', 1910. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS-FARMERS' INSTITUTE LECTURE 11. A. C. TRUE, Dire< SYLLABUS OF ILLUSTRATED LECTURE ON WHEAT CULTURE. By J. I. SCHULTE, 0/ the Office of Experiment Statio?is. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1910. LIST OF ILLUSTRATED LECTURES. i ure on the Ca 1 on. Pp. 12. 1904. 1 Lecture on Potat By F. C. Stewart iabus of II ure on Acid So em slides By IT. J. \\ 1904. Farau ate Lecture 4. Syllabu ture on Profitable I Feeding, accompanied with 45 lam B. Mumford. 3905. Farmc nte Lecture 3. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Silage and Sa- nction for '''ompanie 1 Fanru ite Lecture 6. Field Experimentation, accompanied with 32 lantern slides. By C Thome. Pp. 24. i Farmc ite Lecture 7. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Roads and Road Building, accompanied with 41 lantern slides. By the Office of Public Roads, S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 16. 1907. Farmers' Institute Lecture 8. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Farm Architecture, accompanied with 48 lantern slides. By Elmina T. Wilson. Pp. 19. 1907. Farmer-' Instit Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Tobacco Growing, ..< ! with 46 lautera elides. By J. N. Harper. Pp.15. 1907. Farm< ire 10. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on the Production and Market! impanied with 44 lantern slides. By eg. Pp.20. 1909. No. n 1247 Issued March 29, 1910. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— FARMERS' INSTITUTE LECTURE 11. A. C. TRUE, Director. SYLLABUS OF ILLUSTRATED LECTURE ON WHEAT CULTURE. By J. I. SCHULTE, Of the Office of Experiment Stations. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1910. RHl'ATMRY NOTE. This syllabus of a lecture upon Wheat Culture, by J. I. Schulte, of the Office of Experiment Stations, La accompanied by 45 views illus- trating this topic. The syllabus and views have been prepared for the purpose of aiding farmers' institute lecturers in their presenta- tion of this subject before institute audiences. The numbers in the margins of the pages of the syllabus refer to similar numbers on the lantern slides and to their legends as given in the Appendix; those in the body of the text refer to the list of authorities and references, page 22. In order that those using the lecture may have opportunity to fully acquaint themselves with the subject, references to its recent literature are given in the Appendix. Johx Hamilton, Farmers Institute Specialist. Recommended for publication. A. C. True, Director. Publication authorized. James Wilsox, Secretary of Agriculture. Washington, D. C, January 12, 1910. xo. ii (2) WHEAT CULTURE. By J. I. Schulte. INTRODUCTION. Wheat is the world's choicest bread crop and the source of one of the principal foods of the most progressive and intelli- gent nations. Rice is the only other crop used by a larger portion of the human family. The United States is the lead- ing wheat-producing country of the world, and it is of the greatest importance that its rank in this respect be maintained. Year by year the home requirements are growing, and as pro- duction is not increasing at the same rate as consumption, the time is approaching when it will be necessary to place wheat production on a more efficient basis. Heretofore, the total 3 r ield has been increased by bringing new lands under cultiva- tion and devoting them to wheat culture, but now as the virgin area suitable for this purpose has been largely reduced and has become a much weaker factor in this connection, it is highly important that attention be given to increasing the aver- age yield per acre. This is at present only about 14 bushels, while in England, Germany, and some other European coun- tries it is double this quantity and even more. With the average yield per acre of England, this country would be capable of more than doubling its annual total production. The wheat soils of this country can be made as productive as those of other countries, and to bring this about is one of the important problems of American agriculture. HISTORY. Wheat is probably a native of western Asia, and its culti- vation is very ancient. The Chinese are said to have grown wheat 2,500 years before the Christian era, and the plant is also known by different names in most ancient languages. Furthermore, the grain itself has been found in prehistoric No. 11 (3) View. works and monuments. So far as known, the crop was not grown in America before the discovery by Columbus. (Ref.l, pp, 354 359.) GROWTH AND REQUIREMENTS. Like most plants, wheat requires moisture, air, light, heat, and plant food for its development. All of these factors are more or teas under control. Moisture under certain condi- tions is regulated by drainage and irrigation. Air is admitted into the soil by means of drainage and tillage. Light, which in genera] can be profitably controlled on small areas only, has free access to the parts of the plants which require it. The degree of heat necessary for germination and growth is influ- enced to a certain extent by the choice of the season for plant- ing, and plant food is supplied from the quantity of nutritive elements naturally stored in the soil and maintained and re- plenished by the different methods of soil fertilization. The plant body is composed of cells containing during their life a substance called protoplasm. This substance has the remarkable pow T er of changing the foods taken up by the plant into the substances used in building up the cell wall and into those of which the protoplasm itself is composed. Two general groups of substances are formed within the plant, namely, the carbohydrates and the proteids. The carbo- hydrates, of which starch and sugar are good examples, are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, while the proteids contain nitrogen, and sometimes also sulphur and phosphorus in addition to these three elements. Much of this elaborated material is used in the nourishment and growth of the plant, while the surplus is stored in bulbs, roots, fruits, and seeds, the case may be. While some of this material is formed and used in other parts of the plant, a portion of it is carried in a soluble form to the storage organs, where in some cases it is deposited in solid form. In wheat and other grains the storage organ is the kernel. By growth of the plant we imderstand an increase in the number of cells in the plant structure. The building up of organic substances, such as carbohydrates and proteids, from the elements of organic and inorganic material, is the most important part of the process. Water taken up by the roots moves within the plant through the ducts and the cell walls, according to the laws of capillarity, osmosis, and diffusion, and passes out through the leaves. The water, on entering the roots, carries inorganic matter in solution, and gases, especially carbon dioxid, are taken into the No. 11 leaves from the air. As this material is subjected in the leaves to the combined action of light and chlorophyll, the formation of the carbohydrates takes place. Less is known about the formation of proteids, but it is believed that they are formed in the leaves much in the same way as the carbohydrates, although light does not act so directly in their production. The proteids are produced in much smaller quantities than carbohydrates, but they are nevertheless of greatest impor- tance to the life of the plant. (Refs. 2, pp. 1-20; 3, pp. 152- 267.) DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. GERMINATION. The vegetative life of the plant begins with the germination of the seed, and for this process moisture, air, and the proper temperature, all operative at the same time, are required. The parts of the wheat kernel of prime importance in germina- tion are the embryo or germ, which develops to form the young plant, and the endosperm or starchy reserve material, which serves as the source of food to the embryo in the first stages of growth. The embryo is composed of a vegetative portion, or that part containing in minute form the leaves and roots of the new plant, and the scutellum, which during germination brings the starch or flour of the endosperm into solution and transfers it to the growing parts. The first step in germination is the absorption of water, of which the wheat kernel takes up from five to six times its own weight. The outer layers of the kernel are ruptured and the vegetative portion of the embryo begins to develop its minute leaves and roots by means of the food derived from the endo- sperm, until finally parts of the young plant appear above ground and become green, thus showing that chlorophyll or leaf-green has been formed. The chlorophyll is a substance playing an important part in the formation of new organic matter in the plant. (Ref. 2, p. 13.) At this stage the roots begin to take up inorganic matter held in solution in the soil water, which they absorb, and under the action of air and light the young plant changes these substances into the organic matter of plant tissue. All the nutritive material in the endosperm has now been consumed. The process of germina- tion is completed and the plant is self-supporting. (Ref. 3, pp. 21-24.) No. 11 View. THE ROOTS. The germinating kernel of wheat produces a whorl of throe small temporary roots, which are followed by a set of perma- nent roots thrown out from the crown, a joint or group of joints in t he young stem usually about an inch below the surface of the soil. 'The depth of the crown is Influenced principally by the depth of planting. Koots may start from any joint or node below or near the toj) of the ground. In the early stages of the plant the development of the roots is much greater than the growth of the leaves, the roots often having obtained a Length of 20 inches when the portion of the plant above the ground i^ not over 5 inches in height. The permanent root system is fibrous and branching, the branches occurring mainly in the upper 2 feet of soil. Wheat is commonly considered a short - 2 rooted plant, but its roots extend from 4 to 5 feet into the ground and go much deepen- than those of the ordinary hav grasses. A copious and continued moisture supply in the -oil tends to produce shallow-rooted plants, while smaller and barely suilicient supplies of soil water favor deeper rooting. The crop does not thrive where conditions of the subsoil, such as a hardpan too near the surface, interfere with the devel- opment of the root system. (Refs. 4, p. 8; 5, p. 405.) If the seeding is shallow the temporary and the permanent roots form practically a single tuft, but if the seeding is deep the permanent roots or those growing from the crown are often from one-half to 2 or 3 inches above the temporary whorl. As soon as the permanent roots have become well established, the temporary roots and the seed kernel are no longer of any benefit to the growing plant and may be removed without injury. THE STEMS. The structure of the stems or culms varies witli the kind of 3 wheat. In some types the stems are thin-walled and hollow and in others either thick-walled or pithy. (Ref. 6, pp. 26-36.) In all types the stems are jointed, the joints being known as the nodes and the parts between the joints as the internodes. The first stem, or the one growing up directly from the seed, does not always reach complete development, but a number of other stems are thrown up from the crown and grow up to maturity. This action of the plant, known as tillering or stooling, varies with the variety and the season. At full growth well-devel- oped wheat plants are from 3 to 5 feet high, with about five 4 to six internodes in the erect portion of the stem. No. 11 THE LEAVES. The leaves consist of the sheath, the Made, the ligule, and 5 the auricle. The sheath starts from the nodes or joints and clasps the stem. The opening of the sheath is on the opposite side from the blade, which is the part extending outward from the stem and which varies in size, shape, texture, and venal ion. The ligule is a thin, transparent tissue, clasping the stem where the blade and the sheath join, and the auricle is a fine, hairy projection located at the base of the blade. (Ref. 7, p. 18, pi. 3.) The first leaves, which come from the crown, are set close together, being produced from the nodes before the internodes have lengthened. As the stem or stems grow up the leaves become larger and are distributed at intervals, marking the length of the internodes. 6 THE HEAD OR SPIKE. The head of wheat consists of the rachis, which is a notched 7 extension of the stem, and the spikelets arranged upon it. The notches or angles correspond to the nodes and the short sections separating the notches to the internodes. When the internodes of the rachis are short the heads are compact or 8 crowded, and when they are long the heads are said to be open. The spikelets are the flower clusters, which ultimately produce 9 the grain. Their number ranges from 8 to 10 on each side of the rachis in some varieties, and from 10 to 16 in others. Each spikelet as a rule has five flowers, but the upper or odd one is rarely fertile. (Ref. 8, pp. 31-33.) THE FLOWER OR BLOSSOM. The flower or blossom consists of the reproductive organs, 10 namely, the ovary, the pistil, and the stamens. The ovary is the rudimentary grain of wheat and with the pistil constitutes the female portion of the blossom, while the stamens represent the male element. The pistil branches into two feathery styles. The upper feathery portion constituting the stigmas is borne on the ovary, while the stamens, of which there are three, have their filaments inserted around the base of the ovary and extend around and above it so that the antlers are placed around the pistil. (Ref. 9, p. 50.) THE GRAIN. The kernel of wheat is the fruit of the plant. Its outer cov- ering is made up of two layers, the outer the epiderm or peri- carp, and the inner the endocarp. Beneath these layers is the testa or seed covering, and all three of these coverings go to No. u 8 make up the bran in milling and constitute about 5 per cent of the enl ire grain. Immediately under the testa or seed covering is a Layer of cells rich in gluten, which, in milling, is partly removed with the bran and contributes Largely to the feeding value of this product. 'Hie interior portion of the grain sur- rounded by the gluten cells, called the endosperm, is composed mostly of starch, hut contains also some gluten and other albu- minoid substances. The endosperm, which constitutes about 7") per cent of the kernel, is the source of Hour. The germ, which is located on the opposite side of the furrow or crease and at the end opposite to the brush or hairy tip. forms only 11 a small pari of the kernel. (Kef. 8, pp. 33-36.) The grain 12 varies in .size and shape with the type and the variety. COMPOSITION. The composition of the wheat plant is influenced by variety, climate, and soil. Normally the grain of wheat contains about 10 per cent of w T ater, 2 per cent of ash. 12 per- cent of protein, 2 per cent of fiber, 72 per cent of nitrogen-free extract, and 2 per cent of fat. The gluten content is included under pro- tein and the starch content under nitrogen-free extract. The gluten is a mixture of two proteids, gliadin and glutenin, and its quantity and quality determine the value of the grain for baking purposes. The quality of the gluten is governed to some extent by the proportion of gliadin and glutenin — a gluten consisting approximately of one-fourth glutenin and three-fourths gliadin being considered most satisfactory. The starch is almost wholly located in the endosperm, which con- stitutes about 75 per cent of the entire kernel, and nearly all of which is made into flour in the process of milling. The gluten content is usually only from 1 to 2 per cent lower than the total protein content of the grain and the nitrogen-free extract is largely made up of starch, the amount of winch varies from 60 to 70 per cent, (Ref. 10.) Ordinarily the straw 7 , including the chaff, constitutes from 50 to 65 per cent and the grain from 35 to 50 per cent of the wheat plant. The straw contains normally from 10 to 15 per cent of moisture, and in addition approximately 4 per cent of ash, 3.5 per cent of protein, 40 per cent of crude fiber or cellu- lose, 45 per cent of nitrogen-free extract, and 1.5 per cent of fat. (Ref. 11, p. 34.) The chaff contains more phosphoric acid and also a little more protein but less crude fiber than the straw. No. n TYPES AND VARIETIES. The varieties of wheal arc divided into groups according to botanical characters, and these are in some cases again divided according to characteristics due to environment or geograph- ical distribution. (Refs. 6, pp. 26-37; 12, p. 6.) The numer- 13 ous types and varieties, arid their differentiating character- 14 istics, have given rise to a distinct terminology used in their description. (Ref. 7, pp. 11-16.) Owing to the wide geographical distribution of the plant, the varieties of wheat are more numerous than those of any other cereal. In addition to the botanical classification, a number of other classifications are in use, as, for instance, the market classification embracing the different types recognized by the grain markets, such as soft winter, hard winter, hard spring, and white wheats; the classification based on external characters, which groups the varieties into spring and winter wheats, bearded or awned, and beardless or bald varieties, white and red wheats, hard and soft sorts, early and late varie- ties, etc. The soft wheats are also called starchy wheats and 15 the hard wheats glutinous wheats. The bread wheats include all varieties excepting those used in the preparation of maca- roni, spaghetti, and other pastes. (Ref. 6, p. 27.) Varieties of wheat differ greatly in productiveness, hardiness, drought resistance, resistance to lodging, quality of grain, and in other characters. There are always best varieties for cer- tain soils and regions but no varieties that succeed best under all conditions. It costs no more tog row a good variety than a poor one, and it is therefore to the farmer's interest to secure the best sort for his locality. All varieties grown in the vicinity should be observed and the best one selected. Such a variety is more likely to give satisfactory results than one brought from a distance because there will be little or no change in its environment. IMPROVEMENT OF VARIETIES. Wheat varieties are improved mainly by selection and crossing. Improvement by selection comprises the selection of seed and the selection of individual plants. (Refs. 6, pp. 65-68; 25, pp. 8-10.) Varieties may be improved by selec- tion or by crossing and selection together. Most varieties now grown are the result of simple selection, and this kind of work is often very profitable and replete with satisfaction. (Ref. 13, p. 6.) Dawson Golden Chaff, for instance, had its origin in a single stool of White Clawson wheat winch had been the only one to survive the winter in a bare and exposed posi- 25538— Xo. 11—10 2 10 tion. This variety has given excellent results in New York, Michigan, and Canada, and is a standard sort in many Locali- ties. This instance is one of the many showing the impor- tance of selecting individual plants. The crossing of varieties is effected by means of artificial 1(> crOSS-fertilization. The stamens must be removed from the 17 blossom before the pollen Backs are mature enough to break and to pollinate the pistil. After this is done the pistil must be protected from the pollen of other flowers borne either in the same or in other heads. Usually all the flowers not de- ls sired for crossing are removed and the entire head is then wrapped in tissue paper and the pollen of the variety chosen as the male parent applied to the stigmas when these are in proper If) condition. As soon as the application of pollen is made the heads are carefully covered to keep other pollen from entering and possibly fertilizing the blossom. (Kef. 9, pp. 50-54.) 20 The resulting seed is planted and the crops for several years are subjected to rigid selection to fix the variety. (Refs. 6, pp. 21 69,70; 9, pp. 44-49, 56, 57.) GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Although wheat is grown under a very wide range of climatic conditions, the bulk of the world's crop is produced in the temperate zones. The quality of wheat in the different parts 22 of the w r orld changes with the climate, and even in this country wheat of different quality is grown in the various wheat-pro- ducing sections. (Ref. 6, pp. 36, 37.) CHOICE AND PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Light fertile clay and medium fertile loam soils of good depth and well drained are best adapted to wheat culture. Heavy clays are too compact and are inclined to bake, while highly fertile loams tend to lodge the crop. Light clay soils have the proper degree of compactness and are sufficiently retentive of moisture and better adapted to winter wheat and uniform seasons than the loams. The clay soils are usually uplands, while the loam soils are either lowlands or prairies. The alluvial soils of river bottoms, if not too rich, usually make good wheat lands, because they are deep and fertile and generally made up of clay, sand, and humus in proportions, making them friable and porous and giving good drainage. The loams are primarily corn lands, but in connection with corn culture are w r ell suited to spring wheat. Very light. No. 11 11 loose or sandy soils and wet, peaty, sour lands arc unfit for the wheat crop. Drainage is necessary to a profitable development of the wheat plant, and a permeable subsoil is especially important during the most active stages of its growth and to winter wheat also in the late fall and winter. Where the subsoil is not sufficiently permeable, proper drainage should be provided by putting down tile, as this is generally the most satisfactory and economical method of draining. (Ref. 14, pp. 28-31.) The character of the soil influences the yield to a greater extent than it affects the quality, which is largely controlled by climatic conditions. That the two factors are closely connected is shown by the durum wheats, which require rich humus soils and hot and dry seasons. Rich soils increase the protein content of the grain and also tend to increase its hardiness. Land for wheat should be plowed several weeks before sowing time in order to bring about the most favorable condi- tions for a rapid and regular germination of the seed. After plowing the soil should be allowed to settle and the moisture 23 content at the surface to increase before the seed is sown. By harrowing or disking the land at intervals from the time it is 24 plowed until it is seeded down weeds are destroyed and soil moisture is conserved, while the seed bed is made smooth, fine, and even. Numerous small clods on the surface, however, may be made of value in holding the snow on winter wheat fields and in preventing or reducing soil washing. (Ref. 15, pp. 7-9.) Deep plowing is not of general value and often seems to affect the yield of straw more than the yield of grain. Plowing from 4 to 6 inches deep is adequate, especially if the land is in good tilth. Subsoiling is expensive and frequently unprofit- able in wheat culture. On friable and mellow soils plowing is unnecessary if the land was well cultivated the year before in connection with growing corn. On such land a seed bed can be prepared by disking or cultivating and harrowing. 25 If the plowing is done when it is too wet the soil is likely to harden or bake, and if done when too dry the ground remains rough and lumpy. It should be remembered that in growing wheat and other similar plants the tillage of the crop, as it were, is performed before and at the time the seed is sown. In the semiarid regions the success of the crop depends often entirely upon the careful and thorough cultural treatment given the land. (Refs. 5, pp. 165-169; 16, pp. 5, 6; 17, pp. 5-14.) No. 11 12 MANURING. The fertility of wheat land may be maintained and improved by the use of barnyard manure, commercial fertilizers, and green manure-, and by proper crop rotations and fallowing. No generally applicable rule for fertilizing wheat lands can be laid down, hut certain underlying principles are operative everywhere. Wheat straw contain- approximately (>.() per- cent oi nitrogen, 0.2 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 0.6 per cent of potash, and the grain about 2 per cent of nitrogen, 0.85 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 0.55 per cent of potash. This means that a ton of straw removes from the soil 12 pounds of nitrogen, 4 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 12 pounds of pot- ash, and a ton of grain, or 33} bushels, 40 pounds of nitn 17 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 11 pounds of potash. As nitrogen is valued approximately at in* cent- per pound, and phosphoric acid and potash at 5 cents, a ton of straw repre- sent- a cash value of SI. 92 for nitrogen, 20 cents for phosphoric acid, and 60 cents for potash, or a total of s_'.7_>. while the essential fertilizing elements contained in a ton of the grain would cost $6.40 for nitrogen, 85 cents lor phosphoric acid, and 55 cents for potash, or in all $7.80 if bought in an available form in commercial fertilizers. These figures call attention to the importance of returning at least the straw in the form of manure to the land and also point to the fact that continued wheat growing for the market must deplete the fertility of the soil. (Ref. 18, pp. 9-12.) Barnyard manure is preferably applied to the corn crop before wheat. (Ref. 19, pp. 25-27.) When manure is directly applied to winter wheat it should be spread and plowed under immediately after the preceding crop is removed, in order that it may become well embedded in the soil before the seed is sown. In such cases the use of 10 tons per acre is sufficient and will generally give better results than double that quan- tity. When barnyard manure is used as a top-dressing for wheat it should be well rotted and finely divided, and prefer- ably spread with a wide-tired manure spreader. On most loams and alluvial soils, which grow wheat in rotation, the use of barnyard manure — especially its direct use — is unnecessary, but on light clay soils it often proves profitable. The application of large quantities of available nitrogen, either in commercial fertilizers or barnyard manure, usually results in a heavy growth of straw and a consequent tendency to lodge 1 . A complete fertilizer, or one containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, i^ generally to be recommended, and while no rule applicable to all cases can be laid down, the No. ll 13 liar. use of 300 to 500 pounds of a fertilizer mixture furnishing in plant food 3.3 per eent of nitrogen, L2 per cent of available phosphoric acid, and 4 per cent of potash is quite common. On poor soils the application of nitrogen and potash may be relatively high, while on soils in a fairly good state of fertility the phosphoric acid should be relatively increased, as com- paratively large quantities of this substance in the form of superphosphate or soluble phosphates act favorably on the crop in that they tend to prevent or reduce lodging. Com- mercial fertilizers are more profitable as a rule on clay soils than on the richer loams, and throughout the western wheal area of the country they are little used. Applications of 25 to 40 bushels of lime per acre are often very beneficial, especially 26 on soils treated with sulphate and chlorid of ammonia for a series of years. (Ref. 20, pp. 184-189.) Top-dressings with nitrate of soda are sometimes given after the crop has made some growth, but if the plants are in a vigorous condi- tion in the spring no top-dressing is necessary. Green manuring with leguminous crops is very desirable, but when a heavy green crop is plowed under it is best to follow it with a hoed crop before putting the land into wheat. (Ref. 21.) Benefit is also derived when leguminous plants are grown before wheat and other crops and only the stubble is plowed under. Summer fallowing, which is seldom followed in humid sec- tions, is practiced quite extensively in some of the wheat regions on the Pacific coast and in those western States where dry farming methods are required. (Ref. 22, p. 21.) To mature profitable crops the land in these sections requires the rainfall of two seasons, and hence wheat is generally grown on land which has had a season of rest and has stored up suffi- cient moisture to supply the demands of the crop. Cultiva- tion of the summer fallow is practiced to conserve the soil moisture and to increase the store of available plant food which reduces the water requirements of crops. (Ref. 23. p. 48.) On lands which receive adequate rainfall summer fallow can not be as profitable as the culture of some legumi- nous crop, which not only adds nitrogen and humus to the soil, but also prevents, or at least largely reduces, leaching. (Ref. 24, p. 55.) SEED AND SEEDING. The grains of seed wheat besides being all of one variety should also be heavy, plump, and spherical, and free from dirt, weed seeds, and injured or immature kernels. (Ref. 25, p. 172.) No. 11 14 A pure variety IS always to be preferred to a mixture of varie- ties however slight this may be. Heavy seed promotes stool- ing and the production of strong plants, and benefits yield and quality of grain as well as yield of straw. In most <•;, where heavy seed has heen compared with small or light seed. the results have been in favor of the heavy seed. Owing to an insufficient food supply or an imperfectly developed germ, plant< from injured and immature svvd often have not the power to live although the seed sprouts quite successfully. If wheat has become heated or moldy in storage it may not grow at all or else have only a low percentage of germination. It ifl advisable, therefore, to make a germination test to determine the vitality and the viability of the seed. This may be done by placing the kernels between folds of cloth or blotting paper. one end of which is placed in water so that the moisture is sup- plied through capillarity, and by keeping this improvised germinator at the ordinary room temperature, never allowing it to fall below 50° F. Wheat cleaned with a fanning mill is generally used for seed, but a much better way, although little practiced, is to select each year the best seeds from the best plants grown on a special seed plat to be used for planting the seed plat of the following season, while the rest of the seed- plat crop is used for sowing the general field. (Refs. 26, pp. 8-11; 27, pp. 313-320.) The time of sowing is influenced by the season, the variety, the nature, fertility, and altitude of the soil, the latitude of the locality, and sometimes by the prevalence of insect ene- mies and existing weather conditions. In the northern se< - tions winter wheat is sown earlier and spring wheat later. In the southern winter wheat regions the seed is preferably sown late in September and early in October; in Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, Iowa, and Nebraska from September 10 to 20; and in some of the extreme northern winter wheat regions as early as the last week in August and the first week in September. (Ref. 28, p. 154.) Spring wheat is generally sown as soon in the spring as the seed bed can be properly prepared. The germination, stooling process, and underground growth of winter wheat take place when the temperature is from 42° to 50° F. When these soil temperatures prevail during winter for a sufficient length of time, winter wheat stools and produces underground growth, and when the continued warmer weather of spring arrives the different stems shoot upward and develop their leaves and lengthen their internodes rapidly. No. 11 15 View, The depth of sowing depends mainly upon the kind of soil and its physical condition. The object should always he the provision of the best moisture conditions for the seed. In moist soils or soils of a hard texture shallow seeding is prac- ticed, while in loose or dry soils deeper seeding is necessary. The usual depth of sowing wheat is from 1 to 2 inches. (Ref. 28, p. 153.) When the seed kernel lies deep the portion of the young stem connecting it with the crown is necessarily longer than when it lies nearer the surface of the ground, as in the case of shallow seeding. If at any time through the action of frost, or otherwise, heaving of the surface soil occurs, the young stem may be broken so that the crown and other parts of the plant are separated from the primary root system. This condition is detrimental to the plant if it occurs before the permanent roots are large enough to furnish food and moisture as the maintenance and the growth of the plant require it. The quantity of seed used per acre depends upon the kind of soil and its physical condition, the climate and the season, the time and method of sowing, and the size, quality, and variety of the seed. As a general rule wheat is sown thicker on poor soils, stiff and cold clay lands, and rough and cloddy seed beds than on fertile soils, friable loams, and fields well worked and smoothed before seeding. Late sowing and broadcasting also require more seed than early sowing and drilling. A large-grained variety requires a greater quantity of seed than a fine-grained sort, and a variety with limited stooling capac- ity more than a heavy stooling variety. Generally the quantity of seed per acre varies from 6 to 8 pecks, but in dry-land farm- ing as a rule less is used. (Refs. 28, p. 156; 29, p. 17.) There are two common methods of sowing wheat, viz, drill- ing and broadcasting. Different kinds of machines are used for both operations, but broadcasting is also done by hand. Drilling is done with common drills, press drills, shoe-and- chain drills, disk drills, etc. Each method has its advantages under certain conditions. The results at most of the experi- ment stations are in favor of drilling. (Refs. 8, p. 84; 30, p. 29 184.) Rolling and sometimes harrowing is resorted to during the early stages of the crop. Late rolling and late harrowing are often injurious. In dry climates and seasons cultivation between the drills is sometimes carried on. (Refs. 17, p. 19; 46, pp. 1-19.) No. 11 16 CROP ROTATIONS. The place of wheat in the crop rotation is Largely governed by the cleanness of the soil, the adapt ability of wheat as a nurse crop for clover and grass, the possibility of either fall ox spring Bowing, the comparatively early ripening of the crop, the fertility of the soil, and other conditions, (lief. 31 , p. 26.) Hoed crops and summer fallow, especially if cultivated, tend to leave a greater quantity of water in the soil than growing broadcasted and uncultivated crops, such as the small grains. In a dry season, for this reason, wheal after corn or cultivated summer fallow is likely to give a much better yield than if grown after wheat or oats. (Kef. 31, pp. 25 50.) On some new soils wheat is sometimes grown for several years in suc- cession on the same land, but continuous cropping experi- ments have shown that after a scries of years the yields begin to decline, and rotation experiments have clearly indicated that better yields are obtained from soils under rotation than those growing wheat year after year. (Ref. 32, pp. 281-327.) IRRIGATION AND RAINFALL. Successful wheat culture does not depend so much upon the total annual rainfall as it does upon the amount of moisture the soil furnishes the crop during the growing period. The total rainfall in some of the wheat-growing localities of the West and Northwest ranges annually from 12 to 18 inches, which falls mainly during the winter, and yet good crops are produced without irrigation, while in other sections the same amount of rainfall is insuflicient for a profitable yield. Again, in many humid regions which have a yearly precipitation of as high as 40 inches, the water runs off in the drainage, and less than half of the total precipitation is available to the growing plants. The question, therefore, is not alone how much rain- fall there is, but how much of it is retained by the soil for the use of the crop. The relation of rainfall to wheat culture is largely a question of soil conditions. It is a significant fact that a very large proportion of the wheat of the world, as well as a superior quality of grain, is produced in rather dry regions or on lands subject to extremes of temperature and drought. And it is further worthy of note that most of the States in which semiarid conditions prevail to a greater or less extent record a much higher average yield per acre than humid wheat- growing States in both spring and winter grain. (Ref. 33.) Wherever or whenever the rainfall is deficient, irrigation generally insures a crop and secures larger yields and better No. n 17 View. grain. It must be practiced judiciously, however, to be suc- cessful. (Refs. 23, pp. 33-44; 34, pp. 4-8, 11.) Furrow irri- 30 gation is considered best in some sections and flooding in others. (Ref. 35, pp. 62, 72, 90.) Irrigation sometimes has a 31 marked influence on the composition of the grain. (Ref. 36.) 32 At the time the kernel is filling out the soil should be properly supplied with moisture to promote the production of full and plump grain. Too much water at this period has a tendency to yellow the crop, retard its maturity, and to lower the yield. Fall irrigation of winter wheat has been found beneficial when the soil lacked moisture for the production of the necessary fall growth. One or two irrigations are sufficient for winter wheat in the spring. The custom in Egypt, where irrigation is commonly practiced, is to irrigate when the plants are about 1 foot high and again when they begin to bloom. When the water is applied in the evening, about sunset, the evaporation from the surface of the soil is much less than when it is applied during the day, and it also frequently results in a higher yield of straw and grain. HARVESTING. The time of harvesting wheat is mostly controlled by the latitude and the seasons. The world over, wheat is harvested in every month of the } T ear. In general practice wheat is cut when the heads have turned yellow but while the stems are still slightly green and the kernel in the hard-dough stage. In the greater portion of the wheat-producing area of this country harvesting must be done in from eight to ten days to prevent losses from shattering, but varieties grown in some sections, such as the club wheats in the Pacific Coast States, may be left standing for several weeks when ripe without danger of shat- tering. (Ref. 8, pp. 102-104.) The state of ripening influ- ences the composition of the plant. The dry matter in the entire plant increases up to maturity and the kernel increases in starch content as it develops. (Ref. 8, p. 104.) In most countries harvesting is now largely accomplished 33 by means of the self-binder, although the self-rake reaper and 34 the combined harvester and thrasher are also used. In sec- 35 tions where labor is cheap and the machines costly, cutting 36 with the cradle and binding by hand are still practiced. Im- mediately after cutting and binding the sheaves are put up into shocks to protect them against dew, rain, and the sun, and to facilitate curing and ripening in the shock. Round shocks usually contain from 12 to 16 sheaves, of which 2 are No. 11 is used as a cap or cover. Long shock- arc made by placing L2 or l l sheaves as pairs in a row, and arc used when the shea are wei to facilitate rapid and thorough drying. (Kefs. 6; 8, pp. loi L09; 22.) After shocking the crop is either kepi until thrashing or it is -tacked when sufficiently dry and thrashed later on. Stack- ing is to be preferred, because it is a great safeguard against injury to the crop through had weather. In a stack properly built there is a slant from any point in the interior toward the outride. A few day- alter stacking a slight beating of the stacked grain, commonly called sweating, Bets in and this condition may continue for one or two week-. If the wheat i- not allowed to sweat in the stack the thrashed grain sweat- ill the hin. As in the methods of harvesting, so in the methods of thrash- :JT big great changes have taken place. In former times the Hail was used and the grain was also trodden out by horses or oxen. To-day thrashing machines are operated by horse, 38 steam, and electric power. There has also been a great im- provement in machines, the largest recent improved outfits under favorable conditions being capable of turning out a- much as 2, 000 bushels in one day. while formerly from 500 to 600 bushels was considered a good day's run. (Ref. 8, p. 109.) STORAGE. 39 In storing wheat the object should be to keep it dry and to 40 prevent insect depredations. (Refs. 8, pp. 109-111; 37, pp. 41 17-20.) Stored wheat often changes in weight. (Ref. 38, 42 pp. 11, 12.) THE USES OF WHEAT. The principal value of wheat lies in its use for the manufac- ture of flour for bread and pastry. (Ref. 39, pp. 347-:J<»- The flour of durum wheat, generally richer in gluten than the flour of bread wheats, is used for macaroni, spaghetti, and other pastes. The by-products of the mill are used for feeding pur- poses and the chaff and straw for feed and bedding. (Ref. 8, pp. 112-121.) Winter wheat is also pastured. (Ref. 40, pp. 18-21.) DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 43 The most common diseases of wheat are the rusts and smuts, and the most common insect enemies the chinch bug and the 1 1 Hessian fly. The common rusts are the orange-leaf rust (Puc- No. n 19 View. cinia rubigo-vera) and the black rust (P. graminis). (Refs. 41, pp. 67-69; 42, p. 6.) The most injurious smut is the stinking smut or bunt (Tilletia fatens). The loose smut (Ustilago 45 tritici) is much less injurious than the stinking smut. (Ref. 43, pp. 15, 16.) Injuries to the wheat crop from the chinch bug and the Hessian fly are often very extensive. (Ref. 44, pp. 6-22.) PRODUCTION, YIELDS, AND STATISTICS. The average yield of wheat for the years 1897 to 1906, inclu- sive, in different countries is as follows: United Kingdom 32.2, Germany 28, France 19.8, Austria 17.8, Hungary 17.6, United States 13.8, and Russia 9.2 bushels per acre. In 1908 the United States produced 437,908,000 bushels of winter wheat on 30,349,000 acres, the average yield being 14.4 bushels per acre, and of spring wheat 226,694,000 bushels on 17,208,000 acres, the average production being 13.2 bushels per acre. (Ref. 33.) In 1905 Ireland grew 37.8 bushels per acre; Great Britain, the same year, 33.8 bushels; Belgium, in 1904, 35.1 bushels; and the Netherlands, in 1904, 31.1 bushels. These average yields indicate that a large number of growers raised 40, 50, and even 60 bushels to the acre. A comparison of the average yields in the United States and of these coun- tries, together with the soil and climatic conditions prevailing here and abroad, would lead to the conclusion that the same high yields can be secured in many sections of this country provided the same care is given to the selection of the variety, the seed, and the tillage of the soil. (Ref. 45.) No. 11 APPENDIX. LANTERN SLIDES. No. of \ i.u . 1. Cross sections of wheat grains, showing embryo and endosperm. View famished by Minnesota station. 2. Wheat roots. View farnished by North Dakota Station. 3. Different typ« of wheat stems. From r. B. Dept Agr., Bureau of riant Industry BoL 47, PL V, BgS. ]. 2, and 3. 4. Stems of different Lengths. View tarnished by Tennessee Station. 5. Sheath, auricle, and ligules. From 0. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 47, PL III, fig. 1. 6. The distribution of leaves and the length of the internodes. View furnished by Tennessee Station. 7. The rachis. \ iVw furnished by Tennessee Station. 8. Crowded and open heads and types of spikes. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 47, PL III, fig. 2. 9. Spikelets. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 47, PL IV, and PL V, figs. 13 to 19, Inclusive. 10. Reproductive organs of wheat. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Vegetable Pathology and Physiology Bui. 29, fig. 15. 11. Different types of wheat grains. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 47, PL V, figs. 4 to 12, inclusive. 12. Grains of different varieties: No. 1, Red Fife from North Dakota: No. 2, Zim- merman from Kansas; No. 3, Turkey Red from Kansas; No. 4, Fultz from Nebraska; No. 5, Glyndon (638) from North Dakota; No. 6, Rieti from Italy. View furnished by U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Grain Investigations. 13. Grains of different species of Triticum: No. 13, Polish wheat; No. 14. Einkorn; No. 15, Black Velvet emmer; No. 16, Red Winter Club spelt; No. 17, Yolo; No. 18, En grain double. View furnished by U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Grain Investigations. 14. Heads and grains of durum wheat. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 3, PL II. 15. Soft and hard wheats. View furnished by Minnesota Station. 16. Removing the stamens from the blossom. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Vegetable Pathology and Physiology Bui. 29, fig. 18. 17. Breaking of pollen sacks. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Vegetable Pathology and Physiology Bui. 29, fig. 1G. 18. Removing undesirable flowers. From V. S. Dept Agr., Vegetable Pathology and Physiology Bui. 20, fig. 17. 1!>. Growing the first seed from hybrids. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Vegetable Pathology and Physiology Bui. 29. PL III. fig. 2. 20. Emasculating and cross-pollinating wheat flowers. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Vegetable Pathology and Physiology Bui. 29, PL III, fig. 1. No. 11 (20) 21 No. of view. 21. Variation in size of head. View furnished by Tennessee Station. 22. Map showing the distribution of different types of wheat within the United States. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Vegetable Pathology and Physiology Bui. 21, frontispiece. 23. Plowing wheat land. View furnished by Minnesota Station. 24. Disking wheat land. View furnished by Minnesota Station. 25. Disking cornstalk ground for wheat. View furnished by Minnesota Station. 26. Liming land. From Ohio Station Bui. 159. 27. Testing seed wheat. From North Dakota Station 15th Ann. Rpt. 28. Germination of plump and shrunken seed wheat. From California Bui. 181. 29. Drilling wheat. View furnished by Minnesota Station. 30. Furrow method of irrigating wheat. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 104, PI. VIII, fig. 2. 31. Effect of irrigation on the composition of wheat. From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook for 1906, PI. X. 32. Appearance of grains of different hardness and composition. From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook for 1906, PI. XI. 33. Self-binders at work. From Minnesota Station Bui. 62. 34. Combined harvester operated by horses. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Statistics Bui. 20, PI. I. 35. Combined harvester operated with steam power. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Statistics Bui. 20, PI. IV. 36. Cradling wheat. View furnished by U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Grain Investigations. 37. A primitive method of thrashing wheat. View furnished by U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Grain Investigations. 38. Modern thrashing outfit. From Minnesota Station Bui. 62, fig. 277. 39. Sacked wheat stored in the open. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Statistics Bui. 20, PI. VII. 40. A Chicago grain elevator. View furnished by U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Grain Investigations. 41. A Canadian grain elevator. View furnished by U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Grain Investigations. 42. Grain elevator, Manchester,' England. View furnished by U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Grain Investigations. 43. Wheat heads and straw, showing rust. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 219, fig. 4. 44. Effect of rust on wheat grains. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 219, fig. 3. 45. Shrinking of grains due to rust. From U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 219, figs. 1, 2, 5, and 6. No. 11 22 REFERENCES. l Origin of Cultivated Plants. DeCandolle. 2. Nature and Development of Plants. C. C. Curtis. ricultural Botany. John Percival. ; Experiment Station Work, XXXI. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 2 5. Wheat: Varieties, Breeding, Cultivation. Minnesota Sta. Bui. 62. (i. The Basis I r the Improvement of American Wheal-. U. S. I >« - j »t . Alt.. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology Bui. 24. 7. Description of Wheat Varieties. U. B. 1 >«i>t . Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 47. 8. Cereals in America. Thos. I". Hunt. !». Plant Breeding, U. B. Dept. Agr., Division of Vegetable Physiology and Path- ology Bui. -"'. 10. Protein Content of the Wheat Kernel. Kentucky Sta. Buls. 113, 135. 11. The Feeding of Farm Animals. I', s. Dept. Alt.. Farmers' Bui, ! 1l'. Kininer: A drain t or the Semiarid Elegions. U. B. Dept. Alt.. Farmers 1 Bui. 139. 13. Experiment Station Work, XLVIII. I". S. Dept. Alt.. Fanner-' Bui. li. Drainage of Farm Land-. V . s. Dept. Alt., Fanner.-' Bui. l v 7. 15. Experiment Station Work, XVI. U. S. Dept. Alt.. Farmer-' Bui. 122. Hi. Winter Wheat. Nebraska Sta. Bui. 89. 17. Experiments with Winter Wheat. Tennessee Sta. Bui. Vol. XIII. Xo. 2. L8. Experiment Station Work, VIII. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 87. 19. Barnyard Manure. U. S. Dept. Agr., Fanner,' Bui. 192. 20. Liming the Soil. Ohio Sta. Bui. 159. 21. Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 278. '2'2. Wheat Growing and General Agricultural Conditions in the Pacific Coast Region of the United States. V . S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Statistics Bui. 20. 23. Factors Influencing Evaporation and Transpiration. Utah Sta. Bui. 105. 24. Oregon Station Report, 1905. 25. The Selection of Seed Wheat . ( ialifornia Sta. Bui. 181. 26. Experiment Si at ion Work, VII. U. S. Dept. Alt.. Farmers' Bui. 84. 27. Plant Breeding for Farmers. X. Y. Cornell Sta. Bui. 251. 28. Small Grain Crops. Kansas Sta. Bui. 141. 29. Experiment Station Work, XXXVI. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 262. 30. Field Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley. Ft ah Sta. Bui. 56. 31. Crop Rotation for South Dakota. South Dakota Sta. Bui. 79. 32. The Rotation of Crops. Minnesota Sta. Bui. 109. 33. Statistics in Yearbooks of the Department of Agriculture. 34. Duty of Water. Wyoming Sta. Bui. 67. 35. The Right Way to Irrigate. Utah Sta. Bui. 86. 36. The Effect of Climatic Conditions on the Composition of Durum Wheat. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Yearbook (1906) Paper 417. :)7. Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. U. S. Dept. Alt.. Farmers' Bui. 145. 38. Experiment Station Work, XX. U. S. Dept. Alt.. Fanners' Bui. 149. 39. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1903. 40. Wheat Growing. Oklahoma Sta. Bui. 65. , 41. Cereal Rusts of the United States. I". S. Dept. Agr.. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology Bui. 16. 12. Lessons from the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904. U. S. Dept. Alt.. Farmers' Bui. 219. 43. The Prevention of Wheat Smut and Loose Smut of Oat-. U. S. Dept. Fanners' Bui. 250. 44. [nsecl Enemies of Growing Wheat. I". B. Dept. Alt.. Fanners' Bui. 132. lltivation of Small Grains. Nebraska Sta. Bui. 104. No. 11 o