troops, ammunitions of war at all times and without paying any dues whatever. The passage of the canal is strictly closed to war vessels of nations at war, and which may not have acquired, by public treat}' with the Colombian Govern- ment, the right to pass by the canal at all times. Article VII. The grantees will enjoy the right during the whole time of the privilege to use the ports at the termini of the canal, as well as at intermediate points, for the anchorage and repair of ships and the loading, depositing, transshipping, or landing of merchandise. The ports of the canal shall be open and free to the commerce of all nations, and no import duties shall be exacted except on merchandise destined to be introduced for the consumption of the rest of the Repub- lic. The said ports shall therefore be open to importations from the commencement of the work, and the custom-houses and the revenue service which the Government may deem convenient for the collection of duties on merchandise destined for other portions of the Republic shall be established, in order to prevent introduction of smuggled goods. Article VIII. The executive power shall dictate, for the protection of the financial interests of the Republic, the regulations conducive to the prevention of smuggling, and shall have the power to station, at the cost of the nation, the number of men which they may deem neces- sary for that service. Out of the indispensable officials for that service, ten shall be paid by the company, and their salaries shall not exceed those enjoyed by employees of the same rank in the Baranquilla custom-house. The company shall carry gratis through the canal, or on the auxil- iary railway, the men destined for the service of the nation, for the service of the State through whose territory the canal may pass, or for the service of the police, with the object of guarding against foreign enemies, or for the preservation of public order, and shall also trans- port gratis the baggage of such men, their war materials, armament, and clothing which they may need for the service assigned to them. The subsistence of the public force which may be deemed necessary for the safety of the interoceanic transit shall likewise be at the expense of the company. Article IX. The grantee shall have the right to introduce, free of import or other duties of whatever class, all the instruments, machin- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 241 ery, tools, fixtures, provisions, clothing for laborers which they may need during all the time allowed to them for the construction and use of the canal. The ships carrying cargoes, for the use of the enter- prise shall enjoy free entry into whatever point shall afford them easy access to the line of the canal. Article X. No taxes, either national, municipal, of the State, or' of any other class, shall be levied upon the canal, the ships that navi- gate it, the tugs and vessels at the service of the grantees, their ware- houses, workshops, and offices, factories of whatever class, storehouses, wharves, machinery, or other works or property of whatever character belonging to them, and which they may need for the service of the canal and its dependencies during the time conceded for its construc- tion and operation. The grantees shall also have the right to take from unoccupied lands the materials of any kind which they may require without paying any compensation for the same. Article XL The passengers, money, precious metals, merchandise, and articles and effects of all kinds which may be transported over the canal, shall also be exempt from all duties, national, municipal, transit, and others. The same exemption is extended to all articles and mer- chandise for interior or exterior commerce which may remain in deposit, according to the conditions which may be stipulated, with the company in the storehouses and stations belonging to them. Article XII. Ships desiring to cross the canal shall present at the port of the terminus of the canal at which they may arrive their respective registers and other sailing papers, prescribed by the laws and public treaties, so that the vessels may navigate without interrup- tion. Vessels not having said papers, or which should refuse to pre- sent them, may be detained and proceeded against according to law. Article XIII. The Government allows the immigration and free access to the lands and shops of the grantees of all the employees and workingmen of whatever nationality, who may be contracted for the work, or who may come to engage themselves to work on the canal, on condition that such employees or laborers shall submit to the existing laws, and to the regulations established by the company. The Gov- ernment promises them support and protection, and the enjojmient of their rights and guaranties, in conformity with the national constitu- tion and laws during the time they may sojourn on the Colombian territory. The national peons and laborers employed on the work of the canal shall be exempt from all requisition of militaiy service, national as well as of the State. Article XIV. In order to indemnif}^ the grantees of the construc- tion, maintenance, and working expenses incurred by them, they shall have, during the whole period of the privilege, the exclusive right to establish and collect for the passage of the canal and its ports, the dues for light-houses, anchorage, transit, navigation, repairs, pilotage, tow- age, hauling, storage, and of station according to the tariff which they may issue, and which they may modify at any time under the follow- ing express conditions: First. They shall collect these dues, without any exceptional favor, from all vessels in like circumstances. Second. The tariffs shall be published four months before their enforcement in the Diario Oticial of the Government, as well as in the capitals and the principal commercial ports of the countries interested. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 16 242 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Third. The principal navigation dues to be collected shall not exceed the sum of 10 francs for each cubic meter resulting from the multipli- cation of the principal dimensions of the submerged part of the ship in transit (length, breadth, and draft). Fourth. The principal dimensions of the ship in transit — that is to say, the maximum exterior length and breadth at the water line, as well as the greatest draft — shall be the metrical dimension inserted in the official clearance papers, excepting any modifications supervening during the voyage. The ship's captains and the company's agents may demand a new measurement, which operations shall be carried out at the expense of the petitioner; and, Fifth. The same measurement — that is to say, the number of cubic meters contained in the parallelopipedon circumscribing the submerged part of the ship — shall serve as a basis for the determination of the other accessory dues. Article XV. By way of compensation for the rights and exemp- tions which are allowed to the grantees in this contract, the Govern- ment of the Republic shall be entitled to a share amounting to 5 per cent on all collections made by the company, by virtue of the dues which may be imposed in conforming with Article XIV, during the first twenty -five years after the opening of the canal to the public service. From the twenty-sixth up to the fiftieth year, inclusive, it shall be entitled to a share of C per cent; from the fifty-first to the seventy-fifth to 7 per cent, and from the seventy-sixth to the termina- tion of the privilege to 8 per cent. It is understood that these shares shall be reckoned, as has been said, on the gross income from all sources, without any deduction whatever for expenses, interest on shares or on loans or debts against the company. The Government of the Republic shall have the right to appoint a commissioner or agent, who shall intervene in the collections and examine the accounts, and the distribution or payment of the shares coming to the Govern ment shall be made in due half-yearly installments. The product of the 5, 6, 7, and 8 per cent shall be distributed as follows: Four-fifths of it shall go to the Government of the Republic, and the remaining one-fifth to the government of the State through whose territory the canal may pass. The company guarantees to the Government of Colombia that the share of the latter shall in no case be less than the sum of $250,000 a year, which is the same as that received as its share in the earnings of the Panama Railroad, so that if in any year the 5 per cent share should not reach said sum, it shall be completed out of the common funds of the company. Article XVI. The grantees arc authorized to require payment in advance of any charges which they may establish; nine-tenths of these charges shall be made payable in gold, and only the remaining one- tenth part shall be payable in silver of 25 grams, of a fineness of 900. Article XVII. The ships which shall infringe upon the rules estab- lished by the company shall be subject to the payment of a fine which said company shall fix in its regulations, of which due notice shall be given to the public at the time of the issue of the tariff. Should they refuse to pay said fine, nor furnish sufficient security, they may be detained and prosecuted according to the laws. The same proceedings may be observed for the damages they may have caused. Article XVIII. If the opening of the canal shall be deemed finan- cially possible, the grantees are authorized to form, under the imme- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 243 diate protection of the Colombian Government, a universal joint-stock company, which shall undertake the execution of the work, taking charge of all financial transactions which may be needed. As this enterprise is essentially international and for public utility, it is under- stood that it shall always be kept free from political influences. The company shall take the name of The Universal Interoceanic Canal Association; its residence shall be fixed in Bogota, New York, London, or Paris, as the grantees may choose; branch offices may be established wherever necessary. Its contracts, shares, bonds, and titles of its property shall never be subjected by the Government of Colom- bia to any charges for registry, emission, stamps, or any similar imposts upon the sale or transfer of these shares of bonds, as well as on the profits produced by these values. Article XIX. The company is authorized to reserve as much as 10 per cent of the shares emitted, to form a fund of shares, to the benefit of the founders and promoters of the enterprise. Of the products of the concern, the company take, in the first place, what is necessary to cover all expenses of repairs, operations, and administration, and the share which belongs to the Government, as well as the sums necessary for the payment of the interest and the amortization of the bonds, and, if possible, the fixed interest or dividend of the shares; that which remains will be considered as net profit, out of which 80 per cent at least will be divided among the shareholders. Article XX. The Colombian Government may appoint a special delegate in the board of directors of the company whenever it may consider it useful to do so. This delegate shall enjoy the same advan- tages as are granted to the other directors by the by-laws of the company. The grantees pledge themselves to appoint in the capital of the Union, near the national Government, a duly authorized agent for the pur- pose of clearing up all doubts and presenting - any claims to which this contract may give rise. Reciprocally and in the same sense, the Gov- ernment shall appoint an agent who shall reside in the principal estab- lishment of the company situated on the line of the canal; and, according to the national constitution, the difficalties which may arise between the contracting parties shall be submitted to the decision of the federal supreme court. Article XXI. The grantees, or those who in the future may suc- ceed them in their rights, may transfer these rights to other capital- ists or financial companies, but it is absolutely prohibited to cede or mortgage them under any consideration whatever to any nation or foreign government. Article XXII. The grantees, or their representatives, shall lose the right hereby acquired in the following cases: First. If they do not deposit, on the terms agreed upon, the sum which by wa}^ of security must insure the execution of the work. Second. If, in the first year of the twelve that are allowed for the construction of the canal, the works are not already commenced, in this case the company shall lose the sum deposited by way of security, together with the interest that ma}' have accrued, all of which will remain for the benefit of the Republic. Third. If, at the end of the second period fixed in paragraph 5 of Article I, the canal is not transitable, in this case also the company shall lose the sum deposited as security, which, with the interests accrued, shall remain for the benefit of the Republic. 244 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Fourth. If they violate the prescr ptions of Article XXI; and, Fifth. If the service of the canal should be interrupted for a longer period than six months without its being occasioned by the acts of God, etc. In cases 2, 3, 4, and 5, the federal supreme court shall have the right to decide whether the privilege has become annulled or not. Article XXIII. In all cases of decisions of nullity, the public lands mentioned in clauses 7 and 8 of Article I, and such lands as are not settled or inhabited from among those granted by Article IV, shall revert to the possession of the Republic in the condition they may be found in, and without any indemnity whatever, as well as the buildings, materials, works, and improvements which the grantees ma} r possess along the canal and its accessories. The grantees shall only retain their capital, vessels, provisions, and in general all movable property. Article XXIV. Five years previous to the expiration of the ninety- nine years of the privilege, the executive power shall appoint a commis- sioner to examine the condition of the canal and annexes, and, with the knowledge of the companj 7 or its agents on the isthmus, to make an official report, describing in every detail the condition of the same and pointing out what repairs may be necessary. This report will serve to establish in what condition the canal and its dependencies shall be delivered to the National Government on the day of expiration of the privilege now granted. Article XXV. The enterprise of the canal is reputed to be of public utility. Article XXVI. This contract, which will serve as a substitute for the provisions of law 33, of May 26, 1876, and the clauses of the con- tract celebrated on the 28th of May of the same year, shall be sub- mitted for the approval of the President of the Union and the definite acceptance by the Congress of the nation. In witness whereof they sign the present in Bogota, on the 20th March, 1878. ElJSTORGIO SALGAR, Lucien N. B. Wyse. Bogota, March 23, 1878. Approved: Aquileo Parro, Preside?) t of the (hi ion . KUSTORGIO SALGAR, Secretanj of the Interior . Approved. [seal.] M. A. Caro. The Minister of Foreign Affairs. Marco F. Suarez. Appendix J J. CONTRACT RELATIVE TO THE GRANTING OF AN EXTENSION OF TIME TO THE NEW COMPANY OF THE PANAMA CANAL. a Whereas the national executive power has dictated the following decree No. 721 of 1900 (April 23), by which provision is made for the granting of an extension of time to the new company of the Panama Canal, the President of the Republic having seen the memorial by which the new compan} r of the Panama Canal has solicited of the Gov- ernment an extension of six years for the completion of the work and putting it into public service; and having seen the communications in which the special agent, Dr. Nicolas Esquerra, expounds to the Gov- ernment the public expediency of granting the extension herein con- sidered, decrees: Article 1. The Government ma} T grant to the new company of the Panama Canal an extension for the fixed term of six years to complete the work and put it into public use: Provided, That it shall deposit at the disposition of the national treasury, within one hundred and twenty days, computed from the date on which this instrument shall be notified to the said company, in such bank or establishment as may be designated by the Government, 5,000,000 francs in French gold. Article 2. The said extension will begin to run on the 31st day of October, 1901; consequently the canal must be completed and put into public use on the 31st day of October, 1910, at the latest. Let it be communicated and published. Given at Pena, department of Cundinamarca, this 23d day of April, 1900. Manuel A. Sanclemente. Rafael M. Palacio, Min ister of State. Carlos Cuervo Marquez, Min ister of Foreign Affairs. Carlos Calderon, Minister of Finan<; . Jose Santos, Minister of War. Morco F. Suarez, Minister of Public Instruction. Marceliano Vargas, Min ister of the Treasury. Now, therefore, we, to wit, Carlos Calderon, minister of finance of the Republic, duly authorized by the executive power, on the one part, and, on the other part, Alejandro N. Mancini, in his capacity of agent a Translation from Diario Oficial, Bogota, May 7, 1900, No. 11278 (ministry of finance). 255 256 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of the new company of the Panama Canal and as representative of the same, by virtue of the power of attorney which he has laid before the ministry of finance, have executed the following- contract: Article 1. The Government of the Republic grants to the new com- pany of the Panama Canal a delay of six years, from the 31st of Octo- ber, 1904, in which to complete the work on the canal and deliver it to the public service, under the terms of the existing contracts. In con- sequence the said work shall have to be completed and put into the public service on the 31st day of October, 1910. Article 2. In consideration of the extension referred to in the fore- going article, the new company of the Panama Canal will pa} r to the Republic the sum of 5,000,000 francs in French coin, in the city of Paris, ninety days from the date on which this contract shall have been approved by the Most Excellent President of the Republic. Said pay- ment shall be made by the company to the firm or bank in the cit}^ of Paris in whose favor the minister of the treasury of the Republic may draw. Article 3. This contract requires the approval of the council of ministers and that of the Most Excellent President of the Republic. In witness whereof we have signed three copies of even tenor, at Bogota, this 25th day of April, 1900. Carlos Calderon. Alejandro N. Mancini. Presidency of the Council of Ministers. Bogota, April ..'■'>. WOO. In the session of this day the foregoing contract was examined and unanimously approved. Carlos Cuervo Marquez, President. Alejandro M. Olivares, S< oretary ad hoc. National Executive Power, Pena, Department of Cundmamarca, April 86, 1900. Approved. Manuel A. Sanclemente. Carlos Calderon, Minister of FinanCi . Appendix K K. Memorandum of legal status of the New Panama Canal Company, including translations of French laws and judicial decrees affecting its organization, and the charter of the company. The general incorporation law of France of July 24, 1867, under which the old Panama Canal Company was organized, is found in the French Code of Commerce, by Leopold Garrand, London, 1880, page 703. The amendatory act of August 1, 1893, which modified the law prior to the organization of the new company, is found in Bulletin Des Lois de la Republique Francaise, twelfth series, volume 47, page 491, published in Paris, 1894. Extract from the judgment of the civil tribunal of the Seine, rendered february 4, 1889, pronouncing the dissolution of the Compagnie Univ'erselle du Canal Tnteroceanique de Panama and appointing a receiver. The court, in consideration that the civil or commercial character of a company is recognized, not by the particular form which it takes, but by the nature of the enterprise which constitutes its principal object; that it therefore matters little that the Compagnie du Canal Interoceanique de Panama is a societe anonyme, this circumstance not being enough to impress upon it a commercial character; In consideration, that as to its object, according to article 2 of its articles, it comprises the construction of a maritime canal for deep- water navigation between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, across the part of the American isthmus which belongs to the United States of Colombia, as well as the operation of said canal and of the various enterprises which are connected therewith; that in reality the company is formed for the operation of the canal and in view of the profits which it may obtain and that the construction itself is not the principal aim of the enterprise, but only a necessary means for carrying it out; That the operation can not be assimilated to a transportation business, the company limiting itself to the opening of a new way for navigation upon payment of fixed tolls; In consideration, that therefore, the company has for its principal object the development of real estate under conditions under which the State of Colombia might have developed it itself if it had not granted the concession to third parties; that it is therefore purely civil, and that on this account, its duration being moreover limited, any one of the associates may apply for its dissolution in conformity with article 1871 of the civil code; S. Doc, 54, pt 2 17 257 258 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In consideration that the objection would be unavailing, that the present application has been made in violation of article 74 of the articles of incorporation, according to which no proceeding at law can be taken b}^ one or more shareholders against the company, its board of directors, or one of the members of the board, until it has been submitted to the examination of the shareholders' meeting, whose opinion is to be submitted to the court at the same time with the action; that on the one hand this provision, which implies a simple opinion to be stated by the shareholders' meeting and not at all a preliminary consent to be given by it, is not of such a character as to be binding upon the court when it is not set up by the defendant; that it could not, moreover, prevail against the right which eveiy member acquires by article 1871 of the civil code, the protection of which concerns con- siderations of public policy; that, on the other hand, it appears from the papers in the case that if the special shareholders' meeting of January 26 last could not be legally organized, in spite of the reiterated notices sent to the shareholders, there is no reason to hope that a new call would have a more efficacious result; that thus the plaintiffs would be deprived, by the mere force of circumstances and without possible recourse, of a right which article 1871 of the civil code intended to assure them; that, finally, the calling of a new meeting would involve, according to the articles, such delays that the corporate interests which are now at stake might suffer irreparable injury; In consideration that the further objection can not prevail that, in accordance with article 68 of the articles of incorporation, the dissolu- tion of the company before its expiration must be voted by a meeting of shareholders held under special conditions fixed in article 69; that none of the terms of these articles implies the idea that the right in question belongs exclusively to the shareholders' meeting and that the courts are deprived of it; that such a provision would be in contradic- tion with the principle laid down in article 1871 of the civil code, and would obviously nullify its object; That, furthermore, what was said above relative to the shareholders'' meeting of January 26 last, and the impossibility of calling to any use- ful purpose a new meeting within the period fixed by the articles, is pertinent here again, and that from every point of view the applica- tion should be received; In consideration that on the merits article 1871 of the civil code confers upon the court the power of deciding finally whether the com- pany, under the circumstances contemplated, can still continue its normal course or whether its dissolution is rendered necessary by the very situation in which it is placed; that it is now established that the Coinpagnie du Canal de Panama has ceased to act in a regular way; that it has suspended payment upon its securities and that the con- tinuation of work on the canal is insured only for a very limited time; that since December 14 last it has been necessary to confide its manage- ment provisionally to appointees of the court, who have taken the necessary measures to protect temporarily the important interests connected with its existence, that these wholly provisional measures are now insufficient or will shortly become so, and that it is important to take action to ward off dangers, the consequences of which would be irreparable; In consideration, therefore, that there is occasion for pronouncing the dissolution of the company and providing for its winding up; that REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 259 there is occasion also for ordering- a provisional execution of the pres- ent judgment, notwithstanding appeal, and without security, applying article 135 of the code of civil procedure; For these reasons, pronounces the dissolution of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique de Panama and orders that it be wound up; Appoints Mr. Joseph Brunet receiver of said company with the broadest powers, especially to grantor contribute to any new company all or a part of the corporate assets, to enter into or ratify with the contractors for the Panama Canal all agreements having for their pur- pose the insurance of the continuance of the works, and to this end to contract all loans and form all sinking funds; Declares that in case the receiver appointed can not act, provision will be made for replacing him in the ordinary way; Authorizes him henceforth to apply in the same way for all special powers which may be necessary for the performance of his duties, and, if he thinks tit, for the addition of one or more receivers; Orders provisional execution of the present judgment, notwithstand- ing appeal and without security; Condemns the defendant company to the expenses. ACT OF JULY 1, 1893, RELATIVE TO THE LIQUIDATION OF THE UNI- VERSAL COMPANY OF THE PANAMA INTEROCEANIC CANAL. The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies have adopted and enacted, and the President of the Republic promulgates, the following law: Article 1. From the date of the promulgation of the present law, all actions now in course of procedure that have been brought by holders of bonds or obligations emitted by the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, or that have been brought by any creditors of the said company, whether against the receiver in his official capacit}^ or against the directors to enforce their responsibility, or against third parties for restitution, or arising in any other manner whatsoever, are hereby declared discontinued and suspended. The plaintiff may follow up and prosecute said actions only by com- plying with the requirements of articles 2 and 3 hereof. All proceedings concerning attachments and execution, even those now in course of enforcement and procedure, against the personal or real estate or property of the said company, are likewise discontinued and suspended. 1. — Bond or obligation holders' attorney. Article 2. All rights of action, of any character whatever, accru- ing to owners of obligations emitted by the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal whether against the receiver in his official capacity, or against the directors to enforce their responsibility, or for a right to restitution arising from anj r other cause, shall be enforced and sued on by an attorney or representative appointed for the pur- pose, on request of the commonwealth's attorney for the jurisdiction of the civil tribunal of the Seine, by a decree in chambers. In case there should arise a divergence or opposition of interests 260 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. between the different classes of bondholders, one or more special attor- neys may be appointed in the manner and form just above provided for. The powers of the attorneys aforesaid may be revoked at the same request and in the same manner. There shall be no appeal from said orders or decrees. However, any obligation holder shall have the right to enter an action for damages in connection with a criminal matter or to inter- vene in proceedings instituted by the attorney or representative afore- said, doing so at his own expense and cost without in any way dekying the proceedings or judgment. Moreover, every obligation holder shall have the power to bring any action, in his individual right and at his own risk and peril, which the attorney shall have refused or failed to enter within one month after he shall have been notified and requested to enter the same. Suits brought by the attorneys or representatives shall not block the right of action on the part of the company belonging to the receiver. The attorneys shall have power to call on the receiver for communica- tion of all documents tending to shed light on the truth; their legal residence shall be the jurisdiction within which shall be carried on the winding up or liquidation of the company's affairs; the tax costs arising from the exercise of their official duties shall be defrayed from the credits of the receivership, so far as this may be done without impair- ing the reimbursement to the latter of the sums which it shall have advanced. Article 3. All actions emanating from the receiver or from the attorneys, or from interested parties individually, shall be brought before the civil tribunal of the Seine. Such proceedings as may arise from the distribution of the credits or balance remaining in favor of the company shall be brought likewise before this tribunal. Suits instituted by parties intervening in damages shall remain in the juris- diction where already the prosecution has been inaugurated. Article 1. The attorney shall have full and complete enjoyment of the "judicial assistance privilege' 1 (consisting in the exemption from payment of the usual costs attending a judicial proceeding) in the car- rying on of actions and in the executing of verdicts or decisions which he shall have obtained. Likewise he shall enjoy the same in all inter- ventions sounding in damages, and in the case of all recording taxes which might be otherwise exacted. On his request presented to the commonwealth's attorney, pleaders, advocates, and sheriffs shall be appointed in the manner and form prescribed by article 13 of the law dated January 22, 1851. However, the "judicial assistance privilege 1 ' shall not extend to costs of transportation for judges, for Government officials, or for experts, nor to the hitter's fees, nor to witness taxes. As to stamp duties, costs of recording, and court costs in general, the treasury shall exact them from the debtor only, after the payment of such judgment as shall have been obtained by the plaintiffs attorney. Article 5. The attorney shall have power to compromise or to desist from further action, though he may do so only after consult Jul; with three jurists appointed by the commonwealth's attorney; and all compromises or withdrawals of actions shall have to be ratified and approved by judicial decree rendered in chambers. lie alone shall be empowered to levy execution on judgments pro- nounced by the court, or to receive the sums obtained on compromise, RKPORT Ol 1 THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 2C)1 whether «uch compromise have been obtained on his own demand or on that of obligation holders acting in an individual capacity; all sums thus received shall ho deposited by him at the deposit bureau, and the receiver shall give him due quittance therefor. II. — The recewer. Article 6. Before proceeding at all to distribute the credits of the company, the receiver shall publish in the Journal Officiel and in the Journal Otticiel (Commune edition) a notice calling on all parties inter- ested to produce their claims against the company and the proofs thereof within the space of six months, under pain of becoming barred from bringing any action on the said claims. The production of the claims and the transmission of proofs in sup- port thereof may be made by simple registered letter. Article 7. The receiver shall proceed to verify and to admit said claims in the manner and form prescribed by articles 495 and 497, first paragraph, of the Code of Commerce. Article 8. Should the claim be contested, notice of this fact shall be sent by registered mail to the claimant in question, and the latter shall have a term of three months within which he must institute pro- ceedings before the civil tribunal of the Seine, in order to have his claim adjudicated. Judgment must be pronounced hereon within the space of one month, as in the case of matters demanding immediate and summary adjudica- tion. An appeal from such decision must be entered within ten days from the notification of said judgment either to the party in person or at his domicile. Article 9. The distribution of all dividends arising from an action brought by the company or from actions brought by the attorney or representative of obligation holders, or from any other source what- ever, shall be made by the receiver, who alone shall have competency to receive opposition or objections to the same. Article 10. All acts tending to alienate any assets of the company, all contracts entailing a transfer or contribution of the whole or of a part of the assets of the concern, emanating from the receiver of the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, shall be subject to the approval or ratification of the civil tribunal of the Seine, who shall, on the report of one of the justices, pass on the question in open court. Article 11. All decrees of approval or ratification rendered in accordance with the preceding article shall be published, within a term of ten days, in the Journal Officiel and in the Journal Officiel (Com- mune edition). This decree may be attacked by a third party, by the shareholders, by the attorney of obligation holders, and by other creditors of the company within a delay not exceeding one month from the date of publication aforesaid. The civil tribunal shall adjudicate the question within the space of one month, as in the case of matters demanding an immediate and summary adjudication. The appeal from such decision must be entered within ten days from the time of notification of said judgment to the party in person or at his domicile. Article 12. The Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, the civil, i. e. non-trading, company formed for the purpose of 262 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. redeeming the obligations or bonds of the Panama Canal (issue of March, 1888), and the civil or non-trading company for the redemption of the lottery bonds of the Panama Canal, are herein exempted from the payment of all stamp duties, and of all transfer or transmission taxes now due or about to become due on any shares, obligations, or bonds of the said companies. Article 13. Beginning with the date of the promulgation of the present law, no limitation in bar of actions in damages shall begin to run against the creditors of the Panama Canal Universal Company until the balance remaining to the credit of the company shall have been realized on and entirely distributed. Article 14. Shareholders, subscribers, or buyers of stock having acquired title to the same before the company was placed into the hands of a receiver, provided they represent at least one-twentieth of the capital stock, may join a common interest and entrust one or more attorneys or representatives with maintaining any action and with representing them in court. The present law, deliberated upon and adopted by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, shall be enforced as a law of the State. Done at Marlj'-le-Roi on the 1st day of July, 1893. Carnot. By the President of the Republic: E. Guerin, Keejxf of the Seals, Minister of Just i<< . P. Peytral, Minister of Finance. The following is the charter of the New Panama Canal Company, organized under general corporation laws of France, October, 1894: Title I. — Formation and object of tin company — Name — Principal office — Duration. Article 1. There is formed between the present founder and the subscribers to the shares hereinafter created a commercial joint-stock company under the name of the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, in conformity with the acts of July 21, 1807, and August 1, 1893. Article 2. This company has for its objects: 1. The completion of the Maritime Ship Canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 2. The exploitation of the said canal and of the various enterprises connected therewith. 3. The construction and exploitation of all lines of railway within the vicinity of the canal and the management of all interests which the company may possess and acquire in lines already constructed. 1. The exploitation of lands granted and mines therein contained. All under the clauses and conditions of the concession as fixed by the act of the Congress of the United States of Colombia, dated May 18, 1878 (law 28 of L878), and of the extensions of the concession dated December 2(>, 1890 (law L07 of L890), and April 1, 1893. Article 3. The principal office of the company is at Paris, provi- sionally fixed at No. <'>:> his Rue de la Victoire, and hereafter at such place as the board of directors shall designate. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 263 Article 4. The company shall begin from the date of its formal organization. Its duration shall he the same as that of its concession; that is to say. ninety-nine years from the date when the canal shall be open in whole or in part for public service or when the company shall begin the collection of dues for transit and navigation. Title II. — ■ Con tributions — ( 'a/pital — Ska/res — / *aymenf8. Article 5. A party to these presents is M. Jean Pierre Gautron, judicial administrator of the civil tribunal of the Seine, residing at No. 13 Rue Tronchet, Paris. "Acting as and in the capacity of sole receiver of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoeeanique de Panama, by virtue of the pow- ers conferred by judgment of the civil tribunal of the Seine, dated February 4, 1889," M. Gautron, appointed to said office of receiver by a judgment of the chambre du conseil of the civil tribunal of the Seine, dated July 21, 1893, in his said capacity contributes to the compan}^: First. All rights accruing to the company in liquidation from the laws of the government of the United States of Colombia, dated May 18, 1878, and December 26, 1890, as well as from any decrees, acts, or things whatever which have occurred in the execution of these laws, with all the advantages provided by these laws, together with all lands and real estate granted to the company in liquidation or acquired by it. All subject to the fulfillment of the conditions of the laws and exten- sions of the concessions and to the payment of all sums remaining due from the receiver to the Colombian Government. Second. The works executed and under execution, workshops, build- ings, hospitals, plant, erected and not erected, materials and supplies, etc., belonging to the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoeeanique in liquidation, as well as all deposits as security made by said company in liquidation. Third. The plans, estimates, studies, documents of every nature col- lected by the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoeeanique, relating in any manner to the study, execution, or exploitation of the canal or its dependencies, as well as the benefit of all agreements with all third persons. Fourth. The rights of every nature, part interests, and generally any others whatsoever which may belong to the Compagnie Univer- selle du Canal Interoeeanique, in liquidation, in the railroad from Panama to Colon, operated by an American company called the Panama Railroad Company, whose principal office is at New York, as said rights are enjoyed and exist; M. Gautron, as receiver, binding himself to transfer the same to the present company in the form re- quired b} T the laws of the United States of America. In such manner, moreover, as the said rights and properties are enjoyed and exist and in the condition in which they are. The present company shall be the owner of the property and rights granted and contributed from the date of its formal organization, except as hereinafter provided with respect to the Panama Railroad. This grant and contribution are made by M. Gautron with the reser- vations and subject to the conditions hereinafter expressed, to wit: First. There shall be appropriated to the receiver 60 per cent of the net protits of the enterprise, as these profits shall be determined under articles 51 and 52 hereof. Second. There shall be appropriated 50,000 shares, full paid, on account of those now issued to the Government of the United States of Colombia, in accordance with the extension law of December 26, 1890. 264 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANA.L COMMISSION. Third. The rights of every nature in the Panama Railroad belong- ing to the estate in liquidation and contributed by M. Gautron under section 1 of this article shall become the property of the present com- pany from and after the stockholders' meeting provided for by article 75 hereof without any pecuniary compensation, but upon the express condition that the canal be constructed within the time fixed by the agreement of concession. Upon default in completion within such time said rights shall revert to the estate in liquidation. If, contrary to all expectation, the meeting in question should not take the necessary action for the completion of the canal, or if the course of action adopted b} T the meeting can not be carried out, the said rights in the railroad shall remain the property of the present company, but it shall pay into the estate in liquidation the sum of 20,000,000 francs by way of indemnity, and the share of profits set apart for the estate in liquidation shall be half the profits of the present company without other deductions than those provided in sections 2 and 3 of article 51 hereof. - Accordingly said rights shall remain inalienable in the hands of the new company until either the payment of said sum of 20,000,000 francs or the entire completion of the canal. Fourth. Until the entire completion of the canal, M. Gautron, in his official capacity, shall have the right to appoint a commission of control, composed of three members, taken as far as possible from among the engineers of the department of bridges and roads and the inspect- ors of finances, to inspect the progress of the works, the conditions and maintenance of the plant and buildings, as well as the accounts relating to these different objects. The expense of this commission shall be borne by the new company. Article 6. The capital of the company is fixed at 65,000,000 francs, divided into 650,000 shares of 100 francs each. Of these 650,000 shares 50,000 full paid are set apart for the Gov- ernment of the United States of Colombia, in accordance with the extension law of December 27, 1890, as provided in the preceding article. As for the balance of 600,000 shares they are to be issued for cash subscriptions. Capital may be increased once or several times by vote of the regu- lar stockholders' meeting, and, upon the proposition of the board of directors, by the issue of new shares. Article 7. The 50,000 shares set apart for the Government of the United States of Colombia, though full paid, shall not be entitled to interest or dividends on the same terms as the shares issued on sub- scription. These 50,000 shares shall remain attached to their respective stubs, and shall be negotiable under the conditions provided by article 2 of the French law of August 1, 1893, and by the concession laws. Article 8. A preference is reserved to the stockholders and bond- holders of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique, in Liquidation, in subscribing for stock of the present company, to the extent of one-half the present capital and the total amount of all future issues. Article 9. The amount of each share is payable in cash into the company's treasury or to the representatives who shall be appointed for subscriptions by the new company. It shall be payable as follows: Twenty-five francs immediately on REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 265 subscription, 25 francs on October 15, 1894, and the balance* as calls shall be made by the board of directors. Payments shall become due in accordance with calls made by the board, upon notice published one month in advance in one of the Paris newspapers designated for the publication of legal notices. Any shareholder may, however, pay up his shares in advance and at any time. Article 1<>. The first payment is represented by a receipt in the name of the subscriber which, within two months from the organiza- tion of the company, shall be exchanged for a provisional certificate, also in his name. All further payments, except the last, shall be indorsed upon this provisional certificate. Upon the last payment being made, a permanent certificate shall be issued to the shareholder, which shall be either to bearer or in his name, at his option. Article 11. The board of directors shall fix the form and style of the certificates of stock. Provisional and temporary certificates shall be taken from a book with stubs; they shall be numbered in order and stamped with the seal of the company; they shall be signed by two directors, or by one director and a person appointed by the board of directors. Article 12. All payments in arrears upon calls shall bear interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum from the day when the} 7 shall be payable, for the benefit of the company. In default of payment within the month wherein the same shall become payable the board of directors may, at its option, bring action at law, or sell the certificates on which payment shall not have been made. Such sale may take place fifteen days after notice published in the Journal Officiel or one of the other papers in the department of the Seine designated for the publication of legal notices. It shall take place at the risk of the person in defaidt through an agent de change of the Paris Bourse or through a notary, at the option of the board of directors. The certificates for the shares sold will become void and will be replaced by a new certificate, in the name of the purchaser, of the same number. The price of the sale will be deducted from the sums due the com- pany from the subscriber for the share and his assigns, who will all remain jointly and severally liable for the difference and entitled to any surplus. Article 13. Shares shall stand in the names of subscribers until fully paid, in accordance with the law of August 1, 1893. Moreover, no share can be sold, and the board of directors can not authorize its transfer, until it shall have been fully paid. This prohibition, however, will not apply to shares belonging to future issues. Every owner of shares to bearer shall alwa3 T s have the right to require the conversion of shares to bearer into shares registered in his name. Article 14. The shares confer a right to a proportional part in the corporate assets, in profits to be distributed as interest or dividends, and in reserve funds. 266 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Interest and dividends are paid to bearer either upon presentation of the certificate to be stamped for registered certificates, or upon presentation of the coupon for certificates to bearer, at the company's office at the times which shall be fixed by the board of directors. Article 15. The transfer of shares to bearer is effected by simple delivery. That of registered certificates shall take place by a declaration of transfer entered on the books of the company and signed by the trans- ferer and transferee or their attorneys. The expenses of transfers, changes, and conversions shall be borne by the new assignees. Article 16. The board of directors may authorize the keeping and deposit of certificates to bearer in the company's treasury. In that case, it shall determine the form of the registered certificates of deposit, the conditions of their delivery, and the precautions with which the execution of this measure should be surrounded in the interest of the company and of the shareholders. Article 17. Shareholders shall not be liable upon the contracts of the company beyond the amount of the shares which they own. In no event can any call be made for funds beyond the amount of the shares. Article 18. The shares are indivisible as regards the company, which recognizes only a single owner for each share. All owners of undivided parts of a share must be represented in dealing with the company by one and the same person. Article 19. The rights and obligations attached to the share follow the certificate into whatever hands it comes. The possession of a share imports full consent to the statutes of the company as well as to all acts of a stockholders' meeting. The heirs, creditors, or assigns of a shareholder can not, on any pretext, require a partition or sale of the corporate property, obtain an attachment, require the sealing of the company's books, registers, papers, and securities, nor interfere with its administration. They must, for the exercise of their rights, rely exclusively upon the corporate statements, the action of the stockholders' meetings, and the decision of the board of directors. Title III. — Hoard of directors. Article 20. The company is administered by a board composed of not less than nine nor more than fifteen members, chosen from among the shareholders. Article 21. The directors do not, in consequence of their duties, contract any personal or joint and several obligations. They are responsible only tor the performance of their duties. Article 22. Directors are appointed by the stockholders' meeting for not more than six years. If the board is composed of nine, twelve, or fifteen members, one- third shall be elected every two years, the outgoing members to be determined during the first period of six years by lot, and thereafter by seniority. If the number of directors be any other than those above specified, the stockholders' meeting shall determine the mode of choosing new members and the duration of their terms. Outgoing directors may always be reelected. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 267 The second meeting- of stockholders for organization shall fix the number of members of the first board and shall proceed to choose them. This first board may, if it think fit, add to itself new members within the limits hereinbefore fixed, and must cause appointments so made to be ratified by the first regular stockholders' meeting. Article 23. In case of vacancy arising from resignation or death, the board of directors may till the same until the next meeting of stockholders. Directors thus appointed continue in office only until the expiration of the terms of their predecessors. Article 24. Every director must be the owner of 250 shares, which are registered in his name and inalienable. They shall be stamped to indicate this inalienability, and remain deposited in the company's treasury during the whole term of office of the owner. These shares constitute a guaranty for all acts of management. Article 25. The board of directors shall appoint each }-ear from among its members a president and, if there be occasion, one or more vice-presidents. The president and vice-president may always be reelected. In case of the absence of the president and of the vice-president or vice- presidents, the board may appoint, at each session, one of its members to fulfill the duties of the office. Article 26. The board of directors shall meet at least once a month. It shall meet, also, at the call of the president, as often as the interests of the company require. Questions shall be decided by a majority of the members present. In case of equal division, the vote of the president shall prepon- derate. Five directors at least must be present to form a quorum. When only five or six directors are present all action, to be valid, must be taken by a majority of 4 votes. No member of the board can vote by prox}\ Article 27. The proceedings of the board of directors shall be recorded by minutes signed by the president and one of the members present at the meeting. Copies or extracts from these minutes must, to be produced in evi- dence elsewhere, be certified by the president or by two directors. Article 28. The board of directors is vested with the broadest powers for the management and administration of the affairs of the company, for the selection and exploitation of the public lands granted by paragraphs 7 and 8 of article 1 and by article -i of the concession law. The board of directors ma3 T ask an} r new concessions, consent to all agreements with third parties for the purchase of enterprises or of concessions connected with any of the objects of the company. It shall appoint and dismiss employees, determine their functions and powers, fix their salaries and pay. It shall order and regulate expenditures. It shall sign correspondence as well as all notes, indorsements, drafts, checks, transfers, and conversions of public stocks and securities belonging to the company, and it shall contract and consent to all advances. It shall take all financial measures necessary to the progress of the company, and make all loans other than those which must be author- ized by the stockholders 1 meeting. 268 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. It shall lay before the stockholders' meeting - all propositions con- cerning loans on mortgage and the issue of obligations. It shall administer the rights in the Panama Railroad Company contributed to the company under the terms of article 5. It shall arrange the order of business for stockholders' meetings and the accounts which are to be submitted to them. It shall make a report to each stockholders' meeting upon the accounts and the condi- tion of the corporate affairs. It shall tix provisionally the dividend and determine, if occasion arises, the installment to be paid on July 1 on the receipts and dis- bursements closed by the inventory June 30 preceding. It shall decide upon the following subjects, to wit: 1. Calls for money upon the shares. 2. Temporary investment of funds in hand. 3. Studies and projects, plans and estimates for the execution of the works. 4. Agreements and bargains for works of various characters, bargains with penalty, and contracts not concerning the works. 5. Hiring, selling, letting, and exchanging real and personal property, purchasing and hiring vessels or machines necessary for the execution of the works and the exploitation of the enterprise. 6. Annual budgets. 7. Fixing and modifying dues of every nature to be collected by virtue of the concession, conditions and manner of collecting tolls. 8. Disposition of reserve funds. 9. Regulation of deposit of stock and obligation of the company. It shall sue for the collection of dues, the recovery of all debts, give all acquittances and discharges, consent to all replevies of mort- gaged property, distresses, attachments, and other impediments, with all releases of preference, mortgage, and suit for cancellation, all lie- fore or after payment. It may ratify all previous acts. It shall authorize all judicial actions, whether as plaintiff or as defendant, treat, adjust, and compromise the said actions, as well as all affairs of the company. In general, it shall do, in the corporate interest, all acts which it thinks accessary and useful, the powers above recited being purely declaratory and not in limitation of the rights of the board of directors. ARTICLE 29. The board of directors may, for the general adminis- tration of the company, delegate all or a part of its powers either to one or more of its members, with the title of director-delegate, on to one or more managers or submanagers taken from outside the board. Il may, moreover, delegate either to one or more directors, or to one of the employees of the company, or to one or more third per- sons, all or a part of its powers, by special authorization, and for one or more definite affairs or objects. Article 30. The directors shall be compensated, over and above the share of profits fixed in article 52, by tokens of attendance, the amount of which shall be determined by the stockholders' meeting, and which if shall be the duty of the board of directors to distribute to its members. Title IV.— -Technical t ■inniniKsion. Article 31. The board of directors is authorized to associate with itself a technical commission chosen from among persons competent in REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 269 matters of public works and especially from the retired inspectors general of the departments of bridges and roads and finance. This commission, upon communications made to it by the board of directors, shall give its opinion on questions relative to the execution of the works. The number of members of the technical commission, as well as their remuneration, shall be fixed by the board of directors. Title V. — < bm m ission ers. Article 32. The stockholders' meeting- shall appoint one or more commissioners, members or not, invested with the functions committed to them by law. If any of the commissioners can not act, the one or more who remain shall act without them. A compensation is allowed them to be fixed by the stockholders' meeting. Title VI. — Stockholders' 1 meeting. Article 33. A regularly constituted stockholders 1 meeting shall represent all the stockholders. Article 34. The stockholders' meeting shall be composed of all holders of at least ten shares. All holders of less than ten shares may unite to form the necessary number and cause themselves to be represented by one of their num- ber, as provided by the law of August 1, 1893. The meeting shall be regularly constituted when the shareholders who compose it represent a quarter of the capital of the company. Article 35. When, upon first assembling, the stockholders present do not comply with the conditions above specified, in order to make the proceedings of the meeting valid it may be adjourned for not less than twenty days. A second call shall be made in the form prescribed by article 37 hereof. The deliberations of this second meeting can only relate to the order of business provided for the first meeting. Its acts shall be valid, whatever may be the amount of capital represented by the stockholders. Article 36. A stockholders' meeting shall be held every year at a day and place fixed by the board of directors before December 31. Extraordinary meetings also shall be held whenever the board of directors may consider it useful. Article 37. Ordinary and extraordinary meetings may be called by means of a notice inserted at least twenty days previously in one of the Paris papers designated for the publication of legal notices. Article 38. Shareholders in order to have the right to take part in or to have themselves represented at stockholders' meetings must prove, at the domicile of the company, at least five days before the meeting, by the deposit of their certificates in the company's treasury or in that of one of the establishments designated for this purpose by the board of directors. Deposits made under these conditions give a right to the issue of cards of admission in the name of the depositor. Registered holders of registered shares or of certificates of deposit have also the right to be represented at meetings b}^ proxies furnished 270 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. with regular powers, the form of which shall be determined by the board of directors. Holders of powers must deposit their proxies at the domicile of the company within the time fixed b} 7 the board of directors for each meeting. No one can represent a shareholder at the meeting unless he is him- self a member of the meeting. Married women, however, may be represented by their husbands if they have the management of their rights and shares, and in like man- ner minors or incompetents may be represented by their guaruian. Usufructuaries and naked owners must be represented by one of them, furnished with a power from the other, or by a common proxy who is a member of the meeting. Companies which are stockholders, as well as the Government of Colombia, may each be represented by a delegate who is not himself a shareholder. Article 39. The stockholders' meeting shall be presided over by the president or one of the vice-presidents, and, in default of these, by a director appointed by the board. The two largest shareholders present at the opening of the meeting, who accept, shall be appointed tellers. The board shall appoint the secretary. Article 40. Action by the stockholders' meeting shall be deter- mined by a majority of votes of the members present or regularly represented. In case of equal division the vote of the president shall preponderate. Article 41. Ten shares shall give the right to one vote. The same shareholder can not cast in all more than two hundred votes, whether as shareholder or as proxy. Article 42. A secret vote may be required by ten members repre- senting together at least tw r o hundred votes. Article 43. The action of the stockholders' meeting is recorded in minutes signed by the president, the tellers, and the secretary. Copies or extracts from these minutes to be used in proceedings at law or otherwise must be certified by the president or by two directors. Article 44. At each stockholders' meeting a list shall be kept of members present. It shall contain the names and residences of the shareholders and the number of shares held by each. This list shall be certified by the officers of the meeting and deposited with the com- pany's records. Article 45. The order of business for the stockholders' meeting shall be fixed by the board of directors. No other questions than those contained in this order of business can be brought before the meeting. Article 4b\ The stockholders 1 meeting shall hear the report of the board of directors on the corporate affairs. It shall also hear the report of the commissioner or commissioners upon the condition of the company, on the balance sheet, and on the accounts presented by the board of directors. It shall discuss and, if need be, approve the accounts. It shall authorize, on proposal of the board, the creation of special supplemental reserve and sinking funds which may be found useful. It shall Hx the dividend to be paid. It shall elect directors in place of those retiring and the commis- sioners. BEPOBT OF THE [STHMIAN (ANAL COMMISSION. 271 It shall vote all loans hy means of the issue of obligations or by mortgage. It shall audit the first accounts after the execution of the works. It shall pass upon the propositions of the hoard of directors. It shall vote upon the increases of capital proposed by the board of directors. It shall consider and finally decide upon all the interests of the com- pany, and confer upon the hoard of directors all the supplementary powers which shall appear useful. It shall have extraordinary power of decision upon the course to be taken in accordance with article 75 hereof. Article 47. The action of the stockholders' meeting, taken in con- formity with the statutes, shall bind all shareholders, even although absent or dissenting. Title VII. — Statennntx of condition -Inventories. Article -18. The corporate year shall begin July 1 and end June 30. The first period shall comprise the time between the formal organi- zation of the company and June 30, 1895. Article 49. The board of directors shall prepare every six months a summary statement of the condition of the company as to assets and liabilities. This statement shall be submitted to the commissioner or commis- sioners. Article 50. There also shall be made up at the end of each corpo- rate year an inventory showing the real and personal property of the company and all indebtedness due to or by it. This inventory shall be presented to the stockholders' meeting. Title VIII.— Ann ual accounts-^ Sinking funds— Interests-Reserve fun ds — D iv iden ds. Article 51. — The annual income from the enterprise shall be first applied to the payment of — 1. The share for which the United States of Colombia has stipulated for its own benefit, according to the terms of the concession law. 2. The expenses of maintenance and exploitation, the cost of admin- istration, and all corporate charges in general, interest and sinking funds on loans which may have been contracted. 3. The previous deduction of one-twentieth of the net profits, after payment of all the charges hereinbefore mentioned, for the formation of a legal reserve fund. 4. Five per cent upon the corporate capital, the income of which shall be applied by the stockholders' meeting, in accordance with the propositions of the board of directors, not only to form the sinking fund to be established in accordance with article 55 hereof, but also to provide dividend on the shares not extinguished. _ Article 52. The excess of annual income after the various deduc- tions provided in the preceding article constitutes the net income or profits of the enterprise. From these profits shall be deducted 5 per cent for the benefit of the board of directors. The surplus shall belong to the amount of 40 per cent to the shares issued and to the amount of 60 per cent to the Compagnie Universale du Canal Interoceanique in liquidation. 272 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Article 53. The payment of interest and dividends shall be made at the company's office or at the offices of the representatives designated by the board of directors. The payment of interest shall be made at two - periods, January 1 and July 1 in each year. Dividends shall be pa} T able on January 1 next after the vote of the annual stockholders' meeting. The board may. nevertheless, if it thinks lit, authorize a payment on account of dividends on the preceding 1st of July. Article 5-1. Interest and dividends remaining unclaimed at the expiration of rive years from the time when payable shall become the property of the company. Article 55. The extinguishment of the shares shall be accomplished in ninety-nine years from the putting of the canal in operation. Provision shall be made for this extinguishment by means of the deduction hereinbefore provided for in article 51 , the amount of which shall be fixed by the stockholders' meeting on recommendation of the board of directors. The shares to be paid off shall be designated by drawing lots, which shall be publicly done at the times and in the manner fixed by the board of directors. Article 56. The numbers of shares drawn for payment shall be posted in the company's principal office. Article 57. Shares drawn for payment shall be paid at the places designated for the payment of dividends and interest. Holders of extinguished shares have the same rights as holders of shares not extinguished, except as to the dividend which may be paid in accordance with article 51 hereof. Article 58. The share of 60 per cent set apart for the Oompagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique in liquidation, may, if the receiver so requests, be represented by certificates, to such number as he shall fix, leaving it to him to make a proper distribution thereof among the parties in interest. This right to profits shall not /• administration of fin company. In all cases the provisions of articles is and l!> hereof concerning shares are equally applicable to the certificates of interest. All expenses and formalities connected with these certificates must he borne by the holders. Before distributing these certificates the receiver must make arrange- ments for their being represented in dealings with the new company; these arrangements must be satisfactory to the hoard of directors of the present company. Article 59. Tin 1 reserve fund is composed of the accumulation of the sums deducted from the annual profits in accordance with article 51 hereof. When this reserve fund reaches one-tenth of the capital of the com pany, its creation may he suspended. It must be resumed when the amount of the reserve has sunk below one-tenth of the capital of the company. Title IX. Modification of the statutes Dissolution. AirriCLE 60. If experience shows the desirability of making modifi- cations in or additions to the present statutes, the stockholders' meet- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 273 ing shall provide for the same in the manner fixed in articles (51 and 62 hereof. It may especially determine upon a reduction of the capital of the company, a reduction in the duration, the prolongation, the earlier dissolution of the company, or its consolidation with other companies. It may even introduce modifications in the objects of the company, without, however, changing their essential character. Article 61. Meetings which are to consider the different subjects mentioned in the preceding article will not be regularly constituted, nor will their action be valid, unless they are composed of a number of shareholders representing at least one-half of the capital of the com- pany; but in such case the board of directors shall have the right in its calls to reduce, as far as it shall think desirable, the number of shares which must be held in order to take part in the meeting, and in such ease the holder of the minimum number of shares necessary to take part in the meeting shall have one vote, the holder of ten shares shall have two votes, the number of votes increasing at the rate of two votes for ten shares, provided that the total number of votes of any member shall not exceed two hundred. Moreover, all owners of a number of shares less than that fixed for admission to the meeting may unite to form the requisite number of shares and may cause themselves to be represented by one of their number in accordance with the law of August 1, 1893. Article 62. It is here explained that it is in order to conform to the French law now in force that the present statutes require the rep- resentation of one-half the capital of the company at the stockholders' meetings called to consider the subjects specified in article 61 hereof, and a representation of one-quarter of the capital in the other meet ings; but it is expressly understood that the company may take the benefit of any new laws which lmvy decrease the amount of capital neces- sarily represented in stockholders' meetings, and that new lsgislative provisions concerning this question will become applicable to the corn- pan)' hereby created upon a resolution to that effect of a meeting of stockholders called in accordance with the rules laid down in articles 34 and 35 hereof. Article 63. In case of dissolution of the compan} 7 , the meeting of stockholders on recommendation of the board of directors shall determine the method to be adopted either for the liquidation or reor- ganization of the company as a new company. It may appoint one or more liquidators, and may confer upon them the broadest powers. Article 64. During liquidation the powers of the meetings of stockholders shall continue as during the existence of the company. It shall have, especially, the right to approve the accounts of the liquidation and to give acquittance therefor. The appointment of Liquidators ' shall terminate the powers of the directors and of all mandatories. Title X. — Conferring of jurisdiction — Suits. Article 65. In accordance with article 20 of the concession law of May 18, 1878, differences which may arise between the Government of the United States of Colombia and the company shall be submitted to the Federal supreme court (Colombia). S. Doc. 54, pt 2 18 274 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. But for till other litigation the company .shall have its domicile at Paris. Article 06. The company shall be considered commercial in its essence as in its form, and shall accordingly be within the jurisdiction of the tribunal of commerce of the Seine. Article 67. Suits concerning the general and collective interests of the company can not be brought either against the board of directors or against one of its members, except in the names of shareholders representing one-twentieth of the capital of the company. Actions concerning the rights of members can not be brought by a shareholder, or group of shareholders, representing less than a twentieth of the company's capital. And no action at law brought by one or more shareholders against the company, its board of directors, or one of its members can be brought into court until after having been submitted to the examina- tion of a meeting of shareholders, whose opinion shall be submitted to the magistrates at the same time with the complaint itself. Article 68. Every shareholder in case of litigation must make elec- tion of a domicile at Paris, and all notices and summonses to him may be lawfully served at the domicile by him elected, without regard to the distance of the real domicile. In default of election of a domicile, he shall be deemed to have elected for notices, judicial and extra judicial, the office of the attorney of the Republic at the civil tribunal of first instance of the Seine. The domicile elected, actually or impliedly, as has just been stated, shall carry with it the conferring of jurisdiction on the competent tribunals of the Seine. Article 69. In all litigations which may arise between the company and third persons, notice of all judicial or extra judicial documents must necessarily be given by service of a copy personally upon the president of the board of directors at the principal office of the company. Title XI. — Temporary provisions. Article 7<>. The subscription of the entire capital of the company, and the payment of at least one-fourth the capital in cash, shall be evidenced by a declaration of the founder acknowledged before a notary. To this declaration shall be annexed a list of the subscribers and the state of the payments made. Article 71. This declaration, with vouchers, shall be submitted to the first stockholders' meeting} which shall verity its accuracy. The same meeting shall cause the value of the contribution herein- before mentioned, and the consideration for the advantages agreed to be given, to be appraised. Article 72. A second meeting shall be called to approve, if proper, the contribution and advantages in question. The same meeting shall elect the directors and the commissioners created by article 32. The minutes of the meeting shall show the acceptance of the direct- ors and of the commissioners. The company shall be organized upon their acceptance. Article 73. Stockholders' meetings called for the organization of REPORT OF THK ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 275 the company shall be composed of all the shareholders, who have each a vote, provided that the holders of several shares shall have one vote for every ten shares; but no person shall have more than ten votes. The meetings for organization must be composed of a number of shareholders representing half the capital of the company. The cap- ital, one-half of which must be represented for verification of the eon-. tribution, shall be composed only of the payments not subject to verification. If the meeting does not include a number of shareholders repre- senting half the capital, it nan act only provisionally; in such case a new meeting shall be called. Two notices, published eight days apart, at least one month in advance, in one of the papers in which legal notices are published in Paris shall give notice to the shareholders of the provisional action taken by the first meeting, and this action shall become final if approved by a new meeting composed of a number of shareholders representing at least one-fifth of the capital of the company. Article 74. All general provisions of Title VI, relative to stock- holders' meetings, not inconsistent with those contained in this title, shall be applicable to meetings of stockholders for organization; except that meetings foi organization may be called by a notice inserted in a newspaper in which legal notices are published in Paris, as follows: For the first meeting, two days beforehand, and for the second meet- ing at least ten days beforehand. Article 75. When the amounts expended as well for the work done upon the canal as for the discharge of the burdens resulting from the contribution of Mr. Gautron shall reach about one-half of the cash capital of the company at the minimum, a special technical commission, theretofore appointed at a proper time, shall pronounce upon the results obtained from the work already done and upon the conclusions to be drawn therefrom as to the remainder of the enterprise. This commission shall be composed of two members appointed by the board of directors of the present company and of two persons appointed by the liquidation of the old Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique. These four members shall appoint a fifth, who shall be president of the commission, and if they can not agree this presi- dent shall be appointed by the president of the tribunal of commerce of the department of the Seine. The board of directors shall be required to make public the opinion of this commission and to call a special meeting of stockholders in the manner provided in articles 61 and 02 hereof. This meeting shall consider the ways and means tending to insure the completion of the work and the stipulations contained in article 5, section 4, No. 3, hereof. Title XII. — Publications. Article 76. Within the month of the organization of the company the directors shall file in the registry of the tribunal of commerce of the Seine and of the justice of the peace of the ninth arrondissement of Paris — 1. A copy of the articles of association. 2. A copy of the document showing the subscription of the capital and the payment of one-fourth. 276 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 3. A copy or a certified copy of the action of the stockholders' meet- ing in accordance with articles 71 and 72 hereof. 4. A cop}^ or a certified copy of the list of the names of the sub- scribers. Article 77. Within the same time an extract from the documents and proceedings specified in the preceding article shall be inserted in one of the newspapers publishing legal notices in Paris in pursuance of law. Article 78. Full powers are granted the holders of the documents for the filing and publication in question. Article 79. Finally, it is noted that all the provisions contained in the two last preceding titles relative to the organization and publica- tions of the present company have been dictated only by the require- ments of the French law as to joint-stock companies now in force. Express reservation is made of the benefit of all new provisions which the legislature may introduce into the law. EXTRACT FROM THE MINUTES OF THE CIVIL TRIBUNAL, LOWER COURT, FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF THE SEINE, SITTING IN THE PALACE OF JUSTICE, PARIS, JUNE 29, 1894, APPROVING AND RATIFYING THE CHARTER OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. The civil tribunal, lower court, for the department of the Seine, sitting in the palace of justice, Paris, has rendered, in open and public sessions of its first division, the following judgment: Done at the sitting of the 29th day of June, L894. The tribunal having examined and considered the petition ]>resented by Gautron as receiver of the court for the Universal Company of the Panama [nteroceanic Canal, which petition is signed by De BieVille, his counselor, and the tribunal having also examined and considered the documents produced, and the petition aforesaid being conceived as follows: To the honorable the president and justices of the first division of the civil tribunal of the Seine, the petitioner, Air. Jean Pierre Gautron, receiver of the court, residing in Paris, No. 18 Tronchet street, repre- sents as follows: That he is acting in his capacity as receiver for the Universal Com- pany of the Panama [nteroceanic (anal, whose legal residence is in Paris. No. 63 Rue de la Victoire; that he was named receiver as afore- said by a decree rendered in chambers by the civil tribunal of the Seine on the 21st day of July. 1893. That he. through his attorney and counselor, . Mr. de BieVille, respectfully states that on the 4th day of February, L889, Mr. Joseph Brunet was named, by recorded decree of the first division of this tribunal, receiver for the Universal Company of the Panama Inter- oceanic (anal, and was given most extensive powers, notably that of granting or making a cont ribution of either the whole or a part of the assets of the company to a new company or association. That by a recorded decree of this tribunal rendered in chambers on the 13th day of February, L890, Mr. Achille Monchicourt was named coreeeiver for the said company with Mr. Joseph Brunet, and was given the same powers, to use individually or in conjunction with the latter. ■ REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 277 That owing- to the resignation of Mr. Brunet, Mr. Aehille Monchi- I'ourt has been confirmed by a chamber's decree dated the 8th day of March, L890, as sole receiver for the said company, with the broadest powers, notably that of giving or making a contribution to a new company or association of cither the whole or a part of the assets of the company aforesaid, of entering into and rectifying with contractors- all contracts and agreements aiming to the continuation or preserving of the work, and of prolonging and renewing all agreements, of giving all guarantees necessary for this purpose. Finally, that by a decree rendered in chambers on the 21st day of July. 1893, Mr. dean Pierre Gautron was appointed coreceiver with Mr! Aehille Monchicourt, with the same and equal powers, to use indi- vidually or jointly with the said Mr. Monchicourt. That owing to the decease of Mr. Aehille Monchicourt, which occurred on the 11th day of March, 1891, Mr. Gautron remains sole receiver of the Panama interoceanic Canal Company. That a new company is in process of formation at the present time for the purpose of resuming the work and completing the canal. That the constitution and by-laws of this company, called the New Panama Canal Company, have been drawn up and deposited for record by Mr. Gustave Ramet, formerly president of the tribunal of com- merce at Rennes, and have been tiled also in the records and minutes of Mr. Lefebvre, notary, in Paris. That your petitioner, by virtue of the powers conferred by the orders and decrees aforesaid jn the receiver for the Panama Interoceanic Canal Company, is preparing to make contribution to the new company now being constituted: First. Of all rights whatsoever accruing to the old company from the laws of the Government of the United States of Colombia, dated May 18, 1878, and December 20, 1890, as well as from all decrees, acts, or facts whatever having followed upon these laws in the course of their execution, and all advantages and benefits accruing therefrom and stipulated by these laws and decrees, together with all territory and real estate having been granted and ceded to the interoceanic company now in process of liquidation, or acquired by the same; all this pro- vided the new company fulfill the conditions prescribed and imposed by the laws and acts passed in granting or extending the concession, and provided it pay and discharge all sums and indebtedness remaining due to the Colombian Government by the old company. Second. Of the work already done and accomplished, of the yards, workshops, buildings, hospitals, plant mounted and unmounted, and of the stores, etc., belonging to the receivership, as well as of all deposits. Third. Of the plans, estimates, surveys, and specifications, and of all documents whatsoever gathered and collected by the Universal Company of the Interoceanic Canal bearing in any manner on the study, construction, or improvement, and operation of the canal or of its appurtenants, as well as the privileges attached to the same and all contracts or agreements with third parties. Fourth. Of all rights of any nature and description, part owner- ship or any othei rights whatsoever which may belong or accrue to the Interoceanic Canal Universal Company now being liquidated, in the Panama Railroad at Colon, now worked and operated by an American company known as the Panama Railroad Company, whose legal resi- 278 REPORl OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. dence is in Now York. The said rights shall be transferred such as they are, carrying with them all privileges entailed by them; and Mr. Gautron binds himself in his official capacity to invest with them the present company in the form and in compliance with all formalities required for such transfer by the laws of the United States of America. The said rights shall be transferred, as well as the said property, in full, such as they exist and with all that they entail. Your petitioner further respectfully shows as follows: That the said grant and contribution are made, or are to be made, by him with the following reservations and under the following con- ditions, to wit: First. The receivership shall have and receive a part in the net profits and gains of the enterprise, amounting to 00 per cent of the said profits and gains, such as the same shall be determined and com- puted under articles 51 and 52 of the by-laws. Second. Fifty thousand shares of entirely paid-up stock shall be given to the Government of the United States of Colombia, as pre- scribed by the extension act of December 20, 1890. Third. The rights of every nature and description accruing to the receivership from the Panama Railroad, and ceded by Mr. Gautron, as set forth in paragraph 4- above, shall become the property of the new company from the date of the meeting provided for by article 75 of the constitution and by-laws. No pecuniary compensation is required of the new company for the cession of said rights, hut they are trans- ferred on the condition and with the full understanding that said transfer shall be void if the canal be not completed within the time appointed by the giant. Should the work not be completed within the .said period of time, the said rights shall revert to the receivership. If, contrary to all expectations, the meeting in question should fail to take the necessary measures to complete the canal, or if the measures thus taken by said meeting should fail of execution by reason of impossibility to carry them out, the present company would still retain the said rights accruing from the railroad aforesaid; but it would have to pay to the receivership a sum of 20,000,000 francs as an indemnity, while the receivership's share in the gains and profits of the new com- pany would then be equal to one-half of said gains and profits without further previous deduction than such as is provided for by paragraphs 2 and 8 of article 51. Fourth. Until the full completion of the canal Mi'. Gautron shall have power, in his capacity as receiver, to appoint a controlling or supervising committee, composed of three members selected as much as possible from among civil engineers and finance inspectors, in order to inspect the progress of the work, the condition and maintenance of the plant and of the real property, as well as the accounts kept in relation to these various objects. The compensating of this committee shall be at the expense of the new company. Your petitioner further shows that it is proper for him to submit to the civil tribunal of the Seine, for ratification and approval, the con- ditions of the said giants and contributions and the constitution and by-laws of the company formed for the completion of the canal. Wherefore your said petitioner, acting in his official capacity, respect- fully requests and prays the honorable president and associate justices of this court purely and simply to ratify and approve the purport and REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 279 conditions of the grants or contributions intended to bo made by the receiver for the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal to the New Panama Canal Company now in process of formation, as well as the constitution and by-laws of the last-mentioned company. All proper reservations being made, justice will be done. A. de Bieville. Having- considered the order issued b} r the president of the court, dated the 27th day of June, 1894, appended to the said petition and directing: That this be communicated to the commonwealth attorne3 r , and that Mr. de Boislisle, vice-president, is hereby appointed to make a report. Done at the palace of justice, Paris, on the 27th day of June, 1894, and signed "Baudouin." Having considered the written opinion of the commonwealth attor- ney, likewise appended to the said petition, which opinion is thus con- ceived: The attorney for the commonwealth refers the matter to the tri- bunal of justice. Cabat. Having considered articles 10 and 11 of the act of July 1, 1893, which articles are thus framed: Article 10. All acts tending to alienate any assets of the company, all contracts entailing a transfer or contribution of the whole or of part of the assets of the con- cern, emanating from the receiver of the Universal Company of the Panama Inter- oceanic Canal, shall be subject to the approval or ratification of the civil tribunal of the Seine, who shall, on the report of one of the justices, paes on the question in open court. * Article 11. All decrees of approval and ratification rendered in accordance with the preceding article shall be published, within a term of ten days, in the Journal Officiel and in the' Journal Officiel (Commune edition). This decree may be attacked by a third party, by the shareholders, by the attorney of obligation holders, and by other creditors of the company, within a delay not exceeding one month from the date of the publication aforesaid. The civil tribunal shall adjudicate the question within the space of one month, as in the case of matters demanding immediate and summary adjudication. The appeal from such decision must be entered, within ten days from the time of notification of said judgment, to the party in person or at his domicile. Having heard at the sitting of the court Mr. de Boislisle, vice- president, in his report, and Mr. Cabat, assistant attorney for the commonwealth, in his opinion, and having deliberated upon the same in accordance with law. Whereas it appeal's from the terms of article 5 of the constitution and by-laws of the New Panama Canal Company, which constitu- tion and b} T -laws have been duly acknowledged before Lefebvre and his colleague, notaries in Paris, under an act of June 26, 1894, that Gautron, acting in his official capacity as receiver for the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, has declared himself as ceding or contributing to the said company newly formed: First. All rights whatsoever accruing to the old company by virtue of the laws of the Government of the United States of Colombia, dated May 18, 1878, and December 26, 1890, as well as those accruing from all decrees, acts, or facts having followed upon these laws in the course of their execution, and all advantages accruing therefrom and stipu- lated by these laws and decrees, together with all territory and real estate granted and ceded unto the interoceanic company now in process '280 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of liquidation or acquired by the «ame — all this provided the new com- pany fulfill the conditions prescribed and imposed by the laws and acts passed in prolongation or extension of the grant, and provided it dis- charge and pay all sums and indebtedness remaining clue to the Colom- bian Government by the old company. Second. The work already done and accomplished, the yards, work- shops, buildings, hospitals, plant, mounted and unmounted, and the stores, etc., belonging to the receivership of the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, as well as all deposits which may have been made by the said company now in process of liquidation. Third. The plans, estimates, surveys, and specifications, and all documents whatsoever gathered and collected by the Universal Com- pany of the Panama Interoceanic Canal bearing in any manner on the study, construction, or improvement and operation of the canal and its appurtenants, as well as the privileges attached to the same, and all contracts or agreements with third parties. Fourth. All rights of any nature and description, part ownership, or any other rights whatsoever which may belong or accrue to the Interoceanic Canal Universal Company, now being liquidated, in the Panama Railroad at Colon, now worked and operated by an American company, known as the Panama Railroad Company, whose legal resi- dence is in New York, the said rights being transferred such as they are and exist, carrying with them all the privileges which they entail; and Mr. Gautron binding himself, in his official capacity, to invest with them the present company in the form, and in compliance with all the formalities, required for such due and valid transfer by the laws of the United States of America. Whereas, moreover, the said rights are to be transferred, as well as the said property, such as they exist and with all that they entail, and whereas these cessions or grant and contribution have been made by Gautron, in his official capacity, with the following reservations and under the following conditions, to wit: First. The receivership shall have and receive a share in the net profits and gains of the enterprise amounting to 60 per cent of the said profits and gains, such as the same shall be determined and com- puted under articles 51 and 52 of the constitution and by-laws. Second. Fifty thousand shares of entirely paid-up stock shall be given to the Government of the United States of Colombia, as pre- scribed by the extension act of December 26, 1890. Third. The rights of every nature and description accruing to the receivership from the Panama Railroad, and ceded by Mr. Gautron, as set forth in paragraph 4 above, shall become the property of the new company from I he dale of the meeting provided for by article 75 of the constitution and by-laws. No pecuniary compensation is required of the new company for the cession of these rights, but they are transferred on the condition and with the full understanding that said transfer shall be void if the canal be not completed within the time appointed by the grant. Should the work not be completed within the said period of time, the said lights shall revert to the receivership. If, contrary to all expectations, the meeting in question should fail to take the necessary measures t<» complete the canal, or if the measures thus taken by the said meeting should prove impossible of execution, the present company would still retain the said rights accruing from the railroad aforesaid; but it would be bound to pay to the receiver- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 281 ship a sum of 20,000,000 francs as indemnity, while the receivership's share in the gains and profits of the now company would then be equal to one-half of the said gains and profits without further previous reduction than such as is provided for by paragraphs 2 and 3 of article 51. Consequently, the said rights shall remain inalienable in the hands of the new company aforesaid, either until the payment of" the said 20,000,000 francs or until the full completion of the canal. Fourth. Until the full completion of the canal Mr. Gautron shall have power, in his official capacity, to appoint a controlling or super- vising committee composed of three members, to he selected, as far as possible, from among- civil engineers and finance inspectors, in order to inspect the progress of the work, the condition and maintenance of the plant and real property, as well as the accounts kept in relation to these various subjects. The compensation of this committee shall be at the expense of the new compan} T . Whereas, according to the terms of article 51 of the constitution and by-laws of the said new company, the annual proceeds of the enter- prise shall be used to pay and discharge: First. The share in the gains and profits stipulated and reserved to itself by the Government of the United States of Colombia according to the terms of the grant. Second. The costs of maintenance and the operating expenses, the expenditures entailed in the management of the concern, and, generally speaking, all charges incurred by the company, as well as the payment of interest and the redemption of all loans which may have been con- tracted. Third. The deduction of one-twentieth, levied on the net profits after the settlement and cancellation of all items of indebtedness above enumerated, the said deduction to be applied to the formation of the legal reserve fund. Fourth. Five per cent of the capital stock, the same to be applied by the general meeting, as the board of directors may advise, both to the formation of the redemption fund which is to be established under article 55 and to the payment of interest on unredeemed shares. Whereas, according to the terms of article 52, the net gains and profits of the enterprise will consist in whatever will be left of the annual proceeds after deduction of the various items enumerated in the preceding article hereof, while 5 per cent of these net profits will be set apart for the benefit of the board of directors, and the surplus shall go 40 per cent to the shares created and 60 per cent to the Interoceanic Canal Universal Company now in process of liquidation. Whereas, finally, by the terms of article 75, when the expenses incurred for the work done on the canal and for the settlement of obligations resulting from the contribution made by Gautron in his official capacity as receiver shall have reached a sum equal to at least one-half of the capital stock (excluding nonspecies portion of the same), the results then achieved from the work already done and the conse- quent decisions to be taken for the future of the enterprise shall be passed upon by a special technical commission brought together at some previous and opportune time, the said commission to consist of two members designated by the board of directors of the present com- pany and of two persons named by the receivership of the former universal company for an interoceanic canal, together with a fifth member whom the other four shall designate and who shall be president of the said commission, but who in case the other four members shouid 282 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. fail to agree, shall be appointed by the president of the tribunal of commerce for the department of the Seine. Whereas the board of directors shall be bound to make public the report made b} T this commission and to summon an extraordinary or special general meeting. Whereas this meeting shall have to deliberate on ways and means to insure the completion of the work and on the stipulation herein above set forth, article 5, paragraph 1, No. 3; whereas the constitution and by-laws in question must be submitted, by the terms of article 10 above mentioned, of the law dated July 1, 1893, to the tribunal for ratification touching the contributions intended to be made to the New Pananni Canal Company by Gautron in his official capacity, and whereas this ratification is prayed for b} T Gautron. Whereas the said contributions are within the competency of the receiver, according to decrees which appointed him with the broadest powers, notably with that of ceding or contributing to a now com- pany all or a part of the company's assets; whereas the conditions stipulated for the benefit of the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal seem to be in accord with its own interests, and therefore it is proper to ratify and approve the agreement declaring these contributions and conditions: For these reasons the court, leaving unimpaired the right of share- holders, of the attorney or representative of obligation holders, and of other creditors of the company to intervene and make objection under article 11 of the law dated July 1, 181*3, does hereby approve and ratify, purely and simply, the constitution and by-laws of the New Panama Canal Company as received by Lefebvre and his colleague, notaries, in Paris, on the 20th day of June, 1894, touching the contributions made by Gautron in his capacity as receiver of the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, and the court hereby orders that the present decree be published within the space of ten days, in the Journal Officiel and in the Journal Officiel (Commune edition), accord- ing to article 11 of the law of July 1, 1893. Baudouin. De Boislisle. Lasniek. Done and adjudged by Messrs. Baudouin, president; De Boislisle, vice-president; Laporte, judge; Tassart, supernumerary judge; LeBer- quier, supernumerary judge, in the presence of M. Cabat, assistant attorney for the commonwealth, attended by Lasnier, clerk, June 29, 1894. The order was signed by the honorable president of the court, by the reporting judge, and by the clerk. Recorded in Paris, July 11, 1894, folio 50, thir subdivision. Received 9 francs and 38 centimes, decimes included. [Translation.— Paris, June 8, 1888.] LAW AUTHORIZING THE COMPAGNIE UNIVERSELLE DTJ CANAL INTER- OCKAMOUIO DE PANAMA TO [SSI K IN FRANCE SECURITIES REPAYABLE WITH PRIZES. The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies have adopted, the President of the Republic promulgates the law of the following tenor: Article 1. The Compagnie Universelle du Canal tnteroceanique de REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 283 Panama is authorized to create, up to 600,000,000 francs, an .ssue of securities, payable with prizes by lot, upon the following conditions: First. The securities issued shall hear annual interest, the rate of which can not be less than 3 per cent on their par value. Second. The total annual sum distributed in the form of prizes can not, in any case, exceed 1 per cent of the par value. Third. The par value of the securities issued can not be less than 300 francs; subsequent division of the securities issued is forbidden. Fourth. The payment of this loan in a period of ninety-nine years, at furthest, shall be secured by a sufficient deposit, for this especial purpose, of French Government bonds, or of securities guaranteed by the French Government. The Compagnie Universelle du Canal Inter- oceanique de Panama, to meet the obligation imposed upon it, is authorized to increase, under the same conditions, the said loan of six hundred millions, by the sum necessary for the formation of this guar- anty fund, this increase of loan not to exceed 20 per cent of the par of the issue. Article 2. If the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique de Panama should hereafter convert all or any of its former obliga- tions, the provisions of article 1 shall be applicable to the new secur- ities created by means of this conversion. Article 3. All material necessary for the completion of the works shall be manufactured in France. The raw material must be of French origin. Article 4. All prospectuses, posters, publications, and other docu- ments intended for advertising must bear, in type of the same size as that used for announcing the loan, and below the amount of the loan, the notice: Loan authorized in conformity with the provisions of the law of May 21, 1836, by the law of June 8, 1888, but without any guaranty or responsibility of the State. The same notice shall be put at the top of the temporary or perma- nent certificates issued to subscribers. Any violation of the above provision will entail the withdrawal of authorization by simple order of the minister of finance. The present law, considered and adopted by the Senate and Ivy the Chamber of Deputies, shall be executed as a law of the State. Done at Paris June 8, 1888. Carnot. By the President of the Republic: P. Peytral, Minister of Finance. law of JULY 15, 1889, authorizing sale of lottery bonds at REDUCED RATES. Article 1. The receiver of the Universal Company of the Inter- oceanic Canal of Panama is authorized to negotiate, at any price and without interest, such of the lottery bonds authorized by the law of el une 8, 1888, as had not been placed or sold up to the 4th day of Feb- ruary, 1889, when the said company was dissolved and was turned over into the hands of a receiver. The sums resulting from the negotiation or sale of the said bonds 284 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. shall be free from attachment or execution up to the amount of 34,000,000 francs. In case the receiver should contribute or give to a company formed for the purp< se of completing the canal all or a part of the assets of the receivership, the new company shall only have power to emit and issue bonds as yet unplaced or unsold by complying- with the terms of the law of June 8,1888, touching the minimum price of sale and the distribution of interest. Article 2. As the sale shall proceed of those bonds on which full payment has not been made of the sum required to constitute the guaranty fund or capital prescribed and provided for by the first article of the law of June 8, 1X88, the receiver must turn over the com- plement of this sum to the civil, i. c, nontrading, company created with a view to the formation of the said fund or capital. The deposits made by the civil or nontrading company by virtue of the law of June 8, 1888, and also of the present law, shall not be with- drawn, but shall preserve their special character and shall remain specially pledged until complete discharge of the lot guaranty and of the capital reimbursement. Appendix M M. CONTRACT BETWEEN NICARAGUA AND THE AMERICAN ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC SHIP-CANAL COMPANY, SIGNED AT LEON AUGUST 27, 1849. The supreme director of the State of Nicaragua and The American Atlantic and Pacific Ship-Canal Company, composed of Cornelius Van- derbilt, Joseph L. White, Nathaniel H. Wolfe, and their associates, being always citizens of the United States, desiring- to settle the terms of a contract for facilitating the transit across the Isthmus of Nicaragua from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, by means of a ship canal or railroad, have appointed as commissioners on the part of the supreme director of the State of Nicaragua, Messrs. Hermenegilda Zepeda and Gregorio Juares, and on the part of the said company Mr. David L. White, with full powers to arrange and conclude a contract for the above-named purposes, which commissioners, having exchanged their respective powers, have agreed upon and concluded the following jirtic'es: Article I. The State of Nicaragua grants to the said company the exclusive right and privilege of constructing a ship canal across its territory, by a single route and at its own expense, from the port of St. Johns, of Nicaragua, or any other more feasible point on the Atlantic, to the port of liealejo. Gulf of Amapala, or Fonseca, Tamo rinda, St. Johns of the South, or any other point on the Pacific Ocean which the engineers of the company may decide upon, by means of the St. Johns River, Lake Nicaragua, River Tipitapa, Lake of Leon, or any other rivers, lakes, waters, and lands situated within its terri- tory, with the object of connecting the two oceans, and to make use of, for its construction and navigation, said rivers, lakes, waters, and lands, both public and private. And the State also grants to the company the exclusive right to the administration, management, and control of the said canal, according to the following articles: II. The dimensions of the canal shall be such as may be necessary for the passage of vessels of all sizes, and the point at which it shall terminate on the Pacific, in the event that the engineers of the com- pany shall decide upon two or more points as equally practicable, shall be that one most consistent with the mutual interests both of the State and the compan}'. HI. The com] >any binds itself to construct, at its own expense, in the harbors at the extremities of the route of said canal, custom-house buildings of the necessary capacity for the use of the State and company. IV. The exclusive rights and privileges herein granted to the said company by the said State shall be enjoyed b} r the same for the fixed 285 286 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. period of eighty-five years, counted from the day in which the canal shall be completed and put in use. V. The company hereby agrees to pay to the said State for the said grant the following - sums of money, namely: First. Ten thousand dollars by draft on the said company in the city of New York as soon as this contract shall be ratified b} r the Legislature of the State. Second. Ten thousand dollars at the expiration of one } T ear from this same date, and $10,000 each year thereafter until the completion of the said canal, the above sums to be paid to the State in the city of Leon, or in the city of New York, as the State may elect. Also the said company makes a free donation to the said State of $200,000 of stock in the enterprise, which shall be delivered to the State as soon as the certificates of stock shall be distributed by the company. VI. Said State shall receive for its proportion of the income of said canal, after the same shall be put in use, the following interests, namely: For the first twent} 7 years, 20 per cent annually out of the net profits after deducting therefrom the interest of the capital employed in its construction at the rate of 7 per cent per annum, and 25 per cent each year thereafter out of said net profits, after deducting the said 7 per cent, until the expiration of the full period of the term hereinabove granted. And the State shall also receive 10 per cent out of the net profits, without any deduction of interest, of any route which the company may establish between the two oceans, whether it be by rail- road or carriage road or by any other means of communication, during the twelve } r ears herein granted for the construction of said canal. VII. The said company shall be bound to make and present an annual report and account to the Government of Nicaragua, setting forth the receipts and expenditures, as well as a statement of the condition of the works of the canal, which report shall be certified by the proper officers of the company. The State, however, shall have the right, through any commissioners which it may appoint for that purpose, to inspect and examine at any time the books of the company to satisfy itself of the correctness of the said receipts and expenditures. VII J. It is hereby stipulated that the State of Nicaragua shall have the privilege of taking stock in the said canal, to the amount of $500,000, within one year from the date of the ratification of this con- tract, which it may distribute, as it ma} 7 deem proper, among any of its native citizens or the citizens of the adjoining States, upon giving notice to the company of such intention through the United States consul in the city of Leon. IX. It is further stipulated that a majority of the stock of said canal shall always be owned by citizens of the United States; in evidence of which the stock hooks of said company shall always he open to inspec- tion at the principal office of the company, wherever the same may be located. X. The company binds itself to commence the preliminary surveys for said works within the period of twelve months from the date of the ratification of this contract, and also to complete the said canal within twelve years from the same date. But if any fortuitous or unforeseen events, beyond the control of the company — as, for example, earth- quakes, epidemics, wars, or any other events of this nature — should appear during the progress of the work to suspend its execution, the time thus lost shall not be reckoned as a part of the stipulated time REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 287 above given for its completion. In case such event should occur, the company shall give Immediate notice to the Government of the .same, for the purpose of deciding, in connection with the company, upon the nature of such event. XI. If none of the events which are expressed in the preceding article should occur, and the work shall not he completed within the said period of twelve years, then whatever may have been done by the company to that time in the prosecution of the work shall be forfeited to and become the property of the State without any indemnity. XII. The State gives to the said company the right to take, free of any charge or indemnity, any of the public lands or forests within the State., all the wood, stone, lime, timber, or any other materials which it may require for the construction and use of said canal and its dependencies. And the said State hereby further gives to the corn- pan} 7 the right to take and make use of such portions of the public lands as it may require for the establishment or erection of houses, stores, docks, w 7 harves, stations, and all other useful objects connected with the works of said canal. XIII. In case the company shall require any materials, such as wood, lime, stone, etc., which may be found in or upon the lands of partic- ular individuals, it shall be obligated to pay for the same at such price as may be agreed upon between the company and such individuals; but all the lands which may be required for the passage of the canal in its entire route shall be at the expense of the State, and the company shall not be liable to pay any indemnity for the same. XIV. All the articles that the company may require, both for the surveys and explorations, and for the construction and use of the works of the canal, such as machines, instruments, tools, etc., and all other necessary materials, shall be admitted into the State free of duties of all kinds, and may be discharged in any of its harbors or at any other point within its territory that the company may select, in this last case, however, giving notice of such intention to the proper Government officer. But the company shall have no right to intro- duce within the territory of the State any goods, merchandise, or any other articles of commerce for sale or exchange without paying the duties established by law. And they are also prohibited from import- ing any articles or materials which may be monopolized or prohibited by the State for any purpose, except for the use of the works of the canal. XV. The State binds itself to facilitate and aid in every possible way the engineers, contractors, employees, and laborers who may be employed in the explorations and surveys of the route, and in the con- struction of the works of the canal, and to this end stipulates that all citizens of the country who may be so employed by the company shall be free and exempt from all civil or military service of the State what- soever; but to entitle them, however, to the right of exemption from such military service they shall have been previously in the employ of the company for at least the period of one month. The State also guarantees to all foreigners who may be employed on the works of the canal the same rights, liberties, and privileges as are enjoyed by inhab- itants of the country, and also that they shall not be molested or dis- turbed in their labors wmile thus emplo} 7 ed by any internal commotions or disorders of the country, and at the same time that they shall be free and exempt from all taxes, duties, or direct contributions what- soever during the time they may be in the company's employ. 288 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. XVI. The said com pan j agrees to receive from the State as laborers upon the works of the canal any convicts who may be capable of labor upon such terms as may be agreed upon between the company and the State. XVII. The said company agrees to transport across the said canal all passengers, goods, merchandise, and materials of every description which may be intrusted to it; and also stipulates that the canal shall be open to the transit of vessels of all nations, subject to tixed and uniform rates of tolls that may be established by the company. XVIII. The company shall establish a tariff of fees or tolls for the transportation of all passengers, goods, wares, merchandise, and prop- erty of every description, and for vessels of all kinds passing through or along the said canal, which shall have the force of law from the moment in which it shall be communicated to the Government of Nicaragua, which shall be obliged to sanction the same within eight days after its reception; and at the same time, with a view to induce the largest and most extended business by this route, the said com- pany agree to fix the said tariff of fees or tolls for the same at the lowest possible rate consistent with the mutual interests both of the State and the company; and in case that the company should deter- mine at any time to alter such tariff, it shall be incumbent upon it to give six months 1 previous notice of such determination in the State paper of Nicaragua and in the principal seaport towns of the United States. XIX. The rate of tolls and charges for the transit of the products and manufactures of the State of Nicaragua and the adjoining States shall be regulated by a particular and more favorable tariff, which shall be agreed upon between the State and the company. XX. The State grants to all steamers and vessels of the company during the continuance of this contract the right of ingress and egress to. from, and through all its harbors, rivers, and waters, both on the Pacific and Atlantic oceans and the interior, and the use of the same free of all duties or charges of any kind whatsoever, as, for example, anchorage, tonnage, etc XXI. The State hereby stipulates that all vessels and steamers of the company, and also all goods, merchandise, manufactured articles, or any other property which may be conveyed therein passing through the said canal from one sea to the other in either direction to any foreign coun- try, shall be free and exempt from all kinds of Government duties or taxes whatsoever, and shall also be secure and protected from all inter- ruption or detention in their course on the part of the State. XXII. The company shall furnish to the State annually a list of al its vessels employed in the navigation of the route, containing the names and descriptions of each of such vessels, which shall be regis- tered in the archives of the State, and thereupon the State shall give to the company a separate certificate of the register of each one of the said vessels, signed by the proper officer of the Government, which certificate shall serve always as a passport for said vessels through all the harbors of the State upon presenting the same to the custom-house or harbor officer. XXIII. The exclusive right which the company has acquired by this contract of navigating the said lakes, rivers, and waters of the said State by means of steam vessels, from one sea to the other, is understood as not to exclude the natives of the country from free REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 289 interior navigation by means of sailing or any other vessels, excepting steam vessels. XXIV. The company hinds itself to transport by the said canal, on board of any of its vessels, all the principal officers of the Government and its subalterns, in case of Government necessity, from one point of said route to any other one at which said vessels may stop, without any charge to the State therefor. XXV. The company is to convey by any of its steamers or vessels, free of cost or charge, over the route of the said canal all the official cor- respondence of the State, in consideration of which the State agrees not to collect or recover any postage or duties of any kind upon any of the correspondence of the said company. XXVI. The company binds itself to construct, at its own expense, bridges upon that part of the canal that may be made between the lakes and the Pacific, upon such principal highways as may be agreed upon between the State and the company. The said State, with the con- sent of the company, shall establish rates of toll or charges upon such persons or things as may puss over said bridges, the profits from which shall be appropriated to redeem the capital invested in their construc- tion, and the interest thereon at the rate of 7 per cent per annum; and when such capital and interest shall have been reimbursed to the com- pany then the profits shall be divided equally between the State and the company for the remaining period of this contract, but such bridges shall continue under the control and management of said com- pany. XXVII. The State of Nicaragua, with the object of facilitating the colonization of the lands contiguous to the river St. John and the adjacent rivers, and of the canal which in or along it may be con- structed, makes a free donation to the company of eight stations or sections of land to be located at such points upon either one or both of the banks of the said river or canal as the company may elect, each one of which stations shall be of 6 English miles in length, fronting upon the river or canal, and 6 miles in width, measured from the bank of the canal or river toward the interior. And the State further grants to the company the right of alienating the lands which compose said sections to settlers, or any other person or persons who may wish to locate themselves upon the same. Said sections of land are granted upon the following conditions: (1) They shall be located by the company in such a manner that they shall be at least ?> English miles distant from each other. (2) That no one of them shall be located within the distance of 4£ English miles from the mouth of the St. Johns River. (3) The State reserves to itself the right to such points as shall be necessary for its military fortifications and public buildings. (4) That the lands granted shall not be alienated to settlers until six months after the commencement of the survey of the route of the said canal. (5) The State reserves to itself the supreme dominion and sover- eignty over said lands and their inhabitants. (6) That said lands shall not be alienated b}^ the company to any government whatsoever. XXVIII. The colonics which the company may establish upon said lands shall be colonies of Nicaragua, and thereupon the settlers shall be subject to the laws of the State the same as the natives of the country, S. Doc. 54, pt 2 19 290 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. being, however, exempt for the term of ten years from all taxes and direct contributions, and from all public service, as soon as each colony shall contain at least fifty settlers. XXIX. The State further agrees that in case any event may here- after occur, as named in the preceding- Article X, to suspend or pre- vent the construction of the canal, or if the said contract shall become forfeited or annulled by either or both of the parties, and also in case the said contract shall continue in force for the full period of eighty- five years, mentioned in the preceding Article IV, the said State shall always acknowledge as private property the lands which may have been alienated or ceded by the company to settlers or other persons in virtue of the legal title which the company has acquired by this con- tract to the said lands. XXX. The company shall have the exclusive right to construct rail or carriage roads and bridges, and to establish steamboats and steam vessels on the said rivers and lakes as necessary accessories to and in furtherance of the execution of the canal; but the company hereby stipulates and agrees that, in case the construction and completion of the said canal, or any part of it, becomes impossible by any unforeseen event or insurmountable obstacle of nature, to construct a railroad or rail and carriage road and water communication between the two oceans, provided the same may be practicable, within the same period as is stipulated for the building of the said canal, and subject to the same terms, conditions, regulations, and restrictions as far as they can be made applicable to the same. XXXI. The State hereby binds itself not to sell or dispose of any of its public lands located upon or near the river St. .Johns, or upon or near any of the routes or points designated in Article I of this con- tract, until after the surveys shall have been made and the route determined of the said canal. XXXII. The State also binds itself to protect and defend the com- pany in the full enjoyment of the rights and privileges granted in this contract, and also binds itself not to contract with or cede to any government, individual, or companies whatsoever the right of con- structing a ship canal, railroad, or any other communication across its territory Wet ween the two oceans, or the right of navigating by means of steam vessels any of its rivers or lakes which may be occupied by this company while this contract continues in force. But should this contract become forfeited or annulled, then the State shall be privileged and fret' to contract with any other individuals or companies as it may deem proper. XXXIII. Iii case any dispute or controversy shall arise during the existence of this contract between the State and tin 1 company, the same shall be determined by a reference to five commissioners, to be chosen in the following manner, viz, two to be named on the part of the State, two named by the company, and the fifth to be selected by the four thus appointed, who shall hear and determine the matters in controversy, and decide upon the same; which decision of the said commissioners shall be final and without appeal, and binding upon both the State and the company. XXXIV. It is further provided that in the event of the four com- missioners thus chosen not being able to agree upon the selection of the fifth, the State and the company shall then choose three individuals, out of which number they shall select one to act as such fifth commis- REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 291 sioner; but should they disagree in such selection, then the choice shall be made out of said number by lot. XXXV. After the period of the eighty-five years herein granted to the company shall have expired, the company shall surrender to the State the canal or roads, and its dependencies, revenues, and privileges, free from all indemnity, tor the capital which may have been invested in the said work. But it is nevertheless stipulated that the company shall receive 15 per cent annually out of the net profits of the canal for the period of ten years after such sin-render, provided the cost of the same shall be less than $20,000,000; but should the cost be $20,000,000 or more, then the company shall receive said 15 per cent for the period of twenty years after such surrender. XXXVI. It is expressly stipulated on the part of the State of Nica- ragua that the vessels, products, manufactures, and citizens of all nations shall be permitted to pass upon the proposed canal through the territory of the State, subject to no other or higher duties, charges, or taxes than shall be imposed upon those of the United States: Pro- vided dl/ways, That such nations shall first enter into such treaty stipu- lations and guarantees respecting said canal as may hereafter be entered into between the State of Nicaragua and the United States. XXXVII. It is finally stipulated that this contract and the rights and privileges which it confers shall be held inalienable by the indi- viduals composing the company herein named and their associates, and that it shall never, in whole or part, be transferred or assigned to any other company, nor in any way become dependent upon or connected with any other company, whatever may be the objects of the same. XXXVIII. The present contract shall be ratified by the legislature of the State in the shortest possible period; and, on the part of David L. White, shall be ratified immediately after, as agent of the company which he represents, in virtue of the powers conferred on him to this effect. In testimony of which we, the respective commissioners, have signed and sealed the present contract in triplicate, in the city of Leon, in the State of Nicaragua, the 27th day of August, in the year of our Lord 1849. [seal.] Hermend Zepeoa. [seal.] Gregorio Juares. [seal.] David L. White. Appendix N N. REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL. By Emory R. Johnson, Ph. D. CONTENTS. Chapter I. — Scope and method of the investigation. 1. The purposes of the investigation. 2. The industrial and commercial sides of the investigation. 3. Scope of the investigation. 4. Sources of information. 5. Character of the conclusions. 6. Authorities used in preparation of industrial and commercial maps. Chapter II. — The isthmian canal and (lie industries and trade of the Southern States. 1. Geographical relation of the Southern States to the canal. 2. The canal and the cotton industries. 3. The iron and steel industries oi the South. 4. The exportation of Southern lumher and forest products. 5. The fertilizer industries of the Southern States. 6. The canal and the commerce of the Gulf ports. Chapter III. — The canal ami the industries and trade of the northeastern section of the United States. 1. Geographical limits of the section. 2. Industrial characteristics. 3. The canal and the textile industries. 4. The canal and the commerce of the North Atlantic ports of the United States. Chapter IV. — The caned and the central West. 1. Industrial resources of the central West. 2. Present routes of shipment from central West. •'!. The canal and the industries of Cleveland. 4. Cincinnati and the canal. 5. The canal and Indiana. 0. The canal and Illinois and Wisconsin. 7. The canal and St. Louis. 8. The effect of the canal upon the transportation facilities of the central West. CnAPTER V. — The canal and the Pacific Coast States. 1. Pacific Coast States separated from their best markets. 2. The canal and California. 3. The canal and the lumber and grain industries of Oregon and Washington. 4. The west coast fisheries. 5. The hops, wool, and mineral industries of the Pacific coast. 6. Effect of the canal upon the trade of the west coast ports. 293 294 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Chapter VI. — The coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific — The canal and the coal trade of the United States. 1. Industrial and commercial importance of coal. 2. Sources from which the coal consumed on the Pacific is now obtained. 3. Puget Sound coal. 4. The fuel supply of California. 5. Prices and costs of coal in different sections of the United States. 6. River transportation of coal from Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama 7. Coal prices along the Suez route. 8. Concerning the marketing of Appalachian coal west of the canal. Chapter VII. — The isthmian canal and the iron and steel industries of the United States. 1. The United States as an exporter of iron and steel products. 2. Conditions of present competition of the United States with Europe. 3. American iron and steel trade with Pacific countries. 4. The manner in which the isthmian canal will affect the American iron and steel industries as a whole, and those of the Southern States in particular. Chapter VIII. — The canal and the shipbuilding and maritime interests of the United States. 1. Importance of the maritime industries. 2. The canal and shipbuilding. 3. The ownership of ocean vessels by exporters. 4. The canal anil the American merchant marine. Chapter IX. — Concerning the use of an isthmian canal by sailing vessels. 1. The place of the sailing vessel in the commerce of the world and of the United States. 2. The future use of sailing vessels by special classes of traffic. 3. Tonnage of steam and sailing vessels clearing from the United Kingdom and Germany for Eastern countries. 4. Merits of the steamer and sailing vessel compared. 5. Would sailing vessels use a canal at Panama »>r across Nicaragua? b\ Saving to sailing vessels by use of isthmian canal instead of Cape route. Chapter X. — The canal and the traffic of American railways. 1. f the canal upon the traffic of the Pacific railways. 8. Conclusions. Chapter XI. — The trade am! industries of western South America ami the effect of the canal n/ion them. 1. Area and population compared with North America. 2. The trade /.ones of South America. :;. Inadequate transportation facilities of western South America. 4. Dependence of western South America upon foreign capital and large organiza- tions of capital. 5. Disadvantages of the United States in trading with western South America. Effect of the isthmian canal. (J. Geography, resources, and industries of Chile. 7. The canal and the trade of the United States with Chile. 8. Tropical section of western South America. General description. t>. The Peruvian coast. Its industries and the effects of the canal upon them. 10. The Andean plateau. 11. Relation of canal to industries and trade of eastern slope of Andean plateau. 12. Industries of Pacific slope of Ecuador and Colombia. 1.'!. The Cauca Valley in the Colombian Andes. 14. Summary of the effecl which the canal will have on western South America. 15. Effect of canal upon Atlantic South America will not be great. REPORT OF THE TSTHMTAN CANAL COMMISSION. 295 Chapter XII. Japan and the isthmian canal. 1. The salient characteristics of Japan's resources. 2. Japan as a manufacturing and commercial country. 3. Analysis of Japanese trade with reference to effects of the canal. Chapter XIII. -China ami tin isthmian rami/. 1. Geographical divisions of China. 2. Resources and trade of north China, Manchuria, Hoangho Valley, and Shan- tung. 3. Resources and trade of central China, Yangtse Valley. 4. Resources and trade of southern China. 5. The foreign trade of China. 6. Trade of United States with China and effects of canal. Chapter XIV. — The canal ami the industries ami trade of Australasia. 1. Australian industries require large foreign trade. 2. The canal and distances to Australia. 3. General geography of Australia. 4. Pastoral and agricultural resources. 5. Mineral resources. 6. The canal and the commerce of Australia with the United States. 7. New Zealand and the canal. Chapter XV. — The canal and (he Philippines ami Hawaii. I. THE PHILIPPINES. 1. The geography and industries of the Philippines. 2. The commerce of the Philippines. 3. The location of the Philippines with reference to trade routes from the United States. II. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 1. Soil and climate of the Hawaiian Islands. 2. Resources of the Hawaiian Islands. 3. The canal and the trade of Hawaii. Chapter XVI. — The canal and Central America ami western Mexico. I. CENTRAL AMERICA. 1. The population and general geography of Central America. 2. The Central American industries. 3. The canal and the foreign trade of Central America. II. WESTERN MEXICO. 1. Agricultural resources of western Mexico. 2. Mineral resources. 3. The canal and the commerce of western Mexico. Chapter XVII. — Comparison of distances % the isthmian canal and other routes. 1. Distances via the Nicaragua and Magellan routes between the eastern ports of the United States and the ports of the west coast of North, Central, and South America. 2. Distances from Europe to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua Canal and the Straits of Magellan. 3. Distances from Atlantic American ports to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hong- kong via the Nicaragua and Suez routes. 4. Distances from American Atlantic ports to Manila via Xicaragua and Suez routes. 296 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 5. Distances between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Australia via the Nicaragua and Suez routes. 6. Distances from Liverpool to the East by the Suez and Nicaragua routes. 7. Comparisons of distances from New York and Liverpool to Australasian and Asiatic ports via the Nicaragua and Suez routes. 8 Comparison of distances from American and European Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals. Chapter XVIII. — Cargo tonnage of the existing maritime commerce thai would use an isthmian canal in 1S99. 1. General description of the three traffic investigations contained in the report. 2. Nature and limitations of the information available from official statistics. 3. Four tables giving the value and cargo tonnage of that part of the foreign trade of our two seaboards that would have passed through an isthmian canal in 1899. 4. Methods employed in preparing the tables. 5. The average value of the cargo ton. 6. Tonnage of the commerce between Europe and the west coast of South and Central America and British Columbia and Hawaii. 7. Summary of the cargo tonnage of the foreign commerce of the Atlantic Ameri- can seaboard with Pacific countries and of Europe with Pacific America in 1899. Chapter XIX. — Tonnage of the vessels employed in the commerce that would have used an isthmian canal in 1899. 1. Concerning statistics of entrances and clearances. 2. Vessel tonnage of commerce between Europe and western South America. 3. Importance of the Chilean commerce. 4. European trade with western Central America and Mexico. 5. Trade of the west coast of the United States, British Columbia, and Hawaii with Europe. 6. United States Atlantic coast tonnage with foreign countries. 7. Traffic across the Isthmus of Panama. 8. Coasting trade of the United States available for the canal. V». Summary of commerce of Europe with Pacific America and of commerce of Atlantic United States with Pacific countries. Chapter XX. — Traffic investigation by the new Panama Canal Company — Comparison of results of the three investigations. 1. Plan of the investigation. 2. Tonnage of vessels engaged in trade between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. :;. Concerning use of American canal by commerce of Europe with the Orient. 4. Evidences of increasing number of round-the-world voyages. 5. Tonnage of available canal traffic. . 6. Comparison of the tonnage of 1888 and 1898. 7. The substitution of steamers for sailing vessels. 8. Comparison of the results of the three traffic investigations. Chapter XXI. — Growth of canal traffic 1899 to 1914 and 1914 to 1924. 1. bate of increase shown by table of Panama Canal Company. 2. Growth in value, ixs. Increase in trade between Europe and western coast of America. 4. Growth in trans-Pacific trade of the west coast of the United States. 5. Probable available canal traffic in 1914. li. Estimate of growth of traffic during first decade of the use of the canal. 7. Suez ( 'anal traffic. 8. The estimate for L924. Ch \itkk XXII. — The question of tolls. 1. Concerning the general policy of tolls. ■ 2. Suez Canal tolls. 3. Suez Canal tonnage and traffic receipts. I. Effect of tolls upon volume of traffic of Suez Canal, 5. isthmian canal tolls and the Chilean traffic. 6. Isthmian canal tollsand the Australian trade. 7. The Philippine trade. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 297 Chapter I. — Scope and method of the hwesHgation. This study of the isthmian canal from the standpoint of its use, or its industrial and commercial value, has been made for the accom- plishment of two purposes. One object was the presentation of an analytical discussion of the more important relations of the proposed waterway to the commerce of foreign nations and to the industries,, transportation interests, and domestic and foreign trade of the United States. The other purpose was to compare the commercial advantages of the Nicaragua route with those of one across Panama, all other routes having been eliminated from consideration. There are two sides to an investigation of the value of an isthmian canal, one industrial and the other commercial. A careful stud} T of the leading industries of the different sections of the United States is requisite to an analysis of the effects which the canal will accomplish or to a fruitful discussion of the commerce that will use the waterway. Commerce is but the auxiliary of industry; and a complete discussion of the economic value of an isthmian canal first requires an examina- tion of the leading industries of the United States and other important countries, and then a consideration of the volume of business which those industries would bring to the canal. While this report does not discuss the entire field as thus defined, it covers those parts of the subject that are of direct importance to the American people. The relation of the canal to the industries and domestic and foreign commerce of the United States has been studied with care and is presented with considerable detail, nearly half of this discussion being devoted to the subject. A separate chapter is given to each of the four sections of the United States — the southern, eastern, central, and western — for the purpose of considering the manner in which the proposed canal will affect their industries and commercial progress, and these chapters are followed by more detailed studies of the coal and iron and steel industries and the shipbuilding and mari- time interests, with special reference to the effects which the new inter- oceanic route will have upon each. The facts bearing upon the use of the canal by sailing vessels are analyzed and the influence which the new waterwa} 7 will have upon the future place of the sailing vessel as an ocean carrier is considered. The effect of the canal upon the traffic of American railways is also made the subject of a special chapter. The foreign countries whose resources and trade have been examined are those of the Pacific, and they were chosen for investigation partly because it was believed that in general the effect of the interoceanic canal upon them would be greater than upon other foreign countries; that their commercial relations and economic conditions would be most benefited. The present and prospective importance to the United States commercially, and politically also, of the Pacific nations was another reason for studying carefully the relation of the canal to the progress of those countries. The industries and trade of the countries of western South America and the manner in which the isthmian canal will affect their progress and our commercial relations with them have been examined with special care, because of the importance of this extensive section to the world's commerce. The information con- cerning this region is comparatively meager and the significance of the section for the traffic of an interoceanic canal and the commercial progress of the United States is frequently underestimated. The 298 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. industries and trade of Japan. China. Australia, the Philippines, Hawaii, western Mexico, and Central America, and the effects of the isthmian canal upon them are also discussed. The latter part of this discussion relates to the traffic that will use the waterway. The effects which the isthmian canal will have upon thelengthof the ocean routes connecting the United States and Europe with the various countries of the Pacific are shown by eight tables, the distances in which were calculated by the United States Hydro graphic Office. The investigations made to ascertain the present and prospective available tonnage of canal traffic are described in Chapters XVIII to XXI. inclusive. Three statistical studies are discussed in the report, and after describing and presenting the results of the three investiga- tions the tonnage figures obtained by the three different methods of inquiry are compared. After having determined the amount of canal traffic available in 1899, and having ascertained the rate of increase in that traffic during the previous decade, estimates are made concerning the probable tonnage that will be available for the canal in 1909 and 1914. The growth in the traffic passing the Suez is analyzed and an estimate is made regard- ing the increase in the tonnage of the isthmian canal during the first decade of its use. In the discussion of available canal tonnage the effect of tolls upon the use of the waterway by the traffic between the different sections has been considered. The detailed analysis of the relation of tolls to the volume of traffic using the canal was. however, reserved for a special chapter in which the question is treated at some length. Printed material, books, pamphlets, and official statistical reports published by the United States and foreign countries have been examined, and an extensive correspondence has I teen carried on with men engaged in different lines of business so as to secure data concern- ing industrial and commercial facts in descriptive rather than statistical form. Special and different inquiries were addressed to manufacturers, importers, and exporters, the owners, operators, and builders of ships, and the higher officials of a number of the larger railway companies. The information received from individual sources is frequently referred to, but for obvious reasons the personal or corporate name of the cor- respondent is not given. The information regarding the industries and trade 1 of foreign countries was in part supplied by special reports pre- pared for the commission by consuls and ministers of the United States in accordance with instructions sent them by the State Department. In order to supplement the information obtained from the sources just enumerated, visits were made by one member of the commission, and in some instances by two, to twenty-nine large commercial and industrial cities. The places visited included the larger seaports from Portland, Me., to Galveston Tex., and the interior industrial cities of Pittsburg. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit. Indianapolis. Milwaukee, Chicago, St. Louis. Memphis. Louisville, Chattanooga, Birmingham, and Atlanta. In each of these cities the commercial organizations, manufacturers, and others interested in the development of their indus- tries assisted the visiting commissioners by giving them information. Special reports were prepared for the commission by the commercial organizations in these and other cities. From the nature of the subject investigated, some of the conclusions REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 299 regarding the industrial effects of the canal must be based on premises concerning which differences of opinion may exist. Moreover, the presentation of the industrial data and a discussion of them can not be made as brief and concise as a mathematical demonstration. These limitations apply in less degree to the statistical material used in meas- uring the volume of traffic available for the use of the canal. The conclusions to which this inquiry has led are here given without claim- ing that they are absolutely correct in every particular, but they are close approximations to the truth attained by careful research. Much time and labor have been given to the preparation of maps locating the resources and industries of the foreign Pacific countries discussed in Chapters XI to XVI of the report. Chapter XVII, on distances, is accompanied by commercial maps showing the location and length of the ocean routes by present lines of trade and by those that would pass through a Nicaragua canal and a Panama canal. The information used in the preparation of the maps accompanying the report was derived from numerous sources. American and foreign government publications have been consulted, and geograpnical litera- ture and maps, both published and unpublished, have been examined. The United States consular reports, and particularly certain special reports prepared for the canal commission by the consular representa- tives of the United States in the various foreign countries, were a valuable aid, especially in the preparation of the maps of Australia, China, South America, and Japan. In a number of cases the text of these special reports was accompanied by maps prepared in accord- ance with suggestions made by the commission. The publications of the Bureau of the American Republics have been used to some extent in preparing all of the American maps. With the exception of two countries, this is also true of Bianconi's commercial charts. The com- mission has secured many facts by an extensive correspondence; and in the following specific references to the authorities for the informa- tion contained in the maps no attempt is made to give all the sources drawn upon. The map of Chile contains much information furnished b} T the rep- resentatives of the Chilean Government, and among the other sources of the data used special mention should be made of the work of the United States Weather Bureau and of the book on South America by F. G. Carpenter. The chart of northwestern South America contains many data contributed by the Bolivian Government. The Geographic Society of Lima sent, in manuscript, a carefully prepared agricultural map of Peru. Some facts were taken from Carpenter's " South Amer- ica 11 and from " Between the Andes and the Ocean," by W. E. Curtis. The reports of the Intercontinental Railroad surveys were of value in the preparation of this map and also of that of Central America. The map of Mexico is based in part upon the economic map recently published by the Bureau of the American Republics. This information has been largely supplemented and verified by extensive correspond- ence with Americans engaged in business in Mexico. The following authorities, in addition to those more generally referred to above, w 7 ere consulted: French and Belgian consular reports, and " Geograph- ical Notes on Mexico, 11 by M. Romero. The map of New Zealand was constructed almost entirely from infor- mation derived from the yearbook and the other excellent reports pub- lished by the government of that colony. 300 report of the isthmian canal commission. For the Australian map the information came chiefly from the maps accompanying the special consular reports and from the detailed industrial descriptions contained in the official publications of the various States. The map of China draws largely upon the economic maps published by Beresford in "The Breakup of China," and Chisholm's "The Re- sources and Means of Communication of China." The data used were, in almost every case, verified by the excellent economic map prepared for this commission at the United States legation in Pekin or by refer- ence to some of the following works on China: Reports of Imperial Maritime Customs; "A Journey in Western Szechuen," by Bishop; "China in Transformation," by Colquhoun; "China in Decay," Ivy Krauss; "Through Yangtse Gorges,'' by Little; "The Earth and Its Inhabitants," by Reclus. For the data used in the map of Japan large use was made of the facts in Ransom's "Japan in Transition,'' which were verified and sup- plemented by reference to a special United States consular report and to Japanese Government reports, public and special. Chapter II.- — TJie isthmian canal and tJie industries I no 60 'Jll II I 943 887 ,S10 so:; tic 700 2, L65 1,981 1,960 1,779 1 . 586 1,215 1,844 1,871 1,3S0 i , it;. r > 1. isi Less than distance from New- York to Colon. 21 202 395 766 637 610 C01 516 r.oo ■ More. It will be seen that of the Gulf ports included in the table Tampa is nearest to Greytown and ( !olon and that the ports to the west of Tampa are successively farther from the two isthmian ports, Tampa being approximately 250 miles closer than Galveston is to the Caribbean termini of the two canal routes. This would give Tampa some ad- vantage over the other Gulf ports in the canal trade were not the REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 301 benefits derivable from the shorter ocean route in part, if not quite, overcome by the Longer railway haul to that city as compared with Pensacola and other Gulf ports from many of the sources of the heaviest volumes of traffic originating in the Southern States. Hie proximity to the canal of the Gulf States and cities as com- pared with the North Atlantic section of the country will help the South in developing a direct trade through the canal aiul in drawing a larger amount of the export and import trade of the Mississippi Val- ley to the Gulf ports, but the more northerly ports, especially New York, will possess the advantage of having more facilities for shipping at all times to different parts of the world. However, as the com" merce of the South with Pacific countries develops because of the opportunities afforded by the isthmian canal for dispatching- freight more promptly to different ports of the world, the Southern gateways will enjoy in increasing measure the benefit of their relative nearness to the canal. THE CANAL AND THE COTTON INDUSTRIES. The raising of cotton has been the dominant industry of the South for nearly a hundred years, and, although the development of other resources is giving that section of the country an increasingly diversi- fied economic life, cotton and the manufactures based upon it now hold and will probably retain the first rank. The rapid multiplication of cotton mills and the extensive manufacture of cotton-seed products have latterly strengthened very greatly the industrial position of the cotton crop. The chief Pacific market for our raw cotton is Japan, which took 312,269 bales, valued at $12,712,619, during the year ending June 30, 1900, the gain over the previous years having been large. The sales for 1898 and 1899 averaged about 200.000 bales a year. The consump- tion of raw cotton in the mills of Japan has increased with extraordi- nary rapidity. In 1887 the Japanese imports of raw cotton were only 28,400 bales, by 1895 the amount had increased to 380,000 bales, and in 1898 the imports were 660,000 bales. In 1895 57.3 per cent of these cotton imports into Japan were obtained in China. British India sup- plied 32.5 per cent, the United States 8.4 per cent, and other countries 1.8 per cent. Three years later the imports from China dropped to 11.1 per cent. Those from British India rose to 56.3 per cent, while the purchases in the United States comprised 30. 8 percent, the amount obtained from other countries remaining at 1.8 per cent. It is fair to conclude from these percentages that the United States is certain to find a large and growing market for raw cotton in Japan. The cotton cloth shipped from the United States finds its way to numerous Pacific countries. China, the largest buyer, took $s, 783,134 worth in 1900, her purchases for the two previous years having aver- aged $7,500,000 annually. Among the other buyers of cotton man- ufactures are the British East Indies, which took $524,419 worth in 1900, and Australia, whose purchases amounted to $622,228. Besides this, the Hawaiian Islands took $572,541 worth. The demand of these and other Pacific countries is increasing, and our sales to them are growing, even under the present adverse conditions to be overcome in reaching their markets. About 300,000 bales of the cotton exports to Japan for the fiscal year 1900 were shipped during the first eight months of the season. 'The 302 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. distribution of these 300,000 bales among the three shipping routes gave the Atlantic ports, New York and Savannah, 44,000 bales; the Gulf ports, New Orleans, Galveston, and Pensaeola, 87,000, and the Pacific coast ports, which were reached by rail, 169,000 bales. Nearly three-fifths of the cotton exported to Japan that year took the overland route, involving a railway haul of 2,000 miles to the seaboard. The cost of transporting such a bulky commodity as cotton from the southern section of the United States to North Pacific countries by rail to our west coast, and thence by steamer, or from our Atlantic or Gulf seaboard through the Suez Canal (sometimes direct, and some- times via England or Germany), are so high as greatly to restrict the trade. This fact is clearly shown in letters received from firms that are exporting cotton from Texas, New Orleans, Charleston, and else- where. The difficulties under which cotton is exported to oriental markets by the existing routes can lie illustrated by quoting a few sentences from a communication received from a representative New Orleans firm: Two direct steamers went last year Erom this port t<> Japanese and one to Chinese ports (Shanghai) around the Cape, and more steamers went from Galveston, hut these steamers are too long on the way. First of all, they have to stop in port here a long time to collect all the lots which are hound for Japan; then they travel two or three months, whereas payment is made by Japanese and ( Jhinese buyers against ninety days draft, thereby causing loss of interest. To avoid this loss Japan bought last year (1898) a lot of cotton in Texas, the nearest State for shipment via San Fran- cisco, Imt the Southern Pacific and other roads, owing to the inclement weather, etc., could not handle the big quantity, and cotton that should have gone out in January was in San Francisco by June. The rate to Yokohama and Kobe (Hiogo) is 80 cents per hundred pounds gross, to Shanghai 90 cents per hundred pounds gross; insurance 2 per cent, equal to one-eighth cent per pound. We believe China and Japan will consume over 2,000,000 American cotton (hales) a year within the next rive years. A good deal of cotton to China yet comes from Hamburg, < iermany, and London. England. Any shorter and safer route would materially increase consump- tion and net more to the producer here, as big freight and high insurance stand in the way of trade. The cotton manufacturing industry of tin 1 South, as well as the exporters of raw cotton, will be served by the canal. With 5,000,000 spindles already in operation and the erection of new mills constantly going on. the growth in the cotton manufacturing business of the South will in the future be limited only by the extent of the market that can profitably be reached. Tin 1 secretary of the New Orleans Cotton Exchange, a recognized authority on the cotton industry, makes the following statement in regard to the growth of the business of cotton manufacturing in tin 1 United States: The American mills, north and south, took, in the year 1890, 2,346,000 hales, and of this the census of that year tells US 2,259,000 hales were consumed. In 1891* American mil Is consumed 3,589,000, or 1,330,000 Wales more. Our nulls now turn imt more goods than necessary for this country alone, and it is essential to their prosperity that exporl facilities he had that will enable them to compete successfully with other countries in the great markets of the world, especially those of the Far East. To the Southern Stales particularly, which have increased their consumption from 547,000 hales in L890 to i, 100,000 in 1899, and give promise of still greater prog- ress in the near future, an outlet through an isthmian canal is of the first importance. In a special report received by the commission from a committee of business men in Charleston, S. C., the opinion is expressed that "within a period of five years South and North Carolina will spin more cotton than they grow." The report also states that "the cloth they manu- facture is almost entirely of the coarser grades, such as is used in South America and the Orient. The average growth of the two States REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 303 is 1,450,000 bales. They spun into cloth last year (1S99) 970,000 hales." Although, as the foregoing quotation states, the chief market in the Orient is for the coarser grades of cottons, there seems to be a grow- ing demand for the finer qualities. Several manufacturers report an increasing tale of the finer qualities of cloth, and these statements would indicate that the eastern market is in the future to be one where a variety of cotton manufactures can be sold. At present the cotton goods exported from this country to the East go out largely by way of New York and through the Suez Canal, although a portion of the trade is done by way of transcontinental railways. THE CANAL AND THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES OF THE SOUTH. The most notable phase of the recent industrial progress of the South has been the growth of the iron industry, whose chief center is in the district about Birmingham, in the north central part of Alabama. Two members of the commission visited this section, and Chattanooga, where a large variety of iron and steel wares are manufactured, and were strongl} 7 impressed by the extent and range of the present activ- ities, and by the possibility of future development. A special report prepared for the commission by a committee appointed by the Birmingham Commercial Club contains the following statement: We have the three essential materials for iron making — coal, ore, and limestone within exceptional proximity, within rifle range of the furnaces; and in consequence of these geological conditions and the low cost of individual materials, iron can be produced in this district cheaper than at any other point in the known world. The use that is being made of these resources of coal and iron is concisely stated in this report: Less than twenty-five years ago the first coal mine was opened. In 1878 fires were lighted in its first furnace. There are now in this district about 125 coal mines, with a capacity of about 20,000 tons output per day; about 5,000 coke ovens, with a capacity of about 4,500 tons per day; two steel mills, with a capacity of about 1,160 tons per day; one wire, rod, and nail mill, with a capacity of 500 tons per day. In addition to these there are about 200 more small manufacturing concerns, all established within the last twenty-five years. The Southern States, including the Virginias, at the present time produce nearly one-fifth of all the iron ore mined in the United States, and the Alabama and Tennessee mines yield nearly one-seventh of the total. The pig-iron manufacture in Alabama in the year ending June 30, 1900, equaled about 1,200,000 tons. The iron industries of the Birmingham district are devoted most largely to the manufacture of pig iron. This pig iron is in part manufactured into cast-iron pipe, wire, and nails, and the other simpler iron and steel products. The iron of the Alabama district is mostly shipped outside of the State. During the last ten years about 20 per cent of the iron has been used in local establishments; about 5 per cent was taken by Southern States other than Alabama, 1 per cent went to the Pacific coast and to Mexico, 19 per cent was exported to foreign countries other than Mexico, and 55 per cent of the entire output was marketed north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. For the last three years about one-fifth of the iron produced in the Birmingham district has been exported. This export of iron began as 304 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. late as 1896, and during- the years 1897 and 189S was larger than it has since been. These foreign sales of iron from the Southern furnaces have been facilitated by the cheap rates obtainable on iron, which makes desirable freight for a part of the cargo of steamers that load with cotton. In the Southern States, outside of the Birmingham district, notably in Chattanooga, machinery, engines, implements, and a variety of ircn and steel articles are being manufactured both for the domestic and foreign trade. Twenty-one Chattanooga firms are already ship- ping to or beyond the Pacific coast of the United States, and most of these are engaged in some form of iron and steel manufacture. The disadvantageous conditions under which they are conducting this trade at the present time are illustrated by a letter received from the head of one of the large establishments of that city engaged in the manu- facture of steel plows. He says: We have made several .shipments to Australia and some to China this year (1900) . Some of these we had to ship hy rail to San Francisco and pay a freight of $1.50 per hundredweight (to San Francisco), when we could have reached New Orleans and put them on a vessel for 2-4 cents. In the foregoing discussion of the iron manufactures of the South and the effect which the opening of a canal would have upon them the statements made are intended to be illustrative rather than compre- hensive. Alabama and Tennessee contain the largest iron producing and manufacturing regions in the Southern States, but Virginia and West Virginia have come to be important centers for those industries. Their industrial and commercial interests, however, are more closely associated with the North Atlantic than with the South Atlantic and the Gulf, and they have consequently not been considered in this discussion. THE CANAL AND THE EXPORTATION OF SOUTHERN LUMBEK AND FOREST PRODUCTS. In a special study of the lumber trade of the United States made by the United States Bureau of Statistics and published in the Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance, November, 1900, the importance and general location of the timber resources of the Southern States are described in the following concise manner: The ti in bored region of the South Atlantic and the Gulf slope is, commercially, the most important district in the United States. A circle whose center is Chicago and whose circumference begins with Norfolk, Va., and sweeps southwestward to the lower left-hand corner of Arkansas passes through the heart of the Southern pine region from beginning to end. The hard-wood region of the South lies inside of the great pine bell and south of the Ohio River, embracing the mountainous sec- tion of every Southern State east of the Mississippi, together with the whole of AVest Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The Piedmont and mountain sections and the river valleys of the slopes of the Southern Alleglienies are the home of the best remaining hard woods east of the Mississippi, if not the best in the entire country. The standing supply of timber in the Southern States is estimated to be about 700,000,000,000 feet B. M., about 30 per cent of the pres- ent total amount within the United States. The exports of forest products from the United States have reached large proportions and arc increasing. Our total foreign sales in the year ending June 30, 1900, of wood and manufactures of wood, not including other forest products, were $50,598,416, and were double the amount sold ten years ago. This increase litis been due to several REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 305 causes, prominent among which are the restrictions which European nations are placing upon the cutting of their timber. Most of the lumber shipped abroad is cut on the Pacific coast and in the Southern States. The latter furnish more than half of the lumber exported from the United States, and somewhat more than seven-tenths of the lumber sent abroad from the South goes to Europe. One-fourth of the Southern exports are now marketed in the West Indies, Mexico, Central America, and eastern South America. Although the lumber exports from the United States are large, they are estimated to be not more than 8 per cent of the total amount manufactured in the country. The lumber coasting trade of the Atlantic States is much in excess of the foreign shipments from that legion, but the opposite is true of the Gulf cities. The chief lumber- •shipping ports on the Gulf are Pensacola, Mobile, Pearl River, Missis- sippi, and New Orleans, but there are now others doing a large busi- ness, the trade being well distributed. The stave trade, one of the important branches of the lumber business, is centered at New Orleans, which handles more than half of all the staves exported from the country. The large and rapidly growing exportation of lumber from the Southern States, not onl} T to Mexico and the West Indies, but also to Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, indicates that large shipments would Iba made to the west coast of South and Central America if an isthmian canal were in existence. Those sections are obliged to import a large part of their lumber, and b} 7 way of a canal they will be nearer the Gulf cities of the United States than the mouth of the Rio de la Plata now is. There is a demand on the west coast of all three Americas for hard wood, and from Southern California south soft woods are needed. The hard-wood lumber is now being shipped from the Southern States to the Atlantic South American States and to the Pacific coast <), 1!M>(). The States in which most of the rock is mined are Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The amounts obtained from each State and the amount of increase in the production is shown by the follow- ing table. One noticeable fact is the recent prominence which Ten- nessee has acquired in the phosphate production. The figures are from the latest published report of the United States Geological Survey: Proiluclinn of jihoxphate rock, 1894 '""' 1809, a ml value where mined State. 1894. 1899. Tons. Value. Tons. Value. 527, 05:5 450, 108 19,188 SI, 066, 813 1 , 746, 570 67,158 726, 420 » 357, 090 430, 192 2,000 82,804,061 1,078,099 1,192,916 9,000 Total 996, 949 3, 179, 517 1,515,702 5, 084, 070 'Including 140 tuns from North Carolina. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 307 The opening of an isthmian canal will affect the fertilizer industries of the Southern States in two ways: (1) In the manufacture of com- mercial fertilizers nitrate of soda is used, and this at present has to come from Chile around Cape Horn or through the Straits of Magellan. (2) There would be a large, market for the manufactured product in California. Hawaii, and other Pacific countries if the costs of reaching those markets were lower. Cheaper transportation will enable the manufacturers of fertilizers in South Carolina, Virginia, and probably in Tennessee to supply the growing demand of the Australian and California agriculturists. With the growth of population and the increasing value of land in those countries, present methods of agri- culture are becoming unprofitable, and a change must be made. Farming is carried on in Japan in a very intensive manner, and large quantities of fertilizers are required. In the Hawaiian Islands there is already a considerable demand for the article, and portions of western South America will in time import large quantities of the commodity. Although Florida is the State from which the largest quantity of crude phosphate rock is obtained, the region about Charleston, S. C, is where the largest amounts of commercial fertilizers are manufac- tured. A special report prepared for the Commission by the Cotton Exchange and Chamber of Commerce of Charleston contains the fol- lowing information in regard to the phosphate industry of that vicinity and the benefit which. would be conferred by the opening of a canal across the Isthmus: Inquiries have come for the manufactured fertilizers from the Sandwich Islands, and efforts are now being made to sell the manufactured fertilizers there and in Japan. In connection with this commodity, it may be stated that Charleston manu- factures more commercial fertilizers than any place in the world, the output of the factories here being 400,000 tons per annum. With cheap rates of freight that the isthmian canal would give large quantities of this fertilizer would undoubtedly move to different countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean. The only commodity moving from Charleston to any of the countries touching the Pacific Ocean is phos- phate rock, to the Sandwich Islands and Japan. About 5,000 tons, approximately three steamer loads, of this commodity go from here annually to these countries. The value of this commodity here is $4 per ton; the steamer freight has averaged about $7.50 per ton to Japan. The high freight rate is a barrier to a large movement of this commodity to the islands named. The chemical company which controls a larger fertilizer manufac- turing business than any other concern in Virginia and North Caro- lina stated in letters received from them in Ma} r and July, 1900, that they had imported about 10,000 tons of nitrate of soda during the pre- ceding twelve months. They also say that they could use a great deal more if the cost of the nitrate were reduced. In regard to the effect which the present rates of freight have upon their west coast business, they state as follows: There is now a demand for goods we produce, viz, superphosphates, on the west coast of this country. Our recent efforts to secure freights on large bulk cargoes which would make such business possible from Atlantic coast ports have proved unavailing. Overland freights on our products from this coas*. to the Pacific coast are entirely prohibitory. THE CANAL AND COMMERCE OF THE GULF PORTS. Several forces are now operating to increase the future commercial importance of the Gulf ports, and in order to appreciate the probable scope of the influence of the proposed canal upon the commerce handled through the Gulf gateways a brief analysis of those forces is essential. 308 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The Gulf ports have capacity for handling- a large commerce. Large wharves and piers have been, and are being, erected by the railway companies, which, together with other corporations, are making large investments for the purpose of increasing the trade of these ports. The Plant System at Port Tampa, the Louisville and Nashville at Pensacola, the Illinois Central and Southern Pacific at New Orleans, the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe at Gal- veston, these and other roads are expending large sums for the devel- opment of terminal facilities. The Mobile and Ohio, the Louisville and Nashville and other companies are developing the port of Mobile. The Gulf ports have the commercial advantage of being nearer than the Atlantic seaboard is to the larger portion of the Central West, the upper part of the great Mississippi Valley. These cities are con- venient gateways for a greater or less share of the import and export traffic of the entire Mississippi Valley. The relative distances by rail from representative Mississippi Valley points to New York and to New Orleans are shown by the following table: From— To New To New York. Orleans. Miles. Miles. 912 912 1,390 1,337 1,332 1,297 - 1,321 1,279 1,422 1,258 1,402 1,070 1,079 968 1,058 695 1,006 860 1,089 554 989 708 867 746 939 557 1,932 1,336 1,335 878 Saving to New Orleans. Chicago, 111 Duluth, Minn Minneapolis, Minn St. Paul, Minn Sioux City, Iowa . . Omaha, Nebr Dubuque, Iowa St. Louis, Mo Peoria, 111 Cairo, 111 Evansville.Ind Louisville, Ky Nashville, Tenn ... Denver, Colo Kansas City, Mo... Miles. 53 35 42 164 332 111 363 lit; 53"- 281 121 382 596 457 All points south and west of Lake Superior, northern Michigan, Lake Michigan, and a line drawn from Chicago through Indianapolis, Frank- fort, Ky., and on to Charleston, are nearer New Orleans and to several other Gulf ports than to New York. While distance is not the only factor in determining the direction in which traffic will move, itisone of the factors, and the proximity of the industrial centers of the Cen- tral States to the Gulf cities will greatly assist those ports in securing a large share of the South American and Pacific trade. The Gulf ports have the advantage of being able to bring the railway car and the steamer side by side at terminals where freight can be very economic- ally handled, and this is a factor that will materially assist their com- mercial progress. The following tables show to what extent the ports of the Atlantic and of the Gulf, respectively, have increased the tonnage of the vessels entering and clearing in foreign trade during the past ten years. The first table compares all the ports of the Atlantic with all the ports of the Gulf. The second table compares the increase made in ths tonnage of entrances and clearances by each of seven of the North Atlantic ports with the growth accomplished by each of the live leading Gulf ports: REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 309 Tonnage of vessels entered and cleared at Atlantic and Gulf ports, years ended June 30, 1890, 1895, 1900. Ports. 1890. 1895. tiain in tive 1onn years. 1JW - Gain in ten years. 10, 127, 586 4,380,176 (iaiii in ten years. 22, 649, 610 4,035,256 24,186,387 4,679,247 1,536,777 32,777,196 643,991 8,414,432 Per cent. 44.72 Guli 108. 55 Tonnage of vessels entered and cleared at the seven leading North Atlantic ports and at the fire leading Gulf ports, years ended June 80, 1890, 1895, and 1900. Port. 1890. 1895. Gain in 5 years. 1900. Gain in 10 years. Gain in 10 years. North Atlantic ports: 260, 796 2, 613, 335 12,283,740 2,530,094 1,969,501 266, 138 183, 533 250, 312 3, 115, 478 13, 188, 085 2,711,434 1,608,257 440,046 208, 992 716.001 455,205 Per cent. 174. 5 J 502,143 4,145,187 904,345 16.020.290 1,531,852 58.62 3, 736, 550 30. 42 181, 340 173, 908 25, 459 3,736,615 3,452,654 1,095,727 592, 887 1,206,521 1,483,153 829, 589 409, 354 47.69 75. 31 311.71 Norfolk 223. 04 Total 20, 107,] 37 21,522,604 1,415,467 29, 759, 361 9, 652, 224 48.00 Gulf ports: 9,080 i 174,466 815, 778 70S. 380 165, 376 ( a ) 278, 386 M 424, 054 208,595 1,115,382 1,054,471 3, 395, 442 1,538,300 199, 515 299, 604 800, 459 1,360,370 1,194,725 2, 197. 30 36.73 254, 012 2, 035, 072 343, 575 532, 399 1,997,769 767, 629 315. 13 66 85 347. 73 Total 3,457,517 4, 175, 643 718, 126 7, 312, 190 3,854,673 111. 49 a Decrease. In order to show the gains, above referred to, in the grain export traffic of the Gulf cities, a table, taken from evidence prepared for the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1899, is submitted. Percentage of the total wheat, corn, and flour exports handled at the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific ports, respectively, during the years 1880, 1885, 1890, 1895, and 1899. Wheat. Corn. Flour.' Atlantic ports: 1880 Per cent. 78.3 56.1 40.9 53 48.8 2.5 1.9 4.5 2.5 29.4 13.9 37.9 50 5 38.3 17.3 5.3 4.1 4.1 6.2 4.5 Per cent. 83.7 79.7 75.3 78.6 76.2 3.2 12.8 14.7 9.8 15.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 Per cent. 83 7 1885 77 8 1890 79 1 1895 80 1899 » 79 4 Gulf ports: 1880 9 1885 2 1890 4 1895 1 7 1899 » 3 9 Pacific ports: 1880 10 8 1885 14 4 1890 13 1 1895 10 4 1899 » 11 4 Miscellaneous ports: 1880 8 7.4 9.9 11.1 8.7 4 6 1885 7 6 1890 7 4 1895 7 9 1899" 5.3 > Four months, January 1 to April 30, inclusive. 310 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The Gulf ports are making substantial commercial progress. Their trade is growing with the industrial progress of the South, and they are handling an increasing volume of business originating in the cen- tral section of the United States. This latter source of the commerce of the Gulf cities is usually spoken of as due to a diversion of traffic away from the Atlantic ports. This statement, however, does not exactly describe what has occurred. During the past score of years there has been an enormous expansion of the industrial activities of the central West, and at the same time the railway s3 T stems leading to the Gulf have increased in number and efficiency. The result has been that both the Atlantic and Gulf lines have handled an ever-increasing volume of business. The business of the Gulf cities shows a greater percentage increase, but the absolute growth in the traffic to and from the Atlantic has been much larger than the increase in the business handled through the Gulf gateways. Many commodities are now moved a third of the distance across the continent to the Eastern seaports of the United States for shipment to the Orient. At the present time, with the exception of some occa- sional full cargoes, mainly of cotton, the trade between the southern sections of the United States and the Orient is carried on either by way of the Pacific ports or through the Atlantic gateways. New York City handles by far the larger share of the oriental and west coast South American commerce of the southern and central sections of the United States. If an isthmian canal were in existence, the South American and trans-Pacific trade of the Southern States would be largely handled by the Gulf ports, and the Central States would have the advantage of a new route, which they would doubtless adopt from time to time in accordance with the conditions of competition prevailing among rail and ocean carriers. The effect of the canal upon the traffic of the Gulf cities will consist less of diverting existing traffic to new routes than of bringing about trade not now in existence. It will lead to a larger commerce between the southern section of the United States and the west coast of South America. This trade will consist largely of the importation of nitrate of soda for use in the manufacture of fertilizers and explosives and of the exportation of lumber,- coal, manufactures of iron, steel, wood, and cotton goods. The southern section of the United States has practically no direct trade at the present time with the west eoast of South America. The opening of the canal would lead to a direct trade between the Gulf ports and the Orient — a trade consisting of the exchange of cotton, cotton goods, lumber, and manufactures of iron and steel, for the tea, silk, mattings, curios, and other manufactures characteristic of the Orient. An important effect of the canal upon the trade of the southern sec- tion will result from giving that region a more direct and economical connection by water with the Pacific States. The coal, steel, cotton goods, cotton-seed products, and fertilizers of the Southern States will find a growing market west of the Rocky Mountains, whence the South will secure wool, wines, fruits, and barley. In their efforts to increase their trade, the Gulf cities now suffer because their exports are so much greater than their imports. But few goods are brought into the country by way of the Gulf cities. One effect of the opening of a canal will be to remove this handicap REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 311 partially, although not entirely. The Gulf cities will be ports from which a larger portion of our imports from tropical and oriental coun- tries will be distributed. The present one-way trade of the South, with its consequent relatively high costs for transportation, will, to a considerable extent, give way to a reciprocal and more economically .transported commerce. Chapter III. — The canal and the industries and trade of the north- eastern section of the United States. The northeastern section of the United States does more manufac- turing and has more foreign trade than any other part of the country; and, although the central, southern, and western divisions of the United States are rapidly expanding and diversifying fheir industries, there is no probability that the States and seaports of the Northeast will cease to rank first in manufacture and foreign commerce. Inas- much as the chief commercial reason prompting the United States to construct an isthmian canal is to connect our two seaboards and to promote the foreign trade of the country, the effects of the proposed waterway upon the industrial and commercial activities of the section of the country having the densest population, the most-highty diversi- fied industries, and the largest trade with other nations constitute an inquiry meriting careful consideration. GEOGRAPHICAL LIMITS OF THE NORTHEASTERN SECTION. The geographical limits of the northeastern section are clearly defined on the south by the mouth of the James River and by the railway systems from the West having their termini at Norfolk and Newport News. South of those cities and the territory served by the Chesapeake and Ohio and the Norfolk and Western railways the industrial and commercial affiliations are mainly with the South Atlantic and Gulf States. The western margin of the northeastern section of the United States can not be so easily and distinctly marked, because the industries of the East shade off into those of the Central West by close gradations. The latitude being the same, the two regions are not much differentiated b} T diversities of climate, and their common stores of coal and iron give them the basis for several identical industries. The industrial and commercial similarities of the East and Central W T est, however, have very marked limitations. East of Pittsburg the economic activities are dominantly manufacturing and commercial, while westward from that city agriculture grows increasingly important, and before the State of Ohio is passed it becomes characteristic of most parts of the region. The region about Pittsburg — that is, the western part of Pennsyl- vania and eastern Ohio — lies on the borderland between the Northeast and the Central West, with both of which it has close business rela- tions. The iron ore used in this region comes mainly from the west; its coal supply is local. Its markets are both east and west, although the larger volume of trade is with the American States and foreign countries adjacent to the Atlantic. Its business connections are such as to prevent its being with strict propriety included with either the Central West or the East; but, if placed with either, it will best be grouped with the northeastern section, which, for the purpose of this 312 TtEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. discussion, will be held to include eastern Ohio, West Virginia, and that part of the United States east of that region and north of the mouth of the James River. INDUSTRIAL CHARACTERISTICS. The northeastern section of the United States has become much like western Europe industrially and commercially. It has a large foreign trade in manufactured products, made in part from materials obtained domestically and to some extent from raw and partially manufactured materials imported from other countries. The southern, central, and far western sections of the United States are drawn upon alike by Europe and the eastern part of the United States for the raw materials of industry; indeed, those sections of our country contain the granaries, mines, and forests that supply a large share of the needs of the manufacturing nations grouped about the North Atlantic. Both Europe and the northeastern section of the United States are obliged to secure a part of their supply of the crude materials required by their manufactures from the tropical and south-temperate latitudes of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The nitrate of soda from Chile, the lumber and grain from the Pacific slope of the United States, the Australian wool, meats, and hides; the teas, silks, and mattings from the Orient; the sugar and spices, rice, jute, hemp, vegetable oils, and gums from the British and Dutch East Indies and Oceania are examples of the large class of imports derived by the North Atlantic nations from the lands of the Pacific and Indian oceans. These raw materials and oriental wares are for the most part paid for by European and American manufactures, which are finding a large and growing market in the countries of the western part of the American continent and in the islands and continental countries of the South Pacific and Far East. The Suez Canal has given Europe convenient access to the raw materials and markets of the Indies and the Orient, but her ships are still obliged to make the long detour around Cape Horn in order to reach the western ports of the Americas. The eastern half of the United States is less favorably situated than Europe is for trading with Pacific countries. The distances to Australasia. Malaysia, China, and Japan are shorter from Europe than from our Atlantic coast. For the trade with the west coast of South and North America, also, the advantages are with Europe, partly because sailing vessels, which have been used extensively in this commerce, can make the trip from Europe more quickly than from the United States, and also because of the cheaper freight rates from Europe to Pacific America than from the eastern United States to that section, the lower freight charges being secured by the European shippers on account of the large ton- nage of vessels sailing from Europe in ballast or partly loaded. In studying the relation of the canal to the southern and western sections of the United States, the most typical industrial resources and activities have been separately considered and the changes that the proposed waterway will produce have been pointed out, and that plan of investigation could readily be followed for the Southern and West- ern States, because of the relatively small Dumber of Large industries typical of each of the sections. In the Northeastern States, however, where manufacturing has reached a high degree of development, the number of large industries is much greater than in the South and REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 313 West, and, in order to avoid making- the discussion prolix, it is neces- sary to group the varied economic activities in a small number of large classes. Most of the economic activities of the Northeastern States are directly or indirectly associated with four groups of industries, a study of which with reference to the effects of the isthmian canal will present the more important, though by no means all, of the relations of the water- ■ way to the future industrial and commercial progress of that section of the United States. These four groups are (1) the mining, transporta- tion, and exportation of coal; (2) the manufacture of iron and steel and of the machines and tools made of steel; (3) the shipbuilding and maritime interests; (4) the various classes of textile manufactures. If, in addition to considering these four groups of industries, an analysis be made of the effects which an isthmian canal would have upon (5) the commerce, or the import and export business, of the North Atlantic seaports, the chief relations of the proposed waterway to the economic interests of the Northeastern States can be presented. In this chapter only the textile industries and the commerce of the North Atlantic cities will be discussed. The effect of an isthmian canal upon the coal- mining industry of the country, and the relation of our coal trade to the commercial use of that waterwa} r , are subjects of such importance that a special chapter, No. VI, has been given to their discussion. The relation of the canal to the iron and steel industries of the United States is discussed in Chapter VII. The effects which the isthmian canal will have upon American shipbuilding and maritime interests are considered in Chapters VIII and IX, Chapter VIII dealing with the subject directly and exclusively and Chapter IX indirectly, in connec- tion with an anatysis of the factors affecting the use of the canal route by sailing vessels. THE CANAL AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES OF THE NORTHEASTERN STATES. The importance which the textile industries of the United States are assuming is shown by comparing the number of machines used in the industries in 1900 with those employed in 1890. The following table is taken from the July, 1900, issue of the Textile World: Comparison of textile machinery in 1900 with 1890. 1890. Per cent of increase. ( '( >tt< m spindles Cotton looms Woolen sets of cards Wi irsted combs Woolen and worsted looms Knitting machines Silk spinning and twisting spindles Silk looms 21,057,983 490, 398 7,806 1,510 80, 759 75, 721 1,426,245 48, 246 14, 188, 103 324, 866 7,245 855 67, 817 36, 462 718, 360 20, 822 48.4 50.9 7.9 76.6 19.0 107.6 98.5 131.7 The silk industry in the United States is confined almost entirely to the New England and Middle Atlantic States, only two Southern States having yet established the industry, and much the same state- ment maybe made regarding the woolen industries, although the mills are somewhat more widely distributed. There are now in the United 314 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. States nearly half as many cotton spindles as there are in the United Kingdom, the country is far ahead of all others in the textile indus- tries, and the number of our mills is rapidly increasing. The cotton manufacturing industry is increasing in both the northeastern section of the country and in the Southern States, the growth being more rapid in the latter region. In 1900, according to the Textile World, the Southern States were operating 5,845,-129 spindles and the North- ern mills 15,242,55-1. Ten years earlier the South possessed only 1,828,972, and the Northern States had 12,722,341. During the decade the number of spindles in the South increased 4,016,457, or 219.6 per cent. The gain in the number of spindles in the Northern States was 2,520,213, or 19.8 per cent. Massachusetts is far ahead of all other States in the number of spindles, it having 8,012,331 in the year 1900. Rhode Island ranked second, with 2,090,138; South Carolina came third, with 1,794,657; North Carolina fourth, with 1,499,540, and then came New Hampshire, Georgia, and Kentucky. We are now supplying ourselves with nearly all of the various grades of cotton used in this country, with the exception of certain foreign-made articles of a higher grade, the demand for which is kept up by custom, and have developed a foreign trade which has amounted to about $24,000,000 annually for the past two years. Our silk and woolen mills are still unable to meet the home demand, and we are obliged to import large quantities both of manufactured goods and raw materials. We have no silk exports, and the sales of woolen goods amount to only $1,250,000 a year. Three-fourths of the raw silk comes from Pacific countries, and we are obliged to purchase wool in China, Oceania, the west coast of South America, and the west coast of Mexico and the United States. The exports of cotton manufacture from the United States are sent mainly to the countries of the Pacific Ocean. China takes about hall' of our exported cotton cloth, and the sales to Australia, the Hawaiian Islands, other parts of Oceania, and numerous Pacific countries are slowly increasing. One significant fact concerning our foreign trade in cotton goods is the small market which we now have in South America. The cotton goods purchased by those countries now amounts to between 170,000,000 and $80,000,000 a year. Barely 6 per cent of those goods come from the United States. It seems probable that the United States will be able in the future to supply a large share of the demand of these countries for cotton goods. The opening of the canal will give our mills ready access to the west coast of the continent, and make much 'more favorable the conditions of competition for the trade of the western third of South America, a region from which we are practically debarred. In the manufacture of the higher grades of woolen goods it is neces- sary to import considerable quantities of Australian wool. At the present time most, although not all, of this wool comes to North Atlantic ports of the United Slates by way of London, which is the great wool market of the world. The advantage of importing wool from London is that the American buyer is able to select his purchases from a large and varied stock. The disadvantage is that the American exporter has to pay freight charges for a route that is somewhat round- about as compared with tin 1 future route via an isthmian canal, and has to bear the expenses incurred in handling, storing, and selling the wool in London. With the growth of our wool manufacturing industries REPORT (>K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 315 we shall be obliged to import increasing quantities of Australian, South American, Chinese, and South African wools, and it is reasonable to expect that New York or Boston will become the wool market of this country. Should this change take place, it will be brought about largely !>}• the effect which the canal will have upon ocean routes. The textile industries of the United States have developed later and more slowly than many other manufacturing activities, because they have their natural home in thickly populated countries, where an abundant supply of skilled and inexpensive labor is available. The populous States of our country now possess the requisites of textile manufacture, and the cotton, woolen, carpet, silk, and weaving- indus- tries generally are expanding rapidly. Foreign markets will in the future be needed for the products of our spindles and looms, as well as for the output of our furnaces, foundries, and other manufacturing establishments. • THE CANAL AND THE COMMERCE OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC PORTS. Our European commerce at present includes a part of both the import and export trade of the United States with Pacific countries. The outbound rates from Great Britain, Germany, and Belgium being very low, because the heavier volume of their commerce is inbound, and the facilities for shipping directly from the eastern part of the United States to the west shore of the American continents and to other sections of the Pacific being limited, our trade with those regions is frequently sent to Europe and the goods there transshipped. This roundabout route is still used, although the reduction in the rates on our transcontinental railways, the establishment of the American- Hawaiian Steamship Company's line between New York and San Fran- cisco, the increased facilities and connections for handling freight via the Panama Railroad, and the placing of more vessels on the route between New York and Australia have made the American exporters and importers less dependent than they formerly were on securing transportation by way of some European ports of transshipment. After the American canal route has become available it is probable that little, if any, of our South American and Pacific foreign com- merce will be handled by way of Europe. Possibly some shipments to the east coast of South America, south of Cape St. Roque, will be sent to Europe and taken thence by the lightly laden outbound vessels. This will depend upon the rapidity with which we develop our facili- ties, during the next ten or fifteen years, for shipping directly from the United States to that region. Probably none of the trade between our eastern seaboards and the west coast of North, Central, and South America will take the indirect route after the Isthmus can be traversed by ocean vessels. The reciprocal nature of the trade that will be carried on through the canal between the eastern half of the United States and the west- ern part of South America is discussed in Chapter XI. That chapter and the others dealing with the relation of the proposed canal to the trade and industries of the countries of the Pacific should be read both with reference to our own trade and with regard to the effect which the canal will have on the foreign countries discussed. The trade of the United States with Japan and continental Asia, the Indies, and Oceania is now carried in part through the Pacific ports 3 10 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of the United States and British Columbia by means of the railways and steamship lines having- termini there; but the larger share of the business is shipped by way of the Atlantic seaboard Several h'rms run steamers via the Suez Canal between New York and eastern ports, and three regular lines of steamers and sailing vessels connect New York with Australia by way of the Good Hope route. There is also a large amount of traffic between our eastern seaboard and orien- tal countries in tramp steamers chartered for limited periods. The steamers going out from New York to the Indies, China, or Japan pass through the Suez Canal and usually return b}^ the same route. Chartered steamers going out from New York to an oriental port fre- quently cross the Pacific to Chile to obtain nitrate cargoes for Europe. Steamers returning to our eastern seaboard from Australia more fre- quently come via Suez and call at Europe, while the sailing vessels cross the Pacific Ocean to secure »a west-coast cargo for New York or some other Atlantic port. There is an important round-the-woild move- ment of vessels at the present time, the extent of which will probably be increased by the American canal. After the isthmian canal is completed, the shipments between our Atlantic or Gulf ports and Japan, the Philippine Islands, Australia, and the continent of Asia north of Hongkong will usually make use of the American canal route; although some ships will doubtless go and come by the Suez route, for the purpose of doing business at intermediate ports. A large part of the world's commerce will be done by tram]) steamers whose characters will take them in what- ever direction and along whatever route the movement of tonnage is strongest. The outbound traffic of the United States to most sec- tions is heavier than the inbound; the opposite is true of European commerce. The tramp steamer will, whenever possible, move with, rather than counter to, the flow of traffic. One certain effect of the isthmian canal upon the Atlantic ports of the United States will be to cause the major portion of their commerce to and from places east of Singapore to use the American canal instead of the present easterly routes. Between Singapore and Shanghai, and in the region of the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies, there will be a region whose trade with our Atlantic and Gulf seaboard will be divided between the American and Suez Canal routes. It is believed, however, for reasons stated in Chapters XIX and XX, that the con- ditions of competion will be more favorable for the American than for the Suez route. Our exports to Australia and New Zealand will consist mainly of general manufactures, and to some extent of heavy iron and steel products. The major portion of the general manufactures will be sent out from the North Atlantic ports; the iron and steel products will probably be shipped very largely from the Southern States. Most of the wool, hides, gums, etc., imported from Australia and New Zealand will enter by the North Atlantic cities, which arc the most convenient gateways to the section of the country where manu- facturing is most fully developed. After the canal has come into use probably but a small part of the trade carried on between the Southen. States and Pacific markets will be handled through North Atlantic ports; soon after the opening of the isthmian waterway facilities for importing and exporting directly through Southern ports may be expected to develop. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 317 The general effect of the canal upon the commerce handled by the North Atlantic ports will be to enlarge its volume and variety. The Pacific countries, both American and transoceanic, will be markets for increasing amounts of American manufactures and the source of grow- ing- quantities of the raw materials required by the industries in the Northeastern part of the United States. The subsequent chapters dealing - with the industries and trade of foreign Pacific countries indi- cate in detail the character of the commerce that will be promoted by the construction of the canal. The establishment of a new highway for a large share of the world's commerce will necessarily change the present routes of some trade. It will cause the ports of our North Atlantic seaboard to cease to handle some of the traffic now passing their gateways, and will likewise bring to them some commerce now tributary to other cities. The chief effect of the canal upon the com- merce of the ports of the Northeastern States will come from the industrial changes that will follow upon the opening of the interoceanic waterway. The commerce of that section must progress pari passu with its industrial advance, and the manufacturing development of the Northeastern States during the coming decades promises to be large and many-sided. Reports prepared with especial care were received by'the commis- sion from the commercial organizations in Boston and Philadelphia. A brief statement of some of the facts presented in those reports will indicate some of the relations which will exist between the isthmian canal and the trade of the North Atlantic ports. Appended to the report from Philadelphia, which was prepared under the joint auspices of the Board of Trade and the Maritime Exchange, were two tabular statements, one of which gave the quan- tity and value of the principal items of commerce between Philadel- phia and Pacific markets. The other table compared the distances for sailing vessels and full -power steamers by way of existing routes to the Pacific markets with the distances by way of a Panama canal route and by way of a waterway across Nicaragua. Concerning the saving in freight rates that an isthmian canal would accomplish for the com- merce of Philadelphia the report states: The canal would provide a shorter water route than any now followed between Philadelphia and certain important ports of the Pacific, notably those of the west coast of North and South America and the Hawaiian Islands; * * * it would appear that its existence should constitute a factor of significance in regulating freight rates, at least with those ports. The report does not attempt to state in precise terms the saving in freight rates that would be accomplished by the canal, because of the complexity of the factors entering into the fixing of rates, and because of the difficulty of predicting what readjustments may take place in ocean transportation as the result of the opening of a new highway for such a large part of the world's commerce, but it illustrates the saving which the new route would effect in cost of ocean transportation by presenting an estimate based upon the daily costs of operating a modern freight steamer of 6,000 tons cargo capacity. The calculation led to the conclusion that a saving of about 75 cents per cargo ton would be accomplished by using the canal route instead of existing water routes between Philadelphia and San Francisco, Vancouver, or Aca- pulco. In this calculation a toll of $1 per net register vessel ton was assumed. The report closed with the following statements regarding the relation of the canal to Philadelphia: 318 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The prospect of the inevitable increase of our country's transoceanic commerce in the near future enhances the importance of an isthmian canal as contributing to the facilities of ocean transportation, but we would, however, point out that whether the canal exists or not, supply and demand must, in the last resolution, determine the volume of our port's trade. The canal project, while opening a new route, would in reality open up no markets that are not already accessible, but it would seem that the canal would be a favorable factor by shortening the routes to some important points, and thus assist our mer- chants to enter into more effective competition with nations of Europe which are now enabled to underbid us in the Far East, by reason of the more economical and expeditious transportation which their merchants enjoy by way of the Suez Canal route. In the statement that the volume of Philadelphia's trade must, in the last analysis, be determined by supply and demand, the underly- ing thought evidently is that the opening of a new ocean route must be considered as only one of the factors determining the volume of any community's foreign trade. Supply and demand, however, it must be remembered, is but a general statement of the manner in which production and consumption are kept in equilibrium. There is no absolute law or principle explaining the final adjustment of pro- duction and consumption embodied in the general term "supply and demand." The intensity of demand and the volume of supply are both subject to modification by any factor capable of altering costs or prices, or both. The effect of the isthmian canal will be to lower the cost of producing many things at Philadelphia and elsewhere, and to reduce the prices at which those products can be sold to the consumers in Pacific markets. Stated concretely, the manifold manufacturing industries of Philadelphia will be able, after the canal is in existence, to produce more cheaply and will be able to put their commodities on Pacific markets at lower freight costs. The persons who buy these articles in those markets will be able to secure commodities more cheaply, and the amount they consume will correspondingly expand. The city of Boston has developed a large commerce with Europe, but has a comparatively small direct maritime trade with Pacific coun- tries. A small share of its Pacific business, import and export, is carried by the transcontinental railways, but a much larger part is handled through New York or via Liverpool. The report of the special committee of the Boston Chamber of Commerce states: We have from Boston practically no water-borne commerce with the west coast of Central and South America, the west coast of t lie Tinted States and Canada, Japan and China, Australia and Oceania. * * * While we send to the Orients con- siderable i|iiantity of our manufactured wares, and receive from Asia and Australasia a targe quantity of merchandise there produced, the trade is not systematized. Trans- portation is carried through a variety of channels, hut only a small portion of it comes to or 1,52<> tons, the amounts scut by rail being between four and five times the total cargoes sent by water to Atlantic ports. In addition to the wine, there were shipped by rail 3,599 tons of brandy and 1,175 tons of "wine and brandy not segregated." The brandy shipments by water amounted to 346 tons. Under the present conditions of expensive transportation a fair begin- ning lias been made in the exportation of California wine to. Atlantic countries, but it is certain that the wine production of the State can be largely increased with the more favorable conditions of competition that would result from lowering the expenses of reaching markets. Among the other industries of California are those of fishing, min- ing, and grazing. These industries being common to all the Pacific coast States, they will be considered later in connection with the dis- cussion of the relation of the canal to the industries of Oregon and Washington. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 331 THE CANAL AND THE LUMBER AND GRAIN INDUSTRIES OF OREGON AND WASHINGTON. The manufacture of Lumber, the raising of grain, and the catching and packing of fish are industries of prime importance in both Oregon and Washington. The growth of fruit, particularly in Oregon, and the mining of coal in Washington are industries of secondary but increasing rank. The commerce of this section of the United States centers at Portland and in the cities on Puget Sound. The supply of timber in Oregon and Washington is so abundant and of such excellent quality 7 that the amount of lumber marketed is fixed entirely by the costs of transportation to the distant markets of the Orient, and particularly of the north Atlantic. It is estimated by the United States Geological Survey that the forests of Washington now contain about 115,000,000,000 feet of merchantable lumber. In the four northwestern counties of Oregon there are said to be 1,800,000 acres of standing timber, containing between fifty and sixty billion feet of lumber. These estimates may not be accurate, but they serve to show the magnitude of the forest resources from which Washington and Oregon will draw traffic for an isthmian canal. Exports of lumber from the Pacific coast of the United States and British Columbia are now made to the countries of the Pacific, and a limited amount takes the long vo3 T age around the Horn. In 1899 our three Pacific coast States shipped 13,354,000 feet to Europe, 5,149,000 feet to Argentina, and 15,9-14,000 feet to South Africa. Although western Europe and the eastern coast of the United States would be the largest markets for Pacific coast lumber if the costs of transportation were not so heavy, the present difficult} 7 of shipping lumber from the Pacific to the Atlantic is such that California usually sends to Europe, where the demand for redwood would be large if the price were lower, but one-fourth to one-third of her foreign exports of lumber. There were 422,211,000 feet of lumber shipped by sea from Washington in 1899. California usually takes 60 per cent of the whole amount and Hawaii one-sixth. After these countries comes Aus- tralia, then South Africa, Asia, Africa, Europe, and the east coast of the United States. The shipments to Europe and our east coast are chiefly spars for ships, while South Africa buys bridge material and other choice lumber. The opening of an isthmian canal would reduce by about 50 per cent the freight costs of marketing our west-coast lum- ber in Atlantic countries, and this reduction in freight expenses would add a corresponding amount to the value of all that part of the Pacific coast lumber for which there is a demand in these countries. All three of our Pacific coast States are heavy exporters of wheat. The total amount produced in the three States in 1899 was 77,404,000 bushels, about one-seventh of the total production of the United States for that year. The exports to Europe were 17,396,712 bushels of wheat and 378,763 barrels of flour. Counting 5i bushels of wheat for 1 barrel of flour, the total exports equaled 19,479,908 bushels of wheat.- To South Africa 1,508,100 bushels were sent, making the total shipments to the Atlantic nearly 21,000,000 bushels, or about 562,000 gross tons. In addition to this, 638,094 bushels, or about 17,100 gross tons, of bar- ley were shipped from California and Oregon to Europe. The wheat exports from our west coast during the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1899, were unusually light on account of the shortage in 332 KEP0RT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the crop. During the previous fiscal year the total exports of wheat from the three Pacific States to Europe, including Hour expressed in bushels of wheat, were 34,869,921 bushels. The exports of wheat and Hour to South Africa and Brazil equaled 5,344,14:5 bushels. Thus in 1898 the total exports of wheat from our Pacific coast to the Atlantic were 10,211,066 bushels, or 1,077,207 gross tons. The barley exports of 1898 were 5,628,717 bushels from San Francisco and 250,792 bushels from San Diego, a total of 5,879,539 bushels, or 125,918 gross tons. The total gross tonnage of these wheat and barley shipments to the Atlantic during the year ending June 30, 1898, were 1,203,125 gross tons, more than double the tonnage of the succeeding year. The 580,000 gross tons exported in 1899 could have been carried in 65 steamers of -4,000 tons net register. To have carried the 1,203,125 gross cargo tons of grain shipped around the Horn in 1898 would have required 135 steamers of 4,000 tons net, and that vessel tonnage, 540,000 tons ne< register, more nearly represents the average annual requirements of the Pacific coast grain shippers than does the tonnage of 1899. At the present time this grain goes around the Horn in sailing ves- sels averaging about 1,800 tons register. After the isthmian canal has been opened the ship used will doubtless be a steamer of not less than double, and probably three or four times, the size of the sailing vessels now employed. The freight rates now vary from $5.50 to over §10 per long ton — from 15 to 26 cents a bushel — depending upon the available supply of ships. A steamer of large dimensions could doubt- less carry the grain by way of a canal from our west coast to Europe for 10 cents a bushel — $3.73 a gross cargo ton — and pay from that freight receipt $1 per register ton — less than 50 cents per cargo ton — for canal tolls. THE WEST-COAST FISHERIES. The fisheries of the Pacific coast constitute an important industry that gives rise to the exportation of a large volume of valuable freight. The salmon pack of Alaska, British Columbia, and our west coast in 1899 amounted to 3,138,040 cases, each containing 48 1-pound cans. Three-fifths of this was packed in Alaska and British Columbia and two-fifths in Washington and Oregon. A package of 4S pounds of salmon weighs 70 pounds, and 3,138,040 cases would occupy 80,000 measurement tonsof40 cubic feet each. It would require about twenty fully loaded vessels of 2,000 net register tons each to carry the freight. The shipments of salmon to the Eastern part of the United States and to Europe are heavy, both from British Columbia and from San Francisco. From San Francisco the shipments by sea in L899 to our Eastern States were 261,683 cases, valued at $1,157,608. The total ocean shipments from our Pacific ports (mainly from San Francisco) to foreign countries east of the Horn in 1899 were 21,014,989 pounds, or 437, sol cases, which would amount to 11,608 measurement ton;- of 40 cubic feet. At the present time these salmon exports by sea are shipped in English sailing vessels around the Horn, and the business is handled mostly by English houses. In addition to the ocean shipments of salmon, there are fresh salmon, halibut, and other kinds of fish shipped east by rail. The American consul at Vancouver reports that one company '"takes in the open sea REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 333 to the north of Vancouver from a million to a million and a half pounds of halibut each year. The halibut steamers bring the fish to Vancouver, where they arc packed in ice and shipped to Boston." THE HOPS, WOOL. AND MINERAL INDUSTRIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. The three States under consideration produce three-fourths of all the hops grown in the United States, and a large share of the Western hops are shipped to our own and European consumers. The production of hops in the Western States can be much increased whenever the mar- ket conditions warrant a larger output. At the present time but a small share of the hops is shipped east to our own or foreign countries by water, and our west coast is compelled to compete with European growers and under the limitations imposed by expensive transportation. The Pacific coast States and the neighboring commonwealths of the .Cordilleran Plateau supply the woolen mills of the Eastern States with a large part of the filler they require. Only a part of the wool would be shipped through the canal, but the freight on the large part of that shipped by rail from points west of the one hundred and fifth meridian would be affected by the isthmian waterway. The principal mining industry of the Pacific States at the present time is that of gold. Some copper is mined and a variety of other minerals in small quantities. The effect of a canal upon them could hardly be important. Mining machinery would be obtained somewhat cheaper, and the canal, by promoting immigration and more rapid set- tlement in the West, might provide the mining companies with a large and a cheaper supply of labor. EFFECT OF THE CANAL UPON THE TRADE OF WEST-COAST PORTS. The general effect of the canal upon the people of the Pacific coast will be that of enabling them to buy cheaper and sell dearer and to cany on a larger trade with the people of their own and foreign coun- tries. The manner in which the seaports of the west coast will share in this larger trade constitutes an inquiry of local and general interest. San Francisco is the centrally located port and has a harbor of great natural excellence. Formerly that city controlled nearly all our Pacific coast trade, and in the fiscal year 1899-1900 about 67 per cent of the foreign commerce of the Pacific ports was handled through San Francisco. The trade of San Francisco, however, has averaged but little more during the past five years than it averaged during the pre- ceding quinquennial period. The value of the imports of the five years ending in June, 1900, show a gain of 21 per cent over the total for the preceding five years, while the exports show a decline of 11 per cent. The other important ports of the Pacific coast, with one exception, have had an increase in both imports and exports, and in the case of the Puget Sound section the growth of foreign trade has been especially rapid. The resources of the country about Puget Sound have been much developed during the past decade, and the transcontinental railways reaching the Sound have both increased the facilities for land trans- portation and have placed in service trans Pacific steamship lines by means of which they are able to make through shipments between interior points in the United States and the Orient. There is one line 33-4 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. from San Francisco to the Orient operated in connection with a rail- way company — the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; but from Paget Sound there are three steamship lines operated by the transcontinental railway companies. The consequence has been an increase in the for- eign trade of the United States customs district of Puget Sound from $6,206,456 in 1890-91 to $25,051,670 in 1899-1900. During the past five years the total exports from the Puget Sound customs district were 116 per cent greater than the exports for the preceding period of equal length. The total imports show a gain of about 500 per cent. J n the case of Portland, or the customs district of Willamette, the growth has been less rapid, a comparison of the totals of the two quin- quennial periods showing a gain of 60 per cent in exports and 38.6 per cent in imports. In the foreign trade of San Diego the exports of the last five years are nearly treble those of the preceding, but the imports have fallen off 17 per cent. The foregoing figures indicate that with the exception of Puget Sound, where there has been very rapid increase, and Portland, where the growth has been moderately large, the maritime foreign trade of our west coast has not developed greatby during the past decade. The opening of the isthmian canal may be expected to increase the ocean commerce of the Pacific-coast section as a whole and enable the south- ern seaports to make a better showing, as compared with the northern, than they have been making in the past decade. San Diego, Los Angeles, and also San Francisco will not only have a better route to the Atlantic than they now possess, but will have the advantage of being convenient ports of call for vessels engaged in the coasting trade between our two seaboards and, to some extent, for the vessels plying between Atlantic and Oriental ports through the canal. The short-distance or great-circle route between the American isthmus and Japan and China runs close to the coast of the United States, and, with the exception of those vessels that desire to call at the Hawaiian Islands, this route will be the one naturally taken by vessels to and from the Orient. This great-circle route will also have the advan- tage of enabling steamers to coal on the west coast of the United States, or at Vancouver, where satisfactory steaming coal can lie secured com- paratively cheaply. Vessels bound for the East will be obliged to run against opposing winds and currents, but this disadvantage w ill prob- ably be more than offset by the shortness of the route and by the coaling facilities. How will the canal affect the maritime commerce of ports as far north as Portland and Puget Sound? If the industrial analysis made in the preceding pages is accurate there will be a large increase in the exportation of agricultural and forest products. These northern ports will also be the natural gateways for a Large share of the export trade of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, and for a portion of the commerce of British ( Columbia. It would seem certain that the canal will enlarge the export business of the northern Pacific ports. The canal doubtless will secure some import business that would otherwise be turned over to the transcontinental railways at Puget Sound points and at other more southerly Pacific ports, but a study of the through business now being done by the transcontinental rail- roads shows it to be of small amount, 80 small that the canal would not have to create a large tonnage of new traffic for the railways to REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 835 cover what it could divert from the roads. A discussion of the trans- continental railway traffic may be found in Chapter X of this report. There are two forces that will favor Puget Sound as a gateway for imports from Japan and the Continent of Asia. Vessels on their east- ward voyage across the northern Pacific along the great-circle route for the southern Pacific ports of the United States, or for the Ameri- . can isthmus, will add only about 500 to 600 nautical miles to their voyage by calling at Puget Sound. Under those conditions it would seem that Puget Sound points would naturally become important centers for the distribution of Japanese and Asiatic goods. But in addition to being near to the ocean highwa} 7 , along which a large quantity of imports will travel, the Puget Sound ports will be able to supply steamers with coal. The coal obtainable in these ports will be required by the vessels engaged in the commerce of the north Pacific, and this fuel supply will give to Washington and British Columbia the possession of a magnet that will attract commerce with great force. That region is now deriving from its coal much assistance in the development of its commerce; the opening of a canal will inaugurate commercial conditions on the Pacific that will enhance rather than lessen the efficiency of Puget Sound coal as an agency for the promo- tion of commerce. In this discussion of the relation of an isthmian canal to the indus- tries and commerce of the Pacific coast States only the larger indus- tries of the section have been considered. The business activities here dealt with are concerned mainly with the production of food and the raw materials of manufacture. The fisheries and horticultural business of our Western States require a considerable amount of auxiliary manufacturing for local purposes; but with the exception of lumber and flour and a small amount of leather the Pacific coast manufactures but little for export. This will be characteristic of the section for some time to come, although the use of the Puget Sound coal, and the petroleum oil of southern California, and the application, by means of electricity, of the abundant water power of California to industrial purposes will make possible a greater diversification of industry than has yet been accomplished. The most general statement that can be made of the effect which an isthmian canal will have on the Pacific coast is that the waterway will enable that section to meet more easily and successfully the growing competition of those countries whose similar productions make them commercial rivals of our Western States. Argentina is a large and growing exporter of grain, wool, and hides; but it possesses all the requisites of successful horticulture, and just as our Western States have done, so will Argentina become a large producer of fruits and wine, both for domestic and foreign markets. Much the same development may safely be predicated of South Africa and Chile. Without an isthmian canal our West coast will have increasing diffi- culty in meeting the competition of these rival sections. Chapter VI. — The coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific — The canal and the coal trade of the United States. Abundant and cheap coal and iron are resources fundamental to highly diversified industries and an extensive domestic and foreign commerce, and their importance increases rather than diminishes with 336 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the development of the economic organization of society. Whatever affects these resources and the activities directly connected with them strengthens or weakens the foundation upon which the industrial and commercial superstructure of society is based. Coal has become the almost universal fuel force of manufacturing and commerce ; and except in that limited field where electricity generated by waterpower can be utilized it is the motive power of business activity. It more than any other factor determines where most industries shall be located, and the price of coal is at the present time not only determining which sections within each country shall succeed most largely but it is also deciding which of the industrially resourceful and well-equipped nations of the world is to achieve the highest measure of economic success. If the abundant supply of coal in the eastern half of our country is available for export at a moderate cost, it will tend to increase the use of the isthmian canal by the merchant marine of our own and foreign countries, to facilitate the development of the commerce of the Pacific, and to enhance the industrial changes that may be wrought by the waterway on the west coast of South America and North America as far north as southern California. With the exception of the coal beds of the sec- tion of country adjacent to Puget Sound in Washington and British Columbia, there are as yet no large and valuable coal supplies on the entire west coast of the Americas available for the vessels engaged in the commerce of the Pacific or for the fuel which future industrial development will require. There are coal deposits in northern Mexico, northern Peru, and southern Chile, and there are petroleum fields in Peru. These several sources of fuel may possibly become valuable for the commerce and industry of the Pacific coast generally, but what has thus far been accomplished in connection with these fields would hardly warrant one in expecting them to become of much more than local importance. Probably during the early years of the use of the canal, and possibly for many years, the west coast of America from California south, and the coaling stations of the Pacific generally, will draw their supply from other than Mexican and South American sources. The routes followed by steamers is determined, when a choice is possible, almost as much by coal costs as by distances. The larger shareof the world's ocean commerce originates or ends in the countries about the North Atlantic, and a large share of the North Atlantic trade with tin 1 nations of the Pacific will have the choice 1 of the Suez and American canal routes. For a part of this Atlantic-Pacific trade the Suez route will be shorter, and for another portion the American route will have an advantage in distance. The route chosen will, to some extent, depend upon the relative cost of coal at the stations along the respective routes. This is equivalent to saying that, in the competition of the two canals for the traffic free to choose between the two water- ways, the route will he more successful that can furnish vessels with the cheaper coal, unless a disparity in toll charges and the chances foi securing and delivering cargo at intermediate ports should be sufficient to offset the advantage of cheaper fuel. An abundant supply of good coal, obtainable at moderate prices in the coaling stations of the Pacific, in addition to the commercial and industrial benefits conferred, will be of advantage to our Nav3 T , because of the necessity of our maintaining a number of naval vessels on that RETORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 337 ocean. The efficiency of a naval squadron i.s even more dependent than that of a merchant fleet upon an adequate and sure supply of good coal, and whatever will increase and cheapen the coal supply of the Pacific will enable the United States to protect its commercial and colonial interests with fewer risks and less expenditure. SOURCES FROM WHICH THE COAL CONSUMED ON THE PACIFIC IS NOW OBTAINED. The Pacific States of the United States are not only unable to export much coal, but are, with the exception of the State of Washington, obliged to import large quantities. The fuel required by the steamers on the Pacific Ocean and for industrial purposes by the countries in and adjacent to the Pacific Ocean is practically all supplied by other countries than our own. In 1899 we sent a small amount of coal for the first time, 34,000 tons, to the British East Indies, and less than 2,000 tons to the Dutch East Indies. This, however, was due to unusual conditions, and does not indicate the probable beginning of_ coal exports to the East Indies. For several years we have sent a little coal to the Hawaiian Islands, probably as ballast, and in 1898 our shipments to the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands reached 16,580 tons, and in 1899, 80,209 tons. Nearly all of this tonnage, however, can probably be accounted for by the military operations which we carried on in the East after the spring of 1898. Washington, our only Pacific State having a surplus of coal, pro- duced 2,000,000 tons in 1899, the output having doubled since 1893. The larger part of this coal is consumed locally, some of it used by the steamers calling at Puget Sound ports, and California imports about 400,000 tons annually. The State of Oregon has coal mines of minor importance, but which may possibly be so developed as to enable that State to supply a part of is own fuel needs. In 1898 the output of the Oregon mines was but 52,000 tons, and the statistics for the last ten years do not reveal any tendency toward the increased output. However, there are said to be veins in Oregon which are expected to yield considerable quan- tities of low-grade bituminous coal in the future. British Columbia has well-developed coal mines on Vancouver Island, and veins that are probably extensive are being opened up on the mainland. The total coal production of Canada in 1898 was 4,172,655 tons; ten years earlier it was 2,658,000 tons. The greater part of the present output is obtained in British Columbia, although Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario all produce limited quantities. Regarding the coal mines of Vancouver, the United States consul at Victoria reports that the total output of the island in 1898 was 1,117,915 tons, and for 1899, 1,666,251. The shipments to foreign countries in 1898 were 765,961 tons, and in 1899, 769,091 tons. San Francisco and the southern ports of California, the Hawaiian Islands, and the steamships engaged in the trade between America and China and Australia are consumers of this British Columbia fuel. The imports of British Columbian coal into California in 1899 amounted to 652,926 tons, which figures represent an increase of 50 i er cent during the last ten years, although the amount of British Columbian coal imported into the United States at the present time is considerably less than it would be had not the coal from the State of Washington S. Doc. 54, pt 2 22 338 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. become available for the California trade. The constantly increasing use of petroleum and electricity in California has probably made the demand for coal in that State less than it would otherwise have been. At the present time neither the State of Washing-ton nor British Columbia is furnishing any considerable amount of coal to the coaling stations of the Pacific nor sending very much coal to Pacific countries generally. It would seem, nevertheless, that the supply of coal in this section of the United States and Canada was large enough to make possible the development of an important coal export business. Although a large part of the coal thus far discovered and worked is either lignite or low-grade bituminous, and but little, if any, bitumi- nous coal equal to the best bituminous of the eastern part of the United States has yet been found, the best coal of Vancouver and the State of Washington is satisfactory for steaming purposes and is now employed for both industrial and commercial uses. There is no genuine anthra- cite coal mined in this district. For many years Japan has been developing her coal mines, with the result that the total production rose from 1,102,000 tons in 1886 to 5,080,000 tons in 1896. During this decade the domestic consumption rose from 726,000 tons to 2,936,000 tons. Thus, while the consumption grew rapidly, it had not increased so fast as the total production, and Japan was able to increase her exports during the decade from 776,000 tons to 2,144,000 tons. Since 1896 the coal exports from Japan have increased largely. The tonnage figures for the recent production and exportation are not available; but the value of the coal exported rose from 11,545,801 yen (15,772,900) in 1897 to 15,168,799 yen ($7,584,400) in 1898. Japan supplies a large quantity of coal to steamers engaged in the oriental trade, and also sends coal to Pacific ports. Australia is a country producing a moderate but increasing amount of coal of good quality, the total production growing from 4,179,000 tons in 1888 to 6,313,000 tons in 1898. The only colony of Australia that has a surplus for export is New South Wales, whose foreign ship- ments in 1898 amounted to 2,791,796 tons. The shipments out of New South Wales are larger than the total exportation of Australia, which fact indicates that some of the New South Wales exports were toother Australian colonies. The total coal imports of the Australian colonies were 1,000,000 tons, and two-fifths of this amount was drawn from sources outside of Australia. Australian coal is at the present time distributed quite generally throughout the Pacific, the shipments being facilitated by the cheap transportation available. A large number of vessels leave Australia for America with coal as ballast, and this has enabled Australia to market her coal readily in Hawaii and in both North and South America. For the last decade California has annu- ally procured from 200,000 to 400,000 tons of Australian coal, and Australia and Japan are at the present time supplying the larger part of the coal to be found in the tropical and southern sections of the Pacific. Another important source of the coal used in the Pacific is Great Britain. The vessels which carry the grain, lumber, and nitrates of the west coast of America are frequently obliged to make the out- bound voyage from Europe in ballast. This enables Wales to com- pete even with British Columbia and Washington in the California coal trade. A part of the coal thus imported, a portion of which is Welsh anthracite, is used for domestic purposes. The continued use REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 339 of British coal on the Pacific i.s due, in part, to its superior quality and in part to the exceedingly cheap transportation which the coal is able to obtain. In addition to the coal supply mentioned above, California annually purchases in the eastern part of the United States a limited amount of anthracite. There is also brought from the Eastern States a limited quantity of high-grade bituminous coal for smithing purposes. This anthracite and smithing coal are obtained from Pennsylvania and Maryland, and have hot amounted to 50,000 tons in any year during the past decade. The foregoing survey of the principal sources from which the coal used on the Pacific is now secured will serve to show that the coal fields are widely scattered and are by no means so productive as those in the eastern part of the United States or in Europe. The Australian, Wash- ington, British Columbia, and Japanese coal fields are all capable of development, but the increase in their output will be only moderately rapid. Much is said but comparatively little is known in regard to the coal fields of China. It is possible that within the next decade and a half railroads will have been constructed from the Chinese fields to the seaboard and that foreign capital will have opened up the Chinese mines. Should that take place, the largest future coal supply for the Pacific will be China. Unless that does take place, however, the Pacific coal supply, until the isthmian canal has been constructed, will be drawn from the four countries mentioned above, unless that which is highly improbable should occur and there should be found in Mexico and western South America richer fields of available coal than are now known to exist. PUGET SOUND COAL. The proximity of the coal resources of Puget Sound to Oregon and California and their availability for the use of the steamers engaged in the American-Asiatic trade of the North Pacific make desirable a further inquiry into the quantity, quality, and marketability of the coal of this section. Although the Canadian coal production, most of which is to be accred- ited to British Columbia, was only 4,172,655 in 1898 and had increased only a little over 1,000,000 tons since 1890, the reports of our consuls and other sources of information indicate the existence of extensive deposits. These coal beds, however, are not especially thick, and the costs of mining have not been so low as in the great coal-mining regions of the world. The best mines yet developed are those of Vancouver Island and Crows Nest Pass, both of which produce a fair grade of bituminous coal from which coke can be made. The Crows Nest Pass field, at the eastern edge of the Cordillera Mountains, near the Cana- dian Pacific Railway, is a valuable source of supply for the metal-min- ing industries of the mountain district and for the section of the country just east of that region, but is too far from the coast to be marketed profitably at tide water. The Vancouver coal is favorably located for transportation, and it has been the source of most of Canada's exports of the mineral. Most of the foreign sales of this coal have been in the United States, where it has competed successfully with the product of other countries, without being able, however, to monopolize the market. The coal mines of the State of Washington, although the product is 340 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. somewhat inferior to the better grades of the British Columbia output, have been developed more rapidly than have the rival Canadian fields. The figures of production remained nearly constant at about 1,000,000 tons from 1886 to 1893, but for the five years ending in 1899 there was a rapid growth, the amounts being, in short tons, for 1895, 1,191,410; 1896, 1,195,504; 1897, 1,434,112; 1898, 1,884,571; 1899, 2,020,260. The latest report of the United States Geological Survey, that for 1899, says: Washington is the only one of the Pacific coast States whose coal product amounts to as much as 1 per cent of the total bituminous output of the United States. It is also the only State on the Pacific coast producing true bituminous coal, the entire product of California and Oregon being lignite or brown coals. Some of the Wash- ington coals are true coking coals, over 50,000 tons in 1899 being made into coke. Some of the coals produced in Washington approach anthracite in character, and some "natural coke" has been observed. These fields have an area about three times that of the Pennsylvania anthracite beds, but are not especially rich deposits except in limited and scattered areas. Like those of the Cordilleran Mountains gener- ally, they have suffered badly by the irregular fracturing of the earth's crust. As regards the quality of the Puget Sound coal three sources of information may be drawn upon in this discussion — the studies of the , United States Geological Survey, to which reference has just been made, the experience of those using the coal on vessels and in indus- tries, and the tests made by the United States Navy. Several large consumers of coal, including the ocean steamship com- panies, report that the Puget Sound coal can be used to advantage for steaming purposes, although it is inferior to the product of the best bituminous fields. The president of one of the steamship companies states: The British Columbia coals that are now being mined are considered fair average steam coals. The Washington coals are lignites, semibituminous, and bituminous. The lignites are used principally as house coals, the screenings from such lignites being used at points close to the mines for steam purposes, as they are sold at a very low figure. The semibituminous and bituminous coals range from fair to good steam- producing coals. The firm using as much coal as any industrial concern on the Pacific ordinarily secures its coal from the Washington mines, and an authority regarding the sources of the coal used in California wrote in reply to the question, " Is the coal from Washington and British Columbia good for steaming purposes?" — The lignite coals are not, Those of a more bituminous character are so used, but they have not the evaporative power of the better grades of bituminous used on the Atlantic seaboard, nor are they so good as the bituminous grade from Australia or the semianthracite coals from Cardiff and Wales. The numerous analyses and tests made by the United States Navy of coals mined in different parts of the world indicates that the bitumin- ous coals of West Virginia and Wales rank highest, that the Alabama coal is somewhat better than the Australian, and that the Australian product is superior to that exported from Washington or British Columbia. On account of their different qualities these several coals will sell in the same market for different prices; and the decision of the question whether the Puget Sound mines will in the future control the market in which the ships and industries of the Pacific coast will secure their REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 341 coal will depend both on the relative qualities and on the costs of min- ing and delivering the competing products. The foregoing review of the present sources of the coal used in Pacific markets shows that there are. and will be, several regions competing for this coal trade. The nature of this competition can be shown to advantage by a brief refer- ence to the coal trade of California at the present time. THE FUEL SUPPLY OF CALIFORNIA. The sources of California's coal supply constitute one of the inter- esting facts of the world's commerce. Every continent, except Africa and South America, is drawn upon. Europe, Asia, Australia, and both sides of North America export coal to California. The annual pro- duction of the State being only 160,000 tons of low-grade coal, nearly all the supply has to be imported. At the present time about half the amount consumed is received from foreign countries and half from the United States. The following table shows the origin of the foreign and domestic imports, and indicates that the American product is gaining on the foreign: Coal imports of California. * 1889. 1894. 1899. Tons. Per cent. Tons. Per cent. Tons. Percent. Foreign: 417, 904 408, 032 45, 617 1,340 31.0 30.0 3.5 647, 110 211,733 176, 198 15, 637 42.4 13.9 11.5 1.0 623, 133 36.2 Australia 139,333 8.1 93,263 5.4 Japan 9,390 .6 Total 872, 893 64.5 1,050,678 68.8 865,059 ! 50.3 Domestic: Washington California and Oregon Pennsylvania and Maryland .. 372, 51* 87,600 18,950 27.5 6.5 1.5 395, 173 65, 263 16,640 25.9 4.2 1.1 627,450 189, 507 38, 951 36.4 11.0 2.3 Total 479, 064 35.5 477, 076 31.2 855,908 49.7 1,351,957 100.0 1,527,754 100.0 1 720 967 niii ii a In addition to the amounts given in this table there has been a small quantity of anthracite annually obtained from Utah and Wyoming since 1893. The figures for alternate years are, for 1893, 21,562 tons; 1895, 37,530 tons, 1897, 44,*343 tons, and 1899, 19,000 tons. The anthracite imported from Wales is included in the figures for Great Britain given in the table, The prominence ot the United Kingdom as an ocean carrier and the possibilities of her foreign trade in coal are well illustrated by her large shipments of that bulky commodity halfway around the world. In past years California has received a part of her coal from Australia and Great Britain in ships that carry her wheat to Europe. The coal from Great Britain has varied from 3| to 15 per cent of the total imports during the last dozen years, while the supply obtained from Australia has ranged from Hi per cent to 30 per cent of the total. In the past from 25 to 35 per cent of the California supply has been drawn from these two foreign sources. For several reasons, however, coal shipments from these countries are falling off. The price at which British and Australia coal can be sold in California fluctuates sharply, and rises and falls according to the prospect of the cereal crops and the expectation on the part of shipowners of remunerative homeward business. Under extremely favorable conditions freights on coal from 342 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Great Britain have been as low as 8s. per ton, while during the suc- ceeding- year they have reached 19s. from the same ports. When California was largely dependent upon Great Britain and Australia for her coal supply, the practice was common of importing the coal from those countries on a speculative basis, the coal shippers sending out the cargo with the intention of selling the coal on or before its arrival at the port of destination. During recent years California buyers have adopted the practice of making contracts for the delivery of coal at fixed prices for periods of time, and the speculative ship- ments have nearly ceased. This change in business methods has given an advantage to the coal miners of the Puget Sound section. The decline of the Australian and British coal in the California trade, and the concurrent development of the Puget Sound coal, is well illus- trated by the statistics of the coal imports of that State. In 1889 Australia furnished 30 per cent of California's coal needs; in 1899 the Australian shipments formed only 8 per cent. In 1899 but a small amount of coal was shipped from Great Britain, whereas, in 1892, 15 per cent of the coal imports of California came from the United King- dom. In 1899 the supply obtained from Great Britain amounted to only 5£ per cent. The State of Washington, on the contrary, sup- plied California with 27i per cent of her coal in 1889, and with 36.4 per cent in 1899. In 1899 the Puget Sound section, including British Columbia, Vancouver, and the State of Washington, furnished Cali- fornia with nearly three-fourths of her coal supply. Ten years earlier the amount from this section was 58£ per cent of the total. The importations of coal into California have increased very slowly, the present amount being only If million tons, whereas twelve years ago lir million tons were brought into the State. These figures show clearly enough that California has not yet become a State with diver- sified manufacturing industries, her principal business activities being concerned with the production of grain, fruit, and wine, the sawing of lumber, and the mining of metals. Most of the manufacturing is auxiliary to these industries. As has been stated in another chapter of this report, the auxiliary manufacturing industries of California are making an increasing use of electrically transmitted water power. Electricity thus generated is also extensively used for power and lighting purposes in the towns. Furthermore, California would be obliged to use more coal than she does at the present time were there not petroleum oil fields in the southern part of the State, from which increasing supplies of oil are being annually taken for industrial and domestic fuel purposes and for use in railroad locomotives. Concerning the value of oil for fuel the secretary of the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce makes the following statement: At the present time it is estimated that 4 barrels of oil are equal to 1 ton of coal, and the expense of handling the same is so much less that 3 barrels of oil are nearly equivalent to a ton of coal. As the development of the oil fields continues the price of oil will be reduced, ami unless the present price of coal can be greatly reduced coal will cease to be a factor in our manufacturing industries. This statement probably overestimates the industrial importance of the development of the oil fields of southern California, nevertheless the opening of them has resulted in an extensive substitution of oil for coal. The oil is not adapted to lighting purposes, but makes a good fuel. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 348 The foregoing facta indicate, that under the existing conditions of transportation and competition the coal needs of the west coast of the United States and Canada will be drawn mainly, and within a few years almost entirely, from the fields near Puget Sound. The steamers of the north Pacific, excepting such as make the trip to Australia, will draw their chief supply from the same section. Will the opening of an isthmian canal enable the coal of the eastern and southern portion' of the United States to enter the west coast markets of our country? Will this coal from east of the canal be able to compete with the Puget Sound product in the markets of the tropical and southern sections of the Pacific? In order to answer these questions it will be necessary first to inquire into the prices at which Puget Sound coal can be sold in Pacific markets, and then to examine the present and probable future costs of delivering our eastern and southern coal at tide water, and to take account of the methods that will probabl} 7 prevail in the transpor- tation of coal from the eastern and southern mines to the vicinity of the canal and beyond, when that waterway shall have become available. PRICES AND COSTS OF COAL IN DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. The prices of coal on the Pacific coast range higher than the prices of similar grades in the Atlantic ports. In the Puget Sound cities near the mines " good steam coals " range in price from $2.25 per gross ton for the lower grades to $3.25 per gross ton for the better qualities, free on board vessels. Vancouver coal sells for $2.50 to $3.50 per ton, according to quality, in the British Columbia coaling stations. Port- land and Astoria secure their coal from the Washington mines at a cost, delivered, of $4.50 to $5.25 per ton. The authority for these figures is the general manager of a steamship compan}' doing a large coasting business, and he also states: San Francisco uses, for household purposes, a large quantity of Washington lignite coals and British Columbia bituminous house coal. For steam purposes the British Columbia and Washington bituminous coals are used, rates ranging from $4.80 to $5.50 per gross ton at the wharf. "■ Another authority says: The San Francisco prices are variable. Steam coals from Washington will vary from $5 to $6 per ton; from Vancouver Island from $5.50 to $7, and from Australia from $5.50 to $7.50 (gross tons in each case). The same gentleman reports that the price paid by a San Francisco firm, whose business requires a large amount of coal, ranges from $4. 75 to $5.25, delivered from the ship. This coal ordinarily comes from the Puget Sound mines in Washington. The superior quality of the Comox and other British Columbia coal enables them to command a somewhat higher price than the Washing- ton product, but the Washington mines, probably on account of our tariff of 67 cents a ton on bituminous coal, have been annually secur- ing a larger percentage of the coal business of California and Oregon. The imports of the British Columbia coai into California have remained about constant during the last six years. a The unavoidable use of both long and short tons in this discussion may be con- fusing. Bituminous coal from Pennsylvania and West Virginia and Virginia is sold in the Atlantic ports by the ton of 2,240 pounds; in the Gulf ports by the ton of 2,000 pounds. On the west coast coal prices are quoted on the ton of 2,240 pounds. 344 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The prices just cited are probably not the lowest ones possible in the future. When the market shall have become larger, when new mines shall have been developed, and those now in operation shall be worked on a larger scale, and, what is most important, when the means of land and ocean transportation shall have been improved, enlarged, and cheapened, the Puget Sound mine operators can doubt- less deliver coal in California and elsewhere considerably cheaper than at present. It is the belief of one competent to speak that — The foreign sources of supply are becoming less important to us (California) with the development of northern mines, and the day is not far distant when the north- ern capacity will be equal to the entire demand. At the moment it would seem to be a question of miners and water transportation, for certainly the northern coals can be laid down here at a cost so far below that of coals from Great Britain and Australia as to overcome any possible difference in quality. The coal exported from the eastern half of the United States will be taken mainly from two sections, the Penns3>lvania and West Virginia fields in the Upper Ohio Valley and the mines in north central Alabama. The coal from the Upper Ohio Valley section is shipped by rail to the several North Atlantic ports, where it is sold in large amounts to industrial plants and ocean vessels, and whence a limited quantity is now exported to foreign countries for naval and industrial purposes. In the handling of coal, both for domestic coast-wise distribution and for foreign export, Norfolk and Newport News have some advantages over the Atlantic ports north of them, because of the exceptionally high grade of the coals handled and the spacious and inexpensive term- inal facilities possible in their harbors, which are also, because of their nearness to the ocean, convenient stations for vessels desiring to coal. The railway haul from the mines to Baltimore and Philadelphia is somewhat shorter and more economical than to Norfolk and Newport News, but the disadvantage of the longer railway distance to the ports at the mouth of the James is counterbalanced by the closer proximity of those cities to the sea and their central situation on the Atlantic coast. The Ohio River is another route used for the shipments of large quantities of coal from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The coal sent down the Ohio is mainly destined for Cincinnati and other Ohio River points, but a considerable share of the total is distributed along the Mississippi, about 3,000,000 short tons reaching New Orleans each year. The distance from Pittsburg to New Orleans by river is about 2,200 miles, and, as will be shown presently, it is the extraordinarily cheap transportation which this river navigation makes possible that will in the future give importance to the Upper Ohio Valley as a coal- exporting section of the United States. The city of Birmingham, in the Alabama coal and iron district, is about 260 miles by rail from Mobile and Pensacola and 350 miles from New Orleans. The deposits are rich, the costs of mining are compara- tively low, and the distance to good tide-water harbors is short. The prices of coal have recently been high on account of the almost unprecedented industrial demands of the past two years. In Septem- ber, 1900, two members of the Isthmian Canal Commission had a con- ference in Pittsburg with persons shipping huge quantities of coal down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and the price at which bitumi- nous coal was then selling in New Orleans was found to be 39 cents a bushel, or $4.32 a ton of 2,000 pounds. It was also stated by a prom- inent coal merchant that $3.50 a short ton in New Orleans would be as REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 345 low a price as would be accepted at that time even on a contract calling for the delivery of a large quantity. In reply to an inquiry addressed to the secretary of the New Orleans Board of Trade in July, 1900, the response received was: A large dealer here advises that $3.50 per short ton would about cover cost of Pittsburg coal, and Alabama would be about the same. The same inquiry was made of the general freight agent of one of the Gulf railroads, and his reply, under date of July 10, 1900, was: I have addressed dealers in coal asking for their prices free on board vessels Pen- sacola and Mobile for export. 1 am quoted on coal free on board vessels at Pensa- cola $2.60 per ton of 2,240 pounds, and at Mobile $2.35'per ton of 2,000 pounds ($2.64 per long ton). There is no export business moving through New Orleans, nor had it moved that way for some time, but the cost of coal free on board vessels at New Orleans would probably be at least 75 cents per ton higher than to Mobile and Pensacola. The price of coal for local use was considerably higher at that time, because the railway companies regularly make a large rebate in their rate when the coal handled is exported or sold to vessels other than tugs or local harbor crafts. The export price for the best Pocahontas coal in October, 1900, was $2.50 per 2,240 pounds. The bunker price of that coal was then $3.10 per long ton trimmed in bunkers. At the same time the price of bituminous coal in vessel cargo lots at Phila- delphia was $2.30 per gross ton. The price paid by local manufac- turers was $3.75 per long ton. The prices just quoted are so much above ordinary charges that it was necessary for the accomplishment of the purposes of this investi- gation to inquire what price conservative business men considered would, under existing conditions of transportation, cover the costs of mining and delivering the coal at the seaboard, including adequate business profits. Pittsburg firms mining and shipping coal by rail and by river state that the price of the coal at that section need not average over $1 per short ton on the barges in the Monongahela River, and that under the present conditions of Ohio River navigation a rate of $1 per short ton would yield a good profit to the vessel men for transporting the coal from Pittsburg to New Orleans. One of the Pittsburg firms doing a large business in mining coal and shipping it down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers prepared the follow- ing detailed statement of the cost of mining coal and getting it to New Orleans. The items are not estimates, but are the costs actually incurred. The word ' w ton" means 2,000 pounds: One ton, mine-run coal, f. o. b. works per ton. . $0. 75 Expense of transporting same to Pittsburg do 10 Transporting from Pittsburg to Louisville do 20 Transporting from Louisville to New Orleans do 37 Cost of boat containing coal do 70 Total cost of coal and boat at New Orleans do : 2. 12 Only about 30 per cent of the coal barges or flats sent to New Orleans are brought back; the remaining seven-tenths are sold as rough lumber mainly to the planters. According to the above state- ment the purchaser of the coal is charged 70 cents per ton of coal for the boat containing the coal. The firm that submitted the statement accompanied the list of costs with the following explanation: In the event that we want the boat back after having been unloaded, we buy it back from the customer at a very low price, thus enabling U9 to get the boat back home with a profit to us. 346 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The cost of coal in New Orleans is the same, whether the barge be towed back to the coal mines or not. This statement as to the cost of coal on the barges seems to be cor- roborated by the fact that the price of Pennsylvania bituminous at the mine has, according to the reports of the United States Geological Sur- vey, averaged 76.4 cents during the past decade. The testimony of the above-mentioned firm and of other Pittsburg coal merchants is that Pittsburg coal could be delivered with profit in large quantities on board vessels in New Orleans at a total charge of $2 to $2.25 per short ton, or $2.50 per ton of 2,240 pounds. In Birmingham, Ala., the committee of the Commission was informed in September, 1900, by the vice-president of one of the large mining and transportation companies that Alabama coal could be profitably sold at that time, free on board vessels at Gulf ports, at $2.50 per short ton. That this estimate was a liberal one is proven by the fact that for the last ten years the average price of Alabama coal at the mines has been 96 cents, and that at the time the committee visited Birming- ham the railroad freight rate on coal for export from the Birmingham district to Mobile, including "the cost of placing the coal into the ship's hold at the coal chute," was $1.10 per ton of 2,000 pounds. In 1898 the average mine cost of Alabama coal, as a whole, was only 75 cents, according to the report of the United States Geological Sur- vey, and in Jefferson County, where 57 per cent of the total produc- tion of the State originated, the average mine cost was but 69 cents per ton of 2,000 pounds. The railway charges in 1900 were generally higher than they were in previous years, and more than they need to be in the future for the conduct of a larger volume of traffic accord- ing to the most improved methods. Indeed, the export rate on pig iron from Birmingham has been $1 per ton. In view of these figures and of the testimony of several Alabama men engaged in the transpor- tation and mining business, it would seem certain that coal from the Birmingham district can now be sold free on board vessels at Mobile and Pensacola for $1.75 to $2 per short ton ($1.96 to $2.24 per long ton). Under the present conditions of mining and transportation the North Atlantic seaboard price of bituminous coal free on board can be placed at $2.25 to $2.50 a long ton, or $2 to $2.25 a short ton, depending upon the quality of the coal and the ports through which it is handled. Briefly stated, it appears that the price of bituminous coal, under existing conditions of transportation, may be expected to be somewhat higher on the North Atlantic seaboard than in the Gulf ports of Pensa- cola and Mobile; and that in the New Orleans market the Upper Ohio Valley coal will normally range about 25 cents above the price of Alabama coal in Pensacola and Mobile. In respect to the quality, however, the coal from the Pittsburg section is somewhat superior to that from Alabama, the difference probably being sufficient to offset the greater price of the more northern product. Speaking generally, the mine operators of the eastern and southern parts of the United States could now offer bituminous coal for export for $1.75 to $2.25, or nt an average! price of about $2 a short ton. RIVER TRANSPORTATION OF COAL FROM PENNSYLVANIA, WEST VIRGINIA, AND ALABAMA. The Ohio River traffic is a matter of such importance in connection with this discussion of the exportation of American coal to and beyond the isthmian canal that a brief description ought perhaps to be given REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 347 of the manner in which the coal transportation is now conducted on the river. The following statement of the methods of handling the coal traffic originating in the Monongahela River Valley is taken from a special report of the Chamber of Commerce of Pittsburg. After stating- that the Monongahela River has been made navigable 102 miles above Pittsburg by means of nine locks and dams constructed and operated by the United States Government, and that the river flows through the center of rich coal fields, the secretary says: Three species of boats loaded on the Monongahela River for the Ohio River trade are used by the shippers, viz: Coal boats, drawing 8 to 8$ feet and carrying 1,000 to 1,100 tons; coal barges, drawing 6 to 7 feet, carrying 500 tons, and coal floats carrying from 200 to 300 tons. The tow boats usually bring from the mines about 3,000 tons of coal in small fleets, arranged for passing the locks conveniently. * * * At Pittsburg * * * the small coal fleets are moored while awaiting rises sufficient for navigation on the Ohio River. * * * When rises of 10 feet occur, or sufficient for 8-foot coal barges, fleets from 10,000 to 15,000 tons are made up for shipment to Cincinnati or Louisville. At Louisville, two, and sometimes three of the Pittsburg fleets are made up into monster fleets of from 35,000 to 40,000 tons and towed to New Orleans by powerful tow boats. A fleet conveying 40,000 tons covers about 10 acres. The coal fields of Alabama lie along streams capable of providing navigation to Mobile for barges drawing about 6 feet of water; and these rivers, particularly the Warrior, which flows through the most productive coal deposits, are being improved by means of locks and dams. Coal can now be barged from a few miles above Tuscaloosa, Ala., through the Warrior and Tombigbee rivers to Mobile, and when the Warrior River improvements shall have been extended 15 miles farther to Jefferson County it will be possible to ship coal in barges carrying from 400 to 500 tons and drawing 6 feet of water directly from the mines to the Gulf. The barges can be constructed of the low- priced steel obtainable in the Birmingham district, and by means of them coal can be profitably transported to tide water for 50 cents a ton. The coal barges now so extensively used on the Ohio and Missis- sippi rivers are made of wood. Some of them are strongly built, and after discharging their cargoes are towed back to the mines for reload- ing. A large share of the coal barges (70 per cent of those used for shipping coal to New Orleans) are constructed as cheaply and f ragilely as possible, and, as was stated above, are sold for rough lumber in or near New Orleans. That these types of barges will be used a decade or fifteen } r ears hence seems improbable in view of the increasing costs of lumber and the present and declining costs of steel. The pressed steel car is rapidly displacing the wooden one for railway coal traffic, and it is rational to expect that wood will give place to steel in barge construction. Steel river barges with a draft of 6 to 10 feet and a capacity of 500 to 1,000 tons will have the added advantage of being strong enough to be towed on the Gulf and Caribbean. By means of them coal can be shipped directly from the Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama mines, not only to the Gulf ports, but also to the coaling stations of the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America, including the impor- tant stations that will certainly be established at the termini or along the line of the canal. It is possible the opening of an isthmian canal will lead to the use of a special type of river barge for handling coal for export. A barge capable of drawing 15 to 20 feet of water might be loaded to a draft of 9 feet at the mines, to a draft of 12 feet at Louisville, and for six 348 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. months of the year to 15 or 20 feet at Vicksburg. Barges of this size and type, could, of course, be towed through to any desired seaport, American or foreign. The suggestion that such barges might be used was made by a gentleman who has had large experience in shipping coal down the Ohio. Under these conditions of transportation coal costing $1 per short ton free on board at the mine could be sold in Panama, Greytown, and other Caribbean or Gulf ports for $3 or less per ton. American coal at $3 a ton of 2,000 pounds in these ports will not onty hold the market against all foreign competition, but will be so much less expensive than the price at which coal can be obtained along the Suez Canal route as to give the American route a strong commercial advantage resulting from the possession of cheap coal for steamers. In 1900, when the prices were abnormally high, coal was selling from $5.83 to $8.63 a gross ton under yearly contracts along the Suez Canal route, the price increasing with the distance from the British mines. The following average contract prices of coal have prevailed during each of the past five years at the more important stations along the Suez route, the figures having been obtained from a large coal merchant of London by the London representative of an American firm of shipbrokers. Contract price* in shillings and pence for the past five years. [London, e c, October 31, 1900.] Coal port. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. g. d. 22 6 25 6 16 6 15 6-16 15 6 15 6 S. d. 29 (*) 18 15 6-16 15 6 15 s. d. 26 6 w 19 6 18 18 17 8. (/. 29 34 23 22 22 6 21 6 g. d. 35 6 36 6 Port Said 26 24 25 24 » No contracts. Note. — The above are prices at which contracts were made with the principal shipowners for the years named, and do not show variations in "current " prices that occurred from time to time. All large shipowners contract; therefore the variations in the respective "current . " prices do not atlVct them. The contract prices in the autumn of 1900 at Port Said were 26s., but current prices there were 40s. The contract prices for 1901 were higher than those for 1900. "During the years 1896 and 1897," according to the London inform- ant, "the Welsh coal market was quiet and freights were much lower than for the past two years;" but even during those years the coal costs along the Suez route were higher than the probable future cost of coal in the stations of the West Indies and the Caribbean. More- over, every indication points to increasing rather than diminishing costs of coal in Europe, and the future prices of European coal in the Mediterranean, Red, and Arabian seas can hardly be expected to be so low as they have prevailed in normal times in the past. CONCERNING THE MARKETING OF APPALACHIAN COAL WEST OF THE CANAL. Well-informed men engaged in mining and shipping coal testified in September, 1900, that the freight rate would then be about $3 per ton for shipping coal 5,000 knots in chartered vessels. Assuming a REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 349 tide-water price of $2.50 per gross ton, a canal toll of 45 cents per cargo ton (this would be about equal to $1 per vessel net register), and a freight rate of $3 a ton, coal from the mines east of the Mississippi River would have sold for about $5.95 a long ton in 1900 in Califor- nia, Hawaii, and the east coast of South America. This price of $5.95 is not suggested as the probable price of Eastern coal in Pacific markets after the opening of the canal, but it has some value, inas- much as it represents a maximum, and shows what would be quoted were the present conditions as regards costs of coal and transportation to prevail. After the canal has become available coal can be shipped through it to Pacific ports either as ballast, as berth, or part cargo freight, as full cargo shipments in chartered vessels, or in towed barges. The rates for part cargoes or berth lots will in all probability be so high as usually to preclude shipments of that character, but there will be a large amount of steam vessel tonnage going in ballast or with light cargoes westward through the canal for the Chilean nitrate, the Hawaiian sugar, and the grain and lumber of the west coast of the United States and Canada. Such being the case, there will naturally be more or less coal carried as ballast to those ports of the Pacific and at a very low freight rate. Moreover, vessels may be owned or char- tered by coal companies for the purposes of taking westward full car- goes of coal and bringing eastward nitrates, sugar, grain, or lumber. It is furthermore probable that the steel barges described above, if they are adopted for river traffic, will be towed with their cargo through the canal to Central American and west South American ports within a thousand miles of the canal. The smooth water of this part of the Pacific coast will be favorable for towing, and there will be economy in shipping direct from the mine to the Pacific port without transfer of cargo. In view of these favorable facilities for the transportation of coal westward it would seem conservative to expect the freight costs of sending coal from the Gulf ports and the Atlantic ports of Norfolk and Newport News to points 5,000 knots distant — that is, in general terms, to northern Chile, Hawaii, and our west coast — will be as low as $2 per ton of 2,240 pounds, and possibly less in exceptional cases. The foregoing estimates regarding the cost of coal were that, with tne existing transportation agencies, coal can be sold at tide water on the Atlantic and Gulf for an average price of $2 per gross ton, and that the costs of shipping coal to the Gulf will probably be less in the future than they now are. Assuming that the cost of coal at Gulf and Atlantic ports will at the time of the opening of the canal range from $1.50 to $2.25 per gross ton (depending upon the quality of the coal, the port of shipment, and the conditions of the market), that the ocean freight will be $2 per ton, and the canal tolls 45 cents per cargo ton, the cost of delivering Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama coal in the ports of the west coast of the United States, Mexico, Central America, South America as far south as northern Chile, and the ports of Hawaii will be from $3.95 to $4.70 per ton of 2,240 pounds. Having made this detailed inquiry concerning the present and probable future costs of delivering Appalachian coal at the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards and the cost of shipping this coal to Caribbean ports, it is now possible to consider whether and to what extent the Puget Sound coal and that from the eastern third of the 350 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. United States will compete in Pacific markets, particularly in Cali- fornia. In the earlier part of this chapter the present prices at which Puget Sound coal was selling in California and Oregon were given. Those prices can doubtless be reduced during the coming ten or fifteen years. According to the annual report of the United States Geological Survey, the average cost of Washington coal at the mines was $1.78 in 1899, and for the ten years ending in 1899 the average was $2.16 per short ton. As the supply of labor becomes greater, and when the mining operations are conducted on a larger scale,, the wages of labor will be somewhat lower and the total cost of mining will be less per ton; how much it is impossible to say. Possibly $1.50 per short ton would be a fair estimate. An average railway rate from the Washington mines to the seaboard of $1 a ton is as low as may be expected. These estimates would make the average cost of Washington coal at the seaboard $2.50 a short ton or $2.80 a ton of 2,210 pounds, except for the coal from those mines close to the seaboard, which could sell their product at a lower price because of the cheap railway haul. As was stated above, the prices of coal in the year 1900 in Puget Sound cities ranged from $2.25 to $3.25 per gross ton. The Vancouver coal cost $3.50 per ton on an average in the British Columbia coaling sta- tions. The ocean freight rates in 1900 were high, and this accounts for differences of $2.50 to $3 per ton then prevailing between the Puget Sound and San Francisco prices. It would seem that $1.50 per ton would ordinarily be a remunerative ocean rate to San Francisco and also to Hawaii. On the basis of these estimates a possible future price of $1 a gross ton for Washington coal in California and Hawaii may probably be predicted. British Columbia coal will be obliged to pay the tariff of 67 cents unless the existing law is changed. These estimates are based on too meager data to make it safe to accept them as being closely accurate, but they are probably approximately correct; and, if they are, they indicate that Puget Sound coal will be sold in California and Hawaii at from $1 to $5 per long ton by the time the isthmian canal shall have been opened. To Central and South Ameri- can ports the freight rates would doubtless be 50 cents a ton more than the California and Hawaiian points and a selling price of from $4.50 to $5.50 per ton of 2,210 pounds would need to be predicted. The conclusions to be drawn from these estimates regarding the prices at which Appalachian and Puget Sound coal can be sold in the Pacific markets are that the Appalachian coal will doubtless have an advantage over that from Puget Sound in Central and South American ports and that in California and Hawaii the two coal-producing sec- tions will be active competitors; the Puget Sound mine owners will apparently be able to sell at a somewhat lower price than their Eastern rivals can afford to accept, but the producers of the Eastern and Southern States will have an article of slightly better quality to offer. The two chief reasons why the Appalachian coal can compete in the markets so near Puget Sound are the lower mining costs in the East and the exceptionally cheap transportation that will be available from the Appalachian mines to the seaboard and from the seaboard west, both in steel barges and in vessels seeking the Pacific coast for the eastbound cargoes of lumber, grain, sugar, and nitrates. The general conclusions to this investigation of the probable sources of the future coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 351 and of this inquiry into the effects which the isthmian canal will have upon the coal trade of the United States are: 1. That the coal consumed for commercial and industrial uses on the west coast of the American continents, in Hawaii, and in the coaling stations of the eastern half of the Pacific Ocean will be supplied in the future mainly from the mines of the United States and Canada, unless the opening- of the Chinese mines should revolutionize the coal trade of the Pacific. It is not probable that coal from the Orient or Australia will in the future be sold on this side of the Pacific. In this case, however, China is, as usual, the uncertain and indeterminable factor. 2. The isthmian canal will enlarge the export markets for American coal both by creating a demand for coal in Gulf, West Indian, and Central American stations to supply the steamers that will be engaged in our own and Europe's commerce through the canal, and also by opening in the Pacific ports of the American continents a coal market that is now important and which is certain to grow. We shall secure the larger share and probably nearly all of a coal trade that is now possessed by Great Britain and Australia, and the industrial progress that will result from the use of the canal will add to the volume of that trade. At the present time the United States occupies an unimportant place as an exporter of coal to foreign countries other than Canada and Mexico, and while this promises to become less true in the future as the cost of our coal declines and that of the British product rises, and as the purchases of our high-grade steaming coal by foreign govern- ments for their navies occur more frequently, nevertheless British coal producers will continue to have the great advantage which they now possess of abundant facilities for shipping their coal to all parts of the globe. The volume of Great Britain's total imports is so much larger than the volume of her exports that a large number of vessels are regularly obliged to start in ballast from the United Kingdom on their outbound voyages. This enables the coal exporters of that country to secure very low rates to distant and widely scattered foreign markets and accounts for the fact that the foreign coal shipments from Great Britain have aver- aged 35,000,000 gross tons annualty for the past five years. While the total exports from the United States will continue to be more bulky than our imports, there will be a large tonnage movement westward through the isthmian canal of vessels with part cargoes or in ballast, and the canal promises to develop an important foreign and domestic market for American coal. The ability to distribute the excellent coal of the United States extensively among the countries of the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean will be of great benefit to the industries and commerce of those countries, and will redound to the advantage of our naval, maritime, and industrial interests. Chapter VII. — The isthmian canal and the iron and steel industries of the United States. The United States holds first place among the countries of the world in the amount of coal and iron ore mined. In 1899 three-tenths of the world's total output of iron ore and 32 per cent of the total coal supply were produced in the United States, and the production of both 352 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of these minerals is being increased rapidly, not with the prospect of exhausting a limited supply of raw materials, but by drawing upon abundant resources that have but recently been put under requisition. In no other country has the increase in the amount of iron ore mined been so rapid as in the United States. Great Britain is now mining no more iron ore than she did thirty years ago. Germany, including Luxemberg, ranks next to our country in the amount of iron ore pro- duced, and the production has developed rapidly during recent years; but although the German output was 18,000,000 tons in 1899, a large quantit}^ of ore had to be imported, and the amount of pig iron turned out by German furnaces was barely two-thirds the pig-iron product of the United States, whose productions of iron equaled 13,620,703 tons of pig and 25,000,000 tons of ore. THE UNITED STATES AS AN EXPORTER OF IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTS. Iron and steel and their manufactures now constitute the fourth largest class of exports from the United States, breadstuff's, raw cot- ton, and provisions being the only categories having a greater value. For the year ending June 30, 1900, the values of these commodities were — Breadstuffs $262, 734, 026 Raw cotton 241 , 832, 737 Provisions, meat, and dairy products 184, 431 , 716 Iron and steel, and manufactures of 121, 858,344 The growth in the exportation of iron and steel in crude and manu- factured form has been very rapid during the past four years. In 1896 the total value was but slightly more than one-third of that of 1900. This rapidly growing trade is widely distributed, the most promising markets being in North and South America and the Orient. Of steel bars and rails British North America, Japan, and Asiatic countries were large buyers. Builders' hardware, saws, and tools found 45 per cent of their market in Europe, but Australia was also ;i large purchaser. Wire is very widely distributed. Electrical machin- ery, printing presses, and pumping machinery have been sold mainly in Europe, and also in the colonies of European nations. Our best foreign markets for locomotives are Japan, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and Russia. American producers are finding their way into the markets of all parts of the world. Among the letters received from the manufacturers of iron and steel was one from a firm whose plant is on the Atlantic seaboard. This firm reported, among other things: At present 25 to 30 per cent of our products arc exported. We expect, however, by reason of our location at tide water, "to constantly increase this proportion ami ultimately export from 50 to 75 per cent. In the year L899 the capacity of this linn was about $10,000,000 worth of products per annum. At the time this letter was written the firm was rilling a foreign order for 70,000 tons of rails for the trans- Siberian railway, and also an order for 30,000 tons of rails received from the government of Victoria, Australia. A Philadelphia firm shipped two full vessel cargoes of locomotives to China and Siberia in 1898, one full cargo in 1899, and another shipload in 1900, 150 in all, sent out in two years. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 353 A firm iii the eastern part of Pennsylvania reported: We shipped 3,000 tons of plates to Australia early this year, and similar quanti- ties to various points, especially to China and Japan. * * * We shipped many thousands of tons to the Pacific coast, a part of which goes to New Orleans and thence overland. Some goes by way of Panama and some around Cape Horn. A firm manufacturing $750,000 worth of files and rasps, one-third of which is sold outside of the United States, reported: We have lately developed a constantly growing business in all the Eastern coun- tries, Japan, China, and the Straits Settlements. We are also selling to some extent on the west coast of South America. One of the largest manufacturers of bridge material in the United States reports: Business is developing throughout the world, having sold bridges for many years to South American countries, and lately to China, Japan, and Russia. Probably 10 per cent of our present business is for export, with every evidence of large increase in the future. Examples of this nature might be given in large number. The fore- going, however, are sufficient to illustrate the truth of the general proposition that the present exportation of iron and steel products from the United States, although large, is but the beginning of a rap- idly increasing business that is certain to assume great proportions. The great iron and steel manufacturers of Pittsburg, Cleveland, and Birmingham expect this, and a visit to their great establishments and an inspection of their methods of manufacturing and distributing their products will convince any observer that the feelings of these manu- facturers are well founded. THE CONDITIONS OF PRESENT COMPETITION OF THE UNITED STATES WITH EUROPE. The chief competitors that the United States must meet in exporting iron and steel manufactures are Great Britain, Germany, and Belgium. In selling for delivery in Europe we are at a disadvantage as regards costs of transportation, and must expect to overcome the handicap, if at all, by being more inventive and b^v introducing more economical processes of production than are employed by our rivals; that is, by making a better article at a lower cost of manufacture. That we are now able to sell many manufactures of iron and steel and even pig iron in Europe shows that great progress has been made in the United States in reducing the expenses of production; indeed, we are able to enter all markets where the competitor does not have a decided advantage in lower costs of transportation. The cost of man- ufacturing iron and steel is lower in most of the centers of production in this country than in Europe, and the expenses are certain to decrease during the coming ten or fifteen years. The continuation of the present rapid growth in our foreign sales of iron and steel products is essentially a question of securing cheaper transportation, and espe- cially to South American and trans-Pacific countries. Most foreign countries, however, can be reached more economically under existing conditions by European producers than by American. Not only the west coast of South America, but also the east side of that continent south of the equator can at present be reached more cheaply from western Europe than from the iron-producing sections S. Doc. 54, pt 2 23 354 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of the United States. The Suez Canal has brought Europe nearer than the United States is to the East Indies, Australia, China, Japan, and oriental countries generally; and until the American canal route becomes available American manufacturers and exporters of iron and steel and other articles will hnd their lower costs of production largely offset by the greater expenses of transporting their commodities to these promising foreign markets. AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL TRADE WITH PACIFIC COUNTRIES. The isthmian canal will affect the iron and steel industries of the United States chiefly by lessening the time and expense of reaching the Pacific markets of our own and foreign countries. These are the markets in which Europe and America will strive for supremacy, and the prize is worth}^ of zealous effort. Though now at a disadvantage in the competitive struggle for this trade, the American producers have already secured a desirable trade. The direct exports of our iron and steel products to foreign Pacific countries in 1900 were a* follows: Chinese Empire $822, 074 Japan 5, 460, 205 British Australia 7, 386, 358 Chile 655, 935 Bolivia 23, 006 Ecuador 292, 314 Peru 495, 4 1 1 Total 15, 1 35, 303 The principal exports from the United States to Pacific countries are and will be breadstuff's, lumber, raw and manufactured cotton, petroleum, and iron and steel products. The exportation of the last three of these five classes of commodities will be facilitated by the canal; and in the case of iron and steel products, which have to meet a specially strong competition from Europe, the isthmian waterway will be of great assistance to American exporters. The table indicates that the canal's influence will be exerted where important results are pos- sible. The total exports of iron and steel products from the United States in the year ending June 30, 1900, amounted to $121,858,344, and the exports of those commodities to Pacific countries comprised one-eighth of the total. THE MANNER IN WHICH THE ISTHMIAN CANAL WILL AFFECT THE AMERICAN IKON AM) STEEL INDUSTRIES AS A W r HOLE AND THOSE OF THE SOUTHERN STATES IN PARTICULAR. Iron and steel and the manufactures of them being heavy commodi- ties, with a relatively low value per unit of weight, they constitute a class of traffic for which water transportation is especially well adapted. They will naturally seek the canal route to Pacific markets. The future exports of iron and steel will be sent out both from the Southern States and from those north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. Of the iron ore mined in 1899, 19 per cent, or 4,800,000 tons, were taken from the mines of the Southern Slates; 72.6 per cent came from the Lake Superior region, and 8.4 per cent from other States. The Southern States have special advantages for tin 1 manufacture and exportation of pig iron because of the juxtaposition of the coal, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 355 iron ore, and limestone, and the comparatively short distance of the furnaces from the seaboard. In shipping pig- and other forms of iron to our Western States, the Hawaiian Islands, and the Pacific const of Central and South America, by way of an isthmian canal, the Southern producers and the Gulf seaports will have the advantage of being nearer the canal than the producers in other sections of the United States will be, and this will probably give the Southern mines, furnaces, and mills a large share of the iron and steel export trade to Pacific markets. The Northern producer will, however, by no means be debarred from successful competition, because the North Atlantic ports will have a greater volume of shipping and trade with the East than the Southern ports will have, and consequently more abundant facilities for dispatch- ing their exports. The iron and steel manufacturers of this country anticipate a large foreign trade with Pacific countries. An ironmaster of Birmingham, Ala., states: The canal would open to this district a demand for pig iron from the Pacific eoasd, including South America, now filled from England because of the absence of freight communications from Birmingham, which could otherwise supply it more cheaply. It would open up a demand for pig iron in Honolulu, Japan, China, and Australia, which would then be supplied to them more cheaply than from European markets. It would open up a demand in the last-named countries for cast-iron pipe, which at present is largely supplied from Belgium, which could then be more cheaply sup- plied from this district. In Pittsburg the iron and steel manufacturers, who already ship extensively to Pacific markets, believe that the present business could be much increased by the use of an isthmian canal, and a special report prepared for the canal commission by the chamber of commerce of that city lays stress upon the possibility of exporting from the section of which Pittsburg is the industrial center large quantities not only of iron and steel products but also of coal, glass, petroleum, and pottery. In Cleveland, Ohio, one firm engaged in the manufacture of relatively high-priced iron and steel products in that city and elsewhere reported in 1900 that it was shipping annually to foreign Pacific markets 77,000 net tons, and was doing a large business with the west coast of ' the United States, the amount of which was withheld for special reasons. Another firm having headquarters in Cleveland and doing an annual business of over $21,000,000 in mining iron and coal and manufactur- ing pig iron informed the committee of the canal commission that— The opening of a canal across the American isthmus would prove of very great benefit to the iron and steel industries to whom we sell our raw materials hence of great benefit to us. The development of trade in the Orient promises a large volume of business to the iron and steel industries of the world. With a canal the United States should, and in our judgment would, control this trade. From the reports prepared for the commission by the commercial organizations of Pittsburg, Cleveland, and Birmingham it is believed that these statements of large iron and steel manufacturers in these cities represent the views held by practically all of those interested in the iron and steel industries of the United States. Chapter VIII. — The canal and the shipbuilding and maritime interests of the United States. The shipbuilding industry and the merchant marine are of great importance to the industrial, commercial, and naval welfare of our country. There are few industries of equal magnitude that require a 356 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. larger number of auxiliary business activities, that employ so large a force of skilled labor, and that do more to call forth inventive genius. The permanent strength and efficiency of our merchant marine and our Navy are dependent upon our having well-equipped yards, owned by trained builders with inventive capacity. However much men may differ as to the policy to be adopted for building up our merchant marine, they are agreed as to the necessity for having a well-developed shipbuilding industry. The desirability of having a large merchant marine under the Ameri- can flag is also generally acknowledged. "The more facilities the more business." The existence of a greater number of vessels con- necting our leading seaports with various parts of the world would be of assistance to us in developing our foreign trade. It is possible to secure a moderate amount of trade with a distant section of the world by depending entirely upon chartered vessels, but much more can be accomplished with the aid of regular lines of ships. The regular liners are needed not only for the passenger and mail services between our own and foreign countries, but also for carrying on trade at scat- tered points where the business is not large enough to warrant the use of chartered steamers. In building up our trade with the Far East, and with South America, we need lines of vessels as well as chartered ships. Neither agency is sufficient b} r itself. The value of a large merchant marine as a training school for the Nav} r , and as a source from which to draw both men and vessels when a sudden expansion of the naval fleet becomes necessary, is a fact recognized in the naval andmiaritime policy of many countries. THE CANAL AND SHIPBUILDING. The isthmian canal will operate as has the Suez Canal, and hasten the change from sail to steam power in ocean commerce. By doing this the isthmian waterway will modify both the shipbuilding and the ship-operating industries. Inasmuch as few, if any, steamers will be constructed with wooden hulls, the canal will necessitate a larger and earlier reorganization than would otherwise occur in many of the ship- building plants now employed in constructing wooden vessels. This change from wooden to steel vessels may be a burden to some builders, but the country as a whole will be benefited. One sure result of the opening of an isthmian waterway will be a larger coasting trade between our two seaboards. A larger coasting fleet will be required, and the vessels for this fleet must be built in American yards. The coasting fleet engaged in traffic through a canal will consist mainly, if not entirely, of steamers." A part of our pres- ent coasting vessels will doubtless use the canal, but it is probable that a large number of ships will be built especially for the long-distance traffic that will be carried on through the canal. Most of them will be comparatively large ships, and will be freight vessels of the most modern design. The use of steel barges on the Ohio, Mississippi, War- rior, and other rivers promises to enlarge the demand for those ves- sels, and they must be constructed in American yards. Likewise an increase in the exports of iron and steel products will necessitate the "Consult following chapter <>n "The use of the canal by sailiii!_ r vessels." REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 357 handling of more ore on the Great Lakes, and thus add to the tonnage of vessels constructed. In securing- data for the discussion of the effect which the canal would have on the shipbuilding and maritime interests of the United States circular letter containing six inquiries was sent to the Ameri- can firms building and operating ships. Replies were received from forty of the persons addressed, and in most of the communications received each question was carefully answered. One of the interrog- atories was, Will the opening of an isthmian canal and the develop- ment of its traffic stimulate American shipbuilding? Will the larger demand for coasting vessels so increase the output of American yards as to enable shipbuilders to construct all ships more economically, and thus to compete successfully with foreign builders in the construction of vessels for the foreign trade? Nearly all the responses to this query were in the affirmative. The genera' character of the answers may be illustrated by quoting from two of the letters; one received from an Eastern shipbuilder and the other from a west coast shipowner. The statement of the shipbuilder was: In my judgment the opening of the isthmian canal and the development of its traffic would stimulate American shipbuilding to the extent of an increased demand for vessels to be used in trade affected by said canal. As a rule increased demand develops increased sources of supply, and the cost of product is invariably reduced in proportion of increased business to fixed expenses of any manufacturing establish- ment, and therefore the canal would in this case tend to enable shipbuilders to con- struct ships more economically and more surely to compete with foreign builders. The response of the shipowner was: The increased facility afforded for the transfer of American vessels from ocean to ocean in trading between American ports will call for an increased number of vessels, which undoubtedly will result in new shipyards being established (both for the building and repairing of our vessels), which could be called upon when needed for the construction of vessels to carry on our foreign import and export trade. We already know that structural steel has been produced in the United States cheaper than in any other part of the world, owing to the almost inexhaustible beds of iron ore in the region of the Great Lakes, as well as in other sections, and the skill and economy with which it is mined and worked. When we combine this advantage with the facility which will be developed by a large increase in our capacity for building coasting vessels, we see no reason why in the future ocean carrying vessels of the best class may not be built as cheaply here, if not already done, as in any other country. The cost of building ships in American yards has declined largely during recent years with the fall in the prices of iron and steel and coal, and with the introduction of more economical processes of han- dling material and doing work. Most of the large American shipyards are new and are equipped with the most approved labor-saving machinery. The labor costs are said to be higher in American than in foreign yards, but whether the cost of labor per unit of work done is greater in the United States is hard to determine. In most lines of iron and steel manufactures the labor costs of production in the United States can hardly be higher than in Europe. For many commodities the labor outlay is undoubtedly less, and it is not probable that the labor costs of building ships in the United States will continue permanently higher than in Europe. It is, however, hardly to be expected that American builders can construct the small merchant tonnage now being built by them at as low a cost per ton of shipping as can the 358 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. foreign builders. Ships are built by retail in this country and by the wholesale abroad. "The British shipbuilders build many vessels from the same plans, buying- or making not only duplicate or triplicate parts, shapes, machines, etc., but like parts by the dozen or score." a The tonnage now being constructed by the American builders is nearly all for the coastwise and inland commerce, from which foreign- built vessels are excluded — that is, for the home market. It is, how- ever, probable that the American shipbuilding industry will repeat the history which other iron and steel manufactures have had during the past ten years. From importers of large quantities of iron and steel products we have become large exporters of them, and are now rapidly rinding our way into new markets. The present vigorous growth of the shipyards in the United States is doubtless but an earnest of a much larger future output, that will supply not only the home market, but will find its way largely into the competitive field. The increase which will occur in our domestic water commerce during the coming decade, and particularly after the isthmian canal shall have been opened, will enlarge the tonnage built in our yards, tend to lower the costs of con- struction and to induce American builders to seek foreign markets for their ships. The increase in the number of vessels built will be accu- mulatively beneficial to American builders. A larger American fleet means more repairing in the United States, and this will be a valuable aid to our ship}^ards. THE OWNERSHIP OF OCEAN VESSELS BY EXPORTERS. During the investigation of the relation of the canal to the maritime interests of the United States some gentleman well versed in maritime matters expressed the opLi'.Dn that a considerable tonnage was to be added to our merchant marine engaged in foreign commerce by the purchase and operation of vessels by the large American manufactur- ing concerns which are now rapidly developing a heavy foreign trade. Manufacturing for export is already largely concentrated in the hands of large combinations of producers, and some of these combinations now mid their foreign trade so important that they are considering the desirability of providing themselves with ocean vessels. One of the largest firms of the United States stated in a letter to the Commission that— The export business of our company has <*rown to such a remarkable extent that we have found it Impossible to rely upon the customary means of transportation for delivery of our goods. For some time past we have Ween chartering ocean steamers for varying periods of lime, and have found it quite difficult to cover our require- ments even by this method. The ships we have so far built for the lake trade are too large to pass through the present canals to the Atlantic, but we have used some boats, owned by other companies, by the Welland ('anal route, and find this practi- cable. The matter of providing proper means of transportation for the future is a very important one; and while wo have not as yet decided the question, we are seriously considering the building of our own ships. A report lias come to hand that this question was decided in the affirmative. The Northwestern Steamship Company in April and May, 1901, inaugurated a service between Chicago and Hamburg and Liverpool. Four strainers were put into operation, each having a capacity of 3,506 Report of Commissioner of Navigation, L900, page 33. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 359 tons dead weight. Nineteen days will be taken for the voyage from Chicago through the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence River, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and across the Atlantic. The vessels are built in Chicago, and their cargo will consist of grain and the manufactures of that city and the country commercially 'tributary to it. For reasons stated in another part of this report, it is believed that the exportation of coal from the United States is going to increase and that it will assume large proportions after the canal is opened. The exportation of iron and steel products from the United States is growing and is certain to increase. The large corporations engaged in mining and in the manufacture of iron and steel, as well as those in the lumbering business, will doubtless tind that provision must be made by themselves for handling their water-borne foreign trade. To a considerable extent the vessels which carry the exported oil are owned by the manufacturers of the oil. A part of this exported lum- ber is handled by the men who manufacture the commodity. The heavy purchases of European vessels by American capitalists during the spring of 1901 was doubtless in part for the purpose of securing better facilities for handling the export trade. The purchasers are also largely engaged in manufacturing for export. THE CANAL AND THE AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE. The owneiship and operation of ocean vessels by the large industrial firms as a part of their business, which has now in many cases come to include the entire process of obtaining the raw materials, convert- ing them into usable commodities, and placing them in the hands of the consumer, whether foreign or domestic, will, to some extent, solve the question of our securing a larger merchant marine owned by Americans. Whether these vessels owned by American producers will be sailed under our flag, or under that of some foreign nation, will be determined by forces over which the isthmian canal will have but slight influence. Some of the vessels employed in the commerce between our Eastern seaboard and the trans-Pacific countries will doubtless desire to partici- pate in the interoceanic coasting trade of the United States, and in order to do so they will need to have the American registry. The action of Congress in restricting the commerce of Porto Rico and Hawaii with the United States to American ships suggests that our trade with the Philippines may also be limited to the vessels flying our flag. Should Congress take such action regarding the Philippines, a considerable share of the commerce of our Atlantic and Gulf ports with Japan and China will be carried in American vessels, because such ships would be able to participate in both our Philippine and foreign trade. Any benefit conferred upon our shipbuilding industry will indirectly aid in the enlargement of the tonnage of American vessels engaged in the foreign trade of the United States. If the American purchaser could secure vessels at home as cheaply as in foreign yards, one of the present reasons for registering his ships under the flag of some other nation would be removed. The future growth of the merchant marine under the flag of the United States will depend on numerous factors, some economic and some political. The construction of the isthmian canal will apparently affect that growth favorably. 360 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Chapter IX. — Concerning the use of an isthmian canalhy sailing vessels. In order to reach intelligent conclusions regarding' the use which sailing vessels will make of a canal, there are at least three questions that must receive consideration. The first general question is con- cerning the place which those vessels now hold in the commerce of the world and of the United States; the rate at which steam has been dis placing sail tonnage in our own and foreign shipping during the past twenty-five years, and the commercial position which the sailing vessel will occupy fifteen years hence should the present tendency to substitute the engine for the sail continue to prevail. Another subject meriting careful inquiry is whether there are special classes of traffic, such as lumber, grain, nitrates, and unrefined sugar, which have found the steamer the more economical carrier. If there are commodities that can be freighted more cheaply by sail than by steam, are they articles that would naturally be carried through the canal? The third general question is whether an isthmian canal, either in Nicaragua or at Panama, is a waterway adapted to navigation by sailing vessels. Are the con- ditions of winds and currents that prevail at the approaches to the canal such as to enable the sailor to use the waterway; and if the route is possible for the sailing vessel, will the economies resulting from its use be sufficient to induce the owners of such ships to adopt the trans- isthmian route? In the discussion that follows these three general questions will be considered in the above order of statement. THE PLACE OF THE SAILING VESSEL IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD AND OF THE UNTIED STATES. That the sailing vessel is giving place to the steamer, both on the high seas and in domestic waters, is a well-known fact, to the significance of which attention has been drawn on many occasions. The United States, however, having certain obvious advantages over other nations for the construction of wooden ships, has given up tire use of sails more slowly than any other important maritime nation, with the pos- sible exception of Norway. In the enormous traffic of our Great Lakes we nave come to use steam almost exclusively, but this is not the case with our seagoing marine. The report of the United States Commissioner of Navigation for 1899 contains tables showing the extent to which the world's seagoing sail tonnage has declined during the last quarter of a century, and the increase which has taken place during the same period in the world's seagoing tonnage. The tables are taken from the records of the Bureau Veritas. The table regarding the sail tonnage is as follows: Seagoing sail tonnage. ( tountrj . Great Britain United stairs Norway hilly Germany France All others ... Total .. 5, 320, 089 2, 182,838 1,187,177 I. 126,032 898,962 768,059 2,807,689 6,696,018 2,075,882 1,874,824 963,626 914,674 596,933 2,796,524 4,215,634 L, 913, 090 1,328,296 718,889 7:?7. 028 ::.vj. us 2,870,934 14,185,836 14,317,430 Ll,636,289 2,910,666 1 , 286, 869 1,111, 1X2 163, 767 686,937 279,412 •2, 073, 767 8,693,769 Decrease from 1ST I to 1899. Per cent. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. oox The world's seagoing tonnage declined 40 per cent during the twenty- five years from 1874 to 1899, and the decline in the tonnage of the sailing vessels in our merchant marine has proceeded pari passu with the change occurring in the world's marine. This table, however, presents only one side of the change that has been taking place. When we come to study the figures of the growth of steam tonnage, we fin4 that the United States has fallen far behind her rivals. The following table presents the gross tonnage of the seagoing steamships of over 100 gross tons operated under the Hags of the various maritime nations of the world. For purposes of comparison there are appended to the table the statistics of the tonnage of the steamships engaged in foreign trade under the American flag: Seagoing tonnage of the world. 1873-74. 1878-79. 1888-89. 1898-99. Country. Tonnage. Per cent. Tonnage. Per cent. Tonnage. Per cent. Tonnage. Per cent. 1873-74 to 1898-99. Great Britain 2,621,431 483, 040 316, 765 204,894 138, 675 85,045 72, 753 67,522 41,602 CO. 4 11.2 7.4 4.8 3.3 1.9 1.7 1.6 .9 3, 465, 187 609, 101 335, 219 253, 667 152, 708 84, 421 116, 149 104, 702 63, 331 62.4 10.8 5.9 4.5 2.7 1.6 2.0 1.8 .9 6, 873, 552 535, 345 752, 028 662, 331 395, 685 276, 326 197, 748 163, 556 160, 558 115, 088 913, 720 62.3 4.8 6.8 5.9 3.5 2.5 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.0 8.3 10,993,111 810, 800 952, 682 1,625,521 520, 847 420, 880 363, 200 358, 415 628, 493 439, 609 1,773,674 58.5 4.2 5.1 8.3 2.7 2.2 1.9 1.8 3.3 2.3 9.5 Per cent. 311 68 200 693 275 395 399 430 1,410 Italy Japan 293, 466 6.8 420, 690 7.5 504 Total 4,328,193 ! 100.00 5, 595, 175 100.0 11, 045, 937 100.0 18,887,132 100.00 336 Atlantic coast Pacific ci inst 165,280 20,451 ' 141,145 1 20,010 j 129, 961 57, 144 227, 731 131,953 38 545 The world's seagoing steam tonnage has grown from 4,328,193 gross tons to 18,887,132 gross tons, an increase of 336 per cent, during the twenty-five years. Our seagoing steam tonnage, however, has risen only 68 per cent, the percentage of increase being only one-third that of France, the nation next above us who are the lowest on the list. While we have been raising our maritime steam tonnage from 483,040 gross tons in 1874 to 810,800 in 1899, Great Britain has lifted her figures from 2,624,431 gross tons to 10,993,111, an increase of 311 per cent over a tonnage that had already reached large proportions at the beginning of the period. With the causes of our decline in the ocean-carrying trade we are not here concerned. It is evident that the decline in our seagoing sail tonnage presents no exception to the tendency of all countries to sub- stitute steam for sails. Should our maritime sail tonnage decline only 40 per cent during the coming twenty-five years, it will be reduced to 771,515 gross tons; but there are strong reasons for thinking that the substitution of the engine for the sail will proceed more rapidly in the future than it has in the past. As the sailing vessels wear out they will be replaced by steamers. The American merchant marine engaged in the foreign trade has declined to small proportions, but there is no doubt that economic and political conditions favorable to the restora- tion of our carrying trade are rapidly developing, and that our new marine must almost certainly consist of steamships. The statistics of the tonnage of sailing vessels and steamers constructed in the United 362 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. States during the five years from 1894 to 1899 tend to confirm this view. During these five years 296,933 gross tons of sailing vessels were built in American yards and 570,831 tons of steamers. The figures, moreover, include the vessels built for the fleet on the Great Lakes, and this fleet consists partly of schooner-rigged barges that are class- ified as sailing vessels, although the} r are practically always towed. In the future construction of ocean-going vessels it is probable that we shall do as we have done in constructing our lake fleet, and substi- tute steamers for sailing vessels. The gross tonnage of the vessels on the Great Lakes in 1875, 1880, 1890, and 1899 (not including canal boats and small barges), is shown by the following table, which also indicates the division of the tonnage between sailing vessels and steamers : Numbt r and gross tonnage of sailing vessels and steamers on the Great Lakes, 1875, 18S0, 1890, and 1899. Year. Sailing. Steam. Number. Tons. Number. Tons. 1875 1,710 1 , 459 1,272 874 339, 787 304,933 328,656 318, 175 891 202. 307 1880 931 '21 2, 045 1890 . 1,527 652,923 ] 899 . 1,732 1.014. 501 The steam tonnage of the lakes grew from 203,29s tons in 1879 to 1,011,561 tons in 1899, a foretold increase in twenty years. The sail- ing vessels, although they have decreased in number, have apparently not declined in tonnage. This is more apparent than real because, as was stated above, a part of the tonnage, classified as sailing, consists of schooner-rigged barges. The sailing vessel has ceased to be an important factor on the Great Lakes. It may probably be assumed that the canal across the Isthmus will have been completed and put in operation by 1911; according to the foregoing facts, what will then be the position of the sailing vessel in our maritime fleet? If the rate of change from sail to steam that has taken place during the ten years from L889 to 1899 should simply be continued, our seagoing sail tonnage will have declined to about 650,000 gross tons by 1911, and our seagoing steam tonnage will have grown to about I, Hoi), 000 gross tons. But the increase in our sea- going steam tonnage will undoubtedly be much more rapid during the coming fifteen years than it has been during the past decade and a half. During the fifteen years from 1884 to L899 the steam tonnage on the Great Lakes increased 214 per cent. If the seagoing steam tonnage of the United States in 189!), 810,800 gross tons, should increase by a like percentage during fifteen years, it would amount to 2,546,000 gross tons in 1914. The assumption of such a growth as this in our seagoing steam tonnage during the first decade and a half of the twentieth century does not seem unwarranted. An estimate would seem to be conservative that placed our sail tonnage at about one-sixth of our total tonnage in 1914. Should the sailing vessel after 1914 continue to give way to the steamer, the Isthmian canal will be used by sailing vessels only to a limited extent. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 363 THE FUTURE USE OF SAILING VESSELS BY SPECIAL CLASSES OF TRAFFIC. There are some kinds of freight, such as coal, lumber, grain, nitrate of soda, and sugar, especially adapted to movement by sail because they are shipped as full vessel cargoes and do not need to be trans- ported rapidly or delivered promptly. Will this traffic continue to find the sailing vessel the more economical carrier? If the sailing vessel is to be used for the carriage of commodities that can be shipped as full cargoes, the prevalent type of vessel will probably be large five and six masted schooners capable of carrying 5,000 or more tons of cargo. Two six-masted schooners have been built on the Maine coast during 1899 and several other large four and five masted sailing vessels have been built during the past two years. One of the two six-masted schooners is 302 feet 11 inches long on the keel and 345 feet long on deck. She has 48 feet 3 inches beam and is 22 feet 6 inches deep; her gross tonnage is 2,974, the net tonnage 2,743, and she will carry a little over 5,000 tons of coal. According to the owner, this vessel "was built expressly for the coal trade, yet she is built so as to go to any part of the world with any kind of cargo." During 1899 and 1900 there was a revival in the business of building sailing vessels, both wooden and steel, caused by the great scarcity of ships, the high ocean freight rates, the high price of steel, and the unusual price of coal in Europe; but this was probably a temporary increase in the construction of sail tonnage. If the sailing vessel is in the future to occupy a prominent place in the ocean marines of the world, it will be because of its special adaptability to the transportation of such commodities as sugar, coal, nitrates, grain, and lumber. The best basis for deductions as to the future is the present practice of the large shippers and carriers of these special commodities. The transportation of nitrates from Chile to Europe and the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is well adapted to the sailing vessel, and it was formerly supposed that the steamer could not compete with the sailing vessel in this traffic; but during the past few years a large part of the nitrate shipments have been made by steamers. It is obvious that the isthmian canal will make it much more difficult for the sailing- vessel to compete with the steamer for this traffic. As regards the transportation of grain and lumber, much the same change seems probable, although the lumber of our west coast is at present all shipped in sailing vessels. If sailing vessels can not advan- tageously use the canal in competition with the steamer — a question that is considered at length in the latter part of this section — the grain and lumber cargoes will certainly be taken by the steamers. The action recently taken by a company of New York business men who have acquired a large tract of timber in the Carolinas is significant in this connection. The lumber gotten out by this company will be shipped from Georgetown, S. C, by two large steamers built especially for his business. Not long since a New York firm operating a large fleet of sailing vessels between the two American seaboards sold out the entire fleet and in 1900 and 1901 put in its place seven steamers which are to ply between New York and Pacific Ocean ports and Hawaiian Islands via the Straits of Magellan. The trade between the North Atlantic countries and Australia has long been considered one that would be held by the sailing vessels 364 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. against steam competition. This was the opinion of Lieutenant Maury. Three or four years ago, however, this business was invaded by steam- ers, which now carry the larger percentage of the traffic. The facts regarding the present division of the trade between the Suez route and the route followed by sailing vessels are especially important in connection with this inquiry. In order to determine the extent and nature of the present competition of sailing vessels with steamers in the trade between Europe and the East, the following table has been compiled from British reports. It gives the tonnage of steam and sailing vessels cleared from British ports for the foreign ports of the East in the years 1893 and 1898. While it does not include the clearances from other North Atlantic countries, it undoubtedly repre- sents the facts for the entire trade, because the major share of the com- merce between the North Atlantic and the East is in the hands of Great Britain. Moreover, this table is to some extent supplemented by fig- ures regarding the sail and steam tonnage employed in the trade from Germany to the East. Tonnage of steam and sailing vessels cleared from British ports for the East in 1S9S and 1898. Deotmaticn of \ issel. Java Borneo and other Dutch pos- sessions in the Indian Sea French possessions in East Africa and Asia and Pacific islands Portuguese East Africa and India Philippine and Ladrone Islands Abyssinia Madagascar Prussia Siam China, exclusive of Hongkong.. Japan Pacific islands Zanzibar Mauritius Aden British possessions in India: Bombay and Scinde Madras Bengal and Burmah Ceylon Straits Settlements Hongkong Australia and New Zealand: West Australia South Australia Victoria New SOUth Wales Queensland Tasmania New Zealand Total Steam and sail combined. 1893. 194, 873 10, 858 3, 357 8,118 32,811 2,743 706 4,047 902 34,027 83, 401 6,351 6,416 34, 920 85, 183 601,895 128,050 523, 569 211,603 297, 574 10, 943 43,692 !:::>, 95:. 148,309 199,200 50, 49(5 31,419 i in, ur.s 3, 026, 486 1898. 182, 582 2, 144 12, 5M) 346, 706 33, 876 6, 948 7,054 4,108 966 71,283 413, 906 10, 573 8,683 71,977 96, 654 485, 711 19, 273 695, 962 116,875 128,546 55, S28 46, 216 50, 353 51,416 73, 2 17 898, 848 96, 366 6, 422 209, 175 3,594,273 Increase in five years. » 12, 291 "8,714 9, 223 338,588 1,065 4,205 6,348 61 64 37, 256 330, 505 4, 222 » 2, 733 37, 057 11,471 '116,184 '108,777 189,268 "83,057 '241,746 35, 273 6,66] » SI, 53'J » 70, 062 194,643 45, 870 » 24, 997 09, 107 567, 787 1893. 164,080 2,034 2, 481 ■l.sc.l 12, 633 85, 183 593, 953 125, 598 426,201 185, 100 267,815 5, 327 22, 559 82,439 97,329 122,658 :;:;, 1 16 29,088 103,711 170, 500 10, 921 11,023 337, 645 30, 680 6,948 2,186 4,108 476 66, 441 389, 900 3,683 55, 706 96, 654 485,711 17, 874 507, 761 106, 916 128,546 46,815 26, 148 26,041 9,721 9, 328 293, 952 67,017 176, 500 Increase in five •years. 6, 420 8,887 • 2, 867 329, 988 » 666 4,205 2, 1S6 1 , 627 476 35.S51 815, 256 •1,178 43, 073 11,471 '108,242 '107, 724 »56,6 .1 '221,0311 20,821 :;, (82 »72, 7 is • 88, ool 171,291 83,871 •29, 088 72. 756 2,527,729 I 3,089,801 562,072 . Decrease. From the foregoing table it appears that the total clearances, steam and sail, from British ports for the East increased 567,781 tons during the five years from 1893 to 1898, and that nearly all of this increase was in steam tonnage, the growth in the tonnage of steam vessels REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 365 being 562,072 tons, or all but 5,716 tons of the total increase. By making the proper subtractions, the sail tonnage for 1893 is found to be 498,757 tons; and for 1898, 504,172 tons. The facts, then, are that the sailing tonnage has remained practically stationary, while the steam tonnage has considerably increased. The sail tonnage has not fallen off absolutely, but has relatively declined. In 1893 the sail tonnage, constituted 16.1 per cent of the total steam and sail, whereas in 1898 the sail tonnage constituted only 11 per cent of the total, the decline having been nearly 2£ per cent in five years. The clearances from Great Britain to certain special ports in the East present figures quite as significant as the totals referred to above. The commerce entering Eastern Africa by way of the Portuguese pos- sessions represents a comparatively new trade. In 1893 the trade was ver}^ small, but in 1898 it had grown to large proportions. It is inter- esting to note that practically all of this new tonnage consisted of steamers. Japan presents a similar showing. The recent rapid growth of the trade of Great Britain with Japan has brought into service a large amount of steam tonnage and but a very small number of sailing vessels. The figures for Bengal and Burmah also show that nearly all of the large increase in the clearances from Great Britain to those countries has consisted of steam tonnage. The same statement applies to New South Wales. In the case of New Zealand the increase in the steam tonnage during the five years under consideration has been larger than the total increase in steam and sail tonnage combined. This indicates a falling off in the use of sailing vessels. In the trade from Germany to the Far East the change from sail to steam tonnage is taking place very rapidly. German trade directly with the East has largely increased during the past decade, and this new traffic has brought steamers, and not sailing vessels, into use. The following figures taken from the German report indicates this, and also show that sail tonnage has fallen off. In 1890 there cleared from German ports for British India and the islands of the Indian Ocean sail tonnage, 76,000 net tons; steam tonnage, 219,000 tons. In 1897 the figures were: For sail 55,000. and for steam 319,000. That is to say, during those seven years the tonnage of sailing vessels cleared from Germany for British India and the islands of the Indian Ocean decreased 21,000 tons, while steam tonnage increased 100,000 tons. In 1890 there cleared from Germany for China sailing vessels with a net tonnage of 9,000, and steamers with a tonnage of 70,000. In 1897 no sailing vessels cleared for China, but the tonnage of steamers had grown to 110,000 net tons. MERITS OF THE STEAMER AND SAILING VESSEL COMPARED. The special advantages of the sailing vessel are that its motor power costs nothing and that it requires a smaller crew of men than is neces- sary for a steamer of the same size. The British reports show that a typical sailing vessel of 2,381 net tons is manned by a crew of 34 men, 22 of whom are seamen. A steam vessel of nearly the same tonnage, 2,315 tons net, has a crew of 38 men, of whom 11 are seamen and 17 are engineers, firemen, and coal passers. Taking the total British merchant marine, the number of men was 15.8 in 1898 per 1,000 net tons on British sailing vessels, while on the steam vessel the number of men was 22 per 1,000 tons. 366 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In the foreign trade of Great Britain the number of persons employed on sailing-vessels for each ton net register was, in 1880, 2.32; 1890, 1.96; 1898, 1.(55. On steam vessels the number emploved for 100 tons net register was, in 1880, 2.95; 1890, 2.73; 1898, 2.32. These figures are sufficient to show that steamers require more men than sailing vessels for an equal amount of tonnage. In large, slow-going steam vessels the number of men required is relative^ small and may, indeed, not exceed 1 man per 100 tons net register, but it is equally true that a large schooner requires a very small crew of men — even smaller than is needed by the large, modern, slow freight steamer. There seems, moreover, to be but a small difference in the size of crews required by the more recently constructed steamers and sailing vessels of equal capacity. A steamer of 3,000 tons dead-weight cargo capacit} T (which would be a small steamer) and a sailing vessel of equal capacity (which would be a relatively large sailing ship) would each have a crew of 23 or 21 men. The sailing vessel's crew, however, would include a larger number of unskilled laborers — seamen — than would the steamer, and the sailing vessel's expenses for labor would be somewhat lower than the steamer's. The disadvantages of the sailing vessel are its slow speed, its depend- ence upon the winds and currents, and the consequent uncertainty as to the time of delivering the cargo assigned to it. The superiority oi the steamer consists in its speed and its ability to assure the delivery of its freight at a stipulated time unless violent storms are encountered. The disadvantages of the steamer are the cost of coal, the large amount of space taken up by the coal bunkers and machinery — one-fourth to one-third of the huil capacity — and the somewhat larger crew ordi- narily required. As regards the cost of coal, mechanical improvements have done a great deal to lessen the steamer's handicap. Some of these new steamers for the trade between our two seaboards will cany 10,000 dead-weight tons, besides 2,500 tons of coal. They have quadruple expansion engines, with boiler pressure of 210 pounds to the square inch. These vessels will consume 40 tons of coal per day, running at 9 knots per hour. It is planned now that in making the trip via the Straits of Magellan they will coal only at Coroncl, Chile. The con- sumption of coal between New York and San Francisco via the canal will be about 1,000 tons each way. This will make the consumption 224 'pounds per ton of freight each one-way trip. Assuming the price of coal free on board vessels in Atlantic ports to be $2.50 per ton of 2,240 pounds, it would take one-tenth of a ton of coal, costing 25 cents, to transport one ton of cargo between New York and San Francisco. The data presented in the foregoing paragraphs do not fully demon- strate the inability of the sailing vessel to compete with the steamer in the future for the transportation of special classes of commodities, but the evidence strongly indicates that result, That the sailing ves- sel will continue to be used for some time to come, especially by the people of the United States, seems probable, but our use of the sailing vessel, however, will be restricted mainly to two classes of service. One of these two fields of usefulness will be that part of our coasting trade that can not readily be so organized as to be performed by regular lines of steamers. The other use to which we shall continue to put the sailing vessel will be that of performing the irregular or skirmish work of international trade. There is at the present time an REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 367 irregular trade developing between the United States and several parts of South America such, for instance, as that being carried on between the Gulf ports and the River Plata. In the earlier stages of the development of such a traffic the sailing vessel is a convenient agent; but when the trade becomes larger and the exchange of commodities between the two sections becomes regular and continuous, a line of steamers will be established, and most of the sailing vessels will Vie obliged to withdraw from the business. The withdrawal of sailing vessels from the trade between the United States and the Orient and the substitution of steamers for the greater part of the traffic between our two seaboards are instances of the substitution of the steamer for the sailing vessel when the amount of business to be done had become regular and large in volume. WOULD SAILING VESSELS USE A CANAL AT PANAMA OK ACROSS NICARAGUA? It does not seem probable that coal, lumber, grain, nitrates, and sugar — commodities that will make up a large share of the canal's traffic — will in the future be carried to a large extent in sailing vessels. Nevertheless, the sailing vessel will be a carrier of some importance when the canal is opened, and possibl} T for a score of years thereafter. Such being the case, the relative advantages of the Panama and Nicaragua routes for sailing vessels should be compared. The extent to which sailing vessels will use an isthmian waterway will depend upon the actual saving in time which a sailing vessel could make by using the canal instead of the Cape route, and upon whether sailing vessels can compete with steamers, both using the canal route. In the year 1866 Lieut. M. F. Maury, in a letter written to a friend, made the following statement: The result of my investigations into the winds and currents of the sea and their influence upon the routes of commerce authorize the opinion which I have expressed before and which I repeat, namely, if nature, by one of her convulsions, should rend the continent of America in twain and make a channel across the Isthmus of Pan- ama or Darien as deep, as wide, and as free as the Straits of Dover it would never become a commercial thoroughfare for sailing vessels, saving the outward bound and those that could reach it with leading winds. * * * You will observe at a glance that the Isthmus of Panama or Darien is, on account of these winds and calms, in a purely commercial point of view, the most out-of-the-way place of any part of the Pacific coast of intertropical America. Those persons who have endeavored to prove that the Panama route could not be used by sailing vessels have quoted the foregoing state- ments of Lieutenant Maury and have interpreted his statements to mean that no sailing vessel w T ould or could make use of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. It is well, however, to note the exception which Lieutenant Mauiy makes at the close of his general statement. He says the Panama route "would never become a commercial thor- oughfare for sailing vessels, saving the outward bound and those that could reach it with leading winds " In view of this, limiting clause, it would seem that Lieutenant Maury thought sailing vessels outward bound from Europe or from any North Atlantic port to the Pacific might pass through a Panama canal. His statement would also indi- cate him to think that vessels bound from the west coast of the United States for the Atlantic might pass through a Panama canal during the winter months, when the winds and currents are favorable for vessels sailing southward toward Panama. When we consider that the larger 368 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. part of the Pacific coast grain would be exported during the later autumn and winter months and that a large part of the lumber from the Pacific coast of North America might be shipped during the win- ter half of the year, we must conclude that Lieutenant Maury's apparently strong statement does not preclude the possibility of a con- siderable traffic in sailing vessels through that waterway. Hydrographers, ship brokers, and sailing masters generally disbe- lieve in the practicability of the use of a Panama canal by sailing ves- sels. There is no doubt that sailing vessels can enter and clear the Bay of Panama — they now do so to a limited extent — nor would it be impossible for a sailing vessel to make use of a Panama canal; but there is little reason to think that the sailing ship would, under the conditions of competition that will prevail after the waterway has been opened, pass from one ocean to the other in any considerable numbers. It perhaps ought to be stated in this connection that sailing vessels bound from Panama either to the north, south, or west arc obliged to work their way southward and westward to the Galapagos Islands, and usually some distance west of that group, before getting the winds and currents that will take them to their destination. Vessels bound from Panama to San Francisco are advised by Maury's sailing direc- tions to work their way down the Colombia coast, and during the months from June to January, inclusive, to change their course about latitude 2° north, standing off the coast to the westward, passing north of the Galapagos Islands. From February to June, inclusive, it is better for the vessel to work southward across the equator before turning to the west. The course toward the west is maintained until the one hundredth meridian is passed, and then the vessel may "edge away for Cipperton Rock (10° 18' N. and 109° 10' W.), after passing which they may push to the northward for the northern trades." Before Maury worked out these sailing directions, as the result of his study of winds and currents, sailing vessels consumed 90 days, on an average, in sailing from Panama to San Francisco by the direct route. According to the geographer Berghaus, the average 1 time taken to make the voyage by Maury's route is 37 days. The distance by the circuitous route is somewhat more than 5,000 nautical miles. The direct route, the one followed by steamers, is nearly 2,000 knots shorter than the one taken by sailing vessels. A most careful study of the conditions affecting the use of the Pan- ama and Nicaragua routes by sailing vessels was made by Lieut. Frederick Collins, U. S. Navy, in L872. He studied the winds and currents prevailing at different seasons of the year in each part of that section of the ocean that would be traversed by sailing vessels plying between Panama, Nicaragua, and other Pacific ports, and then estimated the number of days that it would, on an average, take a sailing vessel to make the voyage between the two isthmian ports and other Pacific harbors. The general conclusion to which he came in regard to the navigation of the Bay of Panama was that "no great difficulty need be experienced in getting from the vicinity of the Bay of Panama to where good winds might be found. * * * A careful computation gave only 10 days ;is the average time that would be consumed in get- ting a sufficient offing to secure good winds, provided the correct route was pursued." The route considered correct by Lieutenant Collins was the one adopted by Lieutenant Maury, to which reference was made above. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 369 The distances which Lieutenant Collins calculated sailing vessels would have to travel in proceeding from Panama and from Brito to reach San Francisco, and the number of days which each of these trips would require, are indicated by the following table: Miles. Panama to San Francisco 5, 350 Nicaragua to San Francisco 3, 240 Days. 1 Difference in favor of Nicaragua 2, 110 The table makes the time required for a sailing vessel to reach San Francisco to be 14 days less when the trip begins at Brito than when it begins at Panama. The distances and time required for the return trip from San Francisco to Panama and Brito are indicated by the following table: JMiles. Days. October to April: 3,600 3,000 26 22 600 4 April to October: 4,000 3,400 31 26 600 5 According to the calculations of Lieutenant Collins, the time re- quired for a sailing vessel to make a round trip from Nicaragua to San Francisco would be nineteen days less than for a round-trip voy- age between Panama and San Francisco. These figures would seem to indicate that if either route is available for sailing vessels, the Nica- ragua route would possess decided advantages over the one at Panama. However, other authorities differ from Lieutenant Collins as to some of these conclusions. The figures given for the length of the average vo} 7 age from Nicaragua to San Francisco is 3,240 nautical miles. This seems too short; indeed, the United States Hydrographic Office esti- mates the distance to be 4,500 miles. . The great-circle distance, or the length of the route followed by full-powered steamers, is 2,700 miles. Furthermore, experienced navigators assert that a vessel bound for Brito must beat up and down the coast or go far to the westward; and that, although the Nicaragua route is more advantageous than the one from Panama for sailing vessels, it is nevertheless necessar}^ for ves- sels to make a long detour from a direct course. The distance for steamers from Panama to San Francisco being 3,277 nautical miles, a 9-knot steam freighter would make the run in 15 days, a 10-knot ship in 13.6 da} T s, and a vessel of 12 knots in 11.3 days. These figures are to be contrasted with 37 days, the average time required by the sailing vessel. From Brito to San Francisco the distance for steamers is 2.700 nautical miles. To make this run a 9-knot freighter would require 12^ days, a 10-knot ship Hi days, and a 12-knot vessel 9§ days. Lieutenant Collins madie the time by sail S. Doc. 54, pt 2 24 370 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. between Nicaragua and San Francisco vary from 22 to 26 days, but, for reasons just stated, his calculations underestimate (possibly by about 5 days ) the time that would actually be required. SATING TO SAILING VESSELS BY USE OF ISTHMIAN CANAL INSTEAD OF CAPE ROUTE. Concerning the time required to make the voyage by sailing vessel from New York to San Francisco, abundant information is obtainable from the logs of the many sailing vessels that are now navigated between those two ports. A New York firm operating sailing vessels from New York to San Francisco has reported the time taken by eleven different sailing vessels that made the trip during the year 1898. The average time for these vessels was 138 da} T s, the range being from 113 to 151 days. Another New York firm doing a large business with the Pacific coast has given the time required by seven sailing vessels whose voyages were made at different seasons of the year. The time taken ranges from 118 to 169 days, the average for the seven being 139 days. Both of these firms report that they consider 110 days to be a fair average for the west-bound passage. For the return trip from San Francisco to New York the time taken is somewhat less, and is said to average from 110 to 115 days. In order to arrive at the time a sailing vessel woidd require to make the trip from New York to San Francisco by way of an isthmian canal, it is necessary to add the time that would be taken for the voyage from New York to the Isthmus, the time that would be required for making the transit through the canal, and the number of days neces- sary for reaching San Francisco after leaving the Isthmus. When Commander, now Rear-Admiral, Selfridge gave Lieutenant Collins instructions to investigate and report upon the time it would take sail- ing vessels to make a voyage between the Isthmus of Panama and various Pacific ports, he said: In composing the table you will allow an average of twenty days to and from the United States and the mouth of the Atrato; thirty days from the English Channel to the . same point, and forty days homeward to Europe. It would take a sailing vessel practicall} T the same time to reach Panama or Grey town that it would to reach the mouth of the Atrato. On the basis of the averages accepted by Admiral Selfridge for the Atlantic part of the voyage, and by Lieutenant Collins for the Pacific portion of the trip, a vessel would be twenty (lavs from New York to the Isthmus, thirty-eight days from Panama to San Francisco, a total of fifty-eight days, to which should he added one day for the passage of a Panama canal. Lieutenant Collins estimated twenty-three days as the time required by a sailing vessel to reach San Francisco from P>rito. For reasons that have already been stated, this estimate seems to be too small. If twenty-eight days he accepted as a fair estimate of the sailing time required between Brito and San Francisco, the time required for a sailing vessel from New York to San Francisco would he twenty days for (he Atlantic part <>f the trip from New York to Greytown, two days for the passage through tin 1 canal, and twenty-eight days from Brito to San Francisco, a total of fifty days. The probable time required by sailing vessels to make the trip from New York to San Francisco by way of the Cape and through the two Canals Would then he as follows: For the Cape route one hundred ami forty days; for the Panama REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 37l route fifty-nine days, and for the Nicaragua route fifty days. Accord- ing- to those figures, a sailing- vessel could save on an average eighty- one days by using a Panama canal instead of making the trip around the Cape, and ninety days by using the Nicaragua canal instead of the present route. The cast-bound trip from San Francisco to New York can, on account- of the more favorable winds in the Southern Hemisphere, bo made in a shorter time than is required for the west-bound trip. One hundred and fifteen days can probably be assumed as a fair average for the trip from San 1 rancisco to New York around the Horn. Lieutenant Collins esti- mated that a vessel would on an average require twenty-six days from San Francisco to Panama during the winter months, and thirty-one days during the summer months. On the basis of these estimates the time required for a sailing vessel to make a voyage from New York to San Francisco by way of a Panama canal would be forty-seven days during the winter months and fifty-two days during the summer season. Thai, is to say, a general average of about fifty days for the year as a whole. The time estimated by Lieutenant Collins for a sailing vessel starting from San Francisco to reach Nicaragua was twenty-two days in the win- ter months and twenty-six days in the summer season. This would make the time from San Francisco to New York forty-four days for half of the year and forty-eight days for the other half, or an average for the year of forty-six days. In view of the uncertainties attending the navigation of the Pacific Ocean near the American coast, where sailing vessels are obliged to beat for a considerable part of the distance, it would seem conservative to add five days to each of the foregoing averages and assume fifty-five days for the trip by way of Panama and fifty-one davs for the voyao-e by the Nicaragua route. Assuming that one hundred and fifteen days is the average time required for a vessel to make the east-bound trip around Cape Horn, the Panama route would enable the vessel to save sixty days and the Nicaragua Canal sixty-four days. Vessel owners report that $75 per day will cover all the expenses of operating a sailing vessel of 2,000 tons net (including wages, interest, repairs, insurance, and all other items of expense). The foregoing reduction in length of voyage would effect the following net saving in the cost of moving a cargo of freight by such a sailing vessel between New York and San Francisco, which may be taken as typical Atlantic and Pacific ports. A sailing vessel bound from New York to San Francisco could save eighty-one days by way of the Panama route, which would be equivalent, at the rate of $75 per day, to a saving of $6,075. If we assume a toll of $1 per net ton and a towage cost of $450 for a Panama canal, the saving effected by the vessel would be as follows: Eighty-one days, at $75 per day $6 075 Toll at $1 per ton ' $2 000 ' Towage '///."'."'.['.'/.'.'.."'. "'450 2, 450 Net saving _ 8> 625 For the Nicaragua canal the account would stand as follows: Ninety days, at $75 per day $ 6j750 Towage 600 — 2, 600 Net saving 4 j^q 372 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The towage costs adopted in the foregoing estimates are on the basis of a charge of 30 cents per net register ton for towage through a Nicaragua canal and 22? cents per net register ton for a Panama canal. In order to secure a reliable estimate of the probable cost of securing towage through each of the proposed canals, a score of large towboat companies were requested to submit an estimate of the charges that would need to be made for the service of towing. The letter request- ing the information stated that — The total length of a canal at Nicaragua would lie about 11*0 miles. Of this distance about 70 miles will consist of excavated channel, about 50 miles of improved river navigation, and about 70 miles of lake. And— The distance from anchorage at Colon to anchorage at Panama is about 47 miles, only a short distance being open for navigation. It is also probable that sailing ves- sels would usually desire to be towed about 100 miles from Panama out to sea, and in making your estimate of the cost of towage for the Panama Canal we should be pleased to have you give both the cost of towage between Colon and Panama and the cost of towing 100 miles on the Bay of Panama. The replies received in response to this request varied so largely that they did not furnish the basis for so close an estimate as it was hoped might be made. The estimate adopted was one of those mid- way between the higher and lower extremes, and one submitted by a well-informed gentleman who was known to have given the question careful consideration. His estimate of the cost of towing loaded sail- ing vessels through a Nicaragua canal was 30 cents per net ton register, and for towing loaded ships through a Panama canal and 100 miles to sea — 147 miles altogether — was 22^ cents per net ton register. Provision was made in the Panama estimate for towing vessels 100 miles out to sea, because it was believed that a sailing ship would ordi- narily save more than enough in the time of getting to sea to pay the additional charges. Indeed, it is probable that a tow of several hun- dred miles would at times be found profitable. The foregoing estimates of the savings possible for a sailing vessel to effect by using a Panama of a Nicaragua canal instead of the Horn route do not take into consideration the saving in insurance that would be effected by the reduction in insurance charges that would result from the use of an Isthmian instead of a Cape route. This reduction would bo about 50 per cent of the existing insurance charges, and would be the same for each of the two routes. The foregoing calculations, it may be well to repeat, are based upon the estimated saving which a sailing vessel could ordinarily make by the use of each of the proposed waterways. It is well known that sailing vessels require very different times for making the run between the same ports. The foregoing estimates are intended only to repre- sent the average savings possible. Among I lie genera] deductions that seem warranted by the facts set forth in the preceding pages are the following: 1. A canal across Nicaragua would enable a sailing vessel to accom- plish a greater net saving over tin 1 expenses of the present route around the Horn than could be effected by using ;l Panama canal. The differ- ence in the advantages of the two routes for sailing vessels, while not large, is sufficient to be made a factor of some importance in deciding which route should be adopted were it probable that either route would be largely used by sailing ships. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 373 2. Neither the Nicaragua Canal nor the one across the Isthmus of Panama would be much used by sailing vessels. The unmistakable tendency of commerce is to use steamers instead of sailing vessels for all classes of traffic. The sailing vessel would compete with the steamer for the traffic through either of the canals under conditions so unf avoid- able as to make practically certain the general substitution of the. steamer for the sailing vessel for all lines of trade through the isth- mian waterway. The consideration of the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes from the standpoint of their relative usefulness as commercial highwa} T s becomes mainly a question of determining which is the more advan- tageous route for the steamers engaged in the maritime commerce of the United States in particular and of the world in general. Chapter X. — The canal and tJie traffic of American railways. There are several ways in which the isthmian canal may affect the traffic of the railwa3 r s serving the different sections of the United States. The canal will introduce a new and competing route for traffic between our two seaboards and between the eastern half of the United States and Pacific foreign countries. There may result from this one or all of four consequences: 1. The railwa} r lines competing with the new water route ma} 7 reduce their rates, and thus be able to hold their traffic against the new com- petitor. Should this be the result, the effect of the canal upon the freight of the railroads might be small; their rates would be reduced, but the traffic secured by the water route would consist of new busi- ness developed because of the water route, instead of traffic diverted from the other transportation lines. 2. The waterway may divert from the railway lines a greater or less share of their through business. Should this be the result of the waterway, the railways will be obliged to secure a compensating amount of new business or suffer a shrinkage in their traffic as the result of the competition of the waterway. 3. The canal may bring new business to the railways by making them collectors and distributors of the commodities carried between our eastern and western seaboards by the way of the Isthmus. In our country of great distances and of diversified industrial activities, gen- erally distributed throughout our wide territory, the origin and desti- nation of but a small portion of the water-borne commerce of the United States can be at seaboard points. The collection and distribu- tion of commodities for traffic by water is and must remain mainly the work of the railwa} T line. The major part of the traffic of the canal must be rail traffic previous to or subsequent to being handled by the ocean vessels. 4. The canal may make possible the establishment of new industries along the railway lines or cause an expansion of activity in the busi- ness of existing plants, and thus add to the local traffic of the railways. In general, whatever facilitates commerce establishes the most impor- tant prerequisite to industrial development. The traffic whose routes may be modified by the opening of the interoceanic waterway is: 1. That originating and terminating at or near the seaboard points of our eastern and western coasts. The traffic between the territory 374 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. east of Buffalo and Pittsburg and that west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountain ranges will be most directly subject to the influ- ence of the new waterway. 2. The trade of the central section of the United States with our Pacific slope and with foreign Pacific countries will, after the canal has been opened, be able to leave or enter the United States either by an Atlantic, a Gulf, or a Pacific port. If it passes in and out by an Atlantic or Gulf gateway, it will be canal traffic; if by a Pacific port, it will not. CONCERNING THE STATISTICS OF TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILWAY TRAFFIC. Statistics are not kept of the traffic which the railways now carry between the Atlantic and Pacific sections of the United States and between the Pacific and central parts of the country — the rail traffic that would be subject to canal competition were the waterway now in use. Some years ago the transcontinental freight bureau, whose offices are in San Francisco, compiled figures of the through business of the transcontinental lines, but the chief of that bureau reports: This office has compiled no statistics whatever for several years past, neither have they been furnished with any reports of the movements of business. The managing editor of Poor's Manual of Railways says: This matter [the statistics of transcontinental railway traffic] has been the subject of inquiry for some time, and without any result. The officials of the Pacific railways who were conferred with in regard to the volume of business that would be affected by the canal were unable to supply the information. The traffic manager of one of tin 1 lines reported : So fur as our line is concerned, would say that we have virtually discontinued com- piling statistics of this nature, finding after many years' experience that the expense incurred in compiling these figures was unwarranted. One of the Pacific railway companies furnished the Canal Commis- sion with a statement of the tonnage east and west bound for each of the important commodities comprising its total through traffic. By through traffic was meant that originating anywhere on the lines of the company and turned over by the company to some connecting rail- road; also the freight received from some connecting road and carried to sonic point along its own system of lines. This classified statement comprises a total of nearly 2,000,000 tons of freight and gives an interesting expose of the nature and volume of business being done by this important Pacific railway system. The figures, however, reveal but little information concerning what portion of this total traffic would be subject to canal competition were the isthmian waterway now in existence. While information concerning the present volume of traffic of the Pacific railroads that would be subject to the competition of an isth- mian canal were the waterway now open would be interesting and possess some value, it would not throw very much light upon the man- ner in which the business of the transcontinental railways will be affected some ten or fifteen years hence by the competition of an inter- oceanic canal. Between now and the opening of the canal the position of the railways as carriers will have become stronger, and. whatever their business may be at the time of the completion of the waterway, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 375 their policy with reference to the retention and development of their business will doubtless be much modified by the inauguration of water competition by the new route. NATURE OF THE COMPETITION OF THE CANAL WITH THE RAILWAYS. In addition to finding it impracticable to determine the amount of railway business that would be subject to competition by a canal were it in existence at the present time, it has likewise been impossible to draw a sharp line between the classes of commodities that would be liable to move by water and those that will move by rail after both agencies have become available to the shipper. An intelligent rail- way official replied in response to the question: What kinds of traffic would be diverted from the railways to the canal? — All kinds of traffic would be diverted except that which is perishable or which demanded dispatch, unless the railroads met the competition of the canal by a reduc- tion in rates. Similar opinions were expressed by several other railway officials who were conferred with. It seems probable that the competition of the canal route will not be confined entirely to the bulkier commodities of comparatively low value per unit of weight or bulk articles universally recognized to be especialty adapted to water transportation, but that the isthmian route will be available for the shipment of practically all articles except those whose perishable nature or whose unusually high value demand a quick service and a prompt delivery. The distance between our two seaboards by the isthmian canal will be about 5,000 nautical miles and the time required to make the run will be about three weeks for the slow freight steamers of 10 knots an hour, and about two weeks for the 15-knot vessel. The ordinary freight service of the railroads will be only a few days' shorter than the service by the faster steamers using the water route. At the present time the American Hawaiian Steamship Company, which is running steamers between New York and San Francisco through the Straits of Magellan, is carrying a large variety of com- modities. The time required for the passage between the two sea- boards by this route is from sixty to sixty-three days, but even this length of time does not restrict the freight to a limited number of articles. On the other hand, the practice of a New York firm that manufac- tures a large quantity of structural steel and iron work for buildings and bridges and all classes of ornamental steel and iron shows that heavy freight must frequently be shipped by the quickest route. The firm states: It costs about $8 per ton to ship from New York to the Hawaiian Islands around the Horn, $12 per ton to send the freight by way of Panama and San Francisco to Honolulu, and about $19 per ton to ship across the United States by rail to San Fran- cisco or Vancouver and thence to Honolulu. The first way of shipping takes about four to five months; the second way of shipping about three months, and the third way of shipping takes at least two months. The element of time very often enters into the question of whether it is possible to build buildings in the time for the requirements, and often parties are compelled to ship by the most expensive lines in order to gain time. In fact, probably seven or eight thousand tons of materials will be shipped by us in this season via the transcontinental lines, and only two or three thousand tons around the Horn. 376 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. When the canal has been opened the railways will not permit their traffic to be taken away from them if they can hold it, and they will unquestionably so adjust their business as to retain the maximum amount of business. It is the belief of many railway officials that they will be able to hold most of their traffic against water competi- tion. Whether that is so or not is not just now under consideration, the present purpose being- to illustrate the nature and extent of the competition that the opening- of the canal will inaugurate. The com- petition will be keen and will not be restricted to a limited number of commodities. THE CANAL AND THE TRAFFIC OF THE ATLANTIC ROADS. From the nature of the subject under discussion the treatment can not be statistical. The only bases upon which rest conclusions are theoretical analysis and the opinions of traffic experts. The main pur- pose of the following pages will be to present impartially the views of transportation experts whose opinions are worthy of consideration. Several officials of the Atlantic lines were asked the following question: "Will the canal promote the commerce and industries of the Atlantic slope in such a way as to give the railway lines to the Atlantic a larger traffic in coal, iron and steel manufactures, machinery, and other commodities '. " Two traffic managers of the Atlantic railroad handling the largest volume of freight expressed the opinion that the opening of the canal by giving American manufactures readier access to western South America and the Far East would largely increase the exports of manu- factured commodities. The major share of the manufacturing done in the United States is carried on within the territory of the lines lead- ing to the North Atlantic ports; and those roads, accordingly, expect to secure a greater volume of traffic when the canal has become available. It was said that the amount of freight that now moves from seaboard to seaboard by rail is comparatively small; consequently the trunk lines to the Atlantic will receive more than they will lose from the operation of the isthmian waterway. Much the same view was ex- pressed by a traffic manager of one of the Pacific railways. Some railway officials, particularly those whose roads lead to the Gulf ports, believe that one effect of the canal on the railway traffic in the United States will be to divert a considerable share of the busi- ness at present done through the Atlantic ports to the cities situated on the Gulf. This view, however, seems not be shared by the officials of the North Atlantic trunk lines, for the reason that the railway lines to the Atlantic are shorter from points east of Chicago and north of Kentucky and Virginia than those to the Gulf are, and for the reason that the ocean rates from Atlantic ports to the Pacific coast of the United Slates and (he foreign Pacific countries will be practically the ^aniens those from Gulf ports. Officials of the Atlantic lines were also asked whether "one result of the canal will be to cause a larger share of total imports of the United States to enter the country through the Gulf ports; 1 ' and whether "the canal will divert to the Gulf gateways imports that would otherwise enter through the Atlantic ports." The opinion seemed to be that the Atlantic lines will be able to retain their present strong position in the import traffic, in competition with the Gulf lines, partly because most of the export business will continue to be handled REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 377 at the Atlantic. Both the Atlantic and Gulf roads load light from the seaboard to interior points, the heavier volume of traffic being out- bound. The North Atlantic ports have a much larger ship tonnage at their service than the Gulf cities now have or will secure. The North- eastern section of the United States being the most important manu- facturing region will continue to be the chief importing section. Thus, while it was believed that the imports by way of the Gulf cities will probably be larger after the canal has been constructed than they can be before that event, it was not thought that this larger trade would be secured by drawing traffic away from the North Atlantic cities and to the railroads serving them. Another question asked the officials of the North Atlantic lines was whether "the roads to the Atlantic will exchange less traffic with the Pacific lines as the result of the canal." The replies indicated that the Atlantic lines did not expect the canal to have the effect of redu- cing the volume of business exchanged between Atlantic lines and Pacitic roads. The railways will not permit their business to be taken away without an effort to retain it, and wherever possible arrangements will be made for transcontinental shipments on through bills of lading to the west coast of the United States and to countries beyond. The present volume of business exchanged between the Atlantic and Pacific roads is comparatively small. It will not be less after the canal has been put into operation. While the officials of the Eastern roads are by no means unanimous in their opinions, the foregoing statement of their opinions is believed to represent fairly their views. THE CANAL AND THE TRAFFIC OF THE GULF ROADS. It seems uncertain how much of the import and export business of the section north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi will be done by way of the Gulf ports; the testimony is not unanimous. Probably some of the trade of this region will be handled by the Gulf ports; and the competition of the Gulf lines will affect the rates on a large share of the business that is handled by the Atlantic roads and ports. The opening of the isthmian canal will give the people of the States north of the Ohio and the Missouri rivers the choice of three routes for their trade with our west coast and Pacitic countries, and the volume of their trade will be a prize for which the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the Pacitic lines may be expected to strive with zeal. There can be little uncertainty as to the general effect of the canal upon the traffic of the railways located in the Southern and South- western States. The railways serving the Southern States will have the same measure of benefits that may come to the industries and trade of the region. The canal can take no business away from the South or the Southern railways. It can only increase existing railwa}^ busi- ness and draw new industries and trade to the section. The import business handled by the Gulf lines is small at present, and it will doubtless always remain less than the volume of outbound traffic, although the opening of the canal may be expected to increase the amount of inbound business handled by the Gulf cities. The officials of the Gulf lines who were consulted believe that the canal will cause a moderate though not a large volume of imports to enter through the Gulf cities. 378 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. THE CANAL AND THE TRAFFIC OF THE RAILWAYS OF THE CENTRAL WEST. In that large stretch of country north of the Ohio and Missouri rivers and west of Chicago, that is to say, in the region west of the territory served by the trunk lines to the Atlantic Ocean and north of the States occupied by the railway systems terminating at Gulf ports, there is a network of important railways having a large volume of traffic. Until recently the traffic of these railways in the central West consisted almost exclusively of agricultural products, but the diversification of industries in that part of the United States is now proceeding with great rapidity. There is an immense volume of export business, the major part of which is now handled by the lines leading to the Atlantic Ocean, although latterly the lines to the Gulf have handled a portion of this traffic, and the volume of business handled from the central West b} T the transcontinental railways has grown to considerable dimensions. The imports brought into the central West from foreign countries come mainly by way of the Atlantic gateways. A certain amount of fruit comes through the Gulf cities, and an appreciable volume of oriental goods is brought in by way of Pacific ports. As to the effects of the canal upon the railway traffic in the central West opinions are not unanimous. Manufacturers and most, though not all, railway officials anticipate that the canal will develop a large vol- ume of new business. The views of those railway officials who expect but small results from the canal were well summarized by a prominent official of one of the strongest roads of the central West— a system that ramifies in seven States. He said that inasmuch as the industries of the territory served by this road were chiefly agricultural, no large volume of traffic would ever be exchanged with the agricultural States of our own Pacific slope. This gentleman said that if the canal were to affect the business of railroads situated as his system is, it must be accomplished Ity the creation of manufacturing industries, and it was his opinion that the volume of this kind of business would not and could not become very large. If the canal should divert this now busi- ness from the Pacific roads to the Atlantic trunk lines, or to the roads leading to the Gulf, that result would not affect the roads of the cen- tral West, because this diversion would do little more than to change the direction in which the traffic was hauled by his and similarly situ- ated roads. Believing that the development of manufacture would be limited to small proportions, and that any diversion of traffic would simply change the direction in which the outbound and inbound busi- ness was handled, it was the opinion of this gentleman that the canal could not affect the business of his railway and other similarly situated systems to any large extent. The traffic manager of another equally strong railway system in the central West was of the opinion that an isthmian canal would help build up the Upper Mississippi Valley and be a benefit to the railways of that section. As a general pioof of this proposition he cited the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway as one that was particu- larly subject to water competition, and which was nevertheless one of the most profitable freight roads in the United States. The canal, he said in substance, wdl doubt less take from the railroads some ship- ments they would otherwise secure, but by increasing the total volume REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 379 of business by causing the centers of distribution and manufacturing to grow and multiply, and population to increase, the water route will add to the traffic seeking transportation by the railroads. This gentle- man believes that water competition is a help instead of an injury to the railroad because of the larger industrial development made possi- ble by the cheaper water transportation. He called attention to some of the large wholesale and jobbing houses in St. Louis, and said that the prominence of that city as a wholesale jobbing center was partly due to the cheap transportation from the East by way of the Gulf and the Mississippi River. This official also laid down the proposition that the best conditions for a heavy railway traffic are produced by the existence of a large number of manufacturing and distributing centers. Some railway officials, he said, seem to believe it better for the rail- roads to favor the concentration of business in a few large centers; but such a policy, he said, experience had shown would restrict the possible development of railway traffic within unnecessarily narrow limits. Believing that the canal will develop the territory, diversify and distribute industry, he was of the opinion that the effect of the waterway upon the business of the railway lines situated in the central West would be beneficial. While these views regarding the efficacy of water competition to develop the industries of the interior part of the United States and to increase the traffic of the railways of that part of the country are not shared by all the railway officials that were consulted, the history of transpoitation, the evidence afforded by a study of business conditions in different parts of the United States, and the opinions entertained by the manufacturers and large shippers of commodities tend to substan- tiate th< i accuracy of the position taken by those railway officials who expect their lines to profit rather than suffer injury by the opening of the proposed isthmian canal. No one can visit the great industrial centers of the central West, study the vast resources of the States of that section, and acquaint himself with the activities of the business men without feeling certain that increased transportation facilities are certain to result in a very large expansion of industry. The history of the great central West shows that the measure of its industrial development has always been the measure of its transportation facili- ties. New facilities mean new business; and this is more true to-day than it was twenty-five or even ten years ago. EFFECT OF THE CANAL UPON THE TRAFFIC OF THE PACIFIC RAILWAYS. The railway systems that will feel the competition of the new water route across the Isthmus most severely are those whose lines connect the Mississippi Valley with the Pacific coast. This competition may apply to nearly all kinds of traffic. The only articles wholly exempt will be the perishable fruits and those goods of high value sent by express and as fast freight. The more southerly Pacific lines will feel this competition more keenly than will those situated farther north. The northern lines, moreover, will be able to meet the canal competi- tion more readily than will those farther south, because the territory crossed by the southern roads includes such a wide belt of relatively unproductive country. The northern half of the Cordilleran highland is not only rich in mineral resources, but is also capable of raising considerable quantities of agricultural products. In some parts of 380 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. this region irrigation is necessary and in others not. The southern part of this great highland, however, is capable of but a limited devel- opment. The mineral resources are less extensive. Wherever agri- culture is possible it is dependent upon irrigation, and the irrigable areas are very limited. Thus the northern lines have a territory capable of producing- a much larger amount of local traffic than can be secured by the southern lines from the country across which they are located. Traffic officials of the three southern lines tothe Pacific stated their views with frankness and in some detail. The opinions of these gen- tlemen, however, differ largely. The views of those who believe that the effect of the canal will not be to create business, but that it will compel a large reduction in railway rates without affording compensa- tion to the railroads, were fully stated by an official in charge of the traffic business of one of the Pacific roads. He said in substance: During the early years of the transcontinental railways the traffic from the Atlan- tic section of the United States to the Pacific section was drawn almost entirely from the Atlantic seaboard. Before the railways were built the traffic was all handled by the sea route, and the costs of transportation from the interior to the ocean were such that the traffic was drawn almost entirely from the seaboard cities. The effect of the transcontinental railways has been to cause a large part — three-fourths, it is estimated — of the business carried across the country westward by the transcontinental railways, to originate in and west of Pittsburg. The effect of the canal will be to tend to cause traffic to originate nearer the Atlantic seaboard again, and thus affect deleteri- ously not only the business of the transcontinental railways, but the general indus- tries of the middle section of the United States. The traffic of a canal will consist of all kinds of commodities except those of a per- ishable nature. The competition of the waterway with tin- railway lines will be very severe, but the railways will not permit their traffic to be taken away from them by the canal. The competition will necessitate a reduction in rates — such a reduction as may throw the transcontinental railways into insolvency and require the scaling down of capital. The railways will continue in business, however, after the owners of the property have suffered a great reduction in the value of their holdings. As far as the export trade across the Pacific is concerned, the canal would be an injury to the Pacific coast seaboard, because the export traffic very largely originates in the central and eastern part of the United States. That traffic would he carried directly to the Eastern and South American countries by way <>t' the canal. The establishment of industries along the transcontinental railway lines as a result of the opening of the canal was held to be possible only to a small extent by any of the transcontinental railways south of the Northern Pacific. The Southern roads cross such a long stretch of arid country that general industries can not be developed except relatively near the termini. California and the Pacific coast generally do not constitute a manufacturing section, nor will they become such. Before criticising the remarks contained in the foregoing statements, the views of ;i traffic manager of one other Pacific line may be stated. This traffic manager says that the canal will compel a reduction in rail rates to Pacific terminal points below the charges that would otherwise prevail^ and that the adjustment of charges will probably result in the establishment of blanket or identical rates between Pacific ports and all points in the central and eastern part of the United States. The effect of this will be to take from the cities in the central part of the United States the advantages which they have over the Eastern cities for trade with the Pacific coast. This official does not believe that the canal will be of much help to California, because the trade in grain, which is and will always be the principal item of export, is going to be carried on less with Europe ami more and more with China and Japan, where the consumption of wheat is even now taking the place of rice. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 381 He believes that the surplus grain products of the Pacific coast will be milled and shipped to the Orient, and that the canal will not be of benefit to this industry. Concerning the general effects oi a canal upon the commerce and industry of the United States as a whole, this traffic official is more optimistic than the others above quoted. He says, and very accurately, that the transportation business of this country is so organized that if touched at one point the effect is felt eveiy where. The opening of the canal will afford a new transporta- tion agent of importance, and while it will compel an adjustment of business, a revision, and in some cases a reduction, of rates, the rail- roads will nevertheless find business to do, and the travel and traffic of this country and the business done at home and abroad will so increase as ultimately to make both the railways and the canal a neces- sity. The construction of the canal is regarded by this traffic official as inevitable, as something which the American people have decided to be necessary for naval reasons and for the purpose of securing the quickest and best transportation facilities for their domestic and for- eign trade. The transcontinental railwa} x s, in his opinion, would tem- porarily suffer from the reduction in rates, but the growth of the country will be such that twent} r -five years from now the railways will have nothing to fear from the canal. In the opinion of the Pacific railwa}^ officials above quoted, and of others, the isthmian canal will be an active and rate-controlling com- petitor. That this is true will hardly be questioned, and if the canal can not compensate the railways with a larger volume of business they will not share with the producing and manufacturing interests in the benefits accomplished b} r the water route. Whether the canal will give the Pacific railroads a larger traffic than they would otherwise have is partly a matter of judgment and partly a question of safe deduction from past experience. The belief entertained by one of the officials above referred to that the isthmian canal will draw traffic and the centers of industry back from the central section of the United States to the Eastern States is based on an inadequate conception of the industrial strength of the Central States as compared with the Eastern. The Central States pos- sess vast stores of coal, iron, and timber, and these and their other natural resources are causing the population and industrial activities of our country to become generally distributed. The railwa} 7 s that serve the Central States are wisely fostering this tendenc} r , and these railway systems are among the strongest and most efficient of an}^ in the United States. After ten or twelve years more of progress on the part of the industries and railway systems of the central portion of the country, they will be quite secure against defeat from competition with the East. Indeed, the canal will so facilitate the foreign trade of the Central States as to make them stronger than they now are as com- pared with the Eastern section. It is asserted by one of the railwa}^ officials whose opinions are given above that the isthmian canal will injure the Pacific States b} r divert- ing from them the imports destined for points east of the Rocky Mountains. The present volume of these imports by way of the Pacific coast cities, however, is small and will probably remain so. Without an isthmian canal the goods brought in from foreign Pacific countries will be imported into the eastern half of the United States, as most of 382 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. them now are, by way of New York and other Atlantic ports. The importations of teas, silks, mattings, and curios by way of our Pacific ports and the transcontinental railroads is increasing, it is true, and may be expected to grow in volume as the costs of railway transporta- tion decline. After the canal route has been opened the railways will be obliged to share this traffic with the steamers using the canal. Here again, however, it is probable that additional facilities for transporta- tion will be accompanied by a larger demand for commodities and an increased traffic for the old routes as well as the new. If the isthmian canal produces any changes of importance, one effect will be to give greater prosperity to the western third of the United States, where the Pacific railroads must alwaj^s perform the transportation service, to stimulate the growth of population there, and to increase the con- sumption of such articles as are imported from the Orient. One of the witnesses above quoted thinks that the wheat exported from the Pacific coast will, within a few years, be sent entirely to Pacific instead of Atlantic markets. There is a growing trans -Pacific trade in flour and an increasing quantity is required at home oy the growing population of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific slope States. This, moreover, is being accompanied by a diversification of agricul- ture and the production of other cereal crops and of fruits and veg- etables. Nevertheless, the western section, particularly the States of Washington and Oregon, may be expected to remain large exporters of wheat and also of barley to Atlantic countries for several decades to come. CONCLUSIONS. The competition of the canal will affect, first, the volume and rates of the through business of the Pacific railroads, and secondly, the amount of their local traffic. At the beginning of their existence these rail- wa} T s depended almost entirety upon their through traffic; but their chief aim throughout their history has been to increase the local busi- ness, which is always more profitable than the through traffic; and although the great stretch of country crossed by them is still in the infancy of its industrial development, the local traffic of some, if not all, of the Pacific roads has already become of chief importance. A vice-president of one of the railway s}\stems states that since lS ( X-> "the increase in business of the transcontinental lines has not come from the seaports, but from the development of the intermediate country." The canal can certainly in no wise check the growth of this local traffic, and the evidence strongly supports the belief entertained by many persons that the canal will assist largely in the industrial expansion of the territory served by the Pacific railways. If this be true, the proximate effect of the isthmian canal in com- pelling a reduction and readjustment of the rates on the share of the transcontinental railway business that will be subject to the competition of the new water route will be more than offset by the ultimate and not distant expansion of the through and local traffic that must neces- sarily be handled by rail. It seems probable that the increase in the population of the country and the growth in our home and foreign trade will early demonstrate the need of the transportation service of both the canal and the railways. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 383 CiiArTER XI. — The trade and industries of western South America and tin- effect of the canal upon than. The benefits of an isthmian waterway will be felt in varying degrees by more than half the countries of the world. In some regions this influence will be slight and indirect, or will modify only a small part of the trade, while in others it will affect the greater part of the com- merce and will work changes that will be almost revolutionary. The United States will obtain the most direct and far-reaching results from the canal; South America will probably be the second greatest recipient of its advantages. AREA AND POPULATION COMPARED WITH NORTH AMERICA. South America is but slightly smaller than North America. It is wider between Pernambuco and Guayaquil than the United States between Oregon and Maine, long enough to reach from the isthmian canal to Baffin Ba} T , a thousand miles beyond the southern point of Greenland, yet none of her shores are frozen. These rather surpris- ing dimensions are seen more clearly by a glance at the globe, which will correct the erroneous impressions that flat maps make by exag- gerating the size of countries of high latitude and diminishing the area of equatorial regions. Viewed on a wall map, North America appears much larger than South America, when, in reality, there is but slight difference in the area of the continents. B} T drawing a map on the polyconic projection, as has been done in plate 75, the relative areas of the two continents can be shown. Brazil alone is larger than the combined area of England, France, and the United States, exclusive of Alaska, while each of five other South American Republics exceeds in area the original thirteen States of North America with Maine, Vermont, and Florida added, and the State of Massachusetts with its irregular shape could be completely hidden away by being put down in the midst of the unexplored areas of the great forests of the Amazon Valley. Although large, South America does not have a greater proportion of worthless territory than have most of the other continents. There are deserts in Peru and and Chile, and mountain wastes and swampy forests in the center of the continent; but these areas are small compared with the unoccu- piable parts of North America. Canada and Alaska, comprising a third of the continent, are largely uninhabitable because of the cold cli- mate. The plains and plateaus west of the Missouri River embrace a third of the territory of the United States that can be only sparsely inhabited because of its aridity. The proportion of arid land in Mexico is greater than in the United States. In South America the present sparse population has but touched the resources that can support commonwealths as populous as those of Europe when immigration and settlement shall have occupied the country. The present sparseness of population and backward devel- opment of South Amertca are due to three causes. The first is the difference in character of the races inhabiting England and Spain — a difference as marked in their colonies as in the mother countries. England and her colonies have prospered, while Spain and her depend- encies have languished. Had England, not Spain, possessed South America after the sixteenth century, the continent would now be more 884 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. highly developed, although its social institutions might have differed from those of North America, as the result of climatic dissimilarities. South America's sparse population is furthermore due to the fact that Europe has not j r et needed South America as a home for over- crowded peoples. Canada is still giving away farms, the United States has scarcely ceased doing the same, and in the old-settled common- wealths of the Eastern and Southern States hardty more than half of the available area is cultivated. The United States is still a compara- tively empty country. The emigrating races of Europe, which have been chiefly the Teutonic, have found stable and friendly governments, fellowship of race, and familiar climate in the United States, Canada, and Australia. These attractions were not offered by South America. Settlement there was impeded by the tropical climate of a large part of the continent, and by the fact that the most suitable districts for white colonization were on the inland plateaus, separated from the ocean by unhealthy lowlands which must be crossed by railroads before commercial relations could be established with the rest of the world. Under these conditions an extensive occupation of the country has waited for corporate enterprises to provide the needed transportation facilities. There have been no large European emigrations except to Argentina and southern Brazil, where the climate is similar to that of the temperate latitudes of North America, and where the governments have been fairly stable, and' have provided the political prerequisites for industrial growth. THE TRADE ZONES OF SOUTH AMERICA. In discussing the industries and trade of South America, and the manner in which they will be affected by an isthmian canal, it is neces- sary to divide the continent into trade zones. The various countries do not form a satisfactory division, because in some cases two or three adjoining States have similar climate, resources, and trade connections. Nor is a separation of the continent, into zones or latitude helpful, because very disimilar regions are found in the same latitude. The shape of the continent and the lack of internal communication make it necessary to treat the Pacific and Atlantic sections separate!}', and each of these sections has a temperate and a tropic division calling for separate treatment. In the discussion that follows the continent has been divided into (1) the Temperate Pacific section; (2) the Tropic Pacific section; (3) the Temperate Atlantic section, and (4) the Tropic Atlantic section. The political divisions comprised in each section are shown in the accompanying map of South America. From the standpoint of the world's trade, the Atlantic sections of South America are more important than the Pacific side, but as regards the traffic and effects of an isthmian canal the western third of the con- tinent is of greater consequence. The effect of the canal en the trade of the Atlantic region will be slight, but on the Pacific side the canal will change the routes and in some measure the destination and origin of the larger part of its foreign commerce. The references to the Atlantic sections will he brief in the following discussions, the space given to the four trade divisions of South America being in propor- tion to the importance of the canal to the economic development of each. S Doc^/^57 1 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 385 Western South America will be considered first." This section of the continent includes the Pacific coastal strip and also the Andean plateau, and reaches from the southern limits of the habitable part of the temperate zone northward well into northern tropical latitudes. The Republic of Chile, in the temperate zone, is as large as our New England and middle Atlantic States with Maiyland and the Virginias' added. Northward in Peru and Bolivia the ranges of the Andes broaden, so that in addition to the coastal plain, often 60 miles across, there is an extensive plateau a thousand miles long and in places several hundred miles wide. On this broad highland is the Titicaca Basin, with a system of rivers flowing into a lake about half the size of Lake Erie, and furnishing hundreds of miles of navigable waterways. INADEQUATE TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. The Pacific frontage of South America has more than double the population and area of our Pacific coast States of California, Oregon, and Washington. The western sections of the two American conti- nents are, however, very differently situated commercially. Our Pacific slope has the advantage of seven transcontinental railroads; the Pacific coast of South America has but one, and that is incomplete. The foreign commerce and to a large extent the domestic trade of the west coast of South America is dependent upon inadequate and cir- cuitous water transportation. The building of the Panama Railroad has been of comparatively small importance to the trade of South America. The costs of transshipment at the Isthmus and the high freight rates charged limit the use of this route mainly to passenger traffic and the freighting of articles that need quick transportation. Cheaper commodities take the longer route around the continent. A prosperous industrial growth requires transporting agencies that can profitably and cheaply move such commodities as coal, iron and other ores, grain, etc. This the Panama Railroad can not do, and such com- modities, if moved at all, must go through the Straits of Magellan or around the Horn. The great distance that must be traversed by the ship passing between the commercial countries of the North Atlantic and the west coast of South America, has caused the commerce of those countries until recently to be chiefly dependent upon the sailing vessel. The intro- duction of regular steam connection promises better transportation facilities for the future, especially after the canal shall have been com- pleted. Callao, Peru, is now farther b} T steam from New York than is the South Pole, but an isthmian canal will bring the city 1,000 miles nearer to New York by steam than San Francisco will then be. The present difficulties of transportation restrict travel, and thus prevent the people of the United States and Europe from becoming acquainted with the people and trade conditions of western South America. Commercial exchanges prosper only when knowledge and intimacy break down mistrust and reveal the commercial needs of the trading nations. In Pacific South America generally, as in other Latin American countries, the difficulties of inland transportation are a great hindrance "Consult Pis. 76, 77, and 78, upon which are located the places, resources, and industries mentioned in this chapter. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 25 386 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. to industrial and commercial progress. Excepting a few lines of rail- roads, there are practically no means of communication in western South America save the pack mule. This state of affairs makes the commerce of the interior districts similar to that of Europe in the Middle Ages, when international trade was limited to silks and spices and other light commodities of high value that could be carried long distances by caravan and to the few bulkier articles produced along the seacoast and navigable rivers. The inland districts of England, France, and Germany then had considerable populations, but each community raised its own food, made its own clothing, and knew little of the products of other countries. The improvements that have trans- formed the European countries have not yet had much effect upon the tropic section of Pacific South America. Only a small proportion of the population contributes an} T thing to the foreign trade. The rest live in isolated communities, each of which is practically self-supporting. DEPENDENCE OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA UPON FOREIGN CAPITAL AND LARGE ORGANIZATIONS OF CAPITAL. The nineteenth century witnessed an enormous expansion of com- merce throughout the greater part of the world, largely because industries developed in new countries b} T means of the capital that Europe had slowly accumulated through several preceding centuries. The foreign trade which South America now has is almost entirely the result of European investments. Foreign capital has worked the cof- fee plantations of Brazil, and built her railroads and those of Argen- tina. The flocks of Argentina are owned by Englishmen and Scotch- men, the nitrate works of Chile are in the hands of English and German owners, and the sugar plantations of Peru are the property of Americans and other foreigners. The capitalistic development of western South America, particu- larly the northern part, has, however, not yet progressed very far. It has great stores of natural wealth, but the obstacles in the way of their utilization have not been overcome. Large organizations of capital are especially necessary in the Andean region and on the west coast. In Argentina the European owner can cultivate his grain and pasture his flocks in a level country watered by rainfall, but in Peru irrigation is necessary to agriculture. The building of a railroad across the level pampas, to carry away the wool and grain of Argen- tina, is a very much easier task than building a line up the denies ol* the Andes to tap the mineral wealth of the plateau. Operation on the east side can be conducted with moderate capital, but on the west side the large capitalist, the mining expert, and the complicated machine are necessary. The return to capital, however, promises to be liberal. Foreign capital has made less headway than would otherwise have been made in western South America, because of the frequency of political disturbances and civil wars. The deleterious effects of fre- quent revolutions and unstable political conditions are known to be great, and are felt even more by the merchant than by the capitalist who is engaged in mining, agriculture, or transportation. The mana- ger for a strong corporation, which has for years operated a large sugar plantation in the Peruvian irrigated belt, reports that the per cent of loss that has actually occurred from civil wars has been, on the whole, surprisingly small. 'I he country, however, suffers greatly because capitalists are deterred from making investments. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 387 The western part of South America has been lying idle while more accessible resources elsewhere have been levied upon. But a new era seems to be at hand. The constant tendency everywhere is to organize capital on a large scale, and it seems probable that the development of western South America will be undertaken by organizations of capital similar to those that are giving the United States its industrial preeminence. In fact, a substantial beginning has already been made, and that beginning is responsible for the present importance of western South America to the world's trade. In 1899 Chile exported more tons of nitrate of soda than the port of New York exported tons of wheat. This nitrate was produced by large foreign corporations own- ing their own nitrate beds and reducing plants, the railroads to carry the product to the seacoast, and the piers and warehouses from which to ship it. In 1899 Peru exported 110,000 tons of sugar, which had been produced by firms that could irrigate their plantations, install expensive machinery, build lines of railway to the port or to some main line, and, in some cases, the product was exported in the ships of the producers. By the increase of enterprises of this character the west coast can double and treble the amount of her contributions to international trade. The first step to be made in the direction of these changes will be in bettering the means of transportation by the building of railways, or starting industrial undertakings which include, as a part of the enter- prise, an improvement in the existing method of transportation. This will come about easier after the opening of an isthmian canal, which will tend to quicken the industrial and commercial life of the west coast of South America. Cheaper freights will enable the com- modities now exported to be marketed more cheaply and other articles not now utilized will find their way into commerce. With the greater possibilities of securing freight will come new inducements to build railways and make other improvements in transportation. Railway materials and the machinery necessary for the equipment of industrial plants will be cheaper because of lower freight rates from the iron- producing countries north of the Isthmus. The supply of capital for South America will in the future come from the United States as well as from Europe. We have become large exporters of the iron and steel and machinery needed b}^ new countries. Our increasing wealth and population will furnish money and men for industrial enterprises in foreign lands. American own- ership and direction of railroads, mines, and other enterprises in Mex- ico have been chiefly responsible for the industrial revolution in that country during the past twenty years and for the accompanying expansion of her commerce, the chief part of which has been with the United States. This work is still going steadily forward in Mexico, but we shall probably welcome opportunities lying beyond the Isthmus of Panama. DISADVANTAGES OF THE UNITED STATES IN TRADING WITH WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA — EFFECT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL. With very few exceptions the industries of western South America may be classed as mining and agricultural. This is the case even in the seacoast regions engaging in foreign trade. There are, of course, local manufactures of various articles in the towns and villages, such 388 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. work as is done locally in any community, but the nature of the resources of western South America is such that the region is likely to continue permanently in the extractive stage of mdustry, or at least until a period too remote for consideration here. Pacific South America is now but half of an industrial unit; the other half, the man- ufacturing- complement, is in Europe and the United States. Each one of these industrial half units needs better facilities for marketing its produce in the other. One important service of an isthmian canal will be to bring these separated commercial and industrial comple- ments into closer relation. The west coast of South America bears a relation to the manufac- turing centers of Europe and the United States similar to that which Montana, Colorado, and Texas, with their raw products, bear to the manufacturing States of the East. The countries of the North Atlan- tic need and are buying the export products of the west coast of South America — the nitrate and the ores of copper, silver, and gold, the grain, sugar, cotton, cocoa, coffee, wool, hides, rubber, and woods. In return for this export these South American Republics are import- ing from many countries, but chiefly from the United Kingdom, all kinds of manufactures, from steel rails to jewelry and tine clothes. Both parties will be benefited by increasing this trade. The produc- tion of raw material will be stimulated no less than the production of manufactures. For any gain that comes to South America the rest of the world must receive an accompanying or complementary advantage. The United States will derive especial advantage from the shorten- ing of the roundabout path of this large and increasing commerce. Because of the present route around the continent the trade of the west coast is mainly with Europe, but on the opening of the canal there will be a change of front toward the United States. Both European and American traders will have greatly improved opportu- nities, but the larger relative improvement will come to the east coast of North America. Our ports will then have from 2,000 to 3,000 miles advantage over Europe in the journey to the west coast, whereas at present the distance from New York and the ports of the English Channel to that section of the world are nearly equal, the southern cities of Europe having a slight advantage over the ports of the United States. Nearly all of South America Lies east of North America. The meridian of Washington is that of Callao. on the coast of Peru. Antofagasta and Lquique, the chief nitrate ports of Chile, have the longitude of Boston. Valparaiso is 71 40' west longitude and New York 74" 03'. The eastern point of Brazil lies 2,600 miles east of New York, and is equidistant from New York Bay and the English Channel. The sailing vessels bound from New York for the west coast of South America must go eastward nearly to the Canaries so as to be able to take advantage of the trade winds and get past Cape St. Roque, on the coast of Brazil. The European sailer goes directly past the Canaries and has an advantage of ten days over the American in a voyage to any part of South America south or west of the eastern point of Brazil. For many decades our direct commerce with South America has been chiefly by sail, and we have competed with Europe under most unfa- vorable conditions. The small part of our trade that has not gone by sail has gone by steamers to Panama for transshipment to the two lines of steamers going down the west coast. These lines have com- RKPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 389 bined to keep the rates at such a figure that for most of the time during the last thirty-five years it has been cheaper to ship American goods to South America via England or German}'. Jt has often cost the American shipper from 30 to 50 per cent more to send freight 3,500 miles direct to western South America by Panama than to send it 14,000 miles indirectly by way of Europe. Shipping around the Horn by sail is such :i slow and irregular means of reaching the markets as to prevent the development of a satisfactory commerce in these modern times, when expedition is the order of business. Our share in the trade of the west coast of South America has not been gratifying to national pride; indeed, we have done little more than to sell in those countries the commodities that they could not secure elsewhere. Europe has taken nearly all of their exports and supplied them with most of their imports. Since 1890 two American companies have been running chartered British vessels around to Guayaquil, and during this period the value of our exports to the west coast has increased 16 per cent; this, how- ever, is less than one-third the rate of the increase of our total exports. Fortunately the steamer is rapidly taking the place of the sailing vessel. In 1890 steam vessels carried, largely via Panama, 36 per cent of our exports to the countries of western South America. In 1900 81 per cent of our exports to those countries went by steam, a gain of 225 per cent in the proportion carried by steam. The starting of the lines of steamers from New York has not, how- ever, given our manufacturers an even chance with those of Europe. American merchants and consuls on the west coast complain that the steamers from New York charge higher rates than those from Europe, and nearly as high as the Panama lines. Nevertheless, these steam- ers always leave New York full loaded with export freight and the profitableness of the business is attested by the frequent addition of more vessels to the fleets. This suggests what may be expected to occur when the isthmian canal and more lines of steamers give us shorter and better means of communication with Pacific countries. We have a thriving trade with the American countries near to us. Fifty-nine per cent of Canada's imports come from the United States. The ocean route to Mexico is longer than to Canada, and the railroad connections over the land frontier are much less satisfactory, } ? et we furnish 49 per cent of the Mexican imports. The northern countries of South America are about 2,000 miles from New York, but we have fairly good steamship connection and a growing trade, Colombia and Venezuela drawing about 30 per cent of their imports from this coun- try. In contrast with this, however, the United States furnishes less than 10 per cent of the imports into the countries of the west coast of South America; and our trade there has increased slowly at a time when the growth of our exports as a whole has been rapid. Under the present adverse conditions our share in the trade of the west coast of South America is only one-third as great as it is in the South American countries bordering on the Caribbean Sea, one-fifth as great as in Mexico, and only one-sixth of the percentage which we control of the trade of Canada. An isthmian canal, and the lines of communication that it will open up, may be expected to give this country a larger share in the trade of the Pacific. This conclusion is strengthened by some incidents in the history of the foreign trade of Chile. In years past, the British share of that 390 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. trade was greater than it is at the present. Her commissioners sent in 1898 to investigate the cause of this decline reported as the first cause that British merchants did not secure as good freight rates for their commodities as were obtained by their continental rivals, the difference in favor of Antwerp and German ports being sometimes 25 per cent. It was found that English merchants sometimes sent British goods to those ports for reshipment to Chile. The lower rates from Germany were due to the nitrate trade. Germany being the largest importer of Chilean nitrate of soda, the ships returning from that country to Chile could offer the best rates on outgoing freight, and this was one of the causes that had enabled the German merchant to build up a large South American trade. A similar advantage will come to the traders of this country when the canal has been opened. B} T that time the United States will have a larger consumption of nitrate, our vessels will go directly down the South American coast, and the favorable shipping facilities that are now giving Germany an advantage over the United Kingdom will be possessed in a more marked degree by American merchants. More- over, it is probable that the vessels en route from Europe to South America will aid our exporters by calling at our ports for coal and other cargo. The advantage of cheaper transportation is already shown in the export cotton trade of the United States to Chile. At certain times nitrate ships returning to South America offer A r ery favorable rates from New York, and exporters then dispose of cotton cloth in large lots at Chilean ports, thereby securing a trade which the regular con- ditions of freight would not permit. The future trade between our east coast and the west coast of South America will have the advantage of a heavy traffic both ways, a phe- nomenon rarely met with in international commercial movements. Our east coast trade with Europe consists mainly in the exchange of large quantities of agricultural and other heavy produce for a small quantity of manufactured products, and this necessitates a large ballast movement westward across the North Atlantic. Our exports from New York to Australia are but partly balanced by the small return trade. Our exports to the Orient of iron, cotton, and foodstuffs are exchanged for light curios, tea, and mattings. Our trade to South America is certain to give rise to an increasing exportation of articles similar to those we art 1 sending to China and Australia, with the prob- able addition of coal, and these commodities will be exchanged for Peruvian sugar, Chilean nitrate, ores, and heavy produce, so that vessels will readily secure cargoes both ways. This will be an advantage both to the steamship companies and the shippers. GEOGRAPHY, RESOURCES, AND INDUSTRIES OF CHILE.* Having discussed the general industrial and commercial conditions of Western South America as a whole, it will be profitable to examine tin, temperate and tropical regions separately and with some detail. The temperate division of the continent, for the purposes of this dis- cussion, may be considered practically coextensive with Chile; for although the northern boundary of Chile extends beyond the Tropic <>t' "Consult Pis. 7f> and 77. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 391 Capricorn the aridity of that part of the country makes mining the only industry. Mining industries being independent of climate, the activities of Chile that are determined by climate are located within the temperate zone. Chile is long and narrow, but her area is large — larger, in fact, than that of France, Germany, or the United Kingdom, or the combined area of the New England and Middle Atlantic States with Maryland and the Virginias added. Her length of 2,600 miles would reach from New York to Utah. The country extends from a tropic district to Tierra del Fuego, where the latitude and climate are like those of Scotland. Nitrate of soda is the chief product of the arid northern part of Chile, which is the source of supply for the entire world. The agricultural districts and the center of population are farther south, the products being similar to those of our Pacific Coast States, with which Chile possesses many points of similarity. The temperate shores of the Pacific show a succession of similar geographic and climatic features in both North and South America. These resemblances would appear plainly if Chile could be inverted and placed beside the coast of North America. The lower end of the inverted Chile would be opposite the city of Mexico, and Tierra del Fuego would be about the latitude of Sitka, Alaska. The 800 miles of Chilean desert with its nitrate beds would lie against the arid coast of Mexico where its silver is mined. Patagonia would be opposite British Columbia and Alaska, both regions being damp, fringed with rugged islands, and cut into sharp fiords walled in by forest-clad mountains having snowfields on their summits and glaciers on their sides. The tropical and cold sections are unproductive agriculturally, but in the temperate belt of each region civilization and diversified industry are possible. The climate is that of western Europe and the United States. It is by comparing the productive region of the north temperate Pacific with the south temperate Pacific that the greatest resemblances and likewise the difference of the two coasts appear. Their difference is due to the absence of a South American duplicate for the State of Washington. California and Oregon are reproduced, but the Antarctic current, sweeping up the coast of South America, shortens the tem- perate section of Chile so much that the region corresponding to the State of Washington is replaced by a longer continuation of the rugged and forest-clad coast similar to that of Alaska and British Columbia. Near the Mexican boundary of the United States the resemblances to the corresponding agricultural parts of Chile are obvious. In Chile the arid country, by means of irrigation, produces grapes and raisins, citrus and other fruits, and alfalfa, the alfalfa being used as a supple- mentary fodder for the cattle pasturing on the higher hills. The arid belt extends several hundred miles, and is succeeded on the south b} r wheat fields and general agriculture. The Chilean forests correspond- ing to those of central and northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia exist in the lower half of the Chilean agricul- tural region and along the extensive coast of Patagonia. The best section of the western slope of both Chile and the United States is found in a large interior valley. The valley of California, bounded on the east by the Sierra Nevadas, on the west by the Coast Range, and drained by the Sacramento and the San Joaquin rivers, is of high fertility. Chile also has a valley similar to this, but larger and superior to it in several particulars. It is inclosed by the Andes on 392 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. the east and by a coast range near the shore of the Pacific; but this coast range is not so continuous as that of California, being broken at frequent intervals where rivers make their way to the ocean. Instead of being drained by two rivers flowing lengthwise, and having outlet to the sea, the Chilean Valley has several small rivers flowing across it and discharging into the ocean. The basins of these rivers are not separated b} T high divides, but are practically continuous, so that the whole district is properly spoken of as one great valley. The Andes are higher than the Sierra Nevadas, and westerly winds bring a larger amount of moisture than California has. The streams have a larger and more constant flow of water from the mountain snows and furnish an abundant supply for irrigation, and in some places provide good power. As in most arid countries where irrigation can be practiced, the soil is fertile. The crops produced are identical with those of California. All of the cereals, vegetables, and fruits thrive and provide a food supply sufficient both for the present and prospective home demands and for a large export trade. This valley is about 700 miles in length — a distance equal to that from New York to Charleston — and is divided into thirteen prosperous provinces, which had a population in 1895 of 2,400,000 people — as many as there were in California, Oregon, and Washington in the census year 1900. California has less than ten persons to the square mile, while the Chilean Valley has from three to five times as many, and is about equal in density of population to Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, or to our Southern States, exclusive of Florida. The great trunk line of the Government railway goes through most of this region from north to south. It is being extended in both direc- tions, and will eventually connect Coquimbo, in latitude 29°, with Porto Montt, in latitude 41°. The line to the last point is already sur- veyed. This road, most of which is now completed, will be about 1,300 miles long, and will connect with many branches and private lines from the various mining and agricultural centers. The several rivers breaking through the coastal mountain range make it easy for the railroad to connect with seaports, and there are now railway lines to six harbors giving the producing centers of the country opportunity to take advantage of the water transportation supplied by the lines of coasting steamers that are doing a large business in both directions. In the valley of California the coast ranges make necessary a much longer railway haul to reach the ports. The northern part of the agricultural region, the district around Valparaiso and Santiago, is older and more fully developed. Of this section the Aconcagua Valley, which may be taken as a type, is a plain highly irrigated, famed for its agriculture. The grape crop of this valley alone, it is estimated, would make 1,000,00(1 gallons of claret wine were it so used instead of being manufactured into the local drink called "chica." Potatoes are exported to the nitrate deserts of the North and to Panama, alfalfa hay to Brazil, and honey and wax are sent to Europe. Local canneries preserve the fruit crop, which is mainly marketed in other sections of the country. There is pasturage on the neighboring hills above the level of irrigation, where a peculiar kind of wiry grass, well adapted to its dry surroundings, grows for months after a soaking rain. The sides of the Andes throughout this whole belt are forest clad. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 393 In latitude 37 south the forest growth becomes general, and the coun- try is similar to many parts of the eastern United States. This lati- tude is now the Chilean industrial frontier, the opening up of the region having been recently begun as the result of the advent of better means of transportation. New railroads are being built, for- ests are being cleared, and stock raising and cereal agriculture are increasing. The forest regions have tanning industries, sole leather being exported to Europe. The agricultural and mining regions of Chile are north of 40 degrees. South of that there is as yet practically nothing of commer- cial importance except the sheep pastures of Terra del Fuego. The 1,000' miles of intervening coast is as little known as is the coast between the port of Vancouver and the mainland of Alaska. Nearly all of the present and prospective Chilean commerce and population are from 1,000 to 2,000 miles north of the Straits of Magellan, through which their commerce must find its way to the Atlantic until the canal pro- vides a shorter outlet. Chile exported something over 3,000,000 bushels of grain to Europe in 1898-99, but the larger part of the exports of the country consists of the minerals mined in the northern and arid part of the State. The agricultural part of the country sends large quantities of food products to the mining regions of the northern provinces. The greater part of Chile's export wealth originates in regions that are almost a desert. Their dryness causes their richness; indeed, a moist climate, instead of being a blessing, would cause the disappearance of the greater part of the wealth of this section, which consists of such soluble minerals as nitrate of soda, iodine, borax, and common salt. Nitrate of soda, the chief export of Chile, lies in a nearly continuous deposit parallel to the seacoast, extending 150 miles from north to south, with scattering deposits reaching 250 miles farther, the total cov- ering 220,356 acres, and estimated to contain about 228,000,000 long tons, a quantity sufficient to last the world for many decades to come. The nitrate is found under the surface layer of sand, and when shov- eled out has the consistency of cheese. It is refined in numerous and extensive plants requiring large capital. The crude product is dis- solved, chemically treated, and crystallized to get rid of the impurities. Among these impurities are iodine and common salt, which are sepa- rated for export. The city of Iquique, the most important nitrate port, may be taken as a type of the towns that depend upon the nitrate industry for their existence. Here 30,000 people, having the conveniences of a modern city, live in the desert, where every supply for man and beast must be imported from other ports of Chile or from foreign countries. Water for the city is brought by pipe-line 200 miles from the Andes. A railroad zigzags up to the plateau and winds around among numerous nitrate works situated in the desert. The railroad company is Eng- lish, and most though not all of the nitrate plants are owned by for- eigners. Borax is obtained in the dry districts, and in some places common salt is taken from the surface of the earth by sawing it out in cakes that are handled like ice. Besides these desert mineral prod- ucts the same region contains a large amount of copper, silver, and lead. Antofagasta is the port of this section and is also the outlet for the mines of Bolivia, which ship their antimony, bismuth, tin, mercury, and sulphur over the Antofagasta railroad." Most of these 3VI4 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. products are in the form of ores, some of which are refined at Anto- fagasta and the rest exported, mostly to Europe, for treatment. The rise in the price of copper has greatly increased the copper mining industry of Chile, and the deposits of copper promise to con- tribute largely to the world's supply of this metal. Low-grade copper ores have been found in abundance in the district near Santiago, near to the ocean. Copper now ranks second among Chile's exports, amounting in LS91* to 25,400 tons. In coal Chile has an asset that will assist with the development of other resources, although she has small prospects of ever becoming a coal exporter. In the south, about latitude 37°, the ports of Coronel and Lota are the points of shipment for mines located near by. The deposits are large, but the quality is inferior to English and American coal, and the output is insufficient for home demands, although it is largely used by steamers going up and down the coast and to Europe. THE CANAL AND THE TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH CHILE. The interest of the American people in the commerce of Chile is greater than our present share of that trade would indicate. The foreign commerce of Chile now amounts to about $100,000,000 and is increasing. In 1899 the exports were $59,000,000 and the imports $39,000,000; about nine-tenths of the imports came from Europe, while nineteen-twentieths of the exports went to that continent. Our trade is slight compared with that of the United Kingdom, Germany, or France. An examination of the elements of the trade of Chile shows why the canal will increase our share. Of the Chilean exports, nitrate of soda comprises nearly 60 per cent, although the percentage is slightby declining, owing to the increased export of copper and cop- per ores. Next in the order of importance come silver and silver ores, then wheat and barley, wool, hides, and other scattering and agricul- tural and mineral products, most of which are needed in the United States. We need the nitrate for our fertilizers and chemical manu- factures, we have the coal to smelt the copper and silver ores, we need the wool for our carpet manufactures, and the hides to furnish raw material for our leather manufactures. Of course, the grain products are needed only in Europe. Of the Chilean imports cotton manufactures comprise by far the largest part. Then come machinery of all kinds, kerosene, woolens, coal, bagging, and all kinds of miscellaneous manufactures and sup- plies. The cotton manufactures are made from the raw material grown in the southern part of the United States and carried to Europe for manufacture, whence the goods are shipped through the Straits of Magellan. Much of that cotton cloth will in the future go direct from American mills via New York, Charleston, Mobile, or New Orleans, and save transshipments and 7,000 miles or more of trans- portation. We have the materials and manufacturing ability to fur- nish the Chileans their machinery. We are now furnishing them with kerosene, and when the canal is opened we will probably be able to send them coal and many miscellaneous manufactures. The reduction of freight rates that may be expected to follow the opening of the canal will not only extend our present trade with western South America, but will increase the number of the articles that enter into it. With a few exceptions tin 1 goods Chile secures in this country are those which we produce under especially favorable REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 395 circumstances— lard, lumber, kerosene, breadstufl's, patented articles, like medicines, firearms, electrical appliances, farming machinery, and improved hardware. These articles can be sold readily in Chile after the canal has been opened. We have just begun to send Chile iron and steel. The bulk of the pig, bar, and hoop iron, rails, and cast- ings now come from Europe, although we can make them more cheaply than our European rivals can. The railroads of Chile have iron rails' that must soon be exchanged for steel. The towns and cities of Chile will use an increasing amount of structural iron for building purposes. The growing favor of electricity in a country having many mountain streams for water power is opening up a demand for electrical machin- ery which American manufacturers are already able to supply. We are sending small quantities of many other articles in which transporta- tion is a large factor, such as earthenware, glass and glassware, cord- age, paper, and coal. Our cotton exports to Chile consist mainly of one or two plain staple grades made without reference to the Chilean market and shipped in bulk, as chance opportunities occur. With attention to the demands of the market and cheaper transportation that business can be greatly extended. It is probable that some of the trade of the western part of Argentina, lying on the east slope of the Andes, will be handled through Chilean ports and will use the canal. The foothill provinces of Argentina, like those of Chile, produce fruit, wine, and grain, and are a prosper- ous region. This region being from 700 to 900 miles from the Atlantic ports of Argentina and within 200 miles of the ports of the Pacific, w T hich, when the canal has been opened, will be much nearer North America than Buenos Ayres will be, the mails, passenger traffic, express business, and some classes of freight may be taken across the Andes and sent north from Valparaiso or some other Chilean port. A boundary controversy has delayed the completion of the Trans- Andean Railroad, but contracts have been let for the completion of the work. TROPICAL SECTIOX OK WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA — GENERAL DESCRIPTION/' The tropical section of western South America is nearly double the area of the temperate Pacific region, and includes practically all of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and a part of Colombia. In this discussion of the trade of the Pacific, however, the portion of each of these States is omitted that lies in the almost unexplored forest plain extending eastward from the Andes. The region here considered has an area of nearly half a million square miles. It is more than twice as large as France, is greater than our Middle Atlantic States and Southern States east of the Mississippi Kiver, and is equal to our three Pacific Coast States with the addition of Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado. The region consists of a coastal plain and a high plateau. The plain is either matted with tropic vegetation and drenched with rain or is a sandy desert, and neither of these conditions favors the establishment of communication with the plateau 30 to 100 miles inland, which must be surmounted by ascending a steep and forbidding mountain wall. The mineral wealth of the plateau is abundant, but is at present avail- able only to a small extent. "See PI. 78. 396 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. This South American region has a population of over 6,000,000, but is made up chiefly of Indians and half-breeds, with a comparatively small proportion of the dominant Spanish race. The latter race lives in the towns, devoting itself to political and mercantile affairs, the pro- portion of Spanish blood decreasing as the distance from the towns increases. All the labor of the country is done b} r the half-breed Indians or b}' imported Chinese and Japanese labor. Industrially, the South American Indian is said to be superior to the North American Indian, and when properly supervised to be nearly equal to the negro as a laborer. The social and economic conditions do not tend to make the laborers ambitious. Some of the natives own the lands from which they glean a living, but throughout Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia a system of industrial servitude exists that places the majority of the laboring classes in a condition similar to that of the English serf in the Middle Ages. The laborer is in debt to his employer, who manages to keep him so. Theoretically, every man can work for whom he wishes, but the debtor is practically prevented from changing masters by legal difficulties. The Andean region of South America now has but little international trade, because the development of its natural resources has been pre- vented by untoward political conditions, by the mountainous character of the country, and the absence of an isthmian canal. THE PERUVIAN COAST — ITS INDUSTRIES AND THE EFFECTS OF THE CANAL UPON THEM. Taking Guayaquil as a center, it will be found that the coast running 800 miles to the north of it includes a coastal plain sparsely populated by a few Indians and negroes, who can inhabit its unwholesome for- ests. To the south extends some 1,200 miles of seacoast, known as "Zona Seca, v or dry zone, which has considerable industry at present, has had more in the past, and promises to be the scene of greater activity in the future. The Peruvian coast for 1,200 miles is too dry for ordinary agricul- ture. Regular crops can be raised only by irrigation, the supply of water being the rainfall on the Andean slopes at an elevation of 7,000 feet and more. During the winter months the tiftv streams crossing the plain are raging torrents, overflowing their banks, but during the heat of the summer they dry away to mere rivulets, only two of the northern ones having sufficient depth to be of any use for navigation. If the Peruvian coast had abundant rains, it would be so malarious and unwholesome as to be unsuitable for white men, whereas its cli- mate is said to be healthful and cooler than that of other regions in the same latitude, owing to the Antarctic current flowing up the west coast and to (he sea breezes. The Peruvian coast is desolate except where irrigation has pro- duced green fields in the dry plains. Its present population and the amount of land cultivated are doubtless much smaller than they were before massacres, slavery, and white men's diseases, particularly small- pox, had greatly reduced the native population. The soil in this coast plain is fertile when irrigated, and w r ell-suited to the production of sugar, cotton, and rice. Experts claim that sugar can be produced here as cheaply as in any other place in the world. The sugar industry, indeed, had made a good start before L886, when REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 397 the desolating war with Chile destroyed many of the plantations. The business has now recovered, 110,000 tons having been produced during the season of 1898 and 1899. This was nearly all taken by the United States, and much of it crossed the Isthmus. The cotton crop of this section is one in which the United States is particularly interested. Some of the valleys of the north, particu- larly those of the Piura and Chira rivers, grow a peculiar kind of rough fiber cotton of a reddish color, that will not grow in any other part of the world, and is valuable because it mixes well with wool. The irregular supply of about 10,000 tons a year grows largely with- out cultivation along the rivers. At the present the United States imports much of this cotton by way of Liverpool. We can use many times as much of this product as we now receive, and its cultivation can be largely extended by the introduction of proper irrigation works. Some rice is exported from the port of Trujillo, and farther south, at Pisco, there is some shipment of the wine and grape products which grow in the irrigated orchards near the Andee. Aside from these crops, however, the agricultural products of this plain will be used to supply food products for the Peruvian population. As agriculture advances there must be a reorganization and exten- sion of the railroads from the coast inland. Several lines now extend a short distance from the Pacific, but as industry and traffic increase these scattered pieces of roadway must be combined into one or two systems centering at a harbor or harbors that can be improved b} r the construction of piers suitable for the easy handling of the freight. When these improvements are made, they will require materials with which the United States is well supplied. Petroleum fields are located near the Ecuadorean boundary at the west point of South America, the deposits lying along the coast for a distance of 200 miles, extending inland a considerable distance, and reaching outward under the sea. The development of this resource has not met with much success up to the present time, although the oil deposits are said to be rich. An English company is now operating there with an American director, and is securing a constantly increas- ing output, which reached about 2,000 tons a month in May, 1900. Thus far only 3 or 1 square miles situated on the seacoast have been prospected, and that not thoroughly, in a field which is supposed to be extensive in area. The oil is not suitable for illumination, but makes a valuable fuel. It is used on all the railroads of Peru, and may give much assistance to the industrial development of the Pacific coast of South America. THE ANDEAN PLATEAU. The Andean Mountain system, with its plateaus, may be compared with the Rocky Mountain region of the United States. Beginning in northern Colombia and reaching to the boundaries of Argentina and Chile, it has greater length than our Rocky Mountain region, an equal or greater width, and probabh 7 more individual mountain ranges. In point of population the Andean region exceeds its North American counterpart, for our seven Rocky Mountain States and Territories — not including the Pacific Coast States — contained in 1900 only 1,500,000 people, while the Andean region contains at least 4,000,000. The industrial capacities of the people of the United States, it need hardly be mentioned, are far greater than those of the Andes. 398 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CAN A.L COMMISSION. The great elevation of the plateau, situated in tropical latitudes, gives it a variety of agricultural produce. On the intermediate heights beans, potatoes, and wheat are grown, while in the hot valleys, which here and there intersect the plateau, the people raise sugar cane, oranges, and bananas. There are single estates on which the owner grows all of the crops of both tropical and temperate climates. The plateau of Ecuador may be taken as a t3 r pical section of this Andean region. The Ecuadorian plateau has an elevation of 8,000 to 10,000 feet and is really an inclosed valley some 400 miles long and about 50 miles wide, hemmed in on both sides by the high chains of the Andes. The rainfall is scanty on the whole plateau, and agricul- ture usually depends upon irrigation, for which the snows of the mountains furnish abundant water. The soil is largely of volcanic origin and is very fertile. The climate is mild and springlike. The population is about 900,000. This Ecuadorian population of nearly a million depends for its con- nection with the outside world upon a neglected and dangerous mule trail to Guayaquil. During the rainy season this precarious route sometimes becomes impassable and the interior is left entirely with- out means of communicating with the outside world. A railroad 350 miles in length is being built from Guayaquil to Quito, and the Amer- ican company constructing it confidently expects that it will be com- pleted long before the opening of the isthmian canal. With the coming of the railroad the people of interior Ecuador will use much larger quantities of imported manufactures than the} 7 have been able to get in the past, and they will want various kinds ol machinery- They will secure the money to buy these things by work- ing for the foreign capitalists engaged in developing the mines, by supplying the coast regions with food products, and by exporting hides and other agricultural commodities. The railroad will also enable them to secure the wood and lumber needed on the whole pla- teau region, which is in many places destitute of timber. The rail- road will help in the introduction of modern industrial methods. The old wooden plow will gradually disappear; shovels and wheelbar- rows will come into use; the people will thrash and clean their grain with machines instead of treading it out with animals and winnowing it in the wind. Their huts, made of reeds or poles and put together without a bolt or a nail, will gradually give way to houses, and in time thf towns will be better built. This description of the plateau of Ecuador would apply to many districts in Peru and Bolivia, tin 1 climate, people, and industrial con- ditions being very similar throughout the Andean plateau; the high parts of one country resemble those of another just as the plateaus o: Colorado resemble those of Montana. The plateau region reaches its greatest width near the boundaries of Peru and Bolivia, where such a State as Pennsylvania might easily be put down and be in every part at least L0,000 feet above the level of the sea. Lake Titicaca is as large as Connecticut, and drains into Lake Poopo. which is as large as Rhode Island. These lakes are con- nected bv the Desoguadeio River, 180 miles long, and navigated a part of the way by steamers. These lakes are the center of a great treeless plain, chiefly devoted to stock raising. The Bolivian part of this plain supports about 7,000,000 sheep, a number one-sixth as great as all of those in the United States, and there are in addition many REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 399 cattle, mules, and swine. Barley and potatoes are grown — the surplus crops of the Indian agriculturist being marketed in the mining towns. The people of the Andean plateau are now very poor. They make their own clothes, raise their own food, receive low wages, have a low standard of living, and buy but little from the outside world. But their needs and standards can and will change. On this point the experience of Mexico is interesting. Twenty years ago foreign mer- chants in the interior of Mexico despaired of the people ever becom- ing large consumers. Five-sixths of them were Indians, who received for their wages 5 cents per day in cash and 5 cents in rations. Com- munication was by stagecoach. The people wore sandals, unbleached cotton, and straw hats, and bought practically nothing. Since that time railroads have been built through these districts and the laborer is receiving from 50 cents to $1.50 a day as an agricultural or mining laborer, and every Indian wants a watch. With their higher wages they have become good buyers of manufactures from their own and foreign countries. The Andean plateau offers conditions to-day sim- ilar to those of interior Mexico twenty years ago, and there is reason to believe that what happened in Mexico will happen in Sonth America. Attention was called above to the general resemblance of the Andean plateau to our own Rocky Mountain region. The tropic Andes are admitted to be richer in mineral resources than the Rocky Mountains, but the present industrial development is very different. Our Rocky Mountain States and Territories are served by a good network of railroads, the State of Colorado alone having nearly 5,000 miles, while the whole Andean plateau has less than 500 miles, and the lines have not penetrated to the richest mineral deposits. In spite of their poor connection with the outside world, the Andes have produced enormous wealth. The bullion from their mines fur- nished the civilized world with the greater part of its money during the centuries of Spanish dominion. Between 1630 and 1803 Peru sent out $1,250,000,000 worth of silver. Bolivia has produced about $4,000,000,000 worth. Of this enormous sum the famous mines of Potosi, which to-day can be reached onlv bv a bridle path, vielded $3,000,000,000. Mining operations have changed but little during the past century. The mining district of Hualgayoc, Peru, for instance, has 400 silver mines in an area of 40 square leagues. Some of these mines are now yielding ores having 300 ounces of silver per ton. The work is done by the Indians, who burrow around through the veins as best they can, getting out the ore with a drill and hammer and carrying only the richest of it to the surface in rawhide sacks. It is then picked over, crushed, reduced to a sulphate by crude methods, and taken on mule- back to the coast and shipped to Europe for refinement. At Hual- lanca, Peru, 200 miles from the coast, ores worth $30 per ton are thrown upon the waste heap because they are not worth transportation to the seaports. Yet to-day, in our own Western States, companies with large capital and expensive machinery are profitably reducing ores yielding from $4 to $7 per ton. In the copper mines at Corcoro, Bolivia, to the south of Lake Titicaca, the ores are blasted out and then hammered to pieces by women, who pick out the best portions. Owing to the scarcity of fuel, little of the ore can be treated on the spot, and that above 70 per cent pure is carried awa} - on pack animals. 400 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In many mines of the United States, ores with but 3 or 1 per cent copper are smelted. The Bolivian mineral districts, in some places 200 miles wide, rich in tin, copper, silver, and gold, extend north and .south for a distance of 700 miles. The Antofagasta Railroad has but just touched a corner of this field. The terminus of its line at Oruro is 195 miles south of Lake Titicaca, and as the greater part of the Bolivian minerals are in the eastern ranges of the Andes, the railroads have not reached them. The city of La Paz, with a population of about 100,000, is dependent upon a stage road 15 miles long, and Cochabamba, with 25,000 people, has no outlet except a bridle path of greater length. The improvements resulting from better transportation facilities are illustrated in the limited district that the Antofagasta Railroad has reached, where changes have been made in the methods of operating the mines, and large quantities of ore are sent to the coast. One English company connected its mines with the railroad by building a branch line 15 miles long, including 2 miles of tunnel. The venture is said to have paid well. The railroad connecting the Peruvian seaport of Mollendo with the lake port of Puno carries out large quantities of mineral products, but, like the Antofagasta Railroad, it has not tapped the main fields. The railroad has connections with the lake steamers that carry the prod- ucts of the interior across from Chililaya, the port of La Paz, and many similar towns. Some of these places are hundreds of miles away, and all freighting is done by pack animals. A successful mining industry requires rail or water transportation. Mining machinery is costly and heavy and can not be introduced where pack-mule transportation is necessary. The securing of fuel and supplies and the marketing of the product are nearly as dependent on good transportation as is the introduction of machinery. Only the choicest ores can be carried on mule back, while the metal in such ores is almost infinitesimal in comparison with that contained in the low-grade ores. When the railroads thoroughly open up the Andean Plateau to the American capitalist and mining engineer there will be abundant opportunities for their enterprise. There are numerous mines that have been worked and abandoned at various times during the past three centuries, and in many cases their refuse ores are rich enough to yield good dividends. Not only can the old tailings be worked at a profit, but many of the abandoned mines themselves can be reopened, and the ores the early workers were forced to leave will make a good return when scientifically treated. The mines are now rarely worked beyond a few hundred feet, because they are not ventilated, and the ore is -taken out by man power. With modern hoisting machinery, crushers, mills, furnaces, and railroads, the mineral output can be very greatly increased. The water power obtainable from mountains of the plateau makes possible the use of electricity instead of coal, as has been done in Cal- ifornia where coal is scarce. The great elevation of the mountains, and the frequent falls in the constant streams that flow from their snow fields and glaciers, combine to furnish the best conditions for the installation of electric plants driven b} r water pow T er. Some of the most important mines of Mexico arc now being operated by electricity supplied by the mountain streams, although the water power of Mex- ico is slight as compared with that of the Andes. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 401 A description of the conditions in the Gerro Pasco mining district in Peru will show more definitely what is to be done in the new era of railroads that the canal will help to introduce. The Cerro Pasco deposits are supposed by some to be an old volcanic crater, covering- an area 1£ miles long and three-fourths of a mile wide. Here are 2,000 veins of silver, making- a network through the hill in which there are no less than 360 mines. From 1630 to 1821 these mines yielded 27,200 tons of pure silver. These deposits have been worked only 250 feet and could be drained by a tunnel of smaller magnitude than a number that have been made in various mines in the Rocky Mountain States. After the building of a railroad the introduction of the necessary machinery to complete this tunnel will become easy, the silver depos- its will again become workable, and a new lease of life will be given to the Cerro Pasco mines, which have not yet been worked to a tenth of the depth reached in many mines in this' country. Underlying the silver of the Cerro Pasco district are valuable deposits of low-grade copper. The ore containing more than 30 per cent of copper is now carried 90 miles to Casapalca, on the Oroya Railroad, where it is smelted by American smelters or sent by rail to Callao for export to Europe by way of Magellan. At the present time more than a thousand tons of ore per month are being shipped from Cerro Pasco by this method, and some of the lower grade ores are being treated on the spot by using coal brough from good deposits but a few miles distant. The present difficulties encountered in working these rich mineral deposits are shown by the fact that the railroad ties for tram lines at the mines had to be brought by pack mules from the railroad, 90 miles away. A railroad will ere long join the Cerro Pasco mines with the Oroya line at the town of Oroya, the city which promises to become the rail- road center of that part of the plateau, and to be connected by a line eastward with the head of navigation on the Perene, one' of the branches of the Amazon, where tropical products can lie secured for the mining regions around Cerro Pasco. Another line of road may possibly start from Oroya southward through some of the already populous valleys of Peru possessing mineral resources. RELATION OF CANAL TO INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF EASTERN SLOPE OF ANDEAN PLATEAU. The thorough development of the resources of the plateau by the building of railroads and the investment of foreign capital will neces- sarily be accompanied by an enlarged commerce with the eastern slope of the Andes. The people of the greater part of the plateau can pro- duce only the food products of the temperate zone, and considerable quantities of tropic products are now brought up from the east slope at great expense. Any thorough industrial development of the pla- teau will make necessary the building of railroads to carry on this trade in food products needed on the plateau. There are many fertile valleys in the east slope having an elevation of over 5,000 feet, and resources and climate suitable to a great variety of tropical and semi- tropical products. Some of these products now cross the Andes and are exported. The eastern Andes are the source of the world's supply of coca leaves for the manufacture of cocaine, and there are many coca plantations scattered for hundreds of miles along the east slopes S. Doc. 51, pt 2 26 402 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. of Peru and Bolivia. This is also the region that furnished the world's supply of quinine before its systematic cultivation in the British East Indies and the Dutch colony of Java reduced the price of the article to one-thirtieth the former figure and ruined the owners of the Peru- vian and Bolivian plantations. The province of Cuzco, in eastern Peru, is famous for its cacao, of which some 600 tons per annum are already sent over the Andes for export. These same valleys produce coffee, about 1,500 tons of which now cross the Peruvian Andes for shipment to the outside world. The most favored part of the east slope is in Bolivia, near La Paz, where, owing to a bend in the highlands, the slope is toward the north rather than toward the east, causing the trade winds to bring less mist and rain than they do to the eastern parts of Colombia and Ecuador. The rainfall of -10 to 75 inches is the same as that of the most favored parts of the United States, and the climate is said by American trav- elers to resemble that of California and to produce the same fruit products. The Yungas Valley in this section is noted for its coffee. The eastern slopes of the Andes are so steep as to make an ordinary steam railroad expensive to build and operate. , Coal would have to be brought from the Pacific coast, and the grades would make the hauling of heavy freight expensive. An electric railroad can be built here more cheaply, can ascend steeper grades, and can be operated by the unlimited supply of water power obtainable from the La Paz River. This stream, even in the dry season, is a rushing torrent 20 feet wide and 3 feet deep, falling 10,000 feet between La Paz and the head of navigation at Rej'es, 200 miles below. In some places rapids have a fall of 200 feet in half a mile. The valley through which the electric line would run contains several towns, one with 6,000 and another with 10,000 people. Trade is carried on through this valley to La Paz and the treeless plateau. In the vicinity of La Paz alone there are 100,000 people who secure a part of their food supply and all of their wood from down the river by expensive pack-animal transportation. This electric railroad, however, can not be economically built or profit- ably operated until the city of La Paz itself is connected by rail with the Pacific. Such an extension (155 miles) is planned by the Antofa- gasta Company. When a railroad has been built across the plateau and connected with an electric line coming up from the plains of Bolivia, there will probably be a considerable export by the Pacific of products from this source. The alternative route is by the Madeira River and the Lower Amazon, but the engineering difficulties at the Madeira Rapids are as great as those that lie in the way of the railroad to the Pacific. The heat and dampness of the Amazon route are deleterious to many products, such as hides, coffee, cocoa, and cacao. This region is now exporting these products by way of the Pacific ports, and their movement in that direction would be greatly increased % the opening of such a railroad. On the edge of the Sandia and Carabaya region, on the east slope of the Peruvian Andes, near Bolivia, an American company not long since paid $285,000 cash for a mine, carried machinery to it at a cost of $250 per ton, and is now crushing quartz ores and paying dividends. In the past the Spaniards secured much gold from the eastern rivers of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. One of the easiest regions to reach east of the Andes is northern Peru, where it is planned to cross the narrowest part of the plateau REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 403 and connect the Pacific ports with the headwaters of the Amazon. This road is partly surveyed and has been begun by a company having concessions to work a large coal field located near the summit of the Andes. The quality of this coal is reported to be good, and the deposits extensive and easily workable. The location of this field near the divide of the Andes will make it possible to send coal to the' Pacific and to the navigable parts of the Amazon, thereby facilitating steam navigation in interior Brazil. As the Upper Amazon is a swift river, and the head of navigation ten times as far from the Atlantic as it is from the Pacific, some of the trade of the Upper Amazon country will come and go by Pacific ports after the opening of the isthmian canal. Industrial changes on the plateau and eastern slope can not be expected to make much progress until better connections with the Atlantic shall have been provided. After this event, the exploitation of the mineral wealth of the plateau may be expected to follow, and that will require the opening up of the eastern slope as a source of food supply for the laborers who work the mines. INDUSTRIES OF PACIFIC SLOPE OF ECUADOR AND COLOMBIA. At the western point of South America the climate of the coast changes, and to the northward the desert gradually gives way to regions of increasing rains. The transition is made gradually. The southern part of the Ecuadorian coast is a fertile region with a tropic climate more healthful than many tropical localities. It has a popula- tion of about a quarter of a million, and is practically the only part of Ecuador engaging in foreign trade, the interior being almost entirely cut off. The greater part of the population of the coast plain of Ecuador lives in the valley of the Guayas River, on which is situated the city of Guayaquil. The only districts at present productive are those of the lowlands, served b} T water transportation on the rivers centering at Guayaquil. This river system is navigated by many native boats and a number of small American-built paddle-wheel steamers of the Mis- sissippi River type. In the rainy season they can go 200 miles inland and bring to the coast the export produce. The soil of this valley produces tropical products in abundance, and the countiw is in a pros- perous condition. The exports are cacao, ivory nuts, rubber, sugar, coffee, tobacco, and hides. The cacao is of excellent quality and is the chief crop. It is exported to the amount of 20,000 to 30,000 tons per year, and consti- tutes one-third of the world's supply. At present more than half of the crop is produced in one small district, but it is estimated that 19,000 square miles in Ecuador are suitable for the production of cacao, an article of which the world's consumption is increasing about 5 or 6 per cent annually. The ivory nut is the seed of a variety of palm that grows wild. Seventeen thousand tons were exported in 1898, chiefl}* to Europe, where it is used in the manufacture of buttons. In the same year about 2,500 tons of coffee were exported, $50,000 worth of tobacco, and considerable quantities of other tropical produce. The only manu- factured export is the so-called Panama hat, and there are practically no manufactures of home products, all kinds of manufactured articles 104 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. as well as Temperate Zone food products being imported from the United States and Europe. Ecuador seems to have mineral wealth, but there are as } r et no wagon roads and no railways, nor have the mineral regions been much explored. There are quartz goldmines in the south and placer mines in the north, both being operated by foreign companies, one of which is an American firm, said to be doing well. Petroleum, copper, silver, and coal are reported, but at present the}' are not being developed. The railroad now building between Guayaquil and the interior will bring about the exploration and possibly the working of the various mineral resources. This railroad will bring from the hills to the low- lands Temperate Zone products which must now be imported, and will stimulate the trade of the country by giving nearly a million people their first chance to trade with foreign countries. Any increase of Ecuadorian commerce means an increase in the traffic through the canal. The rainfall increases from northern Ecuador to the Isthmus of Panama, the shore plain of Colombia being marshy and unhealthful. Its forests are uninhabited save by a few Indians and half-breeds, and the only export is a small amount of timber, although in some places vanilla and cacao are indigenous. The forbidding character of the coastal region has prevented the settlement of the higher lands on the foothills of the Andes, where in Ecuador and northward there are val- leys above the malaria level with a salubrious climate and fertile soil. THE CAUCA VALLEY, IN THE COLOMBIAN ANDES. The Andean Mountains divide, near the Ecuadorean boundary, into three groat ranges, the easterly one bending around into Venezuela, the western one trending toward the Isthmus of Panama, and the cen- tral one separating the valleys of the Magdalena and the Cauca rivers. The Magdalena Valley has its trade outlet by way of the Caribbean; but the mountains of Antioquia, in Central Colombia, cut off the valley of the Upper Cauca from the Atlantic and make it necessary for all commerce to come and go by way of the Pacific through the port of Buenaventura. This Cauca Valley is in the Andean region, but, unlike the other parts of the Andes of which we have spoken, it is both tropical and subtropical, having an elevation of from 8,300 to 6,000 feet. The valley is larger than the State of New Jersey, and contains one of the densest populations in South America. There are half a million peo- ple, comprising negroes, in the lower portion of the valley, and Indians and a considerable white population in the adjacent highlands. This section is truly Andean, however, inasmuch as it is cut off from the ocean by a range of mountains and has to depend upon pack-mule transportation for all of its commerce. The people do a little gold mining, but live chiefly by agriculture, importing nearly all of their merchandise, except some domestic manufactures of straw hats, coarse cloths, and utensils. All the internal traffic of the valley, as well as its foreign trade, is carried over trails, the exports of agricultural products being limited to the most valuable articles, such as coffee and cocoa of the best grades, although corn, sugar, tobacco, and fruits are cultivated and cattle are raised. Concessions have been given for a railroad to go through the valley from the port of Buenaventura, and 20 miles of the line have REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 405 been built, but the enterprise has come to a standstill. The completion of this line and the opening of an isthmian canal would bring- the pro- ducing- districts of the valley into close connection with the commercial world. At present Buenaventura is in the traffic territory of the Panama railroad and steamship lines, whose freight charges are high. During- the year 1900 such typical articles as wire and nails were taken from New York to China for $8 a ton, but it cost $15 to land them at Buena- ventura, 7,000 miles nearer. From there the costs were $8 per ton to the end of the railroad and $1< > per ton additional by pack mule over the pass of the Andes, 6,000 feet in elevation, to Cali, 77 miles from the ocean. The mule transportation cost 70 cents per ton per mile. After reaching Cali some of the goods had to double the freight charges of $63 per ton by being carried many miles up and down the valley. At the same time the steel manufacturers of Pittsburg were paying an unusually high freight charge of $3.60 per ton to the seaboard. The opening of the isthmian canal, the building of the railroad, and the introduction of foreign capital would be revolutionary in their effect upon the trade of the Cauca Valley. The first effect of the building of the railroad would be to increase the importation of machinery for agriculture and the smaller industries. The continua- tion of the railroad up and down the valley would make it the route of transportation to the promising gold mines in the adjacent provinces of Colimo and Antioquia. The valley would export coffee, cacao, animal products, and raw sugar. SUMMARY OF THE EFFECT WHICH THE CANAL WILL HAVE ON WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA. Each of the five industrial divisions, discussed above, of the tropic Pacific section of South America is rich in resources and backward in industrial development. Capital is only beginning to overcome the difficulties that political and geographical conditions have placed in the way of progress. Nearly all of this region is still in the pack-mule stage of its industrial life. The present trade conditions there are more backward than were those prevailing in the trans-Missouri terri- tories of the United States fifty years ago. At that time Kansas City and Fort Leavenworth were the entrepots of a brisk and thriving trade with the far western frontier. Every spring trains of covered wagons, "prairie schooners," went across the great plains to the Spanish settlements of New Mexico, distributing supplies en route at the distant settlements and isolated ranches and trading posts of the hardy pioneers and trappers who had pushed on toward the Rocky Mountains. Freight rates, ranging from $10 to $200 per ton, excluded from trade all articles except necessities and limited the return cargo to such valuable commodities as furs, skins, and bullion. If we sub- stitute the pack mule for the more efficient prairie schooner, the above description applies to most of the tropic Pacific section of South America. Limited areas are served by the few lines of railroad and by some river steamboats. The tropical Pacific section has twice the population and but little more than half the trade of the temperate Pacific section. The 3,000,000 people of the temperate region carry on a foreign com- merce amounting to $100,000,000, and the rest of the west coast commerce amounts to about $55,000,000. The exports exceed the 406 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. imports by about $4,000,000. As in the case of Chile, the trade is nearly all with European countries. Like the temperate section, the tropic region produces the raw materials we need and buys manufactures we might supply. The British cottons, for instance, purchased b} T Ecuador in 1898 were more valuable than all her imports from this country. After the isthmian canal is opened our cotton mills will secure that trade. The canal will facilitate the development of the resources of the tropic Pacific section, and thus enlarge the sale of American railway supplies and agricultural and mining machinery. The purchasing power of the South American people will increase, and trade with the United States will grow, not rapidly, but steadily, and to ultimately impor- tant dimensions. EFFECT OF CANAL UPON ATLANTIC SOUTH AMERICA WILL NOT BE GREAT. The isthmian canal will not greatty affect the Atlantic countries of South America. There is at present no direct trade between the two coasts of South America, except some little trade between Chile and the eastern countries of South America by way of the Straits of Magellan. The exports of the South American and Central American countries are nearly all raw products, and there is no raw material produced on one coast that need be imported by the countries of the other coast. Rubber is the great staple of northern Brazil, but Ecuador and Central America are exporting some rubber across the Isthmus to the Atlantic. They also produce coffee, the great export of southern Brazil, and cacao, the staple of Ecuador, is also grown on the Atlantic coast. The temperate zone products needed by the tropic Atlantic countries of South America can be supplied by Argentina and the United States. The nitrate of Chile is not used on the east coast of South America except in the form of manufactured articles made in the North Atlantic countries. The canal may have some slight influence in reducing the cost of these. Should Argentina and Uruguay need nitrate or other Chilean products, the natural route of the trade will be through the Straits of Magellan. There is but little commerce, present or prospective, that might advantageously go from the one coast of South America to the other by way of an isthmian canal. The count lies on the Pacific between the United States and South America have exports and imports that are almost identical with those of western South America, and the statements that apply to the trade between the two coasts of South America will apply to any commerce between western Central America and Mexico and the Atlantic countries of South America. The Western United States and Canada export some products to Atlantic South America. There have been occasional shipments of wheat, but this trade has about disappeared because of the competi- tion from Argentina. Our Pacific coast lumber is used in Atlantic South America, and this is probably the only trade that will require the passage of ships directly from the Pacific through tin 1 canal to these countries. The temperate part of the Atlantic coast of South America, however, will get its lumber via the Straits of Magellan or Cape Horn because the eastern projection of Brazil makes those routes shorter. There is some demand on the Atlantic coast of South REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 407 America for our canned goods and wine from the Pacific coast, but such imports will not be sufficient to require a direct trade. They will probably be distributed from New York, London, or some West Indian port. There is also a prospect that before the canal is opened this demand for wine and fruit products will be wholl\ T or in part supplied by Argentina, which is similar in climate and products. Australia will have little, if any, trade with the Atlantic countries of South America. In the oriental countries the conditions for trade are somewhat better, although they will not need to import from Atlantic South America, because Eastern tropical countries are much nearer. The people of Atlantic South America will import oriental articles — tea, mattings, silks, and curios — but these articles will hardly be desired in such quantities as to require the passage of vessels directly from the Orient through the canal to these countries. The countries of that part of South America below the mouth of the Ama- zon will draw their supplies from European ports or from New York. The countries between the Amazon River and the American Isthmus will also trade with the Orient more or less indirectly, although they will not be so dependent as countries farther south upon London and New York for their supplies of Pacific products. Some West Indian city, such as St. Thomas or Kingston, will doubtless become a distributing point for goods that come through the canal and are destined for the ports of the West Indies and northern South America. The ports are now visited by vessels touching at various places in northern South America, Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico. The isthmian canal will bestow but few benefits upon the Atlantic countries of South America, because nearly all of their trade is with the North Atlantic. The greater part of their small commerce with the Pacific will probably come by the new route, and there will be some direct cargoes of Pacific coast lumber. The cost of securing oriental products, Pacific coast canned goods, and wine will be some- what reduced. These commodities, however, will probably be dis- tributed in large part from such centers as New York, London, or Kingston, Jamaica. Chapter XII. — Japan and the isthmian canal. THE SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPAN'S RESOURCES. The 4,000 mountainous islands of Japan a stretch northeastwardly along the coast of Asia in the latitude comprised between South Caro- lina and Maine. The climate, like that of our own Atlantic coast, is changeable, because of the uncertain direction of the winds from the great land mass to the westward, although extremes are less in Japan than on the Asiatic mainland. The winter winds blow from Siberia across the Japan Sea and produce heavy snowfalls on the west side of the islands, but the high mountains shelter the more populous eastern slopes, which are warmed by the Kuro Si wo, or the tropic Japan current. In the summer both coasts receive winds from the ocean, which bring abundant rain, amounting to 80 inches per annum in the south, nearly double the amount that falls at Philadelphia or New York. The "■Consult PI. 7i» in connection with this chapter. 408 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. humidity of the climate of Japan is nearly equal to that of England. The ocean currents along the Asiatic shore are similar to those of our Atlantic const. The Japan current meets an arctic stream along the northern islands of Japan and gives the shores and seas of that part of the Empire a foggy climate. The fishing banks, as well as the climate of that latitude, correspond with those of Newfoundland. The agricultural resources of Japan are relatively meager because of the infertility of the soil and the small amount of tillable ground. The cultivable ground — 12 per cent of the total area of the country — is fully and carefully tilled, mainly by hand labor. The cultivation of tea occupies a prominent place in the agriculture of the country. The chief food crop is rice, although wheat, barley, potatoes, and tobacco are grown. Fertilizers have to be used abundantly, fish from the northern islands of the Empire and bean cake from Manchuria having long been employed. Latterly some South Carolina phosphates have been purchased, a few shiploads of which are now annually imported. The phosphate fertilizers seem well adapted to the Japanese needs, and the construction of an isthmian canal would doubtless largely increase their importation. The moist climate gives Japan a varied flora, but good forage is everywhere scarce, owing to the preponderance of the bamboo type of vegetation. There are only a million and a half horses in the Empire, while the number of cattle is slightly less, and there are no sheep. Japan is consequently obliged to import all the wool and woolens used and most of the hides, leather, dairy and meat products required. Japan is becoming a food-importing country. The domestic supply of rice is now frequently insufficient. There is no sugar grown in the Empire. There is now some flour imported from the United States, and with the progress of the manufacturing industries of the Empire increasing quantities of American and Australasian breadstuffs and pro- visions will be required. The American breadstuffs will come from the Pacific slope; the provisions (meat and dairy products) will prob- ably come, in part at least, from the central section of the United States. Many of the raw materials required for the larger manufacturing industries are deficient or entirely lacking in Japan. Nevertheless tin 1 country is certain to become an important manufacturing center. The materials of industry of which Japan possesses the most abundant supply are timber, raw silk, and the grasses used in making straw braidand mattings. Such forest products as camphor, vegetable wax, lacquer, and bamboo are the basis of a considerable share of Japan's industries and exports. The prevalence of the mulberry tree in many parts of the Empire makes possible the growth and favors the manufacture of silk. The mineral resources of Japan are especially deficient. There is a small export of copper, but there is no prospect of its increasing. At present very little gold or silver mining is carried on, but the intro- duction of western machinery may result in some development of the mines. .Japan has petroleum fields, but the exports are small and the imports are much larger and are increasing rapidly. New fields are being opened, but there is no indication that they will be able to sup- ply the requirements of the country. The coal exports of Japan, as is shown in Chapter VI of this report, are increasing, but the fields are limited, and the demands of the manufacturer of the country are REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 409 rapidly growing. The price of coal in Japan is not cheap, it being too expensive to permit much development of iron and steel industries, although there are iron-ore deposits in the northern and southern parts of the Empire. The recent industrial progress of Japan has necessitated the importation of large quantities of iron and steel prod- ucts, the home supply in 1898 being only one-ninth of the total consumption. JAPAN AS A MANUFACTURING AND COMMERCIAL COUNTRY. To become a manufacturing nation, in the modern sense of the term, required the Japanese to make great changes, but they possess the faculty of adaptation to such a marked degree that it required only thirty years for them to adopt the ideals of western civilization and many modern processes and to change from an isolated nation to one ambitious to participate largely in international trade. The limited area of Japan, its insular position, and the density of its population make its future progress conditional upon a large development of manufactures and commerce. The area of the Japanese Empire, exclusive of Formosa, is 147,655 square miles, or about 27,000 more than that of the British Isles; the population being'44,000,000, or 3,000,000 more than the inhabi- tants of the United Kingdom. The population averages 296 to the mile, being as dense as that of France and eleven times as dense as our population. The people of the country constitute the nation's most valuable economic resource. They are skillful, artistic, and industrious arti- sans, and their high birth rate assures the country an abundant supply of labor. The chief obstacle to be overcome by Japan in the develop- ment of her industries is the insufficient supply of the raw materials required in the textile and iron and steel manufactures. She will need to import increasing quantities of materials, and for this reason, if for no other, the construction of the isthmian canal is a matter of much consequence to her. The chief industrial activity of Japan centers about the inland sea, or Japanese Mediterranean, about which live near!}' half of the people of the Empire. Surrounded by the three southern islands, it is a quiet, safe body of water, upon which commerce is active. There are three entrances from the ocean, many indentations into the land, and supplies of coal exist upon its southern shores. Where the most northerly arm of the inland sea reaches toward the center of the main- land of Hondo stand the cities of Osaka and Hiogo, which were fishing villages when Japan was opened to foreign trade. Now they contain more than a million people and have secured the commercial supremacy of the Empire. They arc growing in population at a rate equal to that of the manufacturing cities of the United States and Germany. Osaka is the manufacturing center of the country, and within a radius of 100 miles are to be found 16,000,000 people and most of the cities of Japan. It manufactures large quantities of mat- tings and rugs and is the chief exporting point for tea. In 1895 it received more that half of the total imports of foreign commodities, besides having a heavy local traffic in rice, hsh, timber, and edible seaweed. Thirty miles inland from Osaka is Kioto, the old capital city of Japan, now connected with the seaboard by railroad, telegraph, and canals. 410 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The city is located in the center of a fertile and densely populated plain and is an important center of manufactures. There are three other Japanese cities of importance not located on the inland sea — Tokyo, Nagasaki, and Hakodate. Hakodate is the fishing, lumber, and mining port of the north and is located near the northern coal fields. Nagasaki is at the southwestern corner of the Empire, near the south- ern coal fields. It exports nearly 2,000,000 tons of coal per year, has a good landlocked harbor, capacious docks, and, being located on the commonly used trade route between Europe and Asia, is a port of call for nearly all merchant ships and transports connected with our com- mercial and military relations with the East. Midway along the eastern coast is Tokyo, the capital of the Empire, which had about 700,000 people in 1872 and now has about 1,200,000, its area and population being nearly the same as Philadelphia. Besides being the capital of the Empire, it is the main center of distribution for the eastern part of the country and has many native manufactures. On account of the shallow harbor of Tokyo, most of its foreign trade is handled at Yokohama, the chief exporting city of the Empire, with a population of 100,000. Its foreign trade consists of silks, tea, cam- phor, lacquer ware, and other Japanese goods. The growing foreign trade of Japan will make her a competitor with America and Europe in oriental markets, but in all probability the seriousness of this competition has been greatly exaggerated. This, however, need hardly be considered in this discussion of the relation of the isthmian canal to our trade with Japan, because the expansion of Japanese industry must inevitably be accompanied b}^ large pur- chases and sales in the Central, Southern, and Eastern sections of the United States. The most serious rivalry between Japanese and Ameri- can manufactures will probably be in cotton textiles, but that can hardly be felt for some time to come, because Japan is still a large importer of cotton goods, and her numerous population is rapidly enlarging its purchases. The industrial progress of the Japanese is widening their range of imports very greatly. Wages are rising and enabling the people to satisfy new wants, and compelling capitalists to introduce labor-saving machinery. Although much has been said of the economic changes going on in Japan, her industrial revolution is only begun. The com- plete modernization of the industrial and social life of Japan will yet require several decades, and its accomplishment will necessitate a large trade with the United States and Europe. ANALYSIS OF JAPANESE TRADE WITH REFERENCE TO EFFECTS OF THE CANAL. The combined imports and exports of Japan were 118,000,000 in 1868, $2N,- of Magellan. In 1899 more than seven-eighths of our exports to New Zealand were sent from the Atlantic coast. These exports included mineral oils, tobacco, machinery, hardware, wire and wire nails, car- riages, carriage materials, patent medicines, and boots and shoes. The volume and variety of our present commerce carried on by the cir- cuitous route around Africa is evidence that the opening of the Amer- ican canal will have important effects upon our New Zealand trade. Chapter XV. — The canal and the Philippines and Hawaii. I. THE PHILIPPINES." Our present commerce with the Philippines is carried on mainly by the Sue/ Canal route and frequently by way of some European port. A minor but increasing share of the trade is shipped through our west- coast ports and across the Pacific Ocean to Hongkong. A glance at pi. 86, accompanying Chapter XVII, will show that the line connecting points equally distant from New York City by way of the Suez Canal and the proposed Nicaragua route runs somewhat to tin 1 west of the Philippine Islands, indicating that they are slightly nearer New York by way of the Nicaragua Canal than the Suez route. The difference in distance by the easterly and westerly canal lines will, however, be slight, and the Philippine Islands, as well as Malaysia generally, will constitute a section whose commerce with North Atlantic countries will be divided between the American and Suez canals. THE GEOGRAPHY ami IN1HSTU1KS OF THE PHILIPPINES. The information concerning the geography of the Philippines is scanty and must necessarily be very incomplete until the islands can "Consult PI. 83 in connection with this chapter. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 429 be surveyed. The location of the Philippines is between 5° and 20° north latitude, their latitude being that of the Guianas and Haiti. Their climate is tropical and humid, and, being situated with a general north-and-south trend in the latitude of the trade winds and monsoons, both the eastern and western slopes of the islands have alternate rainy and dry seasons. The area of the islands is estimated to be about 115,000 square miles and the population to be 8,000,000. Over one-half of the people live on the island of Luzon. The resources of the Philippines are agricultural, forest, and min- eral. Concerning the agricultural conditions of the islands, informa- tion is fairly satisfactory. The forest resources are known to be varied and abundant, and it is supposed that the mineral deposits are impor- tant. There is, however, very little authentic information at hand regarding the mineral wealth of the country. The industrial condi- tions of the Philippines are in an extremely backward and undeveloped condition, the islands being at the time of the American occupation practically without highways. Only one short railroad has }^et been built, and the industries are still in an unorganized state. At the present time the agricultural product of most commercial importance is hemp, the exports of which in 1900 were valued at $11,399,000. The production and exportation of this article are steadily increasing with the growth in the demand for it in the United States and other agricultural countries. More than half of the hemp comes to the United States. Some of it is used for cordage, but much more is used as binder twine. The principal competitor of Manila hemp is that from Yucatan, sisal hemp, the quality of which is much inferior. The plant from which the fiber is taken is grown in the shade of half -cleared woods, and its cultivation requires very little intelligence and only a moderate amount of diligence and thrift on the part of the producer. Before the insurrection the most valuable export from the Philip- pines was sugar, of which $10,368,000 worth was exported in 1893. The exports in 1900 amounted to about $3,022,000. Sugar can be pro- duced in very great quantity in the Philippine Islands, and with the establishment of civil order and the investment of foreign capital in the exploitation of the resources of the islands will probably regain first rank in the list of Philippine industries. Like the islands of the West Indies, the Philippines produce tobacco abundantly, the soil and climate of the northern provinces of Luzon being adapted to its culture. The quality is said to be fairly good. The home consumption of tobacco is large, and considerable quantities both of manufactured and leaf tobacco are exported. Most of the unmanufactured article is sent to Spain. The other important article of export from the Philippines at the present time is copra, the dried meat of the cocoanut. The cocoanut palm grows in many parts of the island and might be made to contribute much more largely to the wealth of the islands than it does at the present time. Next to the cotton manufactures the most important article of importation into the Philippine Islands is rice. This important arti- cle of food might all be grown in the islands, and a surplus might be exported if the industry were properly organized. The indifferent agriculture of the Philippines was largely devoted to the growing of 430 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. rice, until the production and exportation of sugar became more profit- able. Whether it is possible to apply capitalistic organization to the production of rice is not altogether certain. In all probability the organizers of the industry would be obliged to use coolies for a part of their labor force. One of the first natural resources of the islands to be drawn upon will be the forests. Nearly all of the forest lands belong to the Gov- ernment, and concessions for the cutting of timber are now being granted. The variety of hard woods is large; seventeen valuable dyewoods are known to exist, and gutta-percha, camphor, and other gum trees may be included among the important timbers. While but little can be confidently asserted regarding the mineral resources of the Philippines, it is supposed that there are large deposits of gold, copper, and iron. The mining of gold is now being carried on to a slight extent. The development of both gold and cop- per resources, however, must be delayed until machinery can be intro- duced and the enterprise organized in an efficient manner. The working of iron mines must necessarily be deferred until there is a good supply of cheap fuel. Lignite has been found upon several of the islands, and the quality is such that it can be used for locomotives and on steamers. Some of these lignite deposits are near the seashore and can be readily worked. At the present time, however, the entire coal supply is imported. In considering the industrial resources of the Philippines and their probable future development, one of the most important considera- tions is the labor supply. Whether the present inhabitants of the Philippine Islands can be successfully organized in industrial under- takings is uncertain. It is probable, however, that education and training in industry may make of them a valuable and reliable labor supply. It is possible that more or less use must be made of coolie labor. The near-by continent of Asia can furnish an unlimited supply of efficient labor, but whether the Asiatic labor supply should be drawn upon or not raises a social as well as an industrial question. THE COMMERCE OF THE PHILIPPINES. Having acquired political control of the Philippine Islands, their foreign trade becomes of additional importance to the United States. In order to present the information regarding the Philippine trade completely and definitely, the following tables have been prepared. The imports and exports of the islands are shown by countries and by articles for the years 1893 and 1900. The imports and exports for the year ending June 30, 1900, are shown in a separate table. The figures for 1900 are taken from the Monthly Summary of Commerce of Philippine Islands, United States War Department, Division of Insular Affairs. The figures for previous years are from Bulletin No. 14, United States Department of Agriculture, Section of Foreign Markets. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 431 Table X<>. I. — Imports of Philippine Islands by articles, calendar year 1898 and fiscal year 1900. Articles. Cotton manufactures Rice Iron and steel manufactures Malt liquors and cidCT Chemicals Glass and glassware Opium coal Paper, and manufactures. silk manufacturo Flour Wines Distilled liquors • Vegetables Wood, and manufactures Flax. hemp, and jute manufactures. Pork, bacon, lard Mineral oils Boots and shoes Woolens. Earthenware and china Olive oil All other articles Total.. Calendar Fiscal year year 1H93. 1900. 85, 806,000 628, 000 672,000 105,000 171,000 376,000 ;>(>7, ooo 526, 000 ,060,000 176,000 189,000 ■194,000 175,000 ,081,000 120, 000 215, 000 212, 000 114,000 ,338,000 86, 019, 000 . 3,113,000 715,000 638,000 605, 000 525, 000 476,000 468,000 462, 000 462,000 399,000 320,000 303,000 243,000 225,000 209,000 195, 000 161,000 149,000 139,000 132,000 47,000 4,840,000 15,891,000 , 20.597,000 Table No. II. — Import* of Philippine Islands by leading countries, 1893 and 1900. Countries. Calendar year 1893. China, including Hongkong and Indo-China $2, 754, 000 United Kingdom ' 4, 247, 000 Spain 5, 101, 000 United States . J 956, 000 Germany 1, 246, 000 France 477, 000 Japan ! 183,000 All other countries 923, 000 Total 15, 890, 000 Fiscal vear 1900. 88, 210, 000 3,941,000 2,093,000 1,656,000 1,210,000 485,000 259,000 2, 743, 000 20, 597, 000 Table No. III. — Exports of Philippine Islands by leading articles, calendar year 1893 and fiscal year '900. Articles. Quantity. Hemp Sugar Copra and cocoanuts Cigars and cigarettes Leaf tobacco Pounds. '92,262 576, 557, 000 26,223,000 23,687,000 Dollars. Quantity. 7,697,000 10,368,000 414,000 969,000 - 463,000 Pounds. » 75, 476 173,630,000 81, 799, 655 14,010,356 Dollars. 11,399,000 3,022,000 1,693,000 1,362,000 818,000 'Tons 432 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Table No. IV.— Exports of Philippine Islands by leading countries. Countries. United Kingdom China, including French Indo-China and Hongkong United Sta tes France Spain Japan Germany Other countries Total Average for 1892-1896 (calendar years) . 844, 000 31.000 053, 000 986,000 855, 000 616, 000 201,000 896, 000 22, 482, 000 Fiscal vear 1900. 16,227,000 4,415,000 3,522,000 1,392,000 1,226,000 1,032,000 97, 000 2, 110, 000 19,751,000 Table No. V. -Imports and exports of merchandise, Philippine Islands, near ended .June 30, 1900. Countries. United States United Kingdom.. Spain France Germany Japan China Hongkong British East Indies Other countries . . . Total Imports. 11,656,469 83, 522, 160 3,941,422 6,227,259 2, 092, 530 1,226,475 485, 299 1,392,439 1,209,953 1, 397, 548 259, 161 1,032,462 5, 570, 683 1,458,729 2, 639, 620 2, 686, 168 2, 216, 914 938, 470 1,524,816 1,169,558 20, 597, 167 Exports. One-half of the imports into the Philippine Islands, as is shown by Table No. I, consists of cotton manufactures and rice. Among' other important articles are iron and steel manufactures, liquors, and chemicals. By comparing the trade of the year 1893 with that of 1900 several important changes will be seen to have taken place in the Philippine trade. During both years cotton manufactures held first place, but the importation of rice is shown to have increased nearly fivefold. The importation of mineral oils has fallen off very greatly, and the same is true of wines. The decreased purchases of wines, however, are largely offset by the increased importation of distilled and malt liquors. On the whole, the trade shows a rather large growth in view of the insurrection. There is a general tendency toward a larger purchase of manufactured commodities, and the establishment of civil order throughout the islands will unquestionably result in a much larger purchase of such articles. An examination of Table No. II shows that important changes are taking place in the distribution of the Philippine purchases among foreign countries. As might be expected, the transfer of the islands from Spain to the United States and the abolition of the preferential tariffs maintained by Spain have resulted in a great decrease in her trade with the Philippines. Our exports to those islands are shown to be increasing. The exports from the United Kingdom to the Phil- ippines appear to be declining, while those from China and Hongkong appear to be increasing. The trade of Hongkong, however, is only that of a distributing center, and the increase in its exports to the Philippines means only that the United Kingdom, the United States, REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 433 and other countries are sending greater quantities of commodities to Hongkong for distribution in the Philippines and elsewhere. In the exports of the Philippine Islands the hemp now has first place, although in 1893 the value of the sugar exports was 50 per cent more than that of hemp. The war with Spain and the subsequent insurrec- tion have greatly interfered with the sugar production. The exporta- tion of hemp, cocoanut products, and tobacco seems to have been less interfered with. The consumption of hemp is increasing so fast that the exportation of this commodity from the Philippines must unques- tionably increase rapidly in the future. It is probable also that improved machinery will be introduced for the manufacture of sugar and that some of the plantations, at least, will be organized in accord- ance with efficient modern methods. At the present time the sugar exports consist of a very crude unrefined product, most of which is sold in Asiatic countries. Table No. IV, giving the destination of the foreign exports, shows that Great Britain and the continent of Asia received over half of the total in 1900. Here again the trade of Great Britain and the United States seems to have fallen off, and that of Hong- kong- and China to have greatly increased. This is obviously due to the fact that Hongkong is credited with trade that is merely trans- shipped at that port. The exports from Spain to the Philippines have fallen off, as might have been expected. Those to the United States are also less than they were, but how much less it is impossible to say, because a part of the trade is handled through Hongkong. The influ- ence of the Philippine insurrection upon the total exports of the islands, and upon their export trade to the United States is clearlv indicated by Table No. IV. The imports into the Philippine Islands from the United States con- stitute but a small portion of the purchases by the people of those islands. The total value of our exports to those islands is, however, increasing, the goods exported directly from the United States amount- ing to $1,655,469 during the year ended June 30, 1900. During the five years 1892-1896, when our trade relations were normal, our exports to the islands averaged only $135,228 per annum. As has already been stated, a very large part of the imports into the Philippines are reported as coming from Hongkong, which is merely a center of distribution. The value of American flour included in the imports from Hongkong- during the fiscal year 1900 was $318,193, and, in addition to flour, min- eral oils, meat products, general manufactures, and other commodities are known to have been imported indirectly by way of Hongkong. It may be well, moreover, to state that the total of $1,656,469 does not include the goods imported by the commissary or quartermaster for the use of the American army. The imports directly from the United States consisted chiefly of the following articles. The value of the articles is also included. Malt liquors, $477,000; glass and glassware, $232,000; spirits, distilled, $177,000; books and printed matter, $175,000; paper, $54,000; wines, $51,000; cotton, $34,000; cheese, $30,000. What are the chances for increasing our export trade to the Philip- pine Islands? Is it probable that the Filipinos will increase their total imports, and if they do, will a larger share of the total be sup- plied by the United States? This will depend more upon the facilities for shipment than the cost of production in this country as S. Doc. 54, pt 2 28 434 "REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. compared with cost of production in Europe. At the present time Great Britain and Germany control the larger share of this trade, but it would seem that in the future the heavier iron and steel manu- factures, as well as the electrical machinery, tools, bicycles, sewing machines, and similar articles, will be purchased in considerable and in increasing quantities from this country. Our ability to sell cotton goods extensively in Manchuria would indicate that we can compete with Europe in supplying the Filipinos with those goods. The grow- ing demand for flour, provisions, and dairy products will be supplied by the United States if shipping facilities are favorable. At the pres- ent time the petroleum used by the Filipinos is supplied mainly by Russia, but the opening of the canal and the establishment of better shipping facilities between the eastern part of the United States and the Orient will enable the American exporters of oil to control at least a part of this trade. The opening of the canal will not greatly reduce the distances from our Atlantic seaboard to the Philippine Islands, but it will give us another route to the East and one that will probably be more econom- ical. One of the consequences of the canal will be a larger commercial intercourse between the United States and oriental countries generally, and this will be accompanied by better facilities for trading with all oriental countries, the Philippines included. At the present time the European exporters have more favorable facilities for shipping to the Philippines and other points in the East than Americans have. LOCATION OF THE PHILIPPINES WITH REFERENCE TO TRADE ROUTES FROM THE UNITED STATES. Present conditions make Hongkong the point from which the imports into the Philippine Islands are distributed, and is the point from which a large part of the exports is dispatched to North Atlantic countries. At the present time the trade of the Philippines is not large enough to cause many vessels outbound from Europe for Hongkong, Shanghai, and Japanese ports to make the detour required in order to call at Manila. Moreover, the wharves will not now accommodate large ships, and nearly all the traffic has to be handled by lighters. The improvements in progress in the harbor will remove this obstacle, and it is probable that as the total trade of Manila increases the induce- ments for making the city a port of call will become sufficient to cause a large share of the Manila trade to be handled at that port instead of being transshipped at Hongkong. The location of Manila and the Philippines with reference to trade routes from New York b} r way of the Nicaragua Canal is shown by the following table. In Chapter XVII the length of routes from Europe and the United States to the Philippines is discussed more in detail. Miles. 1. New York to Manila via Brito, San Francisco, Great Circle, and Yoko- hama 11,207 2. New York to Manila via Brito, Honolulu, and Guam _ 11, 274 3. New York to Manila via Brito, San Francisco, Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong 11,994 4. New York to Manila via Brito, Honolulu, Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong 12, 368 5". New York to Hongkong via Brito, Honolulu, Guam, and Manila 11,902 6. New York to Hongkong via Brito, San Francisco, Yokohama, and Shanghai . 11, 366 7. New York to Shanghai via Brito, San Francisco, and Yokohama 10,505 8. New York to Shanghai via Brito, Honolulu, Guam, and Manila 12, 509 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 435 The distance from New York to Hongkong and Shanghai (compare routes 5, 6, 7, and S) are respectively 536 and 2,002 miles shorter by way of the northerly route and Japan than b}^ the southerly route and the Philippines. The distance from New York to Manila is shorter by way of San Francisco and Japan (routes 1 and 2) than by Honolulu and Guam. In Honolulu, moreover, the price of coal is higher than in San Francisco. Coal is also dearer in Guam than in Yokohama. San Francisco and Yokohama also have more freight to offer than Honolulu and Guam have. The price of coal will alwaj^s be high at Guam, because the island will not be an exporting point. Vessels engaged in the commerce between America, Asia, and the Philippines will tend to take the northern route to get Japanese coal and freight. II. THE HAWIIAN ISLANDS. SOIL AND CLIMATE OP THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. The Hawaiian Islands have a fertile soil in the limited areas where cultivation is possible. The islands being situated in midocean between 19° and 23° north latitude, the northeast trade winds blow over them during the greater part of the year, and the eastern side of the islands is copiousty watered, but on the opposite slopes the rainfall is much less and irrigation is necessary to agriculture. The leeward side of the islands, moreover, is calmer and warmer than the windward side. The islands are volcanic, hilly, and well drained, and hence not malarial. In most parts of the islands the climate is not especially enervating, and Europeans, as well as Japanese and Chinese, find sustained effort to be possible. The islands are of small area and very mountainous, and the foreign immigrant has a large range of choice as regards climate. The Hawaiian group consists principally of seven islands, having a total area of 6,449 square miles. The largest island of the group is Hawaii, although Oahu, upon which the city of Honolulu is located, is the most populous one. Although the Hawaiian Islands have nearly twice the area of Porto Rico, their population is only one-sixth as great. According to the census taken by the United States Govern- ment in 1900 the inhabitants of the islands number 154,000, the increase from 1896 having been 44,981, which was equivalent to over 41 per cent. This very rapid growth in population was due to the sudden expansion of business resulting from the annexation of the islands to the United States. Until the statistics of the census of the Hawaiian Islands taken in 1900 have been analyzed and published it will not be possible to speak definitely in regard to the various elements of the present population. By the census of 1896 the population numbered 109,020, and of this total 31,019 were natives, 8,485 half-castes, 21,616 Chinese, 24,407 Jap- anese, 15,191 Portuguese, 3,086 Americans, 2,250 British, the rest of the population being made up of Germans, Norwegians, French, and Polynesians. The immigrants into the islands from the United States comprise a comparatively small share of the total population. They have, however, the industrial and political control of the islands. The laboring classes consist largely of Japanese and Chinese. It is esti- mated that there were 27,000 Chinese in the islands in 1899, and 6,000 of them were employed on the sugar plantations. The Japanese were estimated to have numbered 58,000 at the close of 1899, and it is said 436 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. that about 26,100 of them were emplo} 7 ed on the sugar plantations. Nearly five-sevenths of the plantation laborers consisted of Japanese in the year 1899. THE RESOURCES OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. The resources of Hawaii are almost exclusively agricultural. There are no minerals of consequence and manufactures are and will always be insignificant. The sugar industry is of overshadowing importance. The decomposed lava soils of the islands, when properly irrigated and treated with a small quantity of fertilizers, are exceedingly productive, the yield of sugar per acre being especially high, ranging from 3 to 5 tons per acre on the average. The total crop of 1891 is reported to have amounted to 146,000 tons, while that of 1899 was about 300,000 tons, and numerous additions have been made to the acreage of the planta- tions since that date. The capital invested in sugar is said to amount to $40,000,000. There are about 60 plantations on the islands. The plantations are organized on a large scale and in accordance with most economical methods. The rainfall on the leeward side of the island being light, irrigation is necessary, and extensive irrigation works have been constructed. While the large development of the sugar industry in Hawaii has added to the wealth of the islands, it has not been altogether fortunate for their economic progress. The climate and soil of the islands are such that the industries might be diversified, and it is probable that a population consisting to a large extent of small independent farmers might be developed if the sugar plantations did not include Such a large share of the islands. In the early eighties the best sugar lands were leased for thirty and forty year periods to a small number of planters, and the American capital invested in Hawaii has gone almost entirely into the sugar industry. The population connected with the sugar plantations consists of Japanese, Chinese, and Portuguese labor- ers, who probably will always constitute a dependent population. Rice is the second crop in value, and in former } T ears it has boon an important article of export. The rapid growth in the population, particularly in the number of Japanese, has so increased the home demand as nearly to put an end to the exportation of rice. The indus- try is carried on by the Chinese according to very primitive methods. Large quantities of tropical fruits, oranges, pineapples, bananas, etc., could be successfully grown in Hawaii. The exportation of bananas has begun, over $80,000 worth of them having been sent to California in 1899. At one time it seemed probable that the production of coffee would constitute the most important industry of the Hawaiian Islands, but the reciprocity treaty between Hawaii and the United States made the cultivation of sugar so profitable that capital has gone more and more into sugar plantations. Some of the coffee estates have been con- verted into sugar plantations, and at the present time it is estimated that there are less than 20,000 acres of coffee under cultivation. The annual production is larger than the home demand and a limited quantity is exported. The exports in 1897 amounted to 337 pounds, and those of 1899 were 779,796 pounds. a It seems probable that the a Later figures are not available because our commerce with Hawaii is now coasting trade, concerning which statistics are not kept. KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 437 annual production will grow less rather than increase, unless the coffee and sugar industries .should be developed together on the same planta- tions. Those who have studied the question have suggested that the two crops might advantageously be produced on the same plantation, because coffee grows at a greater elevation than the sugar does, and the season when coffee requires the largest labor force comes at a time when the sugar plantation has a surplus of workmen. An} T thing that can bring about the diversification of industries in Hawaii will be of advantage to the islands. Whether the industries of Hawaii can be diversified and the social conditions accompanying large plantation life can be changed is a matter of great importance to the economic future of Hawaii. There seems to be a tendency in all tropical countries toward the organiza- tion of industries upon a large scale. The corporation with abundant capital at its command seems in a measure to be taking the place form- erly occupied by the slave owner. In the time of slavery the planters organized and directed the labor force of the natives, and under the present capitalistic regime the corporations, in a different manner, are performing a similar task. Whether or not the capitalistic organi- zation of labor will result in a social betterment of the laboring classes and in the development of intelligent, self-supporting artisans remains to be seen. If it is possible to develop desirable social conditions any- where in the Tropics, Hawaii would seem to offer more opportunities than most of the island countries. The United States Government has established an agricultural experiment station in Hawaii that will doubtless be of assistance in varying the productions of the islands. General education will in time assist in the same work. THE CAXAL AND THE TRADE OF HAWAII. The Hawaiian Islands have a large and rapidly increasing foreign trade. The annexation of the islands to the United States was fol- lowed by a great expansion in business. The imports of 1897 were valued at $8,838,000, while those of 1899 amounted to $19,058,000. The exports of the islands increased from $16,029,000 in 1897 to $22,628,000 in 1899. The trade of the first half of 1900 was fully up to that of 1899. It is impossible to speak of the trade of the islands since that time, because the trade is nearly all with the United States, and our commercial statistics, as was stated above, do not include domestic trade. The share of the Hawaiian trade controlled by the United States is especially large. In 1898, 99.62 per cent of the exports of the islands came to the United States, and we furnished them 76.91 per cent of their imports. In 1899 the United States purchased 99.52 per cent of the Hawaiian exports, and supplied the islands 78.81 per cent of their imports. Our most important rival in the import trade of Hawaii is Great Britain, which supplies the islands with between 9 and 10 per cent of their purchases. Our exports to the Hawaiian Islands in 1899 consisted mainly of the following articles and values: Machinery $2, 089, 000 Eailroad materials 282, 000 Iron and steel 289, 000 Hardware, agricultural machinery, and tools 940, 000 Building materials 547, 000 Fertilizers 957, 000 Provisions •_ 1, 284, 000 438 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Practically all of the iron and steel products imported by Hawaii come from the Eastern States. The owner of one of the largest Hawaiian sugar plantations states that its water supply is handled through pumps and pipes purchased in Birmingham, Ala. , and that its sugar machinery was manufactured in St. Louis. A single firm near New York already sends $500,000 worth of machinery annually to Hawaii. Of the fertilizers, a part comes from Germany, but the larger share is from the phosphate beds of our Southern States, and the canal will aid Hawaiian agriculture by cheapening the cost of these com- modities as well as by furnishing a shorter route bj^ which to market the exported produce. At present our Atlantic States import 40,000 to 80,000 tons of Hawaiian sugar per year by way of Magellan and Cape Horn. This will be cheapened by the shorter route, and as the price of sugar on the Pacific coast is determined by its price in New York and London, the canal will enable the sugar grower to obtain a higher price for the bulk of the crop marketed in our Pacific States. In their trade relations the Hawaiian Islands may be considered as a part of our Pacific coast. They belong to the United States, the dominant race is American, English is the common language, our cap ital controls the industry of the islands, and their commerce is almost all with this country. An isthmian canal must have a great effect on Hawaii. The one-sidedness of her resources makes Hawaii especially dependent upon commerce. Sugar is the only product extensively exported; agriculture the only industry, and that is in an undiversified state. All manufactures and many of the food products needed by her increasing population must be imported. The complex demands of the islands can be supplied only in part by the industries of our Pacific coast States, and everything not originating there must be brought from our Eastern States or Europe. Some of the Hawaiian imports from the eastern part of the United States now move by the transcontinental railroads and thence by water, but the heavier articles usually go by Cape Horn or the Straits of Magellan. Some goods are sent by the Panama lines and transshipped at San Francisco. After the canal has been constructed, the traffic, both import and export, will be divided between the transcontinental railroads and the all- water canal route. Chapter XVI. — The canal and Central America and western M, arit o. I. CENTRAL AMERICA. POPULATION AND GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. The population of Central American countries has not been accu- rately determined by careful censuses, but the following table, com- piled from the Statesmen's Yearbook, doubtless gives approximately accurate figures regarding both the area and population of each of the Central American countries: REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 439 Area and population of Central American countries. Costa Rica. Guatemala Honduras . Nicaragua . Salvador... Total Sq. miles. 23, 000 63, 400 46, 250 49, 200 7,225 189, 075 Population. 300, 000 1,532,000 407, 000 420, 000 » 915, 000 3, 574, 000 Capital city. San Jose Guatemala City, Tegucigalpa ... Managua San Salvador... Popula- tion of Capital city. 25, 006 75,000 12, 000 20, 000 50, 006 "Bulletin Bureau of American Republics, March, 1901. The population of the Central American countries a is nearly all upon the plateaus adjacent to the Pacific. The climate of the Carib- bean coastal regions of Central America is humid, and the tropical vegetation grows so rank as to add much to the difficulty of occupy- ing and cultivating the country. The plateau on which the Central American population and industries are centered extends with varying width and elevation from Mexico to southern Costa Rica. West of the continental divide and parallel to it is a succession of volcanoes extending through all the region to the north of Costa Rica. In Guatemala they raise a barrier that walls in a series of upland lakes, in Salvador they inclose a high valley where most of the people of the country reside, and in Honduras and Nica- ragua they are near the Pacific between the lakes and the ocean. This double mountain range widens the plateau and increases the habit- able area. The plateau from Costa Rica northward is made up in large part of decomposed lava, which has formed a fertile soil. Like the lava soils of Hawaii, those of Central America are well adapted to sugar, coffee, and other crops of tropic agriculture. The Central American plateau is most closely connected commer- cially with the Pacific Ocean. The Caribbean outlets are the Costa Rica Railroad, from San Jose to Port Limon, and the San Juan River. To the Pacific, however, four railroads have been constructed, not including the short line terminating at Punta Arenas, Costa Rica. Two of these four railroads are in Guatemala, one in Salvador, and one in Nicaragua. Numerous wagon roads have been constructed, and an English company is constructing a railroad in Costa Rica between San San Jose and Tivives. THE CENTRAL AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. The industries a of Central America are mainly agricultural. Forest products are exported to some extent. The mineral resources of the country are beginning to be developed, but as yet on a comparatively small scale. Throughout Central America coffee is the staple product, the lead- ing State in its production being Guatemala. In that State the coffee belt is in the plateau, the western edge of the belt being some 10 or 15 miles from the Pacific Ocean. It is 50 to 80 miles wide. This is the part of the country where most of the population is to be found. a See PI. 84. 440 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The coffee in this region is caref ulty cultivated and extensively exported, two railroads to the Pacific having already been built, and a third line near the Mexican boundary will probably be constructed in the near future. The western plateau of Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica has numerous valleys where coffee culture is extensively carried on. The main coffee belt of Nicaragua is situated in the neigh- borhood of Jinotepe, northwest of Lake Nicaragua. In Costa Rica the valley in which the city of San Jose is located constitutes the most important coffee-growing region. The lowlands of the eastern coast, particularly of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, are well adapted to banana culture, and the United Fruit Company has extensive banana plantations in the neighborhood of Port Limon, Costa Rica, and Bluefields, Nicaragua. The San Juan River Valley is another region in which banana culture could be exten- sively carried on, and should the Nicaragua Canal be constructed a large amount of fruit will doubtless be grown in this valley. In the western part of Central America, where the soil is largely of volcanic origin, sugar can be very successfully grown. Several sugar plantations are now in successful operation, but their output is prac- tically all consumed within the country. In the future development of Central America the production of sugar will in all probability have a prominent place. There is at the present time a limited amount of cocoa produced in various sections, and this is a product which could readily be increased. It is also probable that rubber trees can be and will be profitably cul- tivated in the future. At the present time the world's rubber supply is mainly secured from the natural forest trees, but the growing demand for rubber and the increasing difficulty of securing adequate .supplies from the present uncertain sources make it probable that rubber will in the future be a cultivated product. When that time comes the lowlands will offer a favorable region. Throughout the uplands of Central America cattle are raised in large numbers, and one of the important exports at the present time is hides. Indeed, coffee, bananas, and hides are the leading articles of export. At the present time, with the exception of bananas and tim- ber, the leading exported commodities leave the country mainl} T by the Pacific ports. The lumbering industries are mainly located on the eastern shore, and the opening of a canal across the country will but indirectly assist them. The same is true of the exportation of dyewoods and other forest products. The mining of gold, silver, and copper has made some headway in Central America, and with the establishment of stronger governments and the development of additional facilities for transportation these mineral industries will doubtless develop. When it is possible to reach the mines in the western part of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Salvador, and Guatemala by improved means of transportation, and when it is possible to secure supplies and dispose of the product with moderate tnmsporstation costs, there is reason to believe that the Central Amer- ican countries will regain some of the prominence which they once held as a source of precious metals. Possibly the most valuable mineral resource of the region will prove to be copper, the world's demand for which seems to increase more rapidly than does the sup- ply of the metal. KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 441 As to the productive capabilities of Central America, there is no doubt that when foreign capital can be invested freely and safely in industrial enterprises the progress of that region will be steady and eventually reach large proportions. The construction of the canal will increase the shipping facilities of the eastern part of the country and will bring the western half of the region into close commercial- relations with its chief markets, the countries of the North Atlantic. THE CANAL AND THE FOREIGN TRADE OF CENTRAL AMERICA. The opening of a canal across the American Isthmus, either at Panama or at Nicaragua, would enlarge the foreign commerce of Cen- tral America and increase the share of the trade controlled by the United States. A waterway across Nicaragua would, however, have a greater effect upon the industries and commerce of Central America than would one at Panama, because of the great assistance the Nica- ragua Canal would give to economic and political progress in the States adjacent. Nicaragua and Costa Rica would contribute tropical products to the traffic of a canal passing through their territory and to the commerce of Europe and the United States. Fruits and forest products would be shipped from the San Juan Valley and the northern part of Costa Rica. In the uplands of Costa Rica and on the plateau of Nicaragua the exportation of cattle, coffee, fruits and vegetables, sugar, and probably tobacco would be stimulated by the canal and the facilities for shipping at all times to all important commercial coun- tries. Nicaragua would be especially favored by the canal because of the facilities which Lake Nicaragua would afford for collecting and distributing commodities. The interoceanic waterway would bring the interior basin of the country, where most of the industrial activity is centered, into close connection with the world's commerce. The commerce of the eastern ports of Central America is largely controlled by the United States while most of that of the western slope is with Europe. We supply 55 to 60 per cent of the imports of British Honduras or Belize on the Atlantic coast. To Guatemala as a whole we furnish only 39 per cent, including our direct shipments to the east coast, and the flour, lumber, and provisions from San Fran- cisco to the west coast. Great Britain supplies most of the $558,000 worth of cottons purchased by Guatemala, and nearly all of the manu- factures imported by that country come from Europe by the Straits of Magellan. The same conditions prevail in western Honduras, al- though we have most of the trade of the eastern ports where there are good steamer connections with New Orleans. Salvador has a foreign trade of $20 per capita, divided between San Francisco and Europe. The last importation of steel rails came from England. In 1895 the United States supplied Nicaragua with but 23 per cent of the imports of the Pacific side, and the goods sold by us consisted largely of Cali- fornia lumber, wines, and flour. In 1897 we furnished the following percentage of the imports of eastern ports of Nicaragua: Cape Gracias a Dios, 85 per cent; Bluefields, 83.6 per cent; Greytown, 53 per cent. Fifty-eight per cent of the goods forwarded from Greytown to the interior were from the United States. We are now furnishing 45 to 50 per cent of the imports of Costa Rica, and the share has increased considerably since the railroad to Port Limon changed the commercial outlet from Punta Arenas on the Pacific to Port Limon on the Atlantic. 442 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The total imports of Central America and the shares of the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany are shown by the follow- ing- table taken from the publications of the United States Bureau of Statistics : Imports of Central America. Froni- Total United States United Kingdom Germany $15, 800, 285 2, 935, 447 4,941,4fU a 1,739, 304 $23, 999, 561 7, 739, 907 5, 266, 4,4 1,781,666 The Central American trade has not reached large proportions, but it is growing. Our share has more than doubled in a decade while that of the United Kingdom and Germany has remained nearly sta- tionary. Under present conditions, the Pacific coast of the United States trades with the Pacific coast of Central America and our Atlan- tic coast ports with the Caribbean section. The canal will enable each of our coasts to find a market on the opposite seaboard of Cen- tral America. This and the industrial development of the American Isthmus resulting from the canal will largely promote the commerce of the United States with Central America. II. WESTERN MEXICO. a The area of that part of Mexico draining di recti}'' into the Pacific Ocean comprises over 300,000 square miles, and is equal in size to California, Oregon, and Washington. The northern half of this Pacific slope of Mexico resembles the southern part of California and Arizona in climate and general physical conditions. The southern half of the region is tropical in character, the section beyond Tehuantepec being physiographically a continuation of Guatemala. According to the census of 1895 the section under consideration contained approximately 4,000,000 people, and until the construction of the railways about the City of Mexico and on the Mexican Plateau stimulated the growth of population in that part of the Republic the rate of increase was greater on the Pacific slope than in the country as a whole. The Pacific slope of Mexico is more geographically isolated than are the west coast States of our own country. Seven transcontinental railway lines connect our Western States with the Mississippi Valley and the eastern section of our country, but as yet there is only one railway, a spur of the Southern Pacific, joining the western part of Mexico with the region east of the Cordilleras. While the railway system of Mexico has been rapidly extended, the construction of lines connecting the plateau with the Pacific coast has made slow progress, because the western slope of the great Mexican Plateau is so steep as to make railroad building extremely difficult. The result of this lack of railway lines connecting western Mexico with the United States and with Mexico east of the mountains has been that the region is in the main commercially tributary to Europe. "See PI. 85. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 443 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OP WESTERN MEXICO. The western slope of Mexico, being situated in temperate and tropical latitudes and having a variation of several thousand feet in altitude, is capable of producing a great variety of agricultural prod- ucts. The Tropic of Cancer divides the region under discussion into two nearly equal sections, the most important port of the region in the temperate latitude being Mazatlan, situated just north of the tropic. In the irrigated portion of the temperate section wheat can be grown to advantage and also subtropical fruits. In the tropical latitudes sugar, coffee, and other tropical products are grown. North of the twentieth parallel irrigation is everywhere necessary for agriculture, but south of that line the natural rainfall is usually sufficient. In this temperate region the amount of cultivable land is limited to the portions for which water can be secured, but those sec- tions, as is usual in irrigated regions, are highly productive, Several valleys of western Mexico have already been irrigated, and a reference to two of them will illustrate the results that are being accomplished. In the valley of the Yaqui River, which flows into the Gulf of Cali- fornia a few miles south of Guaymas, an American corporation has constructed an irrigation ditch 40 miles in length, by which 400,000 acres of land can be watered. In this irrigated valley corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, and subtropical fruits can be and are raised. The wheat produced is usually sold in Mexico, although in 1892 some of it was exported by way of New Orleans to Europe. Oranges are exported from the Yaqui Valley and other sections of the State of Sonora to the United States. Somewhat farther south, in the State of Sinaloa, a short railway has been built from the port of Altata to Culiacan, and along the line of this railroad irrigation works have been constructed, and a sugar estate established upon which 900 people are employed. A few years ago this region w T as an uninhabited waste. The valley in which this sugar estate is located is said to be capable of producing 40,000 to 50,000 tons of sugar annually. A reference to Lower California will afford another illustration of the agricultural resources of the temperate latitude of western Mexico. This peninsula has an extremely arid climate and is everywhere infer- tile except in the limited sections where irrigation is possible. The food supply for the inhabitants has to be imported to a large extent, although some sugar is exported to the mainland from the irrigated district in the southern part of the peninsula. The most important vegetable product of Lower California is the agave, a plant that grows in many parts of Mexico. There are several species of the plant, one producing the soft pita fiber and another the hemp of commerce. Henequin, or sisal, the species of agave that grows in Yucatan, and from which the so-called hemp is obtained, also grows in Lower Cali- fornia, although it has not yet been cultivated for exportation. It seems, however, that the production of hemp in Yucatan is nearing its possible maximum, and that the hemp of Lower California will soon become comniercialty ' important. An American corporation is now arranging to develop the enterprise. In view of the fact that the larg- est market for sisal is in that part of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and that the article is a bulky one, whose costs for transportation are comparatively large, it would seem that the open- ing of the isthmian canal would have a very favorable effect upon the development of the hemp industry of Lower California. 444 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In the tropical part of western Mexico the most important agricul- tural product is coffee. In the neighborhood of Mazatlan and Man- zanillo there are some estates from which coffee is now exported. The industry seems, however, to be in a backward state of development. The resources of tropical Mexico from Manzanillo east are now of but small importance to international trade. The economic and social conditions of Chiapas, the State next to Guatemala, will illustrate this fact. This State of Chiapas is the continuation of the coffee belt that crosses Guatemala, but of the 20,000,000 acres of land comprised within the State only 6,000,000 acres have as j r et become private prop erty, and it is said that only 70,000 acres are under cultivation. The population of the State, including foreigners, comprises only 320,000 people. A beginning has been made in the cultivation of rubber trees, but there is neither railroad, bank, nor electric light in the State, nor are there any modern agricultural implements used. The construction of an isthmian canal would bring this part of Mexico into close com- mercial connection with the countries of the North Atlantic. MINERAL RESOURCES. The Republic of Mexico is a very mountaiuous country, possessing extensive deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, and other metals. Up to the present time foreign capital has gone more largely into mining than into any other enterprises. As the transportation s} r stem of the country is developed and the population becomes denser a larger diversification of industries may be expected, but for some time to come the mineral industries will be of chief consequence. They will always rank high. The western Cordilleras of Mexico contain the richest mineral depos- its of the country, and it is the northern half of these western Cordil- leras that possesses the greatest mineral wealth. Thus far the mining- operations of this section have been confined mainly to the eastern slope. Some mining operations are being carried on near the Pacific coast, but the larger part of the mountainous region has } T et to be developed b} r mining operations. The location of these western Cordilleras is such that they are natu- rally tributary to the Pacific rather than to the Gulf of Mexico. Some of the mountains are within 50 miles of the Pacific, and practically all of these western ranges are within 300 miles of that ocean. They average from two to three times the latter distance from the Gulf. At the present time four railroads are being constructed from the plateau westward across these ranges to the Pacific, but it will prob- ably be several years before any of them can be completed. One of the great drawbacks to the mineral development of western Mexico at the present time is the high cost of fuel on the Pacific. Coke is now brought from Europe by way of Cape Horn to western Mexico. It is possible that by the time the canal has been opened good coal will be found in sufficient quantity in the mountains of western Mexico. Should this not happen, it will be possible to export coal from our Southern cities by way of the canal to western Mexico for sale at about half the price at present prevailing in that locality. Without attempting to speak in detail of the mining operations now being conducted in the western part of Mexico, reference may be made to the fact that there is a large number of gold and silver mines REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 445 in operation in the neighborhood of Mazatlan. The output from this region, both of gold and silver, is rapidly increasing. Old mines are being reopened, the cyanide process is being introduced, and the con- struction of the railroad from Durango through to the coast is being pushed. Ninety miles cast of Culiacan an American company has erected a water-power plant that furnishes 500 horsepower throughout the year. The power is converted into electricity for use in the mines. In the northwestern part of the State of Durango, in the Topia dis- trict, there is a region possessing silver ores, lead, iron, and limestone in abundance. In southwestern Chihuahua are valuable deposits of gold and silver. This district is at present 300 miles from a railroad, and the Topia district, just mentioned, is now 106 miles distant from the railway. The consequence is that in both sections mining operations can now be carried on only on a small scale. Mention is made of these districts to call attention to the fact that the construction of railways and better facilities for shipment from Pacific ports can add very much to the already important mining industries of western Mexico. Mention might be made of numerous other mining industries; those spoken of are merely illustrative. The peninsula of Lower California has valuable resources of gold, silver, copper, and salt. Some American companies are now mining gold and silver, and a French corporation, the Baleo Copper Company, at Santa Rosalia, is now annually shipping 18,000 tons of copper and copper matte to Europe. Some of this product goes across the Gulf of California to Guaymas and is sent in bond to New Orleans and thence to Europe. More of it, however, is sent around the Horn. The company imports about 60,000 tons of coke by way of the cape, and its mining supplies come from the same source by the same route. THE CANAL AND THE COMMERCE Ot WESTERN MEXICO. The character of the trade of western Mexico and the effects which the canal will have upon that trade can best be illustrated by reference to the trade of Mazatlan, the most important port of the region. The information herein given in regard to the industries and trade of Mazatlan is taken from an excellent special report prepared for the Isthmian Canal Commission by the United States consul located in that city. The commercial connections of Mazatlan with the United States are by steamers running to San Francisco and to Panama. A minor share of this trade is handled by the Southern Pacific Railway. The facili- ties for shipping between Mazatlan and Europe are much better. The Chilean line carries some of Mazatlan's exports to Valparaiso where they are transferred to vessels bound for Europe. A French line and a German line of steamers make regular calls at Mazatlan. There are also two sailing vessels carrying coal from England to Mazatlan, and from time to time other sailing vessels, as occasion requires, are oper- ated under charters from England, France, and Germany. Having better and cheaper connections with Europe, the trade of Mazatlan is mainly with that Continent. A New York exporter of machinery says: At present a planter in the Pacific countries of Central America and Mexico can ship coffee and rice machinery from any European port and secure freight rates which would involve a saving of from 5 to 10 per cent on the value of his purchase, provided the cost price 'was equal to that quoted here. 446 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION The total foreign trade of Mazatlan in 1899 amounted to $42,000,000 Mexican silver, and at the present time this trade is mainly controlled by the merchants of Hamburg, Liverpool, and Bordeaux. The vessels that take out coal and other commodities from Europe load back with ore, tropical woods, and the other exports of Mazatlan. In 1899 Mazatlan sent to Europe $500,000 worth of logwood and mahogany, whereas our imports of those woods amount to $16,000. An interest- ing contrast to this is offered by the trade of Tampico, on the opposite side of Mexico. The commerce of that city is larger with the Linked States than with any other country, three-eighths of the city's imports being from our country. Although the present trade of Mazatlan is comparatively large, it is much less than it will be when the means of communication with the tributary country have been improved. At the present time there are no railway connections with the interior, all the trade being handled by coasting vessels or by wagons and pack mules. The com- pletion of a railroad now being built westward from Durango will greatly enhance the commercial importance of Mazatlan. Our manufacturing cities in the eastern part of the United States will be between 1,000 and 2,000 miles nearer to western Mexico by way of the canal than to San Francisco and Seattle. This region, moreover, is so situated that the vessels engaged in our interoceanic coasting trade can conveniently engage in its commerce. The isthmian canal will cheapen the cost of constructing railroads in western Mex- ico and will lower the cost of machinery needed in the development of the mines and plantations. It is quite probable also that the coal from the southern part of the United States will be taken to western Mexico through the canal, and it is possible that the canal will make profitable the development of the great iron deposits of Durango. This vast deposit of iron ore in Durango is situated within 125 miles of the Pacific, with which it might readily be connected by rail. At the present time the commerce of western Mexico is mainly with Europe and the most important commercial route is that around South America. The opening of the isthmian canal will give it closer con- nections with the United States than with Europe, and it seems prob- able that its trade will eventually be handled largely by our merchants. Chapter XVII. — Comparison of distances by the isthmian canal and other routes. In determining what commerce would use an isthmian canal, the fact of most fundamental importance is the effect which the new waterway will have on the ocean distances between the trade centers adjacent to the Atlantic and those in and about the Pacific. The length of the route determines the time of the voyage, and in general the commerce of the world is so conducted as to minimize distances as much as the conditions of ocean navigation and international exchanges permit. It is accordingly desirable to preface the discussion of the traffic of an isthmian canal with a comparison of the distances between the Atlantic and Pacific by way of the American isthmus with those by way of the various routes now followed. This comparison can best be made by means of a series of tables giving the distances by alternative routes' 1 between the most important commercial centers. In most respects a Consult pi. 74 for a chart of ocean routes by way of existing trade lines and by way of the Nicaragua and Panama canals. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 447 the tables are self-interpretative. The distances are expressed in nau- tical miles, and the figures used in compiling the tables were furnished by the United States Hydro-graphic Office. The length of each canal is reckoned in nautical miles, the Nicaragua Canal being 101 nautical miles long, the Panama 41, and the Suez 88. In the first table a comparison is made between the distances by the Nicaragua Canal with those by the Straits of Magellan and the west coast of North, Central, and South America. Table I. — Distances i x ia the Nicaragua and Magellan routes between the eastern ports of the United States and the ports of the west coast of North, Central, and South America. Via — To Sitka. To Port Town- send. To Port- land. To San Fran- cisco. To San Diego. To Aca- pulco. To San Jose de Guate- mala. Portland, Me. Boston New York. Philadelphia. Baltimore Norfolk . Charleston . Savannah.. Jacksonville Port Tampa . Pensacola . Mobile New Orleans . Galveston (Nicaragua. . 1 Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua . . /Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua.. (Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua . . \Magellan».. I Nicaragua . . ■(Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua.. \Magellan 1 .. I Nicaragua b . (Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua c . ■(Magellan 1 .. /Nicaragua 1 ' . (Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua., i Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua . . (Magellan 1 .. /Nicaragua . . (Magellan 1 .. /Nicaragua . . (Magellan 1 .. /Nicaragua . . (Magellan 1 .. 6,418 15, 021 6,373 14, 986 6, 223 15, 016 6,171 15, 066 6,143 15,078 6,013 14,942 5, 803 14, 951 5,809 14, 980 5,767 14,955 5, 280 15,116 5, 386 15, 320 5,413 15, 362 5,420 15,416 5, 603 15, 598 5, 891 14, 494 5,856 14,459 5,696 14,489 5,636 14, 539 5,616 14, 551 5,486 14,415 5, 276 14, 424 5, 282 14, 453 5,240 14,428 4,753 14, 589 4,859 14, 793 4,886 14, 835 4,893 14, 889 5,076 15, 071 5,766 14, 369 5,731 14,334 5,571 14, 364 5,511 14,414 5,491 14,426 5,361 14, 290 5,151 14, 299 5, 157 14,328 5,115 14, 303 4, 628 14, 464 4,734 14, 668 4,761 14, 710 4,768 14,764 4,951 14, 946 5,116 13,719 5,081 13,684 4,921 13,714 4,861 13, 764 4,841 13, 776 4,711 13, 640 4,501 13, 649 5, 704 13, 678 4,465 13, 653 3,978 13, 814 4,084 14,018 4,111 14, 060 4,118 14,114 4,301 14, 296 4,668 13, 342 4,633 13. 307 4,473 13, 337 4,413 13, 387 4,393 13,399 4,263 13, 263 4,053 13, 272 4,059 13, 301 4,017 13, 276 3,530 13,437 3,636 13,641 3, 663 13, 683 3,670 13, 737 3, 853 13,919 2,736 11, 466 2,701 11,431 2,541 11,461 2, 481 11,511 2,461 11,523 2,331 11,387 2, 121 11, 396 2,127 11, 425 2,085 11, 400 1, 598 11, 561 1,704 11, 765 1,731 11,807 1,738 11,861 1,921 11,043 From — Via— To Hono- lulu. To Guaya- quil. To Callao. To Iquique. To Val- paraiso. To Coro- nel. Portland, Me /Nicaragua . . 6,626 3,441 3,946 4,588 5,173 5,356 1 Magellan »_. 14,854 10, 428 9,707 9, 226 s,si;i; 8, 135 (Nicaragua.. 6, 591 3,403 3,911 4, 553 5,138 5, 321 /Magellan 1 .. 14,819 10, 393 9, 672 9,199 8,431 8,100 (Nicaragua . . 6,431 3,246 3,751 4,393 4,978 5,171 (Magellan 1 .. 11,489 10, 423 9, 702 9, 221 « 8, 461 8, 130 Philadelphia (Nicaragua . . 6,371 3,186 3,691 4,333 4, 918 5,101 (Magellan 1 .. 14,899 10, 473 9,752 9,271 8,511 8,180 /Nicaragua.. (Magellan 1 .. 6,351 14,911 3,166 10, 485 3,671 9,764 4,313 ,9,2S3 4, 898 8,523 4, 581 8,192 (Nicaragua.. 1 Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua 11 . 6, 221 14, 775 3,036 10, 349 3,641 9,628 4,191 9,147 4,768 8,387 4,951 8, 056 6,011 2, 826 3. 331 3,973 4, 558 4,741 (Magellan 1 .. 14, 784 10, 358 9,637 9, 156 8,396 8 065 I Nicaragua c . 6,017 2,832 3, 337 3,979 4,564 4,747 1 Magellan 1 .. 14,813 10, 387 9, 666 9,185 8, 425 8,094 (Nicaragua*. 5,975 2,790 3, 295 3,937 4,522 4. 7115 (Magellan 1 .. 14, 788 10, 362 9,641 9,160 8,400 8, 069 [Nicaragua .. 5, 188 2, 303 2, 808 3,450 4,035 4,218 1 Magellan 1 .. 14,949 10,523 9, 802 9, 321 8,561 8, 230 (Nicaragua . . /Magellan 1 .. 5,594 15, 153 2, 409 10,727 2,914 10, 006 3, 556 9,525 4,144 8,765 4, 324 8, 134 (Nicarague.. 1 Magellan 1 .. 5, 621 15,195 2, 436 10, 769 2,941 10, 048 3,583 9, 567 4, 168. 8,807 4,351 8, 476 (Nicaragua . . 5, 628 2, 443 2,948 3, 590 4,175 4, 358 1 Magellan 1 .. 15, 249 10, 823 10, 102 9, 621 8,861 8, 530 1 Nicaragua.. (Magellan 1 .. 5,811 15, 431 2, 626 11,005 3,131 10, 284 3,773 9,803 4,358 , 9,043 4.541 8, 712 1 Via Pernambuco, Callao, and San Francisco for points bevond these ports. h Vessel going by west end of Cuba will shorten voyage 69 miles for Charleston. c 104 for Savannah. d 136 for Jacksonville. 448 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The above table compares the distances by way of the Nicaragua Canal with those through the Straits of Magellan from the chief ports of our Atlantic and Gulf seaboard extending, from Portland to Galves- ton, to thirteen representative ports on the west coast of the American continents. Coronel, the most southerly of the west coast ports men- tioned in the table, is situated within two or three hundred miles of the southern limits of the industrial section of Chile. It is also an important coaling port at the present time. It will be observed that the distance from New York to Coronel by way of the Nicaragua Canal is 2,959 miles less than the present route through the Straits of Magellan. The effect of an isthmian canal upon the length of ocean routes con- necting our eastern seaboard with the west coast of the three Americas is well shown by comparing the distances by wa} r of the Nicaragua Canal and the Straits of Magellan from New York, the largest Atlan- tic port, and from New Orleans, the largest Gulf port, to San Fran- cisco, the representative west coast city of the United States, to Iquique, the center of the nitrate of soda section, and to Coronel, in southern Chile. This comparison is shown in the following table: From New York via — Nicaragua. Magellan From New Orleans via — Nicaragua. Magellan San Francisco Iquique Coronel 4,921 4,393 5,171 13,714 9, 221 8,130 4,118 3,590 4,358 14,114 9, 621 8,530 In the following table (II) the distances from representative Euro- pean ports to the west coast of the American continents by the Nicaragua and Magellan routes are given : Table II. — Distances from Europe to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua Canal and the Straits of Magellan. To— Sitka Port Townsend ... Portland San Francisco San Diego Acapulco San .lose do Guate- mala Honolulu Guayaquil Callao Iquique Valparaiso Coronel From Liverpool via— Nlcara- Magel- gua. Ian 8, 953 8,426 8,801 7,651 7,211 5,840 r>. 2sr, 9, 175 5,975 6, 181 7,12:t 7,708 7, Mil 15,386 14,859 14, 734 ll.osl 13,707 12,261 11,831 15,219 10.722 10,(172 9,591 8,831 - ,00 From Hamburg via — Nicara- Magel- gua. Ian. 9,470 8,943 S.SI.S s.lt.s 7,718 6,343 5,788 9,678 6,493 6, 998 7.610 8,225 8, 108 15, 836 15, 309 15. IS I 14,534 M, 157 12,711 12, 2M 15,66'.! 11,172 L0.522 10,011 9,281 8,950 From Antwerp via — Nicara- gua. 9,191 8, 664 8,539 7, 889 7,489 6,064 5,509 9,399 6,214 6,719 7,361 7,946 s, L29 Magel- lan." 15, 557 15,1130 14,905 1 1,255 13,878 12, 132 12, 002 15, 390 10,898 10,243 9, 762 9, 002 s, 101 From Bordeaux via — Nicara- Magel- gua. Ian.' 8, 941 8, 111 8,289 7. 6: v.i 7, 189 5, 814 5, 259 9,149 5, 964 6, 169 7,111 7,606 7, 879 15, 073 14,546 11, 121 13,771 13,894 11,948 11,518 14,906 10, 409 0,250 o, 278 \51,S 8,1S7 From Gibraltar via — Nicara- Magel- gua. Ian. 8, 675 8,148 8, 023 7,37;; 6,923 5,548 4,998 8,883 5,698 6, 203 6,845 7. 130 7,613 11. 155 13,928 18,803 is, i a 12.770 11,330 10,000 14,288 9, 701 9, 1 1 1 8,660 7.000 7,500 »Via Pernambuco, Callao, and Ban Francisco for ports north of those cities. The European ports included in the above table are so situated that the distances from them to Pacific ports typify the distances from the leading industrial and commercial centers of Europe, it will be observed that the distance from Liverpool to Coronel by way of the Nicaragua Canal will be 609 miles iess than by the route through the REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 449 Straits of Magellan. The route to the nitrate port of Iquique will be shortened 2,468 miles. San Francisco will be brought 5,433 miles nearer to Liverpool and 5,780 miles nearer to Gibraltar. In Tables III, IV, and V the distances from the Atlantic American ports to Pacific countries by way of the Nicaragua Canal and by way of existing routes are compared. Table III. — Distances, in nautical miles, from Atlantic American ports to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong via the Nicaragua and Suez routes. To Yokohama via— To Shanghai via — To Hongkong via— From— San Fran- cisco and Great Circle. Hono- lulu. Suez," Co- lombo, Singa- pore, Hong- kong, and Shang- hai. San Fran- cisco, Great Circle, and Yoko- hama. Hono- lulu and Yoko- hama. Suez.'j Co- lombo, Singa- pore, and Hong- kong. San Fran- cisco, Great Circle, Yokoha- ma, and Shang- hai. Hono- lulu, Yoko- hama, and Shang- hai. Hono- lulu, Guam, and Manila. Suez, Co- lombo, and Singa- pore. Portland Boston New York Philadelphia.. Baltimore Norfolk Charleston Savannah Jacksonville .. Port Tampa... Pensacola Mobile New Orleans.. Galveston 9,652 9,617 9,457 9,397 9,377 9, 247 « 9, 037 10, 026 9,991 9,831 9,771 9,751 9, 621 = 9,411 ■19,417 • 9, 376 8,888 8,994 9, 021 9,028 9,211 13, 330 13, 370 13, 564 13, 707 13, 852 13, 727 13, 982 14,057 14, 137 14,629 14,S33 14, 875 14, 929 15,111 10, 702 10, 667 10, 507 10, 447 10, 427 10, 297 ° 10, 087 * 10, 093 •10,051 9, 564 9,670 9,697 9,704 9,887 11,076 11,041 10, 881 10, 821 10, 801 10, 671 • 10, 461 a 10, 467 • 10, 425 9,938 10, 044 10,071 10, 078 10,261 12, 280 12, 320 12, 514 12, 657 12, 802 12, 677 12, 932 13, 007 13, 087 13,579 13, 783 13, 825 13, 879 14, 061 11,561 11,526 11,366 11,306 11,286 11,156 « 10, 946 a 10, 952 • 10, 910 10, 423 10, 529 10, 556 10, 563 10, 746 11,935 11, 900 11,740 11,680 11,660 11,530 • 11, 320 4 11,326 o 11,284 10, 797 10, 903 10, 930 10, 937 11,120 12, 097 12, 062 11,902 11,842 11, 822 11,692 •11,482 * 11, 488 •11,446 10, 959 11,065 11,092 11,099 11,282 11, 421 11,461 11,655 11, 798 11,943 11,818 12, 073 12, 148 12,228 12, 720 12, 924 12, 966 13, 020 13, 202 1 Direct voyage from Singapore to Yokohama reduces this distance by 393 miles. b Direct voyage from Singapore to Shanghai reduces this distance by 66 miles. c Vessels going by west end of Cuba will shorten voyage 69 miles for Charleston. d 104 miles for Savannah. e 136 miles for Jacksonville. In Table III the distances from representative ports of the Atlantic and Gulf to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong by way of the various alternative routes are given. The distances given in the table are those which a vessel would take in going by actual commercial routes. It has been deemed more important to deal with distances by commer- cial routes rather than b}^ the shortest possible course. The shortest route from the American Isthmus to Japan or China is by way of the Great Circle. The distance from Brito to Yokohama direct is 7,122; via Magdalena Bay, Lower California, 7,144; via San Francisco, 7,236, and via Honolulu, 7,610 miles. By the Great Circle route a vessel can call atSan Francisco by adding only lllmiles to its voyage; and with this call at San Francisco included, the distance from New York to Shanghai by the Great Circle and Yokohama is 374 miles less than via Honolulu and Yokohama. The Nicaragua route is shorter than the Suez route for all Asiatic points mentioned in the table, the advantages of the Nicaragua route being greater for our Gulf ports than for those on the Atlantic. Especial note may be made of the fact that the distance to Hongkong by way of Honolulu, Guam, and Manila is considerably greater than by a route which enables a vessel to call en route at San Francisco, Yokohama, and Shanghai. The latter route is 536 miles less for a vessel starting from New York. S. Doc. 54, pt 2- -29' 450 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In order to compare the distances by various routes connecting our eastern seaboard with Manila, Table IV has been prepared. Table IV. — Distances, in nautical miles, from American Atlantic ports to Manila via Nicaragua and Suez routes. From— Via San Francisco, Great Circle, and Yokohama. Via Honolulu and Yokohama. Via Honolulu, Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong. Via Honololu and Guam. Via Suez, Colombo, Singapore. Portland Boston New York . . . Philadelphia Baltimore ... Norfolk Charleston a . Savannah b .. Jacksonville Port Tampa . Pensacola . . . Mobile New Orleans Galveston ... 11,402 11,367 11,207 11,147 11.127 10, 997 10, 787 10, 793 10, 751 10, 264 10, 370 10, 397 10, 404 10,507 11,776 11,741 11,581 11,521 11,501 11,371 11,161 11,167 11,125 10, 638 10, 744 10,771 10.77S 10,881 12, 563 12, 528 12, 368 12,308 12,288 12. 158 11,948 11,954 11,912 11,425 11,581 11,558 11,565 11,668 11,469 11,434 11,274 11,214 11,194 11,064 10,854 10, 860 10, 818 10, 331 10, 437 10, 464 10, 471 10, 574 11,367 11,407 11,601 11,744 11,889 11,764 12,019 12, 094 12, 174 12, 266 I2,s70 12, 912 12, 966 13, 148 » The route to Greytown via west end of Cuba is 69 miles less. b The route to Greytown via west end of Cuba is 104 miles less. c The route to Greytown via west end of Cuba is 136 miles less. It will be seen in the table that the distance from New York to Ma- nila by way of San Francisco, the Great Circle, and Yokohama, is 11,207 miles, and that the distance b} r way of Honolulu and Guam is 11,274 miles. The Suez route is longer* than either of these routes, being 11,601 miles. A vessel bound from New York or New Orleans, or an} r other eastern seaport to Manila can call at San Francisco, Yokohama, and Hongkong en route by adding 720 miles to the length of a voyage by way of Honolulu and Guam. Manila, it will also be noticed, is some- what nearer the eastern part of the United States by way of the Nica- ragua Canal than by way of Suez. The manner in which the Nicaragua Canal will affect the distances between our eastern seaboard and Australia is shown b}^ Table V: Table V. — Distances, in nautical miles, between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Australia via the Nicaragua and Suez routes. To Adelaide via— From— Sydney and Mel bourne, Portland H< .stun New York .. . Philadelphia Baltimore ... Norfolk < lharleston . . Savannah . . . Jacksonville. Port Tampa . Pensacola ... Mobile New < Orleans Galveston . .. Brito, St.Yin- Tahiti, cent and I 'ape 111" (i 1 Hope. 954 919 759 099 679 549 :;:;<.» 345 303 Si 6 922 9 (9 956 139 12,446 12, 159 12,67 i L2.641 12,736 12,61 I 12,761 12,821 12,846 12.213 13, 117 13, 189 13,513 13, 72;. To Melbourne via— Brito, Tahiti, and Sydney. 10,446 10, ill 10,251 10, 191 10,171 10,041 9,231 9,837 9, 795 9,808 9, 1 1 1 9, in 9, lis 9,631 St. Vin- cent, Cape of Good Hope, and Ade- laide. 12,951 12,967 13,083 13,149 13,211 13,122 L8.269 13,329 13,354 13, 751 13,955 13,997 L4.051 I 1,233 To Sydney via- Brito and Tahiti.' St Vin- cent, (i 1 Hope, Ade- laide, and Mel- bourne. 9,871 9,836 9,676 9,616 9,596 9, 166 9,256 9,262 9, 220 8,733 8,839 8, 866 8,873 9,056 13, 529 18,642 13,668 13,, 721 13,819 18,697 18,844 13,904 13,929 14,326 i 1,630 I 1,572 11.626 14,808 To Wellington via- Brito and Tahiti. 1 8,911 8,876 s, 716 S,ti5li 8,632 S.510 8, 296 8,302 8, 260 7,773 7,879 7,906 7,913 8,096 St. Vin- cent, Good Hope, and Mel bourne. 14,204 11.217 14,899 II, 191 1 1.372 i 1,519 14,579 14,604 15,001 16,205 15,217 15, 301 15, 188 Straits of Ma- gellan. 11,419 LI, 384 11, 11 I 11. 164 11, 176 11,140 11,349 11,378 11,353 11,514 11,718 11,760 11,814 11,996 « The course from Brito to Sydney direct, omitting call at Tahiti, would be 52 miles less, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 451 The distance from New York to Australia by the Cape of Good Hope is practically the same as by the Suez Canal, and the Cape route has the advantage of more favorable winds and currents and of a cooler temperature. Vessels going from our eastern coast to Australia always round the Cape; accordingly, the comparisons of Table V are between the Nicaragua and Good Hope routes. Steamers bound for Australia via the Cape usually call at St. Vincent for coal; hence the distances given in the table include a call at that island. The route between the American isthmus and Australia and New Zealand is by way of the centrally located island of Tahiti, which will doubtless become an important coaling station upon the opening of the isthmian canal. New York is 3,982 miles nearer Sydney by way of Brito and Tahiti than via St. Vincent, Good Hope, Adelaide, and Melbourne. Adelaide is 1,816 a miles nearer New York and 3,587 miles nearer New Orleans by Brito and Tahiti than by Good Hope. Wellington will be brought 5,617 b miles nearer New York by the Nicaragua Canal. The places in Australia, the East Indies, and southern China equally distant from New York by the Nicaragua and Suez routes are shown on pi. 86. It will be observed that the line passing through points equidistant from New York via the two canals crosses the western part of Australia, runs west of the Philippines, and touches the continent of Asia in the neighborhood of the island of Hainan considerably to the west of Hongkong. In Table VI the distances from Liverpool to Australasia and the Orient by way of the Nicaragua and Suez routes are contrasted. Table VI. — Distances from Liverpool to the East by the Suez and Nicaragua routes. Suez route. Nicaragua route. Differ- ence — To— Porta of call. Nau- tical miles. Ports of call. Nau- tical miles. Suez — ; Nicara- gua +. Adelaide Melbourne .. S5'dney Aden," Colombo, King George Sound. Aden," Colombo. King George Sound, Adelaide. Aden," Colombo, King George Sound, Adelaide, Mel- bourne. Aden, "Colombo, KingGeorge Sound, Melbourne. Aden," Colombo, Singapore. . . do 11,151 11,659 12,234 12,919 9,677 9,731 11,362 11,640 Brito, Tahiti, Sydney, Mel- bourne. b Brito, Tahiti, Sydney b Brito, Tahiti* 13,489 12, 981 12, 406 11,446 13,937 13, 777 13, 554 12, 187 -2,338 -1,322 172 Wellington.. .....doc +1,503 Manila Hongkong... Brito, San Francisco, Yoko- hama. 11 do<= -4,260 -4,046 -2, 192 547 Tientsin Yokohama . . Aden, Colombo, Singapore, Hongkong, Shanghai. do Brito, San Francisco, Yoko- hama. "Direct voyage from Aden to King George Sound would shorten these routes 540 miles. b Direct voyage from Brito to Sydney would shorten these routes 52 miles, c Direct voyage from Brito to Wellington would shorten this distance by 185 miles and make the difference 1,688 miles. d A stop at Shanghai would add to this route 535 miles. e A stop at Shanghai would add to this route 319 miles. With the exception of Wellington, the Pacific ports named in Table VI are nearer Liverpool via the Suez Canal than by way of Nicaragua. From Liverpool to Sydney, however, the distance via Brito and Tahiti a Omitting stop at Tahiti would add 52 miles to this figure, and if Melbourne were reached by Wellington rather than by Sydney, it should be increased by 232 miles. b Omitting stop at Tahiti would add 185 miles to this figure. 452 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. is only 172 miles more than via Suez, Colombo, Adelaide, and Mel- bourne. Yokohama is but 547 miles farther from Liverpool via Brito and San Francisco than via the easterly route. The route from Liverpool to Japan and China by way of the Ameri- can Isthmus passes close to both the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards of the United States. A vessel would add but 323 miles to the length of the voyage from Liverpool to Greytown by calling at New York City, the port having the largest foreign commerce of any city in the world and an export traffic going in all directions. By calling at the south Atlantic or Gulf ports of the United States, the raw and manufactured cotton, which is exported in large quantities from the United States across the Pacific, could be added to the vessel's cargo. A call at San Francisco, or some other west coast port of the United States, would enable the vessel to participate in the grain and lumber trade from the United States to Oriental countries. If the vessel making the trip from Liverpool to Asia is sailed under the American flag, it can par- ticipate in the coasting trade between the two seaboards of the United States. By consulting pi. 86, on which the points in Australasia and the East Indies equally distant from Liverpool are located, it will be seen that the line connecting the places equidistant from Liverpool by way of the Nicaragua and Suez routes passes between New Zealand and Aus- tralia, runs east of the main island of Japan, and touches the continent of Asia on the Manchurian coast some distance north of Vladivostok. As far as distance alone is determinative, the commerce of Liverpool with Australia and the Far East is tributary to the Suez route; but the commercial factors other than distance will, in all probability, so affect the routes of trade as to cause some of the outbound and inbound trade of Liverpool with the East to make use of the westerly route. For the purpose of showing the relative advantages, as far as dis- tance is concerned, which New York and Liverpool will possess for the Eastern trade after the isthmian canal has been completed, Table VII has been prepared: Table VII. — Comparisons of distances, in nautical miles, from, New York and Liverpool to Australasian and Asiatic ports -via the Nicaragua and Suez routes. From New York (via Nicaragua). From Liverpool (via Suez). Differ- To— Route. Miles. Route. Miles. (Sucz, -; Nicara- gua, +). Brito, Tahiti 8,716 9,676 10, 759 11,207 11,047 10, 507 10, 824 9,457 Aden, 'Colombo, King George Sound, Melbourne. Aden, "Colombo, KingGeorgc Sound, Adelaide, Mel- bourne. Aden ," Colombo, King George Sound. Aden, Colombo, Singapore... .do 12, 949 12,234 11,151 9,677 9,731 10, 590 11, 362 11,640 +4,233 +2,658 do b Adelaide Manila Brito, Tahiti, 1 - Sydney, Mel- bourne. Brito, San Francisco, Great Circle, Yokohama. do + 392 -1,530 -1,316 + 83 do Aden, Colombo, Singapore, Hongkong. Aden, Colombo, Singapore, Hongkong, Shanghai. do do + 538 Yokohama .. Brito, San Francisco, Great Circle. +2, 183 "Omitting stop at Colombo will shorten voyage 510 mill's. >' Omitting stop at Tahiti will shorten voyage 52 miles. If vessel goes by Wellington and Melbourne voyage will be shortened 232 miles. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CATSTAL COMMISSION. 453 New York will be nearer than Liverpool to New Zealand and the commercially important half of Australia. Liverpool by way of the Suez route will be nearer than New York by way of the Nicaragua route to the Philippines, Hongkong, and southern Asia. Shanghai will be almost the same distance from New York as from Liverpool, the advantage in favor of New York by way of Brito, San Francisco,' the Great Circle, and Yokohama being 83 miles — the route from Liverpool by way of the Suez including a call at Colombo, Singapore and Hongkong. Northern China, Manchuria, and Japan will be con- siderably nearer New York than to Liverpool. PI. 86 shows that the line connecting the points equally distant from Liverpool and New York by the Suez and Nicaragua routes, respec- tively, runs through the central part of Australia, through the western part of New Guinea, east of the Philippine Islands, and touches the mainland of Asia a little north of Shanghai. The foregoing seven tables have shown the effect which a Nicaragua Canal would have upon the ocean distances from our eastern seaboard to the Pacific countries of America, Australia, and Asia. These tables have also shown the manner in which the comparative distances from our eastern seaboard and from Europe would be modified by the Nica- ragua Canal. In Table VIII the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes are contrasted and the distances from typical Atlantic and Gulf ports of the United States and from representative European cities to the western coast of the American continents and to trans-Pacific countries by way of each canal route are given: Table VIII. — Comparison of distances, in nautical miles, from American and European Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals. From — Via— To Port Town- send via San Fran- cisco. To San Fran- cisco. To Guay- aquil. To Cal- lao. To Iqui- que. To Val- paraiso. To Coro- nel. New York /Nicaragua . . 1 Panama /Nicaragua . . \ Panama /Nicaragua . . \ Panama (Nicaragua . . 1 Panama [Nicaragua . . [Panama /Nicaragua . . \ Panama fNicaragua . . [Panama ("Nicaragua . . (Panama /Nicaragua . . \ Panama (Nicaragua . . 1 Panama [Nicaragua . . [Panama 5,696 6,074 5,485 5,872 5,276 5,673 4,753 5,328 4,893 5,473 5,076 5,574 8,426 8,813 8,943 9,242 8,664 8,963 8,414 8,713 8,148 8,447 4,921 5,299 4,710 5,097 4,501 4,898 3,978 4,533 4,118 4,698 4,301 4,799 7,651 8,038 8,168 8,467 7,889 8,188 7,639 7,938 7,373 7,672 3,246 2,864 3, 035 2,662 2, 826 2,463 2,303 2,098 2,443 2,263 2, 626 2,364 5,975 5,603 6,493 6, 032 6,214 5,753 5,964 5,503 5,698 5,237 3,751 3,359 3,540 3,157 3,331 2,958 2,808 2,593 2, 948 2,758 3,131 2,858 6,481 6,098 6,998 6,527 6,719 6,248 6,469 5,998 6,203 5,732 4,393 4,021 4,182 3,819 3,973 3,638 3,450 3,255 3,590 3,420 3,773 3,520 7,123 6,760 7,640 7,189 7,361 6,910 7,111 6,660 6,845 6,394 4,928 4,630 4,767 4,428 4,558 4,229 4,035 3,864 4,175 4,029 4,358 4,129 7,708 7,369 8,225 7,798 7,946 7,519 7,696 7,269 7, 430 7,003 5,161 4,838 4,950 Charleston Port Tampa New Orleans Galveston Liverpool Hamburg Antwerp Bordeaux Gibraltar 4,636 4,741 4.437 4,218 4,072 4,358 4,237 4,541 4,338 7,891 7,577 8,408 8,006 8,129 7,727 7,879 7,477 7,613 7,211 454 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Table VIII. — Comparison of distances, in nautical miles, from American and European Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals. From— Via — To Yoko- hama via San Fran- cisco. 11 To Shang- hai via San Francisco" and Yoko- hama. To Manila via San Francisco * and Yoko- hama. To Sydney via Tahiti. b To Mel- bourne 1 ' via Tahiti and Sydney. To Wel- lington via Tahiti. <» New York (Nicaragua . . 1 Panama /Nicaragua.. (Panama (Nicaragua . . 1 Panama (Nicaragua . . (Panama (Nicaragua . . (Panama (Nicaragua . . (Panama (Nicaragua.. 1 Panama (Nicaragua . . (Panama JNicaragua.. 1 Panama . . /Nicaragua.. (Panama (Nicaragua.. (Panama 9,457 9,835 9,2-46 9, 623 9,037 9,344 8,514 9,069 8,654 9,234 8,837 9, 335 12, 187 12, 574 12, 704 13,003 12, 425 12, 724 12,175 12, 474 11,909 12, 208 10, 507 10, 885 10, 297 10, 684 9,957 10, 367 9,564 10, 119 9,704 10, 284 9,887 10, 385 13, 237 13, 624 13,754 14, 053 13, 475 13, 774 13, 225 13, 524 12,959 13,258 11,207 11,585 10, 997 11,384 10, 505 10, 809 10, 264 10, 819 10,404 10,984 10, 587 11,085 13, 937 14, 324 14,454 14, 753 14,175 14, 474 13, 925 14,224 13, 659 13, 958 9,676 9,852 9,466 9,650 9,250 9, 451 8,733 9,086 8,873 9,251 9,056 9,352 12,406 12, 591 12, 923 13, 020 12, 644 12, 741 12, 394 12. 491 12, 128 12, 225 10,251 10,427 10, 041 9,858 9,831 10,006 9,308 9,661 9,448 9,826 9,631 9,927 12, 981 13, 166 13, 498 13, 595 13, 219 13,316 12, 969 13, 066 12, 703 12, 800 8,716 8, 892 8,505 Charleston Port Tampa New Orleans Galveston Liverpool Hamburg 8,2% 8,491 7,773 8,126 7,913 8,291 8,016 8, 392 11,446 11,631 11,963 12, 060 11,684 Bordeaux Gibraltar 11,781 11,434 11, 471 11,168 11,265 » Via Honolulu add 374 miles for Nicaragua and 252 for Panama. b Omitting Tahiti reduces voyage from Brito by 52 miles. "Voyage from Brito to Sydney by way of Wellington is 232 miles less than by way of Tahiti; from Panama it is 405 miles less. d Voyage from Brito to Wellington direet is 185 miles shorter than via Tahiti, and from Panama it is 358 miles shorter. Table VIII shows very clearly that the Panama route is the more advan- tageous for the west South American trade, both with Europe and the United States. For the commerce of Europe and the United States with every other Pacific country with the exception of New Zealand, to which the distances are practically equal, the Nicaragua is shorter than the Panama route. If the call be made at Tahiti on the voyage between Wellington and the American Isthmus, the Nicaragua route is somewhat shorter than the one across Panama for the trade of North Atlantic countries with New Zealand. If this voyage be made without the call at Tahiti, distance byway of the two canal routes is practically the same. For convenience of comparison, the following brief table is service- able. The distances from New York, New Orleans, and Liverpool by way of the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes to San Francisco, Yokohama, Hongkong, Sydney, Wellington, and Iquique are shown: New York. Nicaragua. Panama. 4,921 9, 167 11,366 9,676 8,716 4,393 6,299 9,835 11,744 9,852 8,892 4,021 New Orleans. Nicaragua. Panama Liverpool. Nicaragua. Panama San Francisco Yokohama Hongkong Sydney via Tahiti ... Wellington via Tahiti Iquique 4,118 8, 654 10, 563 8,873 7,913 3,590 4,698 9,234 11,143 9,261 8,291 3,420 7, 661 12, 187 14,096 12, 406 11,4 46 7, 123 8,038 rj,. r >7i 1 1. (83 12,591 11,631 6,760 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 455 Chapter XVIII. — Cargo tonnage of the existing maritime commerce that might use an isthmian canal, 1898-99. The attempt is made in the following chapters to measure with all possible accuracy the amount of the ocean shipping and commerce which would use the isthmian waterway at the present time if the route' were in existence. The latest statistics of ocean shipping and of the commodity traffic of which maritime commerce is composed have been carefully examined and are analytically set forth in these chapters for the purpose of determining the volume of the traffic reservoir from which the commerce of the canal would be drawn. The results of three distinct statistical investigations are here pre- sented, two of which were made by the Isthmian Canal Commission and one by the new Panama Canal Company. The investigations hav- ing been made without reference to each other, afford an exceptional opportunity for a comparison of results obtained by different methods and for testing the accuracy of the conclusions reached by the several inquiries. One of the two studies made by the Isthmian Canal Commission examined the statistics of the imports and exports of our own country, and those of several European countries, for the purpose of determin- ing how many tons of cargo or how much freight the trade of those countries might have contributed to the traffic through an American interoceanic canal in 1899. The investigation, the results of which are presented in this chapter, has gone fully into every essential detail concerning which information was obtainable; and in the compar- atively limited field where estimates were unavoidable because of insufficient official data, the figures have been subjected to such criti- cal tests as were applicable. The other statistical investigation conducted by the Isthmian Canal Commission was made for the purpose of finding out the tonnage of the vessels which would pass through the canal : i it were now in exist- ence. This inquiry involved a study of the statistics kept by the lead- ing commercial nations of the entrances and clearances of the vessels now engaged in the commerce between the ports so situated that their maritime trade might have made use of an interoceanic canal. The third investigation described in the following chapters is the one made by the new Panama canal company to ascertain the tonnage of the vessels that during recent years have been engaged in commerce that might have passed through a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, the new Panama canal company having courteously permitted the Isthmian Canal Commission to present in this report the results of an elaborate study. NATURE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM OFFICIAL STATISTICS. The statistics of the internal commerce of the United States and of other countries give the volume of business in tons. The traffic of the railways, rivers, and canals, and the productions of our mines and furnaces are measured by the ton unit, and the same is true of the products of our farms and forests when in the possession of the trans- portation agent. The statistical units of weight most familiar to the 456 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. people of the United States are the short ton of 2,000 pounds and the "long" ton of 2,240. The long ton is not employed so much in this country as it formerly was, but in the United Kingdom the ton of 2,240 pounds is still more generall} 7 used than the short ton. In coun- tries that have adopted the metric system of weights and measures the ton weighs 2,204 pounds. In the Government statistics of ocean commerce no record is made of the cargo or weight tonnage of the commodities carried, and the volume of business done is expressed in terms of vessel tonnage. The " gross register tonnage" of a ship is its capacity in cubic feet divided by 100, and its "net register tonnage" is determined by dividing by 100 the cubic feet of space available in the vessel for cargo. Maritime commercial statistics are usually given in net register tonnage. To those who are directly concerned with maritime commerce the statis- tics of vessel tonnage are a readily understood index of the volume of commodity traffic; but to many if not most men engaged in industrial pursuits the cargo ton of 2,000 or 2,240 pounds is the customary unit employed in measuring the volume of trade, and figures of net tonnage have little significance until they have been converted into tons of weight. It was believed that a statement of the cargo tonnage or the amount of freight that would make use of an isthmian canal if it were now in existence would be of value for several reasons. The business world being accustomed to consider the amount of traffic in terms of the cargo ton, a statement in that unit of the volume of available canal traffic would, it was thought, convey definite information that would be readily comprehended without being translated. The statistics of the cargo tonnage of ocean commerce permit comparisons to be made with the statistics of internal traffic, while statements of vessel ton- nage do not. The saving in freight rates, furthermore, that the open- ing of an isthmian canal would make possible can be more intelligently considered by knowing the volume of cargo freight that would now use the waterway. Ocean rates, like railway freight charges, are levied on the cargo ton of weight or measurement, but unlike the statistics of railway traffic, those of maritime commerce give no data regarding freight tonnage. The United States Bureau of Statistics in the Department of the Treasury collects the statistics of our foreign trade, and in its monthly and annual publications gives the value of imports and exports by classes of commodities and by ports. Tables are also published giving the values and, in many cases, the quantities of the commodities exported from each port to foreign countries as a whole; similarly, the values and usually the quantities of the imports entering our several ports from foreign countries, taken collectively, are given. Though these tables are elaborate and of great value, they do not give the amount of trade by articles and quantities carried on between our several ports and the countries with which we exchange commodities. It is not possible to obtain the actual cargo tonnage of the total foreign trade of the United States directly from our official statistics, because the published tables seldom give the weights of the commodities, fre- quently do not state the quantities, and in no instance is the ocean freight tonnage stated. This is equally true of the commercial statis- tics compiled by foreign countries. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 457 It is likewise impossible to ascertain from the published tables the kinds and quantities of commodities that constitute the trade carried on through and by our several ports with different countries. Our published statistics indicate the foreign trade carried on at each port of the United States; and the distribution of our entire trade among the several countries is shown, but it is in the form of total values. - The Bureau of Statistics possesses the data necessary for this analytical presentation, by articles, of the trade of our respective ports with each foreign country, but the tables which such a presentation would require would be so voluminous as to make their publication for all ports impracticable. A table would need to be constructed for each port or customs district, showing its trade with each foreign country in each article or class of articles imported and exported. There are at the present time more than 50 maritime custom districts, trading more or less with 92 foreign countries, by exchanging some or all of the 661 articles in the classified list of the commodities. Not being able to obtain from the published tables the data neces- sary for the calculation of the cargo tonnage of our ocean commerce that would now make use of an isthmian waterway, the resort was had to the unpublished folios, access to which was courteously given by the United States Bureau of Statistics. The facts concerning the trade of each port were copied from these folios, and two sets of tables were constructed, one for the Pacific ports of the United States and one for the Atlantic. The tables constructed for the Pacific ports showed for each port the values and, when obtainable, the quantities of each class of articles imported and exported in the trade carried on with each foreign country on the Atlantic. Similar tables were made, giving the trade of each Atlantic port with each Pacific country. Having secured the mass of data contained in these compilations, the work of converting quantities and values of commodities into their cargo tonnage equivalents was begun, and the results of the calcula- tions were four comparatively small tables giving the values and the cargo tonnage of the imports and exports composing the trade which our Pacific ports had with the Atlantic countries in 1898-99, and which our Atlantic ports had with Pacific countries the same year. These four tables give the value and the cargo tonnage of the maritime for- eign commerce of the United States which might have used the isth- mian canal had it been in existence during the year ending June 30, 1899. The discussion of methods as well as results can be given more advan- tageously with the tables in hand. The four tables present (1) the value and cargo tonnage of the imports into each of our Atlantic ports from the Pacific foreign countries traded with; (2) the exports from each Atlantic port to those countries; (3) the value and cargo tonnage of the imports into each Pacific port from each Atlantic foreign coun- try dealt with, and (4) the value and cargo tonnage of the exports from each of our Pacific ports to each Atlantic country to which commodi- ties were sent. Table V is inserted in a later connection, where the totals of the first four tables are discussed. 458 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. I. — Atlantic coast imports from foreign Pacific countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June SO, 1899. Customs districts. Chile. Ecuador and Peru. Salvador and British Columbia. Hawaii. ■c^u.; lvalue.. $76, 393 4, 204. 1 Baltimore Itons [value . . Itons ... lvalue.. $61,640 14,520 $61,310 3,921.9 $93, 308 3,413.9 $101,701 8, 479. 2 »$70, 307 »3,140 $5 . l Breton fej»- Charleston, S.C gg™;; Delaware fif;; New York value .. $25,000 564.3 lvalue . . tons ... value . . $2, 245, 533 103, 490. 3 $11,723 879.4 $2,301,984 29, 140. 3 *> $296, 693 2, 107. 2 87,954,770 95, 866. 4 value .. value . . 8109,542 15,517.6 $463, 672 Philadelphia -j to] 5, 4cS0. 6 Portsmouth and Falmouth $300 5 (value.. $35, 295 1,364.7 Savannah 1tol $43, 240 488. 1 (value .. ^tal {£«» $2, 796, 475 155,821.1 82,372,291 32, 280. 3 $296, 693 2, 107. 2 $8, 486. 987 102, 410. 5 Customs districts. British Aus- tralia and Aukland. China. Japan. Hongkong. $7, 999 89.8 $125, 680 2,501.8 $190,215 13, 602. 9 value .. tons ... $464,011 1,607.2 $145, 232 784.5 $94, 265 2, 567. 5 8242,292 7, 118. 3 lulls ... value .. $13, 628 350.9 tuns . . . n r\ n value . . tons ... $20 .6 84,305 44.3 $■162 8.6 $5,921 77.8 $328 2.5 •Peru. >> British Columbia, $14,168. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 459 I. — Atlantic coast imports from foreign Pacific countries, etc. — Continued. Customs districts. British Aus- tralia and Aukland. China. Japan. Hongkong. $133, 828 116.5 $3,072,191 29,469.1 $234 4.7 $7, 079, 664 109,557.4 $1,424 Newark U ons 20.2. New York \j^ e " $8,510,473 95, 802. 2 $1, 437, 966 Perth Ambov /value.. Philadelphia {tons 6 " $163,011 676.8 $68, 212 1,935 $110, 189 2,306 $9, 279 524.4 $270 3 $313 3.4 Richmond -w^ 6 '* $582 7.6 Savannah {tons... $200 3 Galveston -f7 a i ue "" $472 6.2 Key West | tons ;; M oMe jtons." New Orleans (Value.. $76 1 $44, 982 2,717.2 $49, 186 1,510.6 £5, 292 Pearl River jvalue.. 30.3 Pensaeola {tons.:." Tam P a {tons.:: saiuna {tons.:: Total gS» :: $3,833,719 21, 778. 7 $8,781,665 101, 381. 5 $7,480,024 118,892.3 $1,886,796 36, 369 Customs districts. Philippine Islands. Total Hong- kong and Philippines. Total all others. Grand total. Baltimore Beaufort, S.C Boston and Charlestown... Bridgeton Charleston, S.C Delaware Georgetown, D. C Hartford Newark New York Norfolk and Portsmouth... Perth Amboy Philadelphia Portsmouth and Falmouth Providence Richmond Savannah Wilmington, N. C (value.. Itons ... /value . . Itons . .. /value . . (tons ... ! value .. tons ... value . . tons ... /value .. \tons ... /value . . \tons ... /value . . \tons ... /value.. \tons ... f value., ^tons ... /value . . Itons ... i value., tons ... value . . tons ... /value . . (tons ... /value.. \tons ... /value., (tons ... /value.. \tons ... {value . . tons ... $190, 215 13, 602. 9 $210, 072 6,795.7 $400,287 20,398.6 $850, 578 18,216.7 $1,092,870 25, 335 3, 100, 485 41,468.5 $328 2.5 $1,424 20.2 $4,538,451 56,538.9 $835, 460 22, 619. 3 $61,340 3,921.9 $106, 936 3, 764. 8 $101,701 8,479.2 $29, 325 609. 1 $6, 383 86.3 $134, 062 121.2 $31,461,308 455,437.9 $11,723 879.4 $1,928,330 47, 954. 3 $61,340 3,921.9 $106, 936 3,764.8 $101,701 8,479.2 $29, 325 609.1 $6, 711 88.8 $135, 486 141.4 $35, 999, 789 511,971.8 $11,723 879.4 $221,819 3, 142. 2 $231,098 3,670.6 $914, 626 25, 852 $300 5 $270 3 $895 11 $35,295 1,864.7 $200 3 $1,145,724 29, 522. 6 $300 5 $270 3 $895 11 $35,295 1,364.7 $200 3 460 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. I. — Atlantic coast imports from foreign Pacific countries, etc. — Continued. Customs districts. Philippine Islands. Total Hong- kong and Philippines. Total all others. Grand total. Itons ... 8472 6.2 8472 6 2 \tons ... 85,292 30.3 8137, 484 4,716.9 8142, 776 \tons ... \tons ... Tampa lvalue.. \tons ... \tons ... 844 .5 844 .5 844 .6 ^1 {gS« :: 84,172,926 62, 831. 9 86, 059, 722 99,200.9 834,047,852 634, 371. 6 840, 107, 604 633,672.5 II. — Atlantic coast exports to foreign Pacific countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June SO, 1899. Customs districts. Chile. Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru. Salvador and British Columbia. Hawaii. British Aus- tralia and Auckland. „„-,.,. „ fvalue.. 86,000 3,000 833,248 12,335 8524, 099 20, 691 tons . . . Beaufort, S.C \ itons ... Boston and Charlestown ... lvalue . . 889, 408 835. 2 value.. value.. tons . . . tons ... tons . . . Norfolk and Portsmouth ...• value., tons . . . value., tons . . . value.. 81,984,661 44, 480. 7 86, 638 3, 250 ■81,936,464 » 27, 802. 4 « 87, 700 • 4, 400 »> 8282, 072 "6,339.3 8659, 387 12,359.5 816,813 8,407 824,420 2,267.6 85,400 462.7 815,865,902 337, 017. 1 tons . . . value., tons ... 83, 888 2,350 Portland and Falmouth « tons ... value.. tons ... value.. (68,242 11 214 tons ... value.. tons . . . value.. tons ... V XIT value.. value.. •Bolivia and Ecuador, value, 8806,592; tons, 12,051.8. b New York to British Columbia, value, 84,144; tons, 65.8. •Norfolk and Portsmouth to Peru, value, 87,700; tons, 4,400. 997.5. Pensacola to Peru, value, 85,626; tons, BEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN OANAL COMMISSION. 461 II. — Atlantic coast exports to foreign Pacific countries, etc. — Continued. Customs districts. Chile. Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru. Salvador, and British Columbia. Hawaii. British Aus- tralia and Auckland. •822, 631 »3,485.4 "85,525 >> 997. 5 $ll,15d 1,122.4 823, 304 3,884 /value . . (tons ... Total 82,001,187 53, 080. 7 81,972,260 36, 685. 3 8282,072 6, 339. 3 $739,268 35,821.7 816, 582, 105 374, 763. 7 Customs districts. China and Hongkong. Japan. Asiatic Rus- sia and Korea. French and German Oceania. (value . . (tons ... /value.. 830, 416 11, 739 /value . . Boston and Charlestown . /value.. Itons ... /value.. Itons ... /value . . (tons . . . /value .. (tons . . . /value.. (tons . . . (value.. 8185 2 84,841,684 170, 856. 7 810, 000 1,000 8348 8 8970, 369 80, 650. 3 (tons ... Norfolk and Portsmouth.. /value., (tons ... /value.. 812, 073, 176 "301,835.5 8807, 935 8, 954. 3 817, 763 993.3 (tons . . . /value.. (tons ... i value.. 8628, 048 4,220.8 1 tons . . . /value.. 1 tons . . . /value.. 1 tons . . . /value.. (tons . . . /value.. 810, 000 1,000 (tons ... /value.. \tons . . . /value.. $440, 971 11,902 873, 860 7,386 814, 289 433.1 $444, 696 12,097.2 /value.. (tons . . . (value.. 813,898 421.2 ' 'Itons ... (tons . . . /value.. 88, 400 2,100 823, 574 3,929 (tons . . . /value.. (tons . . . /value., (tons . . . Total 812, 715, 122 306, 477. 5 86, 868, 792 303, 103. 8 8807, 935 8,954.3 $17, 763 993. 3 » Pearl River to Bolivia and Ecuador, value, 822,631; tons, 3,485.4. * Norfolk and Portsmouth to Peru, value, 87,700; tons, 4,400. Pensacola to Peru, value, 85,525; tons, 997.5. • Of this total, Hongkong's share was 81,775,634 and 105,704.7 tons of cargo. New York was the only customs district of the Eastern seaboard that exported to Hongkong in 1899. 462 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. II. — Atlantic coast exports to foreign Pacific countries, etc. — Continued. Customs districts. Philippine Islands. Total Hong- kong and Philippines. Total all other. Grand total. $29, 690 13, 151. 6 $29, 690 13,151.6 $563,347 36,026 $30, 416 11,739 889, 408 8&5.2 $593. 037 49,177.6 8-0,416 11.739 $89, 108 Boston and Charlestown {tons ' 835. 2 Bndgeton | tong Delaware {tons.!: Georgetown, D.C {tons Hartford {tons " 8185 2.5 836, 693, 340 804, 934. 1 $41, 151 17, 057 $24, 768 2, 275. 5 81, 607, 705 87, 673. 8 $185 Newark {tons..'.' 2.5 ^w York &;; Norfolk and Portsmouth {tons' 6 ' " $84, 315 1,988.9 $70, 336 30, 695 $1,859,949 107, 693. 6 $70, 336 30, 695 $38,553,289 912, 627. 7 $111,487 47, 752 824,768 Perth Amboy {tons.:! 2, 275. 5 $1,607,705 Philadelphia {tons 87,673.8 lvalue Portland and Falmouth {tons ' ' Providence {tons.:: Richmond {tons.:: 878, 242 12, 214 $78,242 Savannah {tons " 12, 214 Wilmington {tons.:." 8110,971 11,902 $73, 860 7,386 $28,187 854.3 $444,696 12, 097. 2 $22, 631 3, 485. 4 $25, 075 4, 219. 9 $46, 878 7,813 84 10, 971 Galveston { t v ons ■ 11,902 873, 860 $28, 187 Mobile {tons.:: 851.3 $444,696 $22, 631 Pearl River {tons.:: 3, 485. 4 826, 075 Pensacola {tons..".' 4,219.9 846, 878 Tam P a {tons.:: 7,813 Total {J5£ : $1X4,341 45, 835. 5 $1,959,975 161,540.2 $40, 210, 860 1,020,514.9 $42,170,835 1,172,055.1 Total, plus 873 tons of miscellaneous foreign exports not included in the table, 1,172,928.1 tons. III. — Pacific coast imports from foreign Atlantic countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June SO, 1899. Customs districts. Austria- Hungary. Belgium. Den- mark. France. Germany. Italy. Nether- ln in is. Los Angeles {tSs!!! $1 , 742 65.8 $28, 559 2, 908. 1 812, 352 1,678.1 811,917 5,642.4 $10,580 112.4 $76, 3 18 3, 910. 1 $574 1 82, 193 21.8 Oregon, Oreg --.{ toIls " Puget Sound fens' 6 "' $2 0.1 $81 1.6 $1,444 7.3 $69 3 J678, 731 7,815 82,555 19.5 $10, 331 148.2 $12, 929 2,852.3 $880, 382 41,988.9 $17,601 5, 085. 6 $19 0.8,, $92 1 SanDiego { t()tls ' 02 16,946.9 $124,960 1 1 , 583. 8 8188,650 8,646.4 $39, 503 2, 107. 2 San Francisco -.-{ t Y, ns " Willamette %££?.". ^1 C e .:: $1,714 65.9 81,093,290 67 659.3 $81 1.6 8693, 379 7,957.2 $1,057,594 53, 985. 1 8228,746 5, 755. 4 $2, 3X5 22. 3 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 463 III. — Pacific coast imports from foreign Atlantic countries, etc. — Continued. Customs districts. Sweden and Norway. Switzer- land. United Kingdom. East Canada. West Indies. Brazil. Total. $1,377 7.5 81,080 3 $74, 322 6, 838. 6 $716 79.3 $26, SCO 1,891.1 $89, 588 $1, 806, 509 137,236.3 $131 , 697 6, 482. 1 $100 3 $30 $197, 015 Los Angeles ■ Inns . . . 1)3,870.8 $13, 068 Oregon, Oreg •! »■• 1,757.4 $46 2 $68 2.6 880, 860 Puget Sound — -. 7, 597. 1 $132,586 $213, 604 310.5 $3, 650 12.1 15, 148. 8 $4,657,028 San Francisco ...- 236, 456. 1 value.. $6, 994 179. 5 1176 7 $957 34.9 $354,446 Willamette i 25, 499. 6 *■ Total j value . . tons ... $8, 371 187 81, 302 12 $2, 129, 702 164,820.9 $1, 125 40.5 $213, 634 310.5 $3, 650 12.1 $5,435,003 300,829.2 IV. — Pacific coast exports to foreign Atlantic countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June 30, 1899. Customs districts. United Kingdom. Germany. Belgium. Italy, Switzerland. Oregon, Oreg &" Puget Sound j™ 1 ^;; San Francisco {tons 6 "" Willamette jgj™" ^tai jjs™ :: $92, 324 1,612 $2, 815, 647 124. 183. 8 $6, 918, 817 173, 084. 2 66,249,843 274. 689. 9 > $10, 200 95.6 828, 000 8311,500 "15,483.6 11 817, 931 ( b ) 860, 000 b 5, 572. 7 = $37,340 = 5,184.8 a $176 "6 $16, 076, 631 573, 569. 1 856, 781 106.6 8371,500 21,056.3 837,516 5, 190. 8 Customs districts. South Africa. East Canada. Argentina. Total. Oregon, Oreg. Puget Sound . fvalue. Itons .. /value. Itons.. San Francisco {tons 6 ' rvalue. Itons.. Willamette. 8648, 723 56, 519. 2 8346, 839 13,032.3 $776, 767 32, 048. 4 $3, 252 594.8 $37, 693 12, 497. 6 $102, 524 1, 707. 6 83, 539, 679 191,312.3 $7, 605, 530 209, 279 $7,104,717 312, 317 •Total /value. 10tal itons.. $11,772,329 101,599.9 83,252 594.8 837, 693 12, 497. 6 $18, 352, 450 714, 615. 9 » Including Denmark. 11 Including Germany. All trade with Italy. d All trade with Switzerland. Estimates of total scattering foreign exports, value, $1,078; tonnage, 715,693. In constructing these tables the trans-Atlantic trade of our Gulf and Atlantic ports was omitted because it would not be tributary to the canal, and the figures include only the ocean foreign commerce now carried on by our Atlantic and Gulf ports with Pacific countries, and between our Pacific ports and countries on the Atlantic. In the case of each port named only that part of its foreign trade is given that might be directly affected by the opening of the canal. According to the classification of the United States Bureau of Sta- tistics, the imports number 333 classes and the exports 328. For each item in this list of 661 commodities the value was obtainable; for some of the classes the number or quantities of articles were reported, and, for many commodities, weights were given in the official statistics. 464 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In all cases, however, the weights given were net, covering only the commodity and not the packing or "tare" which constitutes a part of the freight cargoes whose weights were to be ascertained. In order to determine the weight of the tare corresponding to the weight or value of the ordinary unit of each of the many com- modities considered, a large amount of detailed information had to be secured from business men concerning the manner of shipping the various articles. The difficulties of this and other parts of the inves- tigations were somewhat complicated by the fact that many commodi- ties of bulky character are handled b} r ocean vessels as measurement cargo, 40 cubic feet being reckoned as a ton instead of 2,240 pounds, the weight ton commonly employed in maritime traffic. In determin- ing the true cargo tonnage of goods shipped by the measurement ton it was necessary to ascertain the cubic contents, boxing included, of some unit of quantity. To reduce commodity values to weights, to find the average tare for net weights, to learn whether shipments were made by weight or measure, and, if by measure, to find the weight or value of a meas- urement ton, an extensive correspondence was carried on with men engaged in foreign trade. Representative business men of the lead- ing commercial cities were requested to give the assistance needed, and by means of personal interviews and a large correspondence a mass of information was secured covering the great bulk of both our import and export trade. In order to insure the greatest possible accuracy for the tables of cargo tonnage, inquiries regarding each line of for- eign trade have been made of representative firms of several of the large seaports, and in some instances several firms were corre- sponded with concerning each commodity about which information was required. This correspondence extended over several months and required the sending out of several thousand individual letters; but b}^ means of the knowledge obtained from the business men, who generously gave the time required to reply to the requests for information, it was pos- sible to prepare the above tables by converting, item b}^ item, into equivalent cargo tons, the values of nearly all of the articles that our various ports would have imported and exported by way of an isthmian canal during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899. Although it was not possible to get the requisite data for converting every item, there are but 5.7 per cent of the imports, and 2.4 per cent of exports included in the above tables that were not converted according to the method just described. The small quantity of imports and exports for which it was not possible to secure satisfactory factors to use in changing values to cargo tons were converted by using for the multiplier the average ratio of values to tons. These residuary values and quantities consisted largely of these unclassified articles of import and export. In classifying the multitude of commodities handled in international trade, it is often necessary to include in the larger divisions of the classification a group entitled "All other." For instance, in the general classification of the exports of the United States the division "Iron and steel and manufactures of" eon- tains 42 specific classes and also such general groupings as "All other manufactures of iron and steel," "All other machinery," and "Tools not otherwise specified." For converting the indefinite or unspecitied classes it was necessary to assume that the relation of the values to the REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN OANAL COMMISSION. 465 cargo tonnage was the .same as it was for the specified classes of their general division of the classification. The value of "All other machin- ery," for example, was converted by assuming that the ratio of value to weight and bulk was equal to the average for the 11 specified classes of machinery; and it is probable that the results obtained in this man- ner were nearly correct. This same method of conversion was applied- to the unspecified classes of imports. It was not practicable in the case of every general grouping entitled "All other, etc.," to secure an average ratio to use as a factor for con- verting values to tons; consequently, a part of the values comprised within these general groups was included with the residuary quantities that were dealt with according to the method described in the follow- ing paragraphs: After having converted the specified classes of imports and exports and as many as possible of the classes or grouping entitled "All other" or "Not otherwise specified," it was found that 96 per cent of the total value of the maritime foreign trade of the United States avail- able for canal traffic during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900 — in round numbers, $101,000,000 out of $105,000,000— had been accounted for. The remaining 4 per cent unaccounted for consisted partly of the unclassified imports and exports — the general residuum placed at the end of the tables of imports and exports published by the Bureau of Statistics, and designated " all other articles not elsewhere specified" — and were also made up partly of the commodities concerning which the Commission secured no information in regard to the relation of values to cargo tons. A classification of commodities could hardly be constructed that would find an appropriate class for every article listed in the mer- chants' invoice or sales book, and a final grouping of "all other articles not elsewhere specified " is practically necessary in making up tables of imports and exports such as are published by the United States Bureau of Statistics. The total value of the unclassified commodities that had to be dealt with in constructing the above tables of cargo tons of the traffic available for an isthmian canal was small, and the change from value to tons was made by assuming these articles to have the same average weight and capacity as had equal values of typical and carefully selected classified articles. The average of these other com- modities was taken as the standard. The classified commodities concerning which no information was secured to assist in the conversion of their values into equivalent cargo tonnage consisted to a limited extent of shipments so small in quantity as not to justify an investigation of them, but most of these commodi- ties were made up of articles which varied so much in value, bulk, and packing that no reliable estimates regarding them could be secured from shippers. Imported commodities constituted the greater part — 65 per cent — of the values that had to be converted by means of general averages. This was to be expected in view of the fact that our exports consist so largely of such articles as raw materials and heavy manufactures whose weight and measurement are readily ascertainable, while our imports contain a large variety of manufactures and other articles whose weight and bulk are difficult to determine. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 30* 466 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. This fact is well illustrated by comparing the import and export trade of our Pacific ports. The exports from the Pacific ports were made up so largely of raw materials or food products that over 99.9 per cent could be converted from values and quantities to tons. On the contrary, in the case of the imports from Europe to the Pacific coast — a rich agricultural section with but little manufacturing activ- ity — data could be secured to convert only 88 per cent of the total. The amount of these imports, however, is small, and the necessity of converting 12 per cent of their total value by indirect methods was consequently not a serious matter. Ninety -five per cent of the Atlantic imports from the Pacific was directly converted, and for the Atlantic exports to the Pacific the percentage was 96.5 per cent. The commodities for which no specified data could be secured — $4,000,000 worth — were converted by means of general averages, ob- tained in the manner described below. The imports and exports of the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards were converted by using different factors because of the diverse characteristics of the trade of the two coasts. For all the exports of the Pacific coast, except a few from San Fran- cisco, factors were obtained for the direct conversion of each com- modity from values to tons, and the San Francisco exports not otherwise accounted for were assumed to average the same as the other exports from that city to Europe. Twelve per cent of the imports to the Pacific coast from Atlantic countries had to be converted by securing an acceptable average ratio of values to tons. More than 25 per cent of the imports came from England to San Francisco and comprised a wide range of articles. These San Francisco imports from England included coal and precious stones as two important items, and after deducting the values of these two commodities the remaining San Francisco imports were used to obtain the factor by which the values of the unconverted 12 per cent residuum of Pacific coast imports from Atlantic countries was changed from values to cargo tons. Of the Atlantic coast exports to Pacific countries those sent to British Australasia are the most typical and the most important, amounting to over one-third of the whole. Inasmuch as these exports to Australasia consisted of substantial amounts of nearly all classes of commodities shipped from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific, it was thought that their average was the best one to take for converting from values to tons the small share of the export trade to the Pacific that had not been directly accounted for. The unconverted Atlantic imports from the Pacific were reduced to tons by making the Chinese and Japanese imports the standard. This was done because from those countries the widest range of the most typical articles was received. The methods and standards followed in changing the values of the imports and exports here under consideration into cargo tons of weight or measurement have been full} r explained because it is upon those methods and standards that the accuracy of the results primarily depends. While the results obtained are necessarily approximately rather than absolutely exact, it is believed that the figures contained in the foregoing tables are as close to the truth as they can be brought by careful statistical work. Having described the manner in which the tables were constructed and how the results presented in them REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 467 were obtained, attention may now be directed to an analysis of the tonnage totals. To facilitate comparison the totals of Tables I to IV are summarized in the following Table V: V. — Vahie and cargo tonnage of the trade ivhich the United States woidd have had through Cm isthmian canal during the fiscal year ending June SO, 1899. Pacific coast. Atlantic coast other than with Hong- kong and Philip- pines. Atlantic coast with Hongkong and Philippines. Total Atlantic. Values. Cargo tons. Values. Cargo tons. Values. Cargo tons. Values. Cargo tons. Imports 85, 435, 003 18, 352, 450 300,829.8;f33,751,161 715.682.91 40.210.860 534,371.6 56,059,678 1,020,514.91 1,959,975 y9, 200. 9 151, 540. 2 839, 810, 839 42,170,835 633, 572. 5 1,172,055.1 Total.. , 23, 787, 453 1 , 016, 512. 7| 73, 962, 021 1, 555, 886. 5 8, 019, 653 250,741.1 81,981,674 1,805,627.6 Grand total: Values, 8105,769,127; tons, 2,823,013.3 (including 873 tons miscellaneous exports of for- eign exports). The total value of the maritime commerce of the United States that might have used an isthmian canal to advantage during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, was $105,769,127. Of this total trade the Pacific ports had $23,787,453 worth, and the Atlantic, including their trade with the Philippines and Hongkong, $81,981,674 worth. Whether all the trade carried on between our eastern ports and the Philippines and Hongkong may properly be included in this total value of the commerce of the United States available for canal traffic is an important question that is considered at length in the discussion which follows regarding the entrances and clearances of the vessels that would have used a canal during the past year. In this connection it is sufficient to note that the value of the trade of the Atlantic coast ports of the United States with Hongkong and the Philippines has been stated separately. The value of the exports from our west coast to Europe in 1899, $18,352,450, and the corresponding cargo tonnage, 715,682.9 tons, were abnormally small because of the severe drought of the year 1897-98. The larger part of tonnage export of that section consists of grain, and during the year 1898-99 the grain exports were less than 50 per cent of their average for the five years preceding. If the value of the grain exports of the Pacific coast for the fiscal year 1898 be substituted for those of 1899 in the above table, the total value of the west coast exports would have equaled $40,299,881. The exports other than grain had practically the same value in 1898 and in 1899. Had the grain exports of 1899 been equal to those of 1898, or, in other words, had their amount been normal, the cargo ton- nage of the west coast exports would have been 1,328,757 tons instead of 715,682.9 tons, the figures in the above table; and the total cargo tonnage, instead of having been 2,823,013.3 tons, as stated in the table, would have been 612,874.1 tons more, or 3,435,887.4. This larger total is a much more accurate expression than is the smaller total of the cargo tonnage of maritime foreign commerce available for canal traffic during the last two 3 T ears. This larger sum will be used in the comparison that will subsequently be made with the tonnage estimates derived by other methods of investigations that will be described later. 468 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. THE AVERAGE VALUES OF THE CARGO TON. Besides revealing the total value and total cargo tonnage of the import and export trade which our country might have had by way of the proposed isthmian waterway in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, the tables indicate some interesting differences in the characteris- tics of the trade of our Atlantic seaboard as compared with the com- merce of the Pacific coast. The value of the Atlantic coast exports listed in the tables was $42,170,835, and the cargo tonnage of these exports amounted to 1,172,055 tons. This makes the average value of the cargo ton to have been $35.98. In the case of the Atlantic coast imports consid- ered in the tables the total value was $39,810,839, the total cargo tonnage 633,572.5 tons, and the average value of the ton £62. 84. The average values of the cargo ton will doubtless seem low to many persons. It must not, however, be forgotten that the tonnage here given is made up of the commodities packed for shipment. A large amount of weight and space are taken up by the packing. Moreover, in the case of many commodities, 2,240 pounds of the articles would be much more valuable than 40 cubic feet of it would be, even when no allowance is made for the space occupied by the packages containing the goods. The average values just cited are those of the ton of freight as found in the holds of the ocean vessel. The cargo ton in these tables and throughout this discussion, it may be well to note, is in some cases 2,240 pounds; but in other instances, and more f requentlv, it is the measurement ton of 40 cubic feet. It was impossible to make a distinction between the weight ton and the measurement ton in compiling the above tables, because both are used by shippers and ocean carriers without distinction. The difference between the average values of the cargo ton of imports and that of the exports is explained by the fact that the exports to the Pacific markets consist largely of bulky manufactures of iron and wood, of coal and petroleum oil, whereas the average value of the imports from Pacific countries is kept high by the Manila hemp, the products of Japan and China, Australian wool, and the hides, skins, and furs from Australia and South America. The cargo ton values of both the import and export trade of the Pacific coast with Atlantic countries are low. The total value of the imports considered was $5,435,003, and, their cargo tonnage being 300.829.8 tons, the average ton value was $18.07. The $18,352,450 worth of exports included in the tables comprised a cargo tonnage of 715.682.9 tons, the average ton value being £25.64. The principal Pacific coast exports were wheat, flour, barley, and lumber, and those commodities tended to lower the average ton value. Their effect, however, was to some extent offset by the exportation of canned salmon and vegetables and canned and dried fruits. The small ton value of the Pacific coast imports from Atlantic countries is accounted for by the fact that the greater part of the tonnage is made up of coal, salt, cement, and glass. The textiles, gloves, and other high priced European articles have but a small influence on the ton value. The amount of cargo tonnage which vessels can carry per gross or net register tonnage varies with different ships, but the ordinary ratio REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 469 between cargo and register is well known. In the following chapter tables are given which show the net register tonnage of the vessels engaged in the commerce that would have used an isthmian canal in 1899. A comparison of the figures of cargo tonnage of the part of our foreign trade that has been studied with the net register tonnage of the ships that carried that trade will roughly check the accuracy of both- the cargo and the vessel tonnage statistics presented as the result of this investigation. Before making this comparison, however, it will be best to wait until the tables of vessel tonnage contained in the discussion that follows later have been presented and analyzed. TONNAGE OF THE COMMERCE BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE WEST COAST OF SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA AND HAWAII. Up to this point the cargo tonnage discussed has been that of the United States only. Our own present trade that would pass through the canal merited a detailed study because of the importance of secur- ing as much information as possible regarding the industrial and com- mercial value of the canal to the people of the United States; but it was not thought that the cargo tonnage of the trade which Europe now has with the west coast of South and Central America, and with Brit- ish Columbia and Hawaii, need be changed from values and quantities into cargo tons in the same detailed way that the values of our own available canal commerce were converted into their tonnage equivalents. The large mass of information which the investigation of American trade had furnished regarding the relation of values and quantities to cargo tonnage was equally applicable to the commerce of foreign countries; and this information enabled the conversion of the greater part of the trade of other countries to be made easily and quickly. The commodities not changed from values to tons by the direct method were converted by means of averages chosen in a manner similar to those methods used in the conversion of American imports and exports. It was not considered necessary to determine the cargo tonnage which every foreign country now has available for canal traffic. By taking the nine European countries — the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain, and . Sweden — nearly all the commerce which foreign nations would have with the west coast of America and Hawaii was reached. Norway has no commerce with this section, and that of Greece and Russia is slight. The trade of Europe with our west coast was included in the study of our canal commerce. The first of the following tables gives the cargo tonnage of the trade which the nine European countries just named had with the west coast of South and Central America in the calendar year 1898 — the figures from Belgium being for 1899 — and shows how the countries shared in this commerce. It also indicates how the trade was divided among the several west coast American nations. The table is divided into two sections for the purpose of showing both the import and export cargo tonnage for South America and Central America separately. In another table the trade of Europe with Hawaii and British Columbia is shown. 470 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Cargo tonnage of the trade between Europe and the Pacific coast of South and Central America, 1898. EUROPEAN IMPORTS. American coun- tries. United King- dom. France. Germany. Bel- gium.* Hol- land. Austria- Hun- gary. Italy. Spain. Swe- den. Total. SOUTH AMERI- CAN. 9,522 954, 792 15,292 54,083 9,622 1,694,435 Chile 294,037 4, 832 126, 507 293, 668 6,397 30, 342 124, 519 4 16, 876 12, 461 39 6,063 5,715 1,888 547 4,141 28, 413 68, 547 1 11, 814 308, 777 Total 425, 430 330, 407 1, 033, 689 141,399 81,008 40 16, 877 8,150 4,141 2,041,147 CENTRAL AMER- ICA. 3,770 390 3,107 2, 395 M.330 48,895 • 10, 130 215 1, 752 58, 962 10, 520 Nicaragua 130 89 117 3, 326 2,512 1" Total 9, 662 4,330 59, 025 345 1,958 75, 320 EUROPEAN EXPORTS. SOUTH AMERI- CAN. 10, 870 119, 348 17, 443 43,320 45 3, 812 778 1,314 10, 915 Chile 460, 255 11,303 97,440 64, 473 6,140 13,158 118, 862 1,798 4.900 2 14, 745 781,497 37, 462 1 9,798 169, 931 Total 568, 998 83,771 190, 981 125, 560 3 24, 543 5,949 999, 805 CENTRAL AMER- ICAN. 11,221 2,081 7, 583 7,970 a 2, 105 10,224 • 7, 783 596 44 3,421 500 939 22, 980 12,013 Nicaragua 1 88 11,005 8,558 Total 28, 855 2,105 18,007 4,501 1,028 54,556 » Belgian figures are for 1899. ° Nicaragua and Salvador. •> Including Costa Rica and Honduras. d Including Nicaragua and Salvador. « Including Nicaragua and Salvador. It will be seen that nearly two-thirds of the entire cargo tonnage of the trade between the nine European countries and the west coast of Spanish America consisted of imports from South America, and that four-fifths of these imports were from Chile. This indicates the pres- ent prominence of the nitrate of soda trade. In cargo tonnage Germany ranks first among the nine nations in the trade with the west coast of Spanish America, but in value of com- merce the United Kingdom is much ahead of Germany because of the high value of the British exports. Germany's large import tonnage is made up mostly of nitrate of soda for use in her chemical industries, and her exports contain some coal, but consist largely of manufactures. The coal exports of the United Kingdom are heavy, but the exports, as a whole, derive their value mainly from the manufactures. DIAGRAM OF TONNAGE 1888 AND 1895- -1899 SAILING VES3ELS CO LO ID N 00 ff) co Yfc-AR o> TONS co co co CO CO oo 54 52 5,600.0 48 46 44 42 4poo,ooo 33 36 34 32 3000,000 28 26 24 22 2000,000 18 16 14 12 ipO0,O0O 8 6 4 2 O T DTAL GR OO^J- Gfi CH{£L.? ^ GR OUP 4 ,_- — •■" -\ GR OUP 3 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 471 The cargo tonnage of the total exports of the nine European coun- tries to the section of the American continents under discussion was 1,054,361 tons, and the imports 2,116,467 tons. The following table '■hows how the trade was divided between the South American and Central American countries: Summary of cargo tonnage of European imports and exports — Trade with South and Central America, 1898. South America. Central America. Total. Tons. 2,041,147 999, 805 Terns. 75, 320 54, 556 Tons. 2,116,467 1,054,361 Total 3, 040, 952 129, 876 3, 170, 828 3, 170, 828 Whether the entire commerce of Europe with the west coast of South America would make use of the isthmian canal will be consid- ered in the chapter devoted to the discussion of the vessel tonnage that would now pass through the canal, and to the consideration of the question of tolls. In general, the canal will secure nearly all of this trade unless the tolls should be so high as to make the longer and less desirable route around the Horn or through the Straits of Magellan more profitable. The only trade that would not pay a moderate toll for the privilege of using the canal is that of Chile south of the for- tieth parallel of latitude, and the commerce of that section is not, and can hardly become, of much consequence. The cargo of freight tonnage of Europe's trade with Hawaii and British Columbia in the fiscal year 1899 is shown in the following- table: Cargo tonnage. — European trade with Hawaii and British Columbia. Hawaii. British Columbia. Total. Tons. 33,793 Tons. 37, 334 24, 699 Tons. 71, 127 24, 699 Total 33,793 62, 033 95, 826 In this table the figures are based on statistics kept by Hawaii and British Columbia. The vessels entering Hawaii take cargoes mainly of sugar to the United States, hence there are no exports from Hawaii given in the table. The British Columbia trade during the year end- ing June 30, 1899, was but little more than two-fifths that of the pre- vious year, and for that reason the totals of the above table are unduly small, but for the sake of presenting the latest data it has been thought best to retain the figures for the year 1899. The cargo tonnage of the European trade with the west coast of Mexico is not obtainable because the European statistics do not sepa- rate the commerce with the east coast of Mexico from that with the west coast. 472 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The total freight tonnage of the trade between European countries and western South and Central America, British Columbia and Hawaii, during the latest statistical year for which information was obtainable, was 3,266,651 tons. This total does not comprise the commerce with the west coast of Mexico. Moreover, it does not include any of the commerce between Europe and Eastern countries — a part of which, for reasons stated later, would pass through the American canal. In study- ing the tonnage of cargo that the commerce of the United States might have furnished the canal in 1898 and 1899, the total was found to be 3,435,887 tons. The sum of these two totals is 6,702,541. This represents the tons of cargo which the commerce of the United States and the commerce between nine European countries and the west coast of America might have passed through an American isth- mian canal during Europe's fiscal year 1898 corresponding with the calendar year, and our fiscal year ending with June, 1899. These are figures applying to the commerce of the past, carried under the con- ditions then prevailing. They do not refer to the future. (Note. — The totals in this and the subsequent statistical chapter differ somewhat from those published in the preliminary report of the Isth- mian Canal Commission, November 30, 1900. In several instances the statistics of the final report of the Commission are for a different year than were the figures comprised in the totals given in the preliminary report.) DIAGRAM OF TONNAGE 1888 AND 1895- -1899 STEAMSH I PS co 10 <£> t~« co 26 24 22 2,000,000 1 8 16 14- 12 l.ooo.ooo 8 -"»■ y p / f ! ^ gp2 JpJ-- 1 — 1 — — — ■ k^ 2 o GROU p 1 _^ X C - -ig^-Ot) P-4 SROU ^ P3 ' " "■ REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 473 Chapter XIX. — Tonnage of the vessels employed in the commerce that would have used an isthmian canal in 1899. In ascertaining the tonnage of the vessels now engaged in the world's commerce that would make use of an isthmian canal two methods may be employed. One source of information is the records of entrances and clearances of vessels kept by the leading commercial nations, and this information is fairly satisfactory, although, as will be shown pres- ently, careful analysis is necessary to avoid erroneous conclusions. The other method of getting at the vessel tonnage now available for the use of a canal is to make a record of the movements or the voy- ages of all ships whose routes are such that the vessels would natur- ally pass through the canal. This latter method of recording vessel movements and computing the tonnage from the records thus made was adopted by the New Pan- ama Canal Company six years ago, and the conclusions reached by their elaborate investigation are set forth in the chapter which follows the present one. In this chapter is presented a discussion of the sta- tistics of entrances and clearances of the vessels whose commerce would have taken them through the canal had such a waterway been in exist- ence during the calendar year 1899. In a few instances it was neces- sary to take the figures for the year 1898. Inasmuch as all important commercial nations record the entrances and clearances of the vessels trafficking at their ports and state with which countries the vessels trade, it is theoretically a simple matter to determine the tonnage of the vessels at present following routes for which the canal route would be substituted. As a matter of fact, how- ever, the statistics of entrances and clearances have certain important limitations, due to the fact that different countries follow dissimilar rules in making their statistical records. In some cases also the rec- ords are incomplete — as, for instance, the figures recording the tonnage of vessels trading between Europe, Mexico, and Central America do riot indicate whether the European entrances from those countries are from the Atlantic or from the Pacific coast. The same limitation exists as to European clearances to that section of the world. The lack of uniformity of methods of collecting statistics of entrances and clearances nuty either result in a duplication of tonnage records or in an understatement of the tonnage engaged in the commerce of certain countries, and it is unfortunate that the statistics of interna- tional trade are not compiled in accordance with uniform rules. A vessel entering a German port is recorded as coming from the country that supplied the vessel with the largest share of its cargo. If this vessel were to enter a British port, she would be recorded as having sailed from the most distant countiy from which cargo was brought. The French practice is the same as *the English. In compiling the statistics of clearances it is the practice of Great Britain to record a vessel as clearing for the most distant country for which she has cargo. The German figures credit the clearances to the country to which the most cargo is bound. The French practice is like the English. Correspondence with the collectors at a number of the ports of the United States reveals the surprising fact that our statistics of entrances and clearances are compiled by various methods at different ports. The New York statistics record a vessel as clearing for the first or nearest country to which cargo is taken. The vessel is entered from the most distant country. At other ports, however, different practices 474 REPOJST OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. prevail, four variations in methods having been reported by our collectors of customs. A German vessel en route from Chile may call at a Belgian or Dutch port and appear both in their statistics of entrances and in the German records. Likewise a vessel outbound from Germany might be duplicated in European statistics. A vessel from a European port may, and usually does, call at a number of PaciSc American countries. However, the avoidance of duplication because of the numerous stops made in American ports is a comparatively easy matter, because only the records of the entrance and clearance at the European end need to be considered. In the following tables and discussion no figures have been used except those taken from the statistics kept in Europe and in the United States. There is, furthermore, some danger of confusion because of the difficulty of keeping Europe's trade with the east coast of South America separate from that with the west coast. This danger, how- ever, is only slight, because most of the lines, both European and American, carry nothing for east coast ports. It is over 2,000 miles between Chilean and Argentina ports, consequently vessels find it unprofitable to run part loaded between the ports of those two coun- tries. Vessels load full cargoes from the North Atlantic to the west coast, and also full cargoes from the west coast to the North Atlantic. The trade of the east coast is mainly handled by vessels that do not go around to the west side. Although the American statistics of entrances and clearances are not compiled in accordance with uniform rules, there are probably no dupli- cations in the figures. In fact, the practice of New York, from which the major share of our commerce moves, of recording a vessel as clear- ing for the first port of call for the discharge of cargo, is apt to lead to understatement rather than an exaggeration of the volume of out- bound traffic destined for countries that will be reached by way of an isthmian canal. In the case of European statistics the following dupli- cations are possible: 1. German vessels outbound, as suggested above, may call at Hol- land or Belgium and be recorded there. These German vessels out- bound might possibly, though, as a matter of fact, they seldom if ever do, call en route at British ports. One German line calls at a French port. 2. German vessels inbound may call at a French, Belgian, or Dutch port, but, as a matter of fact, they do not call at Belgian or Dutch ports. Most of the trade from the west coast of South America to Europe is carried in full cargoes, and German vessels are pot apt to make calls en route at European ports. This is indicated by the fact that the Belgian clearances in the South American trade consists almost entirely of steam tonnage, while the entrances are made up mostly of sailing vessels. The same is true of the Netherlands. In regard to the French statistics there is some uncertainty. 3. Two British lines to and from the west coast of South America call at French ports. Tims the French statistics are liable to include some tonnage entered in the British and some contained in the German figures. The probable amount of such duplication will be considered below in the discussion of the tables which follow. 4. In the case of Spanish statistics of entrances and clearances, it is possible that some British, souk- French, and some Italian tonnage may he included. Such are the possible kinds of duplication. It is, however, only in DIAGRAM OF TONNAGE 1888 AND 1895- ■1899 STEAMSHIPS AND SAI LING VESSELS COMBINED «o 10 i" this trade between the Pacific coast and trans-Pacific countries origi- nates and ends east of the Rocky Mountains. Doubtless the greater share of this trade will always go overland to and from the Pacific coast; but some considerable portion will be diverted to the isthmian route after the canal has been opened. If this diverted trade and ton- nage should amount to but 20 per cent of the total, it would equal about 160,000 tons, a tonnage nearly equal to that which the table above shows our Atlantic coast vessel movement to and from Hong- kong and the Philippines to have been in 1899. While the Suez Canal will get some of the commerce of eastern Asia and the Philippines with our Atlantic seaboard after the isthmian canal REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 483 has been opened, it is believed that this traffic through the Suez may be offset by the amount of the vessel tonnage of our present Pacific coast import and export trade that would use an American canal. Furthermore, while the Suez route will draw from Manila and points north and east, the isthmian route will also secure tonnage from the territory lying south and west of Manila. It is thought that these facts warrant the inclusion of all the Atlantic coast tonnage to and from China, Japan, Hongkong, and the Philippines in the estimate of the vessel tonnage that would find use of the canal advantageous. Such an estimate as this can be only approximately correct, because it is impossible to predict closely the routes which the East Indian and south Asiatic trade will actually follow after the American inter- oceanic canal shall have completed the water route round the world. The foregoing discussion has made no reference to the effect which the canal will have in diverting from its present rail and water routes a portion of the commerce now carried on by way of our Pacific coast ports between the eastern half of the United States and Australia, Hawaii, and the rest of Oceania. There are excellent steamship con- nections between the west coast of the United States and Canada, Hawaii, and Australia, and the traffic and travel of the Eastern United States to and from those countries is in part conducted through Pacific coast gateways. The isthmian canal and the steamship connections by way of it will undoubtedly affect the present routes for some of the traffic now carried on between our Eastern States and those countries. The entrances and clearances of the vessels trafficking between our Pacific coast and Australia, Hawaii, and other islands of Oceania are shown in the following table: IX. — Entrances and clearances, United States Pacific coast trade with Australasia and other Oceania, fiscal year 1899. Entrances. Clearances. Hawaii Tons. 246, 432 148, 876 8,351 Tons. 205, 987 94, 037 7,960 Australasia Other Oceania Total 403, 659 307, 984 Combined total, 711,643 tons. Although there is no doubt but that a portion of the traffic covered hy the above table would have gone through the canal had it been in existence in 1899, there is no way of deciding what percentage would have taken the isthmian route. None of this tonnage has been included in making up the totals reached in this chapter. a a The statistical total of vessel tonnage published in the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission included 79,218 as the tonnage of our Pacific coast trade with Australasia and other Oceania which it was estimated would be at once diverted to the canal. Communications received from several officials of the transcontinental railways express the opinion that a considerable share of the foreign traffic now car- ried^ over the mountains by rail will be diverted to the canal line, that is to say, is traffic at present available for the canal. However, in order to be conservative and to avoid assumptions whenever possible, there is none of this Pacific coast Oceania tonnage included in the totals of this report. 484 REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. VESSEL TONNAGE ENGAGED IN THE PRESENT TRAFFIC ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA. In none of the preceding tables is there a statement of the tonnage engaged in the traffic now carried across the Isthmus of Panama by rail. This transisthmian traffic is a part of the Atlantic-Pacific trade of both Europe and America. Four lines of steamers now run north from Panama on the west coast, two lines run south, and the business of those steamers would become canal traffic. More than a million tons of shipping enter the port of Colon each year, but that tonnage would not be a fair index of the amount that would go through the canal. Colon is a port of call for nearly all the lines of steamships connecting the Gulf, West Indian, and Caribbean waters with the United States and with all the leading European coun- tries. A call at Colon is but an incident in the vo} r ageof the steamers trafficking in the Gulf and Caribbean, but the situation at Panama is different. The geographical location of that city is such that a large part of the steamers from the North or South make Panama the begin- ning or end of their voyages. Before the 3'ear 1899 the lines from the South did not go north of Panama and none from the North went south of Panama. Since then the lines from the South have extended their route beyond Panama, and that city has now become a port of call as well as a terminal point. If, however, the year 1898 be taken, the tonnage of Panama may be considered as indicative of the tonnage which the present transisthmian trade would cause to use the canal. During the year 1898 119 steamers, with an aggregate tonnage of 336,998 tons, entered this port. Panama has some sail tonnage, which is omitted from the calculations here made because most of the sailing vessels are either local or are empkryed in bringing coal from Australia for the steamship lines. This business would disappear with the open- ing of the canal and the establishment at the Caribbean entrance of coaling stations supplied with coal from the United States. Whether both the entrances and clearances at Panama should be included in computing the canal tonnage which the commerce at Panama would have contributed to the traffic of an isthmian waterway in L898, or whether only the entrances should be counted, constitutes an inter- esting question in statistics. The clearances were practically identical with the entrances, and if they were included, the above total would be doubled. Reasons for doubling the entrances may be found in the fact that there were presumably no vessels engaged in the traffic entering at Panama that did not find the business profitable, and that these ves- sels in taking cargo from the west coast of North or South America for the American or European Atlantic stopped their eastbound voyage at Panama instead of at some Atlantic port simply because there was no waterway across the Isthmus. They would have made a round trip through the canal and back to the west coast had they been able to do so. The reasons why only the entrances have been counted in the statis- tical calculations of this chapter are: 1. That the existence of a canal and the avoidance of transshipment of cargo at Panama would have enabled the same tonnage of vessels to have carried a larger amount of traffic. 2. The vessels entering and clearing Panama are also engaged en route in a coasting trade of some importance. The through business done at Panama included only a part of the transportation business of REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 485 the vessels which entered that port, even in 181*8, when it was a ter- minal instead of a point of call en route. 3. This last fact is shown by the total tonnage of freight, northbound and southbound, handled by the Panama Railroad in 1898 — 268,156 tons of freight. In most cases the net register vessel tonnage is consider- ably less than the cargo tonnage; and for this reason, principally, it' has been thought best to count only the entrances at Panama, 336,998 tons, in arriving at the total available canal traffic. 11 COASTING TRADE OP THE UNITED STATES AVAILABLE FOR THE CANAL. The coasting trade between the two seaboards of the United States carried on by way of Cape Horn or the Straits of Magellan is the only additional tonnage item requiring examination. The Horn route has been followed since the days of '49, and while it will probably be deserted after the completion of the canal, it or the Straits of Magellan will be increasingly used until that time. Until recently this traffic has been handled by sailing vessels, but the line of seven new steamers recently installed in this trade will largely displace the sailing vessels that have had a practical monopoly of the traffic for a half century. Owing to the large annual fluctuations to which this trade has been subject, an average of Pacific entrances from Atlantic ports and Atlantic entrances from Pacific ports during the last ten years has been taken. These averages combined give a total of 109,312 tons per year. The Atlantic entrances averaged 26,323, and those of the Pacific 82,989, showing that Europe is the selling market of the Pacific States and our Atlantic States are the buying market. Two-thirds of the vessels sailing to our west coast from our Atlantic seaboard clear from our west coast to Europe, cross thence to our Atlantic ports to load for the Pacific slope. The entrance and clearance totals for the various categories of com- merce studied in the preceding pages are summarized in the following- table. It will be remembered that the figures are for the latest avail- able statistical year, which in most instances was 1899. Summary of entrances and clearances, commerce of Europe with Pacific America, and commerce of eastern seaboard of the United States with Pacific countries. Europe with — Tons. Western South America 1, 771, 858 Western Central America and Mexico 140, 000 Pacific coast of United States, British Columbia, and Hawaii 642, 180 Eastern seaboard of United States with — Western South America and Hawaii 166, 364 Pacific coast of the United States 109,312 Trans-Pacific countries 908, 140 Panama traffic ( 1898) 336, 998 Total 4, 074, 852 The total of the above summary, 4,074,852 tons net register, com- prises the vessel tonnage of the trade of Europe with Pacific America, and of our Atlantic seaboard with Pacific countries. Every possible effort has been made to analyze, verify, and correct the statistical data consulted. It was thought better to err, if at all, on the side of under- statement. a The tonnage totals published in the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission included both the entrances and clearances at Panama. 486 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The above total differs somewhat from the total published in the preliminary report of the Canal Commission, mainly because three items have been omitted that were included in the former statement. The sums omitted amount to 471,290 tons net register. Had they been included the vessel-tonnage total of this report would have dif- fered from that of the preliminary report by only 35,986 tons, the total here given being that much less. Since publishing the prelimi- nary report it has been possible to substitute 1899 figures for those of 1898 for a few foreign countries. For some of the countries the figures for 1899 were larger than those for 1898, but in the case of British Columbia the tonnage for 1899 was 63,393 tons less than 1898. Attention was called in the previous chapter to the abnormall}' small export of grain from our Pacific coast during the year 1899. If the grain exports of the normal } T ear 1898 were substituted for those of 1899, the above vessel-tonnage total would need to be increased over 400,000 tons. The grain exports of 1898 exceeded those of 1899 by 612,874 cargo tons, and this, according to the ratio of cargo tonnage to net register tonnage for the Pacific coast exports as a whole, would be equivalent to 408,723 vessel tons. In closing this discussion of vessel tonnage reference should be made to the fact that this chapter has not considered the commerce of Europe with the western half of the Pacific Ocean, a part of which, it is believed, for reasons elaborated in the succeeding chapter, will make use of the American canal instead of the Suez or Cape of Good Hope route. In stating the entire amount of vessel tonnage that was avail- able for the use of the canal in 1899 some share of the European com- merce now using the Suez or rounding the Cape of Good Hope should be included. What that share should be is considered at length in the next chapter. Chapter XX. — Traffic investigation by the New Panama Canal Com- pany — Comparison of the results of the three investigations. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. The New Panama Canal Company divided that part of the world's commerce capable of being affected by the proposed canal into the four groups that had been adopted in 1890 by the Commission (T Etudes appointed by the receiver of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique. These four groups were: (1) The commerce between Europe and the Pacific coast of the American continent; (2) the com- merce between Europe and the Far East, i. e., China, Japan, Austral- asia, and Oceania, and the French and Dutch East Indies; (3) the com- merce between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America, and (4) the commerce between the Atlantic coast of America and the Eastern countries included in group 2. Briefly stated, the plan adopted by the New Panama Canal Company to determine what part of the world's present ocean tonnage would make use of an American interoceanic canal was to record and follow the movements of all vessels engaged in the commerce being carried on between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. This recoi'd of vessel move- ments was taken from Lloyd's two publications, the Daily Shipping and Mercantile Gazette and the Weekly Shipping Index, where the canal company was able to secure information concerning the arrivals, REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 487 departures, and whereabouts of all ocean vessels, about 12,500 in num- ber, as their records subsequently showed. During the years 1895 and 1896 the plan followed in making up the record was to go through each issue of Lloyd's daily and weekly pub- lications and place against each vessel whose route was such as to bring it within one of the four groups of commerce just mentioned a check indicating to which group the ship was to be accredited. Lists of the vessels thus checked were arranged alphabetical^, show- ing for each of the four classes, and for sailing vessels and steamers separately, the facts regarding each ship that were given in Lloyd's Gazette and Index. These eight alphabetical lists — four for steamers and four for sailing vessels — were then turned over to draftsmen, who charted the movements of the vessels named in the eight lists by using sheets of paper which had the names of the ships in a column at the left, and which were divided into perpendicular columns headed with the names of the twelve months and with the weeks of the year by number from one to fifty-two. The movements of a vessel were shown on the sheet by entering in the column of the proper week the name of the port and the day of the month of the arrival of the vessel if it was entering the port, or of the departure of the ship if it was clearing. Horizontal lines were drawn connecting the entries of clearances with those of arrivals. During 1895 eight sets of charts were prepared, sailing vessels and steamers being separately classified according to the four groups into which the commerce being studied had been divided; but after that year the groups of commerce were shown on the charts b}^ using four different colors of crayon, and only two sets of charts were made, one each for sailing vessels and steamers. From these sets of charts and the vessel lists from which the charts were prepared it was an easy matter to make an annual computation showing the steam and sail tonnage of the traffic of each of the four groups of commerce. Experience showed that the plan of checking off and copying from Lloyd's lists the vessels according to groups was somewhat defective, because on the charts some vessels would disappear from one group and appear in another in such a way as not to indicate what the inter- mediate movements of the vessel had been. It also happened that some vessels disappeared from the record after they had touched at a Pacific port, and that other ships appeared on the record as clearing from a Pacific port, without there being any record regarding their previous voyages. To obviate this defect it was decided at the begin- ning of 1897 to discontinue checking the names of vessels in the Gazette and Index and preparing lists of the ships thus checked, and instead of doing this work to make a card catalogue (fiches) of every ship named in the Lloyd publications. In this catalogue each ship had its card, and on this card all desired information regarding the vessel was entered and a record kept of the movements of the ship. The graphic charts of the voyages of the vessels were prepared from these cards. During the year 1897 the canal company further improved its meth- ods of conducting the traffic investigation. From Lloj'd's Shipping and Mercantile Gazette tables were prepared showing for each Pacific port, separately for steamers and sailing vessels, and classified accord- ing to the four groups of commerce, the name, flag, tonnage, etc., of 488 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. all the vessels entered and cleared. These tables gave full informa- tion regarding the steam and sail commerce of each Pacific port. These tabular statements are said by the New Panama Canal Com- pany to have "confirmed the correctness of the former work." The preparation of these tables also " established the fact that the graphic method, based upon the use of the Weekly Shipping Index, which has the disadvantage of requiring much more time, is more exact, com- plete, and reliable." The company .further states: The justification of the method of statements by ports is that it has the advan- tage of dividing among the ports interested the world's tonnage stated for each of the four groups, and thus facilitates the study of the results, especially the inquiry con- cerning that part of the traffic with ports at the limit of the canal's zone of attraction. This method of statements was employed to verify the statistics of the year 1898. At the close of the year 1898 the traffic of the year 1888 was studied according to the methods that had been developed, and tables were made comparing the years 1888 and 1898 to show what development had taken place during the decade in the commerce being investigated. The tonnage movements of 1899 have also been charted, totalized, and tabulated. The following- table, prepared by the New Panama Canal Company and published here with but slight changes in form, pre- sents the results of the elaborate investigations conducted by that company. The table shows the steam and sail tonnage of each of the four groups of commerce for the calendar years 1888, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899. Tonnage of vessels engaged in trade betiueen the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, 1888 and 1895 to 1899. Group 1. Europe with Pacific America. Group 2. Europe with the Orient. Group 3. Be- tween At- lantic and Pa- cific America. Group 4. At- lantic America with Orient. Total for the year. 1888: 346, 015 1, 744, 661 2, 396, 105 1,659,769 4,716 217, 597 78, 994 681,877 2, 825, 830 4,303,894 Sail Total 2, 090, 676 4, 055, 864 222, 313 760, 871 7, 129, 724 1895: 570, 637 2, 130, 876 3,081,479 1,087,250 40, 551 243, 209 162, 599 721,526 3, 855, 266 4 182 861 Sail 2,701,513 4, 168, 729 283, 760 884, 125 8,038,127 1896: 601,157 1,944,207 3, 430, 386 891,404 68, 420 1S8, 145 266, 354 792, 214 4,366,317 3,816,270 Sail Total 2, 545, 364 4,321,790 256,865 1,058,568 8, 182, 587 1897: 601,784 1,677,461 3, 745, 397 976, 480 68,446 164,891 271,455 789, 694 4,677,082 3 608 626 Sail Total 2, 279, 245 4,721,877 223, 337 1,061,149 8, 285, 608 1898: 648, 568 1, 680, 573 3, 669, 091 948, 222 91,082 14S, 20 1 441,246 835, 682 4,849,987 3 612 68] Sail Total 2, 329, 141 4, 617, 313 239, 286 1,276,928 8 462,668 1899: 570, 997 1,804,074 4,059,392 1,053,862 94,319 107, 830 699,913 571 , 444 5 424,621 Sail 3, 537, 210 Total 2, 375, 071 5, 113, 254 202, 149 1,271,357 8,961,831 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 489 The total traffic in 1899 was larger than in 1898. This, however, was not true of all groups, there having been a slight decline in groups 3 and 4. The decline in the vessel movements of group 3 during 1 899 as compared with 1898 was due to scarcity of ships and to the sale of a large line of sailing vessels that had been engaged in this traffic. During the year 1900 a line of steamers, comprising seven ships, capa- ble of handling 126,000 tons of cargo each way annually, was inau- gurated to take the place of the sailing vessels that were sold the year before. The slight decrease in the tonnage of group 4 was likewise due to the high ocean rates arising from the scarcity of ships. The shipments from the eastern ports of the United States to the Orient were handled more largely by the transcontinental railroads and the Pacific steamers. The commerce included in groups 1, 3, and 4 of the above table is considered as certainly tributary to the proposed American canal. The commerce of Europe with eastern countries, group 2, will, for the greater part, make use of the Suez route, but a portion of the traffic will find the American waterway more advantageous. What share of the total for group 2 may properly be credited to the westerly canal route must be a matter of estimate. A careful review of the existing trade routes and a consideration of the forces that will affect the ocean routes after the American canal has been opened leads to the conclu- sion that a portion of Europe's exports to the western half of the Pacific Ocean— that is, to Japan, Australia, and Oceania— will be sent through the American canal. CONCERNING USE OF AMERICAN CANAL BY COMMERCE OF EUROPE WITH ORIENT. The volume of traffic to Europe from the East being larger than that outbound from Europe, vessels are obliged to sail both for the eastern part of the United States and for eastern countries lightly loaded, and sometimes in ballast. Our exports from Atlantic ports to Australia, Oceania, and the Orient are in part carried by ships that cross the Atlantic in ballast. When the American canal has become available vessels will probably not infrequently take on a partial cargo in Europe for countries in the western half of the Pacific, and also take freight for the United States, the West Indies, Central America, or Mexico; that is, vessels finding difficulty in securing cargoes out- bound from Europe will sometimes find it advantageous to proceed to the East by way of America for the purpose of discharging such European-American cargoes as may be secured, and loading at one or more American ports a full cargo for the Pacific port or ports of its destination. In addition to permitting vessels in Europe to unite the light outbound cargoes for the East and for the United States, and enabling them to secure full cargoes in America for the East, the westerly route by way of the American canal will have the advantage of cheaper coal, "and may possibly impose lower canal tolls upon the shipping than will be exacted by the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal is, and doubtless will remain, a highway managed by a corporation, whereas the American waterwa} r under consideration is to be owned and operated by the Government. 490 BEPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The distance from Liverpool to Sydney, Australia, by way of the Nicaragua Canal and Tahiti will be only 172 miles greater than via the Suez, Colombo, Adelaide, and Melbourne, and this small disadvantage of the westerly course will be partially if not quite offset by two facts favoring the American canal route. From Liverpool via the Cape of Good Hope, Adelaide, and Melbourne and Sydney is 722 miles farther than by way of a Nicaragua canal and Tahiti. The use of the westerly route will enable vessels engaged in the European-Aus- tralian trade to avoid the excessive heat of the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, and the storms of the tempestuous Indian Ocean. The American route, also, will be favored by the fact that a vessel on its way between Liverpool and the isthmian canal will have to go but 323 miles out of its course to call at New York — the greatest port of the world — whence outbound cargoes are practically always obtainable. With the advantages of cheaper coal, a cooler passage in the Tropics, quieter seas, and the attractive force of America's heavy tonnage, the American isthmus route will be used instead of the course through the Suez ("anal by some of the vessels departing from Europe for Aus- tralia or other regions on that side of the Pacific Ocean. Vessels proceeding from Europe by way of American ports and the isthmian canal to Oceania and the East will have the choice of return- ing to Europe either by way of the Suez or by way of the American route. By whatever route the European vessels reach the oriental and other countries of the western Pacific, the route by which they return to Europe will be determined by the relative opportunities for obtaining cargo by way of the Suez and American routes, respectively. The reasons for believing that a portion of Europe's imports from the western half of the Pacific will come by way of the American route are stronger than the reasons just cited regarding the use of the American canal for the European export trade. A vessel finding itself in the East Indies, Japan, China, or Australia may either take on cargo for Europe and for intermediate points along the Suez route, or it ma} T load with such cargo as may be available for Europe and Amer- ican countries and proceed — in most cases but partially loaded — across the Pacific to the western coast of the United States, where a great abundance of cargoes destined for Europe may be obtained, or the ship may go to Central America and West Indian ports, where a fair amount of freight for Europe will usually be available, or the vessel may pro- ceed to Chile or some other west South American country, where there is always a heavy amount of outbound traffic. Besides being certain of securing freight from South America or North America for Europe, a vessel returning from the Orient by the American canal will also have the advantage above referred to of being able to secure coal more cheaply than it can be obtained along the Suez line. It would seem probable, upon a priori ground, that vessels leaving Europe, whether by way of the Suez or by way of the American canal, will frequently find the return trip via America more profitable than by the route in the opposite direction. This general proposition, moreover, seems to accord with the evidence regarding the present round-the-world movement of vessels. The entrance and clearance statistics of the vessels engaged in the foreign trade of the west coast of North and South America indicate that a large number of vessels now going out from Europe toward the East return from the west. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 491 EVIDENCE OF INCREASING NUMBER OF ROUND-THE-WORLD VOYACxES. In the trade of the Pacific coast of the United States with Atlantic foreign countries the tonnage of the entrances direct from the Atlantic was 63.8 per cent of the clearances to those ports in 1889; but in 1898 the entrances direct from the Atlantic were but 25.3 per cent of the clearances to the foreign countries of that section. Stated otherwise, in 1889 something over one-third, and in 1898 about three-fourths of the vessel tonnage employed in carrying our west coast trade to Europe arrived at our western ports from other than European countries. Many vessels take cargo from Europe via the Good Hope route to Australia, or other eastern countries, whence they proceed across the Pacific in ballast, or with coal to our western ports or to Chile. A to and fro movement of vessels between ports situated at great distances from each other is frequently unprofitable unless there are about equal quantities of merchandise to be carried both ways, and whenever pos- sible, chartered vessels — and at the present time they carry most of the world's ocean freight — seek to avoid voyages in ballast by moving as much of the time as possible in the direction of the larger currents of traffic. Our Pacific coast imports but little and exports great quantities, consequently vessels endeavor to approach that section — and the same is true of Chile — from regions having a larger volume of inbound traffic. In 1888 more ships entered Chile from North Atlantic countries, Europe, and the United States than cleared from them, but in 1898 the reverse was the case. The figures of the entrances and clearances of the Chilean trade with Europe and our Atlantic coast for the years 1888 and 1898, as recorded by European countries and the United States, are shown by the following table: Chilean entrances and clearances, direct trade with Europe and east coast of United States, 1888, 1898. 1888. 1898. Entrances 767, 000 625, 000 891 000 Clearances 982 000 Per cent which entrances were of clearances: 1888, 122.7; 1898, 89.7. Per cent of decline in ratio of entrances to clearances, 1888 to 1898, 28.5. The ships for the exports of Chile to Europe and the United States were all drawn from Atlantic countries in 1888, and, in addition, ves- sels entered Chile from the Atlantic and cleared for Pacific countries, but in 1898 the vessels for the exports from Chile to the North Atlan- tic must have been drawn partly from Pacific ports. According to the table, the tonnage entering Chile from the North Atlantic was 122.7 per cent of the tonnage that cleared for that section in 1888, whereas the per cent was only 89.7 in 1898, an apparent decline of 28.5 per cent in the ratio. This change was mainly due to a movement of vessels from Europe and eastern United States to Australia and thence to Chile. In compiling the above table the European statistics of entrances and clearances have been taken without making reductions to eliminate 492 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. duplications. Accordingly neither the figures nor the percentages are strictly accurate. For the purpose of the present argument, however, the value of the table is not lessened lty the duplications contained in the statistics, because a study of the European records of entrances and clearances shows very clearly that there is a greater duplication of clearances than of entrances. If the duplications in the figures of the above table were deducted, the tonnage entering Chile from the North Atlantic would bear an even smaller ratio to the clearances to that sec- sion than is stated in the table. Further evidence regarding the increasing movement of vessels around the world is shown by the statistics of entrances and clear- ances of the Atlantic coast trade of the United States with South America. In the table just given above the European trade with Chile is analyzed. The following table contains the figures of the entrances and clearances of the trade of the Atlantic and Gulf sea- boards of the United States with the entire west coast of South America: Atlantic coast entrances and clearances, trade of United States with western South America. Year. Entrances. Clearances. 1889 44,454 78, 930 27, 176 37,560 1899 77.5 38 2 Our east coast entrances from western South America increased during the decade preceding 1899 more than the clearances did. The clearances to South America were less than half the entrances from that section in 1899. Mention was made of the fact that vessels clearing from the North Atlantic to Australia and other eastern countries frequently return by crossing the Pacific. In 1899, 155,000 tons of vessels cleared from the eastern ports of the United States for Australia and New Zealand, and the direct entrances, all from New Zealand, were only 1,912 tons. This does not indicate that practically all the outbound vessels returned b} 7 way of the Pacific, because many, although not all, of the steamers returned by way of Java or Europe and were entered as from those countries. Some of the steamers and nearly all of the sailing vessels returned from Australia to the United States by way of the west coast of North or South America. Under present conditions the tendency is for an increasing number of vessels starting out from Europe and the eastern part of the United States toward the East to return to their starting point by a continuous voyage around the world. The effect of the isthmian canal upon ocean routes under consider- ation will be a double one. It will facilitate a round-the-world move- ment of commerce and also establish conditions that may cause vessels to pass from Europe as well as from the eastern part of the United States through the American canal to oriental countries, to return, as traffic inducements ma}^ determine, by way of the Suez Canal or across the Pacific to the west coast of North and South America and thence to the point of departure. By exercising these influences upon the world's commercial routes the canal will secure a part of the trade of Europe with countries in the western half of the Pacific. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 493 TONNAGE OF AVAILABLE CANAL TRAFFIC. The records kept by the Panama Company show that during the calendar year 1899 the commerce of groups 1, 3, and 4 might have contributed 3, 848,577 tons net register to the traffic of the isthmian canal. This sum does not include any vessel tonnage for the commerce, crossing the Isthmus of Panama. The addition of that tonnage, 336,998, raises the total to 4,185,575. The entrances and clearances for the commerce of the eastern seaboard of the United States with Pacific America and with Australia, Oceania, the Philippines, Japan, China, and Siberia, and the vessel movements between the western coasts of the American continents and the North Atlantic American and European ports were found to amount to 4,074,852 vessel tons net register, including the 336,998 tons for the commerce crossing the Isthmus of Panama. In addition to this tonnage, which comprises onty traffic originating or terminating in America, there should be included most of the com- merce of Europe with New Zealand and the other islands of the Pacific east of Australia. New Zealand will be 1,503 miles nearer Liverpool by the Nicaragua Canal than via the Suez route and 2,407 miles nearer than by way of Good Hope. The distances to Liverpool from the most important groups of South Pacific islands north of New Zealand will be from 500 to 5,500 miles less via the isthmian canal than b} T way of Suez. The entrances and clearances of New Zealand's trade with northwestern Europe — France and countries farther north — amounted to 481,178 tons net register in 1899, and the commerce of that part of Europe with the other islands of the South Pacific east of Australia to 181,743 tons. Of this total traffic of 662,921 tons, prob- ably not less than 500,000 might have advantageously used an isthmian canal, and this amount should be added to the tonnage of the canal traffic originating or terminating in America. This makes the total obtained by the Commission's investigation of the tonnage that might have used an isthmian canal in 1899 4,574,852 tons net register and the total obtained by adopting the New Panama Canal Company's figures for the traffic originating or terminating in America 4,685,575 tons. The above totals for the tonnage that might have used an isthmian canal in 1899 do not include any of Europe's trade with Australia and Japan, a part of which, for reasons stated above, would have used an isthmian waterway. The distances from Great Britain to Sydne} 7 and Yokohama by the Suez and isthmian canal routes are approximately equal, and vessels going by America in either direction en route between Europe and Japan or Australia will pass regions from which there is a heavy export tonnage. If it be assumed that only 10 per cent of the vessel tonnage of the Australian trade with the ports of northwestern Europe and only 5 per cent of the tonnage of the Jap- anese commerce with those ports would have taken an American canal route, the totals for 1899 should be increased 316,223 tons, and be raised from 4,574,852 to 4,891,075 tons, and from 4,685,575 to 5,001,798 tons, or to approximately 5,000,000 tons. GROWTH OF TRAFFIC, 1888-1898. The total vessel tonnage of the four groups included in the tables prepared by the New Panama Canal Company rose from 7,129,724 494 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. tons net register in 1888 to 8,462,668 tons in 1898, an increase of 18.7 per cent. There was a large increase in the commerce of groups 1 and 4. The rapid development of the trade of Europe with the west coast of the Americas, particularly in Chilean nitrates, has been dwelt upon elsewhere. The commerce of the Atlantic coast of America with the Orient, group 4, expanded largely during the decade in spite of the hindrance imposed by the length of the present transportation routes. The ocean commerce, the tonnage of which is comprised in group 3, that is to say, the trade between the two American seaboards, increased but slightly during the decade; but this total of less than a quarter of a million tons includes only the tonnage of vessels which actually make the trip between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. It does not com- prise the traffic which now moves across the Isthmus of Panama. The traffic around South America was less in 1899 than it had been in previous years, the reason for this being that the sailing vessels that had been engaged in the trade between our two coasts were sold for the purpose of substituting steamers. Those steamships will all be in service before the end of 1901, and the tonnage will then be greater than it was previous to the year 1899. After the isthmian canal has been in use for a few years the commerce of group 3 will probabty be as large as that of any other one of the four groups, because it is this group in which the coasting trade between the two seaboards of the United States will fall. The present small proportions of this trade between the two coasts of the Americas and the slow rate of its increase indicate an important, although not the only, commercial rea- son why the United States proposes to construct an isthmian canal. In the following table the tonnage of 1888 is compared with that of 1898, and the number of steamers and sailing vessels engaged in the commerce of each group is indicated: Comparison of the tonnage of 1SS8 and 1S98. Group 1. Europe with Pacific America. Group 2. Europe with the Orient. Group 3. Be- tween Atlantic and Pacific America. Group 4. Atlan- tic America with Orient. Total for the year. Num- ber. Tons. Num- ber. Tons. Num- ber. Tons. Num- ber. Tons. Num- ber. Tons. 1888: Steam Sail 215 1,633 346,015 1,744,661 1,275 1 , 595 2,396,105 1,659,759 7 182 4,716 217, 597 46 571 78, 994 681,877 1,543 3,981 2, 825, 830 4, 303, 894 Total... 1,848 2, 090, 676 2, 870 4, 055, 864 1S9 222,313 617 760, 871 5, 524 7, 129, 724 1898: Steam ... Sail 265 1,101 648, 568 1,680,573 1,448 3,669,091 743 \ 948,222 57 104 91,082 148, 204 202 527 141,246 835, 682 1,972 2, 475 1,849,987 3,612,681 Total . . . 1,366 2,329,141 2,191 4,617,313 161 239, 286 729 1,276,928 4,447 8, 462, 668 Per cent of increase or decrease 1888-1898: Steam ... Sail + 87.4 ■3.6 + 53.1 »42.8 + 1831 »31.9 + + 468 22.6 + 71.3 •16.0 Total... ! 11. 1 + 13.8 + 7.6 + 67.8 + 18.7 'Decrease. In showing the growth in the commerce of these four groups indi- vidually and collectively during the decade 1888 to 1898, the figures of REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 495 the above table afford the basis for reasoning regarding the probable amount of tonnage that will lie ready to use the canal at the time of its probable completion, but a consideration of this is reserved for a separate section, where all the data bearing upon the subject are ana- lvtically presented. There are two other facts shown by this table that are of indirect importance in connection with the traffic of an isthmian canal. One is that the increased traffic of 1898—18.7 per cent larger than the ton- nage of 1888 — was carried in 1,077 fewer vessels than were used ten years before. The number of ships decreased 19.5 per cent during the decade, thus affording a good illustration of the well-known fact that the size of ocean vessels is growing rapidly larger. The average net register of the vessels engaged in the four groups of commerce was 1,291 tons in 1888. The steamers at that time averaged 1,831 tons net register. In 1898 the average for all vessels, both steam and sail, was 1,903 tons net register and for steamers 2,460 tons. THE SUBSTITUTION OF STEAMERS FOR SAILING VESSELS. % The figures contained in the table also indicate the rapidity and extent to which the steamer is supplanting the sailing vessel. The table shows that the sailing vessel lost ground most rapidly in the commerce of group 2, where the Suez route has come to be the main traffic highway. These facts regarding the growth of steam tonnage and the declining use of the sailing vessel are graphically shown in the accompanying charts, which indicate for each of the four groups the changes that have taken place in both steam and sail tonnage. _ The first chart applies to sailing vessels, the second to steamers, while in the third the changes in the total tonnage, steam and sail combined, are represented. COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OF THE THREE TRAFFIC INVESTIGATIONS. Having now set forth the results of three separate investigations instituted to measure the volume of the existing commerce that would make use of an isthmian canal were such a waterway in existence, it will be profitable to compare the results of the three inquiries to see whether they tend to strengthen each other, or whether they are so different as to cast doubt upon the accuracy of any or all of the three studies. The three investigations were made not only without refer- ence to each other, but also according to entirely different methods. Two of the investigations were made by the Isthmian Canal Commis- sion, and the other under the direction of the New Panama Canal Company. It is not often in statistical and economic investigations that such an opportunity for checking up results is afforded as is pos- sible in the present instance. In the chapter on cargo tonnage it was found that the freight ton- nage of the trade between Europe and Western America and the ton- nage going by water between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Pacific countries amounted to 6,703,608 tons in 1899. The total entrances and clearances of the vessels engaged in this trade at that time equaled 3,965, 540 a tons net register. This would make the This is 4,074,852 tons minus 109,312 tons, the coasting trade between our two seaboards. The 6,703,608 tons of cargo do not include any of our coasting trade, hence the vessel tonnage total is reduced before comparison is made with the total cargo tonnage. 496 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. average ratio of cargo tonnage to net register tonnage 1.69. The records of vessel movements kept by the New Panama Canal Com- pany show a tonnage of 3,646,428 net register tons during the calen- dar year 1899 for the commerce of groups 1 and 4, which correspond in general, although not exactly, with the trade included in the above cargo tonnage total. The ratio of cargo tonnage to the vessel tonnage of groups 1 and 4 is 1.83. This is a somewhat higher ratio than that between the cargo tonnage and vessel tonnage of entrances and clearances. The tables prepared by the New Panama Canal Company do not include the vessel tonnage of the trade at Panama. Their method of recording the movements of vessels passing from ocean to ocean and totalizing those movements naturally would not take account of the traffic at Panama. In the tonnage total of entrances and clearances obtained by the Isthmian Canal Commission, the Panama traffic was reckoned to be 336,998 tons net register. If this sum be added to the vessel tonnage total of groups 1, 3, and 4 and the cargo tonnage be divided by this larger figure, the ratio becomes 1.60. The ' ' dead- weight " cargo carrying capacity of American schooners of 500 to 2,000 tons net register averages about 66 per cent more than the net register, but this ratio varies greatly with different vessels. The ordinary modern freight steamer when fully loaded will carry about 2.25 tons of cargo for each ton net register. Vessels are not fully loaded on all voyages. Some are obliged to make trips in ballast in search of cargo, and many more are but par- tially laden on the outbound or return voyage of a round trip. There are very few ports of the world where the volumes of exports and imports are equal. Great Britain buys a much larger bulk of com- modities than she sends out. The opposite is true of the United States and western South America. Consequently the average cargoes of ocean vessels engaged in international trade are much less than their maximum carrying capacity. The ratio of cargo to net register tonnage, obtained above by dividing the total available canal freight tonnage by the corresponding net vessel tonnage, are about what might be expected on a priori grounds. The fact that these ratios are apparently correct is not a definite proof of the accuracy of the tonnage totals compared, but it is corroborative evidence. If any one of these three totals compared were grossly in error, there could not be such close correspondence in the ratios. The total of entrances and clearances in the trade of the year 1899 between Europe and Western America and between the Eastern United States and Pacific countries, 4,074,852 tons, is somewhat less than the new Panama ( 'anal Company's total of vessels engaged in this com- merce, if the traffic at Panama be added to their figure for groups 1, 3, and 4. The tonnage of these three groups during the calendar year 1899 was 3,848,577, and this plus the entrances at Panama in 1898, 336,998 tons (the vessel tonnage adopted for the entire Panama traffic), amounts to 4,185,575 tons. A more detailed comparison of the tonnage figures of tables pre- pared by the Commission with those made by the New Panama Canal Company would show that the totals for the two coasts of America are not very different. It is uncertain whether the trade of Hawaii is included in group 3 of the Panama Company's tonnage table. If it is, the Commission's figures are larger; if Hawaii is not comprised in REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 497 group 3, its inclusion there would make the Panama Company's figures greater. For the trade between Europe and the west coast of the Americas the Commission's total is somewhat larger than the Panama Company's — 178,967 tons if the trade of Hawaii be included in the Commission's figures, and 153,935 tons if omitted. If group 3 does not include the Hawaiian commerce, the vessel tonnage of that com- merce should be subtracted from the figures of "entrances and clearances" before the comparison is made. Concerning this differ- ence of 151,000 or 179,000 tons between totals approximating two and a half millions it should be said that the periods covered by the two totals are not identical, and that the two methods of determining ves- sel movements could hardly be expected to }ield exactly the same results. Vessels do not always make the port they clear for. Acci- dents may prevent, or telegraphic orders from the owner or charterer may change the course of the vessel. It is in the vessel tonnage of the commerce between the eastern American seaboard and the countries of the western part of the Pacific (i. e., the Far East), that the largest difference exists between the figures of the Panama Company and the Commission. The total of group 1 in the calendar year 1899 was 1,271,357, while the total of entrances and clearances accepted for the fiscal }^ear ending' June 30, 1899, by the Commission for the trade between the eastern seaboard of the United States and the western Pacific countries was 908,110 tons net register. This amount, it will be recalled, is twice the tonnage of vessels clearing direct from the Atlantic seaboard to Japan, Siberia, China, the Philippines, and Australasia. Group 1 of the French tables includes some commerce (that of Singapore and the Dutch East Indies) not comprised in the Commission's figures for the trade between our eastern seaboard and trans-Pacific countries. Moreover, a com- plete statement of the vessel tonnage of this commerce can not be made from our statistics of entrances and clearances, because a share, not only of the commodity traffic, but also of the vessel tonnage of this commerce, is credited in our statistical records to our trade with Europe. It is quite possible that the vessel tonnage engaged in the commerce between our eastern seaboard and the countries of the western Pacific is somewhat greater than 908,110 tons net register. Group 1 applies to the commerce between the entire east coast of the American continent and the countries of the western Pacific; but there can be but very little vessel movement between the Far East and any Atlantic American countries other than the United States. The onl} T other tonnage item requiring mention in this comparison is that of the commerce at the city of Panama referred to above. The total of entrances and clearances, as determined by the Commission, credit that traffic with 336,998 vessel tons net register; whereas the methods in accordance with which the calculations of the New Panama Canal Company were made were such as not to include that tonnage. The results of the three traffic investigations are such as to affirm the essential accuracy of each. The ratio between cargo tonnage and vessel tonnage apparently accords with the facts of ocean commerce. In view of the complexity of the statistical problem, the difference in the methods of dealing with the problem, and the slight difference in periods covered, the vessel tonnage totals obtained by the commission's investigation of entrances and clearances and the New Panama Com- pany's record of vessel movements correspond as closely as could be expected. S. Doc. 51, pt 2 32 498 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Chapter XXI.— Growth of canal traffic, 1899 to 1911,. and 1911, to 1921,. The factors affecting the growth of commerce are so numerous and so interrelated that it is difficult to estimate the growth in traffic that will take place during the decade or more that must intervene before an isthmian canal can be ready for use. The only basis of calculation is the increase of the past under the conditions of production and trans- portation and the requirements of international trade that then pre- vailed. All of these conditions are constantly changing and thereby affecting the volume and nature of the commodities exchanged and the routes followed by the commerce of the world. Of one thing, however, there can hardly be any uncertainty, com- mercial progress during the near future will be fully as rapid as it has been the past ten or twenty years. The demands of consumers are everywhere expanding, and sections like Africa and Eastern Asia, that have thus far had but slight contact with the rest of the world, are being rapidly brought within the sphere of international commerce. The costs of transportation, both inland and maritime, continue to decline with the improvement of mechanical appliances and the accumu- lation of capital seeking profitable investment. Nations and individuals are devoting themselves with energy to the extension of trade and com- merce. This is particularly true of the people and Government of the United States. Such being the case, the probable tonnage of the traffic that will be available for an isthmian canal at the time of its completion will doubt- less be conservatively estimated by predicating a continuation of the rate of increase that has prevailed duringthe past decade. In all proba- bility the growth will be more rapid in the future; it surely will not be slower. RATE OF INCREASE SHOWN BY TABLES OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. The statisticians of the New Panama Canal Company found that the tonnage of the vessels trafficking between the two coasts of America, between the eastern United States and the Orient, between Europe and Pacific America, i. e., the available canal tonnage originating or ter- minating in America, increased from 3,073,860 tons net register in 1888 to 3,845,355 tons in 1898. a gain of 25.1 per tent. In dete mim- ing whether this rate of increase per decade is one whose use will result in a conservative estimate of the probable available canal traffic in 1911, references to the progress in the vessel tonnage and value of the international trade of a few typical regions will be of assistance. The growth that has taken place in the commerce between the Atlantic coast of the United States and Pacific foreign countries is shown in the following table, which compares the year L899 with that of 1889. The facts are shown separately for western South America and all other Pacific countries: Tin- trade of the United States Atlantic coast with foreign countries on the Pacifu in value, 1SS9-1S99. — Growth \\ nil South America. With all other Pacific. Combined Imports. Exports. Total, i Imports, i Exports. Total. total. 1889 1899 g:i,:V2.\iir> ... 168,766 $8,854,341 3,942, 139 87,179,456 830,107,332 817,478,531 847 9,110,905 34,642,073 38,228,696 72,870,769 854,765,319 81,981,674 Absolute i n - 1,843,651 55. i 87, 798 1,931,449 1,534,741 26.8 | 15.1 20,750,165 25,284,906 118.7 J 53.1 27,216,355 Per cent in- 49.7 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 499 The value of the imports from South America rose 55.4 per cent. The total value of our import and export tiade with western South America increased 26.8 per cent during- the decade 1889-1899. The commerce between the Atlantic and Gulf seaboard of the United States, and Australia, Japan, and the mainland of Pacific Asia has grown more rapidly than our trade with western South America. The growth in the value of the imports was 15.1 per cent, and of the exports IIS. 7 per cent, the increase in the total trade having been 53.1 per cent Our ability to produce cheaply has enabled us to enter freely into the expanding markets of the western half of the Pacific, although the costs of transportation, except to Australia during the last three years of the decade being studied, have necessarily been higher than our rivals have had to bear. The competition of the three lines from New York to Australia became severe in 1897 and greatly facilitated the development of the large trade which we have latterly secured with Australia. The total trade of the United States with Australasia more than doubled during the decade 1890 to 1900, having been $32,194,000 in the year ending June 30, 1900, as against $15,544,000 in 1890. Our exports to that continent increased from $11,266,000 to $26,725,000 during the decade. INCREASE IN TRADE BETWEEN EUROPE AND WESTERN COAST OF AMERICA. The European entrances from Chile increased from 575,890 tons in 1888 to 914,091 tons in 1898, a gain of 58.7 per cent. These figures contain a certain amount of duplication, but the elimination of those duplications would not much affect the percentage. The duplications in clearances from Europe are greater than in the records of entrances, and for that reason the statistics of clearances are not cited in this con- nection. On their face the figures of entrances and clearances indi- cate that the total trade between Chile and Europe was 33.3 per cent greater in 1898 than ten years before, and while neither the statistics nor the per cent of increase are to be taken as absolutely correct, they possess illustrative value. The European entrances from all the west coast of South America increased from 789,278 tons in 1888 to 1,077,346 tons in 1898, a gain of 36.5 per cent. In the chapter dealing with the vessel tonnage available for the use of a canal, the cargo tonnage of the nitrate of soda exported from Chile was shown to have grown from 420,000 to 1,360,000 long tons during the fifteen-year period ending with the calendar year 1899. This increase of over 200 per cent in the nitrate trade is, of course, due to causes peculiar to it, and not generally operative upon international trade as a whole. Nevertheless, the growth of the foreign trade in such articles as nitrate of soda, phosphate rock, lumber, coal, iron and steel products, and others that might be cited, and the practical certainty that the increase will continue for some decades to come, must have much significance in any reasoning regarding the probable rate of increase that will take place during the coming decade and a half, in the commerce available for an isthmian canal. The trade of Europe with the Pacific coast of the United States is subject to great fluctuations, because it consists largely, although to a continually less degree, of the exports of grain, the annual volume of 500 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. which depends upon whether the crop yield is abundant or light, and whether European prices are high or low. The entrances recorded at our Western ports comprise a decreasing number of vessels from Europe, because the majority of the ships reach those ports from trans- pacific points. The export trade is particularly subject to fluctuation, but the last decade of the last century witnessed a moderate growth in the tonnage in vessels cleared. There was, likewise, an increase in the value of the exports, which amounted to about 25 per cent. The exports of wheat are not so heavy as they formerly were, but other commodities, particularly horticultural products, are acquiring a large place in the foreign trade. GROWTH IN TRANS-PACIFIC TRADE OF THE WEST COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. The trade between the Pacific coast of the United States and Hawaii, Japan, China, and Hongkong will not make use of the canal, but for the purpose of discussing the rate at which the Pacific commerce is growing, this trade may be most advantageously considered. In the following table the entrances and clearances of the vessels engaged in that trade are indicated, the absolute increase in the total tonnage during the decade is shown for the live countries separately and col- lectively. According to the table the total entrances and clearances increased 191 per cent during the decade. Vessel tonnage trade between west coast of United States and trans-Pacific countries. Country and year. Entrances. Clearances. Total. Hawaii: 1889 43, 254 246, 432 96, 200 206,887 139, 454 1899 153,319 313, 865 Siberia: 1889 1,029 7,633 1,980 19,639 3,009 1899 27, 270 24, 261 Japan: 1 889 29, 480 165, 701 2,095 44,731 31,575 1899 210,432 178, 857 China: 1889 3,785 72, 145 3, 982 28,790 7, 767 1899 95, 935 88, 168 Hongkong: 1889 107, 794 183, 679 111,507 207, 130 222, 301 1899 891, 109 168,808 Total entrances and clciirniii-o: lssg, 404,106; 1899, L, 178,065; per cenl of gain, 191. In reading this table it is necessary to bear in mind that a consider- able tonnage of vessels enter our Western ports not to secure cargo for the Orient, but to load with grain, lumber, or other freight for the North Atlantic, and if allowances could be made for this the average REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 501 percentage of gain would be somewhat reduced. However, it will be observed that the clearances from our ports for the five Pacific coun- tries — and the clearances represent the movements of vessels actually engaged in carrying our goods abroad — show a large increase in each instance. The foregoing paragraphs have referred to the rate of growth pre- vailing in the commerce of the Atlantic coast of the United States with (1) western South America, (2) with all Pacific countries other than South America, and (3) with Australia; reference has also been made to rate of increase in Europe's commerce (1) with the west coast of South America, (5) with Chile, and (6) with the Pacific States of the United States; and finally attention was called to the progress being made in (7) the commerce of our west coast with Hawaii, Australia, Hongkong, China, Japan, and Siberia. In only one of these seven references to international trade — the commerce between our west coast and Europe — was the rate of increase per decade found to be less than the 25.1 per cent obtained by comparing records of the New Panama Canal Com- pany for 1888 with those for 1898. In most of the seven special divi- sions of commerce above noted the rate of growth was found to be much more than 25.1 per cent. PROBABLE AVAILABLE CANAL TRAFFIC IN 1911. In view of these facts it would seem that an increase of 25.1 per cent per decade up to the time of the opening of the canal may be very safely and conservatively predicated concerning the traffic that might have advantageously used the waterway in 1899. Predictions con- cerning the future ten or fifteen years must necessarily be based upon the experiences of the past, and unless the decade upon which the calculations here presented as to the future are made to rest was one of abnormally rapid or slow commercial progress it may properly be made the basis. Taken as a whole the decade preceding 1899 was probably one during which the world made normal industrial and commercial progress. In the United States the earlier years and the last year of the period were characterized b} T great business activity, but during fully a third of the decade a business depression of unusual severity prevailed. The years from 1893 to 1897 were more trying ones in this country than they were in Europe, but business was dull rather than active in Europe during that time. Consequent!}' it is probable that estimates based upon this decade will not lead to an exaggeration of the facts. The Panama Canal Compan} r 's figures for the vessel movements of the commerce originating or terminating in America, increased by the present transisthmian traffic and 816,223 tons of Europe's trade with Oceania, Australia, and Japan, show that the available canal traffic for the calendar year 1899 was 5,001,798 tons net register. An increase of 25.1 per cent during the decade ending in 1909 would raise the amount to 6,257,219 tons; and the same rate of growth would bring the total to 6,998,733— or, in round numbers, 7,000,000— tons in 1911. If the tonnage of available canal traffic in 1899, as determined by the Isthmian Canal Commission's study of entrances and clearances, be made the basis of estimate, and the increase of 25.1 percent per decade be assumed, the figures for 1909 will be 6,118,735 net register tons, and for 1914 6,813,805 tons. 502 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In the foregoing estimates of tonnage the figures refer to the avail- able' canal traffic. It is not probable that all of the commerce included in the above totals will at once abandon the routes at present followed and immediately make use of the isthmian waterway. It will take some time to readjust trade with reference to the new conditions which the canal will establish, and possibly two years may be required for merchants and carriers to adapt themselves to all the changes in the routes and methods of international trade that the use of the canal will necessitate. The totals to which the three investigations of avail- able canal tonnage have led may be designated as the measure of all the commerce that would have used the canal in 1899 had the com- merce of our own and foreign countries been adjusted to the condition of trade which the canal would have established. There is no tonnage included in the totals which might not advantageously use the canal, except during the temporary period of transition from the existing conditions governing international trade and controlling the commerce between our eastern and western seaboards, to those conditions which will exist after the isthmian route has been opened. ESTIMATE OF GROWTH OF TRAFFIC DURING FIRST DECADE OF THE USE OF THE CANAL. The new interoceanic communication will so greatly modify the routes of commerce and the conditions controlling the progress of the industries and commerce of many sections of the world that the prob- lem of estimating the increase that may be expected to take place in the tonnage using the canal during the first decade following the open- ing of the waterway is a different one from that of predicting the growth of available traffic up to the time of the completion of the canal. The rate of increase will be much more rapid after the canal has been put into service and its economic effects have begun to be realized. The present small amount of ocean tonnage plying between the two seaboards of the United States affords a most striking instance of the restrictions which the absence of an isthmian canal imposes upon the growth of a traffic that will become large when the isthmian waterway has been opened. During the past decade the vessel movements between our two seaboards have averaged less than 250,000 tons annu- ally, and until the current year have tended to decline, at a time when our domestic and foreign trade has been making rapid progress. Our small trade with western South America, a region with which we should, and some day will, have a large commerce, is another example of the restraints of existing transportation facilities. The effect of the isthmian canal upon the interoceanic coastwise commerce of the United States and upon our trade with western South America will be revolu- tionary, and the influence upon our commerce with foreign countries of the North Pacific will be, to say the least, highly stimulative. During the decade following the opening of the canal numerous forces will operate to accelerate the growth of American commerce. Besides being influenced by the new isthmian waterway, commerce will doubtless be served by a Pacific cable, and our trade will have the advantage of closer and more direct international banking facilities EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 503 than now exist. Likewise, there is every reason to expect a large development in our merchant marine during the coming ten or fifteen years. The combined effect of these four commercial agencies will be to supplement our ability to produce cheaply, with facilities as favor- able as our rivals possess for communication and transportation and for the settlement of international obligations, and the result will be the sure progress of our coastwise and foreign maritime commerce. While it is not to be expected that the traffic of the isthmian water- way during the early years of its operation will increase so rapidly as did the tonnage passing the Suez Canal, the best basis for estimating the probable increase that will occur in the tonnage of the American isthmian waterway is the rate of growth that the traffic of the Suez Canal has had. The number of vessels that have passed through the Suez Canal each year since it was opened and the gross and net ton- nage are shown by the following table: Suez Canal traffic. L87 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. lsst".. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. Year. Number of ves- sels. Gross ton- nage. 486 654, 915 765 1,142,200 082 1, 744, 481 173 2, 085, 073 264 2, 423, 672 494 2, 940, 708 457 3, 072, 107 663 3,418,950 593 3, 291, 535 ,477 3,236,942 ,026 4, 344, 520 7?.7 5, 794, 491 ,198 7, 122, 126 ,307 8,051,307 ,284 8, 319, 967 ,624 8, 985, 412 ,100 8, 183, 313 ,137 8,430,043 ,440 9,437,957 ,425 9, 605, 745 ,389 9, 749, 129 ,207 12,217,986 , 559 10, 866, 401 ,341 10, 756, 798 , 352 11,2S3,855 ,434 11,833,637 ,409 12, 039, 859 ,986 11, 123, 403 i,503 12, 962, 632 ,607 13, 815, 992 !,441 13, 699, 238 Net ton- age. 436, 609 761,467 1, 160, 743 1,367,768 1,631,650 2, 009, 984 2, 096, 772 2, 355, 448 2, 269, 678 2, 263, 332 3, 057, 422 4, 136, 780 5, 074, 809 5, 775, 862 5, 871, 501 6, 335, 753 5, 767, 656 5, 903, 024 6, 610, 834 6, 783, 187 6, 890, 094 8, 698, 777 7,712,029 7, 659, 068 8, 039, 175 8, 448, 383 8, 560, 284 7, 899, 374 9, 238, 603 9, 895, 630 9, 738, 152 504 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The growth in the tonnage using the Suez Canal is graphically shown by the following diagram: . 4\ f J ■ c .0 > "v A J V _ v * ? V *' _J 000.000 500,000 000,000 500,000 000,000 500,000 000,000 500,000 000,000 500,000 000,000 500,000 000,000 500,000 000.00 500,000 000,000 500,000 000,000 500,000 CD cd co o a) co o to ta ti c co o cd a? c so great as to exaggerate the progress which the traffic made during the subsequent quinquennial periods. The Suez Canal could )>e used advantageously only by steamers, and in 1870 the number of steamers available for the commerce between REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 505 Europe and the East Indies was limited. For some years the greater part of the commerce continued to go in sailing vessels around the Cape of Good Hope. After the canal had been in use a few years, however, steamers were to a large extent substituted for the sailing vessels, and the Suez route for the Cape route for the greater part of the business. It will be seen that the traffic of the five years lSso- 1884 was 217 per cent that of the previous quinquennial period. The tonnage of 1885-1881* was 286 per cent of the period from 1875 to 1879; the tonnage of 1890 to 1891 was 863 per cent, and that of 1895 to 1899, 101 per cent of the traffic of the five years 1875 to 1879. During the last quinquennial period of the twenty-five years from 1875 to 1899 the traffic of the Suez Canal was four times what it was during the first five years. Had the traffic of the years 1870-1871 been made the basis of comparison the above percentages would have been very much larger. Omitting the first two years, when the traffic was comparatively light because but few steamships were available for the trade between Europe and the East, and making 1872 the basis of comparison, it will be seen that the traffic grew from 1,160,713 net tons in 1872 to 5,074,- 809 net tons in 1882, a gain of 337 per cent. The tonnage of 1875 had increased 215 per cent by 1885. The traffic of 1890 was 125 per cent greater than that of 1880. Since 1890 the absolute gain in the tonnage figures has been large, although the percentage of increase is less than it formerly was. The gain of 16 per cent from 1889 to 1899 repre- sents an increase of 1,210,217 tons gross register and 3,112,-143 tons net. Should the rate of increase in the tonnage of the isthmian canal during the first ten years be half that of the Suez during the second decade of its use, the rate would be 62% per cent. In view of the much larger rate shown by the Suez Canal, and in view of the conditions that will favor commercial progress at the time of and subsequent to the opening of the American canal, 62i per cent is believed to be a conservative estimate. THE ESTIMATE FOR 1924. A decennial increase of 6'2% per cent in the estimated traffic available for the canal in 1911, as determined by the figures obtained by using the tables prepared by the New Panama Canal Company, would give a tonnage of 11,372,911 net vessel tons in 1921. A 62-fr per cent increase in the estimated vessel-tonnage total of 1911, reached by the Commis- sion's study of entrances and clearances — 6,813,805 — would amount to 11,121,183. These two estimates for 1924 averrge about 11,250,0* K > tons. For reasons stated above the entire amount of the available canal tonnage can hardly be expected to use the new route during the first year or two of the operation of the waterway, the period required for the readjustment of commercial arrangements. This adjustment will, however, not be delayed by a scarcity of steamers, and will be quickly made. After two years the full amount of the available canal tonnage— the available tonnage of 1916, not of 1914 — will be passing the canal in all probability, and the 62|- per cent increase in the available ton- nage of 1911 may fairly be expected to represent the actual tonnage at the close of the decade ending in 1921. In this calculation it is assumed that the canal will have been put in operation by the beginning of 1914. 506 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Chapter XXII. — The question of tolls. In levying tolls, three different purposes ma} T control action. Such charges may be imposed as will cause the receipts to cover expenses only, or to cover the expenses and a fair rate of interest on the capital invested, or charges may be fixed for the purpose of securing the greatest possible income from the canal. Should the principle of maximum revenue be adopted, the effect of tolls upon the volume of traffic will need to be carefully studied, because the receipts derived from the operation of the canal will be the product of two factors — the rate of toll and the volume of traffic. The tonnage of traffic being dependent upon the tolls charged, it would be necessary, in order to secure the maximum revenue, to ascertain what rate of toll could be paid by that volume of traffic which when multiplied by the rate would yield the maximum product. It is hardly necessary to say that there is no fixed rule by which the rate can be determined that would yield the greatest revenue. If there were such a rule, it ought not to be the one adopted in fixing the tolls of the Isthmian Canal. The policy in regard to tolls should be adopted with reference to all the purposes which the canal is constructed to accomplish, and no argument need be advanced to enforce the truth that the revenue- producing function of the canal will be a minor one as compared with its function of promoting the industrial, commercial, and social progress of the United States and all countries whose trade will be affected by it. The exaction of charges that would largely restrict the volume of business done through the canal would permit the waterway to perform only in part the chief services it is designed to accomplish. The canal is to be constructed and operated hy the Government primarily for the promotion of the economic and political welfare of the people of the United States, and the tolls charged will doubtless be fixed so as not unnecessarily to interfere with the realization of this purpose. The principle of maximum charges would be inconsistent with the public welfare, and if tolls are levied the choice will lie between a rate that will cover only the expense of operation or a rate that will, in addition, yield an income on the capital invested. Before beginning the discussion of tolls with reference to the American canal, it will be profitable to study the experience of the Suez Canal. That interoceanic waterway has now been in use over thirty years, and the main features and results of the financial policy main- tained in its management may well be considered. SUEZ CANAL TOLLS. The charges for passing the Suez Canal are 9 francs per net vessel ton, the tonnage being determined by the so-called Danube measure- ment, a system adopted by the International Tonnage Commission of Constantinople. Vessels in ballast obtain a reduction of 2£ francs per ton from the regular toll charges. Each vessel carrying passengers is obliged to pay 10 francs for each passenger above \"2 years of age and 5 francs for each passenger between the ages of •"> and L2 years. There are. it; addition to these tolls, certain port and transit dues. A towage service is maintained for the use of such ships as may require towing, and for this service there is a fixed schedule of charges. In applying the Danube rules to the measurement of a vessel the net tonnage resulting is considerably larger than the net tonnage of a KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 507 vessel registered under the British or American flags. The following table shows the relation of gross to net tonnage as determined by the Danube and other measurements for three typical vessels. The toll paid by these three ships is given and the amount which this charge would have been per ton net register, British measurement, is stated for two of the vessels, and per net ton Norwegian measurement for the third ship: Tolls charged for passing Suez Caned. Name of ship. Nationality. Gross register. Net regis- ter. Net register tonnage, Danube measure- ment. Percentage which Danube is of other measure- ments. Tolls paid. Charge per ton net. British and Nor- wegian measure- ments. Sunderland Queen Christiana. Bergenhus do Norwegian . . . Tons. 3,414.07 3,596.00 3, 628. 00 Tons. 2, 198. 282 2,291 2,361 2, 571. 45 2, 747. 66 2, 986. 72 117 119.9 126 $4, 466. 61 4, 775. 84 5, 376. 09 82.03 2.08 2.19 The table shows that, according to the Danube rules, the net ton- nage of a vessel will average fully one-fifth more than when measured according to British or Norwegian measurements. The toll charges paid were considerably over $2 per ton on the net register of the vessels, British or Norwegian measurement. The American measurements are made by practically the same rules as the British. The total transit dues of the steamer Bergenhus were 27,887.95 francs, of which 26,880.45 francs were paid for tolls — the charges other than tolls amounting to 1,007.50 francs, or $194.45. The traffic receipts of the Suez Canal from the first year of its operation to the close of 1900, the last year for which figures are obtainable, is shown by the following table. The receipts are given in francs and in dollars, a franc having been considered equal to $0,193. The number of vessels and their mean net tonnage is also given in the table: SUEZ CANAL TRAFFIC. Number and size of vessels, receipts from tolls. Year. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 18"8 1879 1880 1881 1SN2 1 B83 lss4 1 KK5 lss6 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 Mean net Number tonnage of vessels. per vessel. 486 898 765 995 1,082 1,071 1,173 1,166 1,264 1,290 1,494 1,345 1,457 1,439 1,663 1,416 1,593 1,425 1,477 1,532 2,026 1,509 2,727 1,517 3,198 1,586 3,307 1,746 3,284 1,787 2,624 1,748 3,100 1,860 3,137 1, 881 3,440 1,930 3,425 1,951 3,389 2,033 4,207 2,067 Transit receipts. Francs. 5, 159, 327 8,993,733 16,407,591 22,897,319 24, 859, 383 28, 886, 302 29, 974. 999 32, 774; 344 31,098,229 29, 686, 061 39, 840, 488 51,274,353 60, 545, 882 65, 847, 812 62, 378, 116 62, 207, 439 56, 527, 391 57, 862, 371 64, 832, 273 66,167,579 66, 98 .,000 83, 422, 101 Receipts. $995, 750 735, 790 166. 665 419, 182 797, 861 575, 056 785, 174 325, 448 001,958 629. 410 689, 214 895. 950 685,355 708.627 038, 976 006. 035 909, 786 167,437 512, 628 770, 343 927,912 100, 465 508 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Number and size of vessels, receipts from tolls — Continued. Mean net Number tonnage of vessels. per vessel. 3,559 2,167 3,341 2,292 3, 352 2, 398 3,434 2,460 3,409 2, 511 2,986 2, 645 3, 503 2, 637 3,607 2, 743 3,441 Transit receipts. Receipts. 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 Francs. 74, 452, 436 70, 667, 361 73, 776, 828 78, 103, 718 79, 569, 994 72, 830, 545 85, 294, 770 91,318,772 90, 623, 609 514,369,320 13, 638, 800 14,238,928 15. 074. 008 15. 357. 009 14,056.295 16,461,891 17, 624, 553 17, 490, 356 It is shown that there has been a fairl} T stead} T and a comparatively rapid growth in the traffic receipts of the canal almost from the time when it was opened for commerce. The traffic and the revenues were comparatively small the first two years, because there were not many steamers available for the commerce between Europe and the East. The transit receipts for the year 1S99 amounted to $17,624,553. By grouping- the canal receipts into five-} T ear periods and comparing those periods with each other the rate of growth can be shown more accu- rately than by comparing one year with another. The annual varia- tions are frequently large, but when quinquennial periods are com- pared the effects of these annual variations are minimized. In the following table the figures of the preceding table are grouped accord- ing to quinquennial periods. In comparing the periods the first live years are omitted, because if the figures of that period were made the basis of comparison the rate of increase would be so great as to give an exaggerated statement of the growth that has taken place since 1875: Increase in number and size of vessels, and receipts of Suez Canal, by quinquennial prrimh, 1875-1899. Year. Number of Mean net tonnage vessels. per Vessel 4,770 1, 123 7,684 1, 130 11,542 1,644 16, 726 1,879 17, 848 2, Ids 16, 939 2,659 Receipts. Percentage which re- ceipts of 5- year periods areof receipts of 1876-1879. 1870-1874 is;:. 1879 1880-1884 1S85 ISS'.l L890 1894 1895-1899 815,116,248 29,317,016 54,018,122 59,366,229 71,275,425 7s, 213, 756 181 202 243 26b The receipts of the period 1880 to 1884, inclusive, wore 184 per cent of those of the previous five years. The revenues from traffic during the five years 1885 L889 were 202 per cent of those obtained during the period 1875-1879, whereas the revenues for the five-year periods L890-1894 and 1895-1899 were respectively 243 and 266 per cent of the receipts obtained in the years 1875 to 1879. The transit revenues of the last five years of the quarter century was two and two-thirds those of the first five years. The traffic of this hitter period was fourfold that of the five years which are made the basis of comparison. The Suez (anal has been a very profitable investment of capital. There are 400,000 .shares of capital stock, with a par value of 500 francs REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 509 each, and bonds which amounted to 177,340,000 francs in 1898. The dividends paid on the stock reached 5 per cent in 1871, were 5 T "V per cent in 18(6, and 6 per cent in 1879. They have been as high as 17 per cent. In 1898 the net balance for distribution, after paying costs of operation, interest on the bonds, and other expenses, amounted to 46,618,000 francs. In the distribution of this sum the shareholders received 71 per cent of the total, 33,098,780 francs, i. e., 16£ per cent- of the face value of their stock Of the remaining 29 per cent of the net earnings, 15 per cent went to the Egj^ptian Government, 10 per cent to the founders, 2 per cent to the directors, and 2 per cent to the employees. An additional fact of much interest is shown by the preceding tables. It will be noted that the number of vessels passing the canal was no greater in 1899 than in 1885. During those fifteen years the tonnage has increased 56 per cent. The larger volume of traffic has been accommodated by increasing the size instead of the number of the ships. The mean net register of the vessels using the Suez Canal will very soon reach 3,000 tons. Should the present rate of increase con- tinue until 1911, the vessels will then average 3,600 tons net, and it is probable that the larger dimensions about to be given the Suez Canal will result in more rapid increase in the size of vessels than is now taking place. The growth in the size of ships using the Suez Canal is graphically shown by the following diagram: -— — — — — • <*. ^ <« * ^ eJ -4 i ■ ? s 4F -m& _ -J*. =1 -^ '^ -H- ^ -i-"^ i? T - ^-*^- — i ^25- - d ?* - H 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2200 2IOO 2000 ! 900 ISOO I 700 I600 ISOO 1400 1300 1200 I IOO IOOO 800 Q ID 03 O £> CD Q CD QfDCOIOI&IDQQOIOOOlSaitDCOOQOQ 510 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. The tendency to increase the size of ocean vessels is important in connection with the study of the traffic of the isthmian canal, be- cause the cost of operating the canal will depend to some extent upon the number of lockages. The maximum traffic capacity of the canal will also be greater if vessels of large instead of small dimensions are used, A traffic of 10,000,000 tons net per year would require the passage of 5,000 vessels, with an average net register of 2,000 tons, or about 7 ships each way per day on an average. The same number of ships double the size would make the annual tonnage 20,000,000 tons without any increase in the number of lockages required. In this connection attention ma}' properly be called to the possible traffic capacity of a twin-lock canal such as the isthmian waterway will be. Not many years after the canal has been put into operation the vessels using it will in all probability average as much as 4,000 tons net register. If 50 such vessels were to pass through the canal daily. 25 each way on an average, the total annual net tonnage would be 73,000,000 tons. Inasmuch as the time ordinarily required for a ship to pass a lock will not exceed three-fourths of an hour, a canal with twin locks could readily handle an average of 25 vessels per day each way, and do so without delay to commerce, except, perhaps, at cer- tain times when the rush of traffic might largely increase the average daily number of vessels making the passage. EFFECT OF TOLLS UPOX VOLUME OF TRAFFIC OF SUEZ CANAL. In the case of the Suez Canal there is but a comparatively small percentage of the total available tonnage situated on the margin of advantage, and for that reason the Suez Canal Company has been able to derive large revenues from the maintenance of high tariffs. The trade of Europe with Australia is more liable than an}- other important category of available commerce to be kept away from the canal and sent around the Cape of Good Hope, but a part even of that trade is done b} T way of Suez. The passenger and mail steamers all use the canal, while most of the slow freight steamers take the Cape route A reduction in the Suez Canal charges would draw to that waterway some, but not a very large amount, of the European trade with the East. The change from steam to sail power is helping the Suez Company to §ct the business without reducing its charges. The high tolls of the uez have a greater deflecting effect on the commerce of the eastern seaboard of the United States with the East than on the trade of Europe with the countries of that region, because the saving in distance accom- plished by the canal is much less for the American than for the Euro- pean commerce. From New York to Australia the Cape route is no longer than the canal route for full-powered steamers, and of course vessels go by the Cape. In going from New York to Singapore and points in China and Japan the course by way of Suez saves less than 2,000 miles, and the canal route is from seventh-eights to live-sixths as long as that around Good Hope. Sailing vessels leaving New York for the Far East take the Cape route, but steamers always go through the canal. A large reduction in the Suez Canal tolls would doubtless hasten the substitution of steamers for sailers and secure for the canal a larger share of the total traffic, at least until the American isthmian waterway had become available. REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 511 The traffic of the Suez Canal could be increased by a reduction of 50 per cent in the transit charges, but the effect of tolls upon the tonnage of the Suez waterway is not so great as the influence of the isthmian canal charges will be on the volume of traffic using that waterway. The marginal traffic is much greater in the case of the American water- way, and high tolls will cause much trade to adhere to existing ocean routes. Moreover, the traffic between our two seaboards, which will ■ constitute a large share of the total canal tonnage, will be competed for by rail as well as water routes, and the higher the canal tariffs are the larger will be the share of the total commerce between the eastern and western sections of our country that will move try rail. The commerce whose routes will be most affected by the tolls of the isthmian canal will be that between Europe and Chile, that of the Tinted States and Europe with Australia, and that of the United States with the Philippines, southern China, and a part of that with the Dutch East Indies. ISTHMIAN CANAL TOLLS AND THE CHILEAN TRAFFIC. Three-fourths of the Chilean tonnage consists of nitrate of soda, the deposits of which are located in the northern part of the country in the middle part of the west coast of South America. The route north from the nitrate beds of northern Chile b} T way of an isthmian canal will require the vessel to make a detour of some length to the west, and the average distances from Europe to the nitrate deposits will be shortened about 2,800 nautical miles by the canal. About 30 per cent of the present distances through the Straits of Magellan will be saved. A saving of 2,800 miles would shorten the time of the voyage for a 10- knot steamer eleven days and sixteen hours. In using the canal route for the purpose of saving this distance of 2,800 miles, something over a day would be required for passing the Nicaragua Canal, and some- what more than a half day for the transit across Panama. In general, a 10-knot steamer could shorten the time of its voyage between Europe and the central part of western South America ten da} T s by using a Nicaragua canal and eleven days bypassing through a Panama water- way instead of going around by the Straits of Magellan. A vessel operated at a speed of 9 knots per hour, which is the present speed of the larger share of tramp steamers — the vessels in which the major portion of the world's ocean commerce is carried on — would shorten the time of its voyage thirteen days by avoiding 2,800 miles of sailing. Such a vessel could get from Europe to the middle part of the west coast of South America eleven and one-half days sooner by way of a Nicaragua canal and twelve and one-half days earlier via a Panama route. Would the possibility of saving from ten to eleven and a half da} T s cause a vessel running between Europe and Chile to pay tolls for the privilege of passing an isthmian canal, and what charges could the vessel afford to pay \ This depends mainly upon the costs of operating the ship when at sea. The information received from a firm operating several ships is: The cost of operating a modern freight steamer of, say, 2,500 tons net register ( dead weight cargo capacity, say 6,000 tons), averages not exceeding, say $175 per day. This includes wages, provisions, coal, interest on capital invested, insurance, wear and tear 512 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Another authority states: We find that the average cost of operating a steamer of, say, 8,000 gross tons dead weight capacity (about 3,500 tons net) , which includes bunker coal as well as cargo, making an average speed of 9 knots per hour between New York and San Francisco, to be about $300 per day. This covers cost of bunker coal, victualing and manning, and insurance only. The cost of bunker coal is based upon the average cost of same to-day. This latter statement of costs of operating ships does not include the expenses of interest on capital, nor is anything allowed for deprecia- tion in the value of the ship. The addition of these items would somewhat increase the average daily expenses. It ought to be noted, however, that the present costs of coal are unusually high. These two calculations as to the costs of operating vessels give results differing largely, doubtless for the reason that the first calcu- lation is based on experience in the operation of ships under a foreign flag across the Atlantic, where coal is cheap, and. for the reason that the costs are for normal times instead of the present, when prices are unusually high, while in the second estimate the experience drawn upon consisted in the management of vessels under the American Hag at the present time of high prices and upon a route where the costs of coal are very much higher than in North Atlantic ports. The present costs of chartering British steamers and operating them at a speed of 9 knots in the trade between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America are given by a firm having a large business. The actual monthly and daily expenses incurred for two of these British ships by the American firm chartering them is as follows: 1. Gross register tons. . 3, 048 Net register j do.. 1, 954 Dead-weight capacity, including coal and stores do.. 5,000 Freight, at 4s. 6d. per dead-weight ton per month (30 days), say, 1,125, at $4.86 - $5,467.50 Coal, 20 tons per day, 30 days =600 tons, at $3 1,800.00 Total 7,267.50 $7,267.50-^30 days=$242.25 per day. 2. < rross register tons.. 3, 244 Net register do.. 2, L04 Dead-weight capacity, including coal and stores do. . 5, 100 Freight at 5s. 6d. per dead-weight ton per month (30 days), say, 1,402-10, at $4.86 1 * $6, Sl(). 15 Coal, 20 tuns per day, 30 days=600 tons, at $3 1,800.00 Total 8, 616. 15 $8, 616.15-^30 days =$287. 20 per day. In the case of both of these ships the charterer pays port charges, agency fees, stevedoring, and pilotage. The vessel owner pays for engine stores, wages of crew, insurance on vessel, and victualing, and in fixing his charges includes payment for wear and tear, and presum- ably a profit to ownei 8. The rates paid to the owner by the charterer — a certain amount per month per ton, dead-weight capacity- vary according to the supply of and demand for ships, and at the present time vessel rates are not especially high. It is probable, however, that the supply of vessels REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 513 will so increase within a few years as to reduce existing charter rates very considerably. A saving of $175 a day for ten days would amount to $1,750, and for eleven and one-half days to $2,022.50. A toll of $1 per net ton register on a ship of 2,500 tons would equal $2,500, or considerably more than such a vessel operated at a speed of 9 or 10 knots could save by shortening the voyage between Europe and Chile 2,800 miles. How : ever, something should be added to these amounts saved by shortening the voyage, because the insurance would be less on the vessels that used the canal instead of passing through the Straits of Magellan, which are especially dangerous to navigate. Moreover, freight rates could be made somewhat higher by the vessel that could deliver its cargo in a shorter time. Time is money in most lines of trade. Furthermore, men operating vessels would for a like reason prefer to have the ships use the route that would enable them to do the greatest possible amount of business each year. It would be difficult to put these advantages of the isthmian over the Straits route into their exact money equivalent, but the} 7 would constitute a strong reason for using a canal and for paying something for the privilege. It is probable that a freight steamer of 2,500 tons net, even if operated at a total daily cost of no more than $175 while running between Chile and Europe, would pre- fer to pay $1 a ton net register for using an isthmian canal to taking the route through the Straits of Magellan. If the daily expenses of the steamer of 3,500 tons net are $300 when run at 9 knots, it could save $3,750 by using a Nicaragua canal, and $4,050 by a Panama waterway, instead of going around through the Straits of Magellan. If the expenses were $300 when operated at a speed of 10 knots, it could save $3,050 by way of Nicaragua and $3,350 by way of Panama. A toll of $1 per net ton on the ship would amount to $3,500, and for the reasons just stated a charge of that sum for the use of the canal could profitably be paid. The chartered steamers above referred to had a net registered ton- nage of 1,951 and 2,101 tons, respectively. At the rate of $1 a ton their toll charges would amount to $1,951 and $2,101. A saving of ten days in making a voj^age would reduce the expenses of the ship whose net register is 2,101 tons $2,872. It is evident that these ves- sels would pay $1 a ton for the use of an isthmian canal if they were being operated over a route that the canal could shorten ten days. They would, moreover, use the canal were the costs of chartering and operating them considerably lower than at present. The commerce between the eastern coast of the United States and western South America would be so facilitated by an isthmian canal that a toll of more than $1 a ton could be paid for practically all this trade. The distance from New York to a point as far south as Valparaiso will be about 3,100 miles, or 40 per cent, less by way of Nicaragua — the longer canal route for this trade — than via the Straits of Magellan; and between ports on our coast south of New York and cities on the west coast of South America north of Valparaiso the absolute and percentage reduction in distance will be much greater. ISTHMIAN-CANAL TOLLS AND THE AUSTRALIAN TRADE. For the trade from New York to Australia the best route is that by way of the Cape of Good Hope, the distances by the Suez and Cape routes being practically the same; consequents, when the American S. Doc. 51, pt 2 33 514 REPORT OP THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. canal has been opened the competition for the New York-Australian trade will be between the isthmian canal and the Good Hope routes. The distance from New York to Sydney via the Nicaragua Canal and Tahiti will be 9,676 nautical miles, and by way of St. Vincent, the Cape of Good Hope, Adelaide, and Melbourne 13,658, the difference in favor of the isthmian route being 3,982 miles. Adelaide is 1,816 miles nearer New York by the Nicaragua Canal, and Melbourne is 2,832 miles nearer. A 10-knot vessel going out from New York to Sydney, Australia, would save between fourteen and fifteen days by taking the American canal route, and would certainly take that course if the toll were not over $1 a ton net register. Practically all vessels going to Australia, whether from the United States or Europe, call at Sydne} 7 , because it is the most important port and is a good place to obtain coal. A steamer from New York to Melbourne would save 2,832 miles and ten and one-half days by going by way of Brito, Tahiti, and Sydney instead of by the way of the Cape of Good Hope and Adelaide. A toll of $1 per ton could profitably be paid to accomplish this. There is, then, no probability that steamers outbound from the east- ern seaboard of the United States to Australia will take the Good Hope route in order to avoid American canal tolls of $1 a net ton. The route taken by the vessel on its return will be determined by the destination of the Australian exports. If the vessel should secure a full cargo in Australia for America, it would return by the Nicaragua Canal. The ability to secure a partial cargo for the United States and a partial cargo for Europe would probably cause the American canal to be used. Upon reaching the United States, the freight destined for the United States might be exchanged for European cargo with which the ship would proceed to Europe; or the steamer might discharge its entire cargo, that for Europe being transshipped to another vessel. The line steamer making the round trip from New York to Australia and return might come back by the Suez route at times; but the return voyage would usually be by way of the American isthmus. If the American tolls were much lower than those of the Suez, the route across the Pacific would certainly be taken. Steamers securing a full cargo for Europe in Adelaide, Melbourne, or Sydney would probably return by the Cape of Good Hope, although cheaper coal in American stations might turn the scale in favor of the isthmian canal. The distance from Sydney to Liverpool via Mel- bourne, Adelaide, King Georges Sound, Colombo, and Aden is 12,234 miles, and via Tahiti and Brito the distance is 12,406, only 172 miles more by the American canal. A vessel starting from Melbourne for Liverpool would find the route via Sydney, Tahiti, and Brito 1,322 miles more than the one via Suez. A ship obliged to leave Australia in ballast or with but little freight would seek cargo either in the East Indies, New Zealand, Chile, or elsewhere as the needs of commerce might determine. Those ships seeking freights west and north of Australia would naturally return by the Suez Canal. TnE PHILIPPINE TRADE. The effect of the isthmian canal upon the routes followed by the trade between our eastern seaboard and the Philippines will be to divert a considerable share of the traffic from the Suez to the Amer- EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 515 ican canal. Steamers now use the Suez, and after the American canal has been opened the choice will lie between the two canal routes. The distance by the Cape of Good Hope is too great to permit that route to compete with the canals for the traffic handled by steamers. The distances from New York to Manila by the two canals are nearly equal — 11,601 miles via Suez, 11,207 by way of Nicaragua, San Fran- cisco, and Yokohama, and 11,274 via Honolulu and Guam. From our South Atlantic and Gulf ports the distances to Manila will be much less by the American canal than by way of Suez. As explained above in the chapter on the vessel tonnage of available canal traffic, chartered vessels outbound from New York will doubtless go sometimes by one route and sometimes by the other. The chief attractions of the Amer- ican canal route will be the coasting trade of both seaboards of the United States — the shortest route from Central America to Manila being by the great circle which passes close to San Francisco — the large volume of exports from the United States to Asia, the Asiatic coasting trade of Japan, Shanghai, and Hongkong, and the cheap coal obtainable in the Caribbean and Japanese coaling stations. The inducements of the Suez route will be the large volume of exports from the United States to Europe, and the possibility of trading at numerous intermediate ports in the British, Dutch, and French East Indies. Likewise chartered vessels returning to the United States from Manila will sometimes come by way of Hongkong, Shanghai, Yokohama (or other Japanese ports), Puget Sound, San Francisco, Central America, etc., and sometimes by the East Indian ports, the Suez Canal, and Europe. Line steamers plying under the American flag between our eastern seaboard and the Philippines would proba- bly be operated through the isthmian canal and would participate in the trade between the eastern and western coasts of the United States. The Philippine Islands are so nearly antipodal to the eastern sea- board of the United States that the commerce between the two sec- tions will be divided between the two opposite routes unless the tolls charged at one of the canals should be much higher than those levied at the other. A toll of $2 at Suez and $1 at the American canal would doubtless cause the latter route to secure much more than half of the total traffic. The certainty of competition between the Suez and American canal routes for the trade between our eastern seaboard and the Philippines and southern China suggests the desirability of making the isthmian canal tolls lower than those charged by the Suez Canal Company in order that as much as possible of the commerce of our Antipodes may be made tributary to the isthmian canal. In view of the fact that the larger part of the Suez traffic can afford to pay a high toll in preference to changing from the Suez to some other route, it is not probable that the Suez Canal Company will find it profitable to make radical reductions in its charges — a reduction of 50 per cent, for instance — in order to hold the commerce of the regions situated on the margin of advantage as regards the use of the easterly or westerly canal routes; consequently, it would seem that the adoption of mod- erate tolls not to exceed $1 per ton net register, American measure- ment, for the use of the American canal would enable that waterway to secure a large share of the commerce carried on between sections so situated that their trade with each other can and will choose between the Suez and American routes. 516 REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. In general it may be said that there is but little of the available canal traffic that will be kept from using the waterway by a toll of $1 a ton, net register. The European trade with western South America and the commerce of our eastern seaboard with Australia will not be driven from the isthmian canal by a toll of that amount; but it seems probable that a higher charge than $1 a net ton would largely restrict the tonnage using the canal. The tendency of traffic to follow round-the-world lines will be emphasized by moderate charges for the use of the American canal. The distance between Europe and the eastern shore of Asia is some- what farther by way of Central America than by way of Suez, but there are commercial reasons why a portion of the trade between these two sections should pass by the eastern and western seaboards of the United States and through the American canal. A toll of $1 a net ton would probably not much restrict the operation of those commercial forces. In the foregoing discussion a toll of $1 a net" ton has been made the basis of reasoning because that represents a maximum beyond which the charge ought not to go. A tariff much higher than that would in all probability so restrict the tonnage passing the canal as to reduce the revenue derived from the tolls. Such a restriction would unfortu- nately limit the industrial and commercial value of the canal. The lower the tolls the greater the traffic of the canal and the larger the industrial and commercial benefits. It is believed that a toll of $1 a vessel ton net register would yield an income sufficient to pay the expenses of operation and maintenance and a moderate return on the capital invested. Should the United States prefer to levy tolls suffi- cient only to cover the cost of operation and maintenance, a tariff of 40 to 50 cents a ton would probably suffice. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part I. Page. Letter of transmittal 3 List of appendices 5 List of plates 6 Sections of act approved March 3, 1899, authorizing appointment of Commis- sion 9 Letter of appointment and instructions to Commission 11 Organization of Commission by committees 12 Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. Organization of Commission; Law; Instructions; Committees 13 Subjects of investigation; Appointment of chief engineers; Employment of assistants and laborers; Directions for the work 14 Visit to Paris; Other visits while in Europe; Visit to Central and South Amer- ica; Nicaragua 15 Managua; Panama 16 Visit of Mr. Morison to Darien; The "Scorpion;" Costa Rica and San Jose; Dimensions and unit prices 17 Other questions considered; Visit of Mr. Noble to Nicaragua; Results; Appen- dices; Special report on industrial and commercial value of canal 18 Maps, etc.; History 19 Chapter II. HISTORY OF INTEROCEANIC PROJECTS AND COMMUNICATIONS. Early voyages 20 Portuguese explorations along the African coast; Cape of Good Hope discov- ered; First voyage around Africa to India; Results of maritime communica- tion with Orient 21 Columbus 22 Other expeditions westward for discovery; Balboa discovers the Pacific; Balboa hears from Indians of gold southward; Plans for expedition southward for gold 23 Transports material for ships across Isthmus; Toil and sufferings of Indians; Transit of Isthmus; Execution of Balboa 24 Voyage of Magellan; Discovers strait; World circumnavigated 25 Charles V is interested in discovery of interoceanic communication; Gil Gon- zales sent to Pacific; Transports his vessels in pieces across Isthmus; Dis- covers Lake Nicaragua 26 518 CONTENTS OF PAET I. Page. Granada founded on Lake Nicaragua; Machuca's expedition from Lake Nica- ragua down San Juan to sea; Rapids in the San Juan; Line of posts across Isthmus; Panama founded ; Construction of road across Isthmus 27 Commerce across Isthmus; Fairs at Cartagena, Nombre de Dios, and Porto Bello; Prosperity of Panama 28 Tehuantepec; Cortes sent expeditions in search of strait; Transit route; Ship canal 29 Survey of Isthmus of Panama; Policy of Philip II; Atrato 30 Paterson's colony at New Caledonia; Paterson's plans for interoceanic com- munication; Settlement abandoned 31 Transit routes; Indians hostile to Spaniards; Ariza's road in Darien 32 Spaniard's abandon their military posts; Examination of Tehuantepec route; Report of Cramer; Examination of Nicaragua route by Galisteo 33 Invasion of Nicaragua by British forces; Plan of campaign; Capture of Cas- tillo Viejo 34 Treaty of 1783 between England and Spain ; Treaty of 1 786 35 Treaty between Great Britain and Guatemala of 1859 as to Belize ; Treaty between Great Britain and Nicaragua of 1860 as to Mosquito Indians; Mosquito Indians organized into Republic of Nicaragua in 1894; Situation at the close of the eighteenth century ; Von Humboldt' s statement 36 Republic of Colombia formed; Formation of Federal Republic of the United Provinces of Central America; Republic of Central America makes proposi- tions to United States , 37 Response of Secretary Clay; Instruction to minister; Congress of Panama; Central America makes contract for construction of canal 38 Central American and United States Atlantic and Pacific Canal Company; Con- tract with a Netherlands company; Further negotiation of Central American Republics with United States 39 Mr. Biddle sent to Central America and Colombia; Memorial of Aaron Clark to Congress, 'urging action with reference to canal ; Report of Committee on Roads and Canals, 1839; Mr. Stephens sent as agent to isthmian countries.. 40 Examination of routes; Tehuantepec by Orbegoso and Ortiz; Nicaragua, by John Baily 41 Panama, by J. A. Lloyd; Republic of New Granada established in 1831 42 Makes grant to a French company; Results of explorations of Panama route; Examined by Garella 43 Increase importance of maritime communication; Treaty negotiated with New Granada in 1846 44 Resolutions relating to interoceanic communications come before Congress; Report of Rockwell committee; Memorial of projectors of Panama Railroad; Negotiations for treaty with Nicaragua 45 Advantages of Nicaragua route; Hise treaty; Hise succeeded by Squier; Con- tract of American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company with Nicaragua; Clay ton-Bulwer treaty 46 Terms of contract with canal company; Canal company incorporated in Nica- ragua; Organization of Accessory Transit Company; Transit route established by accessory company 47 Central American Transit Company; Colonel Childs appointed to survey canal route; Report submitted to Colonel Abert and Lieutenant-Colonel Turnbull; Submitted to British engineers by request of American minister; Pronounced practicable 48 Value of Childs' s report; Contracts of companies annulled for nonperformance 49 CONTENTS OF PART I. 519 Page. New Granada makes contract with French company for railroad at Panama; New contract with American company; Panama Railroad completed in 1855; New examinations of different canal routes; Darien 50 United States Government aids in the examinations; General results; Senate requests report of results of examination in Darien 51 Report of Admiral Davis; President Grant calls attention to subject of inter- • oceanic canal in his first message 52 Congress authorizes further explorations; Appointment of Interoceanic Canal Commission ; Tehuantepec 53 Nicaragua; Lull survey; McFarland report; Panama; Survey made by Lull and Menocal 54 Darien; Lull and McFarland; Self ridge; Report of Interoceanic Canal Com- mission 55 Colombia grants concession to L. N. B. Wyse; International Scientific Con- gress at Paris in 1879; Transfer of concession to Panama Canal Company... 56 Eads selects Tehuantepec route for ship railway; Nicaragua Menocal survey; Treaty negotiated with Nicaragua in 1884; Not ratified; Nicaragua grants concessions to Menocal and associates; Like concessions from Costa Rica ... 57 Maritime Canal Company ; Nicaragua Canal Board 58 Nicaragua Canal Commission 59 Chapter III. DIMENSIONS AND UNIT PRICES. Dimensions of ships now in use; Recent increase in ship dimensions 62 Depth of canal; Beam of commercial ships; Beam of warships; Width of locks; Length of lock chambers; Dimensions of prism of canal 63 Prism dimensions of foreign canals; Bottom width of prism adopted; Prism dimensions of Kiel Canal; Prism in soft earth and sand; Prism in firm earth; Prism in rock 64 Channels in open water; Widening on curves; Description of locks; Twin locks provided 65 Guard gates; Foundations of locks on rock; Walls to be of concrete 66 Culvert linings ; Lock gates ; Approach walls ; Unit prices 67 Contingencies, etc 68 Chapter IV. OTHER POSSIBLE ROUTES. General description of American Isthmus; Tehuantepec route 69 Bay of Honduras; Narrow eastern portion of Isthmus; Atrato River; Routes terminating on Gulf of Panama . 70 Atrato routes; Limits of field work 71 San Bias route; Caledonia route 72 Divide traced 73 Observations from the sea; Examination from Pacific side; No canal without a tunnel 74 Design of tunnel; Tunnel tide level, San Bias Canal; Caledonia tunnel tide-level canals '° Estimates for Sassardi, Aglaseniqua, and Caledonia locations 76, 77 Harbors the only advantage over Panama; Darien routes within limits of Pan- ama concessions; Maps and other drawings; U. S. S. Scorpion 78 520 CONTENTS OF PART I. Chapter V. THE PANAMA ROUTE. General description; Lull survey, 1875 .„ 80 The Wyse concession; The old company 81 Liquidation 82 Expenditure and results; The new company 84 New company's plan .". 85 Physical data available 86 Plan for the United States differs from that for a commercial corporation; Chagres River, a natural obstacle 87 Sea-level plan rejected ; Water supply for canal with locks 88 Flood discharge of the Chagres 89 Lake Bohio 90 Future increase of water supply; Disposal of overflow; Detailed description.. 91 Entrance and harbor at Colon; Colon to Bohio; Bohio locks; Lake Bohio; Obispo guard gates 92 Culebra cut 93 Pedro Miguel locks; Pedro Miguel level; Miraflores lock ; Pacific maritime sec- tion; Bohio dam _ 94 Gigante spillway 96 Pena Blanca swamp; Pena Blanca outlet; Chagres diversion 97 Levees; Gatun diversion : Panama Railroad diversion 98 Total estimated cost for completing 99 Length and curvature; Alternative location 1 99 Time of transit ; Advantages of the Commission's plan 100 Value of excavation already done; Plant on hand 101 Value of plant; Value of buildings; Value of concession of lands; Value of Panama Railroad 102 Value of maps and records; Total value of the Panama Canal 103 Chapter VI. THE NICARAGUA ROUTE. Attractive features; Lake Nicaragua; Lake Managua; Fluctuations of Lake Nicaragua 104 Characteristics of drainage basin; The San Juan River; Tributaries of San Juan on left bank 105 Tributaries of San Juan on right bank ; San Carlos River 106 Serapiqui River; Negro River; Fall in San Juan River 107 Slopes in various reaches of San Juan; Bed of upper San Juan; San Juan in freshets; San Juanillo River; Coastal plain 108 Subsidence; Rainfall 109 Winds; Transit route; Region of practicable canal routes; Topography; Boundary 110 Childs's project, 1852; Routes examined by Childs Ill Dimensions and side slopes; Length and cost of the canal 112 Depth of canal not as great as contract required; Report referred to Colonel Abert and Major Turnbull 113 Lull's project, 1873; Expedition under Commander Crossman, U. S. N. ; Par- ties under Commander Hatfield; Lull succeeds Hatfield; West division 114 Brito; Eastern division; Lake Nicaragua 115 Canal from near San Carlos River to Grey town; Dimensions; Menocal survey; Menocal project, 1885 116 CONTENTS OF PART I. 521 Page. Changes in Lull project on west side suggested by Menocal; Ochoa dam 117 Embankments south of the San Juan; Line from Ochoa dam eastward; Divide cut; Locks 118 Railroad; Maritime Canal Company's project, 1889; Organization of company; Project essentially the same as Menocal's; San Francisco embankment line. 119 San Carlos embankments; Other embankments; Maximum discharge of San Juan at Ochoa; La Flor dam 120 Locks; Cost; Report of board of consulting engineers; Nicaragua Canal board, 1895 121 Report of Nicaragua Canal board and estimate of cost; Project of Nicaragua Canal Commission, 1899; Act March 2, 1895; Project of Nicaragua Canal Commission ; Safety of prime importance 122 Discharge of San Juan greatly underestimated ; Dam at Boca San Carlos 123 With La Flor dam, duplicate lock expensive; Project of Isthmian Canal Com- mission, 1901; Greytown Harbor and entrance; Section from harbor to Lock No. 1 ; Swam j) section 124 Material in other places; Embankments; Diversion of San Juanillo 125 Section from Lock No. 1 to Lock No. 2; Embankments; Waste way and lock . 126 Length and cost 127 Section from Lock No. 2 to Lock No. 3; Protection against floods in San Juan; Tamborcito cut; Curves 127 Recent examinations; Drainage; Waste ways; Length and cost 128 Section from Lock No. 3 to Lock No. 4; Curves and drainage; Embankments; Length and cost 129 Section from Lock No. 4 to San Juan River; Special slopes; Summit level 129 Length and cost 130 San Juan River section; Curvature and cost; Curves; Principal cut-offs 130 Lake Nicaragua section; Length and cost 132 Dredged channel in lake; Channel on west side of lake 132 Lake Nicaragua to Lock No. 5 132 West divide cut; Streams taken into canal; Length and cost 133 Lock No. 5 to lock No. 6 133 Lock; Length and cost 134 Lock No. 6 to lock No. 7; New channel for Rio Grande needed; Lock; Length and cost 134 Lock No. 7 to lock No. 8; Material, wasteway, and lock 134 Length and cost 135 Lock No. 8 to the Pacific; Harbors 135 Greytown Harbor; Sand brought down by San Juan 136 Map of 1832 137 Hydrographic charts of Great Britain; Trend of coast; Outlets of San Juan; Sedimentary deposits 138 Effect of wave action on coast; Movement of sand spit 139 Eroison or accretion dependent on direction of waves and sand supply; Reen- trant angle; Apparent recession of 8 and 6 fathom curves 140 How to stop westerly drift of sand; Construction of harbor feasible; Jetties .. 141 Dredging; Maintenance of harbor; Time required to secure 18 feet of water; Cost of construction an maintenance 142 Brito Harbor: Depth of water at mouth of Rio Grande; How harbor can be constructed; Cost of construction and maintenance; Regulation of level of Lake Nicaragua . 143 Conditions of the problem ; Maximum and minimum elevations not precisely determinable ; Discharging capacity of San Juan 144 522 CONTENTS OF PART I. Page. Discharge of lake at any given stage; Slopes of canalized river corresponding to various discharges 145 Regulation of gates; Precipitation in wet season; Effect of rainfall not felt immediately 146 October rainfalls; Satisfactory control 147 Maximum rainfall anticipated; Rise due to maximum rainfall 149 Results based on assumption that rainfall in basin is proportioned to that at Granada; Salient features 152 Method of discussion not free from error 153 Storage; Not possible to predict elevation of lake 154 Principles of control; October, month of heavy rainfall 155 Instructions for regulation; Velocities; Effect of tributaries of San Juan 156 Conchuda dam and waste way ; Stoney gates; Capacity, etc 157 Plan ; Conchuda dam 158 Cost; Wasteways, weirs, and free board 159 Wasteways on Pacific side; Retaining walls; Alternative surveys; Examina- tions and borings 160 Route from Upper San Juan to headwaters of the Indio; Explorations 161 Sand deposits on canal route; Silico route; Indio route 162 Sea levels 163 Railroad 164 Work done by the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua 165 Chapter VII. EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES, CLIMATE, HEALTH. Earthquakes; Obscurity of subject; Volcanic regions most subject to earth- quakes; Volcanoes safety valves; Entire isthmus in volcanic region 167 Records available 168 Earthquakes on Nicaragua line; Earthquakes on Panama line; No difference between the two lines 168 Mechanical action of earthquakes; Power of canal works to resist; Tidal wave. 169 Injury to be expected; Danger from a fissure; Climate; Health; Experience at Panama and Nicaragua 170 Lessons from Panama; Precautions for preservation of health 171 Chapter VIII. RIGHTS, PRIVILEGES, AND FRANCHISES. Requirements of law as to investigation 172 Sovereignty of United States over canal route not requisite; Strip of territory required; Breadth of strip; If rights, privileges, and franchises exist, they < should be removed 173 Treaties to be examined; Treaties relating to the Nicaragua route; Costa Rica also interested in this route; Treaty between United States and Nicaragua, 1867 174 Frelin 235 Estimate by M. Hutin of value of Panama company's interests 227 Chapter IX. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL. Industrial and commercial value of canal; The canal and American industries. 243 The canal and the trade of the Pacific coast States; The coal trade; Effect of canal upon railway traffic 244 The use of the canal by sailing vessels; The canal and the industries of Pacific countries 245 524 CONTENTS OF PART I. Page. Tonnage of available canal traffic, 1899 246 Growth of traffic; Probable tonnage, 1914 247 Estimated traffic, 1924 , 248 Tolls and traffic 249 The relative commercial advantages of the Nicaragua and Panama routes 250 Benefits to Europe and United States compared 251 Chapter X. MILITARY VALUE. 252 Military value in time of peace; In time of war; Canal one link in chain of communications; Canal operated by American citizens not available for the enemy Canal useless to the United States unless it controls the sea; Useless to enemy unless he occupy it; Defense by fortifications; Defense by Navy; Defense by neutrality 253 Vulnerability of canal; Canal managed by foreigners; Canal free to enemy's vessels; Canal managed by American citizens a source of strength if neutral, a source of weakness if not neutral 254 Chapter XL COST OF MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. Data; Cost of maintenance and operation of Suez Canal; Of Kiel and Manches- ter canals; Of St. Marys Falls Canal 255 Basis of estimate of cost of maintenance and operation for Isthmian Canal; Estimates of cost of maintenance and operation 256 Chapter XII. Conclusions 257 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part II. Page. Order to print 2 Appendix B. HISTORICAL NOTES RELATIVE TO THE UNIVERSAL CANAL COMPANY (1880- 1894) UNTIL THE ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW COMPANY. Preliminary remarks 3 Chapter I. — The Universal Interoceanic Canal Company. Brief sketch of discoveries, explorations, and plans for canal until 1879 4 International congress of surveys for canal 6 The first issue of shares 9 The international survey commission 9 The Couvreux and Hersent contract — second issue of shares 10 Superior advisory commission for the work 13 Purchase of shares of Panama Railroad Company 13 The small contracts 14 The large contracts 16 The temporary canal with locks 18 Chapter II. — Receipts and expenditures of the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company. Receipts: Capital of the company and loans - 21 Expenditures: Expenditures on the Isthmus -- 22 Expenditures at Paris 22 General summing up of expenditures 23 Chapter III. — The liquidation. Mr. Brunet appointed receiver 24 Organization of the survey commission 25 Mr. Monchicourt appointed receiver 26 Report of the survey commission 26 Organization of the New Panama Canal Company 27 Appendix C. List of documents received by the Isthmian Canal Commission from the New Panama Canal Company 29 525 526 CONTENTS OF PART II. Appendix D. REPORT ON HYDROGRAPHY OP PANAMA CANAL ROUTE. Page. Letter of transmittal 33 Hydrography of Panama 34 The Chagres River 34 Alhajuela station on Chagres River 36 Gamboa station on Chagres River 37 Bohio station on Chagres River 40 Minor streams on the Isthmus 43 The floods of the Chagres River 43 Low water of the Chagres River 45 Rainfall of the Isthmus of Panama 48 Report of W. W. Schlecht, hydrographer for Panama 52 Alhajuela 53 Rating table for station on Chagres River at Alhajuela 55 Tributaries between Alhajuela and Gamboa 56 Chagres River at Santa Barbara 57 Gamboa 58 Buena Vista and Bohio 59 Tributaries between Bohio and Gamboa 61 Trinidad and Gatun rivers 62 Drainage area of Chagres River 62 Sediment observations 62 Hydraulics of Chagres River at Alhajuela and Bohio 63 Rio Grande 74 Precaution for accuracy 65 Rainfall Santa Barbara, Rio Fea, and Rio Puente 66 Salamanca and Las Minas 66 Gorgona 67 Santa Barbara, on Chagres River 67 Rio Puente 68 Calamanca, on Pequeni River 68 Pedro Miguel * 69 Isthmus of Panama 69 Appendix E. Waste weir and discharge for Lake Bohio 71 Appendix F. Description of alternate location for canal between Gatun and Bohio 79 Appendix G. TIMB REQUIRED FOR TRANSIT THROUGH AN ISTHMIAN CANAL. Attainable and permissible speed 81 Experiments in France and Germany 81 Observations at St. Clair Flats Canal 83 Observations on Lake Huron 90 Observations at Suez Canal 92 Observations at Kiel Canal 93 Schedule of speeds proposed as a basis for calculating time of transit, Panama and Nicaragua canals 96 CONTENTS OF PABT II. 527 Page. Time of transit through Panama Canal without allowance for meetings or lockages 96 Time of transit through Nicaragua Canal without allowance for meetings or lockages 97 Time consumed by lockage 97 Delays at meeting points 99 Meetings at locks 102 Average delay to each ship 102 Time of transit across the Isthmus 104 Appendix H. Discharge of the canalized San Juan Eiver 105 Appendix I. REPORT OP HYDROGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS IN NICARAGUA. Stream measurements 119 Pacific slope 120 Grande River 120 Tola River 120 Lake Nicaragua 124 Viejo River 125 Nueva River 126 Quebrada Honda 126 Station at Tipitapa 127 Station at Fort San Carlos 133 Frio River 136 Dry season inflow 136 San Juan River 140 Station above Savalos 142 Station at Castillo 144 Tributaries of San Juan above Boca San Carlos 147 Ochoa Station on San Juan River 153 Machado River 163 San Francisco River 164 Sarapiqui River 164 San Juanillo River 166 Miscellaneous tributaries to San Juan River 168 Indio River 171 Negro branch 171 Rainfall 172 Daily rainfall on Lake Nicaragua 174 Daily rainfall at Ochoa 180 Daily rainfall at Greytown 181 Monthly rainfall at all stations 182 Evaporation 186 Observations on evaporation pans 186 Dry season evaporation from Lake Nicaragua 186 Control of Lake Nicaragua 187 Season of maximum supply 191 Season of minimum supply 192 Temperature and relative humidity 195 Sediment 197 Wind movement 200 528 CONTENTS OF PART II. Appendix J. SURVEYS OP UPPER SAN JUAN TO HEADQUARTERS OP THE INDIO. Page. Rio Bartola survey 205 Machuca-Negro survey 206 La Cruz del Norte survey 207 Appendix U. Translation of contract between Government of Nicaragua and the Atlas Steam- ship Company (September 30, 1897) 209 Appendix C C 1. Treaty between France and New Granada 213 Appendix C C 2. Convention between Republic of Colombia and French Republic 221 Appendix D D. Treaty between Spain and Colombia 223 Appendix F F. Contract between Colombia and Panama Railroad Company 225 Amended August, 1891 235 Appendix GG. Wyse concession op March 20, 1878. Contract for construction of interoceanic canal across Colombian territory 237 Appendix H H. Additional contract modifying that op March 23, 1878. Extension of ten years for opening of canal across Colombian territory 247 Appendix 1 1. Contract of Extension. Contract granting extension to Panama Canal Company 251 Appendix J J. Contract relative to extension of time to the New Panama Canal Company . . . 255 Appendix K K. MEMORANDUM OF LEGAL STATUS OP NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. Dissolution of old Panama company and appointment of receiver 257 Act of July 1, 1893, relative to liquidation of old Panama company 259 Bondholders' attorney 259 The receiver 261 Charter of New Panama Canal Company: Formation and object of company; name; principal office; duration 262 Contributions; capital; shares; payments 263 CONTENTS OF PART II. 529 Charter of New Panama Canal Company — Continued. Page. Board of directors 266 Technical commission 268 Commissioners 269 Stockholders' meetings 269 Statements of condition; inventories 271 Annual accounts; sinking fund; interest; reserve fund; dividends 271 Modification of the statutes; dissolution 272 Conferring of jurisdiction; suits 273 Temporary provisions 274 Publicatu his 275 Charter approved and ratified 276 Law authorizing old Panama company to issue securities repayable with prizes. 282 Law authorizing sale of lottery bonds at reduced rates 283 Appendix M M. CONTRACT BETWEEN NICARAGUA AND THE AMERICAN ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC SHIP CANAL COMPANY. Appendix N N. 'REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL. Chapter I. — Scope and method of the investigation. The purposes of the investigation 297 The industrial and commercial sides of the investigation 297 Scope of the investigation 297 Sources of information 297 Character of the conclusions 298 Authorities used in preparation of industrial and commercial maps 299 Chapter II. — The isthmian canal and the industries and trade of the Southern States. Geographical relation of the Southern States to the canal 300 The canal and the cotton industries 301 The iron and steel industries of the South 303 The exportation of Southern lumber and forest products 304 The fertilizer industries of the Southern States 306 The canal and the commerce of the Gulf ports 307 Chapter III. — The canal and the industries and trade of the northeastern section of the United Slates. Geographical limits of the section 311 Industrial characteristics 312 The canal and the textile industries 313 The canal and the commerce of the North Atlantic ports of the United States. 315 Chapter IV. — The canal and the Central West. Industrial resources of the Central West 320 Present routes of shipment from Central West 321 The canal and the industries of Cleveland 321 Cincinnati and the canal 323 The canal and Indiana 324 S. Doc. 54, pt 2—34 530 CONTENTS OF PART II. Page. The canal and Illinois and Wisconsin 324 The canal and St. Louis 325 The effect of the canal upon the transportation facilities of the Central West.. 325 Chapter V. — The canal and the Pacific coast States. Pacific coast States separated from their best markets 327 The canal and California 328 The canal and the lumber and grain industries of Oregon and Washington... 331 The west-coast fisheries 332 The hops, wool, and mineral industries of the Pacific coast .• 333 Effect of the canal upon the trade of the west-coast ports 333 Chapter VI. — The coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific — The canal and the coal trade of the United States. Industrial and commercial importance of coal 335 Sources from which the coal consumed on the Pacific is now obtained 337 Puget Sound coal 339 The fuel supply of California 341 Prices and costs of coal in different sections of the United States 343 River transportation of coal from Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama. 346 Coal prices along the Suez route 34S Concerning the marketing of Appalachian coal west of the canal 348 Chapter VII. — The isthmian canal and the iron and steel industries of the United States. The United States as an exporter of iron and steel products 351 Conditions of present competition of the United States with Europe 353 American iron and steel trade with Pacific countries 354 The manner in which the isthmian canal will affect the American iron and steel industries as a whole, and those of the Southern States in particular 354 Chapter VIII. — The canal and the shipbuilding and maritime interests of the United States. Importance of the maritime industries 355 The canal and shipbuilding 350 The ownership of ocean vessels by exporters 358 The canal and the American merchant marine 359 Chapter IX. — Concerning the use of an isthmian canal by sailing ressels. The place of the sailing vessel in the commerce of the world and of the United States 360 The future use of sailing vessels by special classes of traffic 363 Tonnage of steam and sailing vessels clearing from United Kingdom and Germany for Eastern countries 364 Merits of the steamer and sailing vessel compared 365 Would sailing vessels use a canal at Panama or across Nicaragua 367 Saving to sailing vessels by use of isthmian canal instead of Cape route 370 Chapter X. — The canal and the traffic of American railways. General statement of the possible effects of the canal upon railway traffic 373 Concerning the statistics of transcontinental mil way traffic 374 CONTENTS OF PART II. 531 Page. The nature of the competition of the canal with the railways 375 The canal and the traffic of the Atlantic roads 376 The canal and the traffic of the Gulf roads 377 The canal and the traffic of the railways of the Central West 378 Effect of the canal upon the traffic of the Pacific railways 379 Conclusions ' 382 Chapter XI. — The trade and industries of western South America mid the effect of the canal upon them. Area and population compared with North America 383 The trade zones of South America 384 Inadequate transportation facilities of w r estern South America 385 Dependence of western South America upon foreign capital and large organi- zations of capital 386 Disadvantages of the United States in trading with western South America; effect of the isthmian canal 387 Geography, resources, and industries of Chile 390 The canal and the trade of the United States with Chile 394 Tropical section of western South America; general description 395 The Peruvian coast; its industries and the effects of the canal upon them 396 The Andean plateau 397 Relation of canal to industries and trade of eastern slope of Andean plateau. . 401 Industries of Pacific slope of Ecuador and Colombia 403 The Cauca Valley in the Colombian Andes 404 Summary of the effect which the canal will have on western South America. . 405 Effect of canal upon Atlantic South America will not be great 406 Chapter XII. — Japan and the isthmian canal. The salient characteristics of Japan's resources 407 Japan as a manufacturing and commercial country 409 Analysis of Japanese trade with reference to effects of the canal 410 Chapter XIII. — China and the isthmian canal. Geographical divisions of China 412 Resources and trade of north China, Manchuria, Hoangho Valley, and Shan- tung - 414 Resources and trade of central China, Yangtse Valley 416 Resources and trade of southern China 417 The foreign trade of China 418 Trade of United States with China and effects of canal 419 Chapter XIV. — The canal and the industries and trade of Australasia. Australian industries require large foreign trade 421 The canal and distances to Australia 422 General geography of Australia 423 Pastoral and agricultural resources 423 Mineral resources 424 The canal and the commerce of Australia with the United States 425 New Zealand and the canal 427 532 CONTENTS OF PA TIT II. Chapter XV. — The canal and the Philippines and Hawaii. I. THE PHILIPPINES. The geography and industries of the Philippines 428 The commerce of the Philippines 430 The location of the Philippines with reference to trade routes from the United States 434 II. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. Soil and climate of the Hawaiian Islands 435 Resources of the Hawaiian Islands 436 The canal and the trade of Hawaii 437 Chapter XVI. — The canal ami Central America and western Mexico. I. CENTRAL AMERICA. The population and general geography of Central America 438 The Central American industries 439 The canal and the foreign trade of Central America 441 II. WESTERN MEXICO. Agricultural resources of western Mexico 44o Mineral resources 444 The canal and the commerce of western Mexico 445 Chapter XVII. — Comparison of distances by the isthmian canal and other routes. Distances via the Nicaragua and Magellan routes between the eastern ports of the United States and the ports of the west coast of North, Central, and South America 447 Distances from Europe to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua Canal and the Straits of Magellan 448 Distances from Atlantic American ports to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hong- kong via the Nicaragua and Suez routes 449 Distances from American Atlantic ports to Manila via Nicaragua and Suez routes 450 Distances between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Australia via the Nicaragua and Suez routes 450 Distances from Liverpool to the East by the Suez and Nicaragua routes 451 Comparisons of distances from New York and Liverpool to Australasian and Asiatic ports via the Nicaragua and Suez routes 452 Comparison of distances from American and European Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals 453-154 Chapter XVIII. — Cargo tonnage of the existing maritime commerce that would use an isthmian canal in 1899. General description of the three traffic investigations contained in the report.. 455 Nature and limitations of the information available from official statistics 455 Four tables giving the value and cargo tonnage of that part of the foreign trade of our two seaboards that would have passed through an isthmian canal in 1899. 458 Methods employed in preparing the tables 4i>:> The average values of the carg< > ton 4GS CONTENTS OF PART II. 533 < Page. Tonnage of the commerce between Europe and the west coast of South and Central America and British Columbia and Hawaii 469 Summary of the cargo tonnage of the foreign commerce of the Atlantic Ameri- can seaboard with Pacific countries and of Europe with Pacific America in 1899. 471 Chapter XIX. — Tonnage of the vessels employedin the commerce that ivould have used an isthmian canal in 1899. Concerning statistics of entrances and clearances 473 Importance of the Chilean commerce 477 Vessel tonnage of commerce between Europe and western South America 478 European trade with western Central America and Mexico 478 Trade of the west coast of the United States, British Columbia, and Hawaii with Europe 479 United States Atlantic coast tonnage with foreign countries 480 Traffic across the Isthmus of Panama 484 Coasting trade of the United States available for the canal 485 Summary of commerce of Europe with Pacific America and of commerce of Atlantic United States with Pacific countries : 485 Chapter XX. — Traffic investigation by the new Panama Canal Com- pany — Comparison of results of the three investigations. Plan of the investigation 486 Tonnage of vessels engaged in trade between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.. 488 Concerning use of American canal by commerce of Europe with the Orient . . . 489 Evidences of increasing number of round-the-world voyages 491 Tonnage of available canal traffic 493 Comparison of the tonnage of 1888 and 1898 494 The substitution of steamers for sailing vessels 495 Comparison of the results of the three traffic investigations 495 Chapter XXL— Growth of canal traffic 1899 to 1914 and 1914 to 1924- Rate of increase shown by table of Panama Canal Company 498 Growth in value, 1889-1899, trade of United States Atlantic coast with foreign countries on the Pacific 498 Increase in trade between Europe and western coast of America 499 Growth in trans-Pacific trade of the west coast of the United States 500 Probable available canal traffic in 1914 501 Estimate of growth of traffic during first decade of the use of the canal 502 Suez Canal traffic 503 The estimate for 1924 505 Chapter XXII. — The question of tolls. Concerning the general policy of tolls 506 Suez Canal tolls 506 Suez Canal tonnage and traffic receipts 507 Effect of tolls upon volume of traffic of Suez Canal 510 Isthmian canal tolls and the Chilean traffic 511 Isthmian canal tolls and the Australian trade 513 The Philippine trade 514 INDEX TO SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. [Senate Document No. 123, Fifty-seventh Congress, first session.] Page. Advantages of Panama and Nicaragua routes, comparison of Cablegrams from president of board, Panama Canal Company Detailed statement of property and rights to be sold: Lands not built on Buildings Plant J t Work done Panama Railroad Maps, drawings, and records Total value of property - . Estimated cost of construction and maintenance of the two routes, compari- son of Letter of transmittal to Congress - Letter of Secretary of State, transmitting report to the President 1 Letter of Admiral Walker, transmitting report to State Department Liabilities of Panama Company b Recommending Panama route Steamships owned by Panama Company Title of Panama Company, statement as to conditions affecting transfer of 8 535 . V r- ■ . ... SCI-HSSL &m o& ?»>:> UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 3 1262 05505 6773 ■ ■tin iCD O & 333 > >• ;> 3> 2 i I>3>-£> B 333) >' 0> 1) 1 wn)-o> : 3*^m>} )> "3> 5 > J) 33)). d> l>f > 3> ? ®S);i)>t] 3 > SI ) 3> ) 0_333j OJE> )2>33 D3 3>3 0»)33D3)32D;iT o y?> J i) 33>i33 > 3133) 33 j s> >3) 33 331>!^3)3^ "333>3 ► 3TJ88E » O 3)33)»3j 3333 ^M))!) r 33p:> >3:TO3)>1> d,)I^> 3> -^ >3.) 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